B.

YIELD LINE ANALYSIS

At end of study of this module you should be knowing and able to solve problems on:

1. What are concrete slabs and their types

2. What are yield lines and their patterns
3. How to choose yield line patterns using the guidelines
4. Assumptions used in yield line analysis
5. Virtual work method in analysis of slabs
6. Equilibrium method in analysis of slabs
1. YIELD LINE THEORY: is an ultimate or factored load method of analysis based on bending
moment on the verge of collapse.
(a) At collapse loads, the slab begins to crack as they are mostly under-reinforced, with
the yielding of reinforcement at points of high bending moments.
(b) A mechanism is formed when the slab collapses due to uncontrolled rotation of
members.
(c) Yield lines are lines of maximum yielding moments of the reinforcement of the slab.
2. Types of slabs
Slabs can be classified as one way slab, two way slab, flat slab and waffled or ribbed slab
(a) One way slab is defined as one subjected predominantly to uniformly distributed
loads. Either it possesses two free and parallel or it is the central part of a
rectangular slab supported on four edges with a ratio of the longer to shorter span
greater than 2.
(b) Two way slab is a rectangular one supported on four sides with length to breadth
ratio smaller than 2.
(c) Flat slab is a slab supported on columns without beams.
(d) Ribbed or waffled slab is a slab with topping or flange supported by closely spaced
ribs.
3. YIELD LINE PATTERNS – Refer to literature for you to understand axes of rotation.
4. RULES FOR YIELD LINES
(a) Assume, possible yield line patterns and locate the axes of rotation.
(b) Yield lines divide slabs into a number of segments(panels) which will rotate as rigid
bodies about the respective axes of rotation.
(c) Two terms, positive and negative yield lines are used in the analysis to designate the
yield lines for positive bending moments having tension at the bottom and negative
bending moments having tension at the top of the slab respectively,
5. GUIDE LINES FOR CHOOSING YIELD LINE PATTERNS AND AXES OF ROTATION.
(a) Yield lines between two intersecting planes are straight lines.
(b) Positive yield lines will be at the mid-span
(c) Negative yield lines will occur at supports
(d) Yield lines will occur under point loads and they will be radiating outward from the
point of application of the point load.
(e) Yield line between two slab segment should pass through the point of intersection
of the axes of rotation of the adjacent slab segment.
(f) Yield lines should end at the boundary of the slab or at another yield line.

1
 (g) Yield lines represent the axes of rotation.
(h) Supported edges of the slab will also act as axes of rotation. However, the fixed
supports provide constant resistance to rotation having negative yield lines at the
supported edges. On the other hand, axes of rotation at the simply supported edges
will not provide any resistance to rotation of the segment.
(i) Axes of rotation will pass over any column support, if provided, whose orientation
will depend on other consideration.
6. ASSUMPTIONS USED IN YIELD LINE ANALYSIS
(a) The steel reinforcement is fully yielded along the yield lines at collapse; rotation
following yield is at constant moment.
(b) The slab deforms plastically at collapse and is separated into segments or panels by
the yield lines. The individual segments of the slab behave elastically.
(c) Elastic deformations are neglected and the plastic deformations are considered.
(d) The bending and twisting moments are uniformly distributed along the yield lines.
The maximum values of the moments depend on the capacities of the section based
on the amount of reinforcement provided in the section.
(e) The yield lines are straight lines as they are the lines of intersection between two
planes.
7. UPPER AND LOWER BOUND THEOREMS
According to the general theory of structural plasticity, the collapse load of a structure
lies between the upper bound and the lower bound of the true collapse load. Therefore,
the solution employing the theory of plasticity should ensure that lower and upper
bounds converge to the unique and correct values of the collapse.
THE STATEMENTS OF THE TWO THEOREMS APPLIED TO SLABS ARE GIVEN BELOW:
(a) LOWER BOUND THEOREM: The lower bound of the true collapse load is that
external load for which a distribution of moments can be found satisfying the
requirements of equilibrium and boundery conditions so that the moments at any
location do not exceed the yield moment.
(b) UPPER BOUND THEOREM: The upper bound of the true collapse load is that external
load for which the internal work done by the slab for a small increment of
displacement, assuming that moment at every plastic hinge is equal to the yield
moment and satisfying the boundary conditions, is equal to the external work done
by that external load for the same amount of small increment of displacement.

Thus, the collapse load satisfying the lower bound theorem is always lower than or
equal to the true collapse load. On the other hand, the collapse load satisfying the
upper bound theorem is always higher than or equal to the true collapse load.

The yield line analysis is an upper bound method in which the predicted
failure(collapse) load of a slab for given moment of resistance(capacity0 may be
higher than the value . Thus, the solution of the upper bound method may result
into unsafe design if the lowest mechanism could not be chosen. It is desirable to
employ a lower bound method, which is totally safe from the design point of view.

2
 8. METHODS OF ANALYSIS
After predicting the general yield line pattern and locating the axes of rotation and the
specific pattern the collapse load can be determined by two methods:
(a) Virtual work method
(b) Segmental equilibrium method

METHOD OF VIRTUAL WORK

ULTIMATE MOMENT ALONG A YIELD LINE

M1 aCosα

Α M1

M2 α

Mt M2 aSinα

Yield line Reinforcement a Mα

(a) Reinforced slab (b) geometry of triangular element

Figure 1

M1 and M2 are the ultimate moment of resistance of the reinforcement and are in unit width of the
slab.

Let suppose that a yield line occurs at an angle α to the moment of resistance of the reinforcement
M2. Considering a triangular element formed by a length a of the yield line and the reinforcement as
shown in figure 1(b). From the moment equilibrium in the direction of Mα, we have

Mαa = M1aCosα(Cosα) + M2aSinα(Sinα)

Mα = M1Cos2α+M2Sin2α equation 1

Now, from the moment equilibrium of the element in the direction of Mt,

Mta = M1aCosα(Cosα)-M2aSinα(Sinα)

So that Mt=[(M1 – M2)/2]Sin 2α equation 2

Note that for an isotropic slab, which is one equally reinforced in two perpendicular directions,
M1=M2=M, say, so that Mα=M, Mt=0 equation 3

3
INTERNAL VIRTUAL WORK DUE TO AN ULTIMATE MOMENT

B Part of slab

Α yield line

Ɵ axes of rotation

Figure 2

Figure 2 shows part of a slab and its axis of rotation. Let us suppose that at some point the slab there
is a known yield line inclined at an angle α to the axis of rotation; the ultimate moment is M per unit
length along the yield line. Let us further support that the slab is given a small virtual rotation Ɵ. The
virtual work done by the ultimate moment is:

VW(M) = (ML)(Cosα)Ɵ=M(LCosα)Ɵ equation 4

Usually, rather than giving a panel of a slab a virtual rotation, it is simpler to give a point on a yield
line a unit virtual displacement. If in figure2, a point A is given a unit virtual displacement then

Ɵ=1/b – where b is the perpendicular distance of A from the axis of rotation the displacement of B
due to Ɵ would be greater than unity.

VIRTUAL WORK DUE TO APPLIED LOAD

For a slab subjected to a distributed load of intensity W(x,y) the virtual work done by the load
corresponding to the virtual rotation of the slab is given by

VW(w)=ʃʃwudxdy equation 5

Where u is the virtual displacement at any point (x,y).

Having obtained the virtual work corresponding to the internal ultimate moments and the virtual
work due to the applied load then the principle of virtual work gives

VW(w)=VW(M) equation 6

which gives the ultimate load applied to the slab in terms of its ultimate moment of resistance.

4
EXAMPLE 1

The slab shown below is isotropically reinforced and simply supported on three sides and is required
to carry an ultimate load of 12kN/m2. If the ultimate moment of resistance of the reinforcement is
M, per unit width of slab in the direction shown, calculate the value of M for the given yield line
pattern.

a ƟB

panel B

4m ƟA panel A c d

panel C free edge

b ƟC

4m

Solution

Suppose that the junction c of the yield lines is given a unit virtual displacement

Then ƟA = I/x , ƟB=ƟC=1/2

The internal virtual work is therefore given by

VW(M)=MxƟAx4+2xMx4x1/2=4M/X+2Mx4x1/2 let it be equation (i)

The first term on the right hand side of of the equation above is the work done by the ultimate
moment on the diagonal yield lines ac and bc on the boundary of panel A and is obtained as follows:

(a) For an isotropic slab, the ultimate moment along an inclined yield line is equal to the
moment of resistance of the reinforcement irrespective of the inclination of the
reinforcement of the yield line. The work done by the ultimate moment on an inclined yield
line is the product of the moment, the projection of the yield line on the axis of rotation and
the angle of rotation of the panel(segment).
(b) The second term on the right hand side of the equation represents the work done by the
ultimate moment on the diagonal and yield lines bordering each of the panels B and C.

5
Considering panel B

VW(M)=MX1/2+M(4-X)1/2=4M/2- similarly for panel C

Equation(i) simplifies to

VW(M)=4M(1/X+1) equation(ii)

The work done by the applied load is most easily found by dividing each of the panels B and C into
rectangles and triangles, panel A is a triangle. Then

VW(w)=12{1/2x(4X)x1/3+2[(1/2X)(2)(1/3)+(4-X)(2)(1/2)]} equation(iii)

In equation(iii) the displacement of the centroids of the triangles in panels A, B and C is a 1/3 while
the displacement of the centroids of the rectangular of the portions of panels B and C is ½.

Equation(iii) simplifies to

VW(w)=96-8X equation(iv)

Equating equations (ii) and (iv)

4M(1/X+1)=96-8X

M=2[(12X-X2)/(1+X)]

Differentiate the equation, for a maximum dM/Dx=0

dM/dX={[(1+X)(12-2X)-(12X-X2)]/(1+X)2}

{[(1+X)(12-2X)-(12X-X2)]/(1+X)2=0

X2+2X-12=0

Solution for X=[-b±√(b2-4ac)]/2a

From the quadratic equation a=1, b=2 and c=-12

Therefore. X=[-2±√(22+48)]/2

X=2.6m

Therefore, ultimate moment of resistance M=2[(12x2.6-2.62)/(1+2.6)]=13.6kNm/m.

However, some complications can arise when a band of reinforcement is inclined at an angle to the a
yield line and the slab is not isotropic.

Lt us consider a slab shown in figure 3 below which the yield line AB is of length L and is inclined at
an angle α to the axis of rotation. Suppose also that the direction of the reinforcement M is at an
angle β to the normal to the yield line.

6
 Ɵr

B r D axis of rotation

b α

L β C

M Ɵ

Mα

Mt

Fig. 4

The yield line AB is inclined at an angle α to the axis of rotation.

The direction of the reinforcement is at an angle β to the normal to the yield line.

If point B is given a unit virtual displacement perpendicular to the plane of the slab the angle of
rotation Ɵ is given by ; Ɵ=1/b

The rotation Ɵr of the slab in a plane parallel to the reinforcement is given by

Ɵr=1/r- where r is the distance of B from the axis of rotation in a direction parallel to the
reinforcement.

Ɵr=Ɵb/r equation (i)

From triangle BCD, b/r= Cos(α+β)

From previous equation where Mα= M1Cos2α+M2Sin2α

M1=M, M2=0 and α=β

Mα=MCos2β equation (ii)

Mt=M/2Sin2β equation (iii)

The internal virtual work due to the rotation Ɵ is givrn by

7
VW(M)=(MαL)(C0sα)Ɵ-(MtL)(Sinα)Ɵ equation (iv) where the component of (MtL) perpendicular to
the axis of rotation opposes component of (MαL)

Substituting in equation(iv) for Mαand Mt from equation (iii) respectively we get

VW(M)=(MLCos2β)(Cosα)Ɵ-[(M/2)LSin2β](Sinα)Ɵ which simplifies to

VW(M)=M(LCosβ)ƟCos(α+β) equation (v)

Substituting for ƟCos(α+β) from equation Ɵr=ƟCos(α+β) gives

VW(M) M(LCosβ)Ɵr equation(vi)

The term Lcosβ is the projection BF of the yield line AB on line perpendicular to the direction of the
reinforcement. Equation (vi) can be written as VW(M)=M(LCosβ)1/r equation (vii)

EXAMPLE 2

Determine the required moment parameter M for the slab shown in Figure 5 for an ultimate load of
10kN/m2, relative values of the reinforcement are as shown.

4m

clamped

edge 0.5M

1.2M 4m

Free edge

1.0M

6m simply supported edge

Figure 6

8
Solution

The first step is to choose a yield line pattern and redraw the slab.

Axis of rotation for panel A

a X n p

Ɵ 0.5M

Panel B 2m

g panel A e f

h 1.2M

1+X 1.0M 2m

Panel C

d k q

2+X

You have chosen your yield line pattern and found extra parameters which need to be solved. Then,
impose a unit virtual displacement on the yield line at f. Point e will suffer the same virtual
displacement since ef and ap are parallel.

The angle of rotation of the panels B and C are ½.

Panel A rotates about the line ad and its angle of rotation is 1/ge.

From the dimensions given, ad=4.5m and ge=heCosƟ=(1+X)(4/4.5)=0.89(1+X)

The slab is not isotropic so we shall employ the equation (vii) VW(M)=M(LCosβ)1/r to determine the
internal virtual work.

You solve the problem panel by panel.

1. Panel A
(a) Reinforcement with ultimate moment of 1.2M
The axis of rotation is the line ad
The projected length of ad=4.5m
The radius of rotation is ge=0.89(1+X)
VW(M)=1.2Mx4.5[1/0.89(1+X)] equation 1

9
 (b) Reinforcement with ultimate moment of 0.5M
The projected length of the yield lines de and ea parallel to the reinforcement is 4m and
the radius of rotation is he=(1+X)
VW(M)=0.5Mx4[1/(1+X)] equation 2

(C) Reinforcement with the ultimate moment of 1.0M

The projection of the yield line de in a direction parallel to the reinforcement is dk=2+X

and the corresponding radius of rotation is ej=he/tanƟ=2(1+X).

For the yield line ea the projected length is na=X and its radius of rotation is 2(1+X). The

centre of rotation is j, the displacement as it crosses the yield line ea is less than its

displacement as it crosses the yield line de.

At de the reinforcement will be sagging while at ea it will be hogging.

The contributions to the virtual work at these two points will be of opposite sign.

VW(M)=1.0M[92+X)-X]/2(1+X) equation 3

2. Panel B
(a) Reinforcement with ultimate moment 1.0M
Reinforcement 0.5M is parallel to the axis of rotation and does not therefore contribute
to the virtual work in this panel. The projection of the yield lines ae and ef is 4m and the
radius of rotation is 2m.
VW(M)=1.0M[(2+X)-X]/2(1+x)=1.0M/(1+X) equation 4
3. Panel C
(a) Reinforcement with ultimate moment 1.0M
The situation in panel C is identical to that in panel B, except that the projection of the
yield lines de and ef is 6m.
VW(M)=3.0M equation 5
Adding the results of equations 1 to 5 we will obtain the total internal virtual work as
VW(M)=[(14.07+5X)/(1+X)] equation 6

The external virtual work may be found by dividing the slab into rectangles enpf and ekpf and
triangles ane, ekd and ade. Since the displacement of e is unit the displacement of each of the
centroids of the rectangles will be ½ and the displacement of each of the centroids of the triangles
will be 1/3.

The total virtual work due to the applied load will be

VW(w)=10[2(4-X0(2/2)+(X/2)(2/2)+2(2+X)(1/2)(1/3)+4.5(0.89)(1+X)(1/2)(1/3)]

VW(w)=10(9.33-0.67X)

Equating internal and external virtual works you get

10
M=10(1+X)( 9.33-0.67X)/(14.07+5X), then differentiate the equation

For the maximum dM/dX=0

10[(14.07+5X)(8.66-1.34X)-(9.33+8.66X-0.67X2)5]/(14.07+5X)2=0

3.35X2+18.85X-75.2=0

Therefore X=[ -b±√(b2-4ac)]/2a

a=3.35, b=18.85 and c=-75.2

X =[ -18.85 ± √(18.852 –(-75.2))]/2x3.35, X=2.7m

The ultimate moment of resistance M=10(1+X)(9.33-0.67X)/(14.07+5X)

=10(1+2.7)(9.33-0.67(2.7))/(14.07+5(2.7)0

M =10.09kNm/m

METHOD OF EQUILIBRIUM

In this method equilibrium of the individual slab segments causing the collapse forming the required
mechanism is considered to arrive at a set of simultaneous equations. The solution of the
simultaneous equatins give the values of geometrical parameters for finalising the yield pattern and
the relation between the load capacity and resisting moment.

Each segment of the slab is studied as a free body which is in equilibrium at incipient failure under
the action of the applied loads, moment along the yield lines and reactions or shear along the
support lines.

Yield moments are principal moments, twisting moments are zero along the yield lines and in most
cases shear forces are zero.

Let’s consider a one-way continuous slab under uniformly distributed load.

A C B

(-)ve yield line (+) ve yield line (-)ve yield line

A C B

11
 W-kN/m

A C B section of slab

W-Kn/m W-kN/m Free body diagram

MA MC MC MB

X L-X

A ƟA ƟB B Collapse mechanism

C ƟB

ƟA ƟA+ƟB

DETERMINATION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS FROM THE ABOVE CROSS-SRCTION OF THE SLAB

At point C where the positive yield line is, shear force =0, bending moment is the maximum(positive)

From the structure(slab) there are two unknowns X, the location of the positive yield line and W, the
collapse load which is determined from the equations of equilibrium.

The vertical reactions:

VA=(WL/2)+(MA-MB)/L equation 1

VB=(WL/2)-(MA-MB)/L equation 2

From equation 2 WX=WL/2+(MA-MB)/L which will give

W=-2(MA-MB)/(L-2X)L equation 3

Taking sum of moments at a given support. Take the free body diagram AC

VAX-MA-WX2/2-MC=0

Substituting the value of VA into the above equation we get

12
{WL/2+(MA-MB)/L}X-MA-WX2/2-MC=0 equation 4

Substituting the value of W we get

(MB-MA)X2+2(MA+MC)LX-(MA+MC)L2=0 equation 5

The equation 6 will give the value of X and equation 3 the value of W.

You can use the collapse mechanism to solve the slab using virtual work method as in plastic
analysis.

13