Geometric Design Manual Chapter3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
3 DESIGN CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 HUMAN FACTORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2.1 Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2.2 Other road users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.3 SPEED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
3.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
3.3.2 Speed classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.3.3 Design speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.3.4 Operating speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.3.5 Application of design speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.4 DESIGN VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.4.2 Vehicle classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3.4.3 Vehicle characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3.4.4 Selecting a design vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
3.5 SIGHT DISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.5.2 Deceleration rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.5.3 Object height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3.5.4 Stopping sight distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
3.5.5 Effect of gradient on stopping sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
3.5.6 Variation of stopping sight distance for trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
3.5.7 Passing sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
3.5.8 Decision sight distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
3.5.9 Headlight sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
3.5.10 Barrier sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
3.5.11 Obstructions to sight distance on horizontal curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
3.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
3.6.1 Land use and landscape integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
3.6.2 Aesthetics of design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
3.6.3 Noise abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3.6.4 Air pollution by vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3.6.5 Weather and geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25
3.7 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
3.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
3.7.2 Traffic volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
3.7.3 Directional distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27
3.7.4 Traffic composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27
3.7.5 Traffic growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
3.7.6 Capacity and design volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
3.8 ROAD CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30
3.8.1 Classification criteria for South African roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30
3.8.2 Functional classification concept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
3.8.3 Administrative classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32
3.8.4 Design type classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Typical design speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

Table 3.2: Dimensions of design vehicles (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Table 3.3: Minimum turning radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Table 3.4: Object height design domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
Table 3.5: Recommended stopping sight distances for design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Table 3.6: Passing sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Table 3.7: Decision sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
Table 3.8: Equivalent passenger car units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
Table 3.9: Road functional classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Five Axle Vehicles and Multi Vehicle Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Figure 3.2: Stopping distance corrected for gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
Figure 3.3: Horizontal restrictions to stopping sight distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
Figure 3.4: Relationship of functional road classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33
Chapter 3
DESIGN CONTROLS
3.1 INTRODUCTION and behavioural characteristics is thus a vital
The design of a road is that of a three-dimen- input into the design task.
sional structure which should ideally be safe,
efficient, functional and economical for traffic Road users do not all behave in the same way
operations, and which should also be aestheti- and designs should cater for substantial differ-
cally pleasing in its finished form. However, the ences in the range of human characteristics and
designer uses dimensions and related criteria a wide range of responses. However, if the per-
within a design context that recognizes a series ceptual clues are clear and consistent, the task
of design controls constraining what can be of adaptation is made easier and the response
achieved. These limitations are imposed by the of drivers will be more appropriate and uniform.
characteristics of vehicle and driver perform- For roadway design this translates into some
ance as well as by environmental factors. The useful principles, viz:
designer should, therefore, relate the physical

• A roadway should confirm what drivers
expect based on previous experience;
elements of the road to the requirements of the
and
driver and vehicle so that consistency in the dri-
• Drivers should be presented with clear
ver's expectations is achieved and, at the same clues about what is expected of them
time, ensures that environmental and other con-
straints are accommodated. Driver Workload and Expectations
The driver workload comprises
Good road design is the art of combining and • Navigation: trip planning and route
following;
balancing the various controls in a perceptive
• Guidance: following the road and
fashion and is not merely an exercise in three-
maintaining a safe path in
dimensional geometry. In this chapter, the con-
response to traffic condi-
straints and controls on the design process are tions; and
discussed. • Control: steering and speed con-
trol
Geometric Design Guide
3.2 HUMAN FACTORS
These tasks require the driver to receive and
3.2.1 Drivers process inputs, consider the outcome of alter-
An appreciation of driver performance as part of native actions, decide on the most appropriate,
the road traffic system is essential for effective execute the action and observe its effects
road design and operation. When a design is through the reception and processing of new
incompatible with human capabilities (both of information. There are numerous problems
the driver and any other road user) the opportu- inherent in this sequence of tasks, arising from
nities for errors and accidents increase. both the capabilities of the human driver, and
Knowledge of human performance, capabilities the interfaces between the human and other
3-1
Chapter 3: Design Controls
components of the road traffic system (the road Continuation expectancy. This is the expecta-
and the vehicle). These include inadequate or tion that the events of the immediate past will
insufficient input available for the task at hand continue. It results, for example, in small head-
(e.g. during night time driving, as a result of poor ways, as drivers expect that the leading vehicle
sight distance, or because of complex intersec- will not suddenly change speed. One particu-
tion layouts). When they become overloaded, larly perverse aspect of continuation
drivers shed part of the input to deal with that expectance is that of subliminal delineation, e.g.
judged to be more important. Most importantly, a line of poles or trees or lights at night which
drivers are imperfect decision-makers and may suggests to the driver that the road continues
make errors, including in the selection of what straight ahead when, in fact, it veers left or right.
input to shed. These indications are subtle, but should always
be looked out for during design.
The designer must provide all the information
the driver needs to make a correct decision
Event expectancy. This is the expectation that
timeously, simultaneously ensuring that the
events that have not happened will not happen.
information is provided at a tempo that does not
It results, for example, in disregard for "at grade"
exceed the driver's ability to absorb it. In the
railway crossings and perhaps for minor inter-
words of the American Association of State
sections as well, because drivers expect that no
Highway and Transportation Officials: (AASH-
hazard will present itself where none has been
TO)
seen before. A response to this situation is
‘A common characteristic of many high-acci- more positive control, such as an active warning
dent locations is that they place large or device at railway crossings that requires that the
unusual demands on the information-pro- driver respond to the device and not to the pres-
cessing capabilities of drivers. Inefficient ence of a hazard.
operation and accidents usually occur where
the chance for information-handling errors is
Temporal expectancy. This is the expectation
high. At locations where the design is defi-
that, where events are cyclic (e.g. traffic sig-
cient, the possibility of error and inappropriate
nals), the longer a given state prevails, the
driver performance increases.'
greater is the likelihood that change will occur.
Prior experience develops into a set of This, of course, is a perfectly reasonable expec-
expectancies that allows for anticipation and for- tation, but it can result in inconsistent respons-
ward planning, and these enable the driver to es. For example, some drivers may accelerate
respond to common situations in predictable towards a green signal, because it is increas-
and successful ways. If these expectancies are ingly likely that it will change, whereas others
violated, problems are likely to occur, either as a may decelerate. A response to this is to ensure,
result of a wrong decision or of an inordinately to the extent possible, that there is consistency
long reaction time. There are three types of throughout the road traffic system to encourage
driver expectancy: predictable and consistent driver behaviour.
3-2
The combined effect of these expectancies is brakes. Recognition that complex decisions are
that: time-consuming leads to the axiom in highway
• drivers tend to anticipate upcoming situ- design that drivers should be confronted with
ations and events that are common to only one decision at a time, with that decision
the road they are travelling;
being binary, e.g. "Yes" or "No" rather than com-
• the more predictable the roadway fea-
plex, e.g. multiple choice. Anything up to 10
ture, the less likely will be the chance for
seconds of reaction time may be appropriate in
errors;
complex situations.
• drivers experience problems when they
are surprised;
• in the absence of evidence to the con- Design Response
trary, drivers assume that they will only
have to react to standard situations; Designers should strive to satisfy the following
• the roadway and its environment
criteria:
upstream create an expectation of
• Driver's expectations are recognized,
downstream conditions; drivers experi-
and unexpected, unusual or inconsistent
ence problems in transition areas and
design or operational situations avoided
locations with inconsistent design or
or minimized.
operation, and
• Predictable behaviour is encouraged
• expectancies are associated with all lev-
through familiarity and habit (e.g. there
els of driving performance and all
should be a limited range of intersection
aspects of the driving situation and
and interchange design formats, each
include expectancies relative to speed,
appropriate to a given situation, and
path, direction, the roadway, the envi-
similar designs should be used in similar
ronment, geometric design, traffic oper-
situations).
ations and traffic control devices.
• Consistency of design and driver behav-
iour is maintained from element to ele-
Driver Reaction ment (e.g. avoid significant changes in
It takes time to process information. After a per- design and operating speeds along a
son's eyes detect and recognize a given situa- roadway).
tion, a period of time elapses before muscular • The information that is provided should
reaction occurs. Reaction time is appreciable decrease the driver's uncertainty, not
increase it (e.g. avoid presenting sever-
and differs between persons. It also varies for
al alternatives to the driver at the same
the same individual, being increased by fatigue,
time).
drinking, or other causes. The AASHTO brake
• Clear sight lines and adequate sight dis
reaction time for stopping has been set at 2,5 s tances are provided to allow time for
to recognize all these factors. This value has decision-making and, wherever possi-
been adopted in South Africa. ble, margins are allowed for error and
recovery.
Often drivers face situations much more com-
plex than those requiring a simple response With the major response to drivers' require-
such as steering adjustments or applying the ments being related to consistency of design, it
3-3
is worthwhile considering what constitutes con- between -0,04 and 0,01 results in a fair design.
sistency. Consistency has three elements that A value of less than -0,04 is not acceptable. A
are the criteria offered for the evaluation of a negative value for the difference between side
road design: friction assumed for design and the side friction
Criterion I Design consistency - which cor- demanded means that drivers are demanding
responds to relating the design speed to actual more side friction than is assumed to be avail-
driving behaviour which is expressed by the able - a potentially dangerous situation.
85th percentile speed of passenger cars under
free-flow conditions; 3.2.2 Other road users
Criterion II Operating speed consistency
which seeks uniformity of 85th percentile Pedestrians
speeds through successive elements of the The interaction of pedestrians and vehicles
road and should be carefully considered in road design,
Criterion III Consistency in driving dynam- principally because 50 per cent of all road fatal-
ics - which relates side friction assumed with ities are pedestrians.
respect to the design speed to that demanded at
the 85th percentile speed. Pedestrian actions are less predictable than
those of motorists. Pedestrians tend to select
In the case of Criterion 1, if the difference paths that are the shortest distance between
between design speed and 85th percentile two points. They also have a basic resistance to
speed on an element such as a horizontal curve changes in gradient or elevation when crossing
is less than 10 km/h, the design can be consid- roadways and tend to avoid using underpasses
ered good. A difference of between 10 km/h and or overpasses that are not convenient.
20 km/h results in a tolerable design and differ-
ences greater than 20 km/h are not acceptable. Walking speeds vary from a 15th percentile
speed of 1,2 m/s to an 85th percentile of 1,8
In the case of Criterion 2, the focus is on differ- m/s, with an average of 1,4 m/s. The 15th per-
ences in operating speed in moving from one centile speed is recommended for design pur-
element, e.g. a tangent, to another, e.g. the fol- poses.
lowing curve. A difference in operating speed

between them of less than 10 km/h is consid- Pedestrians' age is an important factor that may
ered to be good design and a difference of explain behaviour that leads to collisions. It is
between 10 and 20 km/h is tolerable. recommended that older pedestrians be accom-
Differences greater than 20 km/h result in what modated by using simple designs that minimize
is considered to be poor design. crossing widths and assume lower walking
speeds. Where complex elements such as
For the third Criterion the side friction assumed channelisation and separate turning lanes are
for the design should exceed the side friction featured, the designer should assess alterna-
demanded by 0,01 or more. A difference tives that will assist older pedestrians.
3-4
Pedestrian safety is enhanced by the provision • Driver capability, driver culture and driv-
of: er behaviour;
• median refuge islands of sufficient width • Vehicle operating capabilities;
at wide intersections, and • The physical characteristics of the road
• lighting at locations that demand multi and its surroundings;
ple information gathering and process • Weather;
ing. • Presence of other vehicles, and
• Speed limitations (posted speed limits).
Cyclists
Bicycle use is increasing and should be consid- Speeds vary according to the impression of con-
ered in the road design process. Improvements straint imparted to the driver as a result of these
such as:
factors.
• paved shoulders;
• wider outside traffic lanes (4,2 m mini-
The objective of the designer is to satisfy the
mum) if no shoulders exist;
• bicycle-safe drainage grates; road users' demands for service in a safe and
• adjusting manhole covers to the grade, economical way. This means that the facility
and should accommodate nearly all reasonable
• maintaining a smooth, clean riding sur- demands (speed) with appropriate adequacy
face (safety and capacity) but should not fail com-
can considerably enhance the safety of a street pletely under severe load, i.e. the extremely
or highway and provide for bicycle traffic: high speeds maintained by a small percentage
At certain locations it may be appropriate to sup- of drivers. Roads should, therefore, be
plement the existing road system by providing designed to operate at a speed that satisfies
specifically designated cycle paths. The design most, but not necessarily all, drivers.
elements of cycle paths are discussed in
Chapter 4. Various studies have shown that the 85th per-
centile speed generally exceeds the posted
3.3 SPEED speed limit by a margin of at least 10 km/hr
when weather and traffic conditions are
3.3.1 General
favourable. For this reason, design speed is
Drivers, on the whole, are concerned with min- typically equated to the 85th percentile speed.
imising their travel times, and speed is one of

the most important factors governing the selec- The relationship between road design and
tion of alternate routes to gain time savings. speed is interactive. While the designer shapes
The attractiveness of a specific road or route is the elements of the road by the anticipated
generally judged by its convenience in travel speed at which they will be used, taking into
time, which is directly related to travel speed. account the inherent economic trade-offs
between construction and environmental costs
Various factors influence the speed of vehicles of alternative alignments (vertical and horizon-
on a particular road. These include: tal) to match desired travel speed, the speed at
3-5
which they will be used depends to a large rather than for geometric design consid-
extent on the chosen design features. erations and is aimed at encouraging
drivers to travel at appropriate speeds
3.3.2 Speed classification for all prevailing conditions.
The term "speed" is often used very loosely 3.3.3 Design speed
when describing the rate of movement of road
traffic. Road design recognizes various defini-
The most important factor in geometric design is
tions or classifications of speed, all of which are
the design speed. This was previously defined
interrelated. The sub-divisions are:
as the highest continuous speed at which indi-
• Desired Speed - the speed at which a
vidual vehicles can travel with safety on the road
driver wishes to travel, determined by a
when weather conditions are favourable, traffic
combination of motivation and comfort.
volumes are low and the design features of the
• Design Speed - the speed selected as a
safe basis to establish appropriate geo- road are the governing condition for safety. The
metric design elements for a particular current definition is simply states that the design
section of road and which should be a speed is the speed selected as the basis for
logical one with respect to topography, establishing appropriate geometric elements for
anticipated operating speed, the adja-
a section of road. These elements include hori-
cent land use and the functional classifi-
zontal and vertical alignment, superelevation
cation of the road.
and sight distance. Other elements such as
• Operating Speed - observed speeds
during free flow conditions. For an indi- lane width, shoulder width and clearance from
vidual driver, operating speed is gener- obstacles are indirectly related to design speed.
ally lower than desired speed since
operating conditions are not usually The chosen design speed should be a logical
ideal. one consistent with the road function as per-
• Running Speed - the average speed
ceived by the driver and also one that takes into
maintained over a given route while a
account the type of road, the anticipated operat-
vehicle is in motion. The running time is
ing speed, and the terrain that the road travers-
the length of the road section divided by
the time required for the vehicle to trav- es. Where a difficult condition is obvious, driv-
el through the section. Thus, in deter- ers are more apt to accept a lower speed than
mining the running speed, the times en where there is no apparent reason for it.
route when the vehicle is at rest are not
taken into account in the calculations. Other relevant factors include traffic characteris-
Running speeds are generally used in
tics, land costs, speed capabilities of vehicles,
road planning and capacity and service
aesthetics, economics and social or political
level analyses. The difference between
impacts. A highway of higher functional classifi-
running speed and design speed is
strongly affected by traffic volumes. cation may justify a higher design speed than a
• Posted Speed - is a speed limitation set less important facility in similar topography, par-
for reasons of safe traffic operations ticularly where the savings in vehicle operation
3-6
and other operating costs are sufficient to offset always possible that the signpost may be
the increased costs of right-of-way and con- obscured, illegible, removed or even simply not
struction. A low design speed, should not be perceived by the driver. Isolated design speed
assumed where the topography is such that changes are, therefore, to be avoided.
drivers are likely to travel at high speeds.
The need for a multilane cross-section suggests
When carefully selected, these factors should that traffic volumes are high. A design speed of
result in a design speed which is acceptable to at least 120 km/h should be used if the topogra-
all but a very few drivers. Above minimum phy permits. Major roads, even if two-lane two-
design values should be used where feasible way roads, should also be designed to this
though consistency is essential. speed if possible. Rolling terrain may, however,
necessitate a reduction to 100 km/h in the
When a substantial length of road is being design speed and, in the case of mountainous
designed, it is desirable to adopt a constant terrain, it may even be necessary to reduce the
design speed to maintain consistency. Changes design speed to 80 km/h.
in terrain and other physical controls may, how-
ever, dictate a change in design speed on cer- Secondary and tertiary roads may have lower
tain sections. Each section, however, should be design speeds than those advocated for the pri-
relatively long, compatible with the general ter- mary road network. However, where traffic is
rain or development through which the road likely to move at relatively high speeds on these
passes. The justification for introducing a roads, higher design speeds should be select-
reduced design speed should be obvious to the ed.
driver. A case in point is where a road leaves
relatively level terrain and starts traversing hilly There is still debate as to whether speeds
or mountainous terrain. Moreover, the introduc- greater than 120 km/h should be used for
tion of a lower or higher design speed should design purposes on freeways. Higher design
not be effected abruptly but over sufficient dis- speeds not only safeguard against early obso-
tance to encourage drivers to change speed lescence of the highway, but also provide an
gradually. increased margin of safety for those driving at
high speeds. That there is some validity in this
Where design speeds exceed 90 km/h the vari- statement is reflected by the fact that the design
ation between successive speeds should be lim- speed of high-type roads is now at least 120
ited to 10 km/h and, below 80 km/h, this varia- km/h as compared with 56 km/h in 1927, a
tion should be limited to 20 km/h. Where it is change brought about by the continuing
necessary to change the design speed, the new increase in vehicle performance.
design speed should apply to an extended sec-
tion of road. Even if properly signposted, isolat- The choice of a design speed for a dual car-
ed design speed variations are hazardous as riageway is much less influenced by construc-
they do not match driver expectations and it is tion cost than that for other rural roads. In prac-
3-7
tice, lower design speeds are often accepted on 120 km/h for unhindered vehicles on a four-lane
single carriageway roads in order to keep con- divided roadway. Use of a design speed of 130
struction costs within certain limits. There is km/h should therefore satisfy driver demands in
danger in this philosophy since, although drivers most areas.
will obviously accept lower speeds in what are
clearly difficult locations, repeated studies have
The selected design speed should be logical
shown that they do not adjust their speeds to the
and in harmony with the topography and the
importance of the facility. Instead they endeav-
functional classification of a road. Careful con-
our to operate at speeds consistent with the traf-
sideration should also be given to its relation-
fic on the facility and its physical limitations.
ship to other defined speeds. While no hard
relationships have been established, choice of
Ideally, then, design speed should be chosen to
design speed can simultaneously accommodate
reflect the 85th percentile desired speed that is
and influence desired, operating, running and
likely to materialize. This is often achievable for
posted speeds.
roads for which the primary function is mobility
and where severe physical constraints do not
exist. Limited studies in South Africa have Table 3.1 provides an indication of typical
shown that the 85th percentile speed exceeds design speeds for different classes of roads.
3-8
3.3.4 Operating speed factors, the driver's initial response is to react to
the anticipated situation rather than to the actu-
Operating speed is measured under free flow al situation. In most instances, the two are sim-
conditions. The term "spot speed" is sometimes ilar enough not to create conflicts. If the initial
used to denote operating speed. For an individ- response is incorrect, operation and safety may
ual driver, operating speed is generally lower be severely affected.
than desired speed since operating conditions
are not usually ideal. When reference is made Some agencies conduct speed surveys to deter-
to the operating speed of all vehicles in the traf- mine operating speeds at various points along a
fic stream, this is taken as being the 85th per- section of roadway. The results can be com-
centile of all observed speeds. pared with the design speed, and may lead to a
policy change in the selection of design speeds.
Operating speed has a variety of uses. It is gen-
erally used as a measure of level of service at 3.3.5 Application of design speed
uninterrupted flows. It can also be used to mon-
itor the effect of flow constrictions, such as inter- Consistency of design is fundamental to good
sections or bridges. Since operating speeds at driver performance, based on satisfying the dri-
ideal sections of road are indicative of speeds ver's expectations. Design consistency exists
desired by motorists, they can be used to guide when the geometric features of a continuous
the selection of design speed on improved or section of road are consistent with the opera-
new facilities. tional characteristics as perceived by the driver.
The traditional approach to achieving design
When the design speed is less than the desired consistency has been through the application of
speed, drivers should be warned to modify their the design speed process. Once selected, the
speed, as studies have shown that crash rates design speed is used to determine values for
increase as the operating speed of a particular the geometric design elements from appropriate
vehicle deviates from the mean operating speed design domains.
of the other vehicles on the roadway.
However, application of this procedure alone
The typical driver can recognize or sense a log- does not guarantee design consistency. There
ical operating speed for a given roadway based are several limitations of the design speed con-
on knowledge of the system, posted speed lim- cept that should be considered during design:
its, appraisal of the ruggedness of the terrain, 1. Selection of dimensions to accommo-
traffic volumes and the extent, density and size date specified design speed does not necessar-
of development. Studies have shown that char- ily ensure a consistent alignment design.
acteristics, such as the number of access Design speed is significant only when physical
points, nearby commercial development, road road characteristics limit the speed of travel.
width and number of lanes, have a significant Thus, a road can be designed with a constant
influence on vehicle speeds. Based on these design speed, yet have considerable variation in
3-9
speeds achievable and therefore to a driver where the design speeds are less than 100
appear to have a wide variation in character. For km/h at horizontal curves on rural two-lane high-
example, the radii of curves within a section ways.
should be consistent, not merely greater than 5. In addition, different alignment elements
the minimum value. may have quite different levels of perceived haz-
2. For horizontal alignments, design speed ard. Entering a horizontal curve too fast will
applies only to curves, not to the connecting tan- almost certainly result in loss of control, so driv-
gents. Design speed has no practical meaning ers adjust their speed accordingly. However,
on tangents. As a result, the operating speed on the possibility of a curtailed sight distance con-
a tangent, especially a long one, can often sig- cealing a hazard is considered as a remote
nificantly exceed the design speed of the road occurrence. Unfortunately drivers do not gener-
as a whole. ally adjust their speed to compensate for sight
3. The design speed concept does not distance restrictions.
ensure sufficient coordination among individual
geometric features to ensure consistency. It To help overcome these weaknesses in the use
controls only the minimum value of the maxi- of design speed to design individual geometric
mum speeds for the individual features along an elements, speed profiles are used. A speed pro-
alignment. For example, a road with an 80 km/h file is a graphical depiction (which can be mod-
design speed may have only one curve with a elled) showing how the 85th percentile operat-
design speed of 80 km/h and all other features ing speed varies along a length of road. This
with design speeds of 120 km/h or greater. As profile helps to identify undesirably large differ-
a result, operating speeds approaching the crit- entials in the 85th percentile operating speed
ical curve are likely to exceed the 80 km/h between successive geometric elements, e.g. a
design speed. Such an alignment would comply curve following a tangent.
with an 80 km/h design speed, but it would vio-

When an existing road is being improved, actu-
late a driver's expectancy and result in undesir-
al operating speeds can be measured to create
able alignment.
a speed profile, but interpretation of the profile
4. Vehicle operating speed is not neces-
can be difficult, depending on the complexity of
sarily synonymous with design speed. Drivers
geometric and other features that may cause

normally adjust speed according to their desired
drivers to change speed. For a new road, pre-
speed, posted speed, traffic volumes and per-
diction of operating speeds is needed to create
ceived alignment hazards. The perception of
a speed profile model.
hazard presented by the alignment may vary
along a road designed with a constant design 3.4 DESIGN VEHICLES
speed. The speed adopted by a driver tends to
vary accordingly and may exceed the design 3.4.1 Introduction
speeds. A report on studies in Australia and the
US concluded that 85th percentile operating The physical characteristics of vehicles and the
speeds consistently exceed design speeds proportions of the various sizes of vehicles
3-10
using a road are positive controls in design and with full trailers. Buses include single unit
define several geometric design elements, buses, articulated buses and intercity buses. In
including intersections, on- and off-street park- establishing the design dimensions for the vari-
ing, site access configurations and specialized ous vehicle classes, this guide focuses on vehi-
applications such as trucking facilities. It is nec- cles in regular operation only.
essary to identify all vehicle types using the
facility, establish general class groupings and Vehicles defined in the Road Traffic Act include:
select hypothetical representative design vehi- • Passenger cars and minibuses (kom-
cles, within each design class. The dimensions bis);
used to define design vehicles are not averages • Standard single unit buses;
• Articulated buses ("Bus Train");
or maxima, nor are they legal limiting dimen-
• Two axle trucks, with and without trail-
sions. They are, in fact, typically the 85th per-
ers;
centile or 15th percentile value of any given • Three and four axle vehicles;
dimension. The design vehicles are therefore • Three, four and five axle articulated
hypothetical vehicles, selected to represent a trucks;
particular vehicle class. • Five and six axle articulated trucks, and
• Multi vehicle combinations.
The dimensions in the previous Geometric

Design Manual were based on typical design
3.4.3 Vehicle characteristics
vehicles in South Africa pertinent to 1965. The

range of vehicle types and their operating char- The dimensions adopted for the various design
acteristics have changed significantly since vehicles are given in Table 3.2.
then. The vehicle size regulations have also
undergone substantial revisions which have The WB15 vehicle has an overall length of 17 m,
generally resulted in larger trucks on the roads whereas the regulations allow for a semi-trailer
as well as in an increased use of recreational to have an overall length of 18,5 m. The multi-
utility vehicles. ple vehicle combination, being a semi-trailer
plus trailer and typically in an Interlink configu-
3.4.2 Vehicle classifications ration, can have a maximum overall length of 22
m. Examples of these vehicles are illustrated in
Three general classes of vehicles have been Figure 3.1.
selected for this design guide: passenger cars,
trucks and buses. The passenger car class f these vehicles are expected to use a route with
includes compacts and subcompacts, recre- any frequency, the designer will have to careful-
ational utility vehicles and all light vehicles and ly plan the layout of the intersections to ensure
light delivery trucks (vans and pickups). The that they can be accommodated. As described
truck class includes single-unit trucks, truck below, accommodation does not necessarily
tractor-semi trailer combinations, and trucks or require lane widths sufficient to complete a turn-
truck tractors with semi trailers in combination ing movement within the lane. A degree of
3-11
* Distance between SU rear wheels and trailer front wheels
Figure 3.1: Five Axle Vehicles and Multi Vehicle Combinations
encroachment on adjacent lanes is permissible In terms of regulation 355 (a) of the Road Traffic
depending on the frequency of occurrence. Act, all vehicles must be able to describe a min-
imum turning radius not exceeding 13,1m.
Turning Radii Vehicle height

In constricted situations where the templates Regulation 354 in the Road Traffic Act limits the
are not appropriate, the capabilities of the overall height of a double decker bus to 4,6
design vehicle become critical. Minimum turn- metres, and that of any other vehicle to 4,3
ing radii for the outer side of the vehicle are metres. The 15th percentile height of a passen-
given in Table 3.3. It is stressed that these radii ger car has been established to be 1,3 m. This
are appropriate only to crawl speeds. has been selected for design purposes as the
3-12
passenger car is also an object that has to be for the purpose of measuring critical turning
seen by the driver in the cases of passing and dimensions.
intersection sight distance. Commercially available templates and computer
software define the turning envelope of vehicles
Driver Eye Height
in forward motion and also support plotting of
The passenger car is taken as the critical vehi-
the turning envelope of reversing non-articulat-
cle for driver eye height and a figure of 1,05
ed vehicles. Prediction of the reversing behav-
metres is recommended. For buses and single
iour of articulated vehicles is, however, very
unit vehicles a typical value is 1,8 metres and for
complex, mainly because this behaviour is
semi-trailer combinations the height of the eye
inherently unstable, and additional turning con-
can vary between 1,9 metres and 2,4 metres.
trols come into play.
Vehicle Turning Paths

The designer should allow for the swept path of 3.4.4 Selecting a design vehicle
the selected design vehicle as it turns. The

swept path is established by the outer trace of In general, buses and heavy vehicles should be
the front overhang and the path of the inner rear used as the design vehicle for cross section ele-
wheel. This turn assumes that the outer front ments, with the car as the design vehicle for the
wheel follows the circular arc defining the mini- horizontal and vertical alignment. For most
mum turning radius as determined by the vehi- major intersections along arterial roads or with-
cle steering mechanism. in commercial areas, it is common practice to Geometric Design Guide
accommodate the semi trailer. The occasional
It is assumed that the turning movements critical larger vehicle may encroach on adjacent lanes
to the design of roadway facilities are done at while turning but not on the sidewalk.
low speeds. At these speeds, the turning
behaviour of vehicles is mainly determined by Many authorities designate and signpost specif-
their physical characteristics. The effects of fric- ic truck routes. The intersections of two truck
tion and dynamics can safely be ignored. It is routes or intersections where trucks must turn to
also assumed that groups of evenly spaced remain on a truck route should be designed to
axles mounted on a rigid bogie act in the turn as accommodate the largest semi-trailer combina-
a single axle placed at the centre of the group tion expected to be prevalent in the turning traf-
3-13
fic stream. Where local residential roads inter- It is also necessary to consider the terrain or
sect truck routes or arterials, the intersections obstructions on the inside of horizontal curves
should be specifically designed not to accom- when evaluating adequate sight distance.
modate trucks easily, in order to discourage
them from travelling through the residential 3.5.2 Deceleration rates
area.
Although research in North America has shown
On major haulage routes, large tractor-trailer that drivers can choose (or apply) a deceleration
combination trucks are prevalent and these of greater than 5 m/sec2, there is a large degree
routes should be designed to accommodate of variability in driver and vehicle capabilities
them. Raised channelising islands are typically and the 90th percentile deceleration is of the
omitted in recognition of low pedestrian volumes order of 3,4 m/sec2. The Institute of
and other constraints such as right of way and Transportation Engineers' Traffic Engineering
construction costs. The absence of raised Handbook states that decelerations of up to 3,0
islands also allows more manoeuvring area for m/sec2 are reasonably comfortable for passen-
large trucks. ger car occupants. This deceleration rate has
been adopted for these guidelines.
3.5 SIGHT DISTANCE
3.5.3 Object height
3.5.1 General
The object height to be used in calculation of

A critical feature of safe road geometry is ade-
stopping sight distance is often a compromise
quate sight distance. As an irreducible mini-
between the length of the resultant sight dis-
mum, drivers must be able to see objects in the
tance and the cost of construction. Stopping is
road with sufficient time to allow them to
generally in response to another vehicle or large
manoeuvre around them or to stop. Other forms
hazard in the roadway. To recognize a vehicle
of sight distance are pertinent. They are:
as a hazard at night, a line of sight to its head-
• Passing sight distance, which is
lights or taillights would be necessary. Larger
required for substantial portions of the
length of two-lane roads; objects would be visible sooner and provide
• Intersection sight distance, to allow a longer stopping distances. To perceive a very

driver on the minor road to evaluate small hazard, for example, a surface obstruc-
whether it is safe to cross or enter the tion, a zero object height may be necessary.
opposing stream of traffic; However, at the required stopping sight dis-
• Decision sight distance where, for
tances for high speeds, small pavement varia-
example, a driver must be able to see
tions and small objects (especially at night)
and respond to road markings;
would not be easily visible. Thus, most drivers
• Headlight sight distance, typically
applied to sag vertical curves, and travelling at high speeds would have difficulty in
• Centre line barrier sight distance. stopping before reaching a small obstruction.
3-14
A driver will usually attempt to take evasive 3.5.4 Stopping sight distance
action rather than to stop for small objects on
The minimum sight distance on a roadway
the roadway. Although not recommended as a
should be sufficient to enable a vehicle travelling
design parameter, the time available to manoeu-
at the design speed on a wet pavement to stop
vre is a useful measure when examining varia-
before reaching a stationary object in its path.
tions of geometry in restricted situations or
reconstruction projects. In this case, the appro-
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two dis-
priate object is the pavement surface.
tances:
The designer should adopt an object height

• the distance traversed by the vehicle
from the instant the driver sights an
based on the probability of a particular object
obstruction to the instant the brakes are
occurring on the roadway, as shown in Table 3.4
applied, and
below. For stopping sight distance, a conserva-
tive tail light height of 0,60 m is recommended. • the distance required to stop the vehicle
If fallen trees or rocks are a real risk, an object from the instant the brakes are applied
height of 0,15 m is recommended. In this con- Geometric Design Guide
text, research has established that the probabil-
ity of a collision involving an object of a height of These are referred to as brake reaction distance
0,15 m or less is infinitesimally small. For pass- and stopping distance, respectively.
ing sight distance, an object height of 1,30 m will These two components, using a reaction time of
allow the driver to discern the top of an oncom- 2,5 seconds and a deceleration rate of 3,0 m/s2,
ing car. A zero object height is recommended result in the relationship
where road washouts are a serious risk. It is s = v (0,694 + 0,013v)
also recommended for pavement markings in where: s = stopping sight distance, m
situations such as at intersections or inter- v = initial speed, km/h
changes, where these provide essential guid-
ance.
3-15
Stopping sight distances calculated using this ously stated. The brake reaction time is
equation are given in Table 3.5, rounded up for assumed to be the same as for level conditions.
design purposes. Also shown in the table for The stopping sight distance for design speeds
general interest are the values of stopping sight from 30 to 130 km/h as corrected for gradient is
distance adopted in the 2000 AASHTO Policy illustrated in Figure 3.2.
on the Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, the "Green Book 2000". The sight distance at any point on the highway
is generally different in each direction, particu-
In the measurement of stopping sight distance, larly on straight roads in rolling terrain. As a
the driver's eye height is taken as being at 1,05 general rule, the sight distance available on
m and the object height is as defined in Table downgrades is longer than on upgrades, more
3.4. or less automatically providing the necessary
corrections for grade. This is because down

3.5.5 Effect of gradient on stopping grades are normally followed by sag vertical
sight distance curves, with the following grade also being visi-
ble to the driver
When a highway is on a gradient, the equation
for stopping sight distance becomes 3.5.6 Variation of stopping sight dis-
tance for trucks
in which G is the percentage gradient divided by The recommended minimum stopping sight dis-
100, with upgrades being positive and down- tance model directly reflects the operation of
grades negative and the other terms as previ- passenger cars and trucks with antilock braking
3-16
systems. Trucks with conventional braking sys- maximum efficiency under load;
tems require longer stopping distances from a • Uneven load between axles;
given speed than do passenger cars. However, • Propensity of truck drivers not to obey
AASHTO suggests that the truck driver is able to posted speed limits;
see the vertical features of the obstruction from • Inefficient brakes of articulated trucks,
substantially further because of the higher driv- and
er eye height. In addition, posted speed limits • Effect of curvature. where some of the
for trucks in South Africa are considerably lower friction available at the road/tyre inter-
than for passenger vehicles. Separate stopping face is used to hold the vehicle in a cir-
sight distances for trucks and passenger cars cular path.
are, therefore, not generally used in highway
design. To balance between the costs and benefits in
designing for trucks, truck stopping sight dis-
There is, however, evidence to suggest that the tances should be checked at potentially haz-
sight distance advantages provided by the high- ardous locations. In general, the deceleration
er driver eye level in trucks do not always com- rate for trucks is 1,5 m/s2. The driver's eye
pensate for their inferior braking. Some reasons height is taken as being at 1,8 m and the object
for the longer truck braking distances include: height is as defined in Table 3.4.
• Poor braking characteristics of empty

trucks. The problem relates to the sus The designer should also consider measures
pension and tyres that are designed for such as additional signs to improve road safety
Figure 3.2: Stopping distance corrected for gradient
3-17
if stopping sight distance is found to be inade- It should be pointed out that there are a variety
quate for trucks and it is not possible to improve of models defined for the overtaking manoeu-
the geometric design. However, it is empha- vre. The distances usually given are those
sized that provision of signage is not a substi- required to enable an overtaking driver to com-
tute for appropriate design practices. plete or abort a manoeuvre already com-
3.5.7 Passing sight distance menced, with safety. In addition to this distance,
the Austroads approach introduces a distance
On a two-lane rural road, the passing manoeu- that is needed for the driver to identify a length
vre is one of the most significant yet complex of road as a potential overtaking zone. This
and important driving tasks. The process is rel- "establishment" distance is considerably longer
atively difficult to quantify, primarily because of than the overtaking manoeuvre distance.
the many stages involved, the relative speed of
vehicles and the lengthy section of road needed Table 3.6 shows the minimum overtaking sight
to complete the manoeuvre. Road safety, distances generally used for various design
capacity and service levels are all affected by speeds. Passing manoeuvres involving trucks,
the passing ability of faster vehicles. This abili- particularly in South Africa, require longer dis-
ty is influenced by a variety of factors, including tances than those indicated. Designers must
traffic volumes, speed differentials, road geom- take this into account for roads where significant
etry and human factors. The minimum sight dis- percentages of heavy vehicles are expected in
tance required by a vehicle to overtake safely on the traffic stream.
two-lane single carriageway roads is the dis-
tance which will enable the overtaking driver to As mentioned above, the designer should seek
pass a slower vehicle without causing an opportunities to introduce passing lanes on two-
oncoming vehicle to slow below the design speed. lane roads, particularly where the terrain limits
3-18
sight distance. A report on a review and evalu- Limiting sight distances to those provided for
ation of research studies concluded that passing stopping may also preclude drivers from per-
and climbing lane installations reduce collision forming evasive manoeuvres, which are often
rates by 25 per cent compared to untreated two- less hazardous and otherwise preferable to
lane sections. They provide safer passing stopping. Even with an appropriate complement
opportunities for drivers who are uncomfortable of standard traffic control devices, stopping sight
in using the opposing traffic lane and for those distances may not provide sufficient visibility for
who become frustrated when few passing drivers to corroborate advance warning and to
opportunities exist, owing to terrain or traffic perform the necessary manoeuvres. It is evi-
density. dent that there are many locations such as exits
from freeways, or where lane shifts or weaving
Sections with adequate passing sight distance manoeuvres are performed where it would be
should be provided as frequently as possible. prudent to provide longer sight distances. In
The appropriate frequency is related to operat- these circumstances, decision sight distance
ing speed, traffic volumes and composition, ter- provides the greater length that drivers need. If
rain and construction cost. As a general rule, if the driver can see what is unfolding far enough
passing sight distance cannot be economically ahead, he or she should be able to handle
provided at least once every 2 km, passing almost any situation.
lanes should be considered. The 2+1 cross-

section currently in vogue in Europe has some Decision sight distance, sometimes termed
merit. This three-lane cross-section has two anticipatory sight distance, is the distance
lanes in one direction and a single lane in the required for a driver to:
opposing direction. At about two to three kilo- • detect an unexpected or otherwise diffi-
cult-to-perceive information source or
metre intervals, the second lane is allocated to
hazard in a roadway environment that
movement in the opposite direction. A minimum
may be visually cluttered;
shoulder width is required as discussed in
• recognize the hazard or its potential
Chapter 4. threat;
• select an appropriate speed and path;
3.5.8 Decision sight distance and
• initiate and complete the required safety
manoeuvre safely and efficiently.
Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to
allow reasonably competent and alert drivers to
Because decision sight distance gives drivers
stop under ordinary circumstances. However,
additional margin for error and affords them suf-
these distances are often inadequate when:
• Drivers must make complex decisions; ficient length to manoeuvre their vehicles at the
• Information is difficult to perceive, or same or reduced speed rather than to just stop,
• Unexpected or unusual manoeuvres are it is substantially longer than stopping sight dis-
required. tance.
3-19
Drivers need decision sight distances whenever traffic control devices for advance warning.
there is likelihood for error in either information Although a sight distance is offered for the right
reception, decision-making, or control actions. side exit, the designer should bear in mind that
Critical locations where these kinds of errors are exiting from the right is in total conflict with driv-
likely to occur, and where it is desirable to pro- er expectancy and is highly undesirable. The
vide decision sight distance include: only reason for providing this value is to allow
• Approaches to interchanges and inter for the remote eventuality that a right side exit
sections; has to be employed.
• Changes in cross-section such as at toll
plazas and lane drops;
In measuring decision sight distances, the 1 050
• Design speed reductions, and
mm eye height and 0 mm object height have
• Areas of concentrated demand where
there is apt to be "visual noise", e.g been adopted.
where sources of information, such as
roadway elements, opposing traffic, traf- 3.5.9 Headlight sight distance
fic control devices, advertising signs and
construction zones, compete for attention. Headlight sight distance is typically used in
establishing the rate of change of grade for sag
The minimum decision sight distances that vertical curves. At speeds above 80 km/h, only
should be provided for specific situations are large, light coloured objects can be perceived at
shown in Table 3.7. If it is not feasible to provide the generally accepted stopping sight distances.
these distances because of horizontal or vertical A five-fold light increase is necessary for a 15
curvature or if relocation is not possible, special km/h increase in speed and a 50 per cent reduc-
attention should be given to the use of suitable tion in object size.
3-20
For night driving on highways without lighting, ensure that two opposing vehicles travelling in
the length of visible roadway is that which is the same lane should be able to come to a stop
directly illuminated by the headlights of the vehi- before impact. A logical basis for the determi-
cle. This length is typically shorter than the min- nation of the barrier sight distance is that it
imum sight distance. should at least equal twice the stopping dis-
tance. Values given in the South Africa Road
When headlights are operated on low beam, the Traffic Signs Manual approximate this
reduced candlepower at the source and the approach.
downward projection angle significantly restrict
the visible length of roadway surface. Barrier sight distance is measured to an object
height of 1,3 metre from an eye height of 1,05
For crest vertical curves, the area beyond the
m. . The object height is the height of an
headlight beam point of tangency with the road-
approaching passenger car.
way surface is shadowed and receives only indi-
rect illumination. Also, a general limit of 120 to
Hidden dip alignments are poor design practice,
150 metres sight distance is all that can be safe-
but are found on many rural roads. They typi-
ly assumed for visibility of an unilluminated
cally mislead drivers into believing that there is
object on a bitumen surfacing. This corre-
more sight distance available than actually
sponds to a satisfactory stopping sight distance
exists. In checking vertical alignment, designers
for 80 to 90 km/h or a decision time of about 5
should pay attention to areas where this defi-
seconds at 100 km/h.
ciency exists, and ensure that drivers are made
aware of any such inadequacies.
Since the headlight mounting height (typically
about 600 mm) is lower than the driver eye
3.5.11 Obstructions to sight distance
height (1 050 mm for design), sight distance is
on horizontal curves
controlled by the height of the vehicle headlights
and a one degree upward divergence of the light
Physical features, such as a concrete barrier
beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
wall, a bridge pier, a tree, foliage, or the back
Any object within the shadow zone must be high
slope of a cutting, can affect available sight dis-
enough to extend into the headlight beam to be
tance. Accordingly, designs need to be checked
directly illuminated.
in both the horizontal and vertical planes for
3.5.10 Barrier sight distance obstructions.
Barrier sight distance is not a geometric design Minimum radii of horizontal curvature are deter-
factor, but is rather an operational guide to the mined by application of vehicle dynamics and
driver to promote safety on two-lane roads. not through sight distance controls. It is, there-
fore, possible that the selected radius may not
Barrier sight distance is the limit below which be adequate to ensure the safe stopping sight
overtaking is legally prohibited, in order to distance requirements. If the obstructions to
3-21
sight distance are immovable, re- alignment L = lane width (m)
may be necessary. s = stopping sight distance
for specific gradient
The problem is illustrated in Figure 3.3. The dri- and design speed (m)
ver's eye is assumed to be at the centre of the from Figure 3.1.
nearside lane. The chord AB is the sight line
and the curve ACB is the stopping sight dis- Given the nature of the relationship, a trial-and-
tance. A zero gradient is assumed. It follows error approach to the solution is required.
that selection of a radius for a given distance of
Figure 3.3: Horizontal restrictions to stopping sight distance
obstruction from the inner lane centre line will 3.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
constitute an under-design if the inner lane is on
a downgrade. A road is a key element in the modern environ-
ment with wide ranging implications. Planning

A radius to satisfy stopping sight distance crite- for effective integration is therefore essential. In
ria can be calculated from the following formula; South Africa, the National Environmental
Management Act of 1998 lays down prescrip-
tions for the provision and operation of infra-
structure, including roads. The designer should
where C = distance from centre of be aware of the constraints imposed by this law.
inside lane to obstruc- For example, constraints may include avoiding a
tion (m) particular watercourse or wetland area, or
R = radius of curve (m) accommodating prescribed mitigatory meas-
3-22
ures such as screening berms or sound fences. ing landform best by avoiding disruption
In carrying out their mandate to plan and design of major topographical features;
road systems, road designers should consider • To find an alignment that uses the exist-
ing landform to good effect and which
on the one hand, making facilities aesthetically
minimizes the scale of earthworks;
pleasing and being "good neighbours" in the
• To design profiles which reflect existing
community and, on the other, providing safe and
natural slopes;
efficient transportation links to users. • To retain the least road footprint, by the
return of land to its former use;
3.6.1 Land use and landscape integra • To use existing landform to minimize
tion noise and visual intrusion: for example,
placing a road in a cutting or behind rising
With regard to environmental factors, the objec- ground to protect settlements;
tive of route selection should be to choose a • To develop new landforms, including
route that has both the minimum effect on land- mounds and false cuttings, to screen the
form and requires the smallest number of large road from settlements, and
earthworks. Integration with the existing land- • To achieve a balance between horizon-
tal and vertical alignment.
form can best be achieved by grading out cut-
tings and embankments to slopes that reflect
the surrounding topography. This in turn may 3.6.2 Aesthetics of design
affect adjacent sites of conservation or heritage
interest and, in such cases, a balance needs to
Design aesthetics and attention to landform are
be struck. A major consideration is that non-
very closely related topics. Aesthetic improve-
renewable resources, such as wetlands, should
ments can often be achieved without incurring
be avoided wherever possible.
additional costs, provided the designer
approaches the subject in a sensitive manner.
Designs should aim to achieve the best possible
In fact, alignments that are visually pleasing are
use of excavated materials, thus minimizing the
usually less hazardous than other alignments.
need for off-site spoil or borrow pits. If off-site
works are necessary, they should be subject to
On any roadway, creating pleasing appearance
the same good design principles as those used
is a worthwhile objective. Scenic values can be
on site, achieved by liaison with the appropriate
considered along with safety, utility, economy,
planning authority. Earthworks can only be inte-
and all the other factors considered in planning
grated successfully if the new landform and its
and design. This is particularly true of the many
soil structure allow effective strategic rehabilita-
portions of the National Road system situated in
tion. Restoration to agricultural use can be a
areas of natural beauty. The location of the
particularly effective strategy.
road, its alignment and profile, the cross section
design, and other features should be in harmo-
Design objectives should be:
To choose the route least damaging to ny with the setting. Economy consistent with
•
the landscape and which respects exist- traffic needs is of paramount importance,
3-23
although a reasonable additional expenditure either by absorbing the noise or deflecting it
can be justified to enhance the beauty of the upwards. Strategies addressing noise levels
highway. include, for example, depressing and some-
times covering the roadway or by installing
This topic is addressed in detail in Chapter 5. sound barriers of earth or masonry. However,
these may also trap air pollutants.
3.6.3 Noise abatement
Special sound barriers may be justified at cer-
Noise is defined as an unwanted sound, a sub-
tain locations, particularly along ground level or
jective result of sounds that intrude on or inter-
elevated roads through noise-sensitive areas.
fere with activities such as conversation, think-
Concrete, wood, metal, or masonry walls are
ing, reading or sleeping. Motor vehicle noise is
very effective in deflecting noise. One of the
generated by the functioning of equipment with-
more aesthetically pleasing barriers is the earth
in the vehicle, by its aerodynamics, by the action
berm that has been graded to achieve a natural
of tyres on the roadway and, in metropolitan
form that blends with the surrounding topogra-
areas, by short-duration sounds such as braking
phy. The feasibility of berm construction should
squeal, exhaust backfires, hooters and sirens.
be planned as part of the overall grading plan for
The decrease in sound intensity with distance the roadway. There will be instances where an
from the source is influenced by several factors. effective earth berm can be constructed within
Measurements taken near roads show that dou- the normal right-of-way or with a minimal addi-
bling the distance results in a lowering of 3 dBA tional right-of-way purchase. If the right-of-way
over clean, level ground and 4,8 dBA over lush is insufficient to accommodate a three metre
growth. high berm, a lower berm can be constructed in

combination with a wall or screen to achieve the
Some sustained (ambient) noise is always pres- desired height.
ent. In a quiet residential neighbourhood at
Shrubs, trees or ground covers are not very effi-
night, it is in the 32 to 43 dBA range; the urban
cient in shielding sound because of their perme-
residential daytime limits are about 41 to 53
ability to the flow of air. However, almost all
dBA. In industrial areas the range is 48 to 66
buffer plantings offer some noise reduction, and

dBA, while, in downtown commercial locations
exceptionally wide and dense plantings may
with heavy traffic, it is 62 to 73 dBA. Increases
result in substantial reductions in noise levels.
up to 9 dBA above ambient noise levels bring
Even where the noise reduction is not consid-
only sporadic protests. Protests become wide-
ered significant, the aesthetic effects of the
spread with increases in the 9 to 16 dBA range.
plantings will produce a positive influence.
At increases greater than 16 dBA, there may be
community action. 3.6.4 Air pollution by vehicles
A design objective is to keep noise at or below The highway air-pollution problem has two
acceptable levels and this can be achieved dimensions: the area-wide effects of primarily
3-24
reactive pollutants; and the high concentrations If at all possible, major routes should not tra-
of largely non-reactive pollutants at points or verse such areas but should rather be located
corridors along or near roads. The motor vehi- on the higher ground surrounding inversion-
cle is a primary contributor to both forms, prone valleys, with relatively low-volume road
accounting for an estimated 70 per cent of the links serving developments in the valley areas.
CO, 50 per cent of the HC, and 30 per cent of Attention should also be paid to prevailing wind
the NOx. directions so that routes bypassing local com-
munities are located downwind of these settle-
Area-wide conditions are exacerbated when
ments.
temperature inversions trap pollutants near the
ground surface and there is little or no wind, so
3.6.5 Weather and geomorphology
that concentrations of pollutants increase. For
some individuals, eyes burn and breathing is dif-
Land shape, on a broad scale, as well as pre-
ficult. It is alleged that lives can be shortened
vailing weather conditions, which could influ-
and some deaths have actually resulted from
ence the design, are factors over which the
these exposures. Also, certain kinds of vegeta-
designer does not have any control. Certain
tion are killed, stunted, or the foliage burned.
areas of the country are prone to misty condi-
The quantity of air pollutants can be reduced by tions and others subject to high rainfall. Both
judicious design. Exhaust emissions are high are factors that have to be taken into account in
while vehicle engines are operating at above- design.
average levels of output, for example while

accelerating from a stationary position or when Mist and rain both cause reduced visibility.
climbing a steep hill. Smooth traffic flow at con- Where these are a regular occurrence, they
stant speeds, such as in "green wave" condi- tend to lie in belts, sometimes fairly narrow,
tions on a signalised route, reduces exhaust across the landscape. Designers should
emissions in addition to leading to a reduction in acquire local knowledge about the quirks of the
noise levels. By way of contrast, speed humps, weather patterns and seek ways to reduce their
which are popular as speed-reducing devices in effect.
residential areas, have the dual penalty of
increased pollution and increased noise levels. Where it is not possible to avoid a mist belt, the
In rural areas, vertical alignments should be designer should pay particular attention to the
designed with a minimum of "false rises". concept of the "forgiving highway", by providing
flat side slopes and avoiding alignments where
In addition to being able to modify the quantity short radius curves follow each other in quick
of pollutants in the atmosphere, the designer succession. Steep downgrades followed by
can influence the extent to which emissions short radius horizontal curves are particularly to
impact on local communities. Temperature be avoided. A real effort should also be put into
inversions that trap polluted air are typically avoiding high fills. In conditions of heavy mist,
associated with closed or bowl-shaped valleys. vehicles will tend to move very slowly but, even
3-25
at speeds significantly below the design speed If hourly flows are ordered from highest to low-
of the road, the restricted visibility will lead to est, it is customary, in rural areas, to design for
high levels of stress. Drivers are more likely to the thirtieth highest hourly flow, i.e that flow
make incorrect decisions when under stress and which is exceeded in only 29 hours of the year.
designers should thus do everything possible to This is because rural roads have very high sea-
keep stress levels within manageable limits. sonal peaks and it is not economical to have a
road congestion-free every hour throughout the
3.7 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS year. In urban areas, seasonal peaks are less
pronounced and the 100th highest hourly flow is
3.7.1 General considered a realistic flow level for design pur-
poses.
Factual information on expected traffic volumes
is an essential input to design. This indicates To predict hourly flows, it is necessary to know
the need for improvements and directly affects the ADT and the peaking factor, ß. The param-
the geometric features and design. eter, ß, is a descriptor of the traffic flow on a
given road and depends on factors such as the
Traffic flows vary both seasonally and during the percentage and incidence of holiday traffic, the
day. The designer should be familiar with the relative sizes of the daily peaks, etc. The peak-
extent of these fluctuations to enable him or her ing factor can fluctuate between -0,1 and -0,4. A
to assess the flow patterns. The directional dis- value of -0,1 indicates minimal seasonal peak-
tribution of the traffic and the manner in which its ing. This value of ß should be used in urban
composition varies are also important parame- designs. A value of -0,4 suggests very high
ters. A thorough understanding of the manner in seasonal peaks and would normally be applied
which all of these behave is a basic requirement to roads such as the N3. As a general rule, a
of any realistic design. value of -0,2 could be used as being a typical
value. Equation 3.1 below can be used to esti-
3.7.2 Traffic volumes mate flows between the highest and 1030th
highest hour. Although not a particularly good
Traffic flow is measured by the number of vehi- model, flows beyond the 1030th hour can be
cles passing a particular station during a given estimated by using a straight line relationship
period of time. Typically, the flow of interest is from the 1030th flow to zero veh/hr at the
the Average Daily Traffic (ADT). Flows may also 8760th or last hour of the year.
be reported per hour, such as the "hourly QN = 0,072ADT(N/1030)ß
observed traffic volume" or the "thirtieth-highest where QN = two-directional flow in
hour" or "hundredth-hour", which are commonly N-th hour of year (veh/h)
used for design purposes. Very short duration ADT = average daily traffic
flows, such as for a five-minute period, are typi- (veh/day)
cally applied to studies of signalised intersec- N = hour of year
tions. ß = peaking factor.
3-26
It is interesting to note that the peak hour factor, towards the central business district (with rela-
K, quoted in the Highway Capacity Manual is tively low outward-bound flows), whereas the
often assumed for design purposes to be 0,15. afternoon peak is in the reverse direction. It is
Reference is commonly made to the 30th high- important to realize that the design flow is actu-
est hour of the year as being the design hour. ally a composite and not a single value. A road
Applying a value of -0,2 to ß, and assuming N to must be able to accommodate the major flow in
be 30, QN according to Equation 3.1 is 0,146 x both directions.
ADT for the thirtieth highest hour.
The actual distribution to be used for design pur-
Designers need to estimate future traffic flows poses should be measured in the field. If an
for a road section. It is recommended that a existing road is to be reconstructed, the field
design period of 20 years be used for forward studies can be carried out on it beforehand. For
planning. The 30th or 100th highest flow used new facilities, measurements should be made
in the design is that occurring in the design year, on adjacent roads from which it is expected the
typically twenty years hence. Staged construc- traffic will be diverted and modelling techniques
tion or widening of roads over this period can be applied.
a feature of an economical design.
Directional distribution is relatively stable and
The capacity of rural road sections is influenced does not change materially from year to year.
by the following key characteristics: Relationships established from current traffic
• Road configuration - e.g. two-lane two- movements are normally also applicable to
way, multi-lane divided or undivided; future movements.
• Operating speed;
• Terrain;
3.7.4 Traffic composition
• Lane and shoulder width;
• Traffic composition, and
Vehicles of different sizes and mass have differ-
• Gradients.
ent operating characteristics. Trucks have a
higher mass/power ratio and occupy more road-
In the case of two-lane two- way roads, the fol-
way space than passenger cars. Consequently,
lowing additional factors are important:
they constitute a greater impedance to traffic
• Directional distribution of traffic flow; and
• Passing opportunities - sight distance, flow than passenger vehicles, with the overall
overtaking lanes, climbing lanes or slow vehicle effect that one truck is equivalent to several pas-
turnout lanes. senger cars. For design purposes, the percent-
age of truck traffic during the peak hours has to
3.7.3 Directional distribution be estimated.
Directional distribution of traffic is an indication For design of a particular highway, data on the
of the tidal flow during the day. In urban areas, composition of traffic should be determined from
the morning peak traffic is typically inbound traffic studies. Truck traffic is normally
3-27
expressed as a percentage of total traffic during It is difficult to define the life of a "road" because
the design hour in the case of a two-lane road; major segments may have different lengths of
and as a percentage of total traffic in the pre- physical life. Each segment is subject to varia-
dominant direction of travel in the case of a tions in estimated life expectancy because of
multi-lane road. influences not readily subject to analysis such
as obsolescence and unexpected changes in
It is not practical to design for a heterogeneous land use, resulting in changes in traffic volumes,
traffic stream and, for this reason, trucks are pattern and load. Regardless of the anticipated
converted to equivalent Passenger Car Units physical life of the various elements of the road,
(PCUs). The number of PCU's associated with it is customary to use a single value as the
a single truck is a measure of the impedance "design life". In essence, the road is expected
that it offers to the passenger cars in the traffic to provide an acceptable level of service for this
stream. This topic is exhaustively addressed in period. Whether or not any of its various com-
the Highway Capacity Manual and is not dis- ponents have a longer physical life expectancy
cussed further here. than this design life is irrelevant. For example,
the alignment and, in some instances, the sur-
Passenger car unit equivalents have, in general, facing of roads built during Roman times are still
been derived from observations as illustrated in in use today without there being any reference
Table 3.8. The values offered serve only as a to a design life of 2 000 years.
rough indication and the designer should refer

A typical value of design life is twenty years. In
to the Highway Capacity Manual for detailed
the case of major and correspondingly expen-
calculation of PCU's appropriate to the different
sive structures a design life of fifty years may be
environments and circumstances.
assumed. This should not, however, be con-
fused with the concept of a bridge being able to
3.7.5 Traffic growth withstand the worst flood in fifty years.
3.7.6 Capacity and design volumes

The design of new roads or of improvements to
existing roads should be based on the future The term capacity is used here to define the
traffic expected to use the facilities. ability of a road to accommodate traffic under
3-28
given circumstances. Factors to be taken into Physical features having considerable influence
account are the physical features of the road are the type of intersection, i.e. whether plain,
itself and the prevailing traffic conditions
channelised, roundabout or signalised, the num-
ber of intersecting traffic lanes and the adequa-
Prevailing road conditions
cy of speed-change lanes.
Capacity figures for uninterrupted flow on high-
ways have to be modified if certain minimum
Unlike the physical features of the highway,
physical design features are not adhered to.
which are literally fixed in position and have def-
Poor physical features that tend to cause a
inite measurable effects on traffic flows, the pre-
reduction in capacity are:
vailing traffic conditions are not fixed but vary
• Narrow traffic lanes. Lane widths of
from hour to hour throughout the day. Hence,
3.65 m are accepted as being the mini-
mum necessary for heavy volumes of the flows at any particular time are a function of
mixed traffic, i.e. before capacity of the the speeds of vehicles, the composition of the
lane is reduced. traffic streams and the manner in which the
• Inadequate shoulders. The narrowness, vehicles interact with each other, as well as of
or lack of, shoulders alongside a road the physical features of the roadway itself.
cause vehicles to travel closer to the
centre of the carriageway, thereby
increasing the medial traffic friction. In Capacity
addition, vehicles making emergency The term "capacity" was introduced in the USA
stops must, of necessity, park on the in the Highway Capacity Manual, in which it is
carriageway. This causes a substantial defined as "the maximum number of vehicles
reduction in the effective width of the that can pass a given point on a roadway or in a
road, thereby reducing capacity.
designated lane during one hour without the
• Side obstructions. Vertical obstructions
traffic density being so great as to cause unrea-
such as poles, bridge abutments, retain
sonable delay, hazard, or restriction to the driv-
ing walls or parked cars that are located
ers' freedom to manoeuvre under the prevailing
within about 1,5 m of the edge of the
carriageway contribute towards a reduc- roadway and traffic conditions". This definition
tion in the effective width of the outside gives a reasonable method of approach but, in
traffic lane. practice, it is necessary to choose one or more
• Imperfect horizontal or vertical curva- arbitrary criteria of what constitutes restriction of
ture. Long and/or steep hills and sharp traffic movement, or "congestion".
bends result in restricted sight distance.
As drivers then have reduced opportuni-
The Highway Capacity Manual procedure must
ties to pass, the capacity of the facility
however be used for specific road capacity
will be reduced.
designs.
In addition to the above, the capacities of certain

For typical South African conditions and to bal-
rural roads and the great majority of urban roads
ance financial, safety and operational consider-
are controlled by the layouts of intersections.
3-29
ations it is recommended that the capacity of a Classification of roads by design types based on
two-lane rural road be taken on average as the major geometric features (e.g. freeways) is
being between 10 000 and 12 000 vehicles per the most helpful one for road location and
day while, for freeways, consideration could be design purposes. Classification by route num-
given to changing from a four-lane to a six-lane bering is the most helpful for road traffic opera-
freeway when the traffic flow is of the order of 35 tional purposes, whilst administrative classifica-
000 to 40 000 vehicles per day. tion is used to denote the level of government
responsible for, and the method of, financing
3.8 ROAD CLASSIFICATION road facilities. Functional classification, the

grouping of roads by the character of service
The classification of roads into different opera- they provide, was developed for transportation
tional systems, functional classes or geometric planning purposes.
types is necessary for communication between
engineers, administrators and the general pub- 3.8.1 Classification criteria for South
lic. Classification is the tool by which a complex
African roads
network of roads can be subdivided into groups
having similar characteristics. A single classifi-
Although numerous classification criteria are
cation system, satisfactory for all purposes,
used on road networks world-wide, in South
would be advantageous but has not been found
Africa there are basically three criteria used to
to be practicable. Moreover, in any classifica-
classify road types. These are:
tion system the division between classes is
• Functional classification;
often arbitrary and, consequently, opinions differ • Administrative classification, and
on the best definition of any class. There are • Design Type classification, based on
various schemes for classifying roads and the traffic usage.
class definitions generally vary depending on This document uses the third type for design
the purpose of classification. purposes.
The principal purposes of road classification are As a result of growing awareness of the interde-
to:- pendency of the various modes of transport as
• Establish logical integrated systems well as the creation of Metropolitan Transport

that, because of their particular service, Authorities within South Africa's major metropol-
should be administered by the same
itan areas there is considerable overlap
jurisdiction;
between the functional and administrative clas-
• Relate geometric design control and
other design standards to the roads in sification criteria. Within these metropolitan
each class, and areas, the general public is more dependent on,
• Establish a basis for developing long- and understands, a route numbering or func-
range programmes, improvement priori tional classification than on an administrative
ties and financial plans. classification of roads within the area.
3-30
Although these guidelines are based on a Another and less comprehensive form of func-
design type classification, the three different tional classification was developed for the pur-
approaches mentioned above are briefly poses of road signing as shown in the South
described in order to provide a picture of the African Road Traffic Signs Manual. As stated in
road system hierarchy in South Africa. SARTSM,
"There are definite limits to the number of ways
3.8.2 Functional classification concept in which GUIDANCE signs and specifically
DIRECTION signs can be made to indicate with
For transportation planning purposes, road are sufficient immediate recognition potential, the
most effectively classified by function. The func- different classes into which the road network is
tional classification system adopted for the divided for signing purposes."
South African road network is illustrated in Table
3.9. This was used for the South African Rural Classification for signing thus differentiates
Road Needs Study carried out during the early mainly between numbered and unnumbered
1980s. routes and, in respect of numbered routes, also
draws a distinction between freeways and other
roads.
3-31
Roads have two functions: to provide mobility arate levels of government each have a roads
and to provide land access. However from a function mandated to them. Despite this sepa-
design standpoint, these functions are incom- ration of authority for various classes or roads, it
patible. For mobility, high or continued speeds is essential to bear in mind that roads act as a
are desirable and variable or low speeds unde- total system or network and that the subdivision
sirable; for land access, low speeds are desir- of roads into administrative classes bears no
able and high speeds undesirable. For exam- relation to the functional type of a road under the
ple, freeways provide a high degree of mobility, control of a specific authority. The administra-
with access provided only at spaced inter- tive classification approach thus divides the
changes to preserve the high-speed, high-vol- South African road network into:
ume characteristics of the facility. The opposite • National,
is true for local, low-speed roads that primarily • Provincial, and
provide local access. The general relationship

• Local Authority roads.
of functionally classified systems in serving

This administrative classification of roads also
mobility and land access is illustrated in Figure
bears no relation to the design type of a road
3.4.
under the control of a specific authority. Thus,
until the turn of the 21st century, there were sec-
Given a functional classification, design criteria
tions of National Roads that were unsurfaced,
can be applied to encourage the use of the road
with very low traffic volumes, the most heavily
as intended. Design features that can convey
trafficked roads in South Africa, also up to the
the level of functional classification to the driver
turn of the century, often being the responsibili-
include width of roadway, continuity of align-
ty of a local authority. Furthermore certain
ment, spacing of intersections, frequency of
"routes" in the country comprise both National
access points, building setbacks, alignment and
and Provincial roads, and could even include
grade standards, and traffic controls.
local authority roads. Administratively, a
National Road, which is denoted as such by a
3.8.3 Administrative classification
legal proclamation, in general comprises those
roads that form the principal avenues of com-
Legislation and, in some instances, the
munication between major regions of the coun-

Constitution, assigns to certain levels of govern-
try, and/or between major population conurba-
ment the responsibilities for providing, regulat-
tions and/or between major regions of South
ing and operating roads and streets for public
Africa and other countries.
use. This concept and the principles of law that
support it were developed in Great Britain, and
3.8.4 Design type classification
even earlier by the Romans. Within the limits of
its constitutional powers, a particular road The most widely accepted design type criteria
authority may delegate its authority for roads to are those developed by AASHTO which classify
bodies such as a Roads Board or a Toll Road a road system into:
Concessionaire. In South Africa, the three sep- • Freeways;
3-32
• Arterial roads other than freeways, and Design designations of these specific National
• Collector roads. Roads are as follows;
For each classification, specific design stan- Class I Primary Roads
dards and criteria and access and other policies Class IA Primary Freeways in rural
have been developed and are applied. areas
• Illustrative threshold ADT (with more
For use in the present document the following than 12% heavy vehicles) = 15 000
service or design classifications are proposed, veh/d.
Figure 3.4: Relationship of functional road classes
related to design traffic volumes given in ADT

terms. Each classification groups roads with • Average travel distances on links indi-
similar functions. The factors that influence the cated by at least 45 per cent of the trips
classification of a roadway to a certain group being more than 2 hours in duration;
include; • May be provided for network continuity
• Trip purpose (for the majority of users); purposes, and
• Trip length; • Minimum design speed 130 km/h.
• Size and type of population centre
Class IB Primary Freeways in metropoli-
served;
tan areas
• Traffic characteristics, and
• Illustrative threshold ADT = 20 000
• Network and system requirements
veh/d
3-33
• Average travel distance on links indicat
ed by majority of trips being less than 2
hours in duration
• Form integral element of Metropolitan
Road Network
• Generally extension of Rural Freeways
(Class IA roads)
• Minimum design speed 130 km/h
Class II Primary Arterials, 4 lane sin-
gle carriageway roads
Class IIA Primary Rural Arterials
• Generally provided when 2 lane single
carriageway road reaches capacity and
freeway not financially affordable
• Ilustrative threshold ADT : 8 000 - 10
000 veh/d, with bottom end of scale
applicable where percentage of truck
traffic exceed 15 per cent
Class IIB Primary Metropolitan Arterial
• Design in context in which it operates.
Class III Secondary Rural Arterial
• Provided to address inter-regional trav-
el demands, or providing access to
tourist or National resource areas
• Two lane, single carriageway roads

• Class IIIA
• Design ADT greater than 4 000 veh/d
• Class IIIB
• Design ADT 500 - 4 000 veh/d
• Class IIIC
• Design ADT less than 500 veh/d
• Minimum design speed 100 km/h.
3-34

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

3 DESIGN CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

Table 3.1: Typical design speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

ance as well as by environmental factors. The useful principles, viz:

designer should, therefore, relate the physical

greater is the likelihood that change will occur.

respond to common situations in predictable towards a green signal, because it is increas-

driver expectancy: predictable and consistent driver behaviour.

lowing curve. A difference in operating speed

imising their travel times, and speed is one of

design speed. Such an alignment would comply curve following a tangent.

with an 80 km/h design speed, but it would vio-

geometric and other features that may cause

The dimensions in the previous Geometric

vehicles in South Africa pertinent to 1965. The

Figure 3.1: Five Axle Vehicles and Multi Vehicle Combinations

Turning Radii Vehicle height

Vehicle Turning Paths

the selected design vehicle as it turns. The

The object height to be used in calculation of

• Intersection sight distance, to allow a longer stopping distances. To perceive a very

The designer should adopt an object height

corrections for grade. This is because down

• Poor braking characteristics of empty

Geometric Design Guide

Figure 3.2: Stopping distance corrected for gradient

should be provided as frequently as possible. prudent to provide longer sight distances. In

provided at least once every 2 km, passing almost any situation.

lanes should be considered. The 2+1 cross-

3.5.10 Barrier sight distance obstructions.

Figure 3.3: Horizontal restrictions to stopping sight distance

ment with wide ranging implications. Planning

growth. high berm, a lower berm can be constructed in

buffer plantings offer some noise reduction, and

while vehicle engines are operating at above- design.

average levels of output, for example while

rough indication and the designer should refer

3.7.6 Capacity and design volumes

In addition to the above, the capacities of certain

3.8 ROAD CLASSIFICATION road facilities. Functional classification, the

• Establish logical integrated systems well as the creation of Metropolitan Transport

Geometric Design Guide

is true for local, low-speed roads that primarily • Provincial, and

provide local access. The general relationship

of functionally classified systems in serving

munication between major regions of the coun-

Figure 3.4: Relationship of functional road classes

related to design traffic volumes given in ADT

• Two lane, single carriageway roads

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