MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS & ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

UNIT-4

MOTIVATION: THEORY OF MOTIVATION:

MASLOW’S,
HERZBERG’S,
McCLELLAND,
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION.
SELF DETERMINATION THEORY,
SELF EFFICACY THEORY,
VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY,
EQUITY THEORY,
REINFORCEMENT THEORY,
MEANING OF PERCEPTION, PROCESS,
BEHAVIOURAL APPLICATIONS OF
PERCEPTION.

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MOTIVATION
The term motivation can be traced to the Latin word “movere”, which means ‘to move’. In order
to understand the concept of motivation and its process, three terms is required-
1- Motive.
2- Motivating.
3- Motivation

Motive- A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and that directs behavior
towards goals

Motivating- It is a term which implies that one person induces another to engage in action by
ensuring that a channel to satisfy the motive becomes available and accessible to the individual.

Motivation- A willingness to expend energy to achieve a goal or reward. It is force that activates
dormant energies and sets in motion the action of the people. It is the force that kindles a burning
passion for action among the human beings of an organization.

Performance = Ability x Motivation

Ability = What a person can do.

Motivation = What a person will do.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
MASLOW’S MOTIVATION THEORY-
The basis of Maslow’s theory is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that
certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. According to
Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, safety, love and esteem) that must be
satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs “deficiency needs”. As long
as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-
actualization. Satisfying needs is healthy, while gratification makes us sick or act evilly.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most
fundamental levels of needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization at the top-

1.Physiological needs- Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If
these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail.
Physiological needs are thought to be the most important; they should be met first.

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2.Safety needs- Once a person's physical safety needs are relatively satisfied, their safety needs
take precedence and dominate behavior. Safety and Security needs include:

 Personal security
 Financial security
 Health and well-being
 Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

3.Love and belonging- After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of
human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness.

4.Esteem- All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-
esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by
others.

5.Self-actualization- This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the
realization of that potential. Maslow describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything
that one can, to become the most that one can be.

Pyramid of maslow’s motivation theory

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CRITICISMS OF THE THEORY INCLUDES-

1. The need may not follow a definite hierarchical order. For example- even if the safety
need is not satisfied, the social need may emerge.
2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all the places.
3. The level of motivation may be permanently lower for some people. For example- a
person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life
if only he gets enough food.

HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY-

The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and dual-factor
theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a
separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by psychologist Frederick
Herzberg, who theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each
other. According to the Two-Factor Theory there are four possible combinations-

1. High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal situation where employees are highly
motivated and have few complaints.

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2. High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints but are not highly
motivated. The job is viewed as a paycheck.
3. Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are motivated but have a lot of
complaints. A situation where the job is exciting and challenging but salaries and work
conditions are not up to par.
4. Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: This is the worst situation where employees are not
motivated and have many complaints.

Mc CLELLAND THEORY OF NEEDS-

McClelland and his associates proposed McClelland’s theory of needs/motivation theory. This
theory states that human behavior is affected by three needs-
 Need for achievement is the urge to excel, to accomplish in relation to a set of standards, to
struggle to achieve success.
 Need for power is the desire to influence other individual’s behavior as per your wish. In
other words, it is the desire to have control over others and to be influential.
 Need for affiliation is a need for open and sociable interpersonal relationships. In other
words, it is a desire for relationship based on co-operation and mutual understanding.

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CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION-

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY-
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that
concerns people's inherent growth tendencies and innate psychological needs. It is concerned
with the motivation behind choices people make without external influence and interference.
SDT focuses on the degree to which an individual’s behavior is self-motivated and self-
determined.
SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth:
SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth:

1. Competence
2. Relatedness
3. Autonomy

SELF EFFICACY THEORY-

Self-efficacy theory was originated by Alberta Bendura. Self-efficacy is the belief that one has
the power to produce that effect by completing a given task or activity related to that
competency. Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal. It is the
belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain goals. It is the
expectation that one can master a situation, and produce a positive outcome. Self-efficacy is an
important concept in positive psychology.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model says that there are 3 factors that influence self-efficacy:
 Behaviors
 Environment, and
 Personal/ cognitive factors.

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VROOM’S EXPENTANCY THEORY-

Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among
alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that
an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge,
experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a
person's motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account
for this.

Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work
harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:
1. Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)
2. Having the right skills to do the job
3. Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct
information on the job)

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received.
The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. i.e. if I do a
good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as:
1. Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g. the
rules of the reward 'game'
2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome
3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome

Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For the valence
to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if
someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.

EQUITY THEORY-
This theory was developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams. In this theory individuals compare
their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any
equities. Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute
amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others
receive.

INTERNAL EQUITY- Fairness of pay differentials between different jobs in the organization
can be established by job ranking, job classification, point systems and factor comparision.

EXTERNAL EQUITY- Fairness of organizational compensation levels relative to external

compensation is assessed by collecting wage and salary information to guide in setting the
organization’s pay, strategy to lead, meet labor market wages.

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REINFORCEMENT THEORY-
Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states that
individual’s behavior is a function of its consequences. It is based on “law of effect”, i.e,
individual’s behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s behavior
with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.

Positive Reinforcement-

This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and required behavior.
For example - Immediately praising of an employee for coming early for job. This will increase
probability of outstanding behavior occurring again. Reward is a positive reinforce, but not
necessarily. Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behavior. It must be noted that
more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the greater reinforcement value it has.

Negative Reinforcement-

This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative / undesirable consequences. Both

positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing desirable / required behavior.

Punishment:-

It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of repeating undesirable

behavior in future. In other words, punishment means applying undesirable consequence for
showing undesirable behavior. For instance - Suspending an employee for breaking the
organizational rules. Punishment can be equalized by positive reinforcement from alternative
source.

Extinction-

It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction implies lowering the probability
of undesired behavior by removing reward for that kind of behavior. For instance - if an
employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel that his
behavior is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable
behavior.

MODELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR-

 The Autocratic Model
 The Custodial Model
 The Supportive Model
 The Collegial Model
 The System Model

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Autocratic Model- The autocratic model depends on power. Those who are in command
must have the power to demand “you do this-or else,” meaning that an employee who does not
follow orders will be penalized. In an autocratic environment the managerial orientation is
formal, official authority. This authority is delegated by right of command over the people to it
applies. Under autocratic environment the employee is obedience to a boss. The psychological
result for employees is dependence on their boss, whose power to hire, fire, and “perspire” them
is almost absolute.

The Custodial Model- A successful custodial approach depends on economic resources.

The resulting managerial orientation is toward money to pay wages and benefits. Since
employees’ physical needs are already reasonably met, the employer looks to security needs as a
motivating force. If an organization does not have the wealth to provide pensions and pay other
benefits, it cannot follow a custodial approach. The custodial approach leads to employee
dependence on the organization. Rather than being dependence on their boss for their weekly
bread, employees now depend on organizations for their security and welfare.

The Supportive Model- The supportive model depends on leadership instead of power or
money. Through leadership, management provides a climate to help employees grow and
accomplish in the interests of the organization the things of which they are capable.
They will take responsibility, develop a drive to contribute, and improve themselves if
management will give them a chance. Since management supports employees in their work, the
psychological result is a feeling of participation and task involvement in the organization.
Employee may say “we” instead of “they. Employees are more strongly motivated than by
earlier models because of their status and recognition needs are better met.

The Collegial Model- A useful extension of the supportive model is the collegial model. The
term “collegial” relates to a body of people working together cooperatively.
The collegial model depends on management’s building a feeling of partnership with employees.
The result is that employees feel needed and useful. They feel that managers are contributing
also, so it is easy to accept and respect their roles in their organization. The employee’s response
to this situation is responsibility. Feeling responsible, employees discipline themselves for
performance on the team in the same way that the members of a football team

The System Model-Managers must increasingly demonstrate a sense of caring and

compassion, being sensitive to the needs of a diverse workforce with rapidly changing needs and
complex personal and family needs. In response, many employees embrace the goal of
organizational effectiveness, and reorganize the mutuality of company-employee obligations in a
system viewpoint. They experience a sense of psychological ownership for the organization and
its product and services.

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PERCEPTION
 The word Perception comes from the Latin words, “percipio” meaning “receiving,
collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses”.
 A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order
to give meaning to their environment- Stephen Robbins.
 Perception is an important meditative cognitive process through which persons make
interpretations of the stimuli’s or situation they are faced with”- Fred Luthans
 It is a cognitive process by which people attend to incoming stimuli, organise and
interpret such stimuli into behaviour.

PROCESS OF PERCEPTION
ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI
Objects, events or people OBSERVATION (SENSES)
Taste, Hearing, Touch,
Smell, Sight
PERCEPTUAL SELECTION
External Factors Internal Factors
Size, intensity, Self concept, belief,
Contrast, Motion, expectations,
Repetition, Novelty inner needs,
Familiarity . response disposition,
response salience PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION
perceptual defence. Figure ground , Grouping, Simplification
Closure.

INTERPRETATION
Attribution, Selective perception, Stereotyping, RESPONSE
Halo effect, Projection, Contrast effect, Attitudes, Opinion,
First impression. Feelings etc.

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Perceptual Selectivity ( External Factors )

1- Size- Bigger the size of perceived stimulus, higher is the probability that it attracts the
attention of the perceiver and he may be select it for perception.

2- Intensity- More intense the external stimulus is, the more likely it is to be perceived.

3- Repetition- Repeated external stimulus is more attention- getting than a single one.
Advertisers use this principle by repeated advertisement of the same product to attract people’s
attention.

4-Novelty and Familiarity- New objects or events in a familiar setting, or familiar objects or
events in new setting draw better attention.

5-Contrast- The contrast principle states that external stimuli which stand against background,
or which are not what people are expecting, receive more attention.

6-Motion- Moving object draws more attention as compared to a stationary object, e.g.
commercials on television get more attention than print media.

Perceptual Selectivity ( Internal Factors )

1- Self- Concept- People’s own characteristics affect the characteristics which they are likely to
see in others. They select only that aspects which they find match with their characteristics.

2- Beliefs- A person’s beliefs have profound influence on his perception. An individual normally
censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs. This is referred as to
maintenance of cognitive consistency.

3-Expectations- Expectations affect what a person perceives. A technical manager may expect
ignorance about the technical features of a product from non- technical people.

4- Inner Needs- People’s perception is determined by their inner needs. People with different
needs select different items to remember or respond to.

5- Response Disposition- Person’s tendency to perceive familiar rather than unfamiliar ones.
Persons having dominant religious value took lesser time in recognizing such related words as
priest, whereas they took longer time in recognizing words related with economic value, such as
cost or price.

6-Response Salience- Includes looking at the situation from one point of view only, not from
others points of view. Thus a particular problem in a organization may be viewed as a marketing
problem by marketing personnel, and human relations problem by personnel people.

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7-Perceptual defence- Refers to the screening of those elements which create conflict and
threatening situation in people.

NATURE OF PERCEPTION
1. It is a process by which individual gives meaning to the environment.
2. People‘s actions, emotions, thoughts and feelings are triggered by their perceptions of their
surroundings.
3. Perception has been defined in a variety of ways; it basically refers to the manner in which a
person experiences the world.
4. Perception is an almost automatic process and works in the same way within each individual,
yet it typically yields different perceptions.

PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Deals with the manner in which selected stimuli are organized in order to make sense out of
them. People organize the various stimulus on the principles of-

1- Figure ground.
2- Grouping.
3- Simplification.
4- Closure.

Figure-ground:
One part of the stimulus will dominate (the figure) while the other parts recede into
the background (ground)

Grouping-
People generally group various stimuli on the basis of proximity or similarity.

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Proximity-
Nearness principle of grouping states that a group of stimuli that are close together will be
perceived as a whole of parts or pattern of parts belonging together. All employees working in a
particular department may be grouped together because of physical proximity. If the output of
the department is unsatisfactory, all persons may be perceived as inefficient, though some of
them may be very efficient.

Separate but together 32

Similarity- States that the greater the similarity of the stimuli greater is the tendency to perceive
them as a common group. For e.g. all the worker may be perceived to have the same opinions
about the management because they are grouped together on the basis of similarity.

Simplification
The perceiver subtracts less salient information and concentrates on important one. It makes the
things more understandable because the perceiver has been able to reduce the complexity by
eliminating some of the things which are less important.

Closure
When faced with incomplete information, people fill the gaps themselves to make the
information meaningful. This may be done on the basis of past experience, past data, or hunches.

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Do you see triangles that aren’t

“there”?

38

PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
• Attribution Theory
• Selective Perception
• Halo Effect
• Contrast Effects
• Projection
• Stereotyping
• First Impression

ATTRIBUTION THEORY
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or
externally caused.

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

• Fundamental Attribution Error

– The tendency to underestimate external factors and overestimate internal factors
when making judgments about others’ behaviour.

• Self-Serving Bias
– The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors while putting the
blame for failures on external factors.

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Attribution Theory

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience,
and attitudes.

Halo Effect-
Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.

CONTRAST EFFECTS –
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people
recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

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PROJECTION
The tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people.

STEREOTYPING –
Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs – a
prevalent and often useful, if not always accurate, generalization

FIRST IMPRESSION-
It consists of the first few seconds of an encounter in which an individual forms an opinion
positive or negative, about another.

BEHAVIOURAL APPLICATIONS OF PERCEPTION

Individual does not always perceive the events freely from the environment. She / he select the
stimuli from the environment which can satisfy her/ his needs, desires and expectations because
of the dominance of needs in individual. Individuals selects the stimuli on the basis of certain
guidelines which are termed as principles of perceptual selection. Here, each principle is not
significant alone in making perception. Basic principles of perceptual selection are discussed
below-

 Principle of intensity- According to intensity principle of perceptual selection, the more

intense the external stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceived. Loud sound, dark
colour, strong smell, bold and italic letters etc, are perceived more easily and quickly in
comparision to the soft sound, light colour, soft smell. This principle is used frequently in
advertisement like bright colour in packaging, loud sound in television commercials.
Supervisors sought loudly to get attention.

 Principle of size- the size principle of perceptual selection states that the large size of
stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceived. This means that the stimulus with larger
size is easily perceived than the stimulus having small size. Normally supervisors and
managers with large body size can command more strictly to their subordinates because
of positive perception of subordinates towards them. Large billboards are used in
advertisements to draw the attention of perceivers. Full page advertisements gets more
attention of readers.

 Principle of contrasts- contrast stands for dissimilarity or uniqueness against all other
stimulus or objects standing out. This principle states that stimulus which is different or
unique in comparision to the nearby and common objects, that will be perceived easily
and quickly. For example- person wearing different color dress in a group can perceive

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the attention. Employees with different sound or vision are perceived quickly. Likewise
the word DANGER written with red letter on white backgrounds draws quick attentions.

 Principle of novelty and familiarity- Novelty is newness and familiarity is commonness

or known to the perceiver. This principle states that perceiver perceive easily and quickly
to novel (new) or familiar stimulus depending upon circumstances. For instance, new
person in locality draws more attention while familiar face can easily be recognized. New
designs of vehicle or machine or dress can be perceived fast.

 Principle of repetition- Repetition or frequency plays vital role to select the perception.
Highly repeated stimulus gets more attention than none repeating or single one. For
example, producers or suppliers repeat advertising materials to their prospect customers
to get attention. Supervisors and managers give directions again and again to their
subordinates so that they can remember. Refreshment training are given to employee to
refresh the knowledge or skills of employees.

 Principle of Motion- This principle states that the moving objects draw more attention
than the stationary objects. For instance, advertisement of a car or motorcycle uses the
running (moving) state to attract perceivers. Likewise, trainers , teachers and supervisors
keep on moving while instructing or observing their trainees, students and subordinates
so that perceiver gets more attention on moving.

 Principle of learning motivation and personality- This principle states that individual
perceive the stimulus which compatible to their learning, motivation and personality.
Learning creates certain expectancy so that individual perceive in certain manner.
Motivation itself helps to draw attention towards stimulus and the personality affects the
way of perceiving the stimulus.

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