GALAXY

CLUSTERS

SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE

ACTIVE
GALAXIES

STAR-FORMING
REGIONS
EXOPLANETS

THE UNIVERSE
The Universe is vast beyond human imagination, a web of cosmic structure
encompassing billions of galaxies. Each galaxy – like our Milky Way – contains hundreds
of billions of stars, many of which are orbited by exoplanets. These stars are born from
giant gas clouds, and some die in explosive events, forming neutron stars and black
holes – giving us the rich diversity of objects we observe in our Universe.
 STARS EXOPLANETS GALAXIES
The pressures and temperatures in the core of a star through the Doppler effect in the starlight as the star The Local Group also contains our nearest neighbour
are so great that they drive nuclear fusion reactions, moves, rather than by seeing the star’s position change (more than 2 million light-years away!), a very similar
first burning hydrogen to form helium, and, if the star (Figure 2). This is called the ‘radial velocity’ technique spiral galaxy called Andromeda (M31) with which
is massive enough, then carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, and it gives us the planet’s mass, but not its diameter. the Milky Way is destined to merge (Figure 2). When
neon and silicon. Eventually, stars with masses over ten this happens, there will be a lot of disruption to both
Because most planets are not lined up just right, the
times greater than the Sun form black holes, although structures: tidal streams, warping, gas stripping, bouts of
radial velocity technique has given us the best picture
some undergo a catastrophic collapse, and a supernova rapid star formation to name a few. ‘We’ will undergo this
of the planets orbiting the Sun’s nearest neighbours.
explosion results, leaving behind a dense neutron star, as merging event in approximately 4.5 billion years, so you
The most common stars are redder and fainter than the
was the case in e.g. supernova SN1987a (Figure 1). needn’t worry about it too much for now!
Sun; most of the Sun’s close neighbours are like this.
Our Sun is an unremarkable yellow–orange star The Red Dots project is finding the closest exoplanets. The GAIA mission is now allowing astronomers to map
(Figure 2), yet we still cannot fully explain its inner It has already found seven low-mass exoplanets in our and study the details of the Milky Way like never before,
workings. Low-mass stars greatly outnumber high- neighbourhood, three of which are possibly potential with detailed measurements of almost 1.7 billion stars,
mass stars in the Milky Way. These red dwarfs may have habitats for life. It is very exciting to be alive as we start approximately 1% of all the stars in the Milky Way. This
masses only one-tenth that of the Sun but are ideal this profound exploration! means that GAIA is allowing astronomers to study the
candidates in the search for life-bearing exoplanets. Figure 1: An exoplanet transiting a Sun-like star. formation and evolution of the Milky Way and similar
spiral galaxies in unprecedented detail. With all our new
Figure 1: Messier 61 (or M61), a portrait of beauty: a
Figure 1: The aftermath of SN1987a.
A stronomers work with light, and planets do not
shine like stars. Almost all of the known exoplanets
were discovered indirectly through clues imprinted in
face-on spiral galaxy forming part of the Virgo cluster.
technology and rapid advances in our knowledge, what
wonders will be revealed, one can only imagine ...

T he life cycle of stars is a rich tapestry of chemistry

and physics; from their birth, in the coldest, darkest
regions of interstellar space; through the formation of
the starlight. There are two main ways that astronomers
do this work. G alaxies: a word we’re all familiar with, but how
much do you know and why should you care?
There are hundreds of billions of galaxies in the
planets; to the generation of elements via the nuclear The simpler way detects planets whose orbits are lined observable Universe and one is particularly important
fusion processes that power the stars, both in their up, so the planet passes directly between us and the star to us: the Milky Way, our home. The Milky Way is
‘middle age’ and in their death throes; from which (Figure 1). This is called a ‘transit’. We see transits when one of a great many spiral galaxies in the Universe
extreme and energetic endings, supernovae, neutron Venus or Mercury passes directly between the Earth and (Figure 1). It is composed of billions and billions of stars
stars and black holes emerge. the Sun. For exoplanets we don’t properly ‘see’ transits along with gas and dust. As well as spiral galaxies, we
because stars are so far away that all their light arrives can find other galaxy types: elliptical galaxies, lenticular
Stars are born within collapsing cores embedded in giant
as a single point, though this is blurred by the twinkling galaxies, irregulars to name a few.
molecular clouds. Dust grains in these clouds obscure the
effect of Earth’s atmosphere. But if the brightness of
visible light from ‘mature’ background stars in the same Galaxies are often found in groups or larger clusters and
the star is measured repeatedly, the star appears to get

THE UNIVERSE
region of the sky, as well as shrouding most newly forming our own Milky Way is no different, forming part of the
dimmer when the planet blocks some of the starlight.
stars from view. In the main STARS image above you can ‘Local Group’, roughly 10 million light-years in diameter.
The amount of light blocked tells us the diameter of the
identify a few bright regions of light along the ridge of the
planet compared to the star.
dusty filament; a glimpse of ‘baby’ stars heating the dust Along with the nearby Virgo cluster, our group forms
from within. By contrast, the ‘middle aged’ stars behind The second way astronomers detect planets is by part of the Virgo supercluster and that in turn is part
connect.open.ac.uk/theuniverse this star-forming cloud are easy to spot; you’ll notice that measuring the movement of the star due to the planet’s of Laniakea, an even bigger supercluster containing Figure 2: Crash of the Titans: Andromeda galaxy and
not all the stars are the same colour. Figure 2: The complex structure of the Sun’s surface. gravitational pull. The movement is measured indirectly Figure 2: A star and planet orbiting their centre of mass. approximately 100 000 galaxies! the Milky Way collision.

LEARNING WITH THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OU ACADEMICS

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S10 Certificate in Astronomy and itself. It allows you to learn about this topic The OU’s academics are some of the leading experts in their field. They apply their passion for their
Planetary Science just for interest before you commit yourself
The Open University (OU) is the UK’s largest research when preparing study materials which means that you get to learn from the best.
to further study. You can register and begin
academic community with over 170 000 This certificate covers basic astronomy
this course at any time and will have at
students and more than 120 qualifications and planetary science. You’ll study two
least six months to complete it.
Find out more about the OU academics who have worked on this television series and this poster:
in a range of fascinating and challenging broad themes of ‘Stars and Galaxies’ and
subjects. The OU has a flexible study method, ‘Multiwavelength Astronomy’. Learn how For more information visit
‘Supported Open Learning’ – it’s different to astronomers ‘measure’ the Universe – www.open.ac.uk/courses or call our DR JUDITH CROSTON DR HUGH DICKINSON
other learning methods because it combines considering spectroscopy, imaging, and Student Registration & Enquiry Service
one-to-one support with flexibility. You time-variability as observational tools. on 0300 303 5303 is a Senior Lecturer in Physical Sciences, is a Lecturer in Astronomy and
don’t have to put your life on hold to get the Learn about the formation and evolution with research interests in extragalactic works on all sorts of topics related to
qualification you need. Around 70% of our of the Solar System and other planetary For more information about Open University jets from black holes, galaxy clusters astrophysics. He started off searching
students fit study around their jobs and busy, systems. Consider how life arose on Earth, broadcasts and associated content, visit our and high-energy astrophysics. She for elusive Very High Energy (VHE)
changing lives. Wherever you study, your OU and whether life exists beyond Earth. website connect.open.ac.uk/theuniverse
is actively involved in planning for gamma-ray emission from X-ray
tutor, study advisers and other students are Q64 BSc (Honours) Natural Sciences Every effort has been made to contact major new international telescope binaries, and later investigated the
as close by as you need them to be – online, copyright holders. If any have been
inadvertently overlooked the publishers projects, including the Square Kilometre Array radio VHE emission from active galaxies with jets that point
email, phone and face-to-face. Study a specific science or pick and choose

BLACK HOLES THE UNIVERSE

from different scientific disciplines. Many will be pleased to make the necessary project and the European Space Agency’s future Athena straight towards us, which we call blazars. Nowadays,
For more information or to request a challenges facing society today involve
arrangements at the first opportunity. X-ray Observatory. Judith has leading involvement in OU Hugh researches how star formation in galaxies proceeded
prospectus visit: www.open.ac.uk/courses a cross-disciplinary approach. After a Published in 2021 by The Open University, teaching, particularly in topics on extragalactic astronomy. at different stages in the history of the Universe.
Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, to
wide-ranging introduction to highly topical
accompany the BBC/OU series Universe,
ACCESSIBLE areas of modern science you can focus on a BBC Studios production for the BBC,
a certain named area of science (such as and first broadcast on BBC TWO in 2021.
If you have little or no knowledge or
Astronomy and Planetary Science). Broadcast Commissioner for the OU:
experience of studying, the OU’s access DR HELEN FRASER PROFESSOR CAROLE HASWELL
modules are open to all and an ideal starting Dr Caroline Ogilvie
Two entry-level modules you can study Commissioning Editors for the BBC: is a Senior Lecturer in Astronomy is Head of Astronomy and researches
point. They have been specially designed be identified through the energetic X-rays that are spectacular star formation was fuelled by a continuous
to help you find out what it’s like to study on your pathway to a qualification within Jack Bootle and Tom Coveney and leads the OU Astrochemistry exoplanets, focusing on identifying
astronomy and space science are: Executive Producers for BBC Studios:
produced as matter falls into them and is heated to supply of hydrogen gas flowing in along filaments of a
with the OU, get a taste for the subjects we Research Group. Her research low-mass, probably rocky planets
offer, develop your study skills, build your Gideon Bradshaw & Andrew Cohen high temperatures. Most recently black holes have been cosmic web of gas and dark matter. This web connected orbiting bright nearby stars. She leads
SM123 Physics and space interests cover star and planet
confidence and prepare you for further study. Media Fellow for the OU: Dr Julia Cooke detected through gravitational waves (ripples in the coalescing groups and protoclusters of galaxies that formation and the potential for life the Dispersed Matter Planet Project
Here you’ll examine fundamental concepts Academic Consultants for the OU: fabric of spacetime), and the shadow of a black hole often collided spectacularly with one another. Gas that
For more information visit: in physics and the space sciences. You’ll Dr Judith Croston, Dr Hugh Dickinson, Dr Helen in the Universe. Helen combines (DMPP) which is announcing a steady
www.open.ac.uk/courses/do-it/access learn through solving physical science Fraser, Prof. Carole Haswell, Dr Ulrich Kolb, has been imaged directly by the Event Horizon didn’t form stars fell towards the centres of galaxies, observational astronomy with laboratory astrophysics and stream of particularly interesting new exoplanets which
problems while acquiring computer Prof. Andrew Norton, Prof. Stephen Serjeant, Telescope (Figure 2). helping to build the supermassive black holes that were theoretical chemistry to study the second most common will reveal the geology of rocky planets outside our own
Dr Sheona Urquhart
AFFORDABLE programming knowledge and practising forming there. molecule in space – water – and its role as the ‘glue’ in Solar System. Carole also leads the exoplanets provision
your maths skills. OU poster ‘The Universe’ Black holes can disrupt and digest nearby stars and gas, planet building, and as a catalyst for chemical complexity. within the OU curriculum.
Studying with the OU is more affordable than
S111 Questions in science Authors: Dr Judith Croston, Dr Hugh Dickinson, but in galaxies they also provide a way of transporting Today, most large galaxies have collected together into
you might think. You may even be able to Dr Helen Fraser, Prof. Carole Haswell, Prof.
study for free. For more information on all of Stephen Serjeant, Dr Sheona Urquhart
energy, affecting when and where stars form and how clusters and superclusters. They usually move around
This broad introductory science module is
the funding options available to you, please built around a series of questions, including Graphic Designer: Glen Darby galaxies change with time. Powerful jets and winds are each other in stable orbits within huge haloes of invisible
visit: www.open.ac.uk/fees ‘Why does the Sun shine?’ and ‘Is there life produced from matter falling onto black holes, which dark matter. These galaxies have used up most of the
Editor: Peter Twomey PROFESSOR STEPHEN SERJEANT DR SHEONA URQUHART
on Mars?’, teaches scientific thinking and Broadcast Project Manager: Clair Robinson drive shock waves outwards through a galaxy. We can gas they need to make new stars. In galaxies like our is Professor of Astronomy, specialising is a Staff Tutor in Physical Sciences
STUDY develops generic study skills, maths skills Senior Broadcast Project Manager: examine this interplay between black holes and the Milky Way only one or two new stars form every year
and investigative skills. in using ground-based and space and her areas of expertise are galaxy
The Open University offers a range of Caroline Green Figure 1: The orbit of a star close to the Milky Way’s galaxies where they live through images of the radio Figure 1: Hubble Space Telescope. and many other galaxies seem to have stopped forming telescopes to find warps in space and formation and evolution, and the
qualifications for those interested in Copyright © The Open University 2021 central supermassive black hole. waves and X-rays emitted by the jet material and its stars completely. large-scale structure of the Universe
Alternatively, if you are not quite ready for time (called ‘gravitational lenses’) and
astronomy and space science: All rights reserved. No part of this publication
an OU qualification, why not study one of surroundings (main BLACK HOLES image above). to work out how galaxies formed their (including gravitational lensing). She

B T
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval lack holes are regions of space and time from which he further away an object is, the longer it takes the
R51 BSc (Honours) Physics our stand-alone short courses: system, or transmitted in any form or by any stars early in the Universe. He works works with data from all parts of the
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, neither matter nor light can escape. Many individual light from that object to reach us. When we look at in particular in infrared astronomy, delving into the ‘dark EM spectrum: X-ray, optical, sub-mm, radio, UV, IR using
Develop knowledge and skills to explore SG077 Science: galaxies,
stars and planets
recording or otherwise without the prior black holes have been identified through astronomical nearby objects, we see them as they were in the recent sides’ of galaxies that are hidden to optical telescopes. the most advanced telescope technology we have, both
the smallest and largest scales of the permission of the copyright holders.
Universe. Apply the concepts of classical observations, and most fall into two categories, either past, but more distant objects appear to us as they were Stephen explores giant data sets with artificial intelligence, ground and space-based. Sheona is also the Astronomy
Develop your understanding of a wide Enquiries regarding extracts or the re-use of
physics, quantum physics and relativity to range of topics in astronomy by exploring any information in this publication, email: star-sized, containing a mass around eight to a few tens millions or even billions of years ago. For astronomers, as well as with the help of citizen scientists. Secretary for the Royal Astronomical Society.
study radiation and matter, from subatomic the fascinating science behind our [email protected] of solar masses, or ‘supermassive’, containing millions the world’s most powerful telescopes are like cosmic
particles to supermassive black holes. Universe, studying galaxies, stars and The Open University is incorporated by Royal of times more matter than a single star. All galaxies, time machines that let us study how the Universe and
This Institute of Physics accredited degree planets. This 100-hour flexible online Charter (RC 000391), an exempt charity in
allows you to acquire experimental skills England & Wales, and a charity registered in including our own Milky Way, are now thought to the objects in it have assembled and evolved throughout
course covers the exploration of our Solar
with our award-winning remote experiments System; the discovery of planets orbiting Scotland (SC 038302). The Open University contain such a supermassive black hole at the centre. cosmic time.
and access our own robotic telescopes
in Tenerife.
other stars; the birth, life and violent death
of stars; and the creation of the Universe
is authorised and regulated by the Financial
Conduct Authority.
Despite not being able to see inside a black hole, In 2016, astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope
MAKE THE INVISIBLE VISIBLE
astronomers can find black holes through several (Figure 1) detected a faint dwarf galaxy called GN-z11,
Help us in the hunt for hidden black holes
methods. In the case of the black hole at the centre which contains some of the first stars that ever formed
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Mark Garlick/Science Photo Library; NASA; ESO/L. Calçada, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/; NASA/ESA, Z. Levay and R.
in the Universe. Their light had been travelling for more Join in with real astronomy research and help to find very rare signals
van der Marel (STScI) and A. Mellinger; Pablo Carlos Budassi, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en; ESA; ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), P. Cigan of the Milky Way, astronomers have monitored the
and R. Indebetouw; NRAO/AUI/NSF, B. Saxton; NASA/ESA; NASA, ESA, S. Baum and C. O’Dea (RIT), R. Perley and W. Cotton (NRAO/AUI/NSF), and the Hubble
than 13.4 billion years before we detected it! Objects that are produced by hidden black holes in the Milky Way. If these black
Heritage Team (STScI/AURA); Hubble, NASA, ESA; ESO/M. Kornmesser, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/; NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center; ESO/ orbits of nearby stars over several decades (Figure 1)
like GN-z11 (Figure 2) were the progenitors and building holes pass in front of a normal star, their strong gravity acts like a lens
Sergey Stepanenko; ESO/N. Bartmann/spaceengine.org; NASA/CXC/Penn State/B.Luo et al.; ESA/Gaia/DPAC, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO; ESO, https://creativecommons.org/ – these orbits reveal the presence of several million
licenses/by/4.0/; X-ray: NASA/CXC/Univ. of Hertfordshire/M. Hardcastle et al.; Radio: CSIRO/ATNF/ATCA; NASA/Event Horizon Telescope collaboration et al; ESO/
blocks of the galaxies we see in the Universe today. and magnifies its light. We need volunteer CITIZEN SCIENTISTS to help
APEX (MPIfR/ESO/OSO)/A. Hacar et al./Digitized Sky Survey 2. Davide De Martin. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ; Shutterstock Sun’s worth of invisible matter.
us hunt for signs of this ‘gravitational lensing’ effect. All you need is
Similar methods of studying how gas rotates in the Ten billion years ago, the Universe was a violent place. access to the internet. To find out more and get involved, visit
centre of other galaxies provide strong evidence Observations reveal that large galaxies had assembled zooniverse.org/projects/hughdickinson/superwasp-black-hole-hunters
To discover more about the Universe visit Printed in the UK by Belmont Press Ltd. that a black hole is present. Black holes can also Figure 2: The shadow of a supermassive black hole. that were forming hundreds of stars every year. This Figure 2: GN-z11 an artist’s impression.
connect.open.ac.uk/theuniverse SUP 047657