The Application of Sweep Frequency Response

Analysis for the Online Monitoring of Power

Transformers
Hossein Rahimpour Steve Mitchell Joe Tusek
The University of Newcastle The University of Newcastle Aurecon Australasia Pty Ltd
Aurecon Australasia Pty Ltd Ampcontrol Pty Ltd Newcastle, Australia
Newcastle, Australia Newcastle, Australia [email protected]
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract— Frequency response analysis (FRA) is a technique Offline FRA, which has been widely used for commissioning
used to diagnose the mechanical integrity of a transformer and condition monitoring. However, the interpretation and
winding; such diagnostic tools can be of enormous value since assessment of the results remains of research interest due to the
power transformers are a critical asset within any electrical sensitivity of the test to many different parameters [1]-[4].
network. To minimize the probability of an unexpected outage,
or prevent a catastrophic failure, maintenance and monitoring of Online FRA has the potential to be an integral part of a
power transformers is essential for utilities. Over the past couple smart grid asset management strategy. Cost minimization
of decades, FRA has been utilized as an off-line diagnosis drivers in utility company’s make desirable the replacement of
method. However, with the recent development in smart grid time based routine maintenance with condition based
systems, there is now a growing interest in the development of monitoring using automated monitoring and interpretation.
on-line FRA techniques. This paper proposes a technique for in- Online FRA has been a research topic over the past decade. In
service monitoring of power transformer winding deformation, the early stages, development of online FRA focused on
which uses a broad frequency sine wave voltage excitation signal Impulse FRA (IFRA) with uncontrolled signals, which occur in
and high frequency Current Transformers (CT) in conjunction nature like lightning or produced by switching in the power
with the bushings test taps. Experiments using this system were system. Since the frequency content of these signals is not
conducted and then validated on a single-phase 22kV/110V controlled, it typically requires a significant time and effort to
voltage transformer.
capture enough useful data for analysis.
Index Terms—Frequency Response, Power Transformers, Some of the researchers [5]-[9] favor the IFRA method
Transformer Diagnosis, Online Monitoring, Bushing Tap using transients from the network or injected signals. To obtain
Injection the response curve from the signals the common signal-
processing tools of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and Wavelet
I. INTRODUCTION Transform (WT) are typically used.
Frequent monitoring of power transformers in power A review of online FRA literature shows that in this
stations and substations is a preventive action to reduce the risk application there has been little interest in using Sweep
of in-service failures and outages. Conventional test methods Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) for in-service
are often unable to detect mechanical deformations of the monitoring [10]-[13]. SFRA has the benefit of facilitating a
windings, except in severe cases. Short circuit impedance better signal to noise ratio and can produce almost constant
testing gives information about the winding only at power accuracy across the wide frequency range and there is a
frequency. FRA is a powerful tool, which gives comprehensive reduced need for complex signal processing. Therefore,
information on the winding mechanical structure and also the development of SFRA for an online application could be of
core and clamping structure. This is important as even slight significant benefit to industry.
winding deformation in the winding can develop into a failure
of the transformer under fault conditions. Any changes in the One of the challenges of in-service FRA is the need to have
active part of the transformer structure will cause relative safe access to the measurement points and safe operation of
changes in the internal inductive and capacitive network of the equipment when the transformer is energized. In addition, the
winding, resulting in changes in the frequency response of the measurement scenario is one where the transformer is
transformer. A variety of methodologies have been developed connected to the rest of the power grid (source, load, switches,
to measure the frequency response of a transformer including etc.). Thus when determining the response, it is the response of

978-1-5090-1405-7/16/$31.00 ©2016 Crown

the combined system that is measured and not just that of the transients. It is the primary focus of this research that the
transformer, which leads to complexity in interpretation. tapping point be grounded when the transformer is in service.
To overcome the network’s power frequency noise, To emulate a bushing on the 22kV/110V transformer for
measurements at high frequency are proposed, which have the research purposes, a capacitive bushing model was developed,
potential to form part of a permanent monitoring system. Fig. 1. The capacitive bushing model was constructed by
Conducting the measurements through the bushing taps rather considering the ratio of bushing C1 and C2 capacitance. The
than the bushing terminals also makes it feasible and safer, for C1 capacitance which is the main capacitance of the bushing
the staff performing the test. was chosen from typical bushing parameters to be 160pF and
the bushing tap capacitance of C2 was selected to be 1600pF
To perform the measurements, high frequency Current (ratio of 1:10). For a healthy bushing the ratio remains constant
Transformers (CT) are applied at the injection and over a very wide frequency range and therefore can be used at
measurement points. The signals are applied and measured higher frequencies to capture the frequency response of a
through bushing tap couplers. In one configuration the bushing transformer.
tap is used as a voltage divider with a constant ratio over a
wide frequency band. Overall, this method provides for safe
ground level access to perform in-service FRA.

II. ONLINE MONITORING OF POWER TRANSFORMER

A. Methodology
Bushing tap injection techniques utilizing voltage sensors
and current probes were considered by Setayeshmehr [10] and
other researchers [11]-[13]. To date there has not been a
practical solution or industrial application for the bushing tap
Figure 1. Capacitive Bushing Model
injection method. The method proposed in this paper has the
potential to form the basis of an in-service application. The
non-invasive test arrangement will facilitate a permanent C. High Frequency Current Transformers
monitoring system on a power transformer which is sensitive The research in this paper proposes the use of high
to small changes in the insulation and winding condition. This frequency CTs around a supplementary conductor grounding
is achieved by taking into account the influence of the the bushing tap. High frequency CTs are placed around the
connected network on the measured frequency responses. This bushing tap earth on all capacitive bushings before putting the
includes the impact of capacitive coupling between the lines transformer into service. To measure winding responses, two
[14], reflections, transformer load and any change in tap CTs associated with two bushings are used, as an injection and
position. measurement point.
A very low voltage sine wave with a frequency range from Parameters of the two high frequency CTs used in this
1kHz to 2MHz can be used as the stimulus. The reason for this research are given in Table I. However, the parameters of the
bandwidth selection is to avoid the noise below 1kHz and the combined performance of CTs in the circuit depends on to be
very high sensitivity above 2MHz associated with measuring at injection or measurement points were different. Using the
leads and earthing techniques. For evaluating the results in this CT at the injection point returns the response given in Fig. 2
paper, this research will focus on the frequency band 100kHz with the frequency band > 1kHz (-10dB). Using the same CT
to 1MHz which has been found to be the most useful frequency at the measurement point returns the response given in Fig. 3
band for an online application. with frequency band > 7kHz (6dB).
B. Capacitive Bushing
Most high voltage power transformers have capacitive
bushings with tapping points suitable for conventional
Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF) measurements, Partial
TABLE I. PARAMETERS OF HIGH FREQUENCY CT
Discharge (PD) testing and bushing power factor monitoring.
The tapping point also provides an access point for the online Type
Transfer ratio Primary Bandwidth Bandwidth
FRA signal injection or the corresponding measurement point at 50Ω window at -3dB at -6dB
CT1 1:10 15 mm 0.5 – 80 MHz 0.3 – 100 MHz
for the response signal. The tapping point can be formed into a
capacitive divider, which provides for a voltage reduction.
Alternatively the point can be grounded to ensure that the
voltage at the tapping point does not exceed limits during
 through the associated bushing tap. At the measurement end,
the response signal from the bushing tap is amplified by ratio
20
of 3:10 to restore the amplitude for simpler comparison. As a
0
default, the instrument measures the signal across a 50Ω
-20
resistance.
TR1/dB

-40
Fig. 9 shows the zoomed view of the responses in the
-60
frequency band 100kHz to 2MHz. When comparing the setup
-80
B response to the setup A response, the resonance points
-100
102 103 104 105 106 stayed the same at frequencies above 100 kHz but the anti-
f/Hz
TR1: Mag(Gain) resonance points either moved or disappeared. There is also an
approximately 13 dB drop in the magnitude of the response
Figure 2. Response of the injection CT and this is due to the high impedance of the bushing tap, which
is more dominant at lower frequencies.
When comparing the setup C response (CT plus bushing
20
tap) to setup B response (bushing tap) on the frequency axis
0
and above 100 kHz, the resonance and anti-resonance points
-20
stayed the same. There is also an approximately 33 dB (max)
TR1/dB

-40 drop in the magnitude of the response and this is due to the
-60 extra impedance that the CTs and bushing taps introduced to
-80 the circuit.
-100
102 103
f/Hz
104 105 106 However, for an online FRA measurement the baseline will
TR1: Mag(Gain) be the measurement taken from the CTs through the bushing
taps (Setup C). Any fault or change in the winding changes the
Figure 3. Response of the measurement CT
response and the comparison of this against the baseline will be
indicative of a fault.

D. Test Object and experiments

A single phase 22kV/110V, 10VA voltage transformer was
used to evaluate the feasibility of the proposed method, Fig. 4.
The LV winding of this transformer was used as the test
winding due to the number of resonance points appearing in
the response. Capacitive bushing models were placed on the
two LV terminals, to simulate the real bushings of a power
transformer.
As the first step, the circuit was setup as shown in Fig. 5
(setup A) and the frequency response of the LV winding was
measured on the bushing terminals. This is the most common
way of performing an offline FRA in the factory and on site.
The results for setup A are shown in red in Fig. 8.
The second step in the experiments was setup B as shown
in Fig. 6, where the measurement was performed via the
bushing taps. The signal was injected into the bushing tap at
Figure 4. Experimental setup in the lab
the bottom end of the winding and the response signal
measured from the bushing tap at the top of the winding. The
response of this measurement is shown as the green trace in
Fig. 8.
Setup C in Fig. 7, measures the frequency response of the
LV winding through the CTs and bushing taps, which is the
proposed method for an online measurement. Transfer ratio of
CTs is 1:10 and having 3 turns on the primary of the CT gives
a ratio of 3:10. The signal was injected into the secondary of
the first CT and the attenuated signal (by ratio of 10:3) goes
 Setup A

Setup B

Setup C

Figure 8. LV windng response of 22kV/110V transformer

Figure 5. FRA measured on bushing terminals (Setup A)

Figure 9. Zoomed responses from 100kHz to 2 MHz

Figure 6. FRA measured on bushing taps (Setup B)

E. Sensitivity of the response to load condition

To enable reproducible results, a good understanding of the
sensitivity parameters associated with FRA are required. Since
the measurements are performed at higher frequencies above
100kHz, the response won’t be affected by core magnetization
or demagnetization. In addition, this ensures the low frequency
transformer and system noise does not affect the results.
Load condition influences are a concern for in-service FRA
measurements. To investigate the effect of loads a series of
experiments has been performed on a 22kV transformer under
different load conditions. Resistive and inductive loads were
applied to the secondary winding (HV) of the transformer and
the changes to the responses investigated; the results are
Figure 7. FRA measured through the CTs and bushing taps (Setup C) summarized in Table II.

TABLE II. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT LOAD CONDITION

Load 330Ω 33Ω 48mH
Impact on FRA Negligible Negligible Negligible
 knowledge of the factors that affect the frequency response is
essential in the application of the method. Table III, lists some
of the factors that can affect the response and Table IV and V
lists some of the failure modes and the sub bands for detection
[15]. As per the Table IV most mechanical failure modes are
detectable in the recommended frequency band in this
research.
When looking into the relationship of the FRA plot and the
physical elements of a transformer, the sub band 3kHz –
200kHz shows a direct relationship with interactions between
the windings. This means any change in the leakage inductance
of the windings or in the parallel capacitance of the windings
with respect to the core and its mutual couplings, will affect the
response. The 200kHz – 1MHz band is sensitive to the series
Figure 10. Load application impact on FRA capacitances in the transformer RLC network.

The load related impact on FRA has been experimentally TABLE III. FACTORS AFFECTING THE REPEATABILITY IN SUB-BANDS [15]
investigated on the transformer used in this research and only

 
slight changes in the FRA were detected in the frequency band 3kHz – 200kHz 200kHz – 1MHz 1Mz – 2MHz
of 100kHz to 2MHz. Temperature

Moisture  
F. Sensitivity of the response to input signal Tap Changer
  
 
Position

Using the proposed setup C circuit, the excitation signal Tertiary winding


was injected into the first CT’s secondary with the earthing
strap passing through the CT core between the DDF point and Bushings 


earth. By increasing the number of turns of the lead through Measurement
the core of the CT it was observed that the magnitude of the leads
signal follows the number of turns. Fig. 11, shows the result of Oil level   
changing the number of turns from 3 to 9, showing good
linearity. TABLE IV. MECHANICAL FAILURE MODE AND SUB BAND DETECTION
[15]
3kHz – 200kHz 200kHz – 1MHz 1Mz – 2MHz
Radial

 
compression
failure
(Buckling in inner
windings)

 
Hoop tension
failure (Buckling


in outer windings)
Tilt in conductors

 
Axial collapse
(Telescoping
failure)
Break of clamping


Figure 11. Input signal effect on FRA plates
Loose clamping

 
G. Discussion
Spiral tightening
This research work focused on SFRA and its potential to
  
Shifted regulating
become the preferred online monitoring tool for winding winding
deformation and movement in power transformers.

leads
Changes in the RLC network [15] of the transformer will Distorted leads
affect the response and will be a part of the indications. A good
 [2] Z. Wang, J. Li and D. M. Sofian, "Interpretation of Transformer FRA
Responses-Part I: Influence of Winding Structure," IEEE Transactions
on power delivery, vol. 24, No. 2, Apr. 2009.
TABLE V. ELECTRICAL FAILURE MODE AND SUB BAND DETECTION [15]
3kHz – 200kHz 200kHz – 1MHz 1Mz – 2MHz [3] S. D. Mitchell and J. S. Welsh, "Modeling Power Transformers to

 
Support the Interpretation of Frequency-Response Analysis," IEEE
Ungrounded
Transactions on power delivery, vol. 26, No. 4, OCT. 2011.
electromagnetic
screen

 
[4] H. Firoozi, M. Kharezi, H. Rahimpour and M. Shams, "Transformer
Multiple core
Fault Diagnosis using Frequency Response Analysis - Practical


grounding
Studies," Power and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC), pp. 1-
Open circuit   4, Mar. 2011.

High impedance    [5] K. Feser, J. Christian, C. Neumann, U. Sundermann, T. Leibfried, A.

Kachler, and M. Loppacher, "The transfer function method for detection
of winding displacements on power transformers after transport, short
III. CONCLUSION circuit or 30 years of service," in CIGRE, Paris, France, 2000.
Offline FRA requires the transformer to be isolated from the [6] M. Wang, "Winding Movement and Condition Monitoring of Power
network and an outage to be arranged and this imposes costs Transformers in Service," Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Elect. Comput. Eng.,
and risk on utilities. Online FRA helps with reducing the Univ. British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2003.
outage costs and having a permanent monitoring system on
[7] L. Coffeen, J. McBride, N.Woldemariam, J. Benach, and L. V. D. Zel,
transformers ensures that the earliest possible indication of "An on-line Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) update," TechCon
adverse winding conditions is identified. Sweep frequency pp. 129–151, 2009.
response measurement through high frequency CTs using the
bushing DDF points, has been shown in this paper to have the [8] E. Gómez-Luna, G. Aponte, C. Gonzalez-Garcia and J. Pleite, "Current
Status and Future Trends in Frequency-Response Analysis With a
potential to be used for an online FRA measurement system. Transformer in Service," IEEE Transactions on power delivery, Aug.
2012.
To implement this method on an in-service power
[9] C. Yao, Z. Zhao, Y. Chen, X. Zhao, Z. Li, Y. Wang, Z. Zhou and G.
transformer some additional elements need to be added. For Wei, "Transformer Winding Deformation Diagnostic System Using
safe operation of the instrumentation and the safety of the Online High Frequency Signal Injection by Capacitive Coupling," IEEE
personnel, a protection circuit and a filter for the power grid Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Vol. 21, No. 4,
Aug. 2014.
high voltage 50Hz component needs to be considered [13]. As
an alternative to the 50Hz filter, an impedance could be placed [10] A. Setayeshmehr, H. Borsi, E. Gockenbach and I. Fofana, "On-line
in parallel with bushing tap to reduce the voltage level at the monitoring of transformer via transfer function," IEEE Electr. Insul.
point of connection. To maintain signal quality a source with Conf. (EIC), pp. 278-282, 2009.
higher voltages will help to increase signal to noise ratio. [11] S. Gopalakrishna, V. Jayashankar, K. V. Jagadeesh, and N.M.Mohan,
Further research needs to be conducted on the proposed "Online assessment of winding deformation based on optimised
method to realize the system and ensure its robustness in the excitation," in Proc. IEEE Int. Workshop Appl. Meas. Power Syst.,
2010, pp. 84–89.
face of lighting and switching surges and for operation in
outdoor environments, with continuous exposure to the [12] V. Behjat, A. Vahedi, A. Setayeshmehr, H. Borsi, and E. Gockenbach,
elements. "Diagnosing shorted turns on the windings of power transformers based
upon online FRA using capacitive and inductive couplings,"
ACKNOWLEDGMENT IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 2123–2133, Oct. 2011.

The authors would like to thank Sam Murali and Geoff [13] T. De Rybel, A. Singh, A. J. Vandermaar, M. Wang, J. R. Marti, and K.
Bateman from Aurecon for their support and thank Aurecon D. Srivastava, "Apparatus for Online Power Transformer Winding
Monitoring Using Bushing Tap Injection," IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
for providing of test equipment. Vol. 24, pp. 996-1003, 2009.

[14] R. Wimmer, S. Tenbohlen, K. Feser "Online Monitoring of a

transformer by means of FRA," 15th International Symposium on High
REFERENCES Voltage Engineering (ISH), Ljubljana, Aug. 2007, T7-524.

[1] R. Wimmer, S. Tenbohlen, M. Heindl, A. Kraetge, M. Kruger, and J. [15] J. L. Velásquez Contreras, M. A. Sanz-Bobi, M. Gutiérrez and A.
Christian, "Development of an Algorithm to Assess the FRA," 15th Alexander, "Knowledge Bases for the Interpretation of the Frequency
International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Aug. 2007. Response Analysis of Power Transformers," Nov. 2009: p. 6.