Cells and Tissues

Siva Prasad
 Cells
• Cells are the fundamental units of life
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
 Plasma/Cell Membrane
• Outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its
external environment

• Electively permeable membrane

• Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell
membrane by a process called diffusion

• Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water molecules
through such a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis

• The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules

called lipids and proteins.
 Cell Wall
• Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer
covering called the cell wall.

• Mainly composed of cellulose

• Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural strength to the

plants

• Because of their walls, plant cells can withstand much greater changes in
the surrounding medium than animal cells.
 Nucleus
• The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane. The
nuclear membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material from
inside the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the cytoplasm

• The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped

structures only when the cell is about to divide.

• Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents

to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.

• Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.

 Nucleus

• DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and

organising cells. Functional segments of DNA are called genes.

• In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin

material. Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like
structures.

• Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets

organised into chromosomes.
 Cytoplasm

• The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.

• It also contains many specialised cell organelles. Each of these organelles

performs a specific function for the cell.
 Cell Organelles
• Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate
from the external environment.

• Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms,

need a lot of chemical activities to support their complicated structure and
function.

• To keep these activities of different kinds separate from each other, these
cells use membrane-bound little structures (or ‘organelles’) within
themselves.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Two Types of ER - Rough ER (RER) and Smooth ER (SER)

• RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called

ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes, which are present in all
active cells, are the sites of protein manufacture.

• The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for
cell function. Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell
membrane. This process is known as membrane biogenesis
 Golgi apparatus
• The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to
various targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.

• Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products

in vesicles.

• In some cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the
Golgi apparatus.

• The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes

 Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. Lysosomes help
to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out
cell organelles.

• Foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as well as old
organelles end up in the lysosomes, which break them up into small pieces.

• Lysosomes are able to do this because they contain powerful digestive

enzymes capable of breaking down all organic material.

• During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example, when the cell
gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell.
Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.

• The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is
released by mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate)
molecules.

• ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.

• The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical
compounds and for mechanical work

• They have their own DNA and Ribosomes; (Current Affairs- 3 parent baby)
 Plastids
• Present only in plant cell

• Two types of plastids – chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and leucoplasts

(white or colourless plastids).

• Plastids containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts.

• Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils

and protein granules are stored

• Plastids have their own DNA and ribosomes

 Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.

• Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large
vacuoles

• In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity
to the cell.

• Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored in
vacuoles. These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and
some proteins. .
 Tissues
• Cells specialising in one function are often grouped together in the body.
This means that a particular function is carried out by a cluster of cells at a
definite place in the body.

• This cluster of cells, called a tissue, is arranged and designed so as to

give the highest possible efficiency of function.

• Blood, phloem and muscle are all examples of tissues.

• A group of cells that are similar in structure and/or work together to

achieve a particular function forms a tissue.
 Meristematic tissues
• The growth of plants occurs only in certain specific regions. This is
because the dividing tissue, also known as meristematic tissue, is located
only at these points. D

• epending on the region where they are present, meristematic tissues are
classified as apical, lateral and intercalary

•
 Permanent tissues

• Cells formed by meristematic tissue take up a specific role and lose the
ability to divide. As a result, they form a permanent tissue.

• This process of taking up a permanent shape, size, and a function is

called differentiation.

• Cells of meristematic tissue differentiate to form different types of

permanent tissue.
 Simple permanent tissues
• Parenchyma - This tissue provides support to plants and also stores
food.

• In some situations, it contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis,

and then it is called chlorenchyma.

• In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give

buoyancy to the plants to help them float. Such a parenchyma type is
called aerenchyma.

• The parenchyma of stems and roots also stores nutrients and water.
 Simple permanent tissues

• The flexibility in plants is due to another permanent tissue, collenchyma.

It allows easy bending in various parts of a plant (leaf, stem) without
breaking. It also provides mechanical support to plants.

• Sclerenchyma: It is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff.
 Complex permanent tissues

• Complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells. All these cells
coordinate to perform a common function

• Examples - Xylem and Phloem

• They are both conducting tissues and constitute a vascular bundle

 Epithelial tissues

• The covering or protective tissues in the animal body are epithelial tissues.

• Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body.

• It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.

• The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli
and kidney tubules are all made of epithelial tissue.
 Connective tissues

• Blood is na example of connective tissues. Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix

called plasma, in which red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs)
and platelets are suspended. The plasma contains proteins, salts and
hormone

• Bone is another example of a connective tissue

• Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of connective

tissue called the ligament. This tissue is very elastic.
 Connective tissues

• Tendons connect muscles to bones and are another type of connective

tissue. Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.

• Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around
blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow
 Muscular Tissues

• Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells, also called muscle fibres. This
tissue is responsible for movement in our body.

• Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which

contract and relax to cause movement.
 Nervous Tissues

• All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli. However, cells of the
nervous tissue are highly specialised for being stimulated and then
transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one place to another within the
body.

• The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the nervous tissue.
The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or neurons.
Neurons