Philippine Sanitation Code

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iii Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid
ABBREVIATIONS
BOD biochemical oxygen demand
C Carbon
CHB concrete hollow blocks
CI cast iron
cm. centimeter(s)
Conc. concrete
DA Department of Agriculture
DAO Department Administrative Order
DENR Department of Environment
and Natural Resources
DN nominal diameter
dia - diameter
DO dissolved oxygen
DOH Department of Health
DPWH Department of Public Works
and Highways
Ecosan ecological sanitation
EIA environmental impact assessment
FeCl
3
Ferric chloride
ft. foot/feet
F/M food to microorganism
GI galvanized iron
ha hectare(s)
hp - horsepower
kg. kilogram(s)
km. kilometer(s)
LGU local government unit
m. meter(s)
mg/l milligram(s) per liter
MLSS mixed liquor suspended solids
MLVSS mixed liquor volatile suspended
solids
mm. millimeter(s)
m
3
cubic meter(s)
N Nitrogen
P or Php Philippine peso
PD Presidential Decree
PVC polyvinyl chloride
RBC rotating biological contactor
RC reinforced concrete
SBR sequencing batch reactor
SOP standard operating procedure
sq.m./m
2
square meter(s)
TSS total suspended solids
UASB upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
UDDT urine diversion dehydration toilet
US EPA United States Environmental Protection
Agency
UV ultraviolet
C degrees Celsius
% percent
iv
FOREEWORD
Inadequate sanitation threatens the sustainability of the Philippine environment and the health of Filipinos. uate sanit
Twenty-five Filipinos die of diarrhea everyday and sanitation-related epidemics have broken out over the last nty-five Filipi
few years in low income communities. Water quality monitoring assessments show that pollution of water is a w years in
direct result of the lack of sanitation facilities. ect result This results in over Php 67 billion in estimated annual losses to the
economy in avoidable health care costs and losses in tourism and fisheries receipts. onomy in
The Philippines Clean Water Act (R.A 9275), passed last year, is a quintessential piece of legislation that was
designed to address the interlinked problems of water quality, pollution prevention and control and sanitation.
The law calls for a comprehensive and integrated approach to water management and overturns the prevailing
policy that sanitation is merely a household responsibility. It directs national and local governments to work
together in ensuring adequate provision of municipal sanitation systems. It calls for a strategic approach to
planning and managing water resources within a basin, which includes the institution of systems and regulations
related to wastewater management. It complements other laws and policies, such as the Sanitation Code (PD 856),
already in place for many years.
One of the key sector limitations, however, is the gap in knowledge and experience among policy-makers and
the handful of sanitation practitioners, both at national and local levels, on strategic sanitation planning and
alternative options for sanitation, wastewater collection and treatment. Between the on-site combination of a
toilet and septic tank system and the traditional sewerage and treatment systems, a vacuum of information
exists on other options available and their relative performance. Information on the sanitation and wastewater
management requirements of varying types of communities and user-enterprises is also lacking. These missing
pieces of information are necessary to underpin strategic sanitation planning.
This Sanitation Sourcebook is a first attempt at addressing the gap in information about sanitation and
wastewater management, as well as about the considerations related to planning for sanitation projects in
different types of environment. It distills some of the core concepts of sanitation in a user-friendly format so
that the book can serve as a practical reference to sanitation professionals and investment decision-makers,
particularly the local governments.
In putting together this important reference, the Government of the Philippines has been supported by the
Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific of the World Bank, the German Technical Cooperation TT
Agency and the Government of Australia. Their support and guidance, along with those of the peer reviewers
who have contributed professionally to this book, are much appreciated. We look forward to the application of
the knowledge embodied in this book towards the improvement of sanitation throughout the country.
Michael T. Defensor Dr. Francisco Duque III, MSc Lorenzo H. Jamora
Secretary Secretary Administrator
Department of Environment Department of Health Local Water Utilities
and Natural Resources Administration
v Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid
FOREWORD
Sanitation presents one of the most significant service delivery challenges related to poverty alleviation and
sustainable development in the Philippines. A review of the urban sewerage and sanitation sector through
the Water Supply and Sanitation Performance Enhancement Project ( WPEP) confirmed the prolonged lack of
investment in the sector and the deteriorating quality of sewerage and on-site sanitation facilities throughout
the Philippines. Except in parts of Metro Manila and a handful of cities, the lack of sewerage and other sanitation
services leaves the population with few options for safe excreta and wastewater disposal.
High hygiene awareness among urban and rural residents, even among the poor, is not translated to effective
demand or health-benefiting practices due in part to the sheer lack of options to improve their access to
sanitation services. Financing conventional sanitation improvements is viewed by local governments and
enterprise managers to be too expensive and beyond their reach.
Consequently, an overwhelming majority are excluded from service, while affluent and middle income urban
residents depend on self-provided toilet and septic tank systems. Exclusive housing estates and other commercial
establishments sometimes invest in independent sewerage and communal septic tank systems. But dependence
on self-provision results in a reduction of the potential revenue base of sanitation service providers. In addition,
the efficacy of such systems is not monitored well and, in many cases, offer only inadequate primary treatment of
wastewater. The poor have even fewer options.
The Sanitation Sourcebook aims to stimulate effective demand for sanitation services by presenting tools for
strategic decision-making around a wider range of more affordable sanitation options. It also hopes to stimulate
informed investment decisions by local governments to ensure more sustainable outcomes. Thus, it features
environment-friendly and affordable decentralized solutions.
Interest in sanitation and information on such solutions were demonstrated during the highly successful 1st
International Symposium on Low-Cost Technology Options for Water Supply and Sanitation in Bohol in 2004. This
event was also jointly organized by our agencies to ignite and facilitate dialogue among stakeholders, users and
different donor organizations in the sector.
We, the international support agencies involved in the development of this Sourcebook are very pleased with the
ownership of and inputs from the national government agencies that have worked with us on this project, as
well as with the strong partnership among the various donors, sanitation professionals in the peer review panel
and the Philippine Ecological Sanitation Network, and with the collaborating sanitation investment projects and
organizations. Collaboration and partnership have been the mark of this project from its inception, and we hope
that this will continue into the future
Andreas Kanzler Angus Macdonald Richard W. Pollard
Country Director Counsellor Regional Team Leader
German Technical Cooperation Development Cooperation Water and Sanitation Program
Agency Government of Australia - East Asia and the Pacic
The World Bank
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This Sourcebook was developed and written through the collaboration of sanitation practitioners in the
Philippines and abroad.
The Sourcebook Project Team members are: Mr. Renato Cruz and Ms. Michico Venus Navaluna (Environmental
Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources), Mr. EdKarl Galing (GTZ Water and
Sanitation Program), Engr. Jose Roncesvalles ( Water Resources Division of the Local Water Utilities Administration),
Dr. Robert Sadang and Engr. Lito Riego de Dios (Office of Environmental Health of the Department of Health),
Engr. Virgilio Sahagun (Consultant Team Leader), Mr. Roy Luis, Engr. Antonio Kaimo, Ms. Rebecca Fuellos and Engr.
Marielieza Matibag (Radian Consulting, Inc.), and Ms. Leila Elvas and Ms. Jema Sy ( Task Team Leader) ( Water and
Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific).
Valuable inputs were provided by a peer review committee composed of the members of the Philippine
Ecological Sanitation Network (PEN): Ms. Lizette Cardenas (Solid Waste Management Association of the
Philippines), Mr. Frank Fladerer, Mr. Hendra Gupta and Mr. Rudy Coronel (Bremen Overseas Research and
Development Association), Mr. Danilo Lapid and Mr. Leodegario de Castro (Center for Advanced Philippine
Studies), Ms. Roselita Paloma (House of Representatives Committee on Ecology), Prof. Gerardo Parco (University
of the Philippines Environmental Engineering), and Ms. Eileen Sison (IDEAS) and representatives from institutions
working on sanitation in and outside the Philippines: Engr. Christopher Rey Ancheta ( World Bank Office Manila),
Ms. Isabel Blackett and Mr. Michael Seager ( Water and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacific), Engr.
Leonor Cleofas (Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System), Ms. Lala Fabella (Manila Water Company, Inc.),
Ms. Lisa Lumbao, Engr. Parneet Paul, Engr. Jay Tecson (USA Environmental Program), Mr. Eduardo Perez ( World
Bank Water and Sanitation Anchor Unit) and Engr. Ulrike Lipkow (GTZ Water and Sanitation Program).
The Sourcebook Project was supported by a team of communications specialists: Ms. Elenida Basug and Ms. Ma
Cristina Francisco (EMB DENR), and Ms. Ana Esperanza Ong, Ms. Rosario Nolasco (Editor) and Mr. Yosa Yuliarsa (Water
and Sanitation Program East Asia and the Pacic). The photographs used in this Sourcebook were taken by Radoslaw
Janicki, Caroline Van Den Berg, Ulrike LipKow and the sta of Radian Consulting, Inc. This book was designed by Gibug
Studio, Jakarta, Indonesia.
The Sourcebook Project Team would like to acknowledge the participation of the local communities and
enterprise collaborators interviewed for this Sourcebook, including the Philippine Hospital Association.
vii Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS iii
FOREWORD iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT vi
INTRODUCTION
How to Use this Sourcebook xi
How the Sourcebook is Organized xi
Next Steps and Updating xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SANITATION SYSTEMS
1.1 Objectives of Sanitation 3
1.2 Components of Sanitation Infrastructure 4
1.3 Water-Reliant and Non Water-Reliant Sanitation Systems 5
1.4 Polluting Components of Wastewater, Impact and Treatment 5
1.5 Stages of Treatment 7
1.6 Euent Standards 7
1.7 Domestic and Commercial/Industrial Wastewater 7
1.8 Alternative Approaches to Sanitation Management 8
1.9 The Range of Options: Sanitation Technologies and their Combinations 11
CHAPTER 2 DECIDING ON SANITATION OPTIONS
2.1 Iterative Decision Making 19
2.2 Decision Aids 19
2.3 Restricting Variables and the Sanitation Technologies Ruled Out 20
2.4 Technical Inuencing Variables and their Eects 21
2.5 Demand Variables 22
2.6 Review and Comparison of Technology Options 27
CHAPTER 3 TYPIFIED COMMUNITY AND SMALL ENTERPRISE PROFILES
3.1 Tenured Low-Income Urban Community 37
3.2 Peri-urban Coastal Community 40
3.3 Secondary Hospital 42
3.4 Public Market 45
3.5 Medium-Sized Beach Resort 47
CHAPTER 4 SANITATION TECHNOLOGY SHEETS
4.1 Selected Sanitation Technology Options 53
LIST OF FIGURES/FLOWCHARTS
Figure 1-1 The F Diagram
Figure 1-2 Components of Sanitation Infrastructure
Figure 1-3 Polluting Components of Wastewater, Impact and Treatment
Figure 1-4 Types of Household Wastewater
Figure 1-5 Four Types of Ecosan Projects
Figure 1-6 Categories of System Combinations
Flowchart 1-1 The Range of Non-Water Reliant Sanitation Systems for Domestic Wastewater
Flowchart 1-2 The Range of Water-Reliant Sanitation Systems for Domestic Wastewater
viii
Flowchart 1-3 The Range of Ecological Sanitation Systems for Domestic Wastewater
Flowchart 1-4 Stages of the Waste Process for Small Enterprise Industry
LIST OF TABLES/MATRICES
Table 1-1 Polluting Components of Wastewater, Impact and Treatment
Table 1-2 Euent Standards (excerpt from DENR DAO#35 Table 2b)
Table 2-1 Table of Restricting Variables
Table 2-2 Technical Inuencing Variables
Table 2-3 Sample Cost Recovery Table for Collection and Treatment Systems
Table 2-4 Checklist of Demand Factors
Table 2-5 Technology Performance Rating Scale
Table 3-1 Tenured Low-Income Urban Community
Table 3-2 Peri-Urban Coastal Community
Table 3-3 Types of Hospitals
Table 3-4 Wastewater Streams from Hospitals
Table 3-5 Wastewater Characteristics from Selected Hospitals
Table 3-6 Secondary Hospitals
Table 3-7 Characteristics of Market Wastewater
Table 3-8 Municipal Public Markets
Table 3-9 Medium-Sized Beach Resort
Table 4-1 List of Sanitation Technologies for Systems of Toilet, Collection, Treatment and Disposal/Reuse
Matrix 2-1A Eect of Site Specic Conditions and Comparison of Performance of Technologies
for Domestic Wastewater (Non Water-Reliant Systems)
Matrix 2-1B Eect of Site Specic Conditions and Comparison of Performance of Technologies
for Domestic Wastewater (Water-Reliant Systems)
Matrix 2-2A Treatment Technology Options for Public Market
Matrix 2-2B Pre-Treatment / Treatment Technology Options for Hospitals
ANNEXES
Annex 1 Survey Instruments:
Survey Instrument 1a Socio-economic and Demand Investigation
in Residential Communities
Survey Instrument 1b Technical Survey of Residential Communities
Survey Instrument 2 Technical Investigation of Small or Medium Enterprise
or Industry (Hospital, Public Market, Beach Resort)
Annex 2 List of Organizations Providing Information and Assistance on Sanitation
Annex 3 List of Selected Web-Based Resources on Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion
Annex 4 List of Credit Funding Facilities for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects in the Philippines
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ix Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid
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xi Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid
This Sourcebook presents basic concepts on sanitation
to help project planners, enterprise managers, local
executives and other members of the community
assess their situation and make a judgment on
appropriate sanitation interventions.
It responds to a need identified during a scoping
study to present sanitation and wastewater concepts
and technology in a comprehensive, yet simple way.
How to Use this $ourcebook
This Sourcebook is focused on information about low-cost
sanitation technology options. Technology is not the only
important aspect of a sanitation project. By focusing on
this, the Sourcebook does not intend to downplay the
role of hygiene and behavior change, nor the need for
institutional frameworks that support sustainable nancing,
operation and management within sanitation projects. The
narrow focus of the Sourcebook only seeks to ll a gap
considering that there are excellent toolkits and guidebooks
already available on broader topics of strategic sanitation
and hygiene planning, programming and promotion. A
list of these other resources will be found in Annex 3. We
encourage readers to use these resources in conjunction
with this Sourcebook.
The objective of this Sourcebook is to identify and
discuss the factors that need to be considered when
deciding on options for sanitation and wastewater
technology. The Sourcebook aims to present a range
of solutions and help decision-makers assess the
various options based on informed choice. A secondary
objective of the Sourcebook is expected to stimulate
informed demand for sanitation.
The Sourcebook is mainly written for Philippine project
planners, but may be useful to community organizers,
service providers, sanitation project nanciers, environmental
and sanitation regulatory ocers, other such practitioners,
and to communities and users. During project preparation
and implementation, readers are advised to seek advice
from experts such as civil and environmental engineers,
social scientists and nance specialists.
How the $ourcebook is 0rganized
Chapter 1 is an Introduction to Sanitation Systems. It
discusses the objectives of sanitation, basic concepts and
components of wastewater and dierent components
of sanitation infrastructure. These concepts serve as
basis for understanding the operating principles of
dierent technologies. It helps answer the question, for
example, of why pre-treatment is necessary in some
cases and not in others. Chapter 1 ends by presenting
options spanning the major components of sanitation
infrastructure systems and shows their various
combinations through a ow chart.
Chapter 2 sets out a decision-making framework to aid
project planners assess different options. The chapter
starts with a discussion of factors relevant to decision-
making. Factors are classified as either restricting or
influencing. Restricting variables are conditions that,
when present, disallow the use of specic technologies.
Influencing variables do not eliminate an option.
However, they need to be considered in the design,
construction and operation of a system, or they may
aect the acceptability of an option to users or project
proponents. Thus, inuencing factors are distinguished
between technical and demand factors. The discussions
try to help planners understand why and in what
way these factors are relevant and whenever possible,
provide for their measure or standard, a description
of their usual occurrence or suggest how they can be
measured or determined. The factors are given index
numbers that relate them to an item in a survey
questionnaire or checklist that is proposed to be used
as a tool for investigation. The instruments themselves
appear in Annex 1.
The chapter then puts forward an iterative approach to
decision-making, supported by a series of decision aids.
The rst step is a process of eliminating technologies
that cannot be used because of physical conditions that
exist in the project area. A table relates these variables
to the technologies and uses the colors green, yellow
and red to indicate go, proceed with caution, and stop.
This indicates whether the occurrence of a condition
rules out an option. The end result of this is a list of
potentially feasible options. The second step of the
decision process is to compare technologies based on
their performance against 13 factors considered to be
the most relevant.
The Sourcebook does not put forward a scoring system
and makes no nal choices for project participants since
priorities of stakeholders will vary from case to case.
Chapter 3 presents Typied Community and Enterprise
profiles. The Chapter typifies the physical and socio-
economic conditions that dene the sanitation situation
and challenges in two kinds of communities and three
enterprises. For this edition, the Sourcebook Project Team
chose to feature the following: tenured low-income
urban communities, peri-urban coastal communities,
medium-sized beach resorts, municipal public markets
and secondary hospitals. The source and characteristics
xii
of wastewater and critical factors observed to inuence
demand for sanitation services are described in these
proles.
Sanitation situations vary from place to place and it
would be impossible to describe all peculiarities. By
typifying situations, the Sourcebook does not intend to
replace physical and socio-economic investigations that
need to underpin project planning. Indeed its intention
is to improve investigations by highlighting issues that
might escape the consideration of project planners,
users and enterprise owners, community leaders and
local government staff who may not have working
knowledge of sanitation systems and become entirely
dependent or captive to the advice of external parties.
Instruments to aid socio-economic and technical
investigations are found in Annex 1.
Chapter 4 is a compilation of 23 selected low-cost sanitation
options presented in Sanitation Technology Sheets. It
presents options under each component of sanitation
infrastructure. The sheets feature the components, basic
operating principles, application, efficiency, costs and
advantages and disadvantages of the options.
There are four Annexes. The survey instruments for technical
and socio-economic investigation are in Annex 1. Annex
2 is a list of organizations that provide information or
assistance on sanitation. Annex 3 is a list of selected web-
based resources on sanitation and hygiene promotion. A
list of credit funding utilities for sanitation projects in the
Philippines is shown in Annex 4.
The Glossary provides the denition of terms used in the
Sourcebook, particularly technical terms.
Next $teps and Updating
This Sourcebook is the first attempt to provide basic
and simplied information on sanitation. The intention
is to test its applicability by dissemination to local
governments and through various sanitation and
nancing institutions operating in the Philippines.
Comments and feedback are welcome for the
improvement of any update edition. Feedback can be
sent to the Water and Sanitation Program East Asia
and the Pacic through the Country Team Leader in the
Philippines. Follow the contact links from this website:
www.wsp.org
1 Philippines Sanitation Sourcebook and Decision Aid
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Sanitation refers to the hygienic and proper
management, collection, disposal or reuse of human
excreta (feces and urine) and community liquid
wastes to safeguard the health of individuals and
communities.
I t is concerned with preventing diseases by
hindering pathogens, or disease-causing organisms,
found in excreta and wastewater from entering the
environment and coming into contact with people and
communities. This usually involves the construction
of adequate collection and disposal or reuse facilities
and the promotion of proper hygiene behavior so that
facilities are eectively used at all times.
1.1 0bjectives of $anitation
1
Sanitation (and hygiene promotion) programs have three
primary objectives:
Improving health conditions
Promoting dignity of living or enhanced quality of life
Protecting the environment
The combined positive eects of these conditions lead
to wider economic benets.
Health
Disease-causing organisms in human excreta may nd
their way into a host and cause diseases. This usually
results in diarrhea. In the Philippines, the Department
of Health (DOH) estimates that 93 Filipinos suer from
diarrhea every hour and 25 die from it every day.
Diarrhea poses such a signicant burden and yet it is
easily preventable with proper sanitation and hygiene.
Pathogens are transmitted through a number of routes.
These routes can be remembered with the acronym,
WASH:
contamination of Water that we ingest
spread by Anthropods or other insects
contact (with our feet) through the Soil or oor
contact through our Hands
The first three routes are blocked by constructing
sanitation facilities that eectively separate excreta from
human and animal (including insects) contact and
secure against the contamination of drinking water and
soils. The last route is barred by proper hygiene practices
such as washing hands with soap after defecation or
after cleaning up children post-defecation.
The F-diagram shown in the figure below illustrates
these same routes as fingers, flies, fields/floor and
uids. The most eective way of reducing transmission
of disease is to erect primary barriers which prevents
pathogens from entering the environment. The
secondary barriers are practices that prevent the
contact or use of the contaminated 4Fs into the food or
new host.
Quality of Life
Research has found that people value sanitation
facilities, close to or at the home, more for the
resulting privacy, convenience and improvement
(sights and smell) of their immediate surroundings
than for thei r heal th benef i ts. Personal and
environmental cleanliness gives a sense of dignity to
people, particularly women. School latrines have been
proven to be an essential part of keeping teenage
girls and young women at school and enabling them
to complete their education.
Environmental Protection
The indiscriminate disposal of wastewater into the
environment also results in degradation of surface
and groundwater resources. About hal f of the
biological pollution unloaded to Philippine waters
comes from untreated domestic wastewater. This
depletes the waters of oxygen that is necessary to
sustain aquatic life. I nvestment in sanitation and
wastewater facilities can improve the quality of water
bodies dramatically.
1 While this Sourcebook focuses on sanitation, it is important to note that in order to fully achieve
these objectives, attention needs to be paid to hygiene, solid waste and drainage management.
Source: Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Programming Guidelines (2005), after Wagner and Lanoix
Figure 1-1
The F-Diagram
PRIMARY
BARRIERS
SECONDARY
BARRIERS
Barriers to transmission
Disease transmission route
FECES
FOOD
NEW
HOST
FINGERS
FLUIDS
FLIES
FIELDS/
FLOORS
4
1.2 Components of
$anitation lnfrastructure
Sanitation infrastructure systems generally have four
components. These are: toilet, collection, treatment and
euent/sludge disposal and reuse.
Each or all components can be located on-site, meaning
close to or at the source of waste generation. On-
site systems usually serve a single or small group of
households or enterprises. Complete on-site systems,
where waste is collected, treated and disposed on-
site, are called decentralized systems. Components or
systems can also be located o-site or away from the
source of waste generation. Centralized systems collect
and treat large volumes of waste from households and
establishments. The residual waste is then moved to
areas located away from the communities.
systems, waste from the toilet is usually combined with
waste from other parts of the house or establishment and
carried away through a sewerage system. In emerging
alternative systems, such as ecological sanitation systems,
waste streams (urine, feces and kitchen/shower) are isolated
and stored or conveyed separately.
The sewerage system consists of a pit/hole, receptacle
vessel and pipe network. Pipe networks can be
conventional or simplied. A conventional sewer system
uses gravity (and sometimes, pumps) to convey
wastewater through the network. Pipes must be laid in
a continuous incline. The system involves deep trenches
and high digging costs.
Simplied sewer (or small bore sewerage) systems operate
similarly to their conventional counterpart, but pipe size
is signicantly reduced and laid in shallower trenches.
This is made possible by adding a primary treatment
step before conveyance, to separate solids and rene
the wastewater that goes into the network. While
conventional and simplied sewers transport wastewater
only, combined systems transport household wastewater
plus storm or rainwater. Storm drainage and canals are
commonly used as combined systems.
Condominial sewerage, a variation of simplified sewerage,
allows sewer pipes to pass through property lots rather
than both sides of a street under conventional systems. The
shorter grid of smaller and shallower feeder pipes running
through the backyards allow shallower connections to the
street sewers, effecting significant reductions in cost. In
condominial sewerage, sewer pipes have to cross property
lots. Property owners need to allow construction and
maintenance of the infrastructure within their properties.
Wastewater can also be collected and transported
for disposal by cartage, which consists of safe manual
delivery, using pails, spades and carts. Delivery is also
done by vacuum trucks or desludging equipment.
Treatment
Treatment is the process of removing liquid and
solid waste, or reducing it to stable, non-polluting
matter. A treatment plant is a medium, structure or
equipment used for this purpose. The characteristics
of wastewater will dictate the treatment process
that will be required. There are various methods to
address the different types of polluting elements
present in wastewater. These elements and processes
are discussed in Section 1.4.
Disposal or Reuse
The last component of sanitation infrastructure is
Figure 1-2
Components of Sanitation Infrastructure
Toilet
The toilet consists of a waste receptacle (bowl) or
squatting plate with or without a superstructure. To
erect a toilet at home or in a public place is to assign
a stationary area for urination and defecation. This
prevents the practice of defecating in open areas, which
results into a health hazard for the community. Toilets
isolate human excreta to prevent direct or indirect
transmission of diseases. Toilet bowls that allow the
separate collection of urine and feces are called urine
diverting toilets.
Collection and Conveyance
Collection and conveyance systems transport wastewater
for treatment or disposal. Where systems cater to more than
one household, the conveyance system receives wastes from
many establishments and households. In more conventional
POLLUTING COMPONENT TREATMENT ENVIRONTMENTAL IMPACT (if not treated)
PHYSICAL FRACTION
S
O
L
I
D
S
1. Coarse solids, e.g. sand, gravel and large
materials, e.g. sticks
2. Settleable solids
Screening, grit removal, comminution
Sedimentation tanks (septic tanks and clarifiers)
Non-removal of coarse solids may cause damage
to pumps, thus impairing the treatment process.
Increase the turbidity of the receiving water body.
concerned with returning or releasing treated euent
and sludge to the environment. Care should be taken
that doing so will not pose a hazard to people and the
environment. Disposal can mean discharge to a water
body (such as a river), application to land or to the soils,
or even release to the atmosphere in the form of gas.
In terms of ecological sanitation, residual elements
are not disposed but reused. Wastewater can be
safely reused in agriculture, landscape irrigation,
aquaculture, and fire fighting. Sludge can be used
in agriculture or dried for use as fertilizer. Before its
reuse, the quality and safety of the waste should first
be established. Incorrect application can cause harm.
1.3 Water-Reliant and Non-Water
Reliant Sanitation Systems
In general, sanitation systems are either water-reliant
or non-water reliant. Water-reliant systems employ water
to flush and convey waste through the system and
therefore, require a continuous supply of water. Non-
water reliant systems are those that rely on dry storage
and carriage that does not employ water for conveyance.
Thus, carriage is usually conducted manually. It does
not mean that liquid waste or even, clean water, is not
received in the system. A small amount of water may be
employed to clean components of a dry system, such
as the sitting bowl. A vacuum ush toilet, such as those
employed in airplanes, can thus be considered non-
water reliant.
1.4 Polluting Components of
Wastewater, Impact and Treatment
Wastewater is composed of different elements, some
of which are harmful when discharged untreated,
in large volumes or in high concentrations and
cannot be processed naturally by the environment.
The treatment process will differ according to the
polluting element contained in the water.
Table 1-1
Polluting Components of Wastewater, Impact and Treatment
The concentration of different polluting elements
will have specific effects on the environment and
on humans. The accumulation of solid particles in
water results in turbidity or murkiness. Concentration
of organic matter in water bodies causes depletion
of oxygen and, ultimately, the inability to sustain
aquatic life dependent on oxygen. Organic matter
al so rel eases foul odors resul ti ng from decay.
Nutrients encourage the growth of algae and could
lead to eutrophication or excess plant growth, which
also reduces the dissolved oxygen in water. Gases in
wastewater, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia,
could be toxic. The same is true for other pollutants
such as metal s, pesti ci des, and hal ogenated
compounds. Micro-organisms can cause diseases.
Figure 1-3 illustrates the polluting components of
wastewater, their potential impact if discharged
untreated, and the applicable treatment process.
Table 1-1 discusses this in more detail.
Figure 1-3
Polluting Components of Wastewater,
Impact and Treatment
6
POLLUTING COMPONENT TREATMENT ENVIRONTMENTAL IMPACT (if not treated)
S
O
L
I
D
S
3. Total Solids
a. Non-filterable/Suspended (settleable
or non-settleable)
Screening, comminution, grit removal, sedimentation
fil trati on, f l otati on, chemi cal pol ymer addi ti on,
coagulation, natural systems (land treatment)
1. Leads to the development of sludge deposits and
anaerobic conditions when discharged into the
receiving environment, thus impairing water quality.
2. Restricts wastewater use for agricultural irrigation
or aquaculture. Causes decline in growth and
yield of most plants.
3. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) increase:
turbidity which prevents light to pass through
and causes fishs gills to get plugged up
silting which reduces lifetime of lakes
b. Filterable (colloidal or dissolved) Activated sludge, trickling filters, sand filters, rotating
biological contactors, oxidation ditch, sequencing
batch reactor, lagoon systems
Impairs water quality of receiving water.
CHEMICAL FRACTION
O
R
G
A
N
I
C
S
1. Organics
a. Biodegradable organics (protein,
carbohydrates, fats)
Activated sludge, trickling filters, rotating biological
contactors, lagoon variations, intermittent sand
filtration, physical-chemical systems, natural systems
1. Fats increase biochemical oxygen demand.
2. Fat traps trash, plants and other materials,
causi ng f oul odor s, at tr acti ng f l i es and
mosquitoes and other disease vectors.
3. Fats cause septic conditions in ponds and lakes
by preventing oxygen in the atmosphere from
reaching the water.
4. Higher concentrations of fats and grease can
result in poorer effluent quality thus polluting
the receiving water body.
b Refractory organics (surfactants,
phenols, agricultural pesticides)
Carbon adsorption, tertiary ozonation, natural systems
-
N
U
T
R
I
E
N
T
S
2. Inorganics
a. Dissolved inorganics (calcium,
sodium, sulfate)
b. Nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus)
Chemical precipitation, ion exchange, ultrafiltration,
reverse osmosis, electrodialysis.
For nitrogen: nitrification and denitrification, ammonia
stripping, ion exchange, chlorination, natural systems
For phosphorus: metal-salt addition (alum, FeCI
3
) lime
coagulation/sedimentation, biological phosphorus
removal, biological-chemical phosphorus removal,
natural systems
Impairs water quality of receiving water
1. In certain proportions and conditions, these
nutrients can give rise to harmful algal blooms.
2. Encour ages the growth of al gae (eutro-
phication).
G
A
S
E
S
3. Gases
(nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, methane)
Ammonia stripping, acid and base gas scrubbers,
biofilters and soil bed
1. Hydrogen sulfide and ammonia can be toxic
and pose asphyxiation hazard. Both gases also
emit odors, which can be a serious nuisance.
2. Volatile organics can be toxic to humans and
other microorganisms.
3. The formation of nitrogen gas can cause large
globs of sludge to overflow, thus polluting the
receiving water body.
P
R
I
O
R
I
T
Y
P
O
L
L
U
T
A
N
T
S
4. Priority pollutants
(metals, non-metals, organic
compounds, halogenated compounds,
pesticides, herbicides, insecticides)
Chemical precipitation, ion exchange, nanofiltration,
reverse osmosis and biol ogical degradation in
natural systems and reed beds
1. Some metals and compounds cause mutation,
cancer and birth defects.
2. Metals accumulate in fish and plant and can be
toxic and/or hazardous.
BIOLOGICAL FRACTION
M
I
C
R
O
-
O
R
G
A
N
I
S
M
S
Micro-organisms classified as:
a. protista
(bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae)
Application of copper sulfate, sludge wasting and
return
1. Al gae cover s sur f ace water s si nce they
reproduce rapidly, and af fect the quality of
water for drinking in terms of taste and odor.
2. Algae affects the value of water for water supply
because they cause taste and odor problems.
3. Bacteria can cause sludge bulking resulting in
higher suspended solids in the ef f luent and
receiving water body.
b. plants
(ferns, mosses, seed plants, liverworts)
- -
c. animals
(vertebrates, invertebrates)
- -
d. pathogenic organisms
(coliforms)
Chlorination, hypochlorination, bromine chloride,
ozonation, UV radiation, biological degradation in
natural systems
Cause communicable diseases.
1.5 Stages of Treatment
To be able to address these dierent polluting elements,
wastewater might need to undergo several stages of
treatment.
Primary treatment involves the separation of solids through
sedimentation or settling. Wastewater might be contained
in a tank a number of hours to allow solids to settle at the
bottom of the tank. Settled solids, called sludge, are then
removed or drawn from the tank and further treated.
Secondary treatment, or biological treatment, breaks down
organic matter present after primary treatment with the aid
of micro-organisms. Aerobic micro-organisms need oxygen
to absorb the organic matter from wastewater. Oxygen,
therefore, must be continuously introduced or maintained
to prevent the depletion of micro-organisms. On the other
hand, anaerobic treatment is applied to wastewater with
high organic content such as market wastes.
Tertiary treatment focuses on the removal of micro-
organisms, nutrients, priority pollutants, and gases.
Chlorination and ultraviolet radiation kill micro-
organisms. Nitrification and denitrification remove
nutrients. Adsorption takes away toxic elements.
Ammonia stripping gets rid of gases.
1.6 Euent Standards
Treatment aims to reduce the effluent output to a
quality that conforms to environmental standards. In the
Philippines, euent standards are applied to the nal
euent or discharge of treated/untreated wastewater.
Water quality standards are based on the classication of
the water body that will be the nal point of discharge.
Selected pertinent portions of the euent standards are
shown in Table 1-2 on the next page.
If nal disposal is into soils, euent quality is applied to
the wastewater discharge, while the disposal process must
conform to agricultural regulations that may be issued.
1.7 Domestic and Commercial/
Industrial Wastewater
Households produce wastewater from the toilet,
bathroom and shower, laundry and kitchen. Wastewater
from the toilet includes feces, urine and ushing water.
In this Sourcebook, wastewater streams have been
classied using color codes (See Figure 1-4):
Yellow water urine only, with or without ushing
water
Brown water feces only
Black water combination of feces and urine,
with or without ushing water
Gray water wastewater from bathroom, shower,
laundry and kitchen
Yellow water contains metabolic wastes, dissolved salts,
and a large amount of nutrients and inorganic materials
that are expelled by the body. Approximately 90% of
the bodys total nitrogen, 55% of total phosphorus, and
a signicant portion of potassium is contained in urine.
Yellow water can be a significant source of nutrient
for plants. Recognition of this resource is one of the
important bases of ecological sanitation.
On the other hand, disease-causing organisms are
normally found in large quantities in feces. Hygienic
handling of brown water or black water is critical.
Gray water comes from all other sources in the
home, such as the shower or bathroom, laundry, or
kitchen. It comprises the largest fraction of the total
wastewater flow. Generally, gray water has very low
nutrient content. Phosphorus content becomes high
with the continued use of phosphate-containing
detergents for washing clothes. High concentration
of solids and organic materials (fat, oil, and grease)
in gray water comes from cooking, food waste and
kitchen drains.
The characteri sti cs of domesti c or househol d
wastewater are similar in most homes. Wastewater
from beach resorts are also mainly from the kitchen,
laundry and showers. Thus, the characteristics of
wastewater from beach resorts do not differ from
those produced by households, except in volume
On the other hand, i ndustri al and commerci al
wastewater such as that produced by hospitals and
markets is more polluting with higher organic and
solid content and is sometimes toxic or hazardous.
Special treatment processes or pre-treatment need to
be applied to target these polluting elements and
reduce the wastewater to domestic wastewater quality
before regular treatment processes can be applied.
Sometimes, the separate collection, treatment and
disposal of hazardous streams are required, such as
from cancer patients treated in chemo-therapy. If
wastewater streams from such sources are combined
with others, all the wastewater will need to undergo
full treatment (primary to tertiary).
8
PARAMETER UNIT
INLAND
WATERS
(CLASS D)
COASTAL
WATERS
(CLASS SC)
CLASS SD
& OTHER
COASTAL
NOT
CLASSIFIED
Color PCU - (C) (C)
Temperature C
rise (max rise
in deg. Celsius
in RBW)
3 3 3
pH (range) 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 5.0-9.0
COD mg / L 200 200 200
5-Day 20C BOD mg / L 120 100 120
Total
Suspended Solids
mg / L 150 150 (F)
Total
Dissolved Solids
mg / L 1,500 (H) - -
Surfactants (MBAS) mg / L - 10 -
Oil/Grease
(Petroleum
Ether Extract)
mg / L - 10 -
Phenolic
Substances
as Phenols
mg / L 0.5 (I) 1.0
Total Coliforms
MPN/
100mL
(J) - -
Table 1-2
Effluent Standards
(excerpt from DENR DAO #35 Table 2B)
(C) Discharge shall not cause abnormal discoloration in the receiving waters outside of the mixing zone.
(F) Not more than 30 mg/L increase (dry season)
(H) If euent is the sole source of supply for irrigation, the maximum limits are 1,500 mg/L and 1,000 mg/L,
respectively, for old industries and new industries.
(I) Not present in concentration to affect fish flavor or taste or tainting.
(J) If effluent is used to irrigate vegetable and fruit crops which may be eaten raw, fecal coliforms should
be less than 500 MPN/100 mL.
Figure 1-4
Types of Household Wastewater
1.8 Alternative Approaches
to Sanitation Management
In the Philippines, as in many developing countries, very
little attention is paid to sanitation. Only 10 of the countrys
approximately 1,650 towns and cities have sewerage
systems, and these are very limited in scope. The majority
of the population relies on on-site treatment through septic
tanks that are ill-constructed or poorly maintained.
Among the most signicant set-backs for sanitation is the
high cost of investment and maintenance required for
conventional sanitation systems.
In recent times, a number of approaches have emerged
in response to these problems. Each of these approaches
can be implemented independently or as part of other
approaches. What these approaches have in common is
that they all try to move away from centralized sanitation
management. They use technology that is cheaper to build,
operate and maintain, and easier to manage.
Ecological Sanitation
Ecological sanitation, or ecosan, is a new paradigm that
aims at the systematic closure of local material ow-cycles.
It supposes that rather than being pollutants or waste, local
materials can be useful resources. Ecosan is based on an
overall view that material ows are part of an ecologically
and economically sustainable wastewater management
system that can be tailored to the needs of the users and
local conditions. The basic principle of ecosan is to close the
nutrient loop between sanitation and agriculture.
Ecosan is likewise concerned with the misuse of resources
presently dedicated to the collection, conveyance and
treatment of wastewater. Under conventional systems, large
quantities of clean water, suitable for drinking, are applied for
ushing and carriage of dirty water. Signicant energy is also
used for conveying and treating wastewater in centralized
treatment plants that are often electro-mechanized.
Ecosan incorporates the following principles:
1. A conscious effort to conserve resources in the
management of sanitation and wastewater
2. Recycling and reuse of waste matter
3. Rendering recyclables from waste (human and animal
excreta, gray water) safe for reuse
4. Minimization of the use of energy and water in
sanitation and wastewater management
5. Pollution prevention
Ecosan is enhanced by
1. Collecting the dierent owstreams, i.e., urine, feces
and gray water separately
2. Non-dilution of waste streams to guarantee high
concentration of recyclables
The main objectives of ecosan are:
reducing the health risks related to sanitation,
contaminated water and waste
improving the quality of surface and groundwater
improving soil fertility
optimizing the management of nutrients and water
resources
Closing the loop enables the recovery of organics,
nutrients, trace elements and energy contained in
household wastewater and organic waste and their
subsequent productive reuse. Although the reuse
focuses predominantly on agriculture, the options are
not limited to this application only.
An essential step in this process is the appropriate
hygienization and handling of the materials throughout
the entire treatment and reuse process. This is done
to ensure a satisfactory sanitization of the excrement.
Therefore, unlike conventional sanitation systems, ecosan
systems not only control the direct hygienic risks to the
population but also protect the natural environment.
In practice, the commonly applied ecosan strategy of
separately collecting and treating feces, urine and gray
water minimizes the consumption of valuable drinking
water. At the same time, it enables treatment of the
separate wastewater ows at low cost for subsequent
reuse in soil amelioration, as fertilizer, as service or
irrigation water or for groundwater recharge. Ecosan
systems restore the natural balance between the
quantity of nutrients excreted by one person in one
year and that required to produce their food. This is
particularly urgent with regard to fresh water and
mineral resources. For example, current estimates for
phosphorus state that economically extractable reserves
will be used up within the next 100 years.
Ecosan does not favor a particular technology. It is a
philosophy in recycling oriented resource management
and offers modern, convenient, gender-friendly
and desirable solutions. Nevertheless, appropriate
technologies include urine-diversion toilets, compost
toilets, biogas plants, wetland treatment plants, rainwater
harvesting, and aquaculture.
Introduction of ecosan to communities will need to be
supported by intensive education to correct practices
of managing excreta and materials. Particularly for
communities accustomed to traditional sanitation
systems, signicant retooling and possibly, retrotting of
existing facilities will be required.
While a majority of ecosan experiences come from a
rural context, it would be incorrect to suppose that
ecosan is only applicable in this environment. Ecosan
projects could be roughly divided into four types and
illustrated in Figure 1-5 below.
Source: GTZ Ecosan Sourcebook (2004)
Figure 1-5
Four Types of Ecosan Projects
BASIC TYPES OF ECOSAN PROJECTS
Project type
Characteristics
A B C D
rural upgrading urban upgrading new urban
development areas
non-residential
(tourism, schools...)
User of sanitation facilities household household/neigborhood household/neigborhood tourists, employees, pupils...
User of the end products
(Range: in house/other)
household
household
(party)
farmer,
external user
(party)
household
(party)
farmer,
external user
(party)
user - institution
(party)
farmer,
external user
(party)
Level of initiative and decision (min/max) micro
macro
micro
macro
micro
micro
macro
Considered resources (minimum/optimum) feces + urine only
plus gray water,
rainwater harvesting,
organic waste
feces + urine
+ gray water
only
plus
rainwater
harvesting,
stormwater
management, organic waste m
feces + urine
gray water +
stormwater
management
plus rainwater
harvesting,
organic waste
feces + urine
gray water +
stormwater
management
feces + urine
+ gray water
+ stormwater
management
Service provision for operation, transport,
treatment and marketing (range in house/other)
household
household
public/private
service provider
household
public/private
service provider
user institution
public/private
service provider
10
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems
Decentralized wastewater treatment systems or
DEWATS, is a client-centered approach to wastewater
treatment, rather than simply a technical hardware
package. It aims at introducing and designing the
most appropriate combination of wastewater treatment
technologies based on the needs of clients, considering
their objectives, local conditions and nancial means.
DEWATS seeks to involve the user in sanitation and
wastewater management as much as possible. Therefore,
it combines participatory community/client consultation
processes together with expert advice. DEWATS
recognizes that one shortcoming of centralized systems
is that they often leave users without any control over
the provision of service.
The approach tries to avoid utilization of mechanical
or energy-dependent parts and imported materials.
Emphasis is on the utilization of locally available
resources. It recognizes that centralized systems are
often expensive to construct and difficult to operate
and maintain. Thus, while the hardware introduced in
DEWATS is based on standard engineering designs,
the system includes only such technologies that are
considered suitable for decentralized application,
requiring only simple operation and maintenance.
It does not promote ready-to-install prefabricated
technology. Instead, it uses a modular approach to system
design in order to cater to particular needs. DEWATS
engineers are trained to determine which modules to
combine to deliver the best option for clients, depending
on the kind of wastewater to be treated and the desired
quality of the wastewater outow.
The technology DEWATS uses is a combination
of anaerobic and aerobic wastewater treatment
processes. The use of combined processes allows
DEWATS to link and enhance the treatment capacity
of each independent stage/module. This addresses the
limitations of a specic process when implemented as a
stand-alone system. DEWATS uses four anaerobic process
modules: bio-digester, septic tank, baffle reactor, and
anaerobic lter. There are two aerobic process modules:
horizontal gravel lter and pond. These are implemented
in combination with any or all of the anaerobic parts.
DEWATS is designed so that maintenance and daily
management are reduced to a minimum. However,
a trained person is needed to perform and record
operation and maintenance. Though minimized,
maintenance tasks are still necessary. For example,
desludging due to the sludge accumulation in the tank
needs to be done at regular intervals (once every two
years). Monitoring and removal of scum in the anaerobic
chambers, and harvesting of phragmytes plants in
the horizontal gravel lter when over-grown are other
required maintenance jobs.
DEWATS can be applied to housing settlements, as
well as commercial, social and industrial uses, such as
hospitals, hotels, universities/schools, slaughter houses,
public markets, and food processing facilities.
Septage Management
In the Philippines, a majority of urban dwellings and
enterprises rely on septic tanks as the only means of
treating their wastewater. Given this, it is important to
ensure that septic tanks are operating optimally and that
residual waste from septic tanks is managed properly.
Septage management refers to the periodic desludging
or removal of septage from septic tanks using vacuum
trucks or other desludging equipment, and treatment
and disposal of the septage.
Septage is the mix of liquid and solids in a septic tank,
which becomes a major source of pollution when it is
disposed without eective treatment, either on land or
in water bodies.
A septic tank performs primary treatment by separating
solids from the wastewater inflow, causing anaerobic
decomposition and storage of the accumulated solids.
Wastewater is then passed out of the tank as euent.
For eective treatment, the inowing wastewater needs
to be retained in the tank from 24 to 48 hours. With
years of usage, solids accumulate and ll the tank such
that the retention time of the wastewater becomes
shortened. The accumulated solids need to be removed
to restore the treatment capability of the septic tank.
Septage has very high BOD (over 10 times that
of domestic sewage) and a high solids content.
Treatment of septage is required before it is disposed.
It can be treated using various methods, including lime
stabilization, a mechanized septage treatment facility,
or waste stabilization ponds. The supplement to the
IRR of Chapter XVII of the Code on Sanitation of the
Philippines (P.D. 856) (issued May 2004) states that it
is mandatory that septage and domestic sludge shall
be processed and treated prior to disposal. It cites the
following treatment techniques:
Thickening Disinfection
Stabilization Dewatering
Conditioning Heat Drying
The current practice in the Philippines is for individual
homeowners to have their septic tanks desludged only
when they are completely full and overowing. They pay a
private contractor to perform this service. Most, if not all, of
these contractors dispose of the septage without treatment.
Therefore, cities and municipalities need to develop septage
management programs to ensure that the septic tanks are
inspected and desludged on a regular basis, perhaps every
3-5 years depending on the size and number of occupants.
The proper treatment of septage before disposal also needs
to be enforced.
1.9 The Range of Options:
Sanitation Technologies
and their Combinations
The owcharts in the following pages present the range of
sanitation technology options available and their possible
combinations. Sanitation systems, as already discussed, are
made up of various components.
Systems vary according to:
their dependence on water for carriage: systems can
either be non-water reliant or water-reliant
the size of the potential user group: systems can be
individual, cluster- or municipal-wide
their location: systems may be on-site or o-site, or with
a combination of on-site and o-site components
their approach: systems could employ traditional or
alternative waste management principles
The owcharts are structured to reect how options might
be combined into the above system classes. To illustrate,
each of the owcharts will reect these categories of
system combinations:
However, to avoid too many permutations, the
flowcharts for non-water reliant and water-reliant
systems have been separated. Flowchart 1-1 deals with
non-water reliant systems and Flowchart 1-2 deals with
water-reliant systems.
Flowchart 1-3 shows how wastewater can be managed
using an ecological approach. Ecological and traditional
sanitation management can be used in combination.
Thus, a number of the ecological technologies appearing
in Flowchart 1-3 can also be seen in the first two
owcharts. In Flowchart 1-3, the non-water reliant and
water-reliant systems appear in a single chart.
Flowcharts 1-1, 1-2 and 1-3 are related to the
management of wastewater from homes and beach
resorts. Management of industrial or commercial
wastewater is illustrated in Flowchart 1-4 to emphasize
the need for special treatment processes before a part
of the waste stream can be treated as domestic waste.
Figure 1-6
Categories of System Combinations
12
* Not included in technology sheets
** Biological treatment, membrane technology or soak away pit
Waste Type
Toilet
System
On-Site
Treatment
On-Site
Disposal/Reuse
Collection
System
Off-Site
Treatment
Off-Site
Disposal/Reuse
Compost Privy Agricultural Use
Bucket Latrine*
or Vault Latrine*
Aquaculture
Burying*
Ventilated
Improved
Privy (VIP)
Latrine
Upon filling
of pit, open
another pit
Anaerobic
Digestion
Composting
Biogas
Agricultural Use
Low Volume
Treament**
Recycle
Discharge into
a Water Body
Constructed
Wetlands
Irrigation*
Wastewater
Ponds
Groundwater
Recharge*
Direct Use*
Black
Water
Sullage or
Gray Water
Use the
Storm
Drain?
No
Yes
Pipe/Canal
ther Flow Wet Weatt
Dry
Weather
Flow
Cartage
Cartage
Approval by higher authorities
Flowchart 1-1
The Range of Non-Water Reliant Sanitation Systems for Domestic Wastewater
Waste Type
Toilet
System
On-Site
Treatment
On-Site
Disposal/
Reuse
Collection
System
Off-Site
Treatment
Off-Site
Disposal/
Reuse
Biogas
Digester
O
Anaerobic
Baffled
Reactor
O
Environ-
mentally
acceptable
areas, e.g.,
lahar areas*
Agricultural
use
Discharge to
a Receiving
Body of
Water
Aquaculture
Irrigation
Groundwater
Recharge*
Direct
Reuse*
Biogas
Landfill*
Agri-
cultural
Use
Public/
Communal
Toilet
(Pour-Flush
or Tank
Flush)
Septic
Tank/
Imhoff
Tank
+O
Septage
Treatment ***
Individual
Toilet
(Pour-Flush
or Tank
Flush)
Aqua Privy
+
Interceptor
Tank/Box
+
Combined
sewer
Conventional
sewer
Simplified
sewer
Anaerobic
Filter *
O
RBC
Constructed
Wetlands *
Waste
Stabilization
Pond
Oxidation
Ditch
SBR
Activated
Sludge *
Aerated
Lagoon *
O
Horizontal
Gravel
Filter *
O
Anaerobic
Digestion*
Sludge
Dewaterer*
Sludge
Drying Bed
Composting*
Vertical
Reed Bed
Low Volume
Treatment **
Recycle
Storm Sewer
or Drainage
Pipe/Canal
Discharge
to a
Receiving
Body of
Water
Flowchart 1-2
The Range of Water-Reliant Sanitation Systems for Domestic Wastewater
Sullage or
Gray Water
Use the
Storm
Drain?
To Collection
System (see
below)
Biogas Reecovered e
No primary treatment
+
Septage
Desludging by
Vacuum Trucks
No primary treatment
Nooo
Yes
Can combine with
the blackwater (see
combined sewer above)
WWet weather flow (separates storm water during rainy days) W
Sewagge g
or dry
weather
floow o
DDry D
weather weath her hh
floow o
WWet weather flow W
Effluent
Sludge
Existing
Strom
Drain
+ Septage
o Also employed in DEWATS approach to wastewater treatment
* Not included in the technology sheets
** Biological treatment, membrane technology or soak away pit
*** Septage treatment can be accomplished by co-treatment with sewage or sludge, composting or anaerobic digestion
Black
Water
14
Toilet
System
On-Site
Treatment
On-Site
Reuse
Collection
System
Off-Site
Treatment
Off-Site Reuse
Dehydration
Toilet
Composting
Toilet
Hygienization
by drying
Applied to
Garden/
Plants
Storage/Drying
Double Vault Cartage Composting
Agricultural
Reuse
Heating
Use
Storm
Drain?
Low
Volume
Treatment
Reuse
Evapo-
Transpirator
Pipe/Canal
Reed Beds
Agricultural
Reuse
Ponds/Lagoons
Conventional
Treatment
Urine Diversion
Toilet
Storage
Applied to
Garden/
Plants
Drying/
Evaporation
Agricultural
Reuse
Anaeorobic
Baffled Reactor
O
Biogas
Anaerobic Filter
O
Horizontal
Gravel Filter
O
Agricultural
Reuse
Anaerobic Pond
O
Low-flush Toilet
Septic Tank Overflow
Reed Beds
Vacuum Toilet Pond/Lagoons
Biogas Digester
O
Biogas
Conventional
Septage
Treatment
Reed Beds
Composting
Agricultural
Reuse
Storage
Applied to
Garden/
Plants
Drying/
Evaporation
Agricultural
Reuse
Feces
or Brown
Water
Flowchart 1-3
The Range of Ecological Sanitation Systems for Domestic Wastewater
Sullage or
Gray Water
Water
Reliant?
No
Urine or
Yellow
Water
Black
Water
Urine or
Yellow
Water
Septage
No
Yes
o Also employed in DEWATS approach to wastewater treatment
WASTEWATER
QUALITY SURVEY
(hospital, public market,
slaughter house, etc.)
FULL TREATMENT
WASTEWATER
COLLECTION
SYSTEM &
PRELIMINARY
TREATMENT
PRE-TREATMENT:
REDUCE RAW
EFFLUENT TO
DOMESTIC SEWAGE
QUALITY
(See Matrices 2-2A & 2-2B
in the next chapter)
SEWAGE
TREATMENT
(Flowchart 1-2)
EFFLUENT & SLUDGE
DISPOSAL & REUSE
(Flowchart 1-2)
TREATMENT/
DISPOSAL
Sewage
Discharge
to Collection
System
Solids
Liquids Raw Wastewater
Solids
Flowchart 1-4
Stages of the Waste Process for Small Enterprise & Industry
16
CHB WALL WW
CONC. SLAB
STANDARD TT
TOILET BOWL
CHAPTER 2
0Cl0lN0 0N $ANl7A7l0N 0P7l0N$
18
In the Philippines, until recently, the decision on how
sanitation would be managed was singularly taken by
the capital investor, e.g., a family investing in a toilet
and septic tank, or a government agency constructing
and operating a sewerage system. This practice still
exists. Sanitation facilities are almost exclusively toilets
and septic tanks on one end of the spectrum and
centralized sewerage systems on the other
2
.
In the past, population density was low, and the
distinction between rural and urban was much more
dened. Household sanitation facilities could exist as
stand-alone systems, relying on the carrying capacity
of the natural environment. This is no longer tenable.
Rural areas are rapidly becoming built up, with the
countrys rate of urbanization exceeding the regional
average. As houses are built closer together, the
volume and concentration of waste increases and
the capacity of natural systems to process it becomes
progressively limited. Thus, sanitation and wastewater
planning needs to look more comprehensively across
the range of solutions and consider a broader set of
views and resources.
Decentralizing responsibility for sanitation to local
governments, starting in the 1990s, presents both
an opportunity and a challenge for moving towards
comprehensive sanitation planning. On the one hand,
decisions can be taken at a level where people have
the highest degree of interest in, and understanding
of, their particular situation. This involves community
participation and can result in better decisions about
the sanitation service that is feasible and appropriate,
given physical, institutional and socio-economic
conditions. On the other hand, serious information
gaps on sanitation concepts and options exist at this
level, even among technical professionals within local
government units.
2.1 Iterative Decision-Making
The selection of sanitation options involves the
consideration of technical and non-technical issues.
An assessment of physical factors that limit potentially
feasible options or compel corrective actions in their
design, construction or operation is necessary. Decision-
making will also need to consider non-technical factors,
such as the acceptability of options by users, to better
ensure that sanitation systems will operate eectively in
the long-run.
As a rst step in decision-making, it is easiest to eliminate
from the very beginning those options that, on technical
grounds, cannot be eectively utilized at all. Some options
cannot be used in specic situations given the physical and
technical constraints. Factors that exclude certain types of
sanitation technology options are referred to as Restricting
Variables. The presence of restricting variables will only
eliminate some, but not all options, and may continue to be
relevant in later stages of decision-making for those options
that do not get excluded.
The second step in decision-making is a review
of factors that will affect the design, efficiency or
acceptability of certain options. These factors are referred
to as Inuencing Variables.
Influencing variables are further classified into two
technical factors and demand factors. Technical factors
relate to physical parameters, while demand factors
relate to socio-economic considerations, including
cultural preferences.
The presence of technical inuencing factors will not
eliminate options, but need to be considered in the
plan, design and implementation of projects. Typically,
the responses to technical inuencing variables are to:
introduce corrective or mitigating measures in the
system so that potential hazards to health and the
environment are reduced or eliminated, or
consider them in the design and construction of
systems so that standards are met and eciency of
the systems is preserved.
Demand factors also inuence the design, eciency and
acceptability of options. They relate to socio-economic
issues that aect (increase or decrease) the motivation of
investors, users or consumers to invest in a facility, use it
and/or to pay for its use. They also relate to cultural
preferences in the choice of the appropriate option.
Deciding on the combination of options that is technically
feasible and socio-economically viable, therefore, requires
judgment based on an investigation of various issues.
Usually, this decision is arrived at after a series of discussions
and deliberations among project stakeholders.
2.2 Decision Aids
This Chapter identies Restricting and Inuencing factors
and how they aect proposed solutions. The Sourcebook
organizes information around these issues into quick
reference decision-aids:
2 Only a handful of cities have sewerage systems. Most either use the storm drains or do not have collection systems.
20
a. Model Survey Instruments for Community
Sanitation and Sanitation for Enterprises - The
surveys comprise questionnaires for socio-economic
(Survey Instrument 1-a) and technical (Survey
Instrument 1-b) investigation. In the discussions of
factors, a cross-reference to the relevant item in the
questionnaire is made. The survey instruments are in
Annex 1.
b. Tables on Technical Restricting and Influencing
Variables The most common technical factors and
their eects are presented in two tables:
7ob/e 2-! on kestrlctlng vorlob/es identies physical
or technical conditions that render some options
inoperable/infeasible.
7ob/e 2-2 on 7echnlco/ lnenclng vorlob/es identies
physical or technical variables that need to be
considered in the design, construction or operation of
some sanitation options.
c. Checklist of Demand Factors A l i st of
considerations relating to demand factors are given in
Subsection 2.5.
This Chapter also puts forward the following three
decision-aids that compare the several options under
each system component:
a. Matrices 2-1A and 2-1B Effect of Site Specific
Conditions to Technology Options for Domestic
Wastewater compares domestic sanitation options
against a list of site specific conditions. Using the
color scheme of a trac light, the matrix lets the user
know, at a glance, the eect of these conditions to
certain options and therefore, if one should go ahead
(green grid with vertical lines), stop (red grid with
horizontal lines) or proceed with caution (yellow grid
with dots).
Comparison of Technology Performance - The
lower half of Matrices 2-1A and 2-1B compares the
sanitation options according to their performance
based on 13 criteria.
b. Preliminary Matrices 2-2A and 2-2B Pre-treatment/
Treatment Technology Options for Public Markets
and Hospitals. These are used in conjunction with
the above matrices (Effect of Site Specific Conditions
to Technology Options for Domestic Wastewater) in the
case of public markets and hospitals that will need pre-
treatment of non-domestic waste water streams.
These deci si on ai ds can assi st project pl anners
make informed comparisons of the options and
communi cate these i ssues wi th other proj ect
stakeholders.
2.3 Restricting Variables and
Sanitation Technologies
Ruled Out
Table 2-1 on Restricting Variables identies the most
common physical or technical conditions that render
some options inoperable/infeasible in the rst column;
the second column lists the sanitation options that
are ruled out by their presence; and, the third column
provides the cross-reference to the Model Survey
Instrument.
Technical or
Physical Condition
Technologies Eliminated Survey Instrument
Index
1. Water supply is
not available
Water carried systems such as flush toilets and piped sewerage. Only dry systems can apply (See options for
non-water reliant systems in Flowcharts 1-1, 1-3 and Matrix 2-1A)
Survey Instrument
1b Item C)1.
2. Limited space Treatment and disposal systems that require substantial lot areas. Among treatment systems that need large
spaces are natural systems, e.g., wetlands, ponds, lagoons, leaching fields, reed beds. Disposal systems that
need large spaces include soil infiltration or irrigation (for effluent disposal) and landfill (for sludge disposal).
Also rules out pit privies or pit latrines that require the development of subsequent pits as the first one
becomes full.
Survey Instrument
1b Item B) 3 & 4.
3. Area is prone
to flooding
Systems that become inef fective when flooded, such as pit privies, leaching pits, constructed wetlands,
aerated lagoons, waste stabilization ponds, reed beds, and landfills (for sludge disposal). In highly urbanized
areas, where land is scarce and expensive, areas prone to flooding may be considered, as it may be cheaper
to mitigate flooding at the site than to purchase land.
Survey Instrument
1b Item B) 5 & 6.
4. High groundwater
table
Facilities that require good drainage such as leaching pits, unlined wetlands, lagoons, ponds, and filtration
fields
Survey Instrument
1b Item B) 8 & 9.
5. Difficult vehicular
access into the area
Systems that rely on desludging/haulage services, e.g. by vacuum trucks for septic tank desludging and
compost haulage
Survey Instrument
1b Item B) 2 & 3.
6. Irregular roads/path
circulation systems
Conventional piped sewerage systems because these require orderly road or grid patterns.
Simplified condominial sewerage could be adopted for this site condition.
Survey Instrument
1b Item B) 2.
7. Poor soil
permeability
Systems that rely on leaching to the ground for disposal such as leaching pits and pit privy. Impermeable
soils include clay and consolidated loam.
Survey Instrument
1b Item B) 7 & 8.
Table 2-1
Table of Restricting Variables
2.4 Technical Inuencing
Variables and their Eects
The rst column on Table 2-2 Technical Inuencing Variables
identifies what variables need to be considered in the
design, construction and implementation of sanitation
systems. The second column discusses why or in what way
the factor is relevant. The third column describes how the
particular variable can be measured or estimated, or the
way that these variables usually occur. The last column
cross-refers the variable to relevant questions in the model
Survey Instrument in Annex 1.
Technical
Factors
Relevance Estimation or Common Occurrence
Survey
Instrument
Index
1. Content of
wastewater
The types of pollutant occurring in the wastewater will dictate
the treatment process that needs to be employed. (See
discussions on Chapter 1 Section 1.4)
Waste from hospitals, public markets and slaughter houses
cannot be treated as purely domestic waste. Some of the waste
streams from these establishment need to be pre-treated, or
otherwise, the combined waste streams need to be fully treated.
Waste from markets and slaughter houses have high protein content
from sh, poultry, meat processing activities.
Waste from hospitals and laboratories are classified into: domestic
(similar to those produced by households) and hazardous health care
wastes. Hazardous health care wastes include: pathogens, chemical,
pharmaceuticals and radioactive elements. (See discussions on Hospitals on
Chapter 3 Section 3.3)
Survey
Instrument 1b
Item D) 1 & 2.
Survey
Instrument
2 D) 2
The waste content has an eect on the reuse or application of
waste by-products.
For systems that rely on the recovery of nutrients, such as bio-
digesters and compost privies, the wastewater must have high
organic content.
Waste from food processing and pig farms will have high organic
material content suitable for biogas recovery.
Urine contains high levels of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous
suitable for application as fertilizer.
2. Volume of
wastewater
produced
or number
of users
The collection and treatment components of sanitation
systems need to be sized according to the expected volume
of waste that needs to be processed each day. The volume of
wastewater inow into systems usually depends on the number
of users that will be served
Estimated volume of wastewater produced per capita per day is 50 liters.
For public markets, the estimated volume of wastewater produced per
stall per day is 30 liters.
For hospitals, the estimated volume of wastewater produced per bed per
day is 60 liters.
Survey
Instrument
1b Item B) 2
For treatment plants, the volume of wastewater needs to be
considered in the design, so that the appropriate retention time
can be allowed to process wastewater eectively.
Estimated sludge accumulated per capita per year is 40 liters
The number of users will need to be considered for constructing
the appropriate number of toilet facilities, especially for public toilets.
The frequency that males urinate per day is about 8 times.
The frequency that females urinate per day is about 10 times.
3. Space
availability
The dimensions of sanitation structures need to be laid to suit
the available space.
Septic tank Area of at least 0.3 m
2
per person
Waste stabilization ponds Area of at least 1.8 hectare for 260 m
3
/day
volume of wastewater or a community of 3,000.
Compact treatment systems such as SBR - footprint of 540 m
2
for waste
volume of 3,000 m
3
/day (or equivalent population of 38,000).
Engineered reed beds Area of about 2 m
2
per person.
Note that natural systems such as ponds, can be incorporated into parks
or the design of landscapes. Other systems, such as anaerobic reactors,
can be built underground.
(For the approximate footprint of more options, refer to Martrix 2-1B and the
Technology Sheets on Chapter 4.)
Survey
Instrument 1b
Item B) 3 & 4.
Survey
Instrument
2 Item E)
4. Compliance
with
Environmental
Standards and
Regulations
Before nal disposal into the environment, the quality of euent
or sludge must meet the relevant environmental standards.
Minimum euent standards are set by the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR). Effluent standards depend on the
classification of the water body where the effluent is finally being
discharged. (For the Philippine effluent standards, please see Chapter 1
Subsection 1.6.)
Sludge for soil conditioning is regulated by the Department of Agriculture
(DA). It must have pathogen levels (less than 2.0x E-10 MPN/gram total
solids) so as not to cause threat to public health and the environment.
Survey
Instrument 1b
Item B) 6.
Another set of regulations requires the installation of sanitation
or wastewater treatment facilities for houses and other
establishments as part of compliance.
For houses, the Sanitation Code of the Philippines requires installation of
a septic tank.
For other establishments, the applicable rules pertain to securing an
environmental compliance certication. An environmental compliance
certicate (ECC) is required for environmentally critical projects under PD
No. 1586.
Table 2-2
Table of Technical Influencing Variables
22
Technical
Factors Relevance Estimation or Common Occurrence
Survey
Instrument
Index
In the grant of an ECC, one of the conditions is that the project/
establishment shall have all its euents conform to DENR standards. The
DENR Euent Standards under DAO #35 shows examples on Table 2-2,
Section 1.6 of Chapter 1.
A DENR Memorandum Order issued on 10 February 2004 requires
sewage treatment facilities as a condition of the ECC for all new projects
such as hospitals, malls, restaurants, hotels and other residential buildings,
subdivisions and similar projects. All existing facilities and establishments
are also required to set up sewage treatment facilities as a condition to
the renewal of their PO.
5. Compliance
with
Engineering
Standards for
Design and
Construction
Systems need to be constructed according to specications and
engineering standards, e.g., in relation to concrete strength.
Industry associations also normally provide standards for
sanitation wares, such as toilet bowls, etc.
For buildings and other infrastructures, refer to the Philippine Building
Code and the DPWH Standards and Specications.
Plumbing fixtures, toilets, septic tanks, etc. refer to the Philippine
Sanitation Code.
6. Terrain/
Topography
Terrain is relevant particularly for the collection component of
systems. A at terrain will require deeper trenches to induce
water ow and one or two lift pumps. A rolling or hilly terrain
will likely need more pumping stations
Most population centers are in the relatively flat plains, where land
development is cheaper.
Minimum gradient of collection system is 0.005 or 5 meters vertical
(down) in 1000 meters horizontal distance.
Survey
Instrument
1b Item B)5
7. Depth of
Groundwater
Table
A shallow groundwater level poses construction difficulty
for conventional sewerage. Construction will need to use
equipment for dewatering and trench protection.
A groundwater table within 1 meter below ground surface is considered
shallow.
Survey
Instrument
1b Item B) 1
Combined systems usually have unlined joints, therefore, shallow
groundwater levels may incur more groundwater inltration into
the system.
Some systems rely on leaching to the ground as a cleansing or
treatment system. In these cases, seepage to the ground risks
contamination of groundwater.
Toilets and septic tanks should be built at least 25 meters away from
water wells.
Lining can be used for natural reed bed systems, toilets and septic tanks
to avoid leaching to the groundwater
Survey
Instrument
1b Item B) 1
8. Risk of
pollution
of water or
food sources,
infection and
health hazards
and other
undesirable
eects
Some sanitation systems, because of the nature of their
operating systems, are more prone to risks or undesirable eects,
such as smells. The improper operation of system components
also causes hazards and undesirable eects. These issues should
be considered so that project planners can institute mitigation
measures.
The sanitation components that are most liable to pollute or contaminate
the environment are the toilet and disposal components. Collection
components, particularly open combined sewers, also pose a greater risk
to health.
Systems requiring manual handling of feces and urine need to protect
against the possibility of direct or indirect contact.
Open systems like pit privy, open sewers, anaerobic ponds, etc., are
usually prone to smells.
Non-water reliant systems, open ponds, trickling lters and disposal by
land application, if not designed, constructed or implemented properly,
can risk the breeding of insects.
(For details on other options, see Matrix 2-1B)
Survey
Instrument 1b
Item D)
9. Potential for
resource re-use
or recovery
Some options will allow the recovery of material or resource. Most ecological sanitation technologies allow recovery of materials for
reuse, e.g. urine-diverting toilets, biogas plant, compost toilets.
Sludge or compost can be used as fertilizer.
2.5 Demand Variables
In order to realize their full benets, sanitation facilities must
be used and maintained properly. Sanitation facilities that
do not operate properly can pose even greater health and
environmental hazards than those they were designed to
prevent.
Acceptance and understanding of proposed sanitation
solutions by their potential users are therefore essential to
make sure that users will --
invest in sanitation facilities,
continue to use the facilities in a health-promoting
way, and
contribute to the ongoing functioning of facilities
by paying for their costs and ensuring their proper
maintenance.
A supply-driven approach, where facilities are decided
based on assumptions by technical experts alone,
commonly encounter use and maintenance problems
because facilities introduced do not match consumer
demands and expectations. Or, they do not pay enough
attention to consumers knowledge and behavioral gaps.
service providers, and national and local government
entities. For example, the cost to construct shared
infrastructure, such as the collection and treatment
components, is often assigned to utilities or government,
with or without subsequent repayment from users (or
from government to utilities), because of the high level
of investment required. The benets to public health and
the environment resulting from the investment justify
investment of public funds in shared infrastructure,
in promoting change in behavior that maximizes the
potential use of sanitation facilities, and in increasing
demand for sanitation services.
Depending on what percentage of costs is ultimately
assigned to households, the total cost of the project
can be divided by the number of households that
will be potentially served to get the capital cost per
household.
If it is intended that all capital costs will be recovered
from their users during the life of the system, the Cost
Recovery Table shown as Table 2-3 provides a sample
estimate of the level of contribution that will be
required annually from each participating household.
Samples are provided for two types of collection
systems and four treatment options.
The annual contribution from each household for
capital cost recovery is based on the investment cost
(including cost of money), divided by the assumed
economic life of a system and by the number of
participating households. For the sample below, the
calculations assume a 20-year economic life of the
sanitation facility, with cost of money at 12 percent
per annum. Various cost scenarios are presented based
on the size of the facility (capacity in cubic meter per
day) and the number of household users. The cost of
land was not included.
Demand factors discussed here relate to factors that
increase or decrease the motivation of consumers to
use a facility and pay for its continuing use.
The concept of demand is used by economists to
describe the quantity of goods or services that a
person chooses to buy at a given price. In this way,
demand is equated with willingness to pay what
consumers choose to buy, given their spending
limitations and the prices of various goods and
services.
Cost to Investors and Users
One part of the demand equation is the cost of
sanitation services.
In general, there are two cost components of sanitation
facilities:
cost of construction (capital costs)
cost of operation and maintenance, including
management costs (recurrent costs)
Recurrent or O&M costs include electricity, personnel,
transportation, rentals, cleaning, and parts replacement.
Capital costs include the cost of the site and the
investment to construct the facility, as well as the cost
of money used to make such investment (e.g., interest
from a bank loan, etc).
Capital and recurrent costs will vary according to the
technology, level of service, and eciency of facilities under
consideration. The estimates of the capital investment and
O&M cost for the various sanitation options are shown in
the Technology Sheets in Chapter 4.
How to Estimate Capital Costs to Users/Consumers
Often, sanitation costs are allocated among different
groups: users/households, communities, utilities or
Capacity (m
3
/day)
No. of
Households
(HH)*
Annual Cost per HH to Recover Capital within Economic Life (P)
Collection System Treatment System
Simplied
Sewerage
Combined
Sewerage
Imho Tank Oxidation Ditch Sequencing
Batch Reactor
Waste Stabilization
Pond
< 100 < 166 4.529 2.043
101 - 200 167 - 334 4.523 2.040
201 - 400 335 - 667 4.512 2.035 115 5.981 5.814 3.824
401 - 800 668 - 1.334 4.511 2.035 92 4.362 4.475 2.731
801 - 1.600 1.335 - 2.667 4.511 2.035 69 3.181 3.445 1.912
1.601 - 2.500 2.668 - 4.167 4.511 2.035 46 2.466 2.789 1.366
Economic Life, year 20 20 20 20 20 20
Annual Interest Rate, % 12 12 12 12 12 12
* Wastewater flow per HH (5 persons/HH) at 120 liters per capita per day
Table 2-3
Sample Capital Cost Recovery Table for Collection and Treatment Systems
24
Table 2-3 can be used to guide decisions on allocating
costs among project stakeholders, if only partial cost
recovery from consumers is intended. The same kind
of calculation can be used for other components of
sanitation infrastructure simply by replacing the relevant
values. (Please refer to specic technologies in Chapter 4.)
Consumers Willingness to Pay
Cost is only one part of understanding demand.
Another part of demand relates to the perception of
consumers about the value derived from goods or
services for which they pay.
Of ten, however, consumers wi l l have l i mi ted
knowledge about various sanitation options that
are available and about their benefits and costs. In
many instances, consumers will also prefer to invest
in household level improvements (e.g., upgrading
their septic system). They may not be willing to pay
for community-wide systems that are important for
achieving overall environmental health objectives.
Thus, in investigating the consumers willingness to pay,
it is important that consumers understand the costs and
implications of various realistic and feasible options.
The investigation must also be clear about what costs
are being assigned to which stakeholders, based on
an understanding of the resources that are available
to various participants in the project.
How to Determine Willingness to Pay
Willingness to pay can be determined in various
ways:
A simplistic way of measuring the willingness of
consumers to pay is by equating it with affordability.
This is usually measured by the cost of various options
as a percentage of household income. The threshold of
aordability commonly used for water and sanitation
services is 5 percent of the household income.
3

Another method is to nd out what consumers are
already paying for in terms of similar or alternative
services; for example, what people pay for in
environmental fees, for the use of public toilets or to
buy safe water, such as bottled water.
Alternatively, observations can be made about what
it costs people to cope with the lack of such services
or to obtain them; for example, the time, money and
labor spent coping with ooding or toilet back-ups to
measure willingness to invest in drainage.
These methods use the revealed preference technique.
3 However, there seems to be no empirical basis for this threshold value, except for its common usage. It is observed that households, including the poor, consistently spend more than
this amount for water and sanitation services.
In most cases, revealed preference can only provide an
indication of the minimum that people are prepared
to pay for a service, especially when the price they are
currently paying is subsidized.
Observations in one community can be used with
caution to determine potential willingness in another
similarly-situated community.
The third method is to ask people about what they
are willing to pay for specific goods and services
given hypothetical scenarios. This uses the stated
preference technique. This technique is concerned
with nding out the maximum amount people are
prepared to pay for a service or improvement.
Care needs to be taken in designing and conducting
these investigations to ensure that people understand
and respond to realistic scenarios (services are
accurately described and priced) and that answers are
free from bias. Surveys or focused-group discussions
(called informed choice dialogues) are often used to
investigate peoples stated preferences.
In conducting willingness to pay investigations, it is
also useful to understand what consumers forego
by spending for sanitation (opportunity costs).
Consumers may have other spending priorities so
that even if they could afford to spend on sanitation,
it is not their priority. For example, hospital managers
may prefer to purchase additional equipment, such
as an X-ray machine, that will generate revenues for
their hospitals rather than construct a wastewater
treatment faci l i ty, even i f they coul d afford i t.
Understanding these limitations can help project
planners respond effecti vely through promoti on
(demand-creation), appropriate financing incentives/
programs and product development.
Other Factors Affecting Demand
Aside from price, the following factors also increase
or decrease the motivation of consumers to invest
in sanitation, use the facility properly, or pay for its
maintenance and operation:
a. Consumer knowledge of
what constitutes proper hygiene and sanitation
the benefits of sanitation and the consequences
of i nacti on, l ack of sani tati on or poor l y
functioning systems
different options available to address sanitation
problems, their operation and costs and where
to go for sanitation services or products
b. Consumer attitude, motivation and desires.
Demand Factors Implications
Survey Instrument
Question Index
1. Annual Capital Costs to Consumers of Proposed Project
[Total Capital Cost of System Including Intersts X % of Capital Cost Assigned to Consumers]
[Economic Life of System in Years X No. of Household Users] Survey Instrument 1b B) 1
2. Recurrent Costs to Consumers of Proposed Project
Total O&M Costs
No. of Household Users Survey Instrument 1b B) 1
3. Consumers Willingness to Pay
Affordability
Average Annual Income per Household
Total Annual Capital and Recurrent Cost
Is the total capital and recurrent cost equal to or less than 5% of the average annual income?
Yes No
Survey Instrument 1a E)
Survey Instrument 1a B)
Survey Instrument 1a B) 1
A yes answer means that
households are likely to
consi der the proposed
service affordable.
Revealed Preference
Total Costs to Households for Alternative Service + Total Costs to Households for Coping
Total Cost of Proposed Project to Households
Is the sum of alternative service and coping costs to households equal to or larger than the actual
cost of the proposed project?
Yes No
Do 80% or more of the households in the target community pay more by way of alternative
and coping costs than the actual cost of the proposed project?
Yes No
A yes answer demonstrates
high motivation within the
community to improve their
services.
These could relate to:
what consumers feel about (or the strength
of their views about the value of ) specific
sanitation facilities and hygiene practices
consumer preference for the design, location,
ease of use/features, convenience and levels of
sanitation service
motivations for investing, using and maintaining
sanitation facilities. There can be internal or
external stimuli of motivation:
o internal motivations could be the improvement
in status and privacy; or convenience of use
o external motivations would include social
pressures/shame or a sense of contribution to
a greater cause (e.g. environmental protection
and disease prevention)
competing consumer priorities;
consumer opti mi sm that the sol uti on i s
wor thwhi l e and that success i s l i kel y and
confidence in the leadership and the concerted
effort (if requiring community action)
consumer desire to upgrade or improve the
level of their existing waste disposal method.
c. Available sanitation skills and facilities (supply-
side factors that deflate demand)
Consumer demand is likely to be affected by
many supply-side constraints. For instance, poor
maintenance by households of their septic tanks
could be due to the low level of skills of local
masons to construct a properly functioning septic
tank or because of a lack of pit emptying service
in the locality.
In the same way, demand for water-dependent
sanitation facilities will obviously be affected by
the availability of water supply in an area.
d. Consumer practices and cultures. These could
relate to:
present hygiene practices and risk behaviors or
habits, for example, in relation to hand washing
with soap or the manner of anal cleansing
practices that relate to the use and maintenance
of sanitation facilities - For example, in certain
cases, sanitation facilities need to be designed
to allow the recovery and reuse of resources
where communities practice agricultural reuse
of waste materials.
e. I ncentives encourage persons to act i n a
specific way. Incentives take the form of rewards
and penalties. The presence of regulatory and
economic incentives and the effectiveness of their
implementation also influence consumer demand.
Examples of these incentives are:
pollution fines and penalties
subsidies for specific activities or target groups
zoning ordinances
water quality and discharge standards
Table 2-4
Checklist of Demand Factors
26
Demand Factors Implications
Survey Instrument
Question Index
Stated Preference
Stated Amount Willing to be Paid for the Cost of Specific Option/Level of Service
Is the stated amount equal to or larger than the project cost?
Yes No
Did 80% or more of the households in the target community express a willingness to pay for
an amount equal to or greater than the actual cost of the proposed project?
Yes No
A yes answer means a
high willingness to pay for
the proposed service. Survey Instrument 1a D)
Willingness to Participate
Does 80% or more of the households in the area express willingness to have such a project?
Yes No
A yes answer demonstrates
hi gh mot i vat i on of
households to participate in
the project.
Opportunity Costs
Households can be asked to rank their spending priorities for money that is saved or set aside
This can reveal the most
i mpor t a nt s pendi ng
pri ori ti es that compete
with sanitation
4. Consumer Knowledge
Are target households able to answer questions on proper hygiene and sanitation correctly?
Questions can relate to:
when and how hand-washing should be done
other good hygiene practices
how and what diseases are transmitted
how sanitation prevents disease transmission
consequences of poor sanitation
The level of consumer
knowledge identifies areas
where interventions, such as
hygiene education, might be
needed to complement the
introduction of sanitation
facility.
Lack of knowledge about
sanitation and its benefits
can also affect consumer
demand for the service.
Survey Instrument 1a C)
Where do they go for information? Thi s hel ps to t arget
communication campaigns.
5. Consumer attitude, motivation and desires
Is the attitude of households towards sanitation positive, negative, or indif ferent? What
motivates consumers to seek sanitation services?
ask consumers to list benefits perceived to be brought by sanitation
ask consumers to rate whether they agree or disagree with declarations about the benefits
or importance of sanitation and about common misconceptions or risk practices
This tests the motivation of
consumers to participate in
the sanitation project; to
use the facilities and to pay
for its continuing operation
and maintenance.
Survey Instrument 1a C) 7
Have households been making sanitation investments?
Have they invested in sanitation facilities? Why or why not?
Do they plan to improve these facilities? Why or why not?
What are their preferences in terms of location, design,
feature or level of service of sanitation?
This confirms the statement
of consumers (above) with
their actions and can reveal
constraints or motivations
other than those identified
by the project planners.
6. Sanitation Skills and Facilities Available to Consumers
What sanitation support systems are available in the area? Questions can look at:
Skills available for constructing, repairing and maintaining sanitation systems
Support services for sanitation systems, e.g. desludging services
Consumer mot i vat i on
is often affected by the
availability of skilled service
providers, support services
or the facility of accessing
these services.
Do households know about different sanitation options? Motivation for improving
sanitation conditions may
be affected by the lack
of consumer knowledge
about possi bi l i ti es for
improvement.
7. Sanitation Practices and Preferences
What are their current hygiene practices?
This woul d reveal risk
behavi ours that need
to be addressed along
with sanitation systems
development.
Survey Instrument
1a C) 7, 8
What are their sanitation preferences? E.g.
Are consumers washers or wipers?
Do they prefer to sit or squat?
Is there a history of applying waste matter for agriculture?
Pr act i ces al so r eveal
preferences of consumers
that should inform the
design and operation of
sanitation facilities.
8. Incentives
Are there regulations about sanitation and wastewater?
Are there sanitation programs being implemented?
Do schools have hygiene programs?
2.6 Review and Comparison
of Technology Options
The following matrices on Effect of Site Specific
Conditions and Comparison of Performance of
Technologies help appraise the various domestic
sanitation options based on the:
effect of site specific conditions to particular
technologies
performance of technologies against 13 selected
performance parameters
On the left-most column, the matrices cite physical
and technical variables. The effects of these variables
are plotted against each of the possible sanitation
options using the color scheme of a traffic light.
A green-colored grid (with vertical lines) indicates
that a certain variable does not restrict the option,
hence, a go signal is given. A yellow (dotted) grid
means proceed with caution and implies that the
technology remains viable so long as corrective or
mitigating measures are adopted. A red grid (with
horizontal lines) is a stop signal. It means that under
the condition cited, this technology is not useable.
The l ower hal f of the matr i ces revi ews the
per formance of sani tati on opti ons agai nst the
following parameters: footprint (land area required),
capital cost, O&M cost, system robustness, system
flexibility, ease of construction, simplicity of operation,
usability of byproducts, health implications, technical
rating appropriateness, treatment efficiency (for BOD
and TSS), energy use and strength handling.
In assessing performance, the following scales and
definitions were used:
Performance
Indicators
Explanation Rating scale used: from low to high performances
Footprint land area required large medium/
large
medium small/
medium
small
Capital costs capital investment costs very high high medium/
high
medium low very
low
O&M costs operations and maintenance costs high medium/
high
medium low very low
System robustness ability to withstand shock loading or changes
i n the wastewater characteristi cs; adequate
performance for a specified period of time under
specific conditions
poor poor/fair fair fair/good good very
good
excellent
System flexibility plant expansion/upgrading/retrofitting accom-
plished easily; also reliability; can function despite
breakdown of some equipment or unit; can
operate in a wide range of flow rates
poor fair good excellent
Ease of construction facility of construction very
difficult
difficult fair easy very easy
Simplicity of
operation
ease of operation difficult fair simple very
simple
Usability of
byproducts
abi l i t y to har vest by product of sani tati on
processes for other productive use
no yes, gray
H
2
O
yes
Health implications existence of potential hazard hazardous some
hazard
Technical rating
appropriateness
design process matched to expected flow rates
and waste characteri sti cs; requi rements for
their proper operation met; treatment process
sufficiently designed to various factors, such as
temperature, inhibitory elements, etc.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Treatment efficiency
BOD
TSS
based on two parameters, BOD and TSS
poor
poor
fair
fair
fair/good
fair/good
good
good
excellent
excellent
Energy type energy or inputs used to operate the system electro
mechanical
(E/M)
electrical
(E)
chemical natural
Strength handling can handle highly polluted water, par ticuarly
organic in nature and high flow rates
poor fair good excellent
Table 2-5
Technology Performance Rating Scale
28
It must be noted that scales used are relative rather
than normative, that is, the rating given to one
technology is based on its relative performance
against the other technologies within its category that
are included in the list.
Only domestic sanitation systems are assessed in
the manner described above. Matrix 2-1 A deals
with non-water reliant domestic sanitation systems
and Matrix 2-1 B deals with water-reliant domestic
sanitation systems.
Based on the situation in a proposed site, some
sanitation technology will not be feasible and can
be dropped from the list of options. The remaining
options can then be subjected to a second level of
evaluation by comparing their performance against a
proposed set of criteria.
Matrix 2-1A & 2-1B (Lower Half ) Comparison of
Technology Performance compares sani tati on
technologies according to their performance based on
13 measures. The criteria are largely technical variables.
It is not possible to know at this stage how acceptable
the technologies will be to their users.
In many cases, there are trade os to be made between
these performance qualities. For example, where space
is limited, compact systems can be installed to function
equally eciently, but perhaps at the price of higher
construction and maintenance costs. Only the planners,
proponents and communities involved in the project
will be able to decide what those trade os will be. It
is, therefore, not possible to predict which of these 13
factors present the highest constraint for them. Decision-
makers will have to rank or assign weights to these
different factors according to the primary constraints
presented by their own situations.
The second level evaluation is enhanced by the
more detailed descriptions of technologies from the
technology sheets on Chapter 4. The technology
sheets include information on system operations
principles, advantages (pros) and disadvantages
(cons), ease of operation or maintenance, applicability,
eciency, reliability and costs.
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r
32
Technology Options for Public Markets and
Hospitals
As discussed in Chapter 1, wastewater from enterprises
such as hospitals and public markets needs to be
managed differently from domestic waste. In these
cases, wastewater first undergoes pre-treatment to
reduce its quality to domestic sewage, or non-domestic
wastewater streams are collected and managed
separately from domestic waste streams. For hospitals
and public markets, the Sourcebook includes Preliminary
Matrices 2-2 A (Public Markets) and 2-2 B (Hospitals)
which present pre-treatment options for the various
waste streams.
In the case of public markets, wastewater from meat
and sh processing will have higher organic and protein
content than wastewater coming from houses. In the
case of hospitals, components of wastewater will need
to undergo pre-treatment as they typically contain
chemical, toxic or pathological elements. Pre-treatment
options for public markets appear on Matrix 2-2 A and
for hospitals, Matrix 2-2 B.
The domestic wastewater streams from these establishments,
or wastewater that is reduced to such a quality through
pre-treatment, can be treated the same way as household
wastewater. It is only at this time that Matrices 2-1 A and B
become relevant.
Matrix 2-1B (cont)
Effect of Site Specific Conditions and Comparison of Performance of Technologies for Domestic Wastewater
(Water-Reliant: Effluent/Sludge Disposal/Reuse)
PARAMETERS
EFFLUENT DISPOSAL/REUSE SLUDGE DISPOSAL/REUSE
Discharge
into a body
of water
Soil
Infiltration/
Irrigation
Aqua
Culture
Biogas
Recovery
Sludge
Drying Bed
Reed Bed Composting
Land
Application
(Agricultural
Use)
S
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1a. Water supply - Piped
- Fetched
1. Nature of Area - Urban environment
- Rural environment
2a. Topography
2. Flooding or Poor drainage in the area
3. High groundwater level
4. Soil permeability (a) (a)
5a. Inorderly road/paths circulation system (b)
5. Difficult vehicular access to facilities
6. Limited space
O
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7. Footprint small large large small medium large large large
8. Capital costs low medium low high low medium medium medium
9. O&M costs low low low medium low low low low
10. System robustness excellent excellent excellent good fair good poor/fair excellent
11. System flexibility excellent good fair good good fair poor good
12. Ease of construction - very easy - easy easy easy difficult very easy
13. Simplicity of operation very simple fair fair difficult simple fair fair fair
14. Usability of byproducts - yes yes yes yes no yes yes
15. Health implications - some hazard some hazard - - - - some hazard
16. Technical rating appropriateness 3 5 4 3 5 2 4 5
NOTES: LEGENDS:
(a) Preference for smaller watershed or catchment areas with modular or decentralized facilities.
(b) To accommodate a pipe network.
Stop: Not Applicable
Go: Applicable
Caution: Applicable with corrective measures
Not a factor to consider
Matrix 2-2A
Treatment Technology Options for Public Markets
WASTEWATER STREAMS
TOILET SYSTEM FULL TREATMENT
Pour-Flush Tank-Flush Flush Valve
Anaerobic
Pond
UASB
Anaerobic
Reactor
Septic Tank/
Imhoff Tank
(See Matrix
2-1 B)
1. Combined system (if available) To central treatment plant (See Matrix 2-1 B)
2. Separate system
Domestic wastes
Sullage wastes
Meat and fish processing wastes
Maintenance wastes (dirty water)
LEGENDS:
Readily applicable
Not an option for the given parameter
34
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CHB WALL WW
CONC. SLAB
STANDARD TT
TOILET BOWL
CHAPTER 3
7YPlFl0 C0MMUNl7Y
AN0 N7RPRl$ PR0FlL$
36
The prof i l es i n thi s Chapter hi ghl i ght the
physical and socio-economic factors that need
to be considered in the planning of sanitation
interventions. The profiles are not intended to
replace technical and socio-economic investigations,
but may provide pointers to those processes. Some
of these pointers are offered at the end of the
profiles.
This Chapter presents the sanitation situation in
two types of communities and three enterprises:
tenured low-income urban community, peri-urban
coastal community, medium-sized beach resort,
municipal public market and secondary hospitals.
This initial selection was guided by the national
government s pri ori ty to address sani tati on
in situations that present the highest risks or
challenges to environmental health.
3.1 Tenured Low-Income
Urban Community
Context
The Philippine urban population grows at the rate of
3% every year. Today, about half of all Filipinos live in
urban areas. By 2020, over 90 million people, more than
the present population, will live in urban areas. Globally,
approximately one-third of the urban population lives
in conditions that place them at high risk of disease,
mortality and deprivation. Low-income communities
within densely populated urban areas set the stage for
acute poverty in all forms.
In the Philippines, low-income urban communities
can be informal or tenured. This profile relates to
tenured low-income urban communities. Tenured low-
income communities usually form out of government
resettlement or in-settlement programs, or development
of low-cost housing communities supported by
government.
In Metro Manila, a dense settlement may have 120 to
180 households in a hectare of land.
Area Logistics
The Philippine Government estimates that the need for low-
cost housing is about 4 million units up to 2010. A majority
(56%) of this will be for Metro Manila, Southern Tagalog and
Central Luzon. In response, the government, in recent years,
has stepped up its program for socialized housing. About a
million units were constructed between 2001 and 2004.
Housing projects are generally planned. Construction
is vertical, with apartments uniformly sized and tted.
Projects are normally located in areas with sucient road
access. Network infrastructure for electricity and drainage
are available.
On the other hand, low-income urban communities
that result from spontaneous settlement, which is
subsequently legitimized, tend to be poorly planned, if
at all. These settlements are characterized by irregular
street layout and permanent and semi-permanent home
structures made of concrete. Home lots tend to be small
and houses built close to one another. While vehicle
access is possible, roads tend to be narrow and often
obstructed by parked vehicles, market and vending
stalls, and even animal pens. Network infrastructure for
electricity, water and drainage is usually available.
Access to Safe Water Supply
Socialized housing projects have provisions for water supply.
Water may either be supplied through an independent
deep well and elevated-tank system serving the buildings, or
through a water utility. Urban resettlement or in-settlement
sites are normally served by the water utility.
Continuity of water supply could be problematic in both
cases. The improvement of water supply service in these
areas does not tend to be a priority for the main utility.
Thus, residents will probably have supplemental sources
of water, such as from vendors, community hand pumps
or rain water collected in containers. Drinking water is
boiled and, occasionally, bottled water is purchased.
Resettlement communities are not normally located in
central areas where water supply networks are in good
condition. Especially for the older in-settlement areas,
water might become contaminated due to haphazard
pipe installation and leakage of old pipes. Because of
the irregular layout of streets and poor access in these
areas, it is not uncommon that water supply pipes are
laid beside or below the drainage systems, contrary to
sanitation building standards. This practice has also been
found in a number of housing projects, apparently in
order to save on digging costs.
Sanitation Facilities
Government environmental regulations require the
installation of water supply, drainage and primary
wastewater treatment facilities for all housing projects.
Thus, primary sanitation facilities will be available. A
number of housing projects in Metro Manila already
include small sewerage systems, but a majority of
builders are installing only communal septic tank
systems, not sewage treatment packages.
38
For resettlement areas, the installation of water supply
and drainage systems is common, but responsibility for
sanitation remains a household aair. Thus, it is usual
that only household facilities are constructed.
Storm drainage facilities generally consist of open or
covered canals, or drainage pipes. The drainage facilities
collect storm water and wastewater flows. Drainage
improvements are funded by the LGU but maintenance
(cleaning, declogging, minor repairs, etc.) is passed on
to the local barangays. The main drainage canal/pipe
generally outfalls to nearby creeks or waterways or to
low-lying areas that are temporary detention ponds of
the combined storm run-o and wastewater ow.
Most households have seating pour-flush toilets with
a single-chamber latrine or a septic tank. However, a
number of households still have toilets without septic
tanks because they cannot afford its construction, or
they have limited space. In this case, excreta might be
ushed from the toilet directly into the drainage system.
Animal wastes (e.g., from dogs and hogs) are directly
disposed into open canals.
The experience with public toilets in low income urban
areas has been unsatisfactory. Maintenance is a major
challenge. Besides the disproportionate number of toilets
to users and inconvenience of a centralized location,
the lack of clear arrangements for, and continuing
management of, the facility contributes to these poor
results. Thus, users become quickly dissatised with the
facilities worsening conditions, leading to a vicious cycle
of deterioration.
Volume and Characteristics of Wastewater
Housing projects normally have 1, 000 to 5, 000
households, depending on the availability of land.
Resettlement communities have several thousand
households. On the average, households in urban areas
have six members. The volume of wastewater can be
approximated at 25 to 50 liters per capita per day,
given the constrained supply of potable water and
expected lower consumption volume per household.
Wastewater i s general l y domesti c i n character.
However, since small businesses are a primary means
of livelihood, it is not uncommon for these chiefly
residential areas to host activities that generate
wastewater which is not strictly domestic in character.
For example, a number of households might raise one
or two heads of pig, run a small canteen, or peddle
food on the streets. In general, these low-income
urban communities also have a small wet market
(talipapa) in the neighborhood. Therefore, biological
materials in waste could be some 25% higher than
what one would expect from domestic sources.
Other Physical Issues
As wastewater is usually carried through open storm
drainage, solid waste management is a critical related
issue to prevent clogging, ooding and contamination.
Hygiene Practices
Most residents from tenured low-income urban
communities have access to toilets in their homes
and at work. However, a number who are engaged
in mobile activities (e.g., driving tricycles and jeeps,
or vending), may urinate in the open. On the other
hand, open-defecation is not usual. People mostly use
water to clean themselves after defecation. Claims of
hand-washing with soap after defecation or cleaning
of babies/children is high, but needs to be veried.
Diarrhea is common and residents generally relate it to
the poor quality of water, e.g. from rusty pipes, rather
than sanitation and drainage conditions or hygiene
practices. Residents are also generally suspicious about
the means of food preparation in small canteens in
their areas, and relate childrens sickness with spoiled
food or reuse of old cooking oil.
Contamination of drinking water through damaged
pipes laid under the drains has been found by the
DOH to be a cause of at least two major water-related
epidemics in low-income urban communities in the
last two years. However, no systematic investigations
about the linkage between sanitation and hygiene and
the incidence of water-related diseases are conducted,
except where these have aected an unusually large
number of people or led to more serious eects on
health.
Consumer Motivation
There is a growing number of poor families in urban
areas. The national census of 2000 reports that some
19.9% of families in urban areas are poor this is
up by 2% from 1997. The average annual household
incomes of families in the first and second lowest
income deciles are respectively: Php 24,506 and Php
39,620.
Frequent episodes of clogged drainage and oods, foul
odors from drains and backing up of toilets motivate
communities to improve sanitation facilities. However,
there is a tendency for those who own septic tanks
to pin responsibility for improvements solely on those
without.
Thus, it is not surprising that residents are unwilling to
improve their facilities, even when they are provided
with information about the appropriate design of
septic tanks.
Many residents show willingness to participate in
community-organized desludging schedules even as
a handful already engage the services of local tank
cleaners (pasipsip or malabanan) individually. Motivated
and active community organizations are helpful in
shoring up household interest in these community
improvement programs.
Local government capacity to implement sanitation
projects is very limited in these areas, especially at the
barangay level. The barangay structure is often the
first to recognize the need to undertake sanitation,
drainage and solid waste management improvement
programs, but is limited in terms of funding.
Existing septic tanks may not be achieving their
optimum results since they are often constructed
improperly. Many have unlined bottoms that allow
sewage to leach into the ground. A large number
also have no access manholes to allow maintenance.
Septic tank owners do not usually have these tanks
regularly desludged. Chambers are allowed to ll-up
with sludge, affecting the efficiency of wastewater
treatment. The local masons who construct the septic
tanks are usually not aware of the design principles
necessary to make septic tanks work safely and
eectively.
As lot sizes tend to be small in these areas, septic
tanks may be built under the living areas of the home,
such as the living room or kitchen. This presents a
major disincentive for the improvement of septic tanks
since it could mean a major reconstruction of the
house with attendant costs and disruption of living.
Table 3-1
TENURED LOWINCOME URBAN COMMUNITY
Household No. 120-180 per hectare
Household Size approximately 5-6 members
Volume of Wastewater 50 liters per capita per day
Sources of Wastewater Household toilet, kitchen, shower and laundry; small vending stores and canteens
Type of Wastewater Mainly domestic with possibility of higher biological and grease content from small markets, vending, food stalls
& canteens and backyard animal raising
BOD COD TSS
180 250 mg/l 360-450 mg/l 200-250 mg/l
Physical and Technical Factors
Threats Opportunities
Limited space for home or community sanitation infrastructure Network infrastructure for drains and water supply often available
Open drainage; water pipes laid beside or under drainage canals
Economic activities such as animal raising, markets and food vending
integrated into residential community
Demand Factors
Content with poorly functioning septic tank system; high disincentive to
improve septic tank because of its location inside the house (under the
kitchen or living room)
Desire to improve the sights and smells in the area is high among residents
as well as barangay leaders
Low awareness of users and local masons on septic tank design and
operation
High willingness to participate in community-initiated improvement programs
and sanitation activities
Desludging service irregular High level of hygiene awareness and relatively good practices
High number of mobile workers such as drivers and peddlers who urinate in
the open
Presence of community organizations
Pointers for Project Options
Consider sub-surface sanitation components or those that can integrate into the landscape and serve as a common green area
One option is to by-pass individual septic tanks in favor of communal systems to avoid major work by individual households or, in the alternative, facilitation of financing for home
upgrading
Water supply pipe repairs, drainage and solid waste management are critical intervention areas
Communal wash-shower and toilet facilities that are better planned and managed
Work with community organizations and leaders to help increase motivation
Work with higher levels of local government to support larger infrastructure investments
40
3.2 Peri-Urban Coastal Community
Context
Sixty percent of Philippine communities lie on the coast.
Many are densely-populated low income villages where
at least 25% of the households (rising up to 75% as the
communities become more rural) primarily rely on small-
scale shing. This form of livelihood is highly dependent
on the quality of the shing ground. The largest source
of pollution of Philippine waters is domestic sewage,
which is transported from in-land towns and cities, as
well as from the large numbers of communities living
on the coast itself. Domestic sewage contributes a large
portion of the biological pollution loading of water
bodies, compared with the pollution load from cottage
or home industries.
Despite regulations against building along the shoreline,
settlements build up along these areas because of
the economic opportunities and the convenience of
transport and trade afforded by the sea
4
. A number
of these coastal communities are located just in the
outskirts of formal urban settlements, which become the
primary market for their goods and labor.
These peri-urban coastal communities can have about
80 - 120 households per hectare of land, or 400 to 600
households in a 5-hectare settlement.
Area Logistics
From a technical point of view, a number of settlements
on the coastline are illegal because of regulations
requiring all buildings to be built at least 15 meters
away from the shoreline. These settlements are, therefore,
usually unplanned. They do not readily have access to
network infrastructure for water, sanitation and drainage.
Electricity is usually available. In some cases, residents
rely on liqueed petroleum gas (LPG) for lighting and
fuel. Often, however, there will be no street lighting so
that getting around at night is not easy.
It is not uncommon for these settlements to rely on
shallow or deep wells for water supply. Communal
hand pumps are usually scattered around the village.
Even those who may be connected to pipe systems
will use these hand pump facilities as supplementary
source of water. Sometimes, the municipal health
office or the barangay will supply the village with
chlorine to treat drinking water. The heavy reliance on
ground water and the general low quantity of water
supplied for hygiene purposes increase the residents
vulnerability to diseases. In this situation, sanitation
facilities and proper disposal of wastewater is critical
to ensuring continuing safe supply of water.
5

Sanitation Facilities
Residents do not have formal rights to coastal land,
but in many cases, they are relatively secure in their
tenure. They have lived in these settlements for long
periods, are recognized voters, and governed by
formal barangay local governments. Thus, a majority
may have invested in their own toilets (seating flush
or pour-flush) with either septic tanks or latrines. It is
common for toilet facilities to be outside the home.
Not all residents, however, have toilets. A significant
number consider toilets beyond the reach of their
household budgets. In some instances, the local
government will have invested in shared public toilets
with septic tanks and even drainage to cater to residents.
Satisfaction with public toilets is often low with too
many users, poor maintenance, and accessibility.
Interestingly, because beach sand is so porous, many
residents and septic tank masons mistakenly believe
that it is ideal to allow wastewater to seep into
the sand. Thus, a number of septic tanks are built
without enclosing the bottom. Enclosed septic tanks
are periodically drained into the sand as part of the
maintenance routine and this is believed to be
appropriate. This has significant implications on the
safety of groundwater wells that abound in these
settlements.
In some coastal communities visited, drainage canals
have been laid. However, most of them do not seem to
take the waste and storm water farther than the nearby
sea, or to an area where there are fewer houses.
Where access to the sea is not readily available, ooding
can be a problem in parts of the settlement because
coastal communities sit in lower lying areas. Houses also
tend to be built close together in the increasingly small
space available. On the other hand, drains are convenient
to build because the soil is loose and trenches are easy
to dig.
Hygiene Practices
Those without toilets will defecate in the coastal waters
or, at night, in dug holes near their homes. This is
particularly true among children, who may not be able
to nd their way to public toilets, or on whom the social
4 The Water Code of 1976 (Presidential Decree No. 1076) requires that buildings should be at least 15
meters away from the body of water.
5 Based on Focused-Group Discussion held in Bgy. Julugan 111, Tanza, Cavite
pressure of using toilets is not so strong. Even among
those who have toilets, a number continue to use the
sea as a matter of habit or when convenient.
Most will use water for anal cleansing, and while many
claim to wash their hands with soap, toilets do not always
have soap readily available. Childrens diapers or paper wraps
are discarded along with other solid waste. Regularity of
garbage collection varies widely from place to place.
Continued open defecation and failure to wash hands
with soap are problems that sanitation interventions still
try to solve. Even if improvements in sanitation systems
are introduced, it will be important to motivate residents
to improve hygiene practices.
Wastewater Characteristics
In these communities, wastewater is generally domestic
in nature and would have the normal characteristics of
domestic sewage. Small sh processing (smoking and
drying) enterprises also exist within these settlements.
From the sh washing and processing, the wastewater
tends to have higher levels of biological components
such as protein.
Coastal waters are classified as Class SC or SD under
the regulations of the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR). Quality of effluent being
discharged into these waters must meet the relevant
standards. (Refer to Table 1-2 of Chapter 1)
Consumer Motivations
Residents in peri-urban coastal communities are generally
poor. They are dependent on small-scale fishing, fish
vending, and other forms of informal employment.
Most of them will have a monthly household income of
between Php 3,000-7,000 per household for a family of
ve to six persons.
A number of families without toilets have expressed
a desire to have them. Motivation for toilet facilities
is especially high among women and teenage girls.
Dignity and security at night are their motivations
as most coastal areas do not have street lighting at
night. Despite their desire to have toilets, however,
investment in them is often in competition with
money requirements for cooking fuel and energy, food
or clothing, and sometimes, vices like cockghting.
Those who already have toilets with latrines or septic
tanks have very low motivation to improve their faulty
systems. Only a small percentage recognizes the need
to improve or upgrade their septic tank facilities.
Few residents are aware that they live in an environment
with very poor sanitary conditions. There is also low
awareness about how their environment is deteriorating
due to poor drainage, wastewater seepage, and
unhygienic behavior of the residents. People do not
seem to know that they are constantly exposed to
threats of contamination, and do not relate frequent
reports of digestive disorder with sanitation.
There are also weak incentives (rewards and penalties)
for motivating residents to discontinue unsanitary
practices, such as defecating in the open.
The exposure of residents to stagnant wastewater as well
as the accumulation of garbage near the home seem to
trigger the clamor for drainage and solid waste collection.
Table 3-2
PERIURBAN COASTAL COMMUNITY
Household No. 80 120 per hectare area
Household Size approximately 5-6 members
Volume of Wastewater 40 liters per capita per day (due to constrained water supply)
Sources of Wastewater Household toilet, kitchen, bathroom and laundry; small industry, especially related to fish processing
Type of Wastewater Mainly domestic with possibility of higher protein content from fish processing
BOD COD TSS
200-250 mg/l 360-450 mg/l 200-250 mg/l
Crowded settlements Nearby final disposal site like the water body
Often no drainage or collection systems; or drainage systems do not really
carry wastewater away from the immediate settlement
Drainage digging is easy
High reliance on groundwater sources coupled with prevalent practice of
using the beach for seepage of wastewater
Proximity to urban centers allows anticipation of network facilities to expand
in these areas in future years
42
Demand Factors
High degree of resignation to their living conditions; or oblivious to the
unsanitary conditions of the settlement
High motivation among women and teenage girls to have toilets
Very low levels of income Drainage and solid waste collection often recognized by local governments
Very low awareness about the consequences of unsanitary conditions and
practices
Long period of residence and tolerance has allowed residents to invest in
more permanent types of structures
Weak incentives
Intensive sensitization campaigns may need to precede sanitation programs in these conditions; embarrassing or difficult discussions about unsanitary hygiene practices (such as
open defecation) need to be started
Willingness of local governments to provide drainage and solid waste management services could be used as an entry point for encouraging more comprehensive approaches to
sanitation in these communities
One area that needs particular attention is what can be done to increase access by very poor families to toilet facilities sharing arrangements with neighbors, incremental
improvements or communal facilities may need to be considered
Awareness and skills of septic tank masons and persons responsible for operating and maintaining water supply and sanitation facilities within the community need to be improved
Ecological and dry sanitation systems as well as cartage can be considered
Rewards and penalties may need to be introduced for improvement of sanitation facilities or behaviors
3.3 Secondary Hospital
Context
I n 2003, there were about 1,700 medical centers,
hospitals, and infirmaries in the country. This is
equivalent to 21 hospitals for each of the Philippine
provinces, or 15 for each of the cities. I n reality,
around 40% of these health care facilities are located
in the National Capital Region and Regions III and
IV. They include infirmaries, primary, secondary and
tertiary hospitals. (See Table 3-3 below)
Table 3-3
TYPES OF HOSPITALS
Type of
Hospitals
Number
(2003)
Authorized
Bed Capacity
Service Capability
Infirmary 571 10-75 Materni ty ser vi ce on pre-
& post natal care, normal
delivery and care of newborn
babies
Primary 768 10-600 N o n - d e p a r t me n t a l i z e d
hospital that provides clinical
care and management on
preval ent di seases i n the
locality.
Secondary 200 25-500 Depar tmental i zed hospi tal
provides similar services as
primary hospital as well as
particular forms of treatment,
s ur gi cal pr ocedur e and
intensive care.
Tertiary 150 50-700 Tr a i ni ng a nd t ea c hi ng
hospi tal - provi des si mi l ar
services as secondary hospital
as wel l as speci al i zed and
sub- speci al i zed f or ms of
treatment, surgical procedure
and intensive care.
TOTAL 1,689
Most hospitals are privately-owned (61%) and the rest
are government-operated.
Area Logistics
Hospitals are almost always found in urban and small and
medium town centers, or their periphery, where access to
support systems that are critical to hospital operations
such as transport, water and electricity is high. In most
cases, hospitals have access to drainage or water bodies,
such as rivers, that serve as a discharge point.
Hospitals are usually built on flat to slightly rolling
terrain as these conditions are ideal for building,
roads, parking and drainage construction.
Hospi tal l ots are normal l y l arge, especi al l y for
provincial and public hospitals that are built on
government property. In this case, the development
spread is horizontal, with most buildings being
single- or two-stories high. Private hospitals, on the
other hand, have vertical developments and lot space
dedicated to parking and small common areas. Land
area can therefore be as large as 40,000 sq. m. and as
small as 600 sq. m.
Hospitals have good access to water supply. Most
hospitals are served by the local water utility or
have their own deep well, pump and elevated tank
system.
The vol ume of water used by hospi tal s vari es
according to the size of and activities in these
facilities. The size of hospitals is normally indicated
by its bed capacity. The volume of water used is
normally between 0.5 to 0.75 m
3
per bed per day.
Table 3-4
WASTEWATER STREAMS FROM HOSPITALS
Wastewater Steams Source
1. Domestic wastewater
similar to wastewater produced by households
Gray, black and yellow water
Sullage or gray water with
higher concentrations of
surfactants from soaps
Oil and grease
Laundry, kitchen, lavatories

Kitchen
2. Hazardous healthcare waste
by-products of health care activities. May contain:
Pathogens usually bacteria,
virus and helmiths
Hazardous chemicals
toxic, corrosive, flammable,
reactive and genotoxic
Pharmaceuticals expired,
unused or contaminated
pharmaceutical products
Radioactive elements
Laboratories, operating rooms and

medical wards
Fomaldehyde from autopsy, pathology,
dialysis and embalming
Photographic chemicals from X-ray
departments
Cytotoxic chemicals from treatment of
cancer patients
Pharmaceutical stores
Radioisotopes (from clinical chemistry
and nuclear medicine)
Volume, Characteristics and Sources
of Hospital Wastewater
Ninety percent (90%) of the volume of water used by
hospitals is discharged as wastewater. Between 75-90% of
this wastewater is domestic quality wastewater from hospital
toilets, showers, kitchen, laundry, and oce areas.
However, given the special nature of hospital activities,
the remaining 10-25% of wastewater needs to be
handled carefully as it can pose great risks of infection
and toxic effects. Hospital activities include handling
and washing of potentially contaminated samples from
patients, using hazardous or toxic chemicals, e.g., to
process x-rays, and using strong cleaning compounds
for disinfecting the various hospital units and supplies.
Hospitals produce two general streams of wastewater.
These are:
Data on wastewater generated by hospitals in the
Philippines and their quality is limited. In fact, very
few laboratories in the Philippines have the capacity
to test hazardous chemical components of such
wastewater. Available samples from different hospitals
show the following wastewater characteristics as
shown in the Table below.
The DOH has introduced guidelines for the management
of solid and hazardous wastes from hospitals. These
include general guidance on the handling of wastewater.
Specic guidance can also be obtained from the World
Health Organization (WHO).
These guidelines mandate hospitals to ensure that
high levels of hazardous elements are removed by
full treatment before final discharge. If the hospital is
connected to a municipal sewerage system, they will
need to pre-treat the wastewater to sewage standard
prior to combining with municipal sewage. In all
cases, waste from patients treated with cytotoxic
drugs (used in cancer chemo-theraphy) need to be
collected separately. There is very little evidence that
hospitals take these precautionary measures.
Wastewater Management and Sanitation Facilities
wostewoter Monogement
For contaminated or toxic wastes, a number of hospitals use
a third-party sanitation service provider to collect hazardous
liquid streams in containers to be treated elsewhere.
A handful of private contractors offer these services to
hospitals.
In other cases, such as in Trece Martires City in Cavite and
in Cebu City, hospitals have shared waste treatment facilities.
The most common case, however, is that hospitals are using
only septic tanks as a means of primary treatment, without
any additional treatment, before wastewater is finally
Table 3-5
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS FROM SELECTED HOSPITALS
Parameter
Effluent Standard
for Coastal Waters Class SC*
Hospital A Hospital B Hospital C Combined Range
a. Color, TCU - - 45 5 5-45
b. pH 6-9 - 7.7 8 6-9
c. 5-Day 20C BOD 100 mg/L 109, 413 158 67 67-413
d. COD, mg/L 200 mg/L - - 100 100
e. TSS, mg/L 150 mg/L - 20 9 9-20
f. Mercury, mg/L** 0.001 mg/L** - - traces
g. Formaldehyde, mg/L** 0.9 mg/L** - - -
h. Oil and Grease, mg/L 10 - - 13 10-13
i. Fecal coliform, MPN/100ml 5x10
3
*** - - 3x10
6
3x10
6
* For effluent standards of other classes of water, please refer to Chapter 1, Table 1-2.
** These standards are based on the Philippine National Drinking Water Standard rather than any effluent standards. At present, there are no standards available for these parameters relating to effluent quality.
*** This standard is based on DENR Effluent Quality Standards in case effluent is used to irrigate vegetables and fruit crops.
44
discharged to drainage canals or water bodies. Primary
treatment through septic tanks can only reduce BOD, COD
and solids, but hazardous waste will continue to pose health
risks.
If hospitals chose to treat wastewater on-site, they need
to be able to fully treat hazardous waste, including
chlorine disinfection. On the other hand, non-hazardous
components of hospital wastewater can be handled in a
similar way as domestic waste. Most hospitals, however,
do not separate the hazardous from the domestic streams.
The common practice is that both types of wastewater go
through the septic tank.
Furthermore, smaller hospitals have grown in size, expanding
to 100 or more beds, yet their toilet-septic tank facilities are
increased only in terms of size, or quantity, without provision
for further treatment of the euent wastewater.
Sludge from hospital septic tanks also retain high
concentrations of pathogens and need to be handled and
treated properly. Reuse for agriculture is possible, but only
under strict guidelines and standards. Only in a limited
number of places is there any capacity to treat sludge.
Thus, in most cases, it is expected that sludge is discharged
to the environment or drainage.
7ol/et onJ woshlng locl/ltles
Most hospitals have sucient toilet and washing facilities
for visitors, patients and sta. It is important that these are
available and function well to reduce the risk of spreading
diseases. However, in some cases, water supply is interrupted
and water is not available for handwashing or ushing.
Consumer (Hospital Owners and Managers)
Motivation
"XBSFOFTT
Hospital owners, managers and even those monitoring
the compliance of hospitals with environmental and
health regulations lack knowledge about the dierent
components of hospital wastewater and how to treat
them. The lack of awareness about discharges and
appropriate technologies clearly affects demand for
sustainable sanitation for hospital waste.
At present, a large number of hospitals are using only
septic tanks. From the point of view of hospital owners
and managers, unless an incident associated with the
wastewater disposal occurs, a septic tank solution is
deemed to be adequate
keg/otlons. 5tonJorJs onJ Lnforcement
Hospital waste management regulation is rather general
and therefore, recommendatory rather than mandatory
in character. The Sanitation Code, Building Code and the
new Clean Water Act have broad provisions on waste
management, and only general guidelines have been
issued by the DOH on hospital waste management.
The DENR mandates all hospitals to have a treatment
facility before they are issued environmental clearance
to allow them to operate. However, it is not clear what
level of treatment needs to be met for a range of
specic hazardous wastes.
Nevertheless, DOH and DENR undertake compliance
monitoring by periodic sampling and testing of the
euent from hospitals. Hospitals may be penalized or
ned for non-conformance to the standards. At present,
however, sanitation and environmental inspectors are
only able to monitor the basic parameters for domestic
waste Total Suspended Solids ( TSS), Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) which fail to address the hazardous substances.
As discussed, most laboratories cannot even test for the
full range of important parameters. The low capacity for
regulatory enforcement clearly aects the motivation of
hospitals to introduce more eective sanitation systems.
Cost of Constrctlon onJ Molntenonce of 5onltotlon
locl/ltv
Installation of eective sanitation facilities for hospitals
or improvement of existing systems is constrained by
the availability of funds to build and the ability to
operate the facility.
Public hospitals are usually patronized by non-
paying patients and rely on large subsidies from the
government to operate. Any upgrade in sanitation
facilities will mean increased cost for public hospitals
that rely on limited public funds.
On the other hand, private hospitals seek to recover
their capital investments, and it makes more sense
for private hospital managers to invest in income-
generating equipment, such as X-ray machines, than
wastewater treatment plants.

3.4 Public Market
Context
Each city, provincial capital town, and rst class municipality
in the country has a public market either operated by the
local government or sometimes, by a private entity. In large
cities, there are two or more of public markets scattered
around the communities.
Typically, the market has wet and dry sections. The wet
market section houses stalls selling fresh meat, fish and
seafood, fruits and vegetables, and flowers, and such
products. In many cases, a slaughter house and an area
for dressing/culling chickens are provided. The dry section
includes stalls for selling rice, grains, canned goods, and
similar products. Separate sections are normally provided for
displaying and selling clothes, accessories and house wares.
Markets also have food stalls or canteens in separate sections
either within the main building or in peripheral structures.
Table 3-6
SECONDARY HOSPITALS
No. of Hospital Beds 25-500
Vol. of Water Consumed 400 liters per bed per day
Sources of Wastewater Toilets, lavatories, bathroom, laundy and kitchen (domestic); laboratories, operating room, autopsy, pathology, dialysis,
x-ray departments and pharmaceutical stores (hazardous)
Type of Wastewater 75-90% domestic waste, with higher concentration of surfactants
BOD COD TSS
250-350 mg/l 450-630 mg/l 250-350 mg/l
Presence of hazardous waste: pathogens, chemicals, pharmaceuticals and
radioactive elements
Segregation of waste streams possible; hazardous waste stream often low
volume
Very few hospitals invest in treatment systems or contract third party service
providers
Usually located in areas where logistics are highly developed
Technical skills and laboratories usually available
Demand Factors
High cost of treatment; decisions tend to favor revenue-generating capital
investments
Specialized attention provided by government agencies
Low awareness among hospital owners and regulators about how hazardous
wastes need to be managed
Owners and managers tend to have high sensitivity to ensure safety of
facilities and to avoid lawsuit
Low capacity to enforce hazardous waste regulations or implement hazardous
waste management activities due to small number of service providers
Hazardous waste streams need to be separately collected and treated; otherwise, all waste streams must be fully treated
In the absence of strong regulatory enforcement, creative financing solutions need to be developed to facilitate investment in sanitation. These can include solutions already
emerging, such as the development of common facilities or service provision by a third party as an alternative to hospitals owning and maintaining their own treatment facilities
and financing incentives, which might be more sustainable in the long run
Regulatory standards and enforcement need to be clarified and improved
If hospitals will do the treatment themselves, skilled workers need to be employed
Larger space in public hospitals allow integration of polishing ponds into the landscape
Area Logistics
Public markets are usually found in the town centers
where access is convenient and facilities for water
and electricity are available including good drainage.
In old towns and cities where the poblacion (central
area) has become crowded, the trend is to locate the
public facilities (e.g. market, new commercial centers)
at the urban periphery where land prices are lower or
government land is available.
The market complex would be around 1,000 or more
square meters. They are usually built on at or slightly
rolling terrain as these conditions are ideal for site
development (road, parking and drainage) and the
construction of buildings and related facilities.
In many cases, the markets are built beside rivers, creeks or
waterways to facilitate drainage and disposal of euent.
The market is usually operated in the daytime, starting at
46
early morning and closing at early evening (or about 14
to 16 hours a day). Market activities, particularly in the
wet section, open at very early hours for preparations
and cater to buyers who come early for their needs.
Public markets are provided with adequate water supply.
It is either served by the local water utility or the market
may operate an independent deep well-elevated tank water
supply system. Besides preparation and washing of meat,
sh and other products, a good supply of water is necessary
to allow the frequent washing of the stalls. Cleaning of stalls
is done by water jetting (high pressure spray) to wash away
decaying or clinging particles.
The volume of water used in the market varies according
to their size and facilities. The size of the market is normally
indicated by the number of stalls available. It is estimated
that each stall utilizes an average of 0.2 m
3
/day. A typical
market with about 1,000 stalls (each stall of 6 sq. m.) would
have a water consumption of some 200 m
3
/day.
Volume, Characteristics and Sources
of Market Wastewater
Ninety percent of the volume of water used in markets
becomes wastewater.
Toilets for stall owners and patrons generate black water.
There is also a signicant amount of sullage or gray water
from cutting, washing and processing of meat and sh, and
cleaning of stalls.
Wastewater from public markets is basically of domestic
sewage quality, but will exhibit higher concentrations of
solids and BOD from the meat and fish processing and
cleaning of the wet section. For example, the level of BOD
of whole blood can be very high, up to165,000 mg/L as
shown in the following table.
Concentration of pollutants from meat processing can
comprise up to 50% of the total market wastewater
pollution. Markets with slaughter houses, in particular, have
animal by-products that could pose high risks to human
health. These could include the entrails and wastes of
infected animals.
Data on wastewater generated by some public markets in
the country and their quality is limited.
Except for sophisticated multi-product private markets in
high-end development centers that have sewage treatment
plants, most public markets utilize larger-sized septic tanks
to treat wastewater. However, given the large volume and
concentration of organic matter in wastewater produced
by public markets and the level of eciency of septic tanks,
euent quality will likely fail to meet the standards required
before nal disposal into the water body.
Poor drainage contributes to unsanitary conditions and
odors. Wet market sections will often have damp and
slippery floors. Sometimes, they are slightly flooded by
stagnant water because of the constant use of water and
poor drainage.
Other Physical Factors
Good solid waste management is important for public
markets. Odors may be generated from the uncollected
or improperly disposed solid waste. Solid wastes such as
trimmings and spoiled vegetables and fruits need to be
regularly collected in specially designed bins and disposed
within the day. A large volume of solid waste is generated
in public markets, and good management is not always
available.
Consumer (Market Owner and Managers) Motivation
Among LGUs, interest in establishing and improving public
markets is high as these are revenue-generating enterprises.
Stall rentals from publicly operated markets is one of the
main sources of local government revenues. Some LGUs
with old public markets in the town center are able to lease
them to private entities for redevelopment and operation.
Thus, sanitation projects in public markets have generated
fairly encouraging interest from owners and managers.
The insufficient wastewater management systems in
public markets seem largely due to a lack of awareness
about the nature of market wastewater and technologies
available. The National Meat Inspection Commission of the
Department of Agriculture (DA) is responsible for providing
and implementing slaughter house and market standards.
Apparently, the regulations are silent about wastewater
management in such establishments.
Table 3-7
CHARACTERISTICS OF MARKET WASTEWATER
Parameters Meat Products
Fruits &
Vegetables
Flow Intermittent
BOD High - extremely high Average -
extremely high
COD High - extremely high --
TSS High intermittent Average
extremely high
pH Neutral Acid alkaline
Nitrogen Present Deficient
Phosphorous Present Deficient
Heavy Metals none none
Table 3-8
MUNICIPAL PUBLIC MARKETS
No. of Stalls 1,000
Volume of Wastewater 200 liters per stall per day
Sources of Wastewater Toilet, restaurants, wet section cleaning, chicken dressing, meat cutting, etc
Type of Wastewater 90% domestic waste, with higher concentration of organic matter; potentially high risk material from slaughter, washing
and parts of infected animals and those from animal guts and manure
BOD COD TSS pH
1,000 - 3,000 mg/l 2,000 4,500 mg/l 6,000 8000 mg/l Acid - alkaline
Poor drainage Area logistics tend to be highly developed: good access to water and
disposal
Handling of potentially high-risk matter from infected animals and those from
its manure and digestive organs
Sewerage system servicing the market compound usually available
Prevalent use of septic tank as treatment facility may not be sufficient for
certain waste streams, including those with infectious pathogens
High potential for recovery of resources (methane, electricity or compost)
Demand Factors
Low awareness among market owners and regulators about market waste
streams and how they need to be managed
High interest in improving public markets among owners
Low capacity of market owners, slaughter house operators and users (stall
renters) to detect whether animals being prepared are infected
Revenue stream available to support improved treatment
Monitoring by the Meat Inspection Commission and Bureau of Animal
strengthens monitoring by DOH and DENR
Waste streams from infected animals, manure and digestive tracts need to be separately collected and treated; otherwise, all waste streams must be fully treated
Regulatory standards and enforcement need to be clarified and improved
Awareness of market owners/managers, slaughter house operators and stall renters need to be raised to reinforce positive attitude towards improving the sanitary conditions in the market
High potential for recovery of organic material (for methane gas or electricity production and compost).
Ensure safety in land application of material from markets
3.5 Medium-Sized Beach Resort
Context
The Philippines has a 17,500 kilometer coastline and
over 7,000 islands. There is an abundance of natural
beaches around these islands, which are readily
developed into water recreation resorts. Beach resorts
are usually owned by private parties.
The resorts are normally found several kilometers away from
urban centers far enough to provide an escape from
urban living, but usually with convenient land access.
The facilities usually include a sand beach area with
amenities for temporary shelter and sports. Beach resorts
will usually have indoor swimming pools, rooms or cottages
for staying over, and kitchen and restaurant facilities.
Small- to medium-sized beach resorts have between
10 to 30 single-bedroom cottages and 20 to 100
picnic sheds. They average an occupancy rate of 35%
throughout the year, but during the peak months of
March and April, occupancy can be as high as 90%.
Beach resorts are an important source of revenues and jobs
for the community as well as for the Philippine tourism
industry as a whole. Wastewater management is a critical
activity to ensure that the countrys coastal resources
maintain tness for recreational use.
Area Logistics
Beach resorts usually develop in clusters. They are
found in the coast within a few hours from urban
centers. The coast could be by a bay, such as Manila
Bay, or sea. The more remote resorts may not have
piped water and electricity, but owners usually
provide these as part of the resort development.
Generally, groundwater is available at the sites of beach
resorts since they are found in low lands where water
from the uplands drain towards the sea.
48
The site geology is normally porous with overlying sand.
Natural vegetation and topography is utilized with minor
planting and redevelopment to enhance the ambience
of a natural resort.
Access to Clean Water Supply
Beach resorts usually have adequate water supply.
They are served by the local water utility or have their
independent deep well-elevated tank water supply
system.
The volume of water used by the resort varies
according to their size and facilities. The size of
the resort is normally indicated by the number of
stalls/cottages or rooms for occupancy. One person
is estimated to use 50-60 liters per day in a beach
resort.
Volume, Characteristics and Sources of
Wastewater
The volume of wastewater generated is normally 90% of
daily water usage.
Wastewater comes from individual or communal
toilets and shower rooms and from food service areas.
A larger amount of bathing water might be used. The
wastewater may also contain a larger concentration of
surfactants from laundry.
Wastewater may also come from occasional draining of
swimming pools.
The wastewater generated from beach resorts is
expected to be domestic sewage quality except for the
likely oil and grease generated from the kitchen and by
the high surfactants from the bathrooms.
Normally, beach resorts have septic tank systems, but
these are not usually sufficient to attain an effluent
quality required for recreational water disposal. In
a number of cases, euent from the septic tanks are
directly discharged to the sea or allowed to seep into
the ground. This practice threatens the very basis of
livelihoods for beach resort owners and workers, and the
allied industries built around the resort. This also poses a
high risk to the source of water supply, not only for the
beach resort, but for the communities around.
Beach resorts usually pay attention to solid waste
management within their compounds to meet client
expectations.
Consumer (Beach Resort Owners and Manager)
Motivation
Beach resort owners are not usually averse to improving
sanitation conditions and facilities, but this seems very
much linked to the protability of the resort. In case the
resort is not very protable, there is less motivation to
upgrade the septic tank system.
In relation to this, small resorts are usually only regulated
through a business permit process and inspection by
local governments in the construction phase.
Sanitation and wastewater management of resorts
are regulated by the DENR, which may not be able to
monitor small resorts.
Recently, the DENR launched a beach grading program
to raise awareness of owners and managers about
wastewater issues.
Table 3-9
MEDIUMSIZED BEACH RESORT
Cottages / Beach Sheds Capacity 20/40
Occupancy Rate 35-60%
Volume of Wastewater 50 -160 liters per person per day
Sources of Wastewater Toilet, showers/baths, kitchen and restaurants, pool cleaning
Type of Wastewater 90% domestic waste, with higher concentration of surfactant
BOD COD Oil / Grease Surfactants
200-250 mg/l 360-500 mg/l 10-20 mg/l 2-10 mg/l
Prevalent use of septic tank as treatment facility may not be sufficient for
grease and surfactant concentration
Area logistics tend to be highly developed
Demand Factors
Low awareness among resort owners about how beach resort wastewater
need to be managed and the effect of pollution on their means of living
Beach resort revenue/livelihood directly related to preservation of water
quality
Beach resort revenues
Weak regulatory enforcement
Grease traps and system efficiency needs to be ensured; effluent must meet the quality required for recreational waters
Awareness on the effect of pollution, especially the economic impact of water pollution could be used to motivate improvement of sanitation and wastewater management
Sharing of facilities possible between resort clusters
50
CHB WALL WW
CONC. SLAB
STANDARD TT
TOILET BOWL
CHAPTER 4
$ANl7A7l0N 7CHN0L00Y $H7$
52
A. Toilet/Pit Systems No. B. Collection Systems
No.
1. Compost Privy PS-01 1. Simplified/Settled/Small Bore Sewer CS-01
2. Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine PS-02 2. Combined Sewerage CS-02
3. Aqua Privy PS-03
4. Pour-Flush Toilet (PFT) PS-04
5. Public Toilet PS-05
6. Urine Diversion Dehydration Toilet (UDDT) PS-06
C. Treatment Systems No. C. Treatment Systems
No.
1. Leaching or Soakaway Pit TS-01 7. Engineered Reed Bed TS-07
2. Interceptor Tank/Box TS-02 8. Biogas Reactor TS-08
3. Septic Tank TS-03 9. Rotating Biological Contactors TS-09
4. Imhoff Tank TS-04 10. Sequencing Batch Reactor TS-10
5. Anaerobic Baffled Reactor TS-05 11. Oxidation Ditch TS-11
6. Waste Stabilization Ponds TS-06
D. Sludge Disposal/Reuse No. E. Effluent Disposal/Reuse
No.
1. Sludge Drying Bed SD-01 1. Discharge into Receiving Body of Water ED-01
2. Agricultural Reuse of Sewage,
Septage or Sludge
SD-02
2. Aquaculture
ED-02
Table 4-1
List of Sanitation Technologies for Systems of Toilet, Collection, Treatment and Disposal/Reuse
4.1 Selected Sanitation
Technology Options
Information sheets on selected sanitation technology
are provided in this chapter for:
6 options for Toilet Systems
2 options for Collection Systems
11 options for Treatment Systems
2 options for Sludge Disposal or Reuse
2 options for Effluent Disposal or Reuse
54
TOI LET SYSTEM PS-01
C0MP0$7 PRlVY
Description: A compost privy is similar in structure to a pit latrine or aqua privy with some variations like sloping floor and liquid storage. It receives the feces, urine,
anal cleansing materials with the addition of other organic matter such as garbage, leaves and grass. Biological decomposition takes place inside the privy
producing humus called compost.
Variations of compost privy include: Clivus Multrum Single-Vault Composting Toilet (Sweden), Biopit Composting Toilet (Sweden), Vietnamese Compost
Latrine, Minimus Composting Toilet (Philippines), Comportalet or Composting Portable Toilet (Philippines), Multichamber Carousel Composting Toilet
(Norway), Sirdo Seco Double-Vault Composting Toilet (Mexico), CCD Toilet (South Pacific Islands), Movable Bucket/Bin Composting Toilet (Norway), Aquatron
System Composting Flushed Toilet (Sweden).
Design: The volume of the pit depends on the needs for fertilizer and the
needs of people using the privy. Proportion of excreta to refuse
(organic matter) should be about 1 to 5 by volume. Usual Carbon
(C):Nitrogen (N) ratio is 25-30 : 1. Design value of 0.3 m
3
/person/
year is used for calculating the volume of the pit, but using 0.1 to
0.15 m
3
/person/year is more realistic.
Another way of calculation is by the formula
V = 1.33 x N x R x P

where: V is the required volume in m
3

N is the number of users
R is the rate of filling (m
3
/person/year)
P is the emptying period (usually one year)
A design can also provide separate urine drainage in slab, which
would separate urine and prevent it from going to the compost.
This would then reduce nitrogen and moisture levels in the
compost pile.
Operating
Principles:
Composting involves the biological degradation of the organic
compounds of wastes which have relatively high concentration
of solids. Initially, psychrophilic and mesophilic bacteria (10-40
C) present in the organic waste, decompose it and generate
heat. The temperature rises until it limits the growth of the
mesophilic bacteria. The temperature then begin to drop, the
mesophilic bacteria take over again as decomposition approaches
completion. Length of time for the decomposition process is
not fixed. Sludge in open compost piles/windrow is composted
for 21 to 28 days, but in a compost privy, it takes at least a year.
Anaerobic composting is much slower process in the absence
of oxygen, and pathogenic bacteria can survive longer in cooler
temperature.
For efficient composting, the correct balance of materials must be
present for the microbes which digest and degrade the materials.
These microbes need carbon for energy and nitrogen to form
proteins for growth.
To achieve suitable C:N ratio, it is necessary to add organic matter
in the form of crop residues, leaves, grasses, sawdusts or some
other easily compostable materials. To reduce acidity and odor
of the compost and speed up the composting process, wood
ash can be added regularly to the composts. Likewaise urine
should be separated to reduce nitrogen and moisture levels in
the compost. For the same reason, water should not be added
to the pit.
The humus produced by a compost latrine that is functioning
well is a dark friable and inoffensive material, rather like a good,
moist organic soil.
Applications: A compost privy is appropriate for use in areas where there is a
tradition of using human excreta on the land. Composts can also
be used in fishponds.
Components: Privy pit; slab; superstructure; removable covers; ventilation
pipe
Capacity: One average household could produce 1 m
3
of digested sludge in
4 years. Allowing refuse to fill up the tank will shorten the cycle
to 9-10 months for composting. Vietnam latrines have 2 small
vaults of 0.3 m
3
-capacity and take between 45 to 60 days to fill.
Maintenance: The compost must be collected regularly and hauled to a point
of application/disposal. For multiple- or double-vault composters,
when the contents of the tank/privy reach a level of 0.5 m below
the ground surface, the slab superstructure are moved to another
compost privy. The first pit is filled with grass or leaves and earth.
The compost is removed when the second pit is full and the first
one is reused.
Costs: Investment is low.
Capital cost would be about P 50,000
O & M cost would be P 30,000 yearly
Utility &
Efficiency:
The correct balance of nutrients must be present/maintained for
efficient composting. The microbes need carbon for energy and
nitrogen for growth.
Construction
Materials:
1. Concrete base slab
2. Concrete blocks or brick walls
3. Reinforced concrete cover slabs
Reliability: Reliable during dry season.
Flexibility: Easy to handle. Direct use in gardening is possible. Advantages: 1. Suitable in tropical areas where nutrients are quickly leached
from the soil
2. Satisfies most sanitary requirements
3. Used as soil fertilizer in agricultural practices
4. Needs no water for flushing as composting requires little
moisture
5. Can be built on bedrock; need not penetrate the subsoil
6. Low pollution/health risks, especially if in a sealed unit
Reapplication
Potential:
Self-help potential is highly possible. Training in installation,
operation and maintenance can be instituted.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
This option should be tried first on a pilot scale in the rural
areas with agricultural officials and LGUs.
Requires an entity to conduct training/implementation
support.
Disadvantages: 1. Needs organic matter to correct the C:N ratio
2. Process is rather complicated and needs close supervision,
education and follow-up
3. Not free of hazards and regular attention
4. Not suitable in areas with high groundwater table, due to
possible infiltration with leachate
5. More expensive than the ordinary pit latrine
VN7lLA70 lMPR0V0 Pl7 (VlP) LA7RlN
Description: A pit latrine consists of a hole in the ground covered with either a squatting plate or a slab provided with riser and seat. A housing or toilet room is built
over the pit. A pit latrine operates without water. Liquid portion of the excreta soaks away into the soil. The VIP is a pit latrine with a screened vent installed
directly over the pit. The vent provides odor control and the screen on top of the vent prevents entry of insects attracted by the smell. Filled pits are
covered with soil for composting. There are two types of VIP latrines: single pit and alternating-pit. For the latter, there are two adjacent pits below the toilet
room and one pit is used at any given time. When one pit becomes full, it is closed and the other pit is used. By the time the second pit becomes full, the
first has fully decomposed and becomes innocuous. Materials in the filled pit are removed and the pit can then be returned to service till it becomes full.
Design: The pit volume is given by the product of:
Sludge accumulation rate x Number of people x Filling time
1. Sludge accumulation rate = 40 liters/person/year or rate
decreased to 20 liters/person/year if pit is seasonally flooded
or water from washings is added to the pit. Increase rate by
50% to allow bulky materials for anal cleansing.
2. Design use of single pit (filling time) = period of 2 years
3. Pit bottom not lined to enable liquid to soak away y
Operating
Principles:
Two important actions take place in the pit which reduce the rate
at which it fills:
1. The liquid portion of the excreta soaks away into the soil.
2. The solids in the excreta are broken down into simpler
compounds by biological digestion. Soluble products are
carried into the soil by the liquid portion of the excreta.
3. Gases (foul air) produced by the digestion are pushed out
through the vent by fresh air entering the pit hole.
Maintenance: 1. Regular cleaning and repairs.
2. Periodic inspection of the fly screens and signs of erosion
around the edges of the slab.
3. Use of a little bleach or disinfectant to wash the floor slab.
4. Where there is standing water in the latrine pit, small
quantities of special oils, kerosene, old engine oil can be
added to the pit to prevent mosquitoes from breeding.
5. Stop use of pit when level of solids reaches 0.5 m from the
underside of the slab. Fill the pit immediately with soil.
Applications: Single-pit VIP latrines are suitable for use in rural areas where
the soil is deep and space is available to construct succeeding
pits. Alternating double-pit VIP latrines are appropriate for urban
areas where people can afford a permanent latrine that does not
require relocating after every few years.
VIP latrines can be used in areas where there are no on-site water
supplies. Water is needed for handwashing.
Construction
Materials:
1. IndIgenous materials like rot-resistant wood, bamboo, nipa,
stabilized soil blocks, stone bricks, etc. could be used for the
pit or housing structure.
2. Permanent materials like concrete hollow block (CHB), cement
mortar, stone or bricks, metal sheets, etc. could be used for
the pit or housing.
3. Reinforced concrete for the pit cover slab or flooring.
4. PVC pipe for the vent pipe.
Components: Pit; squatting plate or wooden seat & cover; cover slab; and a
housing or toilet room.
Capacity: 1. Minimum pit volume = 1 m
3
for household of 6 persons for
use in about 2 years
2. Increase in capacity can be achieved by making the pit at
least 0.5 m deeper than the minimum since the latrine cannot
be used after the sludge surface gets close to the slab cover.
Advantages: 1. Easy construction using local materials.
2. Minimal water requirement
3. Low annual cost t
4. Easy maintenance
5. All kinds of anal cleansing materials may be used
Costs: Options for the construction of a VIP Latrine are:
1. Use of permanent construction materials like concrete hollow
block (CHB) walls for the pit and galvanized iron (GI) sheet for
the housing. (See figure below)
2. Use of indigeneous materials like wood, bamboo sheeting or
used drum for the pit wall, and wood or bamboo post, wood
or sawali siding, and nipa roofing for the housing.
Disadvantages: 1. Lack of space for relocating; the pit is dense in urban areas
2. Potential for groundwater pollution
3. Does not dispose of large quantities of sullage water
5. Not suitable in areas with impermeable, rocky underground,
due to limited infiltration capacity
Estimated costs for the above options are:
1. For Option a), the cost is P 12,000 and P 55,000 respectively
for the pit and housing shed;
2. For Option b), using indigenous construction materials, the
major cost is on labor and variable for the local material.
Estimated costs are P 2,000 and P 5,000 respectively for the
pit and housing.
Utility &
Efficiency:
50% reduction of solids by digestion. Can be single pit, double pit
or multiple pit.
Reliability: Can be relied upon to maintain protection with limited
supervision for long periods of time.
Flexibility: Flexible in the use of construction materials particulary indigenous
materias. A toilet room in the house could be used in lieu of a
separate structure.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance with the Philippine Sanitation Code.
Perspective of a VIP Latrine housing and
pit with permanent construction materials
56
A0UA PRlVY
Description: The conventional aquaprivy is essentially a small septic tank located directly below a squatting plate which has a drop pipe extending below the liquid level
in the tank to form a simple water seal. To prevent odor, fly and mosquito nuisance in the toilet, the water seal has to be maintained by adding sufficient
water per toilet visit to the tank via the drop-pipe to replace any losses. The excreta are deposited directly into the tank where they are decomposed
anaerobically similar to a septic tank. A housing or shed is built over the tank. A vent pipe with a fly screen at the top end is attached to the housing. A
water-tight tank is desirable to minimize losses. An effluent (overflow) pipe is installed above the level of the drop-pipe.
Design: Design considerations are as follows:
1. Tank volume calculated on 1.5 liters per day plus 4.5 liters/
day/person to maintain the water seal (or 6 liters/person/day)
2. Effluent maybe discharged to a soakway pit, soil infiltration or
disposed to storm drain or water body.
Operating
Principles:
The tank must first be filled with water up to the level of the
outlet pipe. After 6-8 weeks, the decomposition process will attain
its desired level of operation. Seeding, however, with digested
sludge from other privies can hasten the process
Applications: The aquaprivy ranks high, with the pit privy, as a desirable
sanitation system in areas where there is limited water supply.
Maintenance: 1. Periodic desludging through a manhole.
2. Regular cleaning of the drop-pipe or chute.
Components: Privy tank; floor or slab; housing or shed; toilet bowl or
squatting plate with chute or drop-pipe; vent pipe
Construction
Materials:
1. Plain or reinforced concrete or concrete hollow blocks for
the pit or housing
2. Indigenous materials (bamboo, wood, sawali, etc) can be
used for the housing/shed.
Capacity: Minimum pit/tank size is 1 m
3
for a household of 5 - 6 persons
with desludging period of 2-3 years.
Costs: Pit: concrete plastered CHB wall and concrete bottom
(about 1-1.25 m
3
) - P 12,000
Housing: indigenous construction materials - major cost on labor and
variable for the local material - P 5,000
Advantages: 1. No danger of clogging by bulky anal cleansing materials
2. Low odor and insect problems
3. Potential for upgrading
4. Minimal risks to health
Utility &
Efficiency:
30-40% BOD removal. Needs further treatment such as leaching
or secondary treatment processes
Disadvantages: 1. Water seal is often broken particularly during cleaning.
2. Needs small but significant amount of water to maintain
water level for a successful sanitation technology. Therefore,
user education in operation and maintenance of the aqua
privy is necessary.
3. The tank requires desludging, usually every 2-3 years.
4. Requires water tight tank, hence more expensive and needs
skills to construct.
Reliability: If properly operated and maintained, it can be a reliable system.
Flexibility: Can be upgraded to full sewerage; medium process flexibility.
Reapplication
Potential:
Local materials, labor and know-how are readily available.
Easy to construct.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance with the Philippine Sanitation Code.
Compliance with environmental regulations in the disposal of
the sludge.
SQUATTNG
PLATE
VENT
MANHOLE COVER
TO SOAKAWAY
DROP PPE
1200 mm
EFFLUENT PPE
1
.
5
0

M
1
.
0

M
FLY SCREEN 1.0 M
P0UR-FLU$H 70lL7
Description: The pour-flush toilet has a bowl with a water-seal trap. It is as hygienic as the conventional tank-flush toilet and requires only a small volume of water for
flushing. Human waste or excreta is flushed with water poured into the bowl with a pail or scoop. Various types of bowls are commercially available. The
bowl can be set in place with the concrete slab cover of the pit or septic tank or offset and pipe-connected to the pit or tank. The toilet can be within the
house or a separate structure can be built outside. A pour-flush bowl can be used with compost privy, VIP, aquaprivy or public toilet.
Design: 1. Pour-flush bowl - Commercially available squat or seat types
made of glazed ceramic. The squat type can be molded
concrete.
2. Toilet structure - Permanent type of minimum 1.2 x 1.2 m
shed, concrete hollow block walls 1.5 m high and G.I. sheet
roofing, or non-permanent type of indigeneous materials.
Operating
Principles:
1. The flushing water (1-2 liters) and the liquid portion of the
excreta percolate into the ground/soil in the soakaway pit,
while it goes with the effluent, or discharge to septic tank,
Imhoff tank, aqua privy, interceptor boxes or direct to sewer
pipes.
2. The water-seal trap prevents the odors of excreta from
escaping and prevents insects from entering or leaving the
unit.
Applications: The pour flush toilet can be installed in the toilet room of houses.
The location of the toilet is very flexible and the toilet can be
some distance away from the receiving pit/chamber. Hence, pour-
flush toilet can be used in densely populated urban areas.
Components: Pit slope and pit lining; pit cover; plinth at least 150 mm
above ground; Pipe-1:30 slope, 75 mm dia.; superstructures
with vent up to overhang of the roof
Maintenance: 1. Regular washing of the toilet bowl and floor
2. No other solid waste should be put down the bowl
3. Use of flexible rods/materials for removing blockages
Construction
Materials:
1. Lining materials - brick, stone or hollow blocks or precast
concrete or burnt clay liners where there is a high water table
2. Reinforced concrete slabs for support/base
3. Porcelain, concrete or ferrocement, glass fiber, injection
molded plastics and glazed ceramics toilet bowls
Capacity: Most commonly used toilet in urban areas or even rural areas, as
well as public/communal toilets.
Costs: Capital cost (toilet only, excludes super & substructure):
P 500 for squat-type
P 1,200 for seat-type
Advantages: 1. Readily available commercially
2. Inexpensive.
3. Less volume of water required ( 3,000 liters of water/person/
year)
4. Upgradeability
5. Hygienic; very easy to clean
6. Reliable; convenient and comfortable
Utility &
Efficiency:
Clean and hygienic; proven efficient
Reliability: With proper sanitation practices, it is reliable
Reapplication
Potential:
Installation practices generally known; Hardware/materials
commercially available.
Disadvantages: 1. Requires availability of water
2. Clogs easily if bulky anal cleansing materials are used
7
5
25
0
30
0
5
0
1
2
5
75
425
A A
300
105
2
0
4
0
7
0
15
0
Squat-type Pour - FIush ToiIet
2
0
0
2.00
G.I. ROOFING
CHB WALL
CONC. SLAB
STANDARD
TOILET BOWL
P-TRAP
Squat-type Pour-Flush Toilet Seat-type Pour-Flush Toilet
58
PULlC 70lL7
Description: Public toilet is the more popular name in the Philippines for communal toilet or communal sanitation blocks/centers. It consists of several cells in a common
structure with individual toilet bowls/squatting seats. Each toilet bowl is shared by several families. Bathroom and laundry facilities can also be included.
Wastewater is discharged into a leaching pit, a septic or Imhoff tank, or an anaerobic reactor.
Design: Each public or communal toilet with 4 cells is shared by at
least four families, one cell per family. If there are more families
participating, the cells become common to all. Typical design of
public toilets provide 8 seats per 200 people.
Operating
Principles:
In densely populated areas, public toilets may be the only
practical place for washing, bathing and toilets.
Maintenance: Daily cleaning of facilities essential.
Construction
Materials:
1. Reinforced concrete slab
2. Concrete blocks, stones, bricks
3. Wooden trusses, galvanized iron (G.I.) Sheet roofing
4. Plumbing materials such as G.I. or plastic pipe
5. Toilet bowls, squatting seats, sinks, etc.
Applications: Suitable in areas/communities which are densely populated,
where space is restricted, and no individual toilets can be set up.
Components: Cells with pour-flush toilets or squatting seats; optimal shower
section; optimal laundry section; urinal; nightsoil or excreta-
receiving bowl or receptacle; superstructure; pit or treatment
unit Advantages: 1. It can provide basic sanitation requirement to many.
2. Low-cost compared to individual units. May be free if
operated by municipal/city services.
3. Simple construction and maintenance.
Capacity: Depending on the number of sanitation cells, a public toilet can
serve 800 users or 20-200 households
Costs: Capital cost: P 250,000 for the 6-cubicle toilet shown in the sketch
below, or approximately P 12,000/m
2
.
Utility &
Efficiency:
Basic sanitation services can be provided to a good number of
people.
Disadvantages: 1. Limited number of users; inconvenient if one needs to
defecate or urinate immediately.
2. Not much privacy.
3. Indivdiuals have no control over maintenance and cleanliness
of cubicle being used.
4. Proximity from house and availability at night, not favorable,
and further security issues for females.
Reliability: Only reliable if toilet is cleaned regularly.
Flexibility: Possible to upgrade collection, treatment and disposal
compartments in the latter stage
Reapplication
Potential:
Design of structure is very basic. Materials, labor and technical
know-how are readily available.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance with the Clean Water Act.
Need for community/local government support to operate
and maintain the facility.
SHE
SLOP
SINK
SLOP
SINK
HE
UNGLAZED TILE
FLOOR FINISH
U
R
I
N
A
L
3.00
6.00
3.00
3
.
5
0
1
.
5
0
A
4.00
STO
URlN 0lVR$l0N 0HY0RA7l0N 70lL7 (U007)
Description: A UDDT is a waterless toilet system allowing the separate collection and on-site storage or treatment of urine and feces. Urine is separated in a urine
separation toilet and collected in a container. Feces are dropped into a ventilated collection chamber where they are dried and stored. Dried feces and
stored urine can be reused in agriculture. No liquids infiltrate into the subsoil, thus there is no danger of groundwater contamination. The most common
type of UDDT uses the double-vault system, where two collection chambers for feces are in alternating use. Other variations include single-vault systems
and movable container systems.
Design: The volume of collection chambers is designed to store feces
for at least 6 months. Collection chambers are equipped with a
ventilation system to enhance drying and avoid odor problems.
The toilet should be built entirely above ground to allow easy
access to the collection chambers through a vertical trapdoor.
Solar heating effect is enhanced if this door is made of metal,
inclined and facing the sun, and painted in black.
Fertilizer value from urine collected from 1 person in 1 year is
sufficient to fertilize 300-400 m of agricultural area.
Operating
Principles:
Two vaults are used alternately with only one vault in use at any
time, until it is almost full. Ashes, lime or a bulking agent is added
after defecation to maintain high alkalinity and absorb humidity.
When this first vault is filled up, the defecation hole is sealed and
the toilet bowl is transferred to the second vault. The second vault
is now active while the first is passive or maturing. When the
second vault fills up, the dried material can be removed from the
first. The product has a sandy appearance and is generally odor-
free. Further storage or composting with other organic materials
is recommended before reuse to increase hygienic safety.
Urine is collected in a container directly used as fertilizer (in
large-scale systems urine should be stored for one month at
20C before use). A withholding period of one month between
fertilization and harvest should be applied.
Applications: Suitable for most climatic conditions, but best in dry and/or hot
climates. Most suitable for peri-urban and rural areas; also suitable
for urban areas. Collecting systems may be necessary if products
cannot be reused within the same perimeter.
The UDDT has been introduced in Luzon, the Central Visayas and
Mindanao.
Components: Urine diversion prefabricated toilet chair or squatting pan;
sealing cover; superstructure; collections vaults; urine pipes;
urine storage tank; ventilation pipe. May also be integrated
within the house.
Maintenance: Providing additives, toilet cleaning and inspecting chambers
(not exceeding a few hours of work per month)
Emptying the collection chamber (maximum twice a year)
Changing the container for urine collection (frequently)
Construction
Materials:
Urine separation toilet: porcelain, fiberglass, concrete,
ferrocement or plastics
Substructure (vaults, slab): concrete, masonry
Superstructure (toilet cabin): any locally available material, e.g.
masonry, timber, bamboo, rattan, etc.
Urine collection container: plastics
Capacity: Generally one unit is required per household, but it also adaptable
for school or public toilets.
Costs: UDDTs have similar or slightly higher construction cost as the VIP
or pit latrines. In the long term they are cheaper because their life
span is considerably longer. Maintenance costs are very low, but
regular interventions (such as vault emptying) are required. There are
savings on cost because no water is required and mineral fertilizers are
substituted by urine.
Advantages: 1. Economic savings through products used as natural fertilizer
2. Increased food production through better availability of cheap
fertilizers
3. No water wastage; not reliant on water supply
4. No groundwater pollution Utility &
Efficiency:
Very efficient in eliminating groundwater pollution and recovering
urine and feces for reuse in agriculture
Disadvantages: 1. Comparatively new technology: needs information
dissemination program for implementation
2. Has higher operation and maintenance requirements than
some conventional systems
Reliability: Very reliable if properly designed and managed
Requires a certain commitment from the users for proper
operation
Reapplication
Potential:
A variety of ecosan solutions ranging from low to high-
technologies exist for rural and low density urban areas.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Management by households and/or community organizations
60
COLLECTION SYSTEM CS-01
$lMPLlFl0 $WRA0
Description: A modified sewerage system which operates as conventional sewers with a number of modifications; the minimum diameter (small bore) and the
minimum cover are reduced, the slope is determined by using the tractive force concept rather than the minimum velocity comcept, sewers are installed
below sidewalks or inside private properties where possible, and many costly manholes are eliminated or replaced with less-expensive cleanouts.
Design: The design concept takes advantage of having septic tank or
aqua privy or imhoff tanks in individual households or communal
toilets. For new houses or communities, or houses without septic
tank, aqua privy or Imhoff tank, a solids interceptor box/tank
should be added between the house and sewer line/laterals,
which captures and stores incoming solids, attenuates the flow,
and allows the settled sewage to flow out by gravity. The absence
of solids in the line permits self-cleansing velocities, flatter
gradients and shallower depths. Attenuation of flow reduces the
peak flow factor.
Operating
Principles:
1. The sewage solids are intercepted by the interceptor box
or baffled box, septic tank, aqua privy or Imhoff tank. The
absence of settleable solids negates clogs or blockages in the
sewer line despite the smaller diameter and flatter slope.
2. Variation occurs in the rolling terrain where there is a need for
pumping. Generally, only one or two pump/lift stations are
required in a simplified sewer system.
Maintenance: 1. Occasional flushing of the sewer lines.
2. Removal of blockages, rodding machines or flushing
equipment.
3. Repairs of sewer lines, as needed.
4. Inspect manhole and conduct television inspection.
5. Desludging of interceptor/septic/Imhoff tanks/privies every 5
years or so.
Applications: Suitable for areas with topography sloping downward toward
treatment site, low-density population and high groundwater or
shallow bedrock.
Components: House sewer connection; interceptor/septic/Imhoff tanks/
privies; sewer network
Capacity: Can easily adapt to the population whether urban or rural, high or
low density; minimum number of connections required.
Construction
Materials:
1. Pipes - vitrified clay (VCP), cast iron (CI), brick masonry, steel,
concrete or cast-in-place concrete, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
pipes
2. Cement, reinforcing bars, rubber gaskets
Costs: Capital cost: P 56,160 per m
3
/day flow. Low to medium investment
costs if population density is high, number of connections is large,
and 3 to 4 households share one tank/box.
O & M cost: P 245/m
3
or P 2,030/m of pipeline based on regular
desludging of tanks, sewerline and inspection.
Advantages: 1. Low to medium investment costs, if old septic tanks or aqua
privies exist or new tanks are shared.
2. Low excavation, materials and operation costs compared to
conventional sewerage (20-50%).
3. Less treatment costs (no pre-treatment).
4. Ease of construction - easily diverted; shallow depths, can
follow contours.
5. Low maintenance costs.
Utility &
Efficiency:
The concept is a new technology in the Philippines.
Implementation, therefore, needs close monitoring.
Reliability: Reliable if tanks are properly maintained and no coarse materials
infiltrate the piping system.
Disadvantages: 1. Expert design and supervision required.
2. Each service connection requires a tank/box.
3. Periodic pumping and disposal of septage from tanks.
4. Decentralized maintenance and operation program are
required. May require community participation.
5. Illegal connection may be a problem.
Flexibility: System can be upgraded and extended.
Reapplication
Potential:
Conditions for simplified sewerage design are available and
standards set. All materials are available, locally.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Excavation permits needed.
Will need community participation.
COLLECTION SYSTEM CS-02
C0MlN0 $WRA0
Description: A combined sewerage system is a system combining the disposal of sewage from septic tanks, aquaprivies, or other toilet systems with the storm or rain
water through the storm drain system.
Design: Not recommended in high density areas. In other areas, DPWH in
coordination with DENR, DOH and other government agencies,
shall employ combined sewerage-septage management system
(Clean Water Act).
Operating
Principles:
Combined sewer system to receive relatively clean wastewater
from various sewers by means of treatment by on-site primary
procedures such as sedimentation and anaerobic digestion.
Maintenance: 1. Regular cleaning of storm drains, canals, drainage pipes or
channels.
2. Rodding or removing clogs/stoppages.
3. Repairs of sewer line.
4. Inspection of sewer overflow structures.
Applications: Not recommended in high density areas. Needs a combined
program for sewerage-septage management.
Components: Network of street drains; canals; pipes; manholes; interceptors
and sewer overflow structures
Capacity: Capacity is dependent on the drainage area plus the sewage
volume generated for that area. Pipes are bigger for a combined
system than for separate systems.
Construction
Materials:
1. Pre-cast reinforced concrete pipe. Cast-in-place sewers,
corrugated metal structure/plate structures for sewers
2. Concrete slabs for cover slab
3. Cast-in-frames and covers for manholes
4. Bricks, pre-cast concrete or cast-in-place concrete for
manholes
5. Steel and timber tide gates
Costs: Capital cost: P 25,330 per m
3
/day flow. Capital cost includes
improvement of existing combined sewerage system, such as:
Interceptor: P 9,480 - 14,620/m
Drainage upgrading: P 420/m - 580/m
O & M: P 350/m
Advantages: 1. Discharge to random open ditches or street gutters is a low
cost disposal option. Low first cost.
2. Storm drains are already existing.
3. Less costly to construct than separate sewers.
Utility &
Efficiency:
It is already a common practice in Metro Manila and other urban
cities and found acceptable. Treatment efficiency will depend on
the process selected.
Reliability: If well designed and operated, the system is reliable.
Disadvantages: 1. Considerable storm flow in treatment plant or considerable
sewage flow bypassed.
2. Causes pollution in creeks and esteros.
3. Create health hazards.
4. Unsightly condition.
Flexibility: Can be upgraded to separate sewer system.
Reapplication
Potential:
Most combined sewers are already existing with no treatment
for dry weather flow. What is needed is to divert sewage flow
to appropriate treatment units/disposal areas.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Coordination/approval of the Department of Public Works
and Highways through the City/Municipal Engineer for the
use of existing drainage channels must be secured.
A septage management program must be set-up.
62
TREATMENT SYSTEM TS-01
LACHlN0 or $0AKAWAY Pl7$
Description: Leaching or soakaway pits are holes dug in the ground to receive effluent wastes to receive effluent from septic tanks or aquaprivies, and allow it to
percolate into the ground. Sometimes used for disposal of kitchen, bathroom and laundry wastewater
Design: Round holes dug into the ground, 1.8 m or more in depth with
diameter of 1.0-3.5 m. Side walls are lined with hollow blocks,
bricks or stones laid without mortar below the level of the inlet
pipe. Design for 8 liters per person per day with infiltration rate of
10 liters/m
2
daily.
Operating
Principles:
The liquid portion of the wastes seep into the ground. The solids
are retained and accumulate in the pit and gradually seal the
pores of the soil.
Maintenance: No maintenance required. The pit should be closed with a tight
cover which will prevent access to mosquitoes and flies and to
surface water, as well. Sludge layer can be effectively removed by
a simple diaphragm pump, if need be.
Applications: Where water consumption is substantial enough, it will require
a soakaway pit. It should be located downhill and at least 15 m
away from drinking water sources and wells.
Construction
Materials:
1. Cement grouts
2. Stones, adobe, hollow blocks
3. Reinforced concrete cover slab
4. Rockfill or coarse gravel
5. PVC pipe
Components: Stone lining (open joints), coarse gravel liners, inlet and outlet
pipes, cover slab with a manhole.
Capacity: Life span of a leaching or soakaway pit is normally 6-10 years,
if the effluent is only slightly turbid from an efficient primary
treatment.
Advantages: 1. Accommodates high water consumption.
2. Digestion of the waste proceed more efficiently than in the
conventional pit.
3. Contents are liquid enough to be pumped out easily.
4. Makes possible further upgrading of the latrine so that either
shower units or conventional water-borne systems can be
added, if required.
Costs: Cost: P 14,000 for minimun size shown in sketch (i.e. 19 cum volume).
Plus P 540/cum for size larger than minimum.
Practically no maintenance cost.
Utility &
Efficiency:
Pit content can be treated in a waste stabilization pond or by
composting.
Disadvantages: 1. Because of the ability of the pit to accommodate high water
consumption, this type of pit becomes as popular as a
washroom and water use going to the toilet is uncontrolled,
thereby, water volume entering the pit is increased
substantially and the earth base of the pit cannot cope with
the excess liquid (soil conditions not satisfactorily permeable).
Reliability: Not reliable, it may pollute/contaminate groundwater.
Flexibility: Flexible as it can be converted to higher levels of sanitation.
Reapplication
Potential:
Recommended as alternative when absorption trenches are
impractical, pervious soil is deep or where an impervious
upper layer is underlain by porous layer.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance with Clean Water Act.
Local ordinances in excavation permit.
lN7RCP70R 7ANK/0X
Description: Interceptor tank or box is a rectangular or cylindrical structure placed between the building sewer and the street sewer to intercept the sewage flow from
residence/establishment and remove the suspended and floating solids from the sewage. Connection-inspection box is used with or without baffled boxes
to intercept solids and trash.
Design: Since most of the solids are removed in the tank/box, there is
no need for a scouring or self-cleaning velocity in the sewers.
Usual detention time is 24 hours. Volume required for anaerobic
digestion of the sludge depends on the volume of solids in the
sewage and digestion time.
Operating
Principles:
The interceptor tanks remove solids from the sewage by settling
the solids and floating the scum. Sludge is removed usually once
every 5-10 years.
Maintenance: 1. Removal of solids from the interceptor tank every 5-10 years.
2. The trouble-free operation of simplified sewerage system
relies on the correct design of the interceptor tanks.
3. Regular inspection of the tank.
Applications: Suitable in areas where there are no individual primary treatment
units and needs a piped sewerage system.
Components: Influent pipe; effluent pipe; tank/box where sedimentation,
digestion sludge storage and sewer storage takes place.
Construction
Materials:
1. Reinforced concrete
2. Cast iron (CI) or polyvinyl (PVC) tee fittings
3. Bricks or concrete blocks with cement base slab
4. Precast concrete
Capacity: 3 m
3
effective volume for a household with five members who
uses 100 liters of water per day. Desludging cycle is 5 years.
Advantages: 1. Removes solids from the sewage before entering sewer
system, thus effectively reducing the size of the piping
system.
2. Operation and maintenance requires minimal skills and
resources.
3. Reduces primary treatment process in secondary treatment
works.
Costs: Capital cost: P32,000 for unit shown in sketch
Desludging cost is P2,800 every 5 years
Utility &
Efficiency:
30-50% BOD removal; 50-85% suspended solids removal.
Reliability: Reliable if properly maintained.
Flexibility: Flexibility in the use of design criteria is unavoidable in order to fit
existing conditions.
Disadvantages: 1. Maintenance is necessary with trained personnel.
2. If not properly operated and maintained, it may cause
blockages in the sewer line.
3. Needs piped water supply.
Reapplication
Potential:
The design of interceptor box is similar to septic tank and is
readily applicable. Materials are also readily available
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance with Clean Water Act.
Local ordinances in excavation permit.
64
$P7lC 7ANK
Description: The septic tank is an underground water tight chamber that receives both excreta and flush water from toilets with or without other household
wastewaters (or sullage). The tank serves three purposes: as a sedimentation tank for the removal of incoming solids, while allowing the liquid fraction
(or settled effluent) to pass; as a biochemical reactor for the anaerobic decomposition of the retained solids; and as a storage tank in which the non-
degradable residual solids accumulate. Scum, such as fats and greases, rises to the top. The clarified liquid flows through the outlet pipe and is usually
disposed through a subsurface soil absorption system. The effluent should not be discharged to surface drains, creeks, streams or lakes, without treatment.
Design: Design considerations are as follows:
1. Retention time of at least 24 hours
2. Two thirds of tank volume is reserved for sludge and scum
storage
3. Wastewater inflow - 120 liter/person/dayy
4. Sludge accumulation rate = 40 liter/person/year r
5. Maximum filled volume = 50% of tank volume
6. Desludging interval is approximately every 4 years
7. Provide ventilation pipe to permit gas produced in the tank
to escape.
8. Must be water tight with one or two chambers.
Operating
Principles:
The septic tank operates similar to an aqua-privy, I.e., settling
solids, anaerobic digestion of solids and storage of digested
sludge. Light solids float on the surface of the water in the tank,
called scum, is also retained in the tank. Liquid effluent disposed
to absorption fields/soil infiltration, leaching or soakaway pits,
evapotranspiration mounds or soil conditioner on agricultural
land. Sludge from septic tanks or septage is removed by vacuum
tankers and co-treated with sewage or other sludge, undergoes
own treatment, or disposed in lahar areas or various land
applications or surface disposal.
Maintenance: 1. Effluent from septic tank should be inspected periodically to
ensure that neither scum nor suspended solids are leaving
the system.
2. Regular desludging of septic tank contents should be done
when the sludge and scum occupy 2/3 of the tanks capacity.
Normally done every 2 to 5 years.
Applications: Satisfactory and acceptable facility for excreta disposal and
other liquid wastes from individual houses, cluster of houses,
apartments, and institutions (schools).
Components: Inlet tee pipe; digestion chamber and settling chamber (for
2-chamber tank); outlet tee pipe; manhole cover, clean outs
(CO) Construction
Materials:
1. Concrete hollow block(CHB) walls, reinforced concrete (RC)
top slab and bottom
2. RC manhole cover r
3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) inlet and outlet pipes
4. Cast iron (CI) or PVC clean outs
Capacity:
(typical design)
No. of Persons Served 4 8 12 16 20
Dimensions (m)
Lenght (L) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3. 8 4.0
Width (W) 0.6 0.9 1.1 1. 2 1.4
Liquid Depth (D) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Freeboad (B) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Tank Volume (m3) 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Advantages: 1. Flexible and adaptable to a wide variety of individual
household waste disposal requirements.
2. Essentially no maintainance needs except the periodic
desludging.
Disadvantages: 1. More expensive than other on-site waste treatment systems.
2. Requires a permeable subsoil structure so the effluent can be
distributed.
3. Space for drainage field may be required.
4. Drinking water sources must be set away from septic tanks
(about 25m.)
5. Needs piped water supply.
Costs: Construction cost: (2004)
Tank A: 2m
3
tank (4 persons served) = P 45,000
Other Tanks: Tank A Cost + P 4,000/m
3
Desludging cost = P 2,800 per 4-year interval
Utility &
Efficiency:
30-60% BOD removal; 80-85% suspended solid removal; 50%
coliform removal.
Reliability: Reliable if regularly cleaned and desludged. ST resistant against
shock load.
Flexibility: Flexibility in the use of design criteria is unavoidable in order to fit
existing conditions.
Reapplication
Potential:
Basic septic tank design, materials and technical know-how
readily available. Can be upgraded to piped collection for
secondary treatment.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Conformance to Philippine Sanitation Code.
lMH0FF 7ANK
Description: Imhoff tanks are used by small communities with raw wastewater flows on the order of 950 m
3
/day (population about 8,000 people or 1,300 households).
The Imhoff tank consists of a top compartment, which serves as a settling basin, and a lower compartment in which the settled solids are anaerobically
stabilized. Scum and gas vent chambers are located at the sides of the tank. It can be an open or covered tank.
Design: Imhoff tanks are normally designed to retain wastes for 2 to 4
hours; length equals 3 times its width with depth of 7.2 to 9 m,
20% of the total surface area is typically provided for gas vent
with width of 0.45 to 0.75 m at both sides. 2.5 m
3
/capita storage
capacity for sludge digestion is usually provided at the lower
compartment.
Operating
Principles:
Settling of solids occurs in the upper compartment. Sludge falls
through the slot to the bottom of the settling compartment into
the lower tank, where it is digested. Digestion process generates
biogas which, is deflected by the baffles to the gas vent chamber,
preventing the disturbance of the settling process
Maintenance: 1. Daily cleaning of the scum and other floatables
2. Desludging periodically (once or twice a year)
3. Regular cleaning of the sides of the settling chamber and slot
by rake or squeegee
4. Reversing the flow of water twice a month to even up the
solids in the digestion chamber
Applications: Applicable for small communities in urban or rural areas.
Components: Settling compartment; digestion compartment; gas vent and
gas chamber; inlet and outlet channels and piping; sludge
withdrawal piping; gas vent pipe; tank structure with or
without manholes
Construction
Materials:
1. Reinforced concrete - cement, steel bars, formworks
2. Pipes - cast iron, PVC for inlet, outlet and sludge piping, gas
vent
Capacity: Mostly relatively small plants but it can range from 100-2,000 m
3
/day
3
capacity depending in the design. Shown below is a tank for 2,000
m3/day capacity.
Advantages: 1. Good for small settlements and clustered houses
2. Small area required; land use is limited as it can be
constructed under roads or public places
3. Low capital costs
4. Simple operation and maintenance do not require highly
skilled supervision
5. More efficient settling than septic tank
Costs: A 1,000 population would need a 100 m
3
/day tank with a settling area
3
of 3 m
2
, total surface area of 3.75 m
2
, total depth of 7.2 m. Using the
typical values for the design of imhoff tank, construction cost is Php
1.2M for 2,000 m
3
/day capacity.
3
Disadvantages: 1. Low treatment efficiencyy
2. Additional treatment might be needed
3. Requires more often desludging
4. Odor from escaping gases
Utility &
Efficiency:
BOD reduction is about 30-50%, depending on available discharge
options; further treatment may still be needed.
Reliability: Reliable if amply designed and desludging carried out routinely.
Imhoff tank is resistant against shock loads.
Flexibility: A number of collection, treatment and disposal options can be
linked to the Imhoff tank.
Reapplication
Potential:
Technology and operating procedures are available for Imhoff
tanks. Construction materials are readily available.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Requires skilled personnel to maintain the facility
66
ANAR0lC AFFL0 RAC70R
Description: Anaerobic baffled reactor is actually a septic tank in series where wastewater is forced to flow down through the existence of down-shaft or down-pipe
and distributed over the entire area of the floor where it inoculates with active sludge for digestion. The up-flow also causes sludge particles to settle.
Design: Anaerobic treatment is preferred if BOD > 2,000 mg/l. Temperature
should be 29 -38C with pH=6.5-7.5. Not compatible with sulfur
compounds. Recommended detention time is between 15-
30 days. The design calculation must give detail attention on
chambers geometry, up-flow velocity, organic load, temperature,
desludging interval, and retention time.
Operating
Principles:
Settler or septic tank must be installed to avoid scum and solid
particles to enter the baffled section. Inoculation or seeding
is required to hasten the achievement of adequate treatment
performance. If not, three months of maturation should be
acknowledged. If possible, start with a quarter of the daily month.
Such flow management will give time for bacteria to multiply
before suspended solids are washed away.
Applications: The baffled septic tank is suitable for all kinds of wastewater
such as wastewater from settlement, hospital, hotel/resort, public
market, slaughter house, and food processing industries. The more
organic loads, the higher its efficiency.
Maintenance: 1. Check scum blanket, break up if too thick
2. Control foaming
3. Monitor total solids build up and gas production
4. Regularly schedule cleaning of solid waste build up by
manual or vacuum desludging. Desludging must regularly
be done on a calculated interval and some sludge must be
left to ensure continuous efficiency. Regular control of solid
intervention to every chamber must be done
Components: Settler/integrated with septic tank, designated series of baffled
chambers, and down-shaft or down-flow pipe
Capacity: The anaerobic reactor can be efficiently designed for a daily inflow of
up to 1,000 population equivalent community wastewater and with
BOD of up to 10,000 mg/l. Digester volume can be up to 150 m
3
with
inflows up to 10 m
3
/d. If used in combination with septic tank and
horizontal gravel filter, baffled reactor increases its treatment scalability
up to 1,000 m
3
Construction
Materials:
1. Reinforced concrete or steel tanks or concrete hollow block
(CHB) or bricks
2. Acid resistant pipes such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Costs: Capital cost: P12,600 - P30,000/m
3
/day flow rate for anaerobic baffled
3
reactor.
Total construction cost depends on material cost and availability,
labor costs, and site condition. Detailed feasibility study is required to
calculate on-site cost.
O & M cost : P11,000/month plus desludging cost every 5-year interval.
Advantages: 1. Suitable for smaller and larger settlements
2. Little space required due to underground construction
3. Low investment costs
4. Very low operation and maintenance costs. No moving parts
power needed. Hardly any blockage
5. Simple and durable
6. High treatment efficiency
Utility &
Efficiency:
Reduction of BOD is about 75-90%. Area required ranges from
40 - 150 m
2
depending on the detention period used. Only
moderate reduction of infectious organisms; effluent has slight
odor (methane).
Reliability: High reliability due to low effect when hydraulic and organic
shock loads occur. Disadvantages: 1. Experts are required for design and supervision
2. Master mason is required for water-tight plastering
3. Effluent is not completely odorless
4. Slow growth rate of anaerobic bacteria means long start up
period
5. Less efficient with weak wastewater
Flexibility: Poor flexibility but can be upgraded.
Reapplication
Potential:
Standardized designs and SOPs are available. It has high
potential to be integrated with other post treatments such as
anaerobic filter reactor and horizontal gravel filter plant
WA$7 $7AlLlZA7l0N P0N0$
Description: Relatively shallow earthen basins which contain wastewater that allows biological processed (aeration or digestion) to take place, in the presence or without
the presence of air/oxygen.
Design: Basic system design: 3 types of ponds (in series):
Anaerobic pond (AP) - organic matter removal
Facultative pond (FP) - pathogen destruction and organic matter
treatmentt
Maturation pond (MP) - pathogen and suspended solids removal
Design factors - volume of sewage, strength of the sewage,
desired quality of the effluent, climate
Design life - 20 to 50 years
AP - 100 to 400 gms/m
3
/day BOD loading
FP - maximum BOD load per unit area at which the pond will still
have a substantial aerobic zone
MP - number and size depends on the bacteriological quality
required
Operating
Principles:
Depending on the strength of the sewage (BOD & coliform),
detention time in anaerobic pond is 2 to 5 days; 5 to 30 days in
facultative pond and 15-20 days in the maturation pond.
Maintenance: 1. Periodic vegetation, plants, algae and scum control.
2. Control of odor, if any.
3. Monitor volume and BOD of the sewage.
4. Desludging of AP (say 2 to 5 years) and FP (very infrequent).
Construction
Materials:
1. Earth embankments - homogeneous soil with clay or silt
contents.
2. Use clay blanket or lining if soil is highly permeable.
Advantages: 1. Simple to build, reliable and easy to maintain.
2. Provides pathogen removal which is better than the
conventional treatment.
3. Used in small communities.
4. Low in construction and operating cost.
Disadvantages: 1. Large area requirement.
2. Poor quality of treated effuent.
3. May promote breeding of insects in the pond.
4. Needs to be located far from communities.
Applications: In areas where a large space is available for treatment.
Components: Inlet, anaerobic pond; facultative pond; maturation pond;
outlet
Capacity: 260 to 3,200 m
3
/day of sewage
Costs: Capital cost: P 32,000 for unit shown in sketch
Desludging cost is P 2,800 every 5 years
Utility &
Efficiency:
Pond BOD Removal
Pathogen
Removal
Detention
Time
Area
Requirement
(m
2
)
AP 50 - 85% - 2-5 days 2,000 - 8,000
FP 80 - 95% - 5-30 days 8,000 - 40,000
MP 60 - 80% 90% 15-20 days 8,000 - 40,000
Reliability: Reliable if properly maintained.
Flexibility: Can withstand shock loads.
Reapplication
Potential:
Natural terrain favors this type of pond. Basic design know-
how readily available.
68
N0lNR0 R0 0
Description: Engineered Reed Beds are natural treatment systems, which are widely used for the removal of pollutants from domestic and industrial wastewater and
sludge. These systems consist of a bottom-lined bed or channel filled with sand or appropriate soil media. Reeds are allowed to grow at the bed. Flow
direction in the filter bed may be horizontal or vertical. The treatment mechanisms are biological conversion, physical filtration and chemical absorption.
The mechanisms of BOD removal are aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic. Continues flow often results in saturated filter bodies and mainly anaerobic millieu. In
the Philippines, engineered reed beds are mostly for treatment of industrial wastewater and is not yet common for domestic wastewater treatment. Effuent
from residential septic tanks discharged to a reed bed green belt has great potential in urban areas.
Design: The land area required for the horizontal subsurface flow reed
bed system depends on the wastewater flow rate (or equivalent
number of persons), filter media and plant specie. The table
below shows an estimate of the reed bed size for a given number
of user.
No. of Users
Approx. Area
(m
2
)
Length x Width
(m)
Depth
(m)
50 250 32 x 8 0.5
100 500 45 x 11 0.5
500 2500 100 x 25 0.5
The common specie used is Phagmytes spp, noted for its root
growth and an endemic specie in the Philippines.
Note: For vertical flow reed bed systems, the area required is half
that of the horizontal flow. A square bed layout is preferable.
Operating
Principles:
The most Important factors in decreasing the wastewater
pollutants are the soil, aerobic and anaerobic microbes and the
reed plant. The soil layer acts as a filter. Micro-organisms and
plants alter organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorous to remove
it through gaseous release, uptake, fixation, sedimentation and
transformation into other compounds. Concentrations of heavy
metals, organic chemicals and pathogens are reduced due to
adsorption and natural die-off.
Maintenance: 1. Periodic harvesting of the reeds
2. Maintenance of dike from erosion, pipes from clogging and
free-flowing drainage outfalls
3. Periodic washing of filter material
Advantages: 1. Easy and simple to maintain and operate
2. Low-cost secondary treatment option
3. Pleasant landscaping is possible
Disadvantages: 1. Requires larger land area
2. Low treatment efficiency
3. Professional/specialist needed in design & construction
Applications: Wide applications for secondary treatment of industrial wastewater
where large land area is available. For residential areas, a sewer
network system collects the septic tank effluent and conveyed to the
reed bed system.
Costs: Estimated cost at P 1,500/m
2
for horizontal flowbeds and P 2,500/m
2
for vertical flowbeds excluding land cost. Operational cost mainly
consist labor cost for reed cutting at 3-4 years interval.
Utility &
Efficiency:
Low treatment efficiency. Reduction of BOD during secondary
treatment about 10-30%. Reduction of infective organisms is high.
Reliability: Usually reliable but shock load and flooding of the filter needs to
be avoided.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance to Clean Water Act or DENR regulations
l00A$ RAC70R
Description: Biogas is a by-product of anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, such as animal manure, human waste, sewage sludge, dried leaves, and crop residues.
It is an alternative source of energy for use in household cooking, heating, lighting and for municipal and idustrial use.
Design: 50 - 100 liters of waste to produce 2 m
3
of biogas per day.
Chamber must be air-tight. Approximately 15 - 28 m
3
of methane
gas per 1,000 persons per day. For pigs, it is 40 - 60 m
3
of gas for
1,000 kgs. of waste.
Operating
Principles:
Human waste is mixed with animal manure and crop residues
in an anaerobic digester, where it is decomposed without
oxygen at relatively high moisture content (90-99.5%). Wastes
are decomposed into volatile acids and then, biogas. Other by
products are amines, nitrates and ammonia (fertilizer) by the
breakdown of proteinaceous materials. Pure sludge introduced
continuously or intermittently, can also be retained in a reactor for
varying periods of time, to produce biogas.
Applications: Of great benefit to rural areas in developing countries where
organic matter is readily available.
Components: Digestion tank; fixed or floating cover; sludge/waste inlet pipe;
gas removal pipe; pressure relief and vacuum valve.
Maintenance: 1. Check scum blanket; break up, if necessary y
2. Monitor gas production, acidity/alkalinity ratio
3. Control foaming in digesterr
4. Monitor total solids
Capacity: Small biogas plants can serve at least 200 households.
Costs: Capital cost: P31,600/m
3
of waste flow or P1.00/kg of sludge
O & M cost: P18,000/month, which includes cleaning of facility
and desludging Construction
Materials:
1. Steel or reinforced concrete tanks
2. Heat and acid resistant piping system
Utility &
Efficiency:
Utilization of methane gas. BOD/COD reduction through
anaerobic digestion is 80 - 85%
Advantages: 1. Self-reliant technologyy
2. Savings in power and foreign exchange
3. More efficient as fuel than firewood
4. Recycles nutrient back into the soil
Reliability: Resistant against shock loads. Reliable if operated and maintained
oor flexibility.
Disadvantages: 1. Needs proper proportioning of organic matter and wastes
2. Users need to be trained in the use and maintenance of the
system; expert supervision is required
3. Requires expertise/craftsmanship in construction
4. High risk of corrosion problem and septic odor
technical know-how
70
R07A7lN0 l0L00lCAL C0N7AC70R$ RC
Description: A rotating biological contactor consists of a series of closely spaced circular disks of polystyrene or polyvinyl chloride or polypropylene. The disks are
submerged in wastewater and rotated slowly through it.
Design: RBCs are usually designed on the basis of loading factors derived
from pilot-plant and full-scale installations. Both hydraulic and
organic loading-rate criteria are used in sizing units for secondary
treatment. Loading rate is 29-49 kgs of BOD/m
2
/day or 16-96 kgs
of BOD/1000 m
3
of media.
Operating
Principles:
Biological growths become attached to the surfaces of the disks
and eventually form a slime layer over the entire wetted surface
area of the disks. The rotation of the disks alternately contacts the
biomass with the organic material in the wastewater and then
with the atmosphere for adsorption of oxygen. The disk rotation
affects oxygen transfer and maintains the biomass in an anaerobic
condition. The rotation is also the mechanism for removing excess
solids from the disks by shearing forces it creates and maintaining
the sludge in suspension so they can be carried from the unit to
a clarifier. RBCs can be used for secondary treatment, and they
can also be operated in the seasonal and continuous-nitrification
and denitrification modes.
Applications: Great variety of applications in small package treament units,
central sewage treatment plants, local wastewater treatment and
industrial waste treatment appropriate for small to medium-sized
communities.
Maintenance: 1. Regular spray washing of excess biomass monthly or
bimonthly
2. Lubrication of moving parts
3. Purging of settled sludge on monthly or bimonthly basis
Components: RBC mounted on a tank; primary treatment units such
as septic tank, Imhoff tank, anaerobic tank; clarifier; flow
regulator; pumps; bar screen/comminutor (if needed)
Construction
Materials:
1. Reinforced concrete, fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) or steel
tank
2. Circular discs of polystyrene, PVC or polypropylene
Capacity: Smallest packaged unit for 10-15 house; complete sewage treatment
of communities; industrial waste application.
Advantages: 1. Low space requirement
2. Can withstand hydraulic and organic surges more effectively
3. High treatment efficiencyy
4. Low energy and maintenance requirement
5. Well drainable excess sludge
Costs: High capital costs - P 600,000 for a 5 m
3
/d module
O & M cost: P 16,000/month
Energy requirement is only 2-3 hp per module
Disadvantages: 1. Contact media are not readily available in the market
2. High capital cost of equipmentt
3. Must be covered for protection against rain, wind, sunlight,
and vandalism
4. Failures in shafts and media
5. Odor problems
Utility &
Efficiency:
90-95% BOD removal; high process stability. Space requirement is
18 m2 for 60-70 m
3
of wastewater. Area is four times bigger than
that of SBR.
Reliability: Generally more reliable than other fixed-film processes because of
the large amount of biological mass present (low operating food
to microorganism ratio, F/M).
Flexibility: Adaptability of the biological films offer excellent opportunity for
the purification of single-loaded wastewater; displaceable due to
modular design..
Reapplication
Potential:
Available in modular units and can be installed in locally built
tanks.
$0UNClN0 A7CH RAC70R $R
Description: The Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) is a fill and draw activated sludge treatment system. The processes involved are similar to the conventional activated
sludge system. The SBR, however uses a single reactor basin for aeration and sedimentation/clarification and surface liquid removal. One tank or multiple
tanks can be used. SBR, oxidation ditch and submerged membrane bioreactor are biological sewage treatment processes identified as preferred processes
for the capacity range of 1,000 to 20,000 m
3
/d.
Design: Detention time - 16-36 mins.; BOD loading 0.02-0.07 kg BOD/kg
MLVSS; 2,500-6,000 MLSS; 0.91-1.36 kgs of oxygen required per kg
BOD applied.
Operating
Principles:
In this process, four different phases are carried out - filling while
aeration is in process, settling of the aerated sewage, settled
sludge is decanted while the treated water overflows for further
chlorination. Blowers are used to aerate and mix the effluent.
Applications: Capable of handling all types of wastewater i.e. domestic,
commercial and industrial wastes in limited spaces. Can treat
sewage from small-sized communities. Maintenance: 1. Check oil and grease level
2. Check equipment if functioning
3. Sampling and analyses
4. Observe process performance
5. Perform sludge settleability tests
6. Measure pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen
7. General housekeeping cleanliness
8. Maintenance records
Components: Bar screen, comminutor, equalization tank, SBR (reactor),
programmable logic controller (PLC), blower/diffusers/aerators,
valves and controls
Capacity: Recommended capacity range of 1,000 - 20,000 m
3
/day or an
urban community with a population of about 3,500 to 200,000.
Smaller plants to 100 m
3
/day capacity can be made available.
Costs:
Plant Capacity
(m
3
/day)
Capital Cost
(P)
200 17,050,000
1,000 44,990,000
5,000 126,420,000
Annual O & M cost: Php 3,000/m
3
of flow
Construction
Materials:
1. Steel reinforced concrete or plastic tanks
2. Metals for auxiliary facilities
Advantages: 1. Efficient treatment
2. Tolerates hydraulic and organic shock loads (high inlet
variation)
3. Modular construction facilitates future expansion
4. Provides a simple, reliable, automatic and flexible wastewater
treatment process within a basin (simple design and
construction)
5. Highly flexible and fully automatic (simple and easy control
and operation)
6. Relatively small space requirement
Utility &
Efficiency:
Excellent in most cases. 85-98% BOD and TSS removal.
Area requirement: 180-1,000 m
2
for equivalent people of 1,000-
10,000, or 0.52 m
2
/m
3
of flow. Better control bulking sludge
Reliability: Relatively easy to operate due to microprocess technology and
fewer mechanical equipment.
Disadvantages: 1. Most of the component parts are patented and comes from
abroad
2. Capacities are fixed and no flexibility
3. More expensive than other treatment methods
4. In case of power failure, reactor may overflow
5. Requires more skilled attention
Flexibility: Tremendous flexibility achieved by changing operational strategy
(cycle duration, cycle sequence and aeration mixing strategy).
Greater flexibility with nutrient removal.
Reapplication
Potential:
Packaged plants already available, but design, materials,
equipment and labor are also readily available.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Requires an entity to operate and maintain the facility
72
0Xl0A7l0N 0l7CH
Description: Oxidation ditch is a process where screened and degritted raw materials are mechanically aerated in various forms - ring-/oval-shaped ditch or channel, to
provide BOD reduction. After treatment, liquid and sludge are separated in a final settling tank
Design: Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) from 5,900 to 4,300 mg/l.
Food to microorganism (F/M) ratio is 0.06 and sludge age is 20
days. Circulation is 0.25-0.35 m/s.
Operating
Principles:
As the mixed liquor flows through the channel/ditch, it is
subjected to alternating aerobic and anoxic conditions. Aeration
is provided by blowers and diffusers while mixers keep solids in
suspension in the anoxic zones and impart required velocity. The
effluent from oxidation ditch is settled in a final clarifier.
Applications: Use for small communities or where large area of land is available.
Batch applications are more adaptable where total waste flow is
experienced over a portion of the day (i.e. 8-12 hours). Maintenance: 1. Adjustment of rotor immersion by raising/covering a weir
2. Preventive maintenance on rotors and other equipment
3. Maintenance of weirs, slide gates, structures and other
appurtenances
Components: Oval ditches; blower and diffusers; mechanical motors/mixers
or submerged mixers; live feed system; adjustable weirs;
covers; clarifiers
Construction
Materials:
1. Stainless steel, galvanized steel or painted carbon steel
2. Reinforced concrete walls/structure for ditch and clarifier
3. Steel clarifier (boat-type)
Capacity: For flow range of 200 - 3,000 m
3
/day y
Area required 465 m2 for a 600 m
3
/day flow
Advantages: 1. No primary settling tanks needed
2. Capable of meeting tough discharge standards
3. Relatively small space requirement
4. Most stable performance of all continuous flow mechanical
biological system
Costs:
Plant Capacity
(m
3
/day)
Capital Cost
(P)
Annual O&M Cost
(P)
200 19,370,000 228,000
600 35,760,000 319, 200
2000 67,910,000 478, 800
Annual O & M cost: Php 3,000/m
3
of flow
Disadvantages: 1. Requires highly skilled attention and operation
2. Large energy requirement for equipment operation
3. Large volume of sludge generated
Utility &
Efficiency:
BOD removal efficiency is 95-97%; capable of removal efficiency
equal to that of tertiary treatment plants.
Reliability: Capability to handle hydraulic shock loadings.
Flexibility: Process is flexible. Maximum flexibility with consistent high
quality effluent
Reapplication
Potential:
Available in modular units and can be installed in locally built
tanks. Design know-how, materials, and labor are also locally
available. Equipment has to be imported.
SLUDGE DISPOSAL SD-01
$LU00 0RYlN0 0
Description: Sludge drying bed is one method for dewatering sludge through reduction of moisture content by filtration and evaporation. The bottom of the filter bed
is laid with perforated pipes for draining the filtrate or seepage water. After drying, moisture content is reduced by 35% or less. Sludge drying beds are
normally located near treatment plants to receive/treat the sludge produced by primary/secondary treatment.
Design: 0.21 - 0.58 m
2
/capita of area requirements. Width of bed is usually
4 m and depth of sand and gravel layer is 70 cms average. 1-2 m
3
of sludge/m
2
of bed loading.
Operating
Principles:
Sludge is applied to the beds in 20 cm depth or layer. Drying
take place due to evaporation and filtration or percolation. The
dried sludge is removed manually and applied for agricultural
use or sold as organic compost. The filtrate, however, needs to be
treated further.
Applications: Applicable where space is available. Most commonly used means
for dewatering sludges.
Maintenance: 1. Replacement of sand every 6 months or 1 year
2. Prevent weed and grass encroachment
3. Regular dried sludge removal
Components: Concrete structure for bed and walls; filter media (sand and
gravel); splash block; underdrain system; inlet pipe
Construction
Materials:
1. Concrete walls
2. Sand and gravel
3. Cast iron (CI) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes
4. Asphalt paved sludge beds
Capacity: For treatment plants serving a population of 1,000 up to 20,000
Costs: Investment lowest among sludge dewatering methods.
O & M: No other cost except for labor
Advantages: 1. Simple to operate
2. Lowest cost option among sludge dewatering methods
3. Energy-saving
Utility &
Efficiency:
Dried sludge is not fully disinfected, but solid content is increased
to 50-70% total solids.
Disadvantages: 1. Filtrate/seepage water has to be treated
2. Requires solar power
3. May produce odor and flies nuisance
Reliability: Reliable during dry season, but efficiency decreases during wet
season.
Flexibility: Good process flexibility.
Reapplication
Potential:
Have good potentials for implementation by communities
and/or local government.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Requires a work force for operating and maintaining the
facility.
74
SLUDGE DISPOSAL SD-02
A0RlCUL7URAL RU$ 0F $WA0, $P7A0 0R $LU00
Description: Application of septage, sludge or sewage (treated or untreated) to sites infrequently visited by the public such as urban, tourist, and recreational areas.
Stabilization/treatment to reduce pollutants, odors, pathogens, and vector attraction may be encouraged or required. Land application may be done by
means of spreading by hauler truck, farm tractor, wagon or other vehicle, spraying ridge and furrow irrigation or by specialized equipment to inject the
sewage/septage/sludge beneath the soil surface. Application of stabilized wastes can be for specific sites such as lahar areas, agricultural fields, forest land,
reclamation sites.
Design: The purpose of this guide is to present practical information on
the handling, treatment and disposal of septage in a concise,
recommendation-oriented format for easy reference. It is not
intended to provide detailed engineering design information.
Typical rate is 10 tons/hectare/year.
Operating
Principles:
Sludge is applied to the beds in 20 cm depth or layer. Drying
take place due to evaporation and filtration or percolation. The
dried sludge is removed manually and applied for agricultural
use or sold as organic compost. The filtrate, however, needs to be
treated further.
Maintenance: 1. Replacement of sand every 6 months or 1 year
Applications: Applicable for most rural communities with sufficient suitable
land.
Construction
Materials:
1. Concrete walls
2. Sand and gravel
3. Cast iron (CI) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes
4. Asphalt paved sludge beds
Components: Receiving and holding facility; application equipment; mixing
system
Capacity: Depends on land availability and it may vary from 100-1,000 m
3
/
ha/year.
Advantages: 1. Simple to operate
2. Lowest cost option among sludge dewatering methods
3. Energy-saving
Costs: Can be expensive if farms or agricultural areas are numerous and long
transportation distances are involved. Disadvantages: 1. Filtrate/seepage water has to be treated
2. Requires solar power
3. May produce odor and flies nuisance Utility &
Efficiency:
The pathogen and vector reduction requirements can be met
by raising the pH of the septage/sludge/sewage to 12 or greater
for 30 minutes. pH is raised by adding alkali such as lime and
caustic soda.
Reliability: A properly managed land application program achieves beneficial
reuse of waste organic matter and nutrients without adversely
affecting public health.
Flexibility: Provision for receiving and holding facilities to provide operational
flexibility.
Reapplication
Potential:
System can be implemented by settlements in rural areas by
self-help or by local authorities or service providers.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance with the Clean Water Act, local ordinance
Social acceptability may be difficult to obtain
Restriction on food crops subjected to land application of
septage/sludge/sewage
EFFLUENT DISPOSAL ED-01
0l$CHAR0 lN70 RClVlN0 00Y 0F WA7R
Description: The discharge of treated wastewater or wet weather flow from combined sewers into rivers is an acceptable way of disposal if special conditions are met.
Usually, water is directly discharged into river through pipes. For discharge, it is necessary to ensure that the self-purification capacity of receiving streams
is not toppled or adversely affected. Moreover, it is necessary not to endanger health of residents who live down stream on the riversides. It should be
guaranteed that they can still use river water in the usual way (e.g. hygiene, nutrition). The discharge of untreated wastewater into rivers can only be
accepted under certain conditions and should only be seen as a temporary solution.
Design: The purpose of this guide is to present practical information on
the handling, treatment and disposal of septage in a concise,
recommendation-oriented format for easy reference. It is not
intended to provide detailed engineering design information.
Typical rate is 10 tons/hectare/year.
Operating
Principles:
The wastewater (raw or treated) discharged should have a
quality better than the receiving water quality standard. Dilution
and assimilative capacity may no longer be considered by the
regulating agency.
Maintenance: 1. Replacement of sand every 6 months or 1 yearr
Applications: Applicable for most rural communities with sufficient suitable
land.
Construction
Materials:
1. Concrete structures
2. Pipes - concrete, cast iron, PVC vitrified clay
Components: Receiving and holding facility; application equipment; mixing
system
Advantages: 1. Very low-cost disposal option
2. Implementation can be done by communities
3. Operation and maintenance is very simple Capacity: Depends on land availability and it may vary from 100-1,000 m
3
/
ha/year.
Disadvantages: 1. Use of raw river water downstream is not recommended
2. Depending on treatment options and river flow, overload of
rivers is possible
Costs: Can be expensive if farms or agricultural areas are numerous and long
transportation distances are involved.
Utility &
Efficiency:
The pathogen and vector reduction requirements can be met
by raising the pH of the septage/sludge/sewage to 12 or greater
for 30 minutes. pH is raised by adding alkali such as lime and
caustic soda.
Reliability: A properly managed land application program achieves beneficial
reuse of waste organic matter and nutrients without adversely
affecting public health.
Flexibility: Provision for receiving and holding facilities to provide operational
flexibility.
Reapplication
Potential:
System can be implemented by settlements in rural areas by
self-help or by local authorities or service providers.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Compliance with the Clean Water Act, local ordinance
Social acceptability may be difficult to obtain
Restriction on food crops subjected to land application of
septage/sludge/sewage
76
EFFLUENT DISPOSAL ED-02
A0UACUL7UR
Description: With the help of fishponds and aquaculture, pre-treated wastewater can be utilized and contained nutrients can be recycled into the food chain. In
principle, pre-treated wastewater is let into a pond where the contents are utilized by different species of microorganisms, plants and fishes. For a full scale
treatment and to maintain optimized conditions for the species it is common to use pond systems in series of two or three modules.
Design: Retention time is 10-40 days; mean depth is 0.9 m (0.5 m at inlet
and 1.5 m at outlet). Need for a depuration pond to remove
contaminants.
Operating
Principles:
Nightsoil or compost or treated sludge is collected by carts, trucks
or boats and brought to the fishponds to be fed upon by fish.
Depuration takes place in another clean pond water.
Maintenance: 1. Removal of weeds and other aquatic plants regularly
2. Prevent formation of floating scum and to allow oxygen to
come through
3. Maintain the riprap of the embankments
Applications: Suitable in areas where there are fishponds or in areas near the
sea, rivers, swamp/marshs, etc. Also applicable where space is
available within urban settlements.
Construction
Materials:
None if fishponds are existing, otherwise need liner material for
some soil types. Piping is required
Components: Fishpond with earthen embankments, inlet and outlet pipes;
fish population
Advantages: 1. Utilization of nutrients
2. Relieves rivers through the reduction of direct pollution load
Capacity: Small and large scale applications possible. Pre-treatment
determines scope of aquaculture.
Disadvantages: 1. Solution limited to very certain situations
2. Hazardous to human health if not functioning properly,
and collapse of the treatment unit is possible. Cannot treat
harmful industrial wastes
3. May need inclusion of anaerobic pond at head of works to
reduce recycle of fish worm eggs
Costs: Feasibility of effluent reuse option depends on land prices/free land
use possibility. Pay back function through yield.
Utility &
Efficiency:
If proper function can be guaranteed, good treatment efficiency
can be expected.
Reliability: Usually reliable but in cases of careless use, forms a hazard to
residents. Collapse of the system can occur
Flexibility: Can be upgraded with introduction of secondary treatment
before the fishpond.
Reapplication
Potential:
High self help potential where aquacultures has a tradition.
But cooperation of experts is recommended for pollution
control.
Regulatory/
Institutional
Issues:
Subject to compliance with the Clean Water Act
For coordination with owner(s) of the fishpond
CHB WALL WW
CONC. SLAB
STANDARD TT
TOILET BOWL
ANNEX 1
$URVY lN$7RUMN7$
78
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMAND INVESTIGATION
IN RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITIES
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
1a
A. General
1. Community Name 2. Barangay 3. Town/City 4. Province
5. Respondents Name 6. Sex
Male Female
7. Age 8. Civil Status
Single
Married
Widow/er
Separated
9. Relationship to the family 10. Occupation 11. Educational Attainment
B. Household Information
1. Ave. HH Monthly Income 2. Ave. HH Monthly Expenses
Below P5000
P5001 - P7000
Over P7000
4. No. of Household Members who are :
Children Adults (18+)
3. Expense Items Cost per Month 5. No. of Household Members who are :
Food Schooling Working
Clothing
House rent & maintenance
Transportation Other Expense Items Details Cost per Month
School fees, supplies, allowance
Light
LPG/gas
Potable water
Use of communal toilet& bath
Garbage disposal
Medical
Recreation or entertainment
Others (from right column) Total, to left column
TOTAL
C. Standard of Living
1. Housing Materials / Status of Ownership
Permanent
Hollow blocks / GI roong
Owned Rented Shared Free
(allowed to stay)
Others
Semi-permanent
Wood, hollow blocks, GI roong
(allowed to stay)
Others
Temporary/makeshift
Bamboo, nipa, coconut hatches, scrap materials
(allowed to stay)
Others
2. Lighting Facilities 3. Cooking Facilities
Electricity Kerosene Others _________________________________________ Electricity LPG Kerosene
Wood Charcoal Others _________________________________________
4. Sources of Potable Water 5. Uses of Water Supply Potable Secondary Quality
Handpump/tubewell Standpipe/public faucet (Level II) Drinking ____________________ % ____________________ %
Improved spring Individual faucet (Level III) Cooking ____________________ % ____________________ %
Rain water Water purchase (in containers) Bathing ____________________ % ____________________ %
Bottled water Others, specify Cleaning ____________________ % ____________________ %
6. Sources of Secondary Quality Water Laundry ____________________ % ____________________ %
Open dug well River/lake Flushing toilet ____________________ % ____________________ %
Underdeveloped spring Water purchase Others (specify) ____________________ % ____________________ %
Rain water Same as potable water source TOTAL ____________________ % ____________________ %
Total % of Potable + Secondary Quality Water must be equal to 100%.
7. How many percent of drinking water is -
Boiled _____________________________________ % Drunk as is __________________________________ % Bottled water ______________________________ %
Page 1
80
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
1a
D. Health, Sanitation and Hygiene (Beliefs, Practices and Perception)
1. Number of children born dead in the last 10 years 2. Family members who died from tropical diseases in the last 10 years
Number of family members Their ages at death
3. Water and sanitation diseases
observed based on signs and
symptoms as recalled in the
last 2 weeks
4. Water and sanitation diseases diagnosed in the last 3 months:
Gastroenteritis Hepatitis A Fungal infection Dengue
Typhoid fever Amoebiasis Scabies Malaria
Diarrhea Intestinal parasitism Cholera Poliomyelitis Filarial
Stomach Ache (e.g. hookworm) Schistosomiasis
5. Who got sick? Adult member
Specify cause:
Child 5 years old and above
Specify cause:
Child below 5 years old
Specify cause:
6. Causes of sanitation diseases as known to households
Poor sanitation/hygiene Poor nutrition Accidents/physical trauma Others (specify)
Contaminated water Poor infrastructure/drainage Overcrowding
Limited house space
7. Common remedies applied 8. Average cost
per treatment
9. If you did not consult a doctor or availed of hospital services, why?
Doctor
consultation
Hospital
treatment
Others
(specify)
Lack of medical services & facilities Limited government assistance
Expensive medicines Low wage or unemployed
Herbal Self medication
10. How could some
water-related diseases
be prevented?
Boil drinking water. Wash hands with soap and
water after toilet use.
Use toilet properly for defecation
and urinating.
Chlorinate drinking water. Reduce stagnant water around house.
Use disinfectants to clean house/toilet.
Bathe regulary.
11. Do you have a toilet facility
in your house?
Yes
No
12. If yes, what type of facility? 13. Why is a toilet facility
important to you?
Tank ush with
septic tank
Sanitary pit privy/
ventilated pit latrine
Pit privy/cesspool/
overhung
Pour-ush latrine Bucket system Aqua privy
14. Problems with your present
toilet facility
15. Do you want to improve your present facility? Yes No
Why?
Frequent
clogging
Vector
problems
16. Type of improvement: 17. How much are you willing to spend for the improvement?
Foul odor Others: Upgrade
Others:
18. If there is no present facility, why have you not
installed one?
19. Do you want to install one? Yes No
Why?
20. How much are you willing
to spend for the new facility?
21. What type of toilet facility would you want to install?
Pour-ush Cistern ush Septic tank Aqua privy
Pit privy Pour-ush latrine Tank ush Cesspool
Result of inspection of facility
22. Privacy 23. Water and sanitation supplies available 24. Toilet location
With door Water Soap Tissue paper Inside the house
Curtain only Outside the house
25. Durability 26. Others
Concrete walls Separate
bathing room
Combined
toilet & bath
Waste receptacle
Board walls
Page 2
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
1a
D. Health, Sanitation and Hygiene (Beliefs, Practices and Perception)
27. Defecating/urinating practices Father Mother Grandpa Grandma School
Kids
Pre-Schoolers Babies Care
Givers
Other
Adults
Defecate at -
Choices: (a) private toilet (b) public toilet (c) open area (streets, elds, sea, etc.) (d) wrapping in newspaper or using pail or garbage bin.
Urinate at -
Choices: (a) private toilet (b) public toilet (c) open area (streets, elds, sea, etc.) (d) using pail.
Anal cleansing by -
Choices: (a) Stick/corncob/stone (b) Water (c) Newspaper (d) Tissue paper (e) None
Washing of hands after
anal cleansing -
Choices: (a) With water only (b) With soap and water (c) None
Consult doctor in
case of diarrhea
Choices: (a) Yes (b) No
28. Who takes care of your pre-school childrens hygiene? 29. How do you dispose of babies disposable diapers?
Mother/Father Burning in backyard Wrapping and throwing
Older siblings Burying Throwing in garbage
Others (specify) Flushing feces in toilet bowl before throwing in the garbage
E. Sanitation Improvement Options and Willingness to Pay
5IJT TFDUJPO PG UIF TVSWFZ XJMMM CF UBLFO VQ JO UIF 'PDVT %JTDVTTJPO (SPVQ XIFSF UIF UZQFT PG JNQSPWFNFOU XJMM CF FYQMBJOFE 0CUBJO SFBDUJPO PG UIF
QBSUJDJQBOUT /PUF UIBU BQQSPYJNBUF DPTUT NBZ TUJMM DIBOHF
Option 1: Use of community sanitation center
(communal toilets) with septic tank
or other treatment facility
Willingness to pay:
Over P1,000 P1,000 - P750 P500 P250 nil
Option 2: Use of settled sewerage (collection
system) - capital investment by
LGU or other entity
Willingness to pay for connection fee of P5,000 plus the following O&M cost
Over P1,000 P1,000 - P750 P500 P250 nil
Option 3: Use of combined system and
treatment facility
Willingness to pay for maintenance of existing drainage (canals/pipes) used as collection system
Over P1,000 P1,000 - P750 P500 P250 nil
Option 4: Disposal/re-use of euent and
sludge
Willingness to pay for disposal service fee
Over P500 P500 P250 nil
F. Social Activities and Facilities / Institutions
1. Community organizations present Name 2. Programs and services of community organizations
Youth organization Health and nutrition Livelihood Others, specify
Mothers organization Environment & sanitation Sports
Senior citizens organization 3. Degree of reach or coverage of benets of projects
Parish councils All households Only a few households
School-based organizations Majority of households Dont know
Cooperatives 4. Do you have any preference on the type of sanitation services
and/or technology for the community?
Day care centers
Health centers/clinics Pipe system Covered canals
Others, specify Slush/sewer Desludging (Malabanan)
5. Have you been consulted in the choice of toilet/sanitation services in your Barangay? Yes No
G. Related Community Problems
1. Do you know of any problem related to wastewater, water, garbage, sanitation or hygiene that aected relationships between and among
households?
If yes, specify
2. How was it resolved?
Interviewed by Date of Survey Checked by:
Page 3
82
TECHNICAL SURVEY
OF RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITIES
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
1b
A. General
1. Community Name 2. Barangay 3. Town/City 4. Province
5. Respondents Name 6. Sex 7. Age 8. Occupation
Male Female
B. Physiography / Zonal Location
1. Barangay Population 2. As of year- 3. Number of Houses 4. Number of Households 5. Persons per Household
Arrangement of Houses and Accessibility
6. Arrangement 7. Accessibility
Irregular Regular pattern Limited space Backyard/frontage space
Clusters of _______________________________ houses Narrow passages Bounded by national/provincial/city road
Area and Topography
8. Barangay area (ha.) 9. Town/City area (ha.) 10. Map obtained from LGU or other sources
Yes No
12. Photo taken
11. Topography Flat Rolling/hilly Sloping Yes No
Drainage Condition
13. Type of drainage
Canals Pipes None
14. Do you notice wet spots? Yes No
15. Are there wetlands nearby? Yes No
16. Incidence of ooding
Every heavy rainfall During typhoons Rarely 17. Is there a river/canal nearby? Yes No
Surface Soil Condition
18. Condition 19. Topsoil depth (meters)
Clayey Silty Sandy Gravelly
Geology
20. Is there any adobe/rock exposed nearby? Yes No If yes, specify type:
21. Water Table Condition (check open well, canal, etc., in vicinity)
Shallow (less than 2 m.) Deep (over 2 m.) Depth of water from ground (m.):
Climate
22a. When are the rainy months? 22b. When are the dry months? 23. Condition during Survey
Temperature (
O
C ) : Dry Humid
24. Zonal location of community 25. Land use of adjoining property
Urban Rural Peri-urban Residential Commercial Industrial
Page 1
TECHNICAL SURVEY
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
1b
C. Existing Water Supply and Sanitation Condition and Practices
1. Water Sources
Open well Handpump Level II / Standpipe Level III System
Distance from house (m.) Distance from house (m.) Distance from house (m.) Operating hours/day
Frequency of fetching water/day Ownership of handpump Operating hours/day
Individual Communal Estimated water consumption
(m
3
/day) under Levels II and III
No. of buckets (20 liters)
lled up/day
Estimated water consumption
(m
3
/day)
Barangay water system?
Yes No
2. Sanitation Practices / Types Sullage/grey water
Toilet Type Septic tank/privy
Direct Open pit/overhung VIP latrine Septic tank size:
Pour-ush Pit privy/latrine Pour-ush latrine ______ x ______ x ______ m.
Tank ush Aqua privy Cesspool Storm drain
Cistern ush Wrap & throw Street
3. Drainage / Discharge
3a. Type of storm drain 3b. Where does the wastewater ow?
Open Covered Seep to ground Drainage No system
Drain pipe No system 3c. Where does the septic tank euent go?
Seep to ground Drainage Others, specify
3d. Are you aware of any ordinance on sanitation and wastewater practices?
DOH regulations DENR administrative orders Clean Water Act not aware
D. Water Pollution Situation
1. Observed pollution sources 2. Uses of water bodies within the area 3. Receiving water body
Poor drainage Source of drinking water Recreation (conduct visual inspection)
Poor sanitary practice Bathing Fishing Color:
Washing Others, specify Odor:
4. Wastewater characteristics (describe) Sampling made Sampling made
Yes No Yes No
E. Community Facilities for Sanitation / Environment
1. Communal Facility / Public Toilet
Usage Fee (Php) Average revenue/day (Php)
2. Wastewater/Sewage Treatment Facility
Personnel (enumerate positions directly involved in the facility) Estimated budget (P/mo.)
3. Water System & Facility
Ave. monthly electricity bill of a household (P/mo) Ave. monthly water usage per household (m
3
/mo) Ave. monthly water bill of a household (P/mo)
4. Solid Waste Practices
Collected by LGU Individual composting Fee for hauling/disposal (P) Frequency of collection per week
Burning in backyard Others, specify
5. Street Cleaning
By Barangay LGU Others, specify
Page 2
84
TECHNICAL SURVEY
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
1b
F. Organization/Management
Business Enterprises in the Community (i.e., piggery, sh processing)
Type of Business Business Name
G. Organization/Management
Local construction materials available in the locality
Bamboo Coco lumber Hollow blocks Sand & gravel Adobe / Stones
H. Remarks and Other Observations
Sketches (use back pages for more space)
Page 3
TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF
SMALL OR MEDIUM ENTERPRISE OR INDUSTRY
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
2
A. General
1. Entity Name 2. Barangay and Town/City 3. Province
4. Location or Address 5. Respondents Name 6. Respondents Position
7. Owner 8. Year of start of operations 9. Year of expansion 10. Description of expansion
Building Description
11. Type 12. Dimensions 13. Area (in sq. m.) 14. Other description
Single storey Length (m.) Width (m.) Floor area Land area
Multi-level 15. Footprint area (sq. m.) 16. Photo taken?
Yes No
B. Area Physiography and Land Use
1. Topography (Inspect area)
Flat Flat - sloping Rolling - multilevel Others, describe
2. Drainage condition (Inspect area) 3 .Wet spots noted
Open/covered canals Pipes No evident drainage Yes No
4. Flooding experiences
Every heavy rainfall During typhoons Rarely Others, describe
5. Wetlands nearby? 6. River or canal nearby? 7. Other water bodies nearby? (describe)
Yes No Yes No
8. Surface soil condition 9. Topsoil depth (m.)
Clayey Silty Sandy Gravelly
10. Geology (Inspect area)
Any adobe/rock exposed nearby? Yes None Type (describe)
11. Water Table Condition (check open well, canal, etc., in vicinity)
Shallow (less than 2 m.) Deep (over 2 m.) Depth of water from ground (m.):
Climate
12. When are the rainy months? 13. When are the dry months? 14. Condition during Survey
Temperature (
O
C ): Dry
Humid
15. Land use of vicinity area / zonal land use (Inspect area) 16. Accessibility of site 17. Bounded by:
Residential Industrial Within poblacion National road
Subdivision Vacant lot Outside poblacion Local main road
Informal Others, specify 18. Typical trac condition
Commercial Light Moderate Heavy
C. Existing Condition of Water Supply and Sanitation
Water supply system
1. Hand pump 1a. Estimated monthly consumption (m
3/
mo)
2. Level II/Standpipe If deepwell/tank is owned:
Deepwell/tank not owned
Deepwell/tank owned
2a. Operating hours/day 2b. Water tank volume
(m
3
)
2c. Pump capacity (Hp) 2d. Estimated monthly
consumption
(m
3
/mo)
3. Level III If operated by water utility:
Privately owned 3a. Average monthly bill (P) 3b. Average monthly consumption (m
3
/mo)
Operated by water utility
Page 1
86
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
2
C. Existing Condition of Water Supply and Sanitation
Sanitation condition / type
4. Individual Toilets
4a. No. of toilets 4b. Type 4c. Water tank vol. 4d. Bathing cubicle available? Yes No
Squat Seat (m
3
) If yes:
4e. Flushing Quantity Length, m Width, m.
Pour Tank
5. Communal Toilets
5a. No. of toilets 5b. Type 5c. Water tank vol. 5d. Bathing cubicle available? Yes No
Squat Seat (m
3
) If yes:
5e. No. of cubicles 5f. Flushing Quantity Length, m Width, m.
Pour Tank
6. Sewage Treatment 7. Sewage treatment euent discharged to:
Septic tank Sewer line to treatment plant Canal Soak pit
8. Drainage / Discharge - Type of Storm Drain
Open canal Covered canal Drain pipe No system
Page 2
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
2
D. Sanitation Practices
1. Wastewater disposal 2. Wastewater characteristics - Sampling obtained
Drainage Sewer Septic tank No None to date Yes No. of samples taken/year:
3. Solid waste disposal
Collect/Haul to Dumpsite Segregation Recycle/Re-sue Composting/Buried Others (specify)
Cost (P/month): Cost (P/month): Cost (P/month): Cost (P/month): Cost (P/month):
Frequency/week:
D.1 Sanitation Practices in a Public Market
Market cleaning/wastewater disposal
5. Wet section cleaning by: 6. Dry section cleaning by:
Water jetting Others, specify Sweeping Others, specify
Frequency in a week: Frequency in a week:
D.2 Sanitation Practices in a Beach Resort
7. Swimming pool cleaning by: 8. Cottages/Huts cleaning by: 9. Beach area cleaning by:
Water jetting Others, specify Sweeping Others, specify Sweeping/raking Protective net
Others, specify
Frequency in a week: Frequency in a week: Frequency in a week:
D.3 Sanitation Practices in a Hospital
Wastewater Management Practice
10. Chemicals used in the Laboratory 11. Chemicals used in operations (specify)
Formalin Alcohol Xylene Hydroxide
Mercury Silver Acids Solvents
12. Disposal of laboratory/operation washings
Drainage Septic tank Sewer Others, specify
E. Existing Water Pollution/Environment Situation
1. Observed pollution sources 2. Uses of water bodies within the area
Poor drainage Poor solid waste disposal Drinking water Washing Fishing
source
Poor sanitary practice Others, specify Bathing Recreation Others, specify
3. Receiving water (conduct visual inspection) 4. General environment
Drainage canal Color: Aesthetics Health hazards
Poor Prevalent
Creek Odor:
Fair Uncertain
Page 3
88
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
2
F. Usage and Revenue
F.1 For a Public Market
1. Market Time Everyday: From ______ am to ______ pm Other days: From ______ am to ______ pm
2. Usage No. of Stalls Area, sq. m. Fees/Rental Rate/mo. Total Revenue/mo.
Wet (sh, meat) section P P
Dry goods section P P
Eateries/Refreshments P P
Parking P P
Others P P
Total P
Public toilet
3. Fee per use: 4. Average number of users 5. Average revenue per month
P per day P
F.2 For a Beach Resort
6. Usage Quantity Average Usage Rate/week Fees/Rental Rate/day Total Revenue/mo.
Sheds P P
Cottages P P
Function Rooms P P
Canteen P P
Others P P
Total P
7. Entrance fee per person: P 8. Average persons - per day: per week:
F.3 For a Hospital
8. Hospital type Primary Secondary with major OR Tertiary (all)
9. Bed capacity (number) Ward: Pay beds: Charity beds:
10. Average occupancy rate per year, % : Ave. no. of patients per year- In-patient: Out-patient:
G. Organization/Management/Operation and Maintenance Costs
1. Organization/Management Set-Up
Private (e.g. BOT scheme) LGU-run Unit/Dept. in-charge:
On lease Others, specify
Starting year:
2. Stang, Costs No. of Management
Personnel
No. of Technical
Personnel
O&M Cost per Year (P) Annual Budget for Adm. (P)
Administration
Medical (for hospitals only)
Nursing
Personnel ,% O&M,%
Ancillary
Water supply
Wastewater management
Solid waste management
Hazardous waste
management
3. Cite problems relating to organization/management of enterprise particularly on wastewater/sanitation management.
4. What problems/diculties have you encountered in the O&M of the existing sanitation system/facility?
Lack of funds Lack of skilled
personnel
Lack of tools/
spare parts
Lack of
as-built plans
Others, specify None
Page 4
SURVEY
INSTRUMENT
2
H. Demand for the Sanitation Facility
1. Current / proposed programs for expansion / rehabilitation / improvement Budget 2. Does this include wastewater/sanitation
facilities?
Yes No
If yes, specify
3. If a soft loan is available for sanitation facilities/improvement, will you avail of it?
Yes
Why?
No
Why?
4. If given the necessary funds, how would you implement O&M?
Sub-contract Supplier In-house Others, specify
5. Which of the following government agencies with regulatory/
monitoring functions on sanitation compliance have you been in
contact with recently?
6. Are you aware of any of their rules and regulations?
Yes No
If yes, specify
DENR-EMB DOH
LGU Others, specify
7. Besides solid waste disposal, are you aware of any regulations / restrictions, laws on wastewater disposal?
Yes No If yes, which one:
Clean Water Act Sanitation Code LLDA regulations LGU regulations
I. Remarks and Other Observations
Sketches (use back pages for more space)
Page 5
90
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ANNEX
2
LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS PROVIDING INFORMATION
AND ASSISTANCE ON SANITATION
NAME DESCRIPTION CONTACT DETAILS
A. GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR)
Conservation, management, development and proper
use of the countrys environment and natural resources
thru governments programs and projects. Licensing and
regulation resources utilization
Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 929-6626
www.denr.gov.ph (also provides regional offices details)
Department of Health (DOH) Improvement of health and sanitation condition thru
programs and projects. Regulation of providers of health
goods and services
San Lazaro Compound, Sta. Cruz, Manila, Philippines
(02) 743-8301 to 23
www.doh.gov.ph (also provides regional oces details)
Department of Interior and Local
Government (DILG)
Supervise the functions of local government units and
implementation of the plans and programs on local
autonomy
A. Francisco Gold Condominium II, EDSA corner
Mapagmahal St., Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 925-0330 to 31
www.dilg.gov.ph (also provides regional offices details)
Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH)
Planning, design, construction and maintenance of
infrastructures that are safe for public use
A. Bonifacio Drive, Port Area, Manila, Philippines
(02) 304-3000
www.dpwh.gov.ph (also provides regional offices details)
B. LOCAL AUTHORITIES ON ENVIRONMENT, WATER, AND SANITATION
Environmental Management Bureau
(EMB-DENR)
Formulates Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRRs)
for environmental laws. Regulates/monitors compliance
to IRRs
Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 927-1517, 928-3742, 928-3782
www.emb.gov.ph
Laguna Lake Development Authority
(LLDA)
Promotion, development and maintenance of Laguna de
Bay and its watershed with precautionary measures so
as not to disturb, deteriorate and pollute the ecological
systems
Rizal Provincial Capitol Compound, Shaw
Boulevard, Pasig City, Philippines
(02) 637-3250
www.llda.gov.ph
Local Water Utilities Administration
(LWUA)
Water resources and supply in provincial cities and urban
communities
MWSS-LWUA Complex, Katipunan Road,
Balara, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 920-5449, 920-5581
www.lwua.gov.ph
Metropolitan Waterworks and
Sewerage Systems (MWSS)
Water supply and sewerage services in Metro Manila 4/F Administration Building, MWSS Complex,
Katipunan Road, Balara, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 922-3757, 922-2969, 920-5560
www.mwss.gov.ph
National Water Resources Board
(NWRB)
Development of the countrys water resources,
formulation and implementation of utilization policies,
supervision of utilities and franchises, and regulation of
water rates
8/F NIA Building, EDSA, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 928-2365
www.nwrb.gov.ph
C. LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS
Center for Advanced Philippine
Studies (CAPS)
Conducts relevant researches and projects in the areas
of integrated waste management (ISWM), solid waste
management and ecological sanitation, and makes the
results available to national and local leaders for sound
decision making
Rm. 202 Loyola Heights Condominium, E. Abada St. cor.
F. dela Rosa St., Loyola Heights, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 929-8429
www.caps.ph
Committee on Ecology, House of
Representatives
Jurisdiction over legislation on ecosystem management
including pollution control, which covers the areas of
air and water quality management, waste management,
environmental impact assessment and global
environmental concerns
3/F Annex Bldg., House of Representatives,
Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 931-5346 or 931-5001 loc. 7136
www.congress.gov.ph/committees/search.php?d=A501
Philippine Association of Water
Districts Inc. (PAWD)
Provides ways to forge linkages between and among
water districts throughout the country
2/F LWUA Bldg., Katipunan Road,
Balara, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 920-5453 or 927-5032
Philippine Center for Water and
Sanitation (PCWS)
Works for the awareness, appreciation, protection and
conservation of resources, and offers technical assistance
and consultancy services in environment and sanitation,
policy advocacy, action researches, trainings, appropriate
for water supply
Penthouse 3 Minnesota Mansion, 267 Ermin Garcia St.,
Cubao, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 912-0531 or 421-9470
www.itnphil.org.ph
94
C. LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS
Philippine Ecosan Network (PEN) Promotes awareness, appreciation and the practice of
ecological sanitation in the Philippines
5/F Francisco Gold Condominium II
EDSA cor. Mapagmahal St.
Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 927-1875
www.ecosan.ph
Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers
(PICE)
Promotes and enhances the practice of civil engineering
thru improved and more advanced studies, education,
knowledge and research
Unit 701, 703, 705, Futurepoint Plaza, Cond. I,
112 Panay Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 448-7487 to 90
www.pice.org.ph
Philippine Institute of Environmental
Planners Inc. (PIEP)
Promotes the physical, economic, socio-cultural, aesthetic,
and environment-friendly development of regions, cities
and municipalities
Ground Floor, SURP Building
University of the Philippines
(02) 920-9705
Philippine Society Of Sanitary
Engineers Inc. (PSSE)
Enhances sanitary engineering profession thru studies
and research. Provides information on sanitation
418 Capinpin Avenue, Camp Aguinaldo,
Telefax: (02) 9114606
Philippine Water Partnership (PWP) Promotes good practices, disseminates information, and
engages its members in a dialogue to discuss issues and
provides recommendations concerning the countrys
water resources management
National Hydraulics Research Center
UP College of Engineering Building
(02) 927-7149 or 76
Philippine Waterworks Association
(PWWA)
Encourages close relations among those engaged in the
waterworks industry. Disseminates information for the
improvement of water service
PWWA Bldg., Katipunan Road, Balara,
(02) 920-7145
D. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND AGENCIES WITH OFFICES IN THE PHILIPPINES
Asian Development Bank (ADB) Provides financial and technical assistance to government
projects that reduce poverty, provides basic education
and healthcare, and promotes healthy environment
6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City, Philippines
(02) 632-4444, 683-1000
www.adb.org
Australian Agency for International
Development (AusAID)
Plans and coordinates poverty reduction activities,
programs and policies with developing countries
Australian Embassy, Level 23 Tower 2 RCBC,
6819 Ayala Avenue, Makati City, Philippines
www.ausaid.gov.au
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)
Provides technical information which focuses on health,
environment, water, and wastes
PDCP Bank Center, 9/Floor
V.A. Rufino cor. L.P. Leviste Streets
Makati City, Philippines
(02) 812-3165
www.gtz.de
Japan Bank for International
Cooperation (JBIC)
Grants financial assistance for the stability and
development of the economies and societies of
countries, and closer and stronger ties between Japan
and the rest of the world
31/F Citibank Tower
Valero St. cor. Villart St.
(02) 848-1828, 752-5682
www.jbic.go.jp/english
United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP)
Advocates for change and connects countries to
knowledge, experience and resources to build and share
solutions to a better life
30/F Yuchengco Tower, RCBC Plaza
6819 Ayala Ave. cor. Sen. Gil J. Puyat Ave.
(02) 901-0100
www.undp.org
US Agency for International
Development (USAID)
Provides economic assistance on sustainable
environmental management and improves the health
and nutrition conditions
8/F PNB Financial Center Pres. Diosdado
Macapagal Boulevard, Pasay City, Philippines
(02) 552-9900
www.usaid.gov
World Bank (WB) Provides loans, policy advice, technical assistance and
knowledge sharing services which include water supply,
water resources management, and sanitation to low and
middle income countries
8/F PNB Financial Center
Pres. Diosdado Macapagal Boulevard
Pasay City, Philippines
(02) 917-3000, 637-5855
www.worldbank.org
E. PARTNERSHIPS, PROJECTS AND PROGRAMS
BORDABasic Needs Services (BNS)
Partnership
Promotes and i mpl ements demand- ori ented
decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS)
and sanitation services for community based sanitation,
small and medium enterprises, and LGUs
103 Minnesota Mansion, 267 Ermin Garcia Street,
Cubao, Quezon City, Philippines
(02) 913-0806
www.borda.de
Environmental Engineering
Graduate Program
University of the Philippines
Administers the courses for Masters of Science in
Environmental Engineering and the Doctor of Philosophy
in Environmental Engineering. Conducts research on
wastewater treatment, solid waste management and
sanitation systems
317 National Engineering Center,
University of the Philippines,
(02) 926-7087
www.engg.upd.
GTZ Water and Sanitation
Programm
Promotes Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) and supports the enhancement of water supply
and sanitation in rural areas. Develops institutions and
corresponding coordination mechanisms on all levels
of government administration with key focus on
development of policies and strategies as well as its
implementation, empowerment of sector institutions
and training of trainers.
DILG-WSSPMO
5/F Francisco Gold Condominium II
EDSA cor. Mapagmahal St.
Diliman, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines
(02) 927-1875
www.watsansolid.org.ph
Local Initiatives for Affordable
Wastewater Treatment (LINAW)
Identifies and develops solutions to wastewater pollution.
Technical and site visit assistance, planning workshops,
information and resource materials on technology and
financing options, public awareness campaigns, and
project results in both local and national forums
11/F Ayala Life - FGU Center, 6811 Ayala Avenue,
(02) 843-6336
www.usaid-ph.gov/oee_urban_linaw.php
Partnership in Environmental
Management for the Seas of East
Asia (PEMSEA)
Aims to abate the negative impacts of pollution and
minimize the potential conflicts that arise from the
tremendous development phase in the region.
DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue,
Quezon City 1101, Philippines
(02) 920-2211; 926-3752
Philippines Environmental
Governance Project (ECOGOV)
Helps partner LGUs in Mindanao, Central Visayas, and
Northern Luzon to develop wastewater management
programs, particularly in assessing, promoting, managing,
and regulating wastewater from public markets,
slaughterhouses, and public hospitals
Unit 2401 Prestige Tower, F. Ortigas Jr. Road
Ortigas Center, Pasig City
(02) 636-3189; 634-0620; 635-6260; 635-0747
Sustainable Coastal Tourism in Asia
- Philippines (SCOTIA)
Pursues a collaborative program to promote sustainable
coastal tourism that will protect the long-term viability
of delicate coastal and marine areas. Aims to strengthen
capability of local governments to safeguard the
sustainability and tourism value of their marine and
coastal ecologies. Offers technical assistance on coastal
resource management and evironmental management
to local governments and resort operators with special
emphasis on solid waste management and sanitation in
six project areas.
12/F Export Bank Plaza,
Gil Puyat Ave. cor. Don Chino Roces, Makati City
(02) 816-6576
USAID Environmental Cooperation-
Asia (ECO-Asia) Program
Provides technical assistance to the United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) Regional
Development Mission/Asia (RDM/A) to: (1) improve
access to clean water and sanitation for the urban
poor; (2) improve environmental governance and
transboundary cooperation; and (3) provide overarching
program support to RDM/A. Being implemented by the
Planning and Development Collaborative International,
Inc. (PADCO), an AECOM company.
USAID Environmental Cooperation-Asia
(ECO-Asia) Program
PADCO|AECOM (USAID Contractor)
Suite 4022, Golden Rock Bldg., 168 Salcedo Street
Legaspi Village, Makati City 1229
Tel/Fax (632) 819-0688
US-Asia Environmental Partnership
(US-AEP)
Issues of water supply and quality, solid and hazardous
waste, and environmental governance in Asia
8/F PNB Financial Center Roxas Boulevard,
Pasay City, Philippines
(02) 552-9830
www.usaep.org
96
Water and Sanitation Program
(WSP)
Sustained access of poor people to water supply and
sanitation services
20/F The Taipan Place, F. Ortigas Jr. Road,
Ortigas Center, Pasig City, Metro Manila, Philippines
(02) 917 3143
www.wsp.org
Water Supply and Sanitation
Performance Enhancement Project
(WPEP)
Enhances projects on adequate water and sanitation
services to be more accessible to the under-served rural
and urban poor
20/F The Taipan Place, F. Ortigas Jr. Road,
Ortigas Center, Pasig City, Metro Manila, Philippines
(02) 917-3000; 917-3143
www.wpep.org
F. PRIVATE SERVICE PROVIDERS
INCA Plastics Philippines, Inc. Designs, markets, and manufactures products made of
virgin polyethylene resins and compounded with UV
stabilizers for maximum outdoor use protection. Utilizes
the process of rotational molding for production
Bldg. 4 Philcrest Compound, km 23 West Service Rd.,
Cupang, Muntinlupa City, Philippines
(02) 809-3380
www.inca.cjb.net
JV Baring Consultants and Allied
Services
Offers consultancy, environmental impact assessment,
environmental audits, pollution prevention and control
designs, and retainership services. Products include variations
of rotating biological contactors (RBC) and fiber reinforced
plastics
JV Baring Bldg., Banilad, Cebu City, Philippines
(032) 345-0890
www.jvbaring.com
Radian Consulting, Inc. Prepares feasibility studies, master plans, preliminary
and detailed designs on land development, urban storm
drainage and flood control, water supply and sanitation, and
lifesafety and fire protection projects. Also provides project/
construction management and capacity-building/training
18/F Herrera Tower, V.A. Rufino St. cor. Valero St.,
Salcedo Village, Makati City, Philippines
(02) 8450907 to 09
www.radian.com
Watercare Technologies Corporation Offers low-cost wastewater treatment systems. Makes
septic tanks called SEPTICure Fiberglass Tanks
#2 Madrid St. cor. Bismarck, Provident Village,
Marikina City, Philippines
(02) 941-8329, 997-0809, 528-0088
ANNEX
3
LIST OF SELECTED WEBBASED RESOURCES
ON SANITATION AND HYGIENE PROMOTION
NAME DESCRIPTION CONTACT DETAILS
INTERNET INFORMATION NETWORKS
Business Partners for Development-
Water and Sanitation Cluster
Access to BPDs internal and external publications and links
related to water and sanitation in depressed communities.
Publications include research papers, newsletters, annual
reports, and sectoral analysis
www.bpd-waterandsanitation.org
ELDIS Gateway to Information
Sources on Development and the
Environment
Provides online documents and organizational directory
of development-related internet services www.ids.ac.uk/eldis
Environmental Health Project (EHP) Provides access to expertise in environmental health
www.ehproject.org
Global Applied Research Network
(Garnet)
Makes the exchange of information on water supply and
sanitation possible www.lboro.ac.uk/garnet
Global Water Partnership (GWP) Offers a library containing technical papers, brochures,
and links to information about water management www.gwpforum.org/servlet/PSP?chStartupName=_library
GTZ Ecosan - Ecological Sanitation Transfers information and knowledge among parties
involved in ecosan-related projects and offers an
opportunity for the cooperation partners to get in
contact with each other
www.gtz.de/ecosan/english
Hesperian Foundation Access to Hesperian Foundations published books and
newsletters for community-based health care www.hesperian.org
International Development Enterprises
(IDE)
Provides links, newsletters, and publications on water
technologies for small-scale irrigation and safe drinking
water
www.ideorg.org
Institute of Development Studies
(IDS)
Links to papers, book chapters, and journals on health
issues www.ids.ac.uk
International Water and Sanitation
Centre (IRC)
Provides news and information, advice, research and
training on low-cost water supply and sanitation in
developing countries to achieve better support from
governments, professionals and organizations
www.irc.nl
InterWATER Links to organizations and networks in the water supply
and sanitation sector www2.irc.nl/interwater
Lifewater International Links to documents related to water supply, hygiene and
sanitation www. lifewater.org
London School of Hygiene &
Tropical Medicine
Links to program related to health and diseases
www.lshtm.ac.uk
Department of Water and Sanitation
in Developing Countries (SANDEC)
Lists publications in the following fields: strategic
environmental sanitation planning, solid waste
management, rural and peri-urban water treatment,
material flux analysis, faecal sludge management,
decentralized wastewater treatment and urban
agriculture
www.sandec.ch/Publications/PublicationsHome.htm#FSM
SANICON-Environmental Sanitation
Network
Access to information on technologies, institutions and
financing of sanitation systems
www.sanicon.net
School Sanitation and Hygiene
Education
Provides an overview of initiatives related to hygiene,
sanitation and water in schools, web portals and mailing
lists.
www.irc.nl/sshe
Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency (SIDA)
Contains a publications database for easy research on
SIDAs information materials and reports
www.sida.se/Sida/jsp/Crosslink.jsp?d=107
United Nations Childrens Fund
(UNICEF): Water, Environment and
Sanitation (WES)
Links to UNICEFs publications and partner institutions,
agencies or services in the water, environment and
sanitation sector
www.unicef.org/wes
Water Aid Provides publications, technology notes, and links to sites
related to sanitation and hygiene
www.wateraid.org.uk
Water, Engineering and Development
Centre (WEDC)
Links to WEDCs projects and publications on emergency
water supply and sanitation, enterprise development,
environment and health, institutional development,
knowledge management, urban services, and water and
sanitation
wedc.lboro.ac.uk
Water Supply and Sanitation
Collaborative Council (WSSCC)
Lists a catalogue of reports and tools produced by
WSSCC or its working groups, networks and task
forces. Also provides links to organizations in water and
sanitation sector.
www.wsscc.org
World Health Organization (WHO)-
UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme
for Water Supply and Sanitation
Hosts information which includes worldwide data related
to water supply and sanitation www.wssinfo.org
98
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TOILET BOWL
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
100
Activated sludge production of an activated mass of micro-organisms capable of stabilizing
waste aerobically. (Metcalf & Eddy)
biologically active solids in an activated-sludge process wastewater treatment
plant. ( Water Environment Federation)
sludge particles produced by the growth of organisms in the aeration tank in
the presence of dissolved oxygen.
Aerobic condition characterized by the presence of free oxygen. ( Water Environment
Federation)
Adsorption the process of collecting soluble substances that are in solution on a suitable
interface. The interface can be between a liquid and a gas, a solid, or another
liquid. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Aerated pond/lagoon a natural or artificial wastewater treatment pond in which mechanical or
diffused air aeration is used to supplement the oxygen supply. (c/o CGE)
Ammonia a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen that occurs extensively in nature.
Chemical formula is NH3. ( Water Environment Federation)
Anaerobic condition characterized by the absence of free oxygen. ( Water Environment
Federation)
Anaerobic digestion involves the decomposition of organic and inorganic matter in the absence of
molecular oxygen. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Anaerobic lagoon a wastewater or sludge treatment process that involves retention under
anaerobic conditions. (c/o CGE)
Bacteria microbes that decompose and stabilize organic matter in wastewater. ( Water
Environment Federation)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand quantity of oxygen that will be required to biologically stabilize the organic
matter present. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Bioconcentration the net increase in concentration of a substance that results from the uptake
or absorption of the substance directly from the water and onto aquatic
organisms. ( Water Environment Federation)
Biodegradable term used to descri be organi c matter that can undergo bi ol ogi cal
decomposition. ( Water Environment Federation)
Biodigester tank used for aerobic or anaerobic digestion of sludge.
Biosolids solid organic matter recovered from municipal wastewater treatment that can
be beneficially used, especially as a fertilizer. Biosolids are solids that have
been stabilized within the treatment process. ( Water Environment Federation)
Bucket latrine a type of toilet wherein the feces with or without separation of urine are
collected in a pail or bucket.
Burial a system of disposal for small volumes of feces, sludge or other solid wastes by
digging a pit and covering it with earth.
Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, cellulose, and wood fiber. Carbohydrates contain
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The common carbohydrates contain six or a
multiple of six carbon atoms in a molecule, and hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportions in which these elements are found in water. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Carbon dioxide a noncombustible gas formed in animal respiration and the combustion
and decomposition of organic matter. Chemical formula is CO2. ( Water
Chemical precipitation involves the addition of chemicals to alter the physical state of dissolved and
suspended solids and to facilitate their removal by sedimentation. (Metcalf &
Eddy)
102
Chlorination the addition of chlorine to wastewater for the purpose of disinfection. ( Water
the application of chlorine or chlorine compounds to water or wastewater,
generally for the purpose of disinfection, but frequently for chemical oxidation
and odor control. (c/o CGE)
Clarifier a large circular or rectangular sedimentation tank used to remove settleable
solids in water or wastewater. A special type of clarifier, called an upflow
clarifier, uses flotation rather than sedimentation to remove solids. (c/o CGE)
Coagulation the destabilization and initial aggregation of finely divided suspended solids
into coagulated particles by the addition of a polyelectrolyte or coagulant.
Collection System system of conduits, generally underground pipes, that receives and conveys
sanitary wastewater and/or stormwater. ( Water Environment Federation)
Colloidal solids/Colloids finely divided solids that will not settle but may be removed by coagulation,
biochemical action, or membrane filtration; they are intermediate between true
solutions and suspensions.
Comminution treatment process that cuts up solids into a smaller, more uniform size for
return to the flow stream for removal in the subsequent downstream treatment
operations and processes. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Compost the product of the thermophilic biological oxidation of sludge or other
materials.
Composting stabilization process relying on the aerobic decomposition of organic matter in
sludge by bacteria and fungi. ( Water Environment Federation)
Contamination the i ntroducti on i nto water of mi cro-organi sms, chemi cal s, wastes, or
wastewater in a concentration that makes the water unfit for its intended use.
Denitrification bi ol ogi cal process i n whi ch ni trates are conver ted to ni trogen. ( Water
Desludging removal of sludge or settled solid matter from treatment tanks such as septic/
Imhoff tank, aquaprivy, interceptor tank or sedimentation tanks.
Digestion See anaerobic digestion.
Disposal discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing of any liquid
or solid waste on land or water so that it may enter the environment.
Dissolved Oxygen the oxygen dissolved in a liquid. ( Water Environment Federation)
Dissolved solids solids in solution that cannot be removed by filtration. ( Water Environment
Federation)
Domestic wastewater wastewater derived principally from dwellings, business buildings, institutions,
and the like. I t may or may not contain groundwater, surface water, or
stormwater. (c/o CGE)
Domestic septage either liquid or solid material removed from septic tank, cesspool, portable
toilet, and treatment works that receives only domestic sewage.
Domestic sewage waste and wastewater from humans or household operations.
Drying the process of hygienization of wastes (sludge, feces or urine) by subjecting it
to the heat of the sun.
Dry weather flow (1) the flow of wastewater in a combined sewer during dry weather. Such
flow consists mainly of wastewater, with no stormwater included.
Ecological sanitation sanitation whose design builds on the concept of protecting ecosystems, and
which excreta as a valuable resource to be recycled. (Sanitation and Hygiene
Promotion)
Effluent wastewater or other liquid, partially or completely treated or in its natural state,
flowing out of a reservoir, basin, treatment plant, or industrial treatment plant,
or part thereof. (c/o CGE)
Electrodialysis in the electrodialysis process, ionic components of a solution are separated
through the use of semipermeable ion-selective membranes. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Eutrophication nutrient enrichment of a lake or other water body, typically characterized by
increased growth of planktonic algae and rooted plants. It can be accelerated
by wastewater discharges and polluted runoff.
Excreta faeces and urine. (Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
Fats triglyceride esters of fatty acids. ( Water Environment Federation)
Feces excrement of humans and animals. ( Water Environment Federation)
Filterable solids solids that can be separated physical such as filter sand or filter cloth or
membrane.
Filtration the process of contacting a dilute liquid suspension with filter media for
the removal of suspended or colloidal matter, or for the dewatering of
concentrated sludge.
Flotation a treatment process whereby gas bubbles are introduced to water and attach
to solid particles, creating bubble-solid agglomerates that float to the surface
where they are removed. ( Water Environment Federation)
Gas of the three states of matter, the state having no fixed shape or volume and
capable of expanding indefinitely. ( Water Environment Federation)
Grit removal a preliminary wastewater treatment process to remove grit from organic solids.
( Water Environment Federation)
Groundwater water found below ground level in the sub-soil. (Sanitation and Hygiene
Promotion)
subsurface water found in porous rock strata and soil. ( Water Environment
Federation)
Groundwater table the level at which the subsoil is saturated. (Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
Hydrogen sulfide is formed from the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter containing
sulfur or from the reduction of mineral sulfites and sulfates. This gas is a
colorless, inflammable compound with the characteristic odor of rotten eggs.
(Metcalf & Eddy)
Hypochlorination the use of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl2) for disinfection. (c/o CGE)
Inorganic matter substances of mineral origin, not containing carbon, and not subject to decay.
Ion an electrically charged atom, molecule, or radical. ( Water Environment
Federation)
Ion exchange is a unit process in which ions of a given species are displaced from an
insoluble exchange material by ions of a different species in solution. (Metcalf
& Eddy)
Lagoon any large holding or detention pond, usually with earthen dikes, used to
contain wastewater while sedimentation and biological oxidation occur. See
also anaerobic lagoon.
Landfill a land disposal site that employs an engineering method of solid waste
disposal to minimize environmental hazards and protect the quality of surface
and subsurface waters. ( Water Environment Federation)
Micro-organisms very small organisms, either plant or animal, invisible or barely visible to the
naked eye. Examples are algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses.
104
Nitrate (NO
3
) a stabl e, oxi di zed form of ni trogen havi ng the formul a NO3-. ( Water
an oxygenated form of nitrogen.
Nitrification biological process in which ammonia is converted first to nitrite and then to
nitrate. ( Water Environment Federation)
Nitrite (NO
2
) an unstable, easily oxidized nitrogen compound with a chemical formula NO
2
-.
an intermediate oxygenated form of nitrogen.
Nitrogen (N) an essential nutrient that is often present in wastewater as ammonia,
nitrate, nitrite, and organic nitrogen. The concentrations of each form and
the sum (total nitrogen) are expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L) element
nitrogen. Also present in some groundwater as nitrate and in some polluted
groundwater in other forms.
Nutrient any substance that is assimilated by organisms to promote or facilitate their
growth. ( Water Environment Federation)
Off-site sanitation system of sanitation where excreta are removed from the plot occupied by the
dwelling and its immediate surroundings. (Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
On-site sanitation system of sanitation where the means of collection, storage and treatment
(where this exists) are contained within the plot occupied by the dwelling and
its immediate surroundings. (Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
Organic matter solids derived from both animal and plant kingdoms and the activities of man
as related to the synthesis of organic compounds.
Oxidation the conversion of organic materials to simpler, more stable forms with the
release of energy. This may be accomplished by chemical or biological means.
Ozonation the process of using ozone in water or wastewater treatment for oxidation,
disinfection, or odor control. ( Water Environment Federation)
Pathogen highly infectious, disease-producing microbes commonly found in sanitary
wastewater. ( Water Environment Federation)
Permeability (1) the property of a material that permits appreciable movement of water
through it when it is saturated; the movement is actuated by hydrostatic
pressure of the magnitude normally encountered in natural subsurface water.
Pesticides these chemicals are not common constituents of domestic wastewater but
result primarily from surface runoff from agricultural, vacant, and park lands.
(Metcalf & Eddy)
pH the reciprocal of the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in gram
moles per litre. On the 0 to 14 scale, a value of 7 at 25C (77F) represents
a neutral condition. Decreasing values indicate increasing hydrogen ion
concentration (acidity), and increasing values indicate decreasing hydrogen ion
concentration (alkalinity). ( Water Environment Federation)
Phenols organic pollutant also known as carbolic acid occurring in industrial wastes
from petroleum-processing and coal coking operations. ( Water Environment
Federation)
Phosphorus a nutrient that is essential element of all life forms. ( Water Environment
Federation)
Pit latrine latrine with a pit for collection and decomposition of excreta and from which
liquid infiltrates into the surrounding soil. (Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
Pour-flush latrine latrine that depends for its operation of small quantities of water, poured
from a container by hand, to flush away faeces from the point of defecation.
(Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
Priority pollutants hazardous substances. ( Water Environment Federation)
Proteins are the principal constituents of the animal organism. They occur to a lesser
content in plants. Proteins are complex in chemical structure and unstable,
being subject to many forms of decomposition. Some are soluble in water,
others are insoluble. The chemistry of the formation of proteins involves the
combination or linking together of a large number of amino acids. (Metcalf &
Eddy)
Protozoa small one-celled animals including amoeba, ciliates, and flagellates.
Recycle to return water after some type of treatment for further use; generally implies
a closed system.
Refractory organics organic substances that are difficult or impossible to metabolize in a biological
system. ( Water Environment Federation)
Retention time the length of time that water or wastewater will be retained in a unit
treatment process or facility. ( Water Environment Federation)
Reverse osmosis is a process in which water is separated from dissolved salts in solution by
filtering through a semi permeable membrane at a pressure greater than the
osmotic pressure caused by the dissolved salts in the wastewater. (Metcalf &
Eddy)
Sanitation interventions (usually construction of facilities such as latrines) that improve the
management of excreta. (Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion). The WHO Study
Group in 1986 defines sanitation as the means of collecting and disposing of
excreta and community liquid wastes in a hygienic way so as not to endanger
the health of individuals and the community as a whole.
Screening a preliminary treatment process that removes large suspended or floating solids
from raw wastewater to prevent subsequent plugging of pipes or damage to
pumps.
Sedimentation removal of settleable suspended solids from water or wastewater by gravity in
a quiescent basin or clarifier. ( Water Environment Federation)
Septage sludge produced in individual on-site wastewater-disposal systems, principally
septic tanks and cesspools. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Septic tank a tank or container, normally with one inlet and one outlet, that retains sewage
and reduces its strength by settlement and anaerobic digestion. (Sanitation
and Hygiene Promotion)
Sewer a pipe or other conduit that carries wastewater from more than one property.
(Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
Settleable solids that matter in wastewater that will not stay in suspension during a preselected
settling period, such as 1 hour, but settles to the bottom.
Sewage see Wastewater. ( Water Environment Federation)
Sewage sludge a solid, semi-solid or liquid residue generated during the treatment of domestic
sewage in treatment works. Sewage sludge includes, but is not limited to
domestic septage, scum or solids removed in primary, secondary, or advanced
wastewater treatment processes.
Sewerage the entire system of wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal. ( Water
Sludge accumulated and concentrated solids generated within the wastewater
treatment process that have not undergone a stabilization. ( Water Environment
Federation)
106
Sullage dirty water that has been used for washing, cooking, washing clothes, pots,
pans, etc.) (Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion)
see Greywater. ( Water Environment Federation)
Surfactants or surface-active agents, are large organic molecules that are slightly soluble
in water and cause foaming in wastewater treatment plants and in the surface
waters into which the waste effluent is discharged. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Suspended solids insoluble solids that either float on the surface of, or are in suspension in,
water, wastewater, or other liquids.
Total Suspended Solids the measure of particulate matter suspended in a sample of water or
wastewater
Toxic capable of causing an adverse effect on biological tissue following physical
contact or absorption. ( Water Environment Federation)
Trickling filter consists of a bed of a highly permeable medium to which microorganisms are
attached and through which wastewater is percolated or trickled. (Metcalf &
Eddy)
Turbidity suspended matter in water or wastewater that scatters or otherwise interferes
with the passage of light through the water. ( Water Environment Federation)
Ultrafiltration are pressure-driven membrane operations that use porous membranes for
the removal of dissolved and colloidal material. Applications for ultrafiltration
include removal of oil from aqueous streams and the removal of turbidity from
color colloids. (Metcalf & Eddy)
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation light waves shorter than the visible blue-violet waves of the spectrum.
Viruses smallest biological structures capable of reproduction; infect its host, producing
disease. ( Water Environment Federation)
Wastewater liquid or waterborne wastes polluted or fouled from households or commercial
or i ndustri al operati ons, along wi th any sur face water, stormwater, or
groundwater infiltration. ( Water Environment Federation)
Wet weather flow the flow in a combined sewer during storm or and rain events.

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