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PHY 204: Elementary Physics II -- Lecture Notes PHY 204: Elementary Physics II (2021)

10-30-2020

21. Torque acting on current loops. Magnetic dipole moment

Gerhard Müller
University of Rhode Island, [email protected]

Robert Coyne
University of Rhode Island, [email protected]

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PHY204 Lecture 21 [rln21]

Dot Product Between Vectors

Consider two vectors ~A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ and ~B = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂.

• ~A · ~B = AB cos φ = ABA = BAB .

• ~A · ~B = ~B · ~A.
• ~A · ~B = AB if ~A k ~B.
• ~A · ~B = 0 if ~A ⊥ ~B.
• ~A · ~B = (Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂) · (Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂)
= Ax Bx (î · î) + Ax By (î · ĵ) + Ax Bz (î · k̂)
+Ay Bx (ĵ · î) + Ay By (ĵ · ĵ) + Ay Bz (ĵ · k̂)
+Az Bx (k̂ · î) + Az By (k̂ · ĵ) + Az Bz (k̂ · k̂).
• Use î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = 1,
î · ĵ = ĵ · k̂ = k̂ · î = 0.
• ⇒ ~A · ~B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz .

tsl229

We begin this lecture with two slides elaborating on two distinct products of
vectors: the dot product and the cross product.
The dot product, also named scalar product, yields a scalar i.e. a number.
The slide shows how we evaluate the dot product when the product vectors
are given in components. It also shows how we calculate the dot product if
we know the magnitude of each factor vector and the angle between them.
It is useful to recall that the dot product yields a positive number if the angle
between the two factor vectors is acute (< 90◦ ), a negative number if that
angle is obtuse (> 90◦ ), and zero if the two vectors are perpendicular to each
other (at right angle, 90◦ ).
The dot product is commutative, meaning that the sequencing of the factors
makes no difference.
R
We have have used the dot product for calculating electric flux ΦE = E~ ·dA.
~

The dot product has also made its appearance in the calculation
R of electric
potential from an electric field via a path integral: V = − E~ · d~s.

Moreover, we have introduced the electric current

R through a wire cross section
as the flux of electric current density: I = J~ · dA.
~

Further applications of dot products will be coming soon.

1
 Cross Product Between Vectors

Consider two vectors ~A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ and ~B = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂.

• ~A × ~B = AB sin φ n̂.
• ~A × ~B = −~B × ~A.
• ~A × ~A = 0.
• ~A × ~B = AB n̂ if ~A ⊥ ~B.
• ~A × ~B = 0 if ~A k ~B.
• ~A × ~B = (Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂) × (Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂)
= Ax Bx (î × î) + Ax By (î × ĵ) + Ax Bz (î × k̂)
+Ay Bx (ĵ × î) + Ay By (ĵ × ĵ) + Ay Bz (ĵ × k̂)
+Az Bx (k̂ × î) + Az By (k̂ × ĵ) + Az Bz (k̂ × k̂).
• Use î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0,
î × ĵ = k̂, ĵ × k̂ = î, k̂ × î = ĵ.
• ⇒ ~A × ~B = (Ay Bz − Az By )î + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )ĵ + (Ax By − Ay Bx )k̂.

tsl230

The cross product, also named vector product, yields a vector. The slide
shows how we evaluate the cross product when the product vectors are given
in components.
If we know the magnitude of each factor vector and their orientation in
space we can construct the product vector as shown and already explained
in lecture 19.
When the two factor vectors are parallel or anti-parallel, then the cross prod-
uct vanishes. Otherwise, the orientations of the factor vectors span a plane of
unique orientation. The product vector is perpendicular to that plane. There
are two such orientations. The right-hand rule (see lecture 19) determines
which one to pick.
The cross product is non-commutative, meaning that the sequencing of the
factors does matter. Interchanging the factor vectors inverts the direction of
the product vector.
The cross product features prominently in the expressions of magnetic force,
F~ = q~v × B
~ or F~ = I L
~ × B,
~ as we have already seen. Further applications
are just around the corner (on the next page).

2
 Magnetic Dipole Moment of Current Loop
N: number of turns
I: current through wire
A: area of loop
n̂: unit vector perpendicular to plane of loop
~µ = NIAn̂: magnetic dipole moment

~B: magnetic field

~τ = ~µ × ~B: torque acting on current loop

tsl475

A current loop such as the one shown on the slide is a realization of a mag-
netic dipole. A magnetic dipole is characterized by a vector quantity, named
magnetic dipole moment µ ~.
The list on the slide explains how to determine the vector µ
~ from the speci-
fications of a flat loop with arbitrary shape.
The vector µ ~ is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. That leaves two
possible directions. A new rendition of the right-hand rule tells us how to
pick the right one. Curl the fingers of right hand in the direction of the
current around the loop. Then the thumb points in the direction of µ~.
For loops that are not flat, the construction µ
~ is a bit more involved. An
example will be analyzed later.
There are magnetic dipoles that are not current loops. For example the
electron and the proton are electric dipoles. Attempts to explain the dipole
moments of the electron and the proton as manifestations of rotating charge
have utterly failed. Even the neutron, which does not carry a net charge,
does have a magnetic dipole moment.
When a magnetic dipole moment µ ~ it
~ is positioned into a magnetic field B
experiences a torque τ = µ ~
~ × B. The torque is an agent of reorientation just
as the force is an agent of relocation.
The torque ~τ aims to align the vector µ
~ with the vector B.~ It is strongest
when µ ~
~ is perpendicular to B and vanishes when µ ~
~ is aligned with B.

3
 Torque on Current Loop

• magnetic field: ~B (horizontal)

• area of loop: A = ab
• unit vector ⊥ to plane of loop: n̂
• right-hand rule: n̂ points up.
• forces on sides a: F = IaB (vertical)
• forces on sides b: F = IbB (horizontal, not
shown)
• torque: τ = Fb sin θ = IAB sin θ
• magnetic moment: ~µ = IAn̂
• torque (vector): ~τ = ~µ × ~B

tsl196

This slide elaborates on the construction of the torque for a rectangular loop
from first principles i.e. from forces and lever arms, familiar concepts from
mechanics.
A rectangular loop is positioned in a uniform magnetic field as shown from
two different perspectives.
The forces on the two sides of length b are opposite in direction and acting
along the same line. Therefore, they do not contribute to any torque.
The forces on the two sides of length a are also opposite in direction but
acting along different lines as shown. Therefore, they do produce a torque.
The end result as worked out on the slide agrees with the more general result
from the previous slide.

4
 Magnetic Moment of a Rotating Disk

Consider a nonconducting disk of radius R with a uniform surface charge density σ. The disk rotates with
angular velocity ω
~.

Calculation of the magnetic moment ~µ:

• Total charge on disk: Q = σ(πR2 ).

• Divide the disk into concentric rings of width dr.
2π
• Period of rotation: T = .
ω
dQ ω
• Current within ring: dI = = σ(2πrdr) = σωrdr.
T 2π
• Magnetic moment of ring: dµ = dI (πr2 ) = πσωr3 dr.
Z R
π 4
• Magnetic moment of disk: µ = πσωr3 dr = σR ω.
0 4
π 4 1
• Vector relation: ~µ = ~ = QR2 ω
σR ω ~.
4 4

tsl199

Here we consider a magnetic dipole that is not a simple current loop, where
all current flow is on the perimeter.
We are looking at a spinning disk. The disk is uniformly charged with charge
density σ. The rotating charge within concentric rings of radius r and width
dr is reinterpreted as the current of a loop.
Each loop then produces a magnetic dipole moment dµ according to the
recipe from two slides ago. Summing up the contributions from all rings
amounts to an integral across the range 0 < r < R of radius.
Note that the directions of the angular velocity vector ω
~ and µ
~ are both
determined by the right-hand rule:

• Curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the spinning
motion. Then the thumb points in the direction of ω
~.
• Curl the fingers of you right hand in the direction of the (effective)
current. Then the thumb points in the direction of µ
~.

If the charge Q on the disk is positive, then µ

~ has the same direction as ω
~.
Making Q negative switches the direction of µ ~ only.

5
 Direct-Current Motor

tsl408

How can we convert the torque on a current loop into an agent of continuous
rotating motion? On this slide you see two primitive designs for direct-current
motors.
In the torque expression, τ = µB sin θ, the factor sin θ changes sign after
every half turn. The trick is to undo this change of sign by changing the
current direction in the loop after every half turn, which will also change the
direction of the magnetic moment vector µ ~ after every half turn.
In both designs this switch of current direction is accomplished by brushes
and commutator contacts.
The consequence of this trick is that the torque maintains the same direction.
The loop will keep accelerating or keep driving a load in steady rotating
motion.
Later in this course, we will see that alternating currents (ac) offer many
advantages over direct currents (dc). One advantage of ac motors is that
they do not require sliding electrical contacts.

6
 Galvanometer

Measuring direct currents.

• magnetic moment ~µ (along needle)

• magnetic field ~B (toward right)
• torque ~τ = ~µ × ~B (into plane)

tsl409

The galvanometer is the prototypical analog device for measuring direct cur-
rents. A current loop is mounted inside a magnet such that the plane of the
loop can rotate relative to the direction of the magnetic field. The loop is
held in a reference orientation by a spring as shown.
When a current I flows through the loop, it produces a magnetic dipole
moment µ ~ points to the
~ in the direction of the needle. The magnetic field B
~
~ × B points into the plane (⊗).
right (→). Therefore the torque, ~τ = µ
Use your right hand and point the thumb in the direction of ~τ . Then your
fingers curl clockwise, meaning that the torque aims to reorient the needle
in that direction. Its tip on the scale will move to the right.
The restoring elastic force provided by the spring counteracts that angular
displacement with a torque in the opposite direction. The needle will settle
at a certain angle away from the reference orientation. The angular displace-
ment is proportional to the current I. Once the instrument is calibrated, the
current I can be read off the scale.

7
 Magnetic Dipole in Uniform Magnetic Field

• Magnetic dipole moment: ~µ = IAn̂

• Torque exerted by magnetic field: ~τ = ~µ × ~B
• Potential energy: U = −~µ · ~B
Z θ Z θ
U (θ ) = − τ (θ )dθ = µB sin θdθ = −µB cos θ
π/2 π/2
Note: τ (θ ) and dθ have opposite sign.

µ = IAn^
B
^n
I µ
θ
τ

tsl198

On this page and the next, we review some basic attributes of electric and
magnetic dipole moments in comparison. The importance of both kinds of
dipole moments in all branches of natural science and engineering can hardly
be overemphasized.
Here the focus is on the magnetic dipole moment. We use the familiar real-
ization of a flat current loop, here positioned perpendicular to the plane of
the page. The current flows out of the page on the left and into the page on
the right. The arrow shows the direction at the front of the loop.
The torque aims to align the dipole moment µ ~ In
~ with the magnetic field B.
the configuration shown, the torque ~τ is directed into the page (⊗).
Rotating the orientation of µ~ out of alignment with B~ requires work. The dif-
ferential of rotational work is τ dθ in correspondence to F dx for translational
work.
The orientational potential energy U of a magnetic dipole can then be ex-
pressed as a dot product between the vectors µ ~ as shown. It assumes
~ and B
the lowest value when the two vectors are aligned.
Many materials contain microscopic magnetic dipoles (mostly arising from
electrons). An external magnetic field tends to align these dipoles. The ma-
terial thus becomes magnetized. In ferromagnets the magnetization persists
when the external field is turned off.

8
 Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field

• Electric dipole moment: ~p = q~L

• Torque exerted by electric field: ~τ = ~p × ~E
• Potential energy: U = −~p · ~E
Z θ Z θ
U (θ ) = − τ (θ )dθ = pE sin θdθ = −pE cos θ
π/2 π/2
Note: τ (θ ) and dθ have opposite sign.

E
+q
L
−q p = qL θ
τ p

tsl197

Here we switch focus to the electric dipole moment. It is an electrically

neutral object. Equal amounts of positive and negative charge are slightly
displaced from each other.
The simplest realization of an electric dipole, as shown on the slide, are two
opposite point charges at a distance L from each other. The direction of the
electric dipole moment p~ points toward the positive charge.
The torque expression reads “moment cross field” and the potential-energy
expression reads “minus moment dot field” just as in the magnetic case.
Torque aims to align the dipole moment with the field. The aligned state
has the lowest potential energy.
~ produces a torque ~τ pointing out of
Note that here the cross product p~ × E
the page ().
Many molecules are permanent electric dipoles, the most prominent case
being H2 O as illustrated and explained in an earlier lecture.
External electric fields induce an electric polarization in dielectric materials
as discussed earlier in the context of capacitors. On the microscopic level,
this means that the (positively charged) nuclei and the surrounding shells
of (negatively charged) electrons of atoms are being pulled in opposite di-
rections. In consequence they are slightly displaced by the external electric
field. Each atom becomes an induced electric dipole.

9
 Magnetic Force Application (11)

If the magnetic moment of the current loop (1) is µ1 = 1Am2 , what are the magnetic moments µ2 , µ3 , µ4 of the
current loops (2), (3), (4), respectively?

(1) (2)

(3) (4)

tsl206

Let us begin by establishing a coordinate system with î pointing toward the

front, ĵ pointing toward the right, and k̂ pointing up.
Then the flat square loop (1) has magnetic dipole moment,

~ 1 = 1Am2 k̂.
µ

Loop (2), which is not flat, can be thought of as made of two flat square
loops. The two currents along the shared side cancel. The magnetic dipole
moment is
~ 2 = 1Am2 ĵ + 1Am2 k̂,
µ
√
with magnitude µ2 = 2Am2 .
In like manner, loop (3) can be interpreted as consisting of three flat square
loops with two shared sides of zero current. The magnetic dipole moment is

~ 3 = 1Am2 k̂ + 1Am2 ĵ − 1Am2 k̂ = 1Am2 ĵ,

µ

with magnitude µ3 = 1Am2 .

Loop (4), finally, can be interpreted as consisting of three flat square loops
with three shared sides of zero current. The magnetic dipole moment is

~ 4 = 1Am2 î + 1Am2 ĵ + 1Am2 k̂,

µ
√
with magnitude µ3 = 3Am2 .
A loop positioned on an arbitrarily curved surface can thus be divided into a
grid of loops small enough to be essentially flat and with shared sides of zero
current. The vector sum of the magnetic moments generated by the small
loops on the grid then represents the magnetic moment of the loop on the
curved surface.

10
 Unit Exam III: Problem #1 (Spring ’12)
In a region of uniform magnetic field B = 5mTî, a proton (m = 1.67 × 10−27 kg, q = 1.60 × 10−19 C) is launched
with velocity v0 = 4000m/sk̂.
(a) Calculate the magnitude F of the magnetic force that keeps the proton on a circular path.
(b) Calculate the radius r of the circular path.
(c) Calculate the time T it takes the proton to go around that circle once.
(d) Sketch the circular path of the proton in the graph. z

v0

Solution: m, q

(a) F = qv0 B = 3.2 × 10−18 N. y

mv20 mv0
(b) = qv0 B ⇒ r = = 8.35mm.
r qB B
2πr 2πm
x
(c) T = = = 13.1µs.
v0 qB
(d) Center of circle to the right of proton’s initial position (cw motion).

tsl435

We conclude this lecture with an application of a particle moving in circular

motion through a region of uniform magnetic field.
The solution as given on the slide is easy to reproduce. It is a bit more
challenging to come up with the solution without peeking at the solution.
The best preparation for an exam (and for a professional life in science and
engineering) is to use your mental power, creativity, and imagination as the
only resources.
The mental tools that you must be able to recall in this application are the
following:

• The structure of magnetic force acting on a charged particle in motion.

• The concept of centripetal force, here provided magnetically.
• The circumference of a circle.
• The right-hand rule.

11
 Magnetic Force Application (6)

An electric current flows through each of the letter-shaped wires in a region of uniform magnetic field
pointing into the plane.

• Find the direction of the resultant magnetic force on each letter.

N
NW NE
B
W E
SW SE
S
tsl193

This is the quiz for lecture 21.

Here we have another application of the vector equation F~ = I L
~ × B.
~

Possible answers are either no force or one of the eight compass points indi-
cated.
Hint: Remember what we said about the net force on a current loop in a
uniform magnetic field.

12