Unit 1 Introduction To Social Psychology : 1.0 Objectives

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Introduction to Social

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition, Nature and Scope of Social Psychology
1.2.1 Definition of Social Psychology
1.2.2 Nature of Social Psychology
1.2.2.1 Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study
1.2.2.2 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Thought, Feeling and
Behaviour
1.2.2.3 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Behaviour in Social Contexts
1.2.3 Scope of Social Psychology
1.3 Historical Development of Social Psychology
1.3.1 Early Years of Social Psychology
1.3.2 Formational Years of Social Psychology
1.3.3 Expansion of Social Psychology
1.3.4 Social Psychology in 21st Century
1.3.5 Social Psychology in India
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Unit End Questions
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.8 Suggested Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Define social psychology;
Explain the nature and scope of social psychology;
Describe the historical background of social psychology; and
Illustrate the development of social psychology with reference to India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us ponder upon some situations, events, issues and people. While going for a
job interview we dress up individually; but when we reach the interview venue
we find that all the candidates are dressed up in almost similar fashion. In another
situation, after the Nirbhaya incidence in Delhi on 16 December 2012, thousands
of people flooded on the roads of Delhi and other parts of the country protesting
against the incidence. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Nelson
Mandela, Dalai Lama and many others like them influenced thoughts, feelings
and behaviours of the masses in a great manner and led the people’s thought
toward remarkable social, religious, political and ethical revolutions.
* Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari, Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute of Psychological Research, Ministry of Defence,
Lucknow Road, Timarpur, Delhi
9
Introduction to Social These are few examples from the history of human being where either we are
Psychology
influenced by other people or we influence other people’s behaviours. Social
psychology is the branch of psychology which studies human behaviour in an
array of social situations. The present unit will help you to understand the
definition, scope and nature of psychology. Further, in this unit, you will be
acquainted with the historical background and social psychology with reference
to Indian context.

1.2 DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE OF


SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology is an important branch of psychology which studies human
interaction, its manifestations, causes, consequences and the various
psychological processes involved in it.

1.2.1 Definition of Social Psychology


Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of “how we feel about, think
about and behave toward the people around us and how our feelings, thoughts,
and behaviours are influenced by those people in the social context” (Kassin,
Fein, & Markus, 2017). In a slightly different expression social psychology is
defined asa discipline that uses scientific methods in an attempt to understand
and explain how the thought, feeling and behaviour of individuals are influenced
by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others (Gordon Allport, 1985, p.
3).

1.2.2 Nature of Social Psychology


Careful explanation of definitions given above reveals that it has three major
components that characterise the nature of social psychology. These characteristics
have been further elaborated below:

1.2.2.1 Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study


Social psychology is scientific in nature. It applies the scientific method of
systematic observation, description and measure mentto the study of the human
behaviour in social context. Social psychological studies refer to the data being
collected through direct observation or experiment. Such experiments and
observation are carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other
investigators can repeat and verify the work.

The scientific social psychology carries out three major activities: description,
explanation and prediction of social behaviours. Social psychology provides a
scientific account of social behaviour based on direct observation rather than on
common beliefs. Social psychology also attempts to explain why people behave
in a particular way in a particular social situation. Such interconnected
explanations of social behaviours lead to formation of theories which help in
predicting social behaviours and managing them in a desirable direction.

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1.2.2.2 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Thought, Feeling Introduction to Social
Psychology
and Behaviour
The varied issues of the field of social psychology include– individuals’ thought,
feeling and behaviour. Cognition is referred as the manner in which people process
information. Social psychology studies cognition that relates to social activities
and that helps us in understanding and predictingour social behaviours. Social
psychology also studies the feelings we experience as an individual in our social
lives. What we think or feel in the social context is finally expressed through our
behaviours in social interactions. Social psychology studies these behaviours in
the forms of cooperation, helping behaviour, conflict, aggression, etc.

1.2.2.3 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Behaviour in Social


Contexts
Social psychology studies individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviours in the
social contexts. This component of social psychology refers that our behaviour
is influenced by the presence of other people and we also influence other people’s
behaviour. The social context referred to in the definition of social psychology
does not have to be real or present. Even the implied or imagined presence of
others can have important effects on individuals (Gordon Allport, 1985). However,
in order to establish general principles of human social behaviour, social
psychologists sometimes examine non-social factors also. Kurt Lewin (1936),
one of the important early figures in social psychology proposed a model for
understanding social behaviour, which says that social behaviour is a function of
the interaction of the situation and the individual’s characteristics (see box for
detail).

BOX 1.1: KURT LEWIN’S CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIAL


PSYCHOLOGY: A MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR

Kurt Lewin (9th September, 1890-12th February, 1947) was a German-


American psychologist and is often recognized as the “founder of social
psychology”. Social psychologists are interested in the forces that operate
on individuals and cause them to engage in specific examples of social
behaviour. But social behaviour is typically complex and has many
contributing causes. Consequently, explaining social behaviour is a difficult
task. To simplify this task, we can assign the multiple causes of social
behaviour to one of two broad categories: the situation and the individual.
According to a formula first proposed by Kurt Lewin (1936), social behaviour
is a function of the interaction of the situation and the individual’s
characteristics, or B = f (P,E)
This suggest that the behaviour is the product of an individual and her/his
enviroment.

1.2.3 Scope of Social Psychology


Social psychology concentrates on the individual behaviour in the social context,
so the subject matter of social psychology is the interactions of the individual
with other individuals and society as well. It is the social world, based upon the
relations of human to their fellow beings which furnishes the subject matter of
11
Introduction to Social social psychology. The scope of social psychology can be broadly outlined in
Psychology
the following ways:

People generally express feelings of approval and disapproval, favourability


and unfavourability, or likes and dislikes towards different persons, objects
or issues that further influence their thought and actions. This phenomenon
is termed as attitudes and social psychologists have been emphasizing upon
various aspects of attitude, such as formation of attitude, attitude structure,
attitude change, function of attitudes and relationship between attitudes and
behaviour.

One of the emerging areas of social psychology is social cognition, which


studies the ways people perceive, ponder and remember information related
to social stimuli. Various phenomena studied under social cognition are
person perception, attribution process, schema, stereotypes, etc.

Social influence is a traditional, core area of study in social psychology


which refers to the way people affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
of others.

Social psychologists are also interested in the question of why people


sometimes act in a pro-social way (helping, liking or loving others), but at
other times act in an antisocial way (hostility, aggression or prejudice against
others).

Social psychologists have vastly studied various phenomena related to social


groups and group dynamics. Groups may be understood in terms of group
composition, group structures, group process and the effect this has on
individual change and group development, as well as on task performance.
Thus, a social psychologist studies almost everything that we do every day
in the social context (see box below for detail).

Box 1.2: CONTRIBUTIONS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS

WHAT DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY?

Social psychologists study why we are often helpful to other people and
why we may be unfriendly or aggressive at other times.

Social psychologists study both the benefits of having good relationships


with other people and the costs of being lonely.

Social psychologists study what factors lead people to purchase one product
rather than another.

Social psychologists study how men and women behave differently in social
settings.

Social psychologists study what makes some people more likely to engage
in environmentally friendly behaviours than others.

Social psychologists study how someone might choose to risk their life to
save that of a complete stranger.

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Self Assessment Questions I Introduction to Social
Psychology
1) Define social psychology.
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2) How can you say that social psychology is a science?


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3) Describe the nature of social psychology.


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4) Give an account of scope of social psychology.


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1.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL


PSYCHOLOGY
Although philosophical analysis of human behaviour in society has always been
a major issue of interest for the social thinkers, a systematic empirical approach
to the study of social psychology did not appear until the latter part of the
nineteenth century. History of social psychology can be outlined in following
developmental stages:
13
Introduction to Social
Psychology
1.3.1 Early Years of Social Psychology
The earliest roots of social psychology are thought to be a group of German
scholars who were influenced by the philosopher Hegel. In 1860, Steinthal and
Lazarus founded a journal devoted to this Völkerpsychologie that published
theoretical and factual articles on the study of the collective mind. This concept
of collective mind was interpreted in conflicting ways: on the one hand a societal
way of thinking within the individual and on the other a form of trans-individual
mentality that could encompass a whole group of people.
The two earliest textbooks on social psychology were written by the psychologist-
William McDougall (1908) in Britain and the sociologist- Ross (1908) in America.
However, none of these textbooks were like a modern social psychology textbook
and their main topics were principal instincts, primary emotions, nature of
sentiments, moral conduct, volition, religious conceptions and structure of
character.
At the end of 19th century and the beginning of 20th century social psychology
started to systematically measure the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of human
beings. A number of laboratories were set up in Europe and United States which
started with a psychological laboratory at Leipzig in 1879 set up by Willem
Wundt to provide an experimental basis for psychology in Germany. Meantime,
the behaviourist John Watson published his classic scientific manifesto for
psychology in 1913.
In 1924, inspired byWatson, Floyd Allport published an agenda for social
psychology. Building on Watson, Allport argued that social psychology would
flourish only if it became an experimental science. Shortly after, Gardner Murphy
and Lois Murphy (1931/1937) felt justified in producing a book actually entitled
Experimental Social Psychology. First experiment in social psychology is often
identified as Norman Triplett’s (1898) study of how people can put more effort
into a task when other people are present as observers or competitors.

1.3.2 Formational Years of Social Psychology


During the 1940s and 1950s, Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger argued for a
scientifically rigorous social psychology. Lewin, known as “the father of social
psychology”, developed many of the important ideas of the discipline, including
a focus on the dynamic interactions among people. In 1954, Festinger edited a
book called Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences, which stressed the
need of scientific measurement and to use laboratory experiments to
systematically test research hypotheses about social behaviour. He also noted
that for factual results in these experiments the participants may be kept blind
about the purpose of the research.

During the time of World War II,the studies on conformity were conducted by
Muzafir Sherif (1936) and Solomon Asch (1952). Studies on obedience were
conducted by Stanley Milgram (1974) and Philip Zimbardo (Haney, Banks, &
Zimbardo, 1973).

1.3.3 Expansion of Social Psychology


Social psychology further expanded on other topics. John Darley and BibbLatané
(1968) developed a model to explain the context when people do and do not help
14 others in need. Leonard Berkowitz (1962) started the study of human aggression.
Many other social psychologists focused on the process of decision making in Introduction to Social
Psychology
group (Janis, 1972). Still other social psychologists, including Gordon Allport
and Muzafir Sherif, focused on intergroup relations with the goal of understanding
and potentially reducing the occurrence of stereotypes, prejudice and
discrimination.
In late 20th century social psychology expanded into the field of attitudes and
significance of cognitive processes in attitudes. Social psychologists also started
studying the process of persuasion by which advertisers and other people could
present their messages to make them most effective and persuasive (Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993; Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1963). They focused on the cognitive
processes that people use when evaluating messages. Relationship between
attitudes and behaviour was also an important aspect which was extensively
studied during this period. Leon Festinger’simportant cognitive dissonance theory
was developed during this time and became a model for later researches (Festinger,
1957).
In late 20th century, due to advances in information technology focus of social
psychology on cognitive process was further substantiated (Fiske & Taylor, 2008).
The social cognition approach has been focused on understanding of how our
knowledge about our social worlds develops and how it influences our social
thinking and behaviours. Further more, the extent to which humans’ decision
making could be flawed due to both cognitive and motivational processes that
were documented (Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982).

1.3.4 Social Psychology in 21st Century


Social psychology has been still expanding into varied areas of social behaviour.
Social psychologists have studied impact of social situations on our health and
happiness, important roles of evolutionary experiences and cultures on our
behaviour.The field of social neuroscience has also emerged, which studies that
how our social behaviour, both influences and is influenced by the activities of
our brain (Lieberman, 2010). Social psychologists are consistently searching
new methods to measure and understand social behaviour and the field continues
to evolve.

1.3.5 Social Psychology in India


In 1928, first book on social psychologyinIndia,entitled– Introduction to Social
Psychology was written by Narendra Nath Sengupta, the first chairman of first
department of psychology at the Calcutta University, in association with an
eminent sociologist Radhakamal Mukherjee. However, this initial association
between social psychology and sociology could not continue and Indian social
psychologists, in effect of western research orientations, put out all efforts to
establish the identity of psychology as a scientific discipline. Jamuna Prasad,
inspired by Bartlett’s (1932) reconstructive memory of events, studied the famous
earthquake in Bihar in 1934 and collected and analyzed more than 35 thousand
rumours and published this work in the British Journal of Psychology in 1935.
This, and the later work of Durganand Sinha (1952) on similar lines, was reported
by Festinger as the basis of formulating his theory of cognitive dissonance.

In the later years, Indian social psychologists continued working in the areas of
prejudice, stereotypes and social attitudes. Large scale surveys were conducted
taking various attitude measures. Adinarayan conducted studies on racial and
15
Introduction to Social communal attitudes (1953) and on caste attitudes (1958). With increasing
Psychology
emphasis on public awareness programmes for health, family planning,
agricultural innovations, attitude change became a major topic of research. During
these years social psychology was growing in popularity in India as evident
from surveys conducted from time to time.

Social psychologists further explored the areas of intergroup relations (Singh,


1981), relative deprivation (Misra, 1982), ingratiation (Pandey, 1986) and
leadership (J.B.P. Sinha, 1980) in which influence of social groups on individual
behaviour was investigated. More recently, the interest is shifting to study ethnic
identities, the rise of depressed classes and related topics. In much of this research,
efforts are being made to establish causal linkages between macro-level variables
(demographic, social or cultural) and micro-level variables (attitudes, feeling of
deprivation, etc.). The approach and methodology remained consistent with
individual social psychology of the American variety. Another area which
persisted in popularity for long was achievement motivation. A large number of
scales were constructed to measure achievement motivation of school and college
students. In recent years the work of Ashish Nandy on self, science, nationality
and Sudhir Kakar’s work on identity and relationships have been somehow
indigenous and not directly influenced by what and how of social psychology in
America and Europe (see Dalal & Mishra, 2001).

Self Assessment Question II


State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) The earliest textbooks on social psychology was written by the psychologist
Willian Mc Dougal in Britain. ..............................
2) The behaviorist John Watson published his classic scientific manifesto for
psychology in 1913. ..............................
3) Lewin, Known as the father of social psychology...............................
4) Narendra Nath sengupta was the first chairman of the first department of
psychology at the mumbai University. ..............................

1.4 LET US SUM UP


It can be summed up from the above discussion that social psychology is a field
which analyses our thoughts, feelings and behaviour toward the people around
us. It also explains how others have an influence on our behaviour in the social
context. Thus, social psychology concentrates on studying the interactions of
individuals with other individuals and society. Foundation of social psychology
as specific branch of psychology can be traced back to early 20th century. However,
the major expansion in the scope of social psychology took place in later half of
20th century. Indigenous studies in social psychology in India have been majorly
focused on self and culture, nationality and identity, etc. Although social
psychology is closely related with other discipline of social sciences, as well as
other branches of psychology; it differs from them in approach.

Social psychologists investigate human social behaviour at various levels.


Primarily, these levels are intrapersonal social behaviours, interactions between
individuals, interactions between individual and group and interactions between
group and group.
16
Introduction to Social
1.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS Psychology

1) Define social psychology and explain the nature and scope of social
psychology.

2) Present an account of historical development of social psychology.

1.6 GLOSSARY
Social Psychology: Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of how
we feel about, think about and behave toward the people around us and how our
feelings, thoughts, and behaviours are influenced by those people in the social
context.
Social Neuroscience:Social neuroscience is the study of how our socialbehaviour
both influences and is influenced by the activities of our brain.
Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning presumes that when a neutral
stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is paired with a natural stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus, UCS), neutral stimulus alone acquires the ability to
elicit the response (conditioned response, CR) which naturally occurs
(unconditioned response, UCR) after natural stimulus.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the mechanism by which people learn to
perform a particular behaviour because it is followed by something that is
pleasurable or that satisfies a need (or they learn to avoid behaviour that is followed
by unpleasant consequences).
Observational Learning: Observational learning presumes thatpeople often learn
social atti­tudes and behaviours simply by watching other people, known
technically as “models”.
Social Exchange Theory: Social exchange theory uses the concept of
reinforcement to explain stability and change in social interactions and relations
between individuals.
Social Cognitive Theories: Social cognitive theoriesemphasise that a person’s
behaviour depends on the way he or she perceives the social situation.
Schema: Schema is a mental representation capturing the general characteristics
of a particular class of episodes, events or individuals.
Principle of Cognitive Consistency:Principle of cognitive consistency maintains
that individuals strive to hold ideas that are consistent or congruous with one
another, rather than ideas that are inconsistent or incongruous.

1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT


QUESTIONS (SAQ)
Self Assement Question I
1) Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of “how we feel about,
think about and behave toward the people around us and how our feelings,
thoughts, and behaviours are influenced by those people in the social
context” (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2017).

17
Introduction to Social 2) Social psychology is scientific in nature. It applies the scientific method of
Psychology
systematic observation, description and measurementto the study of the
human behaviour in social context. Social psychological studies refer to the
data being collected through direct observation or experiment. Such
experiments and observation are carried out carefully and reported in detail
so that other investigators can repeat and verify the work.

3) The following three major components characterise the nature of social


psychology:
Social psychology applies scientific methods of study.
Social psychology studies individuals’ thought, feeling and behaviour.
Social psychology studies individuals’ behaviour in social contexts.
4) The scope of social psychology can be broadly outlined in the following
ways:
Social psychologists emphasize upon various aspects of attitude
Social psychology also deals with social cognition.
Social influence is a traditional, core area of study in social psychology.
Social psychologists are also interested in the question of why people
sometimes act in a pro-social way but at other times act in an antisocial
way.
Self Assement Question II
1) True
2) True
3) True
4) False

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES


Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10th ed.).
Cengage Learning.

Baron, R. A., &Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston:


Pearson/Allyn& Bacon.

References
Adinarayan, S. P. (1953). Before and after Independence–A study of racial and
communal attitudes in India. British Journal of Psychology, 44, 108-115.

Adinarayan, S.P. (1957). A study of racial attitudes in India. Journal of Social


Psychology, 45, 211-216.
Allport, F. H. (1924). Social Psychology. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G.
Lindzey& E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (3rd ed., Vol. I,
pp. 1-46). New York: Random House.
Asch, S. E. (1952). Social Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
18
B. F. Skinner (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. Introduction to Social
Psychology
Cambridge, Massachusetts: B. F. Skinner Foundation.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice-


Hall.

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social


Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis. New York,


NY: McGraw-Hill.

Dalal, A. K., & Mishra, G. (2001). Social Psychology in India: Evolution and
emerging trends. In In A. K. Dalal& G. Misra (Eds.), New Directions in Indian
Psychology (vol. 1: Social Psychology), New Delhi: Sage.

Darley, J. M., &Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies:


Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8,
377-383.

Eagly, A. H., &Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations,


7, 117-140.

Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row,


Peterson.

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2008). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture.
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a


simulated prison. International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-97.

Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1963). Communication and


Persuasion. Oxford, England: Yale University Press.

Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign


Policy Decisions and Fiascos. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.

Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (1982). Judgment under Uncertainty:
Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10th ed.).
Cengage Learning.

Kelley, H. H., & Thibaut, J. W. (1978). Interpersonal Relations: A Theory of


Interdependence. New York: Wiley.
LeBon, G. (1908). The crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: Unwin
(original work published 1896). Online: http://cupid.ecom.unimelb.edu.au/het/
lebon/crowds.pdf
Lewin, K.(1936). A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
19
Introduction to Social Lieberman, M. D. (2010). Social cognitive neuroscience. In S. T. Fiske, D. T.
Psychology
Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1,
pp. 143–193). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
McDougall, W. (1908). An Introduction to Social Psychology. London: Methuen.
McDougall, W. (1920). The Group Mind. London: Cambridge University Press.
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority. London: Tavistock.
Misra, G. (1982). Deprivation and development : A review of Indian studies.
Indian Educational Review, 18, 12-33.

Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental Social Psychology. New


York: Harper (rev. ed published with T. M. Newcomb in 1937).

Pandey, J. (1986). Social-cultural perspectives on ingratiation. In B.A. Mahar &


W.B. Mahar (Ed.), Progress in Experimental Personality Research (Vol. 14).
New York: Academic Press.

Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological


Activity of the Cerebral Cortex (translated by G.V. Anrep). London: Oxford
University Press.
Ross, E. A. (1908). Social Psychology. New York: Macmillan.
Sherif, M. (1936). The Psychology of social norms. New York: Harper.
Singh, A. K. (1981). Development of religious identity and prejudice in Indian
children. In D. Sinha (Ed.), Socialization of the Indian Child (pp.87-100). New
Delhi: Concept.

Sinha, D. (1952). Behaviour in a catastrophic situation: A psychological study of


reports and rumours. British Journal of Psychology, 43, 200-209.
Sinha, J. B. P. (1980). Nurturant Task Leader. New Delhi: Concept.
Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition.
American Journal of Psychology, 9, 507-533.

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