Astronomy

1
Stars

Stars
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Define stars in your own word;
2. Critically understand the properties of stars and different kinds of it; and
3. State the important things why should we study stars.

What is a Star?
A star is born. First off, a decent enough astrophysical definition of a star is any
object that is sufficiently massive that it can ignite the fusion of elements in its core due to
the gravitational pressures inside the object itself.
The smallest object that we know of today that is capable of such feats is around
10% the mass of our sun. In the far future, with heavier and heavier elements adding to the
mix and polluting the interstellar waterways, fusion will be possible in lower-mass objects,
but that’s not something we need to worry about today.
The smallest stars are called red dwarfs because they are red and small. They only
weakly and feebly burn hydrogen in their cores and emit radiation primarily in the infrared
part of the electromagnetic spectrum, hence their dull red color. They are by far the most
common star in the Milky Way galaxy, though they are so small and so dim that even our
nearest neighbor star, Proxima Centauri, is completely invisible to the naked eye.
The next category up in stars is the ones like our sun. Medium mass, medium
brightness, medium lives. They emit radiation throughout the visible spectrum, making
them appear nice and white (yes, our sun is really white, but filtered through our blue
atmosphere, it appears slightly yellow).
Above that, you have the giant stars, which are as big as they are rare. But because
they are so intensely bright, they are easy to spot. For example, we see the spiral arms of
galaxies not because they are that much more populated than the spaces in between but
because they are lit up like Christmas tree lights with bright stars.
Almost every star you see in the night sky is much larger than the sun. For the
majority of their lives, the biggest stars are tinted blue. This is because they emit so much
energy that the radiation that comes out is actually all the way over in the ultraviolet, with
a little bit of the emission coming out in the blue end of our visible range.
Stellar Evolution
Stars age so slowly that it is impossible—except under rare circumstances—to see
the transformations take place. Instead, using the laws of physics, stellar theorists build
numerical models of stars and then age them. The procedure is simple in principle but
difficult in practice. At the start, a star is in hydrostatic equilibrium, in which each layer
supports the layers above it, with the pressure difference across a layer equaling the weight
of the layer, and is internally supported by thermonuclear fusion. The perfect gas law gives
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 the relation between pressure, density, and temperature, P = NkT, where P is pressure, N is
the number density of atomic particles, k is Boltzmann’s constant, and T is temperature.
Other equations involve the mass within a given radius, the rate at which energy is
generated at a given radius, and the temperature gradient, which controls convection. As
fusion proceeds and the rate of energy generation and the internal chemical composition
change, the structure of the star changes as well. Stepwise calculations that predict
luminosity, radius, and effective temperature then allow the star to be followed as it
“moves” (changes in effective temperature and luminosity) on the Hertzsprung-Russell
(HR) diagram. When appropriate mass loss is taken into account, most of the different
kinds of stars fall into place.
Stars are born from compact knots of gas and dust within molecular clouds (Fig. 3).
If dense enough, the knots start to contract under their own gravity. Conservation of
angular momentum demands that as the knots collapse, they must spin faster. Magnetic
fields transport some of this angular momentum away, and over time, a flattened disk of
material—known as a protoplanetary disk—forms around the collapsing, budding star,
which at this point in its evolution is known as a protostar. The protoplanetary disk
contains the materials from which planets later accumulate.
When the protostar’s interior reaches about 1 million K (1 million °C or 1.8 million
°F), it can fuse its internal deuterium. That and heat convection, which brings in fresh
deuterium from outside the nuclear-burning zone, bring some stability, and a star can now
be said to have been born. Stars like the Sun shrink at a constant temperature until
deuterium fusion dies down. Then the young stars heat at roughly constant luminosity until
the full proton-proton chain begins, which provides the stars’ luminosity and support and
stops the gravitational contraction. The stars then settle onto the zero-age main sequence
from which they will later evolve. At the same time, the surrounding dusty cloud is clearing,
allowing new, accreting, and highly active so-called T Tauri stars to be seen flocking around
their birth clouds. The whole process takes only 10 or so million years, with the mature
stars eventually leaving their birthplaces as they orbit within their host galaxy. High-mass
stars proceed similarly, but at such a great pace that the death process begins even as the
birth process is ending.
The main sequence is that zone on the HR diagram in which stars are stabilized
against gravitational contraction by fusion. The higher the stellar mass, the greater the
internal compression and temperature, and the more luminous the star. Hydrogen fusion is
highly sensitive to temperature, with a small increase in stellar mass, meaning a much
higher fusion rate. Although greater mass means a greater nuclear-burning core mass and
therefore a larger fuel supply, the increased fusion rate more than offsets this and thereby
shortens stellar life. A star’s fuel supply is proportional to its mass (M), while the rate of
fusion is expressible by luminosity (L). The average mass-luminosity relation found from
binary stars is L ∝ M3.5. If a star’s lifetime t is proportional to (fuel supply)/(rate of use),
then t ∝ M / L ∝ M / M3.5 = 1 / M2.5. While the new sun was destined to survive on the
main sequence for 10 billion years, a 0.1-solar-mass star will live there for 10 trillion years,
while a 100-solar-mass star will exhaust its core hydrogen in only 2.5 million years.

Stellar Remnants
Stars die, and as they do, they leave behind remnants, usually compact objects of some sort,
like a white dwarf or a neutron star. What kind of remnant it depends on the star’s initial
mass and how it met its death.
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Stars

• Black Dwarfs
o Theoretically, this is what a low-mass star will become when it has stopped
fusing hydrogen into helium. Brown dwarfs will also become black dwarfs -
relatively small objects that do not emit light. It may take trillions of years
before a sub-/stellar object cools down so much that it doesn’t emit light
anymore. Hence, none are known to exist today: The universe is not old
enough.

• White Dwarfs
o White dwarfs are the end result of a star approximately 8 MSun. It is a small,
Earth-sized object with a mass of maximum 1.44 MSun, called the
Chandrasekhar Limit, after the Indian astronomer Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar. The white dwarf is an incredibly dense object with densities
of about 1 000 kg per cubic centimeter, or 109Kg/m3. Their surface
temperature may initially be as high as 150 000 degrees Kelvin, but they will
cool down and eventually become black dwarfs.
o White dwarfs consist mostly of helium, carbon, and oxygen, depending on its’
mass, and the matter is in the state of plasma: degenerate matter, which is a
strange kind of matter. In white dwarfs, electrons are forced to fill up all
energy states available in an atom, and since two fermion particles (the
electron is one) can’t occupy the same energy state, electrons are eventually
forced to occupy higher energy state levels until the atom is full of electrons.
This principle is known as the Pauli Exclusion Principle. If all energy levels
are full, then the matter is said to have become degenerate. Degenerate
matter has unusual properties: The more massive a degenerate white dwarf
is, the smaller it becomes. If you add heat to these compact objects, then it
does not expand, which is the opposite of normal gas! White dwarfs are so
luminous because they have trapped heat since earlier stages in their
evolution.
o If the white dwarf is located on a close binary star system, where it is able to
rip off-gas from its’ companion, then the system is called a Cataclysmic
Variable. The matter (mostly hydrogen) falling down on the white dwarf may
become so hot that it ignites a fusion reaction on the surface of the white
dwarf and turns the hydrogen into helium, releasing tremendous energy. This
release of energy (an explosion) is called a nova (nova from Latin, meaning
“new”). Astronomers in earlier centuries thought of these events as a new
star on the night sky was born since the explosion made the white dwarf
much brighter and may have been unable to be viewed before the outburst.
The white dwarf will survive this explosion, and such outbursts may continue
until the donor star is out of gas.

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• Neutron Stars
o If a stellar remnant has more mass than the Chandrasekhar limit, then the
electron degeneracy cannot support the mass of the object, and so it
collapses, creating neutrons out of protons and electrons. Now, the object is
no longer supported by electron degeneracy but rather neutron degeneracy.
In the process, the object acquires a radius of about 20 km and a density in
the order of 1017 kg/m3. In other words, an incredibly dense object! This
object is known as a neutron star (mass between 1.44 and 3 solar masses),
and is created by stars that have a larger initial mass than 8 MSun. Beyond 3
solar masses, the neutron degeneracy fails, and the neutron star collapses
into a black hole.
o The first observation of a neutron star was made by Jocelyn Bell, in 1967.
This neutron star was emitting light in very regular pulses, so she first
thought that an alien civilization was trying to contact her. Similar sources
were greater in other parts of the sky, so the alien theory was ruled out.
Besides, some sources emitted pulses several thousand times a second.
Objects that emit pulsing signals with a duration of 0.001 seconds can’t have
a diameter any greater than 0.001 light-secs, which is 300 km. Such a small
size ruled out white dwarfs, pointing towards the hypothesized neutron star
as the explanation for these Pulsars, as they came to be known. We see pulses
because a beam of electromagnetic radiation from one of the star’s
electromagnetic poles hits us each time the star spins around its’ axis. The
magnetic and rotational axes of a pulsar are misaligned for a similar reason
that “true north” and “magnetic north” are different on Earth.
o The high spin rate (sometimes thousands of revolutions per second!) of a
neutron star is obtained from the original star’s spin as a result of angular
momentum conservation.
o A special kind of neutron star is a Magnetar, which is an extremely powerful
magnetic star. In fact, they are the most magnetic objects known in the
universe. They do not last long as magnetars, maybe only 30 000 years; after
that, the magnetic field fades. However, while a magnetar is active, it can
produce magnetic fields with the intensity of 1015 Tesla. The strongest
magnet produced on Earth is only 40 Tesla. Strange things go on around
magnetars.
o Astronomers are only aware of 15 or so magnetars’ existence.

• Black Holes
o As the name indicates, these objects are black because they have such strong
gravity that the escape velocity from a black hole exceeds the speed of light.
Therefore, nothing, not even light, can escape it. Proving their existence was
difficult at first, but now astronomers believe they have enough evidence to
be certain that they exist. One way to discover a black hole is if it is located in
a close binary star system. Such is the case of Cygnus X-1, the first likely
candidate for a black hole discovered. Cygnus X-1 is a might mass binary star
system with a blue star and a black hole containing about 8.7 solar masses,
which are compressed within an object with a 26 km radius. The system
holds a separation of 30 million kilometers away from each other, and matter
falls from the donor star down to the black hole in an accretion disc heated
up to millions of degrees. The accretion disc is so warm it radiates x-rays!
These measurements alone rule out a neutron star as the companion.
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o
o Strange things happen around black holes. As one gets closer and closer to a
black hole’s Event Horizon, time appears to slow down to an outside
observer. The event horizon is a region, usually spherical (if the black hole
isn’t rotating), which marks the outer boundary of a black hole. Inside, the
gravity is so strong that nothing can escape.
o Mathematically, black holes are considered Singularities, which refer to
objects with infinite density, mass, and infinite curvature of space-time.
o In order for an object to become a black hole, it must first collapse to a point
where it reaches The Schwarzchild Radius. This radius depends solely on the
mass of the object. For the sun to become a black hole, the entire mass of it
must be compressed within a spherical object with a radius of no more than 3
kilometers! For the Earth, this radius is only 0.8 centimeters!
o The minimum mass for a star to leave a black hole behind is unknown, but
some astronomers believe it is around 25 solar masses. The remnant will
contain at least 3 solar masses, but the upper limit to the mass of black holes
is unknown; perhaps it’s infinite. Super massive black holes, which are
located at the center of galaxies, contain up to 3 billion solar masses!

The Sun
The sun—the heart of our solar system—is a yellow dwarf star, a hot ball of glowing
gases. Its gravity holds the solar system together, keeping everything from the biggest
planets to the smallest particles of debris in its orbit. Electric currents in the sun generate a
magnetic field that is carried out through the solar system by the solar wind—a stream of
electrically charged gas blowing outward from the sun in all directions.
The connection and interactions between the Sun and Earth drive the seasons, ocean
currents, weather, climate, radiation belts, and aurorae. Though it is special to us, billions
of stars like our sun are scattered across the Milky Way galaxy.
The sun is a star around which Earth and the other components of the solar system
revolve. It is the dominant body of the system, constituting more than 99 percent of its
entire mass. The sun is the source of an enormous amount of energy, a portion of which
provides Earth with the light and heat necessary to support life.

Constellations
A constellation is a group of stars that appears to form a pattern or picture like Orion
the Great Hunter, Leo the Lion, or Taurus the Bull. Constellations are easily recognizable
patterns that help people orient themselves using the night sky. There are 88 “official”
constellations.
Each constellation is a collection of stars that are distributed in space in three
dimensions – the stars are all different distances from Earth. The stars in a constellation
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 appear to be in the same plane because we are viewing them from very, very, far away.
Stars vary greatly in size, distance from Earth, and temperature. Dimmer stars may be
smaller, farther away, or cooler than brighter stars. By the same token, the brightest stars
are not necessarily the closest. Of the stars in Cygnus, the swan, the faintest star is the
closest, and the brightest star is the farthest!
Most of the constellation names we know came from the ancient Middle Eastern,
Greek, and Roman cultures. They identified clusters of stars as gods, goddesses, animals,
and objects of their stories. It is important to understand that these were not the only
cultures populating the night sky with characters important to their lives. Cultures all over
the world and throughout time — Native American, Asian, and African — have made
pictures with those same stars. In some cases, the constellations may have had ceremonial
or religious significance. In other cases, the star groupings helped to mark the passage of
time between planting and harvesting. There are 48 “ancient” constellations and they are
the brightest groupings of stars observed easily by the unaided eye. There actually are 50
“ancient” constellations; astronomers divided one of the constellations (Argo) into 3 parts.
“Modern” constellations — like the Peacock, Telescope, and Giraffe — were identified
by later astronomers of the 1500s, 1600s, and 1700s who used telescopes and who were
able to observe the night sky in the southern hemisphere. These scientists “connected” the
dimmer stars between the ancient constellations. There are 38 modern constellations.
In 1930 the International Astronomical Union officially listed 88 modern and ancient
constellations (one of the ancient constellations was divided into 3 parts) and drew a
boundary around each. The boundary edges meet, dividing Earth's imaginary sphere — the
celestial sphere — into 88 pieces. Astronomers consider any star within a constellation
boundary to be part of that constellation, even if it is not part of the actual picture.

5 Constellations that we can find

• THE BIG DIPPER/URSA MAJOR, ‘THE GREAT BEAR’
This may be ‘cheating’ a little bit because the Big Dipper is not technically a
constellation but part of a constellation known as Ursa Major. However, in the northern
hemisphere, the Big Dipper is usually the most identifiable pattern of stars in the sky,
making an excellent starting point for our orientation. Even the most novice stargazer is
probably already familiar with the Big Dipper's ‘cup’ and ’long handle’. It is most easily
found during the summer months in the northernmost part of the sky. Once we have
located the Big Dipper, we can learn to recognize that the handle is actually the head and
neck of the ‘Great Bear’ Ursa Major. The ‘cup’ is actually part of the bear’s chest and his’
front legs’ extend from the cup’s bottom right corner. Understanding this helps us easily
identify Ursa Major once we’ve located the Big Dipper.
• THE LITTLE DIPPER/URSA MINOR, ‘THE LITTLE BEAR’
The Big Dipper is also the key to spotting the Little Dipper and its constellation Ursa
Minor. Begin by looking at the two stars that form the right side of the ‘cup’ and follow a
straight sightline due north, and you will see Polaris, the North Star, shining brightly.
Polaris is the end star of the Little Dipper’s ‘handle.’ The handle is actually the ‘Little Bear’s’
tail, and the cup forms part of the bear’s side. When we locate the Little Dipper, we’ve also
located Ursa Minor.
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• ORION, ‘THE HUNTER’

Orion is also one of the easiest constellations to spot in the night sky. Begin by looking
for the three bright stars that form the straight line of the hunter’s belt. From there, you
should be able to make out Betelgeuse, the bright star that form’s the hunter’s armpit, and
follow that east along the hunter’s arm, which is holding a bow. Other stars fill out the
rectangle of the hunter’s upper body and, if you look carefully, you should be able to make
out the hunter’s sword hanging from his belt.
• TAURUS, ‘THE BULL’
Finding Orion makes it easy to find our next constellation, Taurus’ The Bull.’ Taurus is
located above Orion and is often identified first by finding the large red star, Aldebaran,
which is near the fork of the bull’s horns. The bottom ‘horn’ is home to the Crab Nebula,
and above the bull is another famous star cluster, the Pleiades. These clusters are quite
beautiful, and can even be admired in some detail with the naked eye.
• GEMINI, ‘THE TWINS’
Orion is also key to locating the constellation Gemini. Begin by locating the two bright
stars that serve as the twins? The twins can be found above and to the side of the hunter’s
upraised arm. The constellation very much resembles two stick figure twins with
outstretched arms touching. Heads and the rest of the pattern should be fairly simple to
trace. Both twins have torsos arms and legs, and the twin on the left appears to be lifting a
leg, perhaps doing a little jig.
Orion, Taurus, and Gemini all follow the same pattern of visibility. They are best seen
in the night sky beginning in December but fade out of sight by May. Beginning in August,
they can again be spied, but only in the hours before dawn.

Guide Questions:
1. In your own words, what is the sun?
2. How many constellations can we find?
3. How is the sun being a star?

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. The Sun as a Star; https://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~barnes/ast110/Sun.pdf; May 27,
2021
2. Introduction to Solar System; http://www.astronomy.ohio-
state.edu/~depoy/Astro161/Notes/class2.pdf; May 27, 202
Online Instructional Videos
1. Stars: Explained | Astronomic ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QWobEjA4Bu0 ;
May 27, 2021

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2. The Sun: Crush Course Astronomy;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b22HKFMIfWo ; May 27, 2021