Astrophysics - Definitions + Proofs 

 
(​red - important definitions​ //​ blue - proofs​) 

Term  Definition 

Star  An object that: 

1 - is bound by self-gravity 
2 - radiates energy primarily released by nuclear fusion reactions, in its core 

> Binary system  Two stars orbiting around a ​common center of mass​. 

> Neutron star  The remnant of a supernovae, formed when electron degeneracy pressure fails, 
resulting in protons and electrons forming neutrons and neutrinos. A ball of neutrons 
is sustained by the neutron degeneracy pressure, and outer layers collapse and 
rebound, reaching up to 10​10​ solar luminosities, then plateauing at 10​9​ solar 
luminosities for ~100 days. 
The luminosity of a supernova is too bright to be on the HR diagram, while a neutron 
star is too dim to be seen. ​It ‘falls off’ the HR diagram​. 

> > Proof for the  The evidence for neutron stars come from p ​ ulsars​, which are strange, regular, and 
existence of neutron  extremely precise radio pulses. These come from: 
stars  1 - The fast spin of the neutron star, as a result of the conservation of angular 
momentum and a sudden decrease in radius (see figure-skaters) 
2 - Neutron stars have intense magnetic fields - remnants of the supernova explosion 
- which result in a strong acceleration of charged particles over the magnetic poles 
and beaming of radio emissions along the direction of the magnetic axis. 

Planet  A body that: 

1 - Orbits a star 
2 - Is massive enough that its gravity makes it spherical (therefore excludes asteroids) 
3 - Has cleared its orbit of either bodies (therefore excludes Pluto) 

> Exoplanet  An extrasolar planet (a planet in another solar system) orbiting a nearby star 

Comet  An icy body that falls toward the sun with: 

1 - Highly elliptical orbits 
2 - Not necessarily returning 
3 - Has a tail, consisting of evaporated gas that lights up when heated, then blown 
away by solar wind. 

Meteor  Tiny particles burning up in the Earth’s atmosphere. 

Nebula  Vast cloud of dust and gas. 

Stellar constellation  An easily recognised group of stars that appear to be close together in the sky, and 
form a picture. Differs to a s​ tar cluster​; the stars in a constellation a
​ ppear to be close 
(and form a pattern)​; stars in a cluster are p ​ hysically close​. 

Planetary system  A set of non-stellar objects, gravitationally bound to one or more stars. 
Star cluster  A group of stars, physically close together.  
These are divided into o
​ pen clusters​ and g
​ lobular clusters​. 

> Differences between  Differences:  

open and globular  1 - Stars in globular clusters are much ​older​; open clusters have many young stars 
clusters  that were born in a nebula and have drifted apart 
2 - Stars in globular clusters are much more densely packed; many more stars are in 
one 
3 - The shape of globular clusters is spherical, where stars in a open cluster are 
typically found on a flat plane 
4 - Globular clusters orbit around the galactic centre; open clusters are in spiral 
galaxies. 

> Proof for the older  The age of a cluster can be identified by its “​main sequence turnoff point​”; placing the 
nature of globular  stars in a globular cluster on a HR diagram shows that the upper left part is missing; 
clusters  this means that the larger stars, with shorter lifetimes, have already gone off the main 
sequence as a result of running out of hydrogen in their core. 

Galaxy  Huge collections of solar systems and star clusters, bound by gravity.  
(The Milky Way is about 30 kpc across.) 

Clusters  Not to be confused with a ​star cluster​. 

A ​group of galaxies gravitationally bound together​, measuring u
​ p to 10 Mpc across​. 

Superclusters  Largest structures in the universe, as groups of clusters. In fact, superclusters are too 
big to be bound by gravity and d​ rift apart with the expansion of the universe​. 
Measured ​over 100 Mpc across​. 

Parallax  Method used to measure objects near earth.  

1 - 2 measurements of the position of a star, 6 months apart 
2 - Measurements taken with respect to a f​ ixed background 
3 - The parallax angle measured is half the total angle. 

Chandrasekhar limit  Describes the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star.  
 Approximately 1.4 times the mass of the sun; when ​the r​ emnant core​ after a red 
giant has ejected its mass​ exceeds this mass, will instead end with a supernova, 
becoming a neutron star (or black hole). 

Oppenheimer limit  The upper bound to the mass of neutron stars. Any star that exceeds this mass 
becomes a black hole. 

Cepheid variable stars  These have varying luminosity, sharply increasing and then slowly fading out 
periodically. 
The periodic changes come from ‘bursts’ of radiation leaving the star, as a result of 
ionisation of the outer atmosphere. P​ eriods vary from several to over a hundred days​. 
Ionisation happens quickly, and is attributed to the sharp increase. 
Radiation leaves slowly, and is attributed to the slow fade-out of luminosity. 
These act as stellar candles, as their period of variation is related to their peak 
luminosity. 
Provides distances up to 40 Mpc; 3rd step on the ‘distance ladder’. 

> Importance of  These stars act as ​standard candles​ due to their relationship between peak/average 
Cepheid variable stars  luminosity and period; by observing period and change in apparent brightness, we 
can figure out how far away these stars are. 

Jeans’ criterion  If the GPE of a gaseous cloud exceeds its average kinetic energy, it collapses. Can be 
written as below, with ​M​ the total mass of all particles, ​k​ the gas constant, N
​ ​ the 
number of particles of gas, and T​ ​ temp. 
2
GM
R
≥ 32 kN T  

> Jeans’ mass  This refers to the maximum mass that a gas cloud can be before it starts to collapse - 
basically from rearranging the equation above to make mass the subject.  

> Critical density (HL)  A constant value.​ This is derived from the equation of KE = PE: 

 
The idea is that if the density of the universe is ​larger t​ han this constant, then the 
universe has positive curvature on a spherical plane and will eventually contract, 
forming the ​closed model​ of the universe. 
If the density is ​smaller t​ han this constant, the universe is on a hyperbolic plane 
(negative curvature), and will continue to expand even past infinity - the ​open model 
of the universe. 
 If the density is ​equal​ to this constant, then the universe has a flat curvature and will 
continue to expand, stopping at infinity - the ​critical model​ of the universe. 

CNO cycle  Occurs in place of the p-p cycle when a star has a mass above 1.5 solar masses. 
Carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are used as catalysts to turn 4 1​​ 1​H protons into a ​4​2​He 
nucleus. 
Just search online for this, equations on Google Docs suck 

Triple alpha process  Occurs as stars move off the MS; 3 He-4 nuclei are fused to form a carbon-12 
nucleus. 

s-process, r-process  “S” and “R” stand for ‘slow’ and ‘rapid’, respectively. 
Both processes refer to the synthesis of heavier nucleotides, after iron, the element 
with the most stable nuclei. See your notebook for the exact processes which occur. 
s-process ​is slow enough for decay to occur, accounting up to Bi-209, with Z = 83. 
Occurs in stars that are large enough. 
r-process​ is responsible for converting heavy isotopes into high proton nuclei, up to 
uranium, with Z = 92. Can only occur during the process of a supernova. 

Supernova  An explosion that occurs as a result of the core collapsing, after becoming so dense it 
cannot withstand its own gravitational force. Note that there are ​type Ia ​and t​ ype II 
supernovae. 
Type II​ supernovae come from red supergiants and vary in terms of peak luminosity. 
Type Ia​ supernovae come from the ‘re-ignition of a white dwarf’, after collision with 
another star and absorbing its mass. 
Differences: 
1 - Type II s​ how H spectral lines​, whereas Type Ia are ​totally ionised​, with no H 
spectrum lines. 
2 - Type II have differing peak luminosities as a result of different masses; Type Ia 
have a c​ onstant peak luminosity​, as it occurs as soon as a star reaches the 
Chandrasekhar limit. 
3 - Type II has ​a plateau in its light curve, falling more gently​ after peak luminosity; 
Type Ia has a light curve that f​ alls off shortly​ after the peak luminosity.  

Hubble's law  Galaxies are moving away. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it moves.  

Velocity of regression  The distance of a galaxy and its speed at which it moves away. 
v = H​0​ * d, where H​0​ is the H
​ ubble constant​.  

Red-shift factor (z)  Defined as Δλ / λ. 

Note also, that z = v / c, where v << c.  
Only works where z =< 0.2, otherwise problems with relativity begin to appear. 

Cosmic scale factor (R)  We define it as the “relative amount of stretching of space, over time”.  
d = R * Δx, where λ / λ​0​ = R / R​0​.  
Since z = λ - λ​0​ / λ​0​ = λ / λ​0​ - 1, we find the relationship that z = R / R​0​ - 1. 

Big bang theory  A theory that states that the universe was once infinitesimally small, and in this 
space, temperature was extreme. Time, mass, energy and space were created in this 
big bang. 
> Evidence supporting  1 - ​Expanding universe​. There is a constant rate of expansion, and so the maximum 
the BB theory  age of the universe must be 1 / H​0​, or around 14 billion years. 
2 - ​Cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. A ​ persistent radio signal that:  
i) Comes from all directions 
ii) Is consistent with the spectra of a blackbody radiator 
iii) Has a temperature equivalent to 2.73K 
3 - ​Accelerating universe & redshift:​ We find galaxies are accelerating further away 
they are from us. 

Cosmological principles  Homogeneity Principle: ​The universe appears to be uniform, when looking at a large 
(HL)  enough scale (of about 300 Mpc). 
Isotropy Principle:​ When looking in different directions, all sections of the universe 
appear to be similar. 
These 2 must hold true for observations to be made of the universe. 
 
Life Cycle of Stars 
 D.1 Stellar Quantities

Objects in the Universe

The primary objects of consideration in this topic:

● Planets and Planetary Systems

● Stars and Stellar Clusters
● Nebulae
● Galaxies, Clusters and Superclusters

Nebulae
A ​nebulae​ is a cloud of interstellar dust (mainly gases) that forms due to gravitation attraction.

The function of a nebula is dependent on mass. Very large nebula are where stars are formed.
Smaller nebula already contain stars.

Planetary System
A planetary system is a collection of non-stellar masses that orbit a star. Our planetary system is
the Solar system.

Common objects in planetary systems:

● Planets (and moons) that orbit a star (or planet) in slightly elliptical orbits
● Comets​ are small bodies of ice and rock (dust) that orbit stars in highly elliptical orbits

Stars
Main sequence stars​ are stellar objects that accomplish the process of nuclear fusion to
transform energy.

● Inward Pressure: Gravitational Pressure

● Outward Pressure: Thermal Gas Pressure & Radiation Gas Pressure

These two pressures are in equilibrium for the majority of a star’s lifetime.

Binary stars​ are a two-star system that orbit a common center.

Binary stars are of scientific importance because they allow for measure of astronomical
distances.
● Eclipses – Periodic changes in brightness are related to changes in period and mass
● Doppler Effect – Periodic changes in frequency of light (red-/blue-shift) are related to
changes in period and mass
Stellar clusters​ are groups of stars that are gravitationally attracted and move as a group.

Two classes of stellar clusters:

● Globular Clusters – Old collections of stars that are roughly spherical in shape
● Open Clusters – Young collections of stars that have fewer stars and a less organized
shape

Galaxies
A galaxy is a collection of a very large number of stars attracted to each other by gravity.

Galaxies generally occur in clusters that affect each other gravitationally and behave as a
collective unit.

Superclusters are even larger clusters of clusters.

Astronomical Distances
Light Year (ly)​ – the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year: 9.46 x 1015 m

Astronomical unit (AU)​ – the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun, 1.50 x 1011 m

Parsec (pc)​ – the distance to a star that has a parallax angle of one arc-second: 3.26 ly

Measuring Distances
Stellar Parallax
A method most useful for determining distances to ‘nearby’ objects that is based on
triangulation.

In astronomy, the same star is observed at two different places in Earth’s orbit and the star’s
apparent movement compared to other stars.

Parallax​ – the visual effect of a nearby object appearing to move its position, compared to more
distant objects.

Parallax Angle (p)​ - the angle, at the position of the star, that is subtended by a distance equal
to the radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun (1 AU).

The parallax method is used to define the parsec (parallax second). One parsec is the distance
1
at which 1 AU subtends an angle of 1 arc second ( 3600 º )

If the parallax of a star is known in p (arc-seconds), the distance d (parsecs) can be found:

1
d(parsec) = p(arc−second)
Assumption
The parallax angle, p, is very small such that tan p is approximated by p, where the radius is
equal to 1 AU.

tan p = R
d ⇒ d= R
tan p

Parallax is a method limited by the ability of telescopes to detect small shifts in apparent
positions of stars.

Telescopes can resolve distances as small as 0.01 arc-seconds. Therefore, parallax is useful for
stars a distance of 100 pc away.

This can be improved by using telescopes launched into orbit, free from the distortions caused
by Earth’s atmosphere.

Luminosity and Apparent Brightness

Luminosity (L)​ – the total power radiated by a star.
SI Unit: Watt (W)

Stars are assumed to radiate like blackbodies. Recall the Stefan-Boltzmann relationship from
Topic 8:

L = σ AT 4

Apparent Brightness (b)​ – the intensity (power per unit area) received perpendicular to direction
of propagation at the Earth.
SI Unit: W m​-2

The apparent brightness of a star is dependent on its luminosity and distance from the Earth.

L
b= 4πd2

It can be assumed that when none of the emitted energy is absorbed / scattered as it travels
through space, the power received per square metre on a surface of an imaginary sphere with
radius ‘​d’​ .

L = σ AT 4
L
b = 4πd2
Therefore, the distance to any star can be determined, given information about apparent
brightness and luminosity.
➢ Wien Law’s λ (from spectrum) → T (in K)

D.2 – Stellar Characteristics

Nebulae
Nebulae​ – enormous ‘clouds’ of gaseous matter consisting mostly of gases and dust that is
formed because of the gravitational attraction between the masses involved.

Eventually, gravitational attraction will cause the contents of a nebulae closer together. Kinetic
energy will massively increase to the point where hydrogen atoms can overcome electrostatic
repulsion to start fusion.

Stars
Nuclear fusion is the primary energy transformation that occurs within stars.

111 H → 24 He + 210 e + neutrinos and photons

Stellar Equilibrium​ – the condition in which the outward thermal gas (and radiation) pressure
balances the inward gravitational pressure.

A star in equilibrium is considered to be a main sequence star.

Stellar Spectra
Analyzing the spectrum of a star can provide insight about the following:
● Surface Temperature – via analysis of the wavelength of the maximum intensity
● Chemical Composition – via analysis of the absorption spectrum of the outer layers
● Velocity – via analysis of the amount of Doppler shift

Surface Temperature
Wien’s Displacement Law​ – an empirical law that represents how the
wavelength at which radiation intensity is highest becomes lower as
surface gets hotter

2.90×10−3
Topic 8 Equation:​ λmax (metres) = T (kelvin)

−3
Topic D Equation: λmax T = 2.90 × 10 mK
Utilization: Star Classification
The range of visible colours in the spectra of stars is used to organize stars into spectral class
by surface temperature.

In general, cooler stars are redder (longer wavelength) and hotter stars are blue/blue-white
(shorter wavelength).

Chemical Composition
The continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from a star passes through its cooler outer layers
will have some wavelengths absorbed, producing an absorption spectrum.

The elements in the outer layer of a star can be determined due to the unique spectrum
associated with each element.

Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) Diagram

A diagram that plots the luminosity against the temperature of various stars.
More than 90% of stars follow the
same pattern: fuse hydrogen into
helium.

Key Features:
● The temperature scale is reversed
● The luminosity scale is logarithmic
● 90% of stars are located in the main
sequence

Stars above the main sequence are more

luminous for their temperature. Stars below
the main sequence are less luminous for
their temperature.

Mass–Luminosity Relation
In general, main sequence stars that are more
massive will have higher temperatures due to the
stronger gravitational forces that allow for faster rates
of fusion.

Therefore, more massive main sequence stars have

higher surface temperatures, larger sizes, and greater
luminosities.

L ∝ M 3.5
Stellar Evolution
The evolutionary path of a star is dependent on its
birth mass:

Low Mass Stars​ – stars with a mass less than eight

solar masses

High Mass Stars​ – stars with a mass greater than

eight solar masses

Note:​ There is a class of intermediate mass stars (2 -

8 solar masses) that are not part of the IB syllabus.

Low Mass Stars: Main Sequence → Red Giant

Stars eventually exhaust hydrogen in the core such that the outward thermal gas pressure
(radiation pressure) becomes less than the inward gravitational pressure.

The increased gravitational energy is transferred to higher kinetic energies (and higher core
temperatures) Thus, luminosity increases.

The expansion of the star is concurrent with the expansion and cooling of the outer layers and
changes colour.

Hydrogen Shell Burning​ – hydrogen fusion will occur in the hydrogen shell surrounding the core
when gravitational pressure shrinks the inert helium core AND surrounding hydrogen shell.

The newly formed helium from hydrogen shell burning will add to the mass of the inert helium
core, causing gravitational contraction to increase and a concurrent increase in luminosity.

Helium fusion begins at a temperature of 100 million K. However, the outward thermal pressure
is not enough to counteract gravitational collapse.

Degeneracy Pressure (Electron Degeneracy)​ – a density dependent force due to the limits of
how closely electrons can be packed into a gas.

Electron degeneracy is density dependent because of the limitation on space for electrons to
go.

Due to electron degeneracy, the temperature of the core increases without the accompanying
inflation. Helium fusion will increase rapidly to the helium flash, in which thermal pressure will
cause core expansion, accompanied by hydrogen shell burning.
Following the helium flash, the star is in an equilibrium in which a helium core is fusing carbon.
Low Mass Stars: Main Sequence → White Dwarf
Eventually, the helium core will exhaust causing the gravitational collapse of the core. Like
before, the helium and hydrogen shells will gain enough kinetic energy to fuse as a ​double-shell
burning giant​.

Problem
The star is not massive / dense enough to overcome outward degeneracy pressure to allow the
carbon fusion. Consequently, the increasing luminosity and size of the star cannot be balanced
by gravitational collapse.

Planetary Nebula​ – the ejection and ionizing of the outer layers

of a red giant star, leaving behind an inert (carbon/oxygen) core.

Note: Planetary nebulae are NOT to be confused with either

stellar nebulae or planets.

The remaining inert core is stable due to electron degeneracy

and is known as a ​white dwarf​ star, stars with relatively high
surface temperatures but low luminosities.

The remaining inert core is stable due to electron degeneracy

and is known as a white dwarf star, stars with relatively high
surface temperatures but low luminosities.

Chandrasekhar Limit​ – the limit of 1.4 solar masses below which a stable, white dwarf star can
be formed.

Eventually the white dwarf will cool to nearly zero Kelvin and become a black dwarf.

High Mass Stars: Main Sequence

Hydrogen Fusion: Proton-Proton Chain (Low Mass Stars)

The conversation of four individual protons into a helium nucleus through the following steps:

1. Two protons fuse to make a deuterium nucleus. (2x)

2. A deuterium and proton fuse to make He-3 (2x)
3. Two He-3 fuse to produce He-4 and release two excess protons.

Hydrogen Fusion: CNO Cycle (High Mass Stars)

The stronger gravity in a high mass star allows for a hotter core that can allow collisions with
Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen (CNO) that catalyse helium fusion at a faster rate.
 Therefore, high mass stars have a much higher luminosity and conversely, a much shorter
lifespan.

High Mass Stars: Main Sequence → Supergiant

A similar pattern occurs in high mass stars as the hydrogen core is exhausted:

A hydrogen burning shell develops as gravitational contraction occurs. The hydrogen burning
shell causes expansion outwards. Eventually, the gravitational contraction and addition of He
from shell burning allows for helium fusion.

Difference: Helium Flash does not occur because radiation pressure is sufficient to
counteract gravity.

Red supergiants continue the same process of collapse and increased shell burning through a
series of heavier elements: H→ He → C → O → Ne → Mg → Si.

These changes occur so rapidly that the core contractions occur faster than outer layer
expansion. Therefore, luminosity does not increase noticeably.

The fusion of heavier elements terminates with iron.

Fusion is favorable when the product has a lower ​mass per nucleon,​ a trend decreases with
increasing mass number. Elements heavier than iron prefer fission.

A red supergiant with an inert iron core depends on degeneracy pressure (electron degeneracy)
to avoid collapse against gravitational pressure.

High Mass Stars: Endpoints

Eventually, gravity pushes electrons past the degeneracy limit and electrons combine with
protons to form neutrons and release neutrinos.

The instant removal of degeneracy causes the iron core to collapse into a ball of neutrons with a
new neutron degeneracy, pressure while releasing outer layers in a supernova.

Oppenheimer-Volkoff Limit​ - an upper limit of approximately 1.5 - 3 solar masses for a neutron
star to be stable.

Stars that exceed the Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit will collapse into a black hole.

Black Holes
First Suggestions:​ John Mitchell and Pierre Laplace (late 1700’s) → an object so compact that
escape velocity escapes the speed of light.

Nomenclature:​ John Wheeler (1967) → “black: no light can escape” and “hole: leaving the
region of the observable universe”

Inferred Existence:
→ X-rays emitted by matter that passes close to, but does not enter a black hole.
→ Production of highly energetic jets of matter by the cores of some galaxies
→ Observation of stellar motion in the vicinity of a black hole.

Cepheid Variables
There is an variable strip on the HR diagram that contains pulsating stars. These stars pulsate
due to the effects of gravitational, radiation, and thermal pressures.

Cepheid Variable​ – a class of stars with a regular cycle of expansion and contraction that
produce a regular and precise variation in luminosity.

The change in luminosity of a Cepheid Variable generally has a period of a few weeks. The
luminosity of a Cepheid variable is proportional to its surface area.

Henrietta Leavitt (1908) → discovery of a ​period-luminosity relationship​ for Cepheid Variables

such that the longer the period, the higher the luminosity.

Consequently, these stars are also referred to as ‘standard candles’ because luminosity can be
determined by measuring period.

Mechanism
1. Outward radiation pressure ionises H atoms in the photosphere, the star’s atmosphere.
2. The liberated electrons increase the temperature of the star’s atmosphere, causing the
outer layers to expansion
3. Radiation escapes the expanded star and the star cools down.
4. Gravitational pressure causes the star to contract and the cycle to repeat.

The star is brightest when it is expanding outwards at maximum speed.

D.3 Cosmology

Newtonian Model of the Universe

Assumptions:
● The universe is infinitely large and static
 ● The universe is uniform with stars evenly distributed.
● Gravitational forces are balanced as observed by the static position of stars.

Limitations:
● An infinite universe with infinite stars would be always bright (​i.e. the night sky wouldn’t
be dark)​ . This is known as Olber’s Paradox

The Big Bang Model

Evidence for the Big Bang Theory

Spectra to Determine Velocity of Stars and Galaxies

→ Early studies of galaxies revealed a uniform ​red-shift​ (z) of absorption lines, the apparent
shift towards lower frequencies / longer wavelengths.
→ The shift in wavelength is proportional to its linear speed.

Hubble’s Law​ – the current velocity of recession (v) of a galaxy is proportional to its distance (d)
from Earth.

v = H 0d

Hubble’s Constant (H​0​)​ – the gradient of the graph which is currently accepted to be 70 km s​-1
Mpc​-1

The uncertainties in the graph are due to the difficult nature of the measurement in the universe
and the clustered nature of galaxies.

The Age of the Universe

The age of the universe can be determined using the ​Hubble Time​ equation:

1
T ≈ H0

This leads to an upper estimate of 1.4 x 10​10​ years to the age of the universe.

Notes:
● The recessional speed of galaxies has not been constant over time.
● It is unknown when expansion started relative to the Big Bang.
● There is significant uncertainty in the Hubble constant.

The conclusion from Hubble’s observations: ​the universe is expanding.

Key Assumptions:
 ● The expansion is occurring in all directions.
● The expansion is observable from all points in the universe (i.e. the Earth is not the
centre of the universe)
● The universe is not expanding into nothing: rather the expansion is due to the expansion
of space itself.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) Radiation

Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson (1964)

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) Radiation​ – low level microwave radiation detected from
all directions (isotropic).

Using Wien’s Law, the temperature of the background radiation (2.76 K) corresponds to
electromagnetic radiation in the microwave region of the spectrum (-1.1 mm).

NOS : serendipity

The Accelerating Universe and Red-Shift (Z)

The future of the universe is dependent on the rate of expansion which has been discovered to
be increasing.

Observations of Type Ia supernova, which have well-defined luminosity can be used to

L
determine the distance in the universe [b = 4πd2
].

These observations are significantly red-shifted than expected when using the distance-red shift
equation.

cz
d= H 0 (1 + 12 (1 − q 0 )z)

The distance parameter (q​0​) in the equation turned out to be negative indicating an accelerating
universe. This is an unexpected result, as most were expecting a positive value.

Cosmic Scale Factor

Cosmic Scale Factor​ – a ratio used to represent the size of the universe by comparing the
distance between two specified places at two different times

expansion of two galaxies at time t them

cosmic scale f actor (at a time t) R = expansion of the same two galaxies now = now =R

Since the universe is expanding,

R=1 The universe at present

R<1 The universe in the past
R>1 The universe in the future

Red-Shift and Scale Factor

Since red-shift is the representation of the increase in cosmic scale, we can write the following:

λ−λ0 R−R0
z= λ0 = R0

Therefore,

R
z= R0 −1

D.4 Stellar Processes

The Jeans’ Criterion

Sir James Jeans

Jeans’ Criterion​ – the collapse of an interstellar cloud to form a star can only being if its mass M
> M​j​ (Jeans mass).

GM 2
R ≥ 23 N kT
GPE Boltzmann

Nucleosynthesis, star formation, does not occur unless the gravitational potential energy of a
mass of gas is higher than the kinetic energy of its molecules.

Nuclear Fusion – Main Sequence

Proton-Proton Cycle​ – the process of fusion that occurs in main-sequence stars.

The Sun is reliant on fusion to create helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei. This requires high
gravitational pressure and temperature.

Fusion Equations:
1. Two protons fuse to make a deuterium nucleus. (2x)

1​
1​
H + ​1​1​H → ​1​2​H
(isotope of H)

2. A deuterium and proton fuse to make He-3. (2x)

 1​
2​
H + ​1​1​H → ​2​3​He

3. Two He-3 fuse to produce He-4 and release two excess protons.

2​
3​
He + ​2​3​He → ​2​4​He + ​1​1​H + ​1​1​H​+

Overall Fusion Equation:

4​1​1​H → ​2​4​He + 2​1​0​e + 2v

Nuclear Fusion - Post Main Sequence

Generally,

➔ Stars with less than 4 Solar Masses

​
The core temperature can reach 10​8 K, hot enough to support fusion of carbon and
oxygen.
➔ Stars with 4 - 8 Solar Masses
The core temperature can exceed 10​9 ​K, hot enough to support fusion of Ne and Mg
➔ Stars with greater than 8 Solar Masses
The core temperature can exceed 10​9 ​K, hot enough to support fusion of silicon and iron

CNO Cycle​ – the process of fusion that occurs in main sequence stars more massive than the
Sun.

Overall, four hydrogen nuclei are used to produce one helium nucleus.

Triple Alpha Process​ – the process of fusion that results in the production of carbon

Stars that are larger than 8 solar masses can continue to fuse heavier elements until iron.
Beyond iron further fusion is not energetically favored due to binding energy per nucleon.

Neutron Capture
Neutron Capture​ – the process of neutron absorption by nuclei to create elements that cannot
be formed by nuclear fusion.

Neutron capture forms heavier isotopes that are generally unstable and undergo nuclear fission.

Slow Process (s-process)

A process favored in red giants with low neutron density and intermediate temperatures.
Therefore, beta decay is likely to occur following neutron capture.

0​
1​
n + ​Z​A​X → ​Z+1​A+1​Y + ​-1​0​e + v
This allows for the gradual formation of heavier elements up to bismuth-209

Rapid Process (r-process)

A process favored in supernova, which have high neutron densities and temperatures.
Therefore, neutron capture favored over nuclear fission.

This allows for the rapid formation of very heavy elements, followed by transmutation.

Z​
A​
X → ​Z​A+100​X + ​Z​A​Y → ​Z​A​W + ​Z​A​X

Supernovae
Supernovae are classified by reference to their H-line spectra and light curves.

Type la Supernovae
● Produced in a binary star system where a white dwarf accretes (gains mass) from the
companion star until the chandrasekhar limit is exceeded.
● Produce an explosion with a sharp luminosity that sharply falls off
● Produce an H-line spectra with no emission lines.

Type II Supernovae
● Produced when a massive super red giant star explodes
● Produce a luminosity that falls off gradually after explosion
● Have H-lines in their spectra

Stellar Lifetimes

More massive stars have shorter main-sequence lifetimes

Therefore, it can be assumed that the energy released by a star is proportional to the mass of a
star, such that:

L∝ M
T

Given the mass-luminosity relationship:

L ∝ M 3.5

Therefore,

T∝ 1
M 3.5
An alternative derivation using E = M c2

E
T ∝ M 3.5 ⇒ M c2
T ∝ M 3.5 ⇒ T ∝ 1
M 3.5

D.5 Further Cosmology

Cosmology Principle​ – an idea founded on two principles (1) homogeneity and (2) isotropy that
imply that the universe has no edge and has no centre.

Homogeneity Principle
On a large enough scale, the universe looks uniform. If the universe had an edge, this would be
violated.

Isotropy Principle
All directions in the universe are equal in comparison to each other. If the universe had a center,
this would be violated.

Fluctuations in the CMB

The CMB is temperature fluctuations, ​anisotropies​, on the order of 10​-5​ K that cause fluctuations
in the density and structure of the universe.

Different curvatures of the universe correlate to the distribution of anisotropies. Current

observations suggest a flat universe.

Investigations into anisotropies include the following:

● COBE: Cosmic Background Explorer (1989)
● WMAP: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (2001)
● Planck Mission (2009)

Rotation Curves and Mass of Galaxies

Rotation Curves

Recall: Gravitational Force and Centripetal Acceleration

Density

m
v=
√m
GM
r
3 M
ρ= V = 4 3 = 4 πr3
3 πr

∴ m = 43 πr3 ρ
It is implied that the rotational velocity is proportional to radius, for objects relatively close to the
centre of a galaxy.

√
4πGρ
v= 3 r

Objects at further distances are expected to have a rotational velocity that decreases with
distance.

v orbit =
√ GM
r

Theoretical calculations and actual measurements of rotational curves produce a contradiction.

The flat region of a galaxy’s rotation curve indicates the presence of substantial mass away
from the centre. This has lead to the prediction of the existence of dark matter.

Dark Matter
Dark Matter – matter that is too cold to radiation and therefore, cannot be observed.

Dark matter is “observed” due to its gravitational effect on nearby bodies.

Dark matter is classified into two categories:

1. MACHOs:
Cold matter (dwarf stars and small planets) that consist of protons and neutrons,
baryonic matter​. Estimated to consist only 15% of dark matter.

2. WIMPs:
Consists of particles with mass that are very difficult to detect, including neutrinos.

Origin of Redshift
 Δλ R
Recall,​ z= λ0
= R0
This is cosmological interpretation of redshift: Since the space between galaxies is stretching,
the wavelengths stretch, too. This is observed as red-shift.

Therefore, the temperature of the CMB is affected as well.

Reasons for Red-Shift

1. Doppler Effect​ – the source of radiation and observer are moving apart from each other
in unchanging space.
2. Cosmological Red-Shift​ – the space between the source and the observer has
expanded, therefore the wavelengths are shifted by the same amount.

These two reasons are not mutually exclusive of each other.

λ0 T = constant
λ T0
λ0 T=
R T0
R0 = T
∴ T ∝ R1

Critical Density
Consider a spherical cloud of dust of radius r and mass ​M​ with a mass m on its surface that is
moving with recessional velocity ​v.​

E T = 12 mv 2 − GM m
r
4 3
2 G(ρ πr )m
= 12 m(H 0 r) − 3
r
2
= 12 mH 0 r2 − 43 Gρmπr2
= 12 mr2 (H 0 2 − 83 πρG)
2
3 H0
Therefore, ρc = 8 πG

Critical Density (ρ​c​)​ – the theoretical density that would just stop the expansion of the universe
after an infinite time.

3H 0 2
ρc = 8πG

The value of the critical density is time dependent. As the universe expands, the critical density
decreases.
The density affects both the future and the estimate of the age of the universe.

Flat Universe (ρ = ρ​c​) The rate of expansion will reduce to zero after an infinite time.

Closed Universe (ρ > ρ​c​) The density of the universe will stop expanding and end in the ‘Big
Crunch’.

Open Universe (ρ > ρ​c​) The density of the universe will expand forever.

Dark Energy
Two observed contradictions exist:
● The actual density of the universe is close to the critical density.
● Red-shifts of Type Ia supernovae indicate the universe is accelerating.

Dark Energy​ – a proposed ‘negative pressure’ that is estimated to consists 68% of the energy
content of the universe.

Dark energy is considered to be an intrinsic property of space. As space expands, dark energy
will also increase in quantity.