Computer and Sensors
Computer and Sensors
Computer and Sensors
Processing
Input voltage signals received by a computer are
processed through a series of electronic logic circuits
maintained in its programmed instructions. These
logic circuits change the input voltage signals, or
data, into output voltage signals or commands.
Storage
Figure 25–1 All computer systems perform four basic
functions: input, processing, storage, and output. The program instructions for a computer are stored
in electronic memory. Some programs may require
that certain input data be stored for later reference
or future processing. In others, output commands
may be delayed or stored before they are transmitted
to devices elsewhere in the system.
Output
After the computer has processed the input signals,
it sends voltage signals or commands to other de-
vices in the system, such as system actuators. An ac-
tuator is an electrical or mechanical device that
converts electrical energy into a mechanical action,
such as adjusting engine idle speed, altering suspen-
sion height, or regulating fuel metering.
Computers also can communicate with, and con-
trol, each other through their output and input func-
Figure 25–2 A potentiometer uses a movable contact to tions. This means that the output signal from one
vary resistance and send an analog signal. computer system can be the input signal for another
computer system.
Parts of a Computer
The software consists of the programs and logic func-
tions stored in the computer’s circuitry. The hard-
ware is the mechanical and electronic parts of a
computer.
PCM
Figure 25–11 Schematic of a typical throttle position (TP) sensor circuit. Movement of the wiper on the potentiometer
sends a voltage signal (0.5 to 4.5 volts) to the computer. (Courtesy General Motors)
(a)
(b)
Figure 25–13 (a) Schematic of a typical manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor circuit. (b) As manifold pressure
(vacuum) changes, the voltage signal to the computer also changes. (Courtesy General Motors)
coolant sensors have very high resistance when the If the coolant temperature sensor has a poor connec-
coolant is cold and low resistance when the coolant tion (high resistance at the wiring connector), the com-
is hot. This is referred to as having a negative tem- puter will supply a richer than normal fuel mixture
perature coefficient (NTC), which is opposite to based on the resistance of the coolant sensor. There-
the situation with most other electrical components. fore, poor fuel economy and a possible-rich trouble
See Figure 25–15. code can be caused by a defective sensor or high re-
A typical CTS uses only two wires (see sistance in the sensor wiring. If the sensor was shorted
Figure 25–16): or defective and has too low a resistance, a leaner-
than-normal fuel mixture would be supplied to the en-
■ The computer sends a 5 volt signal through an gine. A too-lean fuel mixture can cause driveability
internal resistor to the coolant temperature problems and a possible lean diagnostic trouble code.
sensor and measures the voltage between the
two resistors. The changing resistance in the
Oxygen Sensors
sensor causes the voltage to be high with a cold
engine and low with a warm engine. Most automotive computer systems use oxygen sen-
■ A ground wire. sors (02S) in the exhaust system to measure the oxy-
gen content of the exhaust. See Figure 25–17. If the
Coolant Sensor
Temperature to Resistance Values (Approximate)
THERMOSTAT
HOUSING °C °F Ohms
ENGINE COOLANT 100 210 185
TEMPERATURE
70 160 450
SENSOR
38 100 1800
20 70 3400
Figure 25–14 A typical engine coolant temperature Figure 25–15 Engine coolant temperature resistance
(ECT) sensor. ECT sensors are located near the values. Note the resistance decreases as the temperature
thermostat housing on most engines. rises. These are typical values only; always refer to the
vehicle specifications. (Courtesy General Motors)
EXHAUST OXYGEN
MANIFOLD SENSOR
Figure 25–20 Microprocessor schematic showing input, processing, and output. Note that input sensors operate from a
5 volt reference signal and the output devices operate from battery voltage. (Courtesy Ford Motor Co.)
low. This is interpreted by the engine computer Computers have two types of memory: permanent
(PCM) as being a rich exhaust. and temporary. Permanent memory is called read-
■ O2S voltage below 450 mV is produced by the only memory (ROM) because the computer can only
sensor when the oxygen content is high. This is read the contents; it cannot change the data stored in
interpreted by the engine computer (PCM) as it. This data is retained even when power to the com-
being a lean exhaust. puter is shut off. Part of the ROM is built into the com-
puter, and the rest is located in an IC chip called a
programmable read-only memory (PROM) or
Titania Oxygen Sensor
calibration assembly.
The titania (titanium dioxide) oxygen sensor does Temporary memory is called random-access
not produce a voltage but rather modifies one as it memory (RAM) because the microprocessor can
samples the presence of oxygen in the exhaust. All ti- write or store new data into it as directed by the
tania oxygen sensors use a four-terminal variable re- computer program, as well as read the data already
sistance unit with a heating element. A titania in it. Automotive computers use two types of RAM
sensor samples exhaust air only and uses a reference memory: volatile and nonvolatile. Volatile RAM
voltage from the PCM. Titania oxide oxygen sensors memory is lost whenever the ignition is turned off.
use a 14-mm thread and are not interchangeable However, a type of volatile RAM called keep-alive
with zirconia oxygen sensors. One volt is applied to memory (KAM) can be wired directly to battery
the sensor and the changing resistance of the titania power. This prevents its data from being erased
oxygen sensor changes the voltage of the sensor cir- when the ignition is turned off. Both RAM and KAM
cuit. As with a zirconia oxygen sensor, the voltage have the disadvantage of losing their memory when
signal is about 450 mV when the exhaust is rich, and disconnected from their power source. One example
low (below 450 mV) when the exhaust is lean. of RAM and KAM is the loss of station settings in a
programmable radio when the battery is discon-
nected. Since all the settings are stored in RAM,
PROCESSING AND MEMORY they have to be reset when the battery is recon-
nected. System diagnostic trouble codes (DTC) are
The microprocessor is the decision making part of commonly stored in RAM and can be erased by dis-
the computer. It takes data from the various input connecting the battery.
sensors and compares it with information stored in Adaptive strategies that compensate for wear
memory. See Figure 25–20. and aging are another function of KAM. The original
602 CHAPTER 25
computer program in ROM is written for the average hicle. When speedometer replacement is necessary,
engine operating under average conditions, but this the odometer chip is removed and installed in the
is often not the case. new speedometer unit.
Fuel delivery calculations are based on informa- The computer processes the input voltage sig-
tion from the engine sensors; throttle position, air and nals through a series of logic circuits maintained in
coolant temperatures, engine speed and load are a few its programmed instructions. The logic circuits
of these inputs. Based on these data, the computer change the input data into output voltage signals or
refers to a look-up table stored in ROM and injects a commands that control output transistors.
given amount of fuel into the engine. The resulting
air–fuel mixture is monitored by an exhaust-mounted
oxygen sensor, which sends data back to the computer. OUTPUT
When the oxygen sensor detects a lean or rich
condition, the computer increases or decreases fuel Actuators are electrical or mechanical devices that
volume as a correction. When a major shift is deter- convert electrical energy into mechanical action. The
mined over a period of time, the computer changes computer sends a voltage signal to the base circuit of
the original program to reflect different fuel require- an output driver transistor which activates the de-
ments. This is called adaptive strategy and is stored vice, usually a relay or solenoid. See Figure 25–21.
in KAM. Many vehicles run well, even with low fuel When the ignition switch is closed, battery voltage
pressure or restricted fuel injectors. is supplied to the actuators; no current flows until
If the battery is disconnected, all adaptive infor- ground is supplied by turning the transistor on. This is
mation stored in KAM is lost; the computer now de- known as ground side control and is the most common
faults to the original program and begins the circuit. Technicians often check output circuits by
relearning process. grounding the wire between the actuator and the mi-
Nonvolatile RAM memory can retain its infor- croprocessor. Any actuator that runs at 100% duty cy-
mation even when the battery is disconnected. One cle can be tested by grounding. Actuators such as fuel
use for this type of RAM is the storage of odometer injector solenoids never run at 100% duty cycle and can
information in an electronic speedometer. The mem- be damaged by grounding. Follow the service instruc-
ory chip retains the distance accumulated by the ve- tions exactly when working with computer circuits.
SENSOR TESTING
ECT sensor wiring and connector for damage or cor- ■ Threaded into the intake manifold where it
rosion. If the connector and wiring are okay, replace senses the temperature of the air entering the
the ECT sensor. If the connector and wiring are cylinders
okay, check the sensor with a DVOM for resistance
and compare to the actual engine temperature NOTE: An IAT installed in the intake manifold is the
chart. If that checks out okay, check the computer. most likely to suffer damage due to an engine backfire,
which can often destroy the sensor.
NOTE: Many manufacturers use two coolant sen-
sors, one for the dash gauge and another one for the The purpose and function of the intake air tem-
computer. perature sensor is to provide the engine computer
(PCM) the temperature of the air entering the engine.
Figure 25–26 A digital multimeter set to test a MAP sensor. (1) Connect the red meter lead to the
V meter terminal and the black meter lead to the COM meter terminal. (2) Select DC volts. (3) Connect
the test leads to the sensor signal wire and the ground wire. (4) Select hertz (Hz) if testing a MAP sensor
whose output is a varying frequency—otherwise keep it on DC volts. (5) Read the change of frequency
as the vacuum is applied to the sensor. Compare the vacuum reading and the frequency (or voltage) reading
to the specifications.
A good pressure sensor should change voltage (or points at which TP voltages can be measured
frequency) in relation to the applied vacuum. If the with a digital voltmeter.
signal does not change or the values are out of range ■ An oscilloscope.
according to the manufacturers’ specifications, the
sensor must be replaced. Use jumper wires, T-pins, or a breakout box to
gain electrical access to the wiring to the TP sensor.
See Figure 25–27.
Testing the Throttle
Position Sensor
NOTE: The procedure that follows is the usual
A TP sensor can be tested using one or more of the method used by many manufacturers. Always refer to
following tools: service literature for the exact recommended procedure
and specifications for the vehicle being tested.
■ A digital voltmeter with three test leads connected
in series between the sensor and the wiring The procedure for testing the sensor using a dig-
harness connector or backprobing using T-pins. ital multimeter is as follows:
■ A scan tool or a specific tool recommended by the
vehicle manufacturer. 1. Turn the ignition switch on (engine off).
■ A breakout box that is connected in series 2. Measure the voltage between the signal wire
between the computer and the wiring harness and ground (reference low) wire. The voltage
connector(s). A typical breakout box includes test should be about 0.5 volt.
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NOTE: Consult the service literature for exact wire Figure 25–28 A typical waveform of a TP sensor signal as
colours or locations. recorded on a DSO when the accelerator pedal was
depressed with the ignition switch on (engine off). Clean
3. With the engine still not running (but with transitions and the lack of any glitches in this waveform
the ignition still on), slowly increase the indicate a good sensor. (Courtesy of Fluke Corporation)
throttle opening. The voltage signal from the
TP sensor should also increase. Look for any
“dead spots” or open circuit readings as the
throttle is increased to the wide-open position.
T E C H T I P ✔
See Figure 25–28 for an example of how a good
TP sensor would look when tested with a digital Check Power and Ground Before
storage oscilloscope (DSO). Condemning a Bad Sensor
Most engine sensors use a 5 volt reference and a ground.
HINT: If TP sensor specifications are not available, re- If the 5 volt to the sensor is too high (shorted to voltage)
member that the TP sensor voltage at idle should be or too low (high resistance), then the sensor output will
about 10% of the voltage at the wide-open throttle be skewed or out of range. Before replacing the sensor
(WOT) position. Therefore, if the WOT voltage is 4.5 that did not read correctly, unplug the sensor and meas-
volts, then TP sensor voltage at idle should be about ure both the 5 volt reference and ground. To measure the
0.45 volts.
ground, simply turn the ignition on (engine off) and touch
one test lead of a DMM set to read DC volts to the sen-
4. With the voltmeter (or scan tool) still connected, sor ground and the other to the negative terminal of the
slowly return the throttle down to the idle battery. Any reading higher than 0.6 volt (600 mV) repre-
position. The voltage from the TP sensor should sents a poor ground. See Figures 25–29 and 25–30.
also decrease evenly on the return to idle.
■ Rich exhaust. Oxygen sensor voltage above ■ If the oxygen sensor fails to respond, and its
800 mV voltage remains at about 450 millivolts, the
■ Lean exhaust. Oxygen sensor voltage below sensor may be defective and require replacement.
200 mV Before replacing the oxygen sensor, check the
manufacturers’ recommended procedures.
■ If the oxygen sensor reads high all the time
Testing an Oxygen Sensor Using (above 550 millivolts), the fuel system could be
a Digital Voltmeter supplying too rich a fuel mixture or the oxygen
The oxygen sensor can be checked for proper opera- sensor may be contaminated.
tion using a digital high-impedance voltmeter. ■ If the oxygen sensor voltage remains low (below
350 millivolts), the fuel system could be
1. With the engine off, connect the red lead of the supplying too lean a fuel mixture. Check for a
meter to the oxygen sensor signal wire. See vacuum leak or partially clogged fuel injector(s).
Figure 25–31. Before replacing the oxygen sensor, check the
2. Start the engine and allow it to reach closed-loop manufacturer’s recommended procedures.
operation. To achieve closed-loop operation, the
engine computer must have achieved three Testing the Oxygen Sensor Using
criteria including:
the Min-Max Method
a. The engine coolant temperature must be
above a certain temperature, usually above A digital meter set on DC volts can be used to
40°C (104°F). record the minimum and maximum voltage with
610 CHAPTER 25
As a result of this oxygen being detected, the voltage The Pickup Truck Story
produced by the oxygen sensor is lower. This lower-
voltage signal is interpreted by the computer as a sign The owner of a pickup truck complained that the engine
that the mixture being supplied is too lean. The computer ran terribly. It would hesitate and surge, yet there were
then increases the amount of fuel delivered. This extra no diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs). After hours of
fuel can often cause more spark plug fouling and even troubleshooting, the technician discovered while talking
more unburned oxygen passing the oxygen sensor. to the owner that the problem started after the trans-
Because a lean condition can be false, the wise ser- mission had been repaired. Before the transmission was
vice technician checks the exhaust system and the igni- repaired, the problem started, yet the transmission shop
tion system before trying to correct a lean indication. said that the problem was an engine problem and not
related to the transmission.
A thorough visual inspection revealed that the front
and rear oxygen sensor connectors had been switched.
The computer was trying to compensate for an air–fuel
mixture condition that did not exist. Reversing the OSS
connectors restored proper operation of the truck.
611
612 CHAPTER 25
SPEED DENSITY
The speed density method does not require an Figure 25–32 Most 1996 and newer vehicles use an
air quantity sensor, but rather calculates the amount oxygen sensor behind the catalytic converter. The
of fuel required by the engine. The computer uses in- purpose of the oxygen sensor is to sense the
formation from sensors such as the MAP and TP to percentage of oxygen in the exhaust to check the
calculate the needed amount of fuel. efficiency of the catalytic converter.
■ MAP sensor. The value of the intake (inlet)
manifold pressure (vacuum) is a direct indication
of engine load.
■ TP sensor. The position of the throttle plate and
its rate of change are used as part of the equation (IAT) are used to calculate the density of the air
to calculate the proper amount of fuel to inject. and the need of the engine for fuel. A cold engine
■ Temperature sensors. Both engine coolant (low coolant temperature) requires a richer
temperature (ECT) and intake air temperature air–fuel mixture than a warm engine.
1.25
OXYGEN
SENSOR
BEFORE THE
CONVERTER
0.00
VOLT 5.00 SEC/DIV
1.25
OXYGEN
SENSOR
AFTER THE
CONVERTER
0.00
VOLT 5.00 SEC/DIV
1.25
OXYGEN
SENSOR
AFTER THE
CONVERTER
0.00
VOLT 5.00 SEC/DIV
Figure 25–33 The post–catalytic converter oxygen sensor should display very little
activity if the catalytic converter is efficient.
Computers and Sensors—Operation, Diagnosis, and Service 613
DAMPER
AIR VANE
FLAP
AIRFLOW TO INTAKE
INTAKE MANIFOLD
BYPASS AIR
(a) SCREW
AIRFLOW TO INTAKE
INTAKE MANIFOLD
BYPASS AIR Figure 25–35 A typical air vane sensor with the cover
(b) SCREW
removed. The movable arm contacts a carbon resistance
path as the vane opens. Many air vane sensors also have
Figure 25–34 A typical air vane sensor. (a) At idle the air contacts that close to supply voltage to the electric fuel
flows through a bypass passage. The bypass air screw is pump as the air vane starts to open when the engine is
adjusted at the factory and should not require adjustment. being cranked and air is being drawn into the engine.
(b) As the throttle is opened, the airflow moves the vane.
The vane is attached to a potentiometer similar to a
throttle position (TP) sensor. passes through the sensor, this type of sensor can ac-
tually produce an output based on the mass of the
airflow. The output of this type of sensor is usually a
AIRFLOW METHOD frequency based on the amount of air entering the
sensor. The more air that enters the sensor, the more
The airflow method measures the amount of air as the hot film is cooled. The electronics inside the sen-
part of the computer input information necessary for sor, therefore, increase the current flow through the
accurate fuel delivery control. There are three basic hot film to maintain the 75°C (165°F) temperature
types of airflow sensors used on port-injected en- differential between the air temperature and the
gines: the air vane sensor, the hot film sensor, and temperature of the hot film. This change in current
the hot wire sensor. flow is converted to a frequency output that the com-
puter can use as a measurement of airflow. Most of
these types of sensors are referred to as mass air-
AIR VANE SENSOR flow (MAF) sensors because unlike the air vane
sensor, the MAF sensor takes into account relative
This air vane sensor uses a movable vane that humidity, altitude, and temperature of the air. The
translates the amount of movement of the vane into denser the air, the greater the cooling effect on the
the amount of air being drawn into the engine. An hot film sensor and the greater the amount of fuel re-
air vane sensor can be tested using a digital meter quired for proper combustion.
or an oscilloscope. See Figures 25–34 and 25–35.
Figure 25–36 A GM hot film mass air flow (MAF) sensor that has been taken apart.
The electronic circuit measures the cooling effect of the air entering the engine and
generates a frequency output signal that is proportional to the amount of air passing
through the sensor.
DIAGNOSTIC STORY
Testing Mass Airflow Sensors NOTE: Older AC MAF sensors operated at a lower
Start the testing of a MAF sensor by performing a frequency of 32 to 150 Hz, with 32 Hz being the aver-
thorough visual inspection. Look at all the hoses that age reading at idle and 150 Hz for wide-open throttle.
direct and send air, especially between the MAF sen-
sor and the throttle body. Also check the electrical
connector for:
Figure 25–38 Carefully check the hose between the MAF sensor and the throttle plate
for cracks or splits that could create extra (false) air in the engine that is not
measured by the MAF sensor.
Frequently Asked Question ??? could enter the engine without being measured.
This extra air is often called false air. See Figure
25–38. Because this extra air is unmeasured, the
What Is Meant by computer does not provide enough fuel delivery and
a “High-Authority Sensor”? the engine operates too lean, especially at idle. A
A high-authority sensor is a sensor that has a major influ- small hole in the air inlet hose would represent a
ence over the amount of fuel being delivered to the engine. fairly large percentage of false air at idle, but would
For example, at engine start-up, the engine coolant temper- represent a very small percentage of extra air at
ature (ECT) sensor is a high-authority sensor and the oxy- highway speeds.
gen sensor (O2S) is a low-authority sensor. However, as the To diagnose for false air, hook up a scan tool and
engine reaches operating temperature, the oxygen sensor look at long-term fuel trim numbers at idle and at
becomes a high-authority sensor and can greatly affect the 3000 rpm.
amount of fuel being supplied to the engine. See the chart.
Tap Test
High-Authority Low-Authority
Sensors Sensors With the engine running at idle speed, gently tap the
MAF sensor with the fingers of an open hand. If the
ECT (especially when IAT (intake air temperature) engine stumbles or stalls, the MAF sensor is defec-
the engine starts and sensors modify and back tive. This test is commonly called the tap test.
is warming up) up the ECT
O2S (after the engine TFT (transmission fluid Digital Meter Test
reaches closed-loop temperature)
operation)
of a MAF Sensor
MAP PRNDL (shift position A digital multimeter can be used to measure the fre-
sensor) quency (Hz) output of the sensor and compare the
reading with specifications.
MAF KS (knock sensor)
The frequency output and engine speed in RPM
TP can also be plotted on a graph to check to see if the
616 CHAPTER 25
P19–1 Besides a scan tool, other equipment that can P19–2 Consult the factory service manual for the
be used to check a throttle position (TP) sensor specifications and wire colors used for the TP sensor as
includes a scope or graphing multimeter, a digital well as the recommended testing procedure.
multimeter equipped with MIN/MAX function, and
T-pins to safely backprobe the sensor wires.
P19–3 A scan tool display showing no diagnostic P19–4 A scan tool can be used to observe the output
trouble codes (DTCs). A fault could still exist even voltage and the calculated percentage (%) of throttle
though a diagnostic trouble code is not set—it depends opening.
on what type of fault and when it occurs.
P19–5 Most throttle position sensors use a 5 volt P19–6 Connect the red lead from the digital
reference voltage from the computer. To test that this multimeter to the T-pin and attach the black meter lead
signal is available at the sensor, carefully backprobe the to a good, clean engine ground.
5 volt reference (grey on this General Motors vehicle)
wire at the connector on the TP sensor. Simply push
the T-pin alongside the wire until it touches the metal
terminal inside the connector.
617
Throttle Position Sensor Diagnosis—continued
P19–7 Select DC volts and turn the ignition key on P19–8 Another important step when testing a TP
(engine off). The meter reads slightly over 5 volts, sensor is to verify that the ground circuit is okay. To
confirming the computer is supplying the reference check the ground of the TP sensor, carefully backprobe
voltage to the TP sensor. the ground wire at the TP sensor connector (black on
this General Motors vehicle) and connect the red meter
lead to the T-pin.
P19–9 Attach the black meter lead to a good, clean P19–10 With the ignition on (engine off) and the
engine ground. digital meter still set to read DC volts, read the voltage
drop of the TP sensor ground. The voltage drop is the
difference in voltage between the leads of the meter.
General Motors specifies that this voltage drop should
not exceed 35 mV (0.035 V). This TP sensor ground
shows 31.1 mV (0.0311 V).
P19–11 To measure the signal voltage, backprobe the P19–12 Select DC volts and manually range the meter.
signal wire (dark blue on this General Motors vehicle). This Fluke meter changes from the 4 volt scale to the
40 volt scale as the sensor voltage goes slightly higher
than 4 volt. For an instant,“OL” appears on the display
as it switches ranges. This OL could also indicate a fault.
618
Throttle Position Sensor Diagnosis—continued
P19–13 Slowly move the throttle from idle speed to P19–14 The high reading for this sensor was
wide open and back to idle speed position. For best 4.063 volts.
results, this test should be performed by depressing the
accelerator pedal. This puts the same forces on the
sensor as occurs during normal driving.
P19–15 Pushing the MIN/MAX button shows the P19–16 A Snap-On Vantage graphing multimeter or
minimum voltage the meter recorded during the test digital storage oscilloscope can also be used to test a
(0.399 volts). TP sensor. To test the sensor using the Snap-On
Vantage, select TP sensor from the menu.
P19–17 The Vantage has a built-in database that can be P19–18 After attaching the meter leads to the signal
accessed to show connector position and wire colour wire and ground (ignition key on, engine off), the graphing
information. multimeter shows the waveform of the voltage signal as
the throttle is depressed, released, and depressed again.
These are normal for a TP sensor. A fault would show as
a vertical line or dip in the waveform.
619
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