ROBlN jEFFREf'

T,mpl,-entry Movtment in TravfUl&ore,r860-I91D

AN BXTREMB, 7e' popuJ ... view of the princely "amlluggesu that they
were .IoUII"" of decadence and mettla, their people .nduring unrelieved
miseri.. , .beir nil"'" port.i,,!! speakable pie......... Only m.he 19300,
If Indeed lhen (so the ' nm.), did OongreoovjetDrieoin Ibe
provine... and Ibe rising tid.ohl"lion.llan, begin'" ripple the .I....ant
_e.. 01 polities and IIOeiety In the princely bog. 'or _
an appreciation may ev.n be (Oftect. Ho_.
~
in other. there
political m<m:me"t., invoMn, large nulllbcra of men, their
w_
lItateo, .......

cou... inOucDccd IiIr more by tbe peculiar naturo of the prlneely...tate

._ .han by d.velopments in British India. Such a _ was Travancore,
wlti<b ro.. bly ...-responded '" the _them half of today'. Ker.la.
Tbit article is a nudy 01 the movcmell' alllOnl! p""perillg Jow._
Hind for the ri,gbtlo enter ochools, l'>veJ11mcnt servic. and ultima"'ly
_ "t_ntrolled teanpleo in • staunchlY tbf:oc"'tie Hindu lIate. Th.
rigbt of "'D1p,Je.cntry ..... within the gift of. IItriel, blgb.c .. ee Mda.'\fa
(as it could ne.... be wilhin that of a "'ilim pnrnmcnt) and w.. tb.
uhi_t. "aymbolic convertlon of ..... lth into honour" for which educated
men a_nlltbe lOw .all .. IIrOvefrom tlte 1890.. Initially a new, wider
COQceptof..... te developed. as college-educated men 10Ught to mvolve
their I... _lIby and less educated _ .. me" in a political CQmmunity 01
4 SOCIAl. SCIENTIST

tee_
sach numben and oolidarity Ihal the princely gowmment woald bave to
with it. r..".. of tempi.. ODdreligion ...... capable of __ .ing Ihe
in...... t of peopl. from div.ne edueatinal alld economic backgrounds,
aDd "" Trav&acore, mo....",.,r, oven tb. poor lended to b.literale. 1.'hero
worela...., nambo.. capable ofboing rallied. '1'"be princely government,
.aush' b.!WOO1l ill Iruotee&bip of Hiadu orlbodaxy .nd ill deal.. 10
consolidate all ita HimI", allainal the Ih",at of Chrlslla.. ~ytizinll'
obarpeoed the i,,_ lint, by ",sisti"IIIo_.te pat""'. and then see""l1
to d.C.... thom. By the time the definitive aecommodatioll. .be Temple
Enlry Proclamation.c November1936, hod com. about, thousands of
Iilerate, Io....., .. te peasants and work... had aequind a 1000..political
_.iouo_ Thll Ia turnWIllIi1lCreasllllllyrooponli\oeto tho rhetoric ... ,
moro.lyof .ut., but of cia...
SWI_ sav alII GlIJtJc,
In discllSlinllsociely ill Tra ........... In th. twentieth COIIlu'Y,one
.ncoun......a probl.m of ""'lIori... Literacy ill Trava_ _ lop
than. in ""y OI&O<8ta'"or province in IndiL Mol. UI•....,y In 1981 was
41 per cent ODdin 1941, 68 per cent. In 1991, more tban 70,000 TraYan'
___ or
to Ii_t.in Enel"'" OUI a popuiatiftD oCfive _lrIOD. Moot
of those 70,000 could probably bo ............. d .. "middle cl.... ill tbat at
IoUI pari or their liveIibcod came from goverlUlll!ll.l service, IelICblnl!:,law
or clericlll ......k. However, there we", cub"""", (armon. IQefChanll IUd
small banm who _n: not literate in English bur who would f.1l into a
"middle cia.... category. Moreover, of the more tban two million Tra......
core&nI who were literate in 1931,largellumben w.re lIDalll.ndhold ....
_III, landless labourers or lictory worken. To bo II..... '" did not meaD
to b. "middle cl_." AmongBabavu, male literacy.. 43 per ceDt ia
1931, thougb Babava, wore low easte and mainly poor laboaten and
tenanll.1
I have tried 10 dul with tbis problem of wefbl .. legori.. by
""",rally td"emng In the pro-l920 period 10 a.. "educated elil." which
.... b. _uUted through th. English-literacy .. al;.li .. ill the censu I
begiD to w•• bo upr .. sion "atlddle .Ia.... only from the 1920. wh the
admittedly unsalisra.1OrY........... ic data permil __ toll.., OfalemonlS
about cIaoa formation, and "OWben Travancore politicians aod labour
leaden berlill to use tho rh...... ic of cia.. conscioU'ne••

priDe.1y .t....
TraYlIDCorecovered aD arca of 7600 square 1IIi1•• , aDd -.
was <XC.eded ill popalatkm only by Hyderabad and
Myson:. It wa. tho moot literate ... te or prcwinco in India; by 1941ilS
tbe

malo Uteraey ra" bad reached 68 per eent. II,.,.. also one of tho IDOl'
densely populated are... Iu population .... w from 2,952,000 ill 1901to
6,070,000 in 1941,an in.roue of 106 po. cent. Th. all·Illdi. population
increaoed by 32 per cent in lb. I&....e period.·
MlICb of the cultivabl. land ift tho ltal e wao. by the 1920., gi_
ewer to cub Clops eoconat. pepper. euhew, urdamom, lUbber. lUI.'
 TEMPLE-ENTRY MOV.BMBNT IN TRAVANOORB 5

.",. and .... E1IIOpea.n p1an18r1 bad opened eo_I w_

in the
Gh.", the border between Traval>COre and tbe Mad .... Prcoidelley 10 the
... t in Ibe 18600, and (rom the 18800 the poduet, oftbe cocoaul pa!m-
oopra, _ut oil, colt 8Jld coir mattina-_ increuingly """,me re w-
I.ed and nported. By 1920 large numbon of TraYAncore lanclholdel'l
ancllabOl1rer. were Involved with th.... ""lJ'!I and had come to depend on
the cash economy created thereby.·
Two featum of traditional IOcioty had Itruck European vDilOl'lllince
the ,iXlI:.Dtb •• nt ... y_ The lint was Ibe matriU..,al.ystOlll or famay and
iDheri...... foUowed by ..... 1 .... e-Hincl.... particularly tbe Naln, who
formed lhe war,.;."..g.ntry. "ThOle king. do nol marry," the traveUc.
Duarte BarhOia wrole i" 1516, "only e""b h .. a ml.tret., a lady or pal
1iII•• ge and f"",ily. which is caUod Nayre_" The second feature waa the
rlgidily. relin ........ and ruthls" ... of the .yll_ oteaele. Me" polluted
thel ",perjon nOl merely on toueb bUI Oil sight, In the ~treme
c a Pulay. WII said", pollUle" NOUI>budiri B.abmin from 93 pates.
"When [Ihe Main] walk along. lireet Or road," wrote Barbosa,
they moot to the low <ule folk 10 get oul of th.ir way; tbi. they do,
aDdlf one will DOl, tbe Nayre may kill him withoul puni,bm""l;
even ifhe i. a youth ofgood [bigh- .. ste] famil, hUI poor and _!h-
I... , and be find. in hi. way a man of low cule who ;. ricb and
rap.Clod and in favout' with Ihe King. yet he mam bim clear Ibo
way for him .. if he were a King_'
Thisw.. largely Ih. ., ... m that tho )ritioh lband when they
imposed a politlcalllOlident 00 Travanowe in 1800. In the nut 60 ",an,
lillio anempt was made 10 tamper wilb the .. ate'. society or local
poUlics_
From th. 1860s. however. powerful fore .. came inero .. inlly to bear
ODlhe lives of Travancoreao.. There were a DUDlherof reaao .... Tr ... an-
core had raUen in", grave disfavour wilh Bririoh go""rnmonts io Ih. 18500
lOr Irs carel .... corrupt and """el administration. In 1860 a )'0lI1l1 and
well.. d_ted Maharaja came to tb. throne. HiJ Minister wa. hi. f.rmer
tutor, a hriUianl product of th. fonoal BUllish education oll<recl in the
Madras Higb School from lb. 18400. Briti.h pl'Ol,ure to reform the
administralion compiemeDled lh. enthusiaom of the Maharaja and his
Minbter to be seen. u innovators and modemizen. The administration
.AI increasingly centralizedt aammatioJl8 were introduced for govern-
ment lI<rVanIJ. collUlm'Cial monopolies aboli.bcd. sweeping laod ref.,.",.
promulgated conferring ownership rights on tho","and. of governmenl
tenants, and a wide network of schoo.... tabliohed_ By tho mid-18700
tho.. wen! a Ibousand mileo of ..... d. whe .. in tb. 18500 there had heen
DO roads at aU. Eumpean missioD8ria, JDOre DWDerGUi in Travaneore
Ihan in any coDlparablo aroa of India. iDlenoilied lheir educational and
pr"",lyrlzin! work amollif "'" (Iow- ..... , Hindus_ In lb. hills.
Ban>pean plante... opened '""; in tho port 10wnl of Qpiloa and
8

Alleppey, metdaanis, both E\I1'I)peaD.ad Iodi ... , bopntoexpott Travaa-

core cropL Tra~ aeconllng to !he Secretary oC State for India in
1867, had ~1IIe II, "moelel state... •
The TraYllllcore iOftmmeat _pbasiaed ill modernitY and
ellicicacy in 1875 when it ..... iod out tbe sta...·, 8ftt ''acicnlilk:'' ...... m
on the 1m.. of th. British Indian __ of 1871. The __ put the
popDlatiDD al 2,311,000-7+ per cont Hinda, 20 per CClIIIChristian aad 6
per .. at Muslim. Of the total popDlatiOD, aboat 40 per cenl were .
HiDd .. , and aboUI a quarler ,_ (hisb CIISIe). This in itself a
IIDI'priJo 10 those who had lIoclicc1 the .rlier oII*DptI at .......... in 1816,
1836IIDd 1854, all of which had pul the s......... population woO in _
of th. __ The wry .. t of counting the __ populatloa .......
adlDissionthat it had _ impor_, thoush Ihe Tamil Brahmin wbo
wrote the 1875teport diaaU.od ....... Hindu. with the .. mark that tbey
_ "_ dlIIlDlI"isboelby any peculiaritioo warth mention.''' He might
haft ..... tIoMd. bo.... ycr. tho diaabilltic. that .till W!>rked qalnst thooe
Hiadut who wore clMd6eel u _roo by Ib.ir .,.;pboun. They _..,
baaned from wing lIW\y roads and public buildiDp, baaaed {JODi most
govemn>ent ",baals, and banMd Croat approaching-much Ie.. , entering
_mpl ... •
C_lIIItl~
Th. 1875 .ODOU. diacoycred420 ",ub..tiyi,ion. of Hindu eMte....
but lhe "'port lilted only 75 "rtIOft ....... 1 oah-dioriliODl." The luaut
pup of c.ute.Hindu., 19 per..,nt of the total populalion. wen> the N.I ....
or "MaIay.Ji Sndr ... " as the Brahmin eem.... laker cbnoe to colIlbem to
""" them indleir proper place ill tbe four_ hicl'll'dly. Nal... were
furtber divided Into 35 .ubc.uroo. conside...d to be ordereel hleratchically,
though Dilen Jiaked Ihrougn hyperpmow mania,. liaisOlll.· AIIaoogthe
........ Hiacl.... lb. larpolleclion was that of the Bobavas, 16.5 per cent
of the lOWpopulatioa. Ezha_. thOllsb reprdod II poUuting by _.
Hindus, enjoyed lllperior stalUl to the appallillgly ab_d elMIave casICI,
who totallecl about 12 per cent of the population. An Bohan .... laid 10
pollute a Nambudiri ~a from 92 feet and a Nair from 12. aDd
c:cmsidcrecI himoelf poIIulecl by tbe approach of one of the "".. lave ... ter.
E.hav. 100_re divided iato sabcasteo, but the .......... t.... n. heiDI
._Hind ... did 1101trouble to ...... nI or discuro them. AIIbougb t.bcre
were a few .tIloeat laaclbolcliDgf.mil of Ema¥u in QOatral Trow ...
core. the O¥OI'WboImiag majority wac e d In labouring occapatiom:
weaving, farmiDg II _anto or sabtea.IlII, and caring for !he COCI!ftUl
pal .... !he lIIIo: with which they were tradilioGaily _c:ialecl. A few ot.bcr
protperous familico....... _d for their ayllAecllc pbyoidans.. It "'"'
Bob_ who were lint to .. bel agalnst the dis.billti .. "hich old Travaa.
amo rocIelJ mforced agaiDst __ Hind•• '
Tbe _ pI'OIODtcda .... 1 piela'" oIlOclety. Categoric. _re
Jillecl, percealagOl given; nothiDg Iooloecl tidier than tbe _iaI lIInI.ture
 TBMPLJI.I!NTRY I&OVEMENT IN TRAVANOORB 7

of TraYallCore. How ""curatel, did dI..... IUS IYSe.1 realily? It ha. been
poin,ed oul convincingly that in olber arcas or Indi.dle cen ..... lake ..
worked bard 10 bammer dlei. data into limpl. mould., and in doiag ....
"lU1liugly clislOrtcd lb. ""oW ca •• i••Ib.y were _king to po"".y •••
To tb.... dillOrlion., there ..... respon.. : growing numben or weste.n-
odue.ted Indians read o(themselves in die census reporto, .nd Ihough die
reports may ha"" .. toprim! Ibem in aofamiliar war .. they of,eD chose
to turn die •• ,.&Oms 10 dleir adv.n ..... If Ibu was wal &o""rn .......
expecled, &"""famen. moulda ....it, especioUy when die new .ategories
olIl:red a I.rl" OODItituency wbich a man could olaion to represenl. Deol.-
iDS with on adminutraooo beavily inbnced by utilitarian ide.. of Ibe
(1'08"'.' goOd CorlIIe rreo"''' number, men fOllDd i.dOlirabl. 10 be able
to IUrD 10 lb. ceo .... and olaim to speak on behalf of four laltht of Naid.
or 9.8 lakbs of Ezhava., or, iDlIIe ca.. of lhe Justice Party ill Mad.as, "40
million DOn.Brahmanl. n I •
Th. TravomCDre...... of 1875 undoubledly •• ..,h. II truer picture
oroocia! reality than many olht:r Indian censuses. Loc:al men condacled
It, • Brahmin ,raduat. of die Tti.andrum college _ lIIe report. Such
_en, c:oncemed as ,her were with tbeir own ata,1U"1 h. an mtCft'lt in
-mil thai the ,oeiol nuance. &Ov_rninl their li_ .....re correctly
presen"'d.
CIlrilIitm COtI'DIrts
However J in toomer.ting calleS On a statewide basis and publbb-
lng the findings, the 1875 and subsequent eo_. w<orehelping to allol'
concepts or .aste. Caste, .. peclally in Trovancoro, _. essentially a local
matter iD I'ormer times. The bigher one's cute, the I",Rtel' olle1s mobility
and a_rene .. or me wider world. ABrahmin could move freely through-
oul tile )leI!y chi.fdomo or lb. olel Kerala region and would h."" Iwl •
clear idea of die four"""", esterori •• or claMical HiDduilm. But a 10....
_te III"', an Mava for eumple, w.. hound 10 billoe"lily. H. Imew
with whicb Camili.. h. could marry, wbicb people he could approa<b,
aocl .. hieb he migbt eat widl; bu. bis awaren ... of omer Bahavas, eveu
30 mile. away, was likely to ban been scant. Even '10m a dis_ee, bill
d.... (a clotll banging nolo...". tballllle !me•• and no COV1I!ring'hove tho
waist) _rReel his esste-Hindu ""i!!hhon .. of hi,lowly alalus. Ifhe did
_ show the required .ubseJyienceo, be was be."'n. To ...... away to
&DOdier 1oea111Jl ofIl:red 110 plOlJl"C1 lOr improvem_n,. lOr how would a
man live wilbout his traditionallandlord.o and palronS? And in • land
wilhout road- and brid ..... bow fa. could a man run?"
J'.- die 18600, ho_. powiDg numbe .. of&bav .. ond cor-
"""" ... 108....... In lOuch wilh European milSionari .. , from whose scbcooIs
they _ro able 10 .. t a basi. educalion. Many of ,h.... ·oJave c....... co...
_d to ObNtiaIli.y. bill til_Jar .. majority orr..havas b.1d bac:k from
tIIiadeeisive''''p.'' Preaure from Britioh ._menlO, Europe.n oIIIei"
iD Trawa_ serllict. and WCltern-eduea....t Travaneorcans _"""lIIally
8 SOCIAL SClBNTlST

blOllgbt admboion to Bahava. in growinl numbero of government schmit.

From tbe 1870s, &ha".. began to 8radDat. from tbe Trivandrum. coUoge.
The 1875 ce ""UI pul malo Uteroc, among :&ba" •• at 11.15pol' celli; by lIt.
1891 <OtllIUIit had ri .. n 10 12.10 pol' oent, and 30 Ezba ..... were literate
in Englilh." At .be •• me time, communications de".loped rapidly. I.
became <as;"r Cora low-casle man to ..... pc 10 IOwns like Alleppcy or
Qpilob. where the ""pallllon of thO coir and copra indllSlries was bogin·
oilll 10 briog ... b 10 Eah.". Camili...
Moreover. as the number or me n e dnooled in English iDcreaoed, 10
did lb••• udy of the ...,.u. report •• In Tr.""" ....... tbey began to reveal
what cute·Hindu. regarded •• an alarming ral. oC convonu.n 10 Chrioti·
_ni'll.In 1875. 20 per cent or the populalion had been Christian: by 1901.
it .... 24 pol' <ent: by 1931. 51 per cent; by 1941. 32 per cenL In the.arne
period. the proporlion oCPulay", .he I...... t or Ibe .,.·slave CUle, wh"
wore nominany H'md .... r.n
from B.18 per cent, to 6.99 per eenr, to 4.07
per cent 10 3.92 per cent." The decennial <en...... de"eloped inlO a
battleground on which men misht attempt 10 eleva.e .beir .Iatus or pro".
the popular ,uperiority oE tbeir .. lipn." How."or, .... 11 in 1931 there
w.. no electoral danger 10 the adminbuati.e dominaoce of ... te-Hindus
in Travan.or.. The franchise was still nlU'lOW enough to on...... that
th ... cenverlina to Christianity did not have the vote anywa, and the
Maharaja was .tillthe eartbly Ir.. tee of the god Padmanabban in the great
tC'mple iII: Trwandrum." It wasl however, the implicit re:8ection on
their r~th [bat troubled calte-Hindm, .' well as the: teduction or theil'
rbelorical constituency. All 'hh, 100""'..... augured trouble if • system of
ono·mao. _-vo"',now being advocated hy the Indian National Cong.... ,
C9C:rcame &0 pal!l in Travan.core.
NIUJ EliIu
By Ihe early ",an of tbe twent,elh century, there bad begun to
omerse amana caste-HiodUl,Chrillian. and even _r •• tlindu .. especially
Eoh.VOI,. ugnilican. educated elite. It was not purely urban. Indeed,
in Tr.""ncore .bere was oot a singl. city: bat there were 20 lmall towns,
each wllb ot least a mtIIIlIift". (.i"il) court, schools and talull: oftices. By
tb. 19301 the governmenl aloDo employed 25,000 poople. Mtmbers of the
.Ii.e usually co_ fromlandholding families; they lOok their edu.ation
lirst in lheir local Iebools. nudied up to high .chool ma .. I.lllation in the
UDall 10_ and could lake• Bacbelor'. dell= in Trivao>drum, Em.·
kulam in Coehia Slate, Trlchinopoly or Madras. Then the govern"",,,,
lOfYice, tbe wide network of private school" or the law COlI... lay befOre
t~. They were able to main";n close touch witb Iben- relative. in the
cow1try1ide. ,. Gelling an educalion and middlo-cla. job in T .. vancore
did not involve tbe dcci'; .. breall: wi,h one', relvotive. and locality tbat
it often did In Beng,d. wbere the youn, man w... sucked jnlO the ""TIt'X
oreal.uu •• •••
In the 188Os, when the ftrsl for.... Uy educaled E.ha""" beau to
 'l'EMPLI!.I!NllI.Y MOVEMENT IN TRAVANCORB

... "'" out at lI""ernment and mission •• boob, _t jobs under goveramellt
we,.. .Iased to them. Tlte COVenU1Ientservice ...'" the prOle". of easte·
Hindus. The ah.maliv" for tbe ...eU... ducated Wat to 1""". the "tale, and
thil was tb. coutse lbDowed by thelirst two Boohavagraduate. in TraYati'
....... Others, I....... U"""w:ated, were pusbed lOwarcls lrade and com·
me",e. an aye. wblob Malayali caste-Hillel", tended 10 .void. By 1900
th. ''''pan value of the product. of the coconut palm. caring lOrwhich
WIS \be uaditional occupation of Eob ...... oxceeded as 80 1a.kbI. year."
Th" labour ror the indusllY.... overwhelmi....ly Eob.va.and gmwing Dum.
benof Man" wereabo becoming middl_n and petty ractory o"""ro.
"Good work Is being turned otlt here by private induslry." wrote die
Tray_ Dewan of an Ezhav. col. (k1OT)' D•• r QJblon in 190*, "alld
"""" boys are beiDgtrained in the wort. " Tltl. iastitution .peaks .... 11for
the indusllY and spiri' ofseU'·help ortb. Elava (Bzhava) commuDity.""
WcaviDllwas another "adltional OCCUpatioDtbat 1001i""lf 10 'lIlal).lcal.
""pit.lbm. TIt. two Elh .... who h.ve been chi.f miniM.... since Indepea-
de_ in 1!M7 both came I'toID Camillo. tbal ran mod.,! weaving <Die..
priHo a,oll1'ld,h. tuen of Ibo ctnlUry.··

TABLE I
l.rrEaATBI JM ENOLIIIIJ 1911·1931

191J 1921 1931

All Brahmins 3.007 4,221 8.226
Nain 5,446 14,169 18,606
All Chri.tians 10,129 24,059 37,296
Muslim, 299 1,159 1,608
Eallavu 1,441

20,322
4,529

48,131 - 5.202

70,987
The decade from 1911 10 1921 was. emcial ene, borb in Urm. of
edUcatioD and economic expanlion. The ilM:rcasc il'l the numb!!'r or ptople

males over live year. or .g.

Jitc:r.te in En,glish was one indication.·· Literacy in Malayalam among
sa
weDt up rrom29 per coni 10 perc."I; among
Em.va maleo. it wonl tip &om 12 per oen' .., 36 per cenl." Th. govern·
ment exp..,di,ure 011.dueation. which woo Rs 8 1.khI in 1911, rose to
It. 25.81.khs by 1920. fn 1917 Ibere we... 364,000 .. udenll in Tr.van.
core, about 10 per Ce.' of.he '0111 populalion."

limited
The.e wcre.ho indicati",," of a growing middle
romp.,,;"
cl....
Of !he
tblR survived !he depreosion in tbe 1930.. ODlyIhree
predaled this 1911.21 period; 57 were founded from 1911·21." In spite
ol the Finl World War and th.IOI8 or som. Euro..... rnarloel.,lbe
coconut produc.. induslry continued 10 txpand. In 19lhxpor .. or mann·
'.cturod coil "",t, and mailing .......... Ioed at R. 8.2 lakhs; they were
_rth It. 2".5 lakhs hy1921. Ayerage value of .. ports ...... room It. m
10

Jatblln Ibe decade 1901-11to R.484 Iakb. illthe 1911-21period." The

COftrD_t eoteilOrevenue w<:nt up from a. 27 lokhs in 1910to a. 38
lolt ... III 1920, an importaat development fOr Ezhavas, ",.ay or whom
were itwOlftClin !he liquor !r&d...•• While lb. population iacreued by 15
per COllI, people ,.,pported by the "proCessions_lid liberal atll" in..... Md
by 56 per .eDI, and tho... IUpported by lr8de by 24 per conL I.

TABLE II
S....1ICTIID OcevPATlOMl, 1911-1921
Populalion 1911 %of 1921 %or %0(
mpportod by tOlal lotal incrca.e
population popaiation
Trade 285.338 8.3 893.814 8.5 24
Profeosionl and
hberalam 97,729 2.9 142,898 S.6 ~
aJ Law 8,.543 0.2 11.575 O.S 56
b) Mediclmt 10.209 O.S 25,728 0.7 1.52
c) Imtruction 26,365 0.8 85.779 0.9 ,4,
d) Laten, arts
aa.c:llcieace 18,896 0.6 24,1IS 0.6 28
Nearly three: timet al many Ezhavas ... Mairs were returned al utradcn, It
and neD in the: category i1la.wyenJ doctors and leachen," there waJ a
significant n_ber of Ezh.va,,"·

TABLE m
N", ... AlOD.EZllAVA$ IN Tl>.A"B' ~" l'RO.BIISIONS, 1921
N.in Eoba"
..
Trod ... 15.4*9 42,438
Law,en, doclon, "'achen 10.568 2,826
Public admIDistr.lion 5,172 S~
Arti ..... and other workers 13.966 77,456
However, Cbr'l$ti.l1I. ~tially lhe ancient Syrian Christia ... , pro-
"jded the I...... number for Ibis srowing middlecl.... More tban half
the Eoglish literate. were Christian. and or the 50 ..... 11 banb operating
in Ihe.l&lCin 192Q.I.1l were in the SyriallChristian ""n'"GfTiruvalla
atone; not ODe was ba'ICd in TrivllDdrum. the Ilate capitaL· I Syrian
Cbrilliaas bad turned to rubber plan.ing, and in the 1920.,10,he &nanee
.,m export or !be c&Bbewnul.·· Among Syrian Christi.... morro..,.., there
had alway. be." larse Iandbolden and trade ... " I
Where. middle cl...... emerging. !bere had aloo 10he lb. begin-
ninll" or a wotkinl claD. By 1921 lbe ... we... 5.. factories each employinl
mo,.. than 20 people; abou, 8300 people worked ill.uc:h .. t.blishment ..
Mo.... _. 120,800 people were rOlurnod a. being ouppon.d by "'.rio",
 TIIMPLII-ENTRY MOVl!MJINr IN TAAVANCOM II

factory and cottage iadllm'i... The majority of dJ_ were Iow..,om foll:;
for """",pie, 77.500 Elba ...
alld only 14.000 Naln.··
".niI.... and other worton .. were t'CIUrll.cl

'The EQpillk-cducated amons the middle d... tencled 10 relllin

their cute or religious identity. Government dilcrimiaation reinforced
luch cWlinction.. Although the EngLiIb·eduealedof variou. casl.. mixed
freely 10. bllli .... and OD IOrmalooeial oc:easlono in lhe 10wns, they looked
to their eastemen and co-reli!liODists &I their na,uralMlOcialfl:l and allies
In olber matters. The .pal" of meclal p.... nralio". 10young graduates,
which began about 1910, nicely iIIustnlta lhe growilll __ rliven...
of Ibe aducaled .Ii....and their tend.""y 10... Ib...... l".. as the ....... _
leaden of tbe.ir <asl. or .. li,lo .. gm"... Th. fint melt pr_otation was
in 190610 an Anglican Syrian Christian girl wbo had p..... d the Pim
Arts ouminallon. When lite compleled her BA in lllOO-pmbably the
&r.1Malay.1i _0 10 do a BA-Ibere was. meetillg of moot of lit.
le.~ "ories and e!a.... of Ibe yatio.. Syrian Cbriotia" denomi"allons
to present ber ",jib a gold modal. Over Ibe ""lOt 10 yean the,. were
limilar pr_tationo 10 ...,. ... ula ... the lint Nol._ elected a mem-
ber of Ibe Royal Aoialic Soeie.,., Nair __ Sraduatel, the lb.1 Bob _
"'bay.
_ ",an .. ad.... te, the fill, wOIIlIonapotl)ccary, the lint London
Mililionory SocielY woman .. adua,e. the fint Muslim graduat •• ,be Iita,
Nambadiri BrohDliD MA, obe fint Syrian Cbristian 10 take a fint at 0..
ford. and the finl Syrian Christian 10 get • King'o CommiMion in the
army.·' The war abo provided new opportuniu.. for Tr.yan ..... ns to
SO abroad and e"P"rience _tem middJe.clISI life .1 fint hlDCl. An
lWhava doelOr, for eumpJ... held ,bo raDII:of oaplain ill. the wartime atmy
aad _cl from Ibere into Ibe !Ddlan MedIcal $erviee.··
FfIrJob EfII'lif1
Implicit in all this was a lame or on...upmanohip among .be elites
of vario..... ",munitia. Thiootool: a more acuto form (boca.... Ibo,. __ ..
good deal at .Im) over lhe q_lion of .. p..... ntation in the legiolalare
and so_"ment oervi<:e.Late In 1918 Syria" Chri"i .... or va.io ... *11
(p<imarily Ja eebilOO and Mat Tbomiteo) formed lb. I.e...... lOr Equal
Civie llish .. 10ali,olo for lb. opening of all btaaclteo or lbe governlDCnt
.ervi.. 10 Cbrillian.. M..wmo and ......... Hind.... and the CIleli", oi
unlOuebability. Tum;"1 10 the <OnlllS rcpGrIS. lito Iud... (n.wspaper
proprioton. mcrehan ... landlonlo, 1awyen and pl.nlen) claimed to spoat
lbr 26 lakho of elvlUydiubJ.d Tl"avancorea.... It WD, they "'d, a .imple
matter of greed: CNtCoHiodw were ... ting to keep for themoeJveo Ibe
potillolll of power in !be II"vorome.u. To~. that obey ,.preoented
DOone but themoelves,..... al mOIl, the edu.. ",d Syrian Christian popula.
tion, Ibo leaden of the Leap replied ctiJarminsly:
So long as lb. x......... lpeab in behalf oi IMuslim.. __ Wuut...
and Don·Syrian Chriotian.] anel advocao:otheir <.0"'0••_10 long as Ibo
lead ... of tbae commllDitieo deli .. from publk:ltyIPubJicJy], declaring
 12 SOOIAL SCIJ!lllTlST

that tbey do nOI Ca'. rOt" the enjoyment or equal ciYICrish ... 10
Ions COnthe Leo..... well be laid 1D"'preoenl lbe 26 lokhl ...... n if all
or tbem bave DOtformally or actively id...tllIed. th....... lv.. with the
movement .• t
The I..eape pointed out Ihat out of 4000 johI in the crucial Rnenuc
Dcpu1ment. lIIOI8 than S800 .. ,,,,, hold by .... te-Hind.... ••
The I-.wo eventually lOt the concesstOlll it -sbtln 1922 wbea
the Rnellue Department was oeparated frolllthe n......... or tempI.
maa,,-_Ill depart"""'l. thas removing Ihe objec1ion10 DOn-Hindusand
... """ in the """,culi.., .... icc. tt _ by Ihis time. .. tlUtly ,, __
.. nill ""t. "lIelthe Civic:lliBbto Lca_ fclllnlO Inoctivity even before il
..... 0",leel 001_ In 1925 the &nt Cbrlllian DcWllIl. au An&:lo-lndilln,
_ appointed, and the lint 0hrUtiatt dill!ricl oIIicer.··
The eMc llichll L.. gue bad b.... quick 10 IOr&,,1the ."11-
untouehability upect or ill original prog......... wheu the ........ 1.1_ ee
of educated Syrian Christia .. wa. met. However,lor _ HiuduJ.......
Importanlly .ba.....lhe .. paration of 1levenue and Devat_m depart-
......... _. Iiltle while they were .tiIl ...oIuclcd from some road. and
public bulldinp, hacSonly a hancl£ulor tuen in lhe lIovemment .. rvice,
and we... prolu'blkel from entering or appRIaCbinl! "tuple.. The o;vic
RJlblS Leap. however, had drawn a number of .ducatod .h .."as inco
the &"IItcelpetiriooinl of ltalo-l...,1 politics in Tra"ancore. One lOCh
IIWI ..... T K Madhavan (1885-1930).who Wat 10 eqin eer a mIlCh _.
"lloroOl ... ault on the "ivil dioabiJilia of Eoha_. especially th. _
pIIiog or all to lhe ed"".led. proopero... and ...... pectable..: Ihe prohibi-
tion apin.t entering lemple•.
AIiMlioIl4l StttJIID
T K Madha"an was a soocI mpl. of th. khava edu... ted elile.
H. Will born i"l885 into one or the althy matrilineal joint Camili.. of
ccntrll Tra"""..,,,,; hillCalhercame from anolh.r. The ... 1OI1Iive T.,."",,,
core ocbool.,.._ allowed him 10 lake bis primary educallon cbe CO
hOIDe. H. allomled high .chool in the aurby lown of Mavelikara, and
eventaally matriculated from .. Roman Catholic biah ochool in Q.uibt.
Hill .chaol esperiuees Impressed. Oil him the disabmti.. of Eohay... d...
abilities whieh he laiC' .... lised were .hared by .h."ao tbrllDghoat the
",Ie: "My companion on my daily Irip!D and from the ocbool wu. Nair

straight lions .U the _do.

boy... whooe poor mother was .. d.pendent of GUn_ He coulcl ...
wb..... I, in OpilO of beins ....... micaJly
beller olr, had 10 lea"e the road .very now ucI theD [Io.void polluli",
ca".-Hinclus). ThIJ _d 1Dcal ""'0 the quidt", ••
Belbre he was 20 he wo. Inwlved in IOcUdaKai... orgalll.ins and
'peaking 10 E.ba.... in central T .. ""ntO.... and actmll as an Enlllish
translator for Ezhav.. notable. .,"ndin&: the repretenlative ....... bly in
TrivllIldtum. He come mtcIerthe iuS".nee or Sri Narayana Guru aocl the
SNDP YoS"", Ihe Eobava e.. le lIIIIOCialion, alld worked lor the YapID
 TBMPlJl.I!!IT.R.Y MOVEMBNT IN 1'.R.AVII!«lORIl IS

&om 1914. In th. "Bowing year b. foaaded ,b. no... pa..... [),$Whi1twl;
to p.mlicise BIohaYapie¥an_ and ae~ ....o... "
Madhav ... •• e:oporiencowith th. Ciyi. Right. League probably
iDllueooecl blo views on how E.ha"u ohould ......... lOrthe atlai_t
of their c:ivil,..b... In .be CMc Rish.. Leap. the, had been \lied
chiefly AI an addiliooal IDciaI ca....,ry to boble. Ibe argumenll of
educated Syrian Chriolia",. Madhavan ""W that this aDian.. with the
Syrian Chriotian elite wu _ the only one open 10 cd"".ted Ezha"...
Inde.d, it wall perbapo nol even the """" cle8irablo,for Cbriatiana did .nol
rule Travonoore; OUII>·Siadllldid thai. Madhavan lurned.way &om lite
Cbrislian allionce, ami otreaaed the ... ed ForE.havu 10 wiD the """pera'
lion of edw:aaed, pro.-u"e cute-Simi... Such oupporl, he argood,
would dam_Ie the chaoging lil1lO1and """'" the fIOverllatelil 10
abolish ,h. old dilllbillti... The riI. to prominence or Gandhi and .he
Gandblan abic lready aided Madh.".o in his punuil o(the new lII1"atetlY.
fOrhundr.ds of ... te-Hind... ,"",,"red Gandhi and loolom fo. a _y to
panicipate In hill c_paigna.··
Madhavan 6... raiocd lheq_ion of u.mpJe entry in an edilorial
in D..... liimcaoiinDec:cm ..... 1917. Th"isme was diacuseedat meetings of
the SNDP Yogam and the Tray.noo,. .... mbly over the """I Ihree ye..n,
.nd Madhavan hma. inuoduoed rooolulioDl.. Uiog for lempl.. enlry and
recogni.ion ofEzhava" l1alao as r.. pecto.hIe COSIo-Hindus. Taking "01"
<>f the non·cooperation movemenl ill British India. h.begao to ad..... 1I>
_ di..:o.methods, and thraalened .bl BIoh.y.. woaId arhi ...arily _
_.t.clote 10 tempi•• , and 00"" lemple. 10 worship. III Novembe~ 1920
he himself wenl beyond ,be reo.rictive notice hoanl. on a road DCar tile
Vaillom 'e"'ple in north Tray.nco .. , and announced this 10 the district
masinrale '0 dctnOllltrate the Ilupldily of lhe law: "I am an E<tbova by
cule. J came 10 Vaiko", toclay and .... ne te 'he temple he..:. pall the
notice board posted on the road."··
NaMIrM G811dM'S ..thief
..... pJcoentry q.... llon Ii_ted .b.......hout'b. 6m nino
_,hiTbe
of 1921,u tho _pc ... lio.. moVtlDaftlboiled in Brilish lnd;'.
Madhavan and hi, lapporlOtl IooIt: .. mpl try preparanda into ,h•
.;llqoI of cenlral ad ""nh TravanCOIe, d their meelin.. provoked
counl es-dc!""""tra.ioo. from orlhodox H"mdas. The ........ armed poliee
....... alertecl.o prevent riots." The Maharaja of Trayaoco... was tbe
64-yo......ld Sri Moolam Thiruoal, .... lIocdacated in Enllli.h, yot a simple
... d devoul co......... IIve. who had ruled liuce 1885, the year or Madh..
y..... birth. AI long .. Sri Moolam Thiru.al w.. on the gadd! ther. _
no q_tIon of.be tempI.. boi.opened (0 all casl... AI the .am. time,
British "'_'_", which mighl bave put pressure 011 Tra"._" 10

t. --=
liberalize ilO politi... eauPt up in the nOll-eoopero.lion_
and .... prepa.ed 10 beli.ve th•• any agi.ation III a princely ... te w..
oeditious. Moreover, ill 1'r_ luelt, memben or the Bahava .lit. in
...
14 SOClAL SClBN"nST

1..ni.. .ought to keep die ra""ur of th. Maha,y. and

th. 11""....,......
repudiated Maliba" ..... bdigmoot .Ilk ol'f'orcible temple CIltry.'·
Clc>nfnmted wilb a situation in .. bich .... oy _iDeI>t Ezba" ..
wete not prepa",d to offeDd • 1""............Ibat W&I moderately soocl to
Ibem. Madhavan .. tutely 10' DO' to build b.. own IUppon by broadcoing
th. baoe of It.. cam""ign. In doiDc 10. be _ takinl lb. 6nt .tep -.....
traDlliormi"l ma .., B.hav .. inlO lb. moll rad.eal political ""nic:iPlill" in
IbeSlate.
When Gandhi Came 10 _,It India .11 1921, M.dha ..... _ ..oged 10
.. ,anI" wilb bim at Ti" ... veny &Dd go, biI bleosiDg Ii>r an
an intervi£w
agitation for temple e"try in Trav ... core. "I would .... you." Gandbi
began. "to dso>p temple CIltryJlO.. and begin with pobU. weUa. Then yo"
may go to public zebmJ. " Madhavan qulddy ...... Ied him: "You ......
'0 lIIiI.okc our position in IOCicty for lOMCIbing aDOlogous 10 lb •• of
Pancham .. in Brillsh IDdi•• Except haIr. dozen ............ 11pobll. oc:bool.
in Ibis Ilata are opeD 10 \II..... Gandhi rcplW: "You are ripe roo temple
entry then." He odvbed Madhavan "to offer civil dbobedlenee. Yon must
en",. te...pI...... d _ .mprbonmen! if law bllericla." Thit _ a
...atter. GaDdbi .. ured him. tba! tbe Koral a Provincial CloI>greu Colli'

V_m~.
mittee (KPCC} should toke np.·' Th. Inte", .. and approval 0( aandbi
.... a powerful weapon for Madhavan to ..... not OIIly IIIIIOnIlbit ... Iemen
but amonll educa"'d .aste·Hind ....

Madhavan" iDtotview came. bnwe_... the Moplab rebellion "II

nreepinl the IOUthern balf of Malabar DI .. riCl. The ",bellion WII popo.
lorly bllmed OD the .. ti"itieo of the Cong.ao in arOlllinll Ibe "".010111 0(
illiter.'" Muslim peal I, wu two yean bd'ore Malayalit I"nora11y,
and Mal.ym Con"", especially. began to recover I'roRI ita elfecll.
In D.... mber 1923 Madha ..... attended tho Kakinocla ICOIion
of the Indian Nalional 00...... which wu important in having a red..•
lion Cltabl .. hing a commiltee on anlOochability adopted. In Janu • .,. 1924
the KPOO, _rcbing Ibr ;0 ".'1' 10 .... bUIb itlOll after ,he .. ,b""k or
Ibe .....beIlion mel IJI Ernatul.... and cboIe K Kdappan. a Malabar
N.ir who bad 1NOrkedi.. Trava .._ JIIld been the 6n! president
of the Nolr Service Sac:iety the...... as _nor of an antiUDlO1Ichability
committee." "
Tho road. arooDd the pat Si". ,,,,,,pie
at Vol...... in norm
Travancore ....., cloSed 10_ .... Hind ... , .. were the road. ne.. mDll
,empl ... Vailoclm, ""_, bad the advantage of ouy communications by
hoa, and road with the neighbouring princely IIOte of Cochin. wilb Ibe
or
enclave Britilb Oochia. and witb die Sbertall.i pcninoola ........ the
backwater. whue an Ez\Ia" .. workiD. dOlI bad pown up around lhe
col. ind... .,.. Madbavan WOI a .kiIIed propapnclbt who appreciated
'lICb ad."n' .....
To appeal 10 u broad a ... tioa of CIItc·Hind.. al poIIlble. tbe
 TI!MPLE-I!HTIlY MOVEMENT IN 'J'RAVANOOaB 15

d.,.,.nd at Vaik_ w.. not for "''''pie enby. but for tile right of ........
Hind .. to we the road. near the tempi.. The orthod.... however, went
to ... this correctly, as tile thin end of til. wedge. Under the leadership
of K P Keaa". Menon. a Malabar Nair wOO was president 01 the KPCC
and editor of lb.n.... paper Mllllmljfwmi. a oaty.,-.ha w.. p1"""ed to
begin on SOMarch 1924. On that day. Ko!tava MeDOn announced. he
would Violatethe law by 'pproachi"lllb. tempi. in the company of ........
HiDdul. Four day. beJ"ore the satyagrab. was to 'Iart, me district "'agio-
trale inBtruc:lcd the police 10SOlup picke.. to bar aIM'..... frDlll uting tho
_ple roads;bi•• tated ";m was to prevenl clasb.. between the .alyagrahis
and angry ortllodo>: Bind .... ••
On 30 March a Nait, &II Eoha". ""d a Pula, .. "drt:lled in Khad-
dar unifonm and .... landed, .. and follo...,d by a crowd of "thousand."
attempted to _ lb. road•• They were _topped by tb. poDc. and ...... ted;
.he .now.! disponed. having bee.. told that thil pmced .... would bo
"'pealed each morniDI until 10",c............ permitted ., use the road••••
The three volunl.... were _tenced., oj", 1IIOIItht',imple imprilonm.nt
when they .........d to post bonds for good bebavlour. The Vai10m latya-
llraha, no Iruly glorious6.lbl," no HiIu/. oorre.opondenlwrote. "10 estab-
or
lish the dignity lIIan and bis right off_ mo_ •." had bepn.' '. II
was 10 last (or 20 month••
One can identify Ii...llagel in 111..Ion, campaign:
1 Th. fint began on SO Much 1924 when lhe three initial
volun_n were ... relled. The rimal or $atyall'"aba and anest continued
unlill0 April when the government decid.d ... _Ito no IDOream:et ..
2 Il18tead.tbe police barricaded the roads again.t tbe •• I)I8Irahie.
who At before the barricad ••• fa....d and sang patriotic IOD,'. This period
of aoilcmen' luted FromApril to September. Vaikom commanded aU.
India attenlion. Gandbi advised the volante ... qn their methods 01
•• tyap •• C Rajagopalacbari and E V Ram.lwami Naicker came 10
Vaibm to oft"cr advice, and cult>Hindu. 1ollis"ed auaca by Ihugo 00
the ......un......
3 In Ausual, bo_, the old Maharaja died. His .aee ..... r wu
• young Mabarani Repnt who Iml1ledlalelyrel.... d the 19 satyacrabiJ
Impriooned io April. A third.... began, 10 which ,b. .a'rap. al
Vaimm coot1oued politely but tb. moot public= activity was elsewhere.
Two .;al"'" of cute-Hindu. marched through tbe Iiale 10 demonstrate
IUpport (or til. demand. of Ibe aat)'llll'"u;, and ... Iymboli.. Ihe alliance
witb the ... ",·Hindu middle c.... which Madhavan IOlIjht to form. A
or
.... olution calling for lhe opening roads .." ....d Ih. temp'" wal in_
duced in the Travancorc IcgislaJi.e couneil in October. It _ February
1925 before it came toa VOle,and then il was defeated by a UDgle _.
all tile 08ic:ia1 _ben oppooing it.
4- o...dh:i·. visit to the ltale in Marcb 1925marltc:d .he (01Irth
otage. H. talhd 10 all partia, bUI the only arr...,.ment he w" able to
 SOCIAL SCIl!.NTlST
make _ for 'he withdrawal of the police par,ieI aDd barrioadea on tbe
unde.,..,ndina ,ha, the la'Y"",*"ia would nOt enter the forbidden ... "el,.
5 The fifth .,ag". a period of _iIIg illl."'"I, IasIed Ubtil
Novembu 1925wheJltbe 10_D""'o' ooIDPlcteddi.enion_ry road, tha,
could be 1IS<d by ,he low e•• t.. without pollUtingthe lemple. Only _ few
I"".. remained c10ltd 10 loW •• ''fl. on 25 November I~. th.tast
,,'y&grabi wu witiJdnlWII.··
To bave ."".ined IIUCb,. eompaip for 20 month. was a rem...
table achleve_nt. AI'hODgb.he outcome .... 1I00.... ' .. ul••• the propa'
ganda value for Madba.",,·. caw. wu immense. PtOm where did the
IUpport come? Oltbe 19 me" who "",re oonvic",d in the &rot pIwe. only
...... ,..,.. .&omTr."."cor •• and only one of these-Modbavan hl..... lf-
_. a" """"'. HiLdu. Th. leaden who bpt the campaicn png we..
00,,1"'''''''.'' ud N.in, notably K KeI.ppan ."d K P K..... Menon.
Mannatll P.d_lIahb. Pillai (Mannm), ,be general secretary of the Nair
Ser.ice Soci.ty. led ene of the ... t...Hi"du jatha s,•• Cbn'tiaDo. however,
had been toured on the .amp.iln in April 1924 when Gaadhi inotruetcd
Ille Syrian Chri.lia" OOllI",,,mln. GeorgeJ-ph. to I.... th••• tyagr.h.
ovicely 10 HiDdus.··
For Ool1greosmenfrom Malabar. the e.."paisn P"" an opportunity
to .... i"., a Conpno that had .u8'ered ..... re .etback willl the Moplah
nbeW.n or 1921. F TraVlO""ore N.in. like Malla.,h Padmanabh.
Pillai. _",. Hind we'" pDlmtial junior .lIi•• in Ille eompetitlon with
Christi""o for laud. jc.b. and control of th. I.gill •• ute and IOvernmeno
service. Di.ahilili .. enforoed og..inlll •.,.",. Hi"dul OIIly increased Ihc
ponibililY of their converting to Christianity. Only a oonaolida"'d Hindu
c:otnDl.... ity could o.. nd agllnl' lb. growing wealth of Christian merchants
and CMho-crop r.fmell in Cfnual aDd north TravaDcore.lI•
Th. allempUlo forRe.a'IOiledfron. Oflhe_"", and ..... -Hindu
middle cl_ reached a peak in Ma~ 1924when" Iarg" joint _ting of
.he SNDP Yogam ond the Koral. N.ir Samajam W&I held near Vaikom
IG support the latylgrabL II WI., IctordinS to ill IUpporteD, Uthe mo.t
iDapimi SpeClacle.vcr wi....... d ill Tnlvanco ..... atlended by about
1$,000 penp!e... lh. hugest pthering ...... r .... mbled in Tr .."anoore...••
Bven if 'his was .rue, tb. _ling clearly .I>ow.d tb. dilli,u1o.. of Irying
10 unit. aU Nair. on a ""I<wide buis. Tho,e ..aristoc....tic.. Nair (.... iliet
or lO1I.bTr.vaneo .. , who had. long h.ld Ihe _i ...niobes in the govern-
_nl and tbe belt cbannel.1O the palaee, stayed away r""" the ('Onfer'
eeee; Th. r._n ..... 0Ie one of Ihei. 1I.lInhet. was thai ",any dilapprovl'd.
or f.sr .....
tho ••• al VaikOlll and or the participation of non·Travan-
_nO in Tea"ancore polit.it:o.H. poin"'d ou, that tbe mired Tea•• n·
eo... ollicial who wao to ha.. pteMdcd o•• r the meeting had withdrawn
in protelll ud had 10b... plated by a vatil (lawyer) from Calicut in
Malabar DistriCL"
ean. ibr .he abolition or cute, ",·hieb wete rrpea&td with incrC'asil1l
 TI!.MPLSoENTilY MOVEMENT IN TRAVANCORE 17

illlillence durinS the "!yRI"""', ofFendedaad &ighl.... d lhe OIthodox.

One cast...Hindu wrote:
People do nol objcci 10 anociating wi,b Thiyao of the ~a ... n
type-deall and cahivated-bul it will wanl Ii lot or time and
patio..... for lIS 10 miDgle wilb lhe un_bed Tlli,., who carries
about bia PO""" liv. crabs ond a pol ohoddy, aDd .. ho &om time
immemorial bas bad 10.tlnd out of the way of the hieher coste
people •••What ia 10 he the olld of it all? Crealinll ond rorllinuing
oppooitioo will _aft in retarded Pros..... or .eto.m alld if poni••od
in wiD lead 10 BobIJoviomand bloocbbecl.··
Cbriatia.... moreover, were ofFendedby aandbi'. han 011 the,r Ill:i", part
in the _1IIODt, and were qllicl: to po.. r Korn on the loudly proc;Jairnecl
uaily oCNain and BabaVu. '~TheinteralS of the two eornmunitj., It a
Christian: wrote', "are Dot the same. Jt Lib orthoclos Hindu. he too
deploml the IalI: "f inter ..... rlag< wbkb oome YOII", men.IId women
IlIiIIl: "will bri0ll .1I.ut tho BDI.y Cor whieb their leaden arc ItriVinaJ
hard.I' ••
M.. ru_FAds
Tbtte wore also doub.. about lbe commillDen. of Slh"vat 10 .he
loacImhipand ",elbod. ofthelndllm National C.......... Madba ... n, to
he lUre, was convinced, and be was capable of rallyi.. linancial supPort
from _ of tho bill .BzIutva famili.. io bi. own locality 10. central
Trav.neare. The SNDP Yopm air.> OIpreII.d ita appro,," of Iho <Bm.
paillo. However. the facl remained lhal IlIel.. ding &alyagrahi. woorecu'e.
Hind .... many of them from Brilish India. Feari.. ...,,"urion, Em .....
from the neighbourhood of Vailoom_r •• el".tan, 10 _iale lI1e..,..I"".
wilh the IB'Y"I,aha.·· Moreo.e., Sri Narayana Guru, lb. holy man
around .,hom lb. SNDP Yogam was organised and whose repu.. tion
accountnl. for Ihe Yog"m'. influoneoam.nll Iho"taod. of poor Ema_.
bad lilll. entlnuiOl'" for (landhioa methods. In June 1924 an Eolia...
journalisl c... ted a furore by publisbi.. the oonlen' of an informal een-
wnation with .be pm. Sri Narayan. held .hal "Ibe volunteers .'Mdilll
oallid.e the barrien In h.... y rains will .erve no ",et ..1 purpaoe. " They
mould ocde over lbe barriead.. and nOIonly walk ,dong Ihe prohibited
"""'" but '.1Or all tempi..... IIshould he mad. practically impoosiblc
Cor anyone to ob.....,,, nnlOuch..bility.... ' aandhiaos w..... appalkd a' tbi•
•ugpotod b",ach of non.violen.... and by lale Juno, Sri Naray.... bacl
written 10 Gandhi 10 Ulur. him Ihal there bad boon misreport;"1 and
",bundorlmnding: "I have no objeclion whal""",,,,' to the satyasraha
"",vomen, started by Mahatma G;mdhi 10 1iJb' Ihll evil nor '0 the
cooperation ofpoople in Ihat _""",."t. Any melbad ofworlc thaI may
be adopIed Ibr eradicotinll the evilof unlouchability ""'" he liriedy .-.
violnlt. '1.1
However, when G.ftdbi caQJe 10 TraVllneoroin March 1925. he
aDd the pro lOOnfODndIbat thote _ on. boly man '00 many in ~
18

state. Gandhi took j.ue with Sri Narayana'! mottO, u'One caste,. one
religion, Due God." "hile Ibe su,u told G....cJhilhal "he .. as not a
believer in non"violence in asitatiolUl for ftlDOVWS locial dilabili1ies and
that •• .he _ .",,10111 to ••• me fOl bis community by ''!l' method, social
equality. " with ·Hindus including temple entry and admission to
.aste-Mmdu ho •.. • Gandhi _ .aid eventually to haye ~nuacled
the gUrU of the need for non·viol...... yet sucb .. cOllCOSllon can only bave
been snulgiPB.
'l'be sa,yas;taha. _ reover. produced a good deal of militant
mOlOri.. One ouch .oice "as thai of It Aiyappan (I889-J968). the IOnof
an ayurvcdic doctor in Cocbin. a graduate of tbe Trivandrum college ....cJ
a diJec:tor of the SNDP Yopm. "JUStas the ..... iaD. managed to obtlin

E.h..... _tl:....
hedom by puttil1l11n .nd to their royal family." be told a ..... ling of
2000 ~ople In the tou8b, coir town of SberilUai. "00 tbe
abo mllit llabt to the very .nd without caring [for) th. JWII or
dte sepoy., batoDJ of the polic:c or even the M.har.ja ... '··... It was not
lurprioiIIl Iba. the oIiclau"I Dewan. IUl .Iderly T....n Brahmin. found
"_st of tbe .aty .... his imbued with .troDg ideas of """" fonD of com·
mu"; ..... They very ofIon bepn to talk of Ibe .qual rigb.. oh"oo .....
TIll A,/'tmIuJIII
The Vailam slayqraha beRan to poin, up class divisions. full of
political po'.ntial. evon amonll Ellhavas. Jath&l aDd fund·raison carried
...... of the satyoara!ta and the p ........ or Ezhavaa 10 th. nmot." viJla..
SOl af Tra" • neere, ".vioUiIy. lb. omall Ellhava middle claa. relying on
ill Idmmon in tbe yillasa Bnd the dewtioh of..... iOit_1e E"".&I to
Sri Narayana Guru. could claim coa'rinci1lSIy10.peak for ",h. Eob.......
From tho lime of Vllikom. ho_. thellery .ocboa of ¥t1... like Aiy-po
pan bec.me more licquont. and doub.. gr;:w _0Il poor yet Ii te
Eobavas ahotU wbeoherlbe risbt to """ temple _dl. or ..... 'emple ry
i""lf. held any IOllltion10 their probIerat. The ... ,y........ arowed the
in..... , of ohoIuandl in 'be abolition or their dilabiltiiel. yet·tbe re""lta of
the oampaiS" '"'" few. What &uill the~ ........ "'" in the obape of
DUtwx'y for middle·..... lead.... The ,0n.raI ...,..,tary of ,be SNDP
Yopm. for_pie, was takeninto tbe government sc,..;ee.as a judse.··
Nor .. e•• ohe me,hod. of du, Indian Nalional CO.............. ialIy ill em-
phasl. on prohibition ••• lcalat.d to appoaJ to the largo number of EzhaY&l
whose livelihood aad pie_RIte ort... la, In loddy and arrack. G....cJhi
commcDted waspishlyon the rac. tha, 'he Travancme r... n.... dRW RI
27 IIIduI &om the abbri trade."
Evon ...... DSIh. IID&II Eobava middle ...... tbe~ wu disagree-
ment ahout how th. ripll of •.... po.t.ble'· citi..... ..... to he woo.
Madhavan himocIt was committed to the ulO... kririzInS" way-otbndoK
HInduism. prohIhitioo. ,emple onuy and aaoociatioowith .... ,o-Hind". and
,be l..dian Natioaal Coal.... Bat ther. w... long lradition alDllDg Bzh..
""" oftlirtatloo wllb Christian mioolonarla. and .. Itw thousand Eoha...
 'l'BM~IN1'RY MOVBMENT IN TRAVAHOOIlB 19

'had ..,n_leellO Cbrilliaoity." By lhe 1920., convenioD 10 Bucldhiom

__ aloobeins a'll_ as a _y or"""'ping from the dilabilitiee ."forced
apiDJt 1IIIIIIII4 Hiudus lD Travaocore.·'
In the aftermatb or Vailmm, however, Madb ...... "lOwe.[eel]
above Ilia immediate IlOJItem...... ries."·· aDd;" 1927be became the geaeral
IeCtewy of ,be SNDP ""lam. FoIlowiDg the ezample or !be Iadiao
Nadanal 0 ........... be conceotrated on _benblp aDd 1oca1orpIIllatlcm.
Wltbln 18 mcmtbohe 'had incre.llld the membenbip J\ooaI 4200 to 50.000
orpa.isecl ;"10 2" branch ... • I He promoted Vaikol1Htyle .aty.... u...
;" cooperation. with _lO-HiDdlll. fOl" the _ or_pie I"OIIdo io other 10"".
;" Tra_ YO Ho,",_, by the lillieor Mallba".n'. death from Inbe..
cnloIiIln 1930....... HiDdm lIOCIDed little .lOrcr 10 lemple e"lry. Tbe
aIIia_ with Illidclle..,lMIcuce-HiDdUl, whicb bad bee. pt<*cutecl for 10
yean IUld.... iRteIIdecI to _It the beara of the 0I"1hodmc aIId wiR ""er
!be Tny_~..-t, bad producocI f.... concn'" .... ulu.~ late
.. 1936, iD addition 10 alilbe temp1eo admioillercd by govermaent, tbore
"",.. .tiD II miles aod 778 f.. , of road clooecl to _"'" Hind... .. well ..
21 traveller', bllaplowl. yO
Joirrl PolilWl CmIgrIu
The Traubco,.. gover1IDICIlt had a...,.ed _anlly tbat therecould
be no ",... pIe CIltry while there .... oppolitioD from orthodox_Hi"du.
The Mah.ram Regent, who go_ned tbe .lale (rom 1924 10 1931, w..
felt 10be ,ympathClie>to lhe de_neil or __ Hindus.but it w.. uid Ib,
her handa were tied." The ""'Ie-Hindu jatbaa tbot croacd tbe ltate
during Ihe Valkom .. tyagraha had lbown the suppon which Madh .... n
or
ead biJ follo.... 11 could wiR &om ... tioDI tho castc-Hinelu lllitldle cluB.
Yet .hi, .... obriouoly nol enough. Althousb .. late III 1930, Manaaln
Padmanabha Pillai, In" ...... ral ...... Iary or lhe Nair Service Society, told
a meelinl Iba. be himaclf would belp iD formiol Ezhava volunteer corp.
10 enter templea by forco, tho alii..... wllb _lion. or tbe _·H",du
middle c'_ IkIwIyerumbled arl.. Madhavan', d.. lh. Ralher Iban au_pt
to ....mDce ... _. of ."Ie-HiD® .apport, younlet E.byaleaden
DOW bcsan 10 lar" .owatda lb. al!lrioyeel Cbrioll." mitld~ c1..... an<!
_rda agitatioa. deliped to prove their politicalllb'eftllb. "Tb. <enlre
or pavity". G«nao J-pb .... I.ter 10wrile. ''lias moved from Ih. ca.ste-
HiRd... to Quilli ..... Ezbavu .acI M ... lim.. "··
Gandhi', baa 011 ChriitiaD parlicipat"'. i. lite Vaikom .. IY_SrU.
bad done m... h to lOUr th.Chriition micldlocl_on the Indian Notioool
CloD aDd ;11 programma inTraYanconr. The 00 ........ appeared too
...... h ·HiDda O'lIRDu..Iion, d Chrislianl In Traua ............
ba""" dilliculty enough .. lib a .aot Hiodu Slate WhiclJ",emeelintent 011
denyb'l them political and ""ewti'IIC power comDlllllllll"&tewilh their
commercial and ecoaomic power.
la 1931 lb. YOUIIIMaharaja came 10 Ih. pddi, ADei power o•• r
'he stale'. adlDlniBtration pweel Iarcely into tbe hoacloof bis mocbor,
 20 SOCIAL SClIINTIST

tho JUDior Mabarui, aDd bet frioad ""d """&don",, Sir C P RamasWlUlll
Aiyar. tho Madru lawyer aDd poUIic:iaD,.. 110 came 10 th" otate ..
"_litulioaal .......... Both _... '''''DohHiadu.. The Christi...
throal 10 the cbana_ of" Wlndu lIale could. ;n Ram_omi Alyv'1
view, be __
withoUI diatiDClioQor e_. Throwiq opel! the ..".,...._
the right _I
_pie.
by IllliIiDg all HiDdus iDIDa IliDIlIe,de"",,'_UIlitr

could be " vital''''P ill ,bIa 1>10'" 01' _lid.dOll."

a'

III 1932 tho Tr_ govermaml IlIcroduoed." klas-awaltecl

_1.I,ulIoDal reIbnII, or which lWuowami Attar _ aDdoubtcdly the
a..:biteCl. However, ;"lIead oflba Ilew political oppommiticllOr wIdcb
the CluisliaD middIo claueo boped, the lleW ayllCm relaiDed a property-
'"'" hacbloehigh _lib 10 pl'<$etVe the 1IDJ)I'eII)&ey or ca.IC·HindU.
IlItheloglolawrc." InJauuary 19S5 lbe Icprcoentlllive.oI' 12 Christian,
Elba"" aad MUIIim orpni •• tio... fonllod th. JoiDt Politi... Oongreooto
boyoott: the elecliolll to the _legiS1atUI'C aDd to demand reptaenllltiOll
proportionate 10 CCIIIlIINDity namben III th. J.esiola_ and ...,er"moot
.. ",ice. POI' th. _I liv. yoan. poIilico in the Itat.. w.. paIaIbed
in"'lIICty be_a .... ' ...Hindus and tho Joiot Political 00......... The
leodilll Ezbav. IICWIpaper diamioHd 'usgoolionl or Hiadu unily ..
• "."'pllal "the eapioitalioD DCth. Eollav. community for lbe maiD"' ....
aoce or easler-Hiedu :tUpremacy~n.,.
'1"411"'" CommaII~)"
Allbaulb .he govon!"",nt _ able 10wiD over Ezbava leaden, ,Iuo
SNDP Yogam tell ill'" I"" bando or
"a few "';'guided Bzhava 1011111
_.'"" They _d th. OIpDizatiOll 10 proP'P" i"""';lIIIy radical
doctrlaoo. "The Nain arc makinlllllOllkey. or the Boba"..... 0 ~vao
(UI91-1969). che new ....... I.ocrctary. told a _Imll in 1983. "We wanl
adall .d....... We are 1101Hindu .... ReD_eo Ihiz Hiadui .........
lteoa¥an, like blo COIlI.... po.. .,. Aiyappa!l. _ a good example of
th. pawiUS D_""" Of oducalod E...... who.. rhetoric Wao becoming
iocratlUS1y mili.... l. Neither be nor Aiyappall joined the Oommuoilt
Party after ill _b!llbmelll III Traftaco... ja 1940. bill they __ iD
~7"'patby with mao, of ill mombe... ""d their apeec ..... iD the 1990. Ufto
doubtodly propelled yDUDll worldng<lata Ezba_ ill ill dltectioll. IIoIb
~vao and Aiyapplll ca"," lram larsc. hlllDble familics, aad were ill
their late 201before tbey _ able 10 COmplete their BA deJICCI.Both
IIad brief poriodo ulellCbenilltbe IID""'DlIWlllCIVico IIdOre they reoIped.
Kco.van IDcilIlaw and Aiyappaa 10 become II("l1-lImejo>urll&lisl •• I
Thcrcw ... recepti.... audiem:ofor radicalopoocba. The ooir lodaoDy•
.. bleb from ehe 1880sbad reJeDda&lydraped tbo..-.l. ofEIII"va famp;.
iDlOa euh OCOaoDlY IIld broughl """,y or them a moda, improve", ...
in their UVinl lIlIIod.... collapood with tbe deprclfioa. AboIIl 125,000
people were directly."PFl in tbe iDd.. rry in 19S1, 7200 of tllem in
primitive tactory eoaditiolll in Alleppey aDd tho Sbertalloi pooiDsIda."
ExporII or colt yana, • eotta.. iDd",try emJllallia, Ihomaodo of l-dtava
 TBM.I.B-BNTRY MOVIIMBNT IN TRAVANOOlUl 21

women, foll;o value from RIo 1251ak .. in 1924-510 R.64la.h.;n 1932·3.

The ezpot1 value of co;. mall aDd matlinllll prod ...... io the faclorieo
8IOIIIIdAlJ.,ppey dropped hm Ro 90 1aIdu in 1927·8 10 RIo 70 lalda in
1932-3." Wo"",_ CIItby .. ",,,,,h .. 75 per cont." The men thrown
Ollt of _rk or _mls lIorvalion ..... """'" liler.lt. Molo UI.... .".
among Eobav...... 43 per COIIt In 1931, and one AUeppey CaclOry owner
,,,,,,,,,,ltd
thal "oar laboouen are ",ach ,_., edacaltd than those Ia
Jlrillsb India. Molt e r tbem are able 10 read ... d even edit """'"PAper ••
Many of !held deli_ tpleodld loct....... Some of them aro _ ahle 10
"""'pose beo.ulital poemII in Malayalala."" Tb. new ....sical Ieadeoobip
of the SNDP YOiam ~ ._llbe _rten, andjoioed the laboaren'
deIIIa.do for imp.o.ai condidons 10 th. miclcllec:laues' call fur poHlical
power ... d recogoition of lbeir ...... pec:table'. statuI. When there woo a
Illite of eolr _rten io AIJeppey io 1933, alROllg the slop _,

were IWI Brlba_; hal they ..- .,,""'nl.,.lo

allO """,ken.
.b.
HDto11OY tb. Nain, deftroy Nair rul., destroy c.pil.li ..... ".. Th men
foct lb.. they were

The two die_the iolquity of ooeial dilabIUti ..... d tb. pow-

ing el... ClOPlcio",n .. -were hrought IOlI"ther io a Malayalam book
wrinmln 1934. The aulhor, B Madha .. n, born in 1905..... &1l Bob....
OfVaitOlll, who had lUldied up to malriculalion ... d been;nwlvad. io the
SNDP Yogam r_ bil youlb. Tho boo" s...u...1_.~ ("AD Indo-
peDdenI Comlllun;ty"), caUed ror Boba_ 10 abandon oil religious ..
equally false. "Rigbt lip to lb. p........1day, ITligioD h.. nol b.... ahle 10
beoeJit man." Madhavan wrole. Nair., lbe devo of HindlllslD, ••ood
between Ezba" .. and their logitimale righu. and ,hOle Noin who
hod oft'ered lup..,rl darl.,. dieVaikom .. y..... h. hod do". 110only for
.elfish end.. EzhavOl bad DO aeed of a rcUgIon thai ofFered them only
disadvantages and deb_mOIl t, In ,b... days of depreu;on and tlDcmploy.
mont, h.coolinued, only the people of R.... ia ....re .aling well; only io
atuaia had religion b~1l abolished. Tbe 20 photos ill 'he book included
T K Madhavan, 0 Kesavan, K Aiyappan. Jawah.rlal rkhru and M It
Gaaldbl; bul Ibe last .... a pIe,ure DCLenin.'·
MillSC._siMI TIl"'"
The E.hava middle cia .. yearned for acceJIWICe as casIe·Hindus.
Adcni.. loll 10 ,.... spmp'" oCtb. Mah.~a would lDar" the ulUmate
"symbolic cooveniotl of wealth into honour." To achieve tbls end, Bobava
lead ... we... ready 10 gM wbalewr leverage WOI avolloble 10 force lhe
..,.,.,,,,,,"1'1band. Allhough R.mas....,,; Aiy.. undoublebly .... th.
political adYan,.. of opeD;"g lb.'empl ••, be did not II>_U_ bim.
""If into lb. de.. anshlp Wlti11936. and lbe Dew.os rroDlI932 10 1936were
• European and a Mwlim, neither of w.... '" could safelyIIlIke ;""OV&tio".
reprcliac Hiadll tompIeo. II T...... _, morco_, an -aerated f_ of
• vIolcot ruction hm orthodM: ... ",.Hlnda. If ~ teldplcs __
opened. In Nov.... her 1932 the Travancore pero_n, appointed a
 SOCIAL SClBNTIST

T.mpl. Eatry EDquiry Committee which toOl: mo... then II ye... to ~t

ilSreport. It did DOt came out Unequi_ally in raWOB'or openiDg the
_pia: "Tbero iIII ollOn. feelin • .....,.. s.... or
m .. ill ftnoour tatlple-
etltry heiDI allowed. At die __ time, it h.. to be ....... iIM thet thoe
Is considerable oppaoitioD from II I...... body of Sa........ on tile other
.ideo".. Go_t "'''I*'d ill ..... _ndatioDi to open _ 1OIIdt,
we1Js aod tanb to all•• teo, aocIlsoued the aDnoWlCOment the day beIbre
Gazulbi arrbed in the date on his H.n tour in Felmlary 1934,0·
Witb theJoiDt Political Con..... demanding oommllDaI repnlOnta-
IioD in til. Iee_turo on the basil of popuIalicm, and sllowills ill aIIiIity
to mate.a moc:kery or elecliOlll,kbaYII bepn to bold out the til_I 01
conoenion apinst the goverlllllDDt. AI til. police noted, "(lon..,nion
__ in"""...IIIthe lIambers or one commDaity ADd..... _ DOW
,"nd, political .,_ • From 19114to 1936 eal1.!lIr cosner-
sioa heca ... an ~ daily 0CCIl _ in lbeviaorouT .... an__ •
e alar prell.·· Buddhist, Mwlim aDd SiIdJ mll8ionarieo toured the ltat.
aDd JOWl. a few ..... vert •• BIlt the _ polCtlttbroet wu IItot or comre...
sioa to Cbriltianity. The leading ad..... I. __ a V KDnjuraman (1811-
1949)•• wily editor and "ull and lbe i'atber-in·Jaw ora Kaa..an. Wbe-
ther K ....jllramaa had any Intention or becollliujr IIChristian iI cIoubd'aI,
but b. wu ltICCOIII'ul in CORvin.iDsthe police, the ............... , and many
or th. Emopcan ........ or the Cbua Mission...,. Society that thalaado
of Elba ..as were about to renounce Hiadllilm.··
1M Pr«l!mIalioll
E1ecdoo< to the TrayanCOftOJcsiIlature were due in 1937. With the
Joint Political (long .... llkly tofollDwtb._ple afthe Indian National
(loagress in Britieh IouIia ad contest the eIe.tiono. government wao ClOD-
eemed to iooJatc the (lbriotian element ortb.
]PC. Throughout the 6nt
baltofl996. preuure in favour or terople cntry _n. caol...HiDd...
mounted; 10 too did con"...ion activity and the talt. or ...... convenioll oC
S..... v... On 8 October 1936Sir G P l'lam.. _mi AiyIW becam. Dewan.
ao<lon 12 November, the YOUI Maharaja'i birthday, a proclamation WAIl
ioauet1 which thn:w opeD ell the govemIDCIll tompla in the Iiale to all
Hiodus. llcJolclDg__ widespread, and oppooition 'ClUU.'·
FroIII the government's point or view, the procla_lion had many
of the deeiNd 0.11. The roovemcnt lb. _versioll ceaxd abruptly, and
tIIere were Itori.. of neont COD,,"rII re&UrtU"l to Hinduitm'·. The
JMOcIamation _n the praise of Gandhi, wbo vidted the da'" to take part
in temple-entry co:lebrations inJIUIUllry 1997. It aIon brou8ht dearly fond
aU-India publicitY lbt- Sir G P lta_atlli Aiyar, aDd pJoced Tra_..
ill ad.. _ DC British India in ottd> lUCia! matters. G V Kunjur.........
IJpityinl the atlitDde or the .Ider Bzb.".
middle cta., welcomed the
procJamatioD, banilb.d thoughts of converoiol> C_ Jail mind, a"'"
bepn to concern bimdF·witb the _nor in wblcb tho IIorIouo _t
.hould be commemorated."
 TBMPlJl.BNTI.Y MOVi!MBNT IN TRAVA:"CORJl, IS

EDtry 10temples. boweoer..... tar INm ool"int the problems or all

&ha..... E Madba""". liM' OOIe. ridicuIaI il.'· Bzba.... worm. oC Sberul-
Iai iDuDediately be.,... ""teriq temples in their "ciail~ the
.-' VAl""'" lemple. They relilled 10 abide by the dreu restriction. and
Msbteoed away the Brahmins." To allow me" i"lo a temple 10 081:.
foocJ 10 • pel .... small colllfort .. beD the? bad 1>0roocJ Ibr them",1va.
tn the loa, ruo. nen the Elba"" middle cIus did Dol fab lOIid1y
behind the ."_., .....,,t. It lon' much IUpport 10 the movemeat .aiast
Ibe Ram_ami Alya • ..",.rmaeat organized by the T ....,,_ Scate
COng in 1998. Oaly an.. the m_t had boon CI1IabecI did the
SNDPy aDd _t taIdcI!.o.claD Ezba ........ tIIo wllclom of joialall
with lhe Nair Service Society once apin 10 IDpport the .egi_. This they
did uatil imIopondellCeia IM7."
Rdkll.lidtlg ~
The __ Ids temple entry.rcwaled tltechansinc coaeept
of _ .. aad tbe -FtICO or claD .. au impartaDt "",dvad..
Travaacore politi... The
"tee
te roles onlbrced by. theoc.atic stale ,..."
in

IDte_ly S.w. to Iow-c n DeWI, edllCaeed In doctrillOll of merit

.Dd oquaIity. TboaJb in pre-Bririoh lim.. Ezho.... may ha... had little
._..... of tltClllSlllves.. a statowid. S-P. ,be _11 educated ad
pl'OIpen>IIIllJOY<!to buDd • political _UIlity 0111 of the rommOD
denoll>UIaton red by tho_ads of 11>00 callod .. Bzha"..... Ve, ia II".
proce .. , there palpablo c.... di.... ns omer,ina. divioion. Ibat were
.. _tuated .. ecoruuay .nd ftlctory .,Item Ijln:od within tbe
....... MidcI ...·claD Elba".. _,lit to be .potosa>en lOr their poorer
COO_I> and to use tlteir omabe" to IUpPO"' the claiml. ....... 10 thoir
own beaJu. f...equality In all spber .. of the l.alo·lliC •• V.rioDl ~
_ OpcD 10 thcr4: .w.o."" with Ihe Cbriltiao. lIliddle classes (or au
__ ult on roveramellt, alliance with the .... te-Hindu middle cJas...s II>
cajole concellioJII Iivm roverDJDent. COIlv.nioo 10 other OOtbs, or tlte
ad""cacy 0( .thcWn and radical chanro. Perhaps the lIlore militant
munes w,,", advocated cbielly to impIas the ...... _.; bUt such _
............. once ardculated by IIliddlo-cla.. leaders, (oWld • .....ptive
audience amons the lilentll &bay. workins c..... ~r. a diopute
mnoemiq temples and rcl;,iOll was probably .bo quietal way '0 iDterest
and involve tboUlands or tlto rural poor In agilational poIili<:s.
The diltiocuve ...... oC the princely II." contributed '0 the
IIlOYO_DIfor temple oo.ry as the aren. or British Iudia ... uId n..... ba....
do.... Th. dodJive C.Dtre 0( power-th. palace-was noa. at band•
....... bko. capabl. or boi.. .lDlMrr .... d. valncrablc. Mo_"... a
KalIauiya Maharaja, uolike the Bridoh IlaJ. could make tit. "oymbolic
_ ...nIon" acceptable and credible ... his caste·Hindu .ubjects. The fiue
of til. priDcely ..",.rnment was In many waY" bound up with the IUCC..
it might have In raUyiD,lto Hind.lIubj""" around it. In that ( ...... the
"ant of eempko OIItry was • valuable cud 10 play.
 soCIAL SCIBN'llST

Yet temple 0111<1 did lIot bring aboat the ... um1idation or the
Hindus jato .n orderly. pious _111""ity fOr whicb tho government had
bOPOd.ladeed ...... the HiDcIu middle cIau w.. on"", divided ea .. casto
bui.. ~. the middle ~I_orvulous ... mmunitie. were las and
I...able \0 _t on th. IDpport of all thdt ~ c... e kilo or to "';m
credibly that they alone were the opo"_on fOr men of their mlllllnity.
'lbe _t (or temple entry had introducled agltotlonal politico and

boo.
radical proS'........... \0 IlIDwands of poor _. Who.. IOmpie entry
DO ooIutioD to Ibm (uad.meatal probl...... they turned to putiII
and pbilaoophi .. lhat promised 10 cDIMOn tbe hOOD....and reopect. _.
ceded witb _pl. _try.
into .... nomi. wen-being.
(TIW ddi&hJ_,.n 91 tAl ...".,.. J.",_.;,., hd I. 61,ulis".d b.1
0'11" U.i..,sif7 PNu.)
• T_a..u .......
I_a.-l.1951.I.pZe.-8.
•• a........
... 110..... J-". no _ 10( N'!14"
Do ..... ~ "'" _ '" T_

• ......... ..
IIJl7-l111J1 (IooNoitor N __

__ ''''''' • no .... '"

>IacIely...... daa 1921,11,p 49-
.) Uai_iIJ

Don ....... __
01 _ P-. LoDd... 197!,

bl'MLDoaoar,_,.
• Jollioy.N_IJ' .......... 8;SIrS_~H~.CLXXXVIl.2.
May 1867. p 1068.
• c...., "75, p 281.
, RoOiaJcth,,"TIut SocIal O.;,m. ala Cdc A: = . '_,1875 ..1905:11ae FoIIRcliDI
of .... S N D. Y_.D $00I:I ... 4. 0d0II00r 1974.pp 141'-2.
• c.u... 1975.pp 197."
• c.-. 18111. P
poU"tjgn
62.J'."'" N..,.., _ ... diopter I.,.... dIJcuIoin III dI .......
.. See,for.-pl••J..... N_."TIIe __ oI'PoIllkoiA_ U.... or
s..;oIo.s-_.
plpcr.lOId ......... br~_
TllelJap'....... VokbIi... orPrilloolyM_
..d _W ... .,_.,M_ publ_
81 ....
V. s,July 1971,
U ,.,_.
_ ~
pp216-83.
Chooti', .....,_
'" &000:\ -. 00I0rd U .. _ty ...... _.y
10........... 1917. io B\Ipao .. r.....k:k, _
1969, , 119•
•i F_ JDDbiIi&y Ja tradUioDal lima, _ Brie: J Miller. ICOIRe .od. Terri.., Ia
...,

_. A_ ..... ~LVI. 195., pp 41G-2o.

•• JIIfnIJ. c'c-A..,.;·tion,.., pp8M-67 ..
" c..... '19I.IJ.ppS5t-l7.
.• a-u. 1931, I. P 111&
•• ,
•• ,..1IIo
Mo_
_.ppSS7.a; ..... c.u...I94I. 1" '25•
or""'~_A:!roodb
SIoII, ~ 1970.pp 2112.9.
........... .t~" X... H""'.7.

, • .see..r__ plt. ~ .921. I,p ,..

I. 1000Nirod C a..udb.";' 1111~"'" u.u..... /aiIoo.J.... _boy 11116,
.. T_,__ """"._"'lffT_ .
,261•

• , V P Md_ Roo, "TIle Dowaa'a T_. J....... iua _," 16Mar 1018J... 1!lOt.
_ ........... Tn__ ~ .. 97/19Ot.

.. -..
•• C s....... J'ItII" • ... MonioooI ....
~a.
•• AItI.
1__ V-.ST_
S&oII, Rot..,.
.... B
1!I1i8. I, P to. R --
I969.pl9S.
 TI!MPLIl-ENTaY MOVeMENT IN TRAVANOORB 2S
•• __ II{ T__ Moll. 21Fc1>ruory1917, p 4.
•• ,,-, DirI<IoI.7. 1938. pp 8IMO.
••_" T_,....
bIiJbecI.., • ..n,. &om 1915-16•
•• lHoI.
... c...." 1921. J. pp 132-5.
•• 1I/J1.,II, pp loz.3.
•• .fWiIIIrIIll(T __ .... 1920-J. Scvea were in caw. " i), ..... MMdibn.
onII in Itam_ 011impor_ S,_ Obrioti _
•• C p 1"- ... MooI, AIopIbiD, IPSI, pp 3441.
•• Sec Jcfhr~x.~1lI__ , c:blplllr 4-
." c.u. IPZI. II. pp lOW.
•• -.. M.U,8 FcbouuyDOf, p $; 29J...,.I., P S; :13 ..... 1Il0,p I; 13 May

_r p"
1"0, pS;3s.-Ile, 1912,p $;,OJoIy 1914,,$;:IOJIOI1I'I$,:'3; 15 M..... 1916
, $; 1""y.,11. P 3\5".,
JI... 14Jonuoryl_p3;1S
Ifl" p3.·U _INO.
yl922,p4.
•• 14
.. 14 Moil, 7
.. "K&"_ 8'"",,?.t"' __
".y 1'1'.1'5, J.... a.Ullly, Kao .. _.
• _. II._. ",..
'I'riMaohum 197Z,p289 ......... _".,.~_.14D .... I!12Z.
" 1114.. pp .. '.14 ....
p," 'fboO-O._MEW
14011,.5_
_110 ........ _.....,_oty .._
It'O. p ,; I April1_ p II 10u., 1m
oiIII. (bded iD A Air-ppM
..""." V,I.IN3, pp ~
•• 8NDP r_ """ II _. Snoo Rullo
Nomy_,anK,M-'''loSNDP
v_. _J_.......
aocI OaltUie a.a .... JIMra ~ AI_

V"., ...... QIolIoa 1m. pp II)J.3.

r.....
n
V'_opoolliai
...... !bob I"!, p 103.
... N.., .... oIfA6MII.... .,._4It .. pp 103-4.
". A6rtIta ;AlIiI,jS Mayl •• p5;:M Ma, 1'21. pf. N".j D'n, ".AfM6_~'JIp 104.
Tit Modh._ .... be DioItko ........ _ I~""I_ (0. 30 1'1....... 19201k .....

--1)0-
_ioa. T,. .. _ Caallcladlll Sec..... (bcnIIItor CS) 55#1_
•• Dillricl ~ XOI.. _.10 doc CIdeI'-.rr.lS.....,. 1921,01 _11m
__ I5J-.I92I.,8. :n.-,2eJ_INJ,p1.
•• M.... 16II,I' liIay 19», p ,.
•• a.u.ow w.,tl4' CWMG).XXI, PI' IIW, __ lew on
IS s__ 1'21.publiobod in no ~ 30Scpo........ 1921.
t'l H....~.q;M ...... " plOL
~. AU .. pm, rot N.ld:ba¥ant• ~. IBMe.
•• IfNI.2M.'_ N_Reprd;n' .... VY"'" s."",pluI _ doeR....... <I
... OII_ .. (........ortho M....._. T..........17Apoa 1'14,"'_
......... Voitem_ (hen:oII .. V81.NoI.
•• no -.
No 4 .......
31 M_I!I2'. V8 1'1.. 4 [..... po,... .. r....
iI.,....].
pap I'c(CI1iftCe
_,h.. IOIIowon &om V8

•) Ail.
•• f'OlieW NOl8...'" VI. No 4, wbic:b Is alar. &Ie or QBWllpapercutDap. AI.,., JI6I
, FoIwaory INS, P 4.
•• N8dy'p· uM ...... '. p 21$0-
.. no 8' H"a,
.. J_",N_o..._,chaptcr7.
1m

•• no ... IZ Ma, 1m.

•• T_ DoIfpX .....26M., 1m TIle miN'_ T X V.loPlUoi.
•• AI 1I,;t. 5 M.y 1m.
" AI Mdii, 18Jol, 1924,P4. T_ o.;r,. .IVIIor,21May 1m
•• C paIaclaarl w.. f"ezillelDel, d.. 1iI&ed witlllbc 1111111.baN I:Ika. by Iaaha-
... iD dut IIkriC I." 7M HIM. 27 ".Y 1m
•• no Hi....,6J- 1m.
26

•• Na .. ,_ Otora ... Gaadhi, 'ZI J- 19Z4, 2"_ ilodi,o, 10 1-.,.

19Z4, ill CWMG
JOUV, PI' -.s; tlJo, p m.
•• W H PIa. PolIce
-." 241'_ Dl5.VB, N. ,.
o""m"""".~ fill the Tour 01IIIIt Gudhl in Tn."....

" ~ 0I'_ ..._~ ... ot1'alloe,""'10iM1[r.ISllprIIlmJ,

"" No. 50

..•• J...,..
r_....
•• .. 'VIrararfPa ~,"'_
26 M_
a.riodom ..... tho
-o.a.Awori·
aum, 24AprU1m VB, No 1•
•• ItNDPWlloS....... 51.ilrtho ....... Nx-
il_. _DOt_
1925,ill CWMG, XXVI. p 4f7. Oondbl cIIl8Iod ilia'
.".,...., wbXlo, .....
"'. pp .....
•• no~ 10 Ma, .4Apr111N',pll.N 11:._ .......tho
____ ....... _.._ot .... l!i'lDpy_ ~ ___
tit Pe'cW,;sm AI. poaiblc drMqy. See hil "., ........ ,... __ {Tbe Alc)aDy
or ComoonIoe) s_ Book Dopat. TrI_l!111; lint pa1>1ilW, tm.
•• 0 M n- (IIo6r '" lI'......New 11001<SpdIcaIe. If'll!; &nt paIII_ ••l!I2f,p 4-
"... JIIra)'
II. __
aD-. "~ ill1!I26....
.• pp 231·2-
't'...... ppa In 192'1.""....... o:oinc:idcd __
.iIk _~ CWMG, XXVIJ, PI' !II-laQ,pp U"2ID,p lSI. Dflp, ltana_

•• as,
Chr.",' a, JO October un. C8;.
10' I'oHce
78S/19l,. M_
...,,1m.
BocU>- 10 Cbler-...y. 30_ .. ber 1935,C!I, 1:11551
I"" II.... as, tSl2/lt36. 'l'l2j1!129.
•• CWMG.XXVI.P:m.
•• x...lo"'_" :»__ 1931, Os. 'l1f/lIIIO.
"I. pem'p,am! Ai,..n view ...,. 10 blWt" bu., it ooma .....,..., cleIdy m
bio........ pc _ __ oa ........ tl>mIP thol_ .... 1S6.
,.,..• -..._......Ro1oloJ_,.~A__ W-'OoDPW"'''''_'
..... Pollt.... 1_." j.D.U,,(ocI.).~_''''R.V.Hri ...........
... LoGcIoo,
fQ.tIo '.. I"'.
" .. pm 7 7'II1II N.,~""""""ir.J""" ••KerdlAallamyolPoUlkd
Srimoo, TrIo......... IlIH. pp .3-17.
•• _ -... PorllllPdy Ropart (bcNo£ler 'BI .,.. 21."-bolt otJ_ 1m
0I111d... _-.I"1/1!133.1t ......._.I.PP~14
N__
no~ 27 J... ..,. 1!133, p 14._ .1'_. 23 April 19M, quoted Ia Wod!>
- ....
.. 00 _[blmooU'tho
l)MnoIlet 1I'lB),llL 17.:IlI AprIl 111M.
.............
1IeorotoIy.31Octo_ 1933,os. U!8/I933,
_ .. i._... _l ..ObieI'
•• _ Report. 2110000lI0< 1mos, 1l2t[1m
.. Sec 0 Adoutho ......... _ ... _,.,. _ .... __ ..... 1'IlhIiohhIg Ceo lAc1,
1'rIwaa!drua 197I,pp8S-92,for_ilpJX " __ YOD.kaaoD •• ~.............

""',,.,.',«'# ...'
hrtho _Putyotbdiac:biof_

iUl nt1e til tile C

01KaoI .. K/II7Oppao
1_ ...--'"Iterolo], loIltNDP _,
"K- 110
p 10 r..""' ,.
"p'" Partr ia-.cial tJ.:up. ,_ Aiy.-ppMl" a .... 8NDP WIt
,. Mo, lIP 7", .... II:. II __ • _". .. A»"IJIIO. Oocbm 1973,pp113-79.
•• ~ 1931. I, P 2tI.
,. ~"T,....."...
.. no HIoIIt, 10 Yay 1!IlI. P 3•
•• NL I"'" I " .. I'UIoI,8ri_~","_.." ~ mAPJ.vII.II
N......... 1IG5. p 478.
.. J- PIIIoI, &MAP.VIJ. U N..... ber 1938,p 35.
•• IIliDP _,. _. pp I.,..,., ...."-Phy orBNIdba..... E_ _
.... 'v-. 80 .......... 1935,ppl&4O, IW, u. 2:14. 2.. laiD ..
_pp26W.
.. Pori"" """" ....,..... pooIdaa. ill -r-.......IIIIIi lbe oppooItioo or .... PolRI••1
 'l'DIPL&.BHTll.Y MOVEMENT IN TRAVANCOIUI 27
Deport.... , 10 bb ...... pdom of Ibc d.-emi... ... Inciio (I8ice ....... y .ad
a.-.Io. CrOWD ~ __ R/I/19/IMI IIld R/I/19/148$.
.. Rt#twf., '" :r.... .", IIIttoI9 Q D. a..='D_ ......Tmtaodrum 1933.
s......Pin j ....My ,,)4. CII.,13/IN4 [.Ioj.
Pili.
•• 1IIl.. p a._
•• WD, III. 30.25Jolly I'H.
•• Wo$S. II. 43.21100IGIMr1!Jl5:51.21 D , "'Im 52, 21_ ..... 1""; RI.?
IS JIobruorymf, Ioraumple.
•• C V Jt~ !rt It....
Mit I _t6ln s........... (BUMoII' CoAl ....
I'ftpBlOlfoo) OMS ,,_ KDI.. ,.,.. 19M. Iv.$'S. III. 10. , _ 1936;1S.11
ApoiltlG.
•• WIS. III, '. 21 February 1!I36; 10. 7 Morell IPlfII7. 2SApril 1_ 22, 3OM.yl",
30, 2SJalf '"" Mo_._ M_.lI. pp 3111·10." _ N_ ..... _
A_I4f..-.aJ_...so.._19J71111C1 _odeY ~ 711111"
'lfT_. A............ 1"7.
•• WIS.RI. 5L I' Dooomber 1936;52.26De_I"" IV.I. 2J ..,. 1m •
•• ......,. ........ 3J_..,.lm ••o CVIt -.. _ (_
W_J.PIIIInIppoIIi""'_ (od.)...... _ _~ Q,aIIoa 1J71.pp 21:1-,.
.. WSS.'V.4,25J_I!I37 •
•• T.. y_<lu.1I ............Tomplo BOIly ............. FI1e, 12/11/1"'-
,. "J~t 'ilSlIICI:iW Laber-.