COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:

The THEORY and CHANGING PRACTICES

Contents and Outline

 A Brief History of Community Development

 Definition of the Concept
 Various Interpretations (Views) on Community Development
 The Philosophy of Community Development
 The Major Purposes of Community Development
 Community Development in the Context of Philippine Experience
 The Guiding Principles of CD
 Basic Stages in the Community Development Process
 Community Development Process in the Philippines
 The Dynamics of Community Development Practice

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 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:

The THEORY and EVOLVING PRACTICES

Norman, Lawrence P.

Andreline D. Ansula, RSW.

M.S. with specialization in Community Development

College of Arts and Sciences

Arellano University

2600 Legarda, Manila

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 INTRODUCTION

A Brief History of Community Development

Community development as a new discipline, grew out of an older concept -

community organization. In the 1950's a number of social scientists and educators

formed the American Council on the Community, a relatively short-lived organization

whose purpose was the institutionalization of scattered efforts throughout the United

States to improve American community life. This effort was built on the experience ac-

quired during World War II when millions of Americans participated in volunteer efforts

and organized to deal with local problems. This was the time when United Nations

agencies and the technical assistance programs of the West sought to help the devel-

oping countries (Third World countries) move along the road to economic progress

(modernization). Community development became one of the models (strategies) em-

ployed toward the transformation. The term received so much attention and recognition

not only in the developing world but also in the US that it came to repłace “community

organization” even in the US. Programs to help the impoverished areas of Appalachia or

large metropolitan centers were legislated into existence and were labeled either as

Community Development or Rural Development in the statutes. The essential feature

was resource mobilization (people as well as material resources) at the community level

so as to introduce a better quality of life. It included, among others, a new kind of stock-

taking by local residents, the use of outside consultants in interpreting the facts col-

lected and in planning programs to meet the needs that were identified.

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 In the 1960's over sixty countries either had well-formulated national community

development programs or were in the process of bringing them into existence. Leaders

of nations in Africa, Central and South America and Asia Pacific after World War II

faced tremendous tasks of nation building. This was due to the long periods colonization

under European nations. faced with large scale problems and relatively inadequate re-

source-utilization (low technical-know-how) national leaders embraced the idea of mobi-

lizing local people carry out community projects. The Community Development program

of India, for example, was set up to aid the inhabitants of 558,000 villages attain a

higher social and material level of well-being. Multi-purpose village level workers, espe-

cially trained for this new challenge, met with the village people, helped them to recog -

nize and identify their needs and potentials and offered technical and moral assistance

to meet their needs. The technical assistance was given by specialists in agriculture,

animal husbandry, road building, irrigation, education, health and sanitation, rural coop-

eratives etc. The basic unit was the block which comprised 100 villages.

Other countries, of course, worked out the kind of community development pro-

grams best fitted to their situation. The key common element to all countries was the

thrust toward self-help and communal labor to undertake projects they considered im-

portant. Any compensation for labor was often channelled through the local community

authorities by the external funding agencies so that other projects could be further fi-

nanced (e.g. the “food-for-work" programs).

These community development programs were often fitted into national five-year

or ten- year plans to ensure the allocation of sufficient resources to these efforts at the

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“grass-roots” level. To many national leaders such programs seemed a way toward de -

mocratization and decentralization of the political process; they gave local people a feel -

ing of being involved in nation-building and showed that the central government was ac-

tually beginning to show an interest in their welfare. In recent years, however, the cen -

tral government is found wanting in this direction because the interest in this approach

begins to wane due to greater focus being placed on urban development at the expense

of rural development.

Definition of the Concept

There are many definitions of community development. The definitions vary ac -

cording to type of agency, the setting, the method of operation and the purpose of the

agency. Despite their differences, they share certain commonalities in their definitions.

Thus, in defining the concept community development, these elements are evident:

 a group of people;

 residing in a community;

 reaching a decision;

 to initiate a social action process (planned intervention).

 In-order to have a desirable change in their social,

economic, political, cultural or environmental situation.

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Community Development is a planned, organized and evolutionary process whereby a

group of people with common aims, needs and aspirations come together to initiate so -

cial action in order to improve their social, economic, political, cultural and environmen -

tal conditions.

The term “community development” came into international usage to connote the pro-

cesses by which the efforts of people themselves are united with those of governmental

authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of communities, to in -

tegrate these communities into the life of the nation, and to enable them to contribute

fully to national progress.

This complex of processes is made up of two essential elements: the participa-

tion of the people themselves in efforts to improve their level of living with as much re-

liance as possible on their own initiatives and the provision of technical and other ser -

vices in ways which encourage initiative, self-help, and mutual help and make them

more effective in programs designed to achieve a wide variety of specific improvements

such as health, environmental conservation etc. This definition was coined by the

United Nations.

BRITAIN

Community Development was defined in Britain at the time as a movement de-

signed to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation

and, if possible, on the initiative of the community, but if this initiative is not forthcoming

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spontaneously, by the use of techniques for arousing and stimulating it in order to se-

cure the active and enthusiastic response of the movement.

UNITED STATES

Community Development is a continuous or intermittent process of social action

by which the people of a community organize themselves informally or formally for

democratic planning and a define their common and group "felt needs” and problems;

make group and individual plans to meet their felt needs and solve their problems, exe-

cute these plans with a maximum of reliance upon resources and within the community

and; supplement community resources when necessary with service and the material

assistance from government or private agencies outside the community.

CANADA

Community Development is an educational-motivation process designed to cre-

ate conditions favorable to economic and social change, if possible on the initiative of

the community, but if this initiative is not forthcoming spontaneously, then, techniques

for arousing and stimulating it in order to secure the fullest participation of the commu -

nity must be utilized.

INDIA

A method and an ideology for promoting the development of rural areas of the

country on democratic lines and with the active participation of the people.

AFRICA (Zimbabwe)

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 Community Development may be summed up, in so far as central government's

role is concerned as the active, planned, and organized effort to place responsibility for

decision-making in local affairs on the freely chosen representatives of responsible peo-

ple at the community and local government levels, and to assist people to acquire the

attitudes, knowledge, skills, and resources required to solve through communal self-

help and organization, as wide range of local problems as possible in their own order of

priority.

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 Various Interpretations (or Views) on Community Development

As the term (concept) community development describes programs in so many

countries and for so many purposes, it is bound to mean different things to different

people. Some people think of it as a process in which the main emphasis is upon what

happens to the people and their development; some think of it as a method or a very

useful approach to accomplish some important goal such as improved agricultural prac-

tices; some think of it as a program which embodies a set of activities to be carried out

by officials, specialists, and local people in some time sequence and at budgeted costs,

and some view it as a movement with strong emotional commitment --i.e. a crusade to

make life better for everyone,

* CD as a Process

Community development as a process moves by stages from one condition or

state to the next. It involves a progression of change in terms of specified criteria, for ex-

ample a change from the condition where one or two people or an elite in the local com -

munity makes decisions for the rest of the people to a new condition where people

themselves make these decisions about matters of common concern; from the state of

minimum to one of maximum cooperation; from condition where few participate to one

where many participate.

* CD a Method (Process and Objectives)

A very useful approach to accomplish some important goal such as increased

agricultural productivity. Community development is a means to an end - a way of work-

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ing so that some goal is attained. The process is guided for a particular purpose. Em -

phasis is upon some end result.

* CD as a Program (Method and Content)

The method is stated as a set of procedures and the content as a list of activities.

By carrying out the procedures, the activities may be accomplished. When the program

is highly formalized, as in many five-year development plans, the focus tends to be

upon the program rather than upon what is happening to the people involved in the pro -

gram. Through programs, CD comes into contact with subject matter specialists in

health, welfare, agriculture and ecology/environment. Emphasis is upon activities.

* CD as a Movement (Program and an Emotional Dynamics)

CD is a crusade to which people become committed. It is not neutral (compared

to process) but carries an emotional charge - one is for it or against it.

It is dedicated to progress -- a sort of advocacy stressing on values and goals.

CD as a movement tends to become institutionalized, building up its own organizational

structure, accepted procedures and ethics for the professionals.

It stresses and promotes the idea of human development.

* CD as a Philosophy

If the goal and the principles embodies in CD become internalized, it can be a

way of life. Emphasis is upon values.

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* CD as a System

CD is premised on the systems perspective. It is viewed as a unitary whole, com-

posed of interrelated parts/components.

Emphasis is on its being holistic and integrative.

* CD as a Field of Inquiry / Study

It is a field oflearning and knowledge. It is based on empirical evidence -- scien -

tific in locus.Emphasis is on tested reality (facts).

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 The Philosophy of Community Development

Community development is rooted in the concept of the worth of the individual as

a responsible, participating member of society, and as such, is concerned with human

organization and development and the political/enablement process.

Development cannot proceed successfully by neglecting the human resources.

An effective community development approach must be founded on fundamental princi-

ples from which its activities flow and according to which its activities may be evaluated.

The most important of its focus is the dignity of man. genuine community devel-

opment activities are based on the awareness by people of their innate human dignity

and consequent capacity (Figure 1).

Assumptions of primary importance to community development include:

* people are capable of rational behavior;

* significant behavior is learned through interaction,

* people are capable of giving direction to their behavior; and

* people are capable of creating or shaping much of their

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Environment

Figure 1. Building development.

Source: People First: A Guide to Self Reliant Participatory
Rural Development by Stan Burkey (1993).

When these assumptions are considered together, it seems obvious that people

are viewed as becoming being rather as a being in a non-changing (static) state.

The philosophical objective therefore of C.D. programs aims to attain the univer-

sal goal of eliminating poverty, hunger, ignorance, sickness, and fear. This requires the

procurement, preparation, and allocation of resources (materials, energy, people and in-

formation).

Development must lead to a unified and participatory effort by a community that

is confident, able to articulate its needs and aspiration, and has a real share of social

and political power.

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The Aims and Objectives of Community Development

Aim, is a term that is simply defined as a “clearly directed purpose". It is some-

times used interchangeably to mean objective or goal.

In the context of Community Development, the words “aim” and "objectives” are

not easy to define. However, the aim of community development is referred to as com -

munity action. This does not help much to understand without referring to the reality of

community development practice.

In reality, the primary objective of community development is to:

1. promote;
2. sustain;
3. support; and
4. maintain community action.

Apparently, community development is related to community action, just as edu-

cation is related to learning. Hence, in promoting community development, these must

be some kind of community action to initiate or to guide the promoter to carry out either

social or economic activities to improve their welfare or to solve their real problems.

In order to arrive at a simpler understanding of the aims and objectives of com-

munity development, it may be worthwhile looking into the different types of community

development and their respective objectives. Looking at each of them will underline both

their differences and similarities. From this standpoint, it may be possible to infer a gen-

eral aim of community development through the synthesis of the common elements.

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1. Community Work Type
This can be regarded as a professional approach to community development

which has developed within the field of social work. It came into being in response to in -

creasing demand for social services for the aged, the sick, the unemployed etc.

The objective of this type of community development work has been given as the

"giving of aid and support to people who need more control over their lives.”

Examples:
1. When members of a community offer voluntary services to a victim of say, ty-

phoon who lost his/her house. Often times, other people in the community may offer

temporary shelter, food, clothing etc. to the victims. This is typical norm of the

Asian people, especially in rural areas.

2. Community voluntary work in the community such as clearing,

or weeding the local market of repairing the streets...

2. Colonial Social Development Type

This type came into existence when many colonized nations in the Third World

attained self-rule (independence).

The objective of colonial social development type was to integrate economic and social

development programs into education for self-management programs and for the devel-

opment of the political structure in the newly independent nations.

Examples:

1. Rural Rice Milling cooperatives.

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 2. Rural Thrift and Savings Societies.

3. Educational and Health Programs.

3. Urban Renewal Types

The purpose of urban renewal type is to break down social isolation and give

more meaning to personal existence by encouraging the formation of social groups of

different kinds which will organize own affairs.

Example:

When urban squatters are re-settled, new residential associations are formed to

undertake the provision of water, light, and sanitary facilities for their benefit. They are

encourage to undertake self-help projects to realize their own social activity goals.

4. Adult Education Types

The aim of adult education type is to help in the identification and development of

local leaders; to foster the concern life and enable communities to deal with existing

problems.

Example:

The institution of skill training programs and livelihood development programs in

order to produce people who will be more enterprising and entrepreneurial.

5. Institutional Types
The objective is to encourage those who have been provided formal service, to

take action on their own behalf and in addition, to accept responsibility to render service

o others.

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Example:

Youth organizations provide social, recreational and cultural services for the community.

6. The Idealist/Political Activist Types

It aims at giving practical expression to social justice thro militant action in order

to see beneficial change for the participants will the shortest possible time.

7. The Community Human Development Type

This is known the "kampong-based” type. The aim is towards the development of

the potential of individual members of the target group. It stresses on self-reliance and

participation to bring about desirable socio-economic transformations. It also stresses

on cultural exchange between Kampongs in other countries to stimulate globalization.

The Major Purposes of Community Development

The overall purpose of community development is to help people employ the

right methods to organize self-help-initiatives and to develop techniques relevant to their

own situation for socio-economic and cultural progress.

Specifically, community development:

1. Is designed to meet the learning needs of significant groups in the community

e.g. community leaders or civic or special interest organizations.

2. Enhance the ability of groups of individuals so that they can work collectively

to attain community social and economic goals.

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 3. Teaches about matters relating to community or region,generally associated

with social structures and public as well as private and voluntary enterprises.

4. Emphasize on shaping infrastructure and social organizational support through

involvement in the legislative, including formal financial and business enterprises.

CD in the Context of Philippine Experience

Community development in the Philippines began as a program of government

formulated to resolve the rising tide of peasant discontent and insurgency in the late

1940s and the early 1950s. It was designed primarily to respond to the needs of the

economically and socially disadvantaged segments of the population.

At the conception of the community development program during presidency of

Ramon Magsaysay (1954-57), the security of the state was being threatened by the

growing dissension and insurgency of the rural masses. This widespread dissatisfaction

stemmed from the unequal deployment of resources and economic opportunities among

people especially in far-flung rural areas. This problem became one of the principal rea -

sons for evolving a comprehensive community development program, the ultimate ob -

jective of which was to establish a system of communities or bodies of politic capable of

solving an increasing number and their own problems through the initiative of the com -

munity and the active participation of the people themselves". (CD handbook, 1975:16)

The program sought to achieve this objective through: 1) education, training and

information programs; 2) community projects; 3) comprehensive planning, and 4) re-

search programs.

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 The Presidential Assistance on CD (PACD) was the government machinery es-

tablished in 1956. To carry out certain development objectives, it formulated an opera-

tional goal which envisioned that “before a village could be left to itself, it must first sat-

isfy certain requirements or should possess the necessary indicators for self-develop-

ment".

These indicators included:

1. Institutions essential for development (education and training) shall have been

established;

2. Infrastructure or physical improvements shall have been provided;

3. Increased economic activity shall have been achieved;

4. Attitude that are conducive to progressive change should have come about.

A Community development Research Council (CDRC) was the stablished to document

and conduct research to find out if the tors of self-development have been effectively

carried out operationalized, and to determine what project or programs were propriate

and responsive to the needs of a particular community.

Under the reorganization of the government, the CD program gained recognition

and PACD was elevated into the Bureau of Community Development under the Depart-

ment of Local Government and Community Development. During the Martial law Gov-

ernment, the Bureau of CD was partially absorbed by the Ministry of Human Settle-

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ments and lately, its functions were assigned to government service agencies and cor-

porations. The current reorganization of the government led to the loss of its identity.

The Guiding Principles of Community Development

The 10 Principles in the UN Report on Concept and Principles of C.D. as stated are:

(1) Activities undertaken must correspond to the basic needs of the community; the first

projects should be initiated in response to the expressed needs of the people.

(2) Local improvements may be achieved through unrelated efforts in each substantive

field, however, full and balanced community development requires concerted action and

the establishment of multi-purpose programs.

(3) Changed attitudes in people, are as important as the material achievements of com-

munity projects during the initial stages of development.

(4) CD aims at increased and better participation of the people in community affairs, re-

vitalization of existing form of local government and transition towards effective local ad -

ministration where it is not yet functioning

(5) The identification, encouragement and training of local leadership should be a basic

objective in any program.

(6) Greater reliance on the participation of women and the youth in CD projects invigo -

rates development programs, establishes them on a wide basis and secures long-range

expansion.

(7) To be fully effective, communities' self-help projects require both intensive and ex-

tensive assistance from the government and NGOs.

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(8) Implementation of a CD program on a national scale requires adoption of consistent

policies, specific administrative arrangements, recruitment and training of personnel,

mobilization of local and national resources and organization of research experimenta-

tion and evaluation.

(9) The resources of voluntary non-governmental organizations should be fully utilized

in CD programs at the local, national and international levels.

(10) Economic and social progress at the local level necessitates parallel development

on wider national scale.

Basic Stages in the Community Development Process.

A process is something which has a beginning and an end and it happens over

time. In the community development process, certain distinct stages are essential for its

promotion. There are various listings of stages or steps in literature on community de-

velopment. But I shall somehow oversimplify it here.

1. The Problem Situation

A situation may exist in a community which represents a need, a problem, an op-

portunity, or a challenge to a community group, or to the entire community. Usually it

would be tackled as a community project.

2. The Will To Do

Through discussion, diffusion of ideas and with information input, the group in-

volved may reach a point where it is beginning to form a will to do something about it.

3. Organizing

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 Some form of organization is established with a certain of commitment from indi-

viduals to some in-depth and specific thinking about the project

4. Getting to the People

At this stage, the process moves to the general membership of the community.

Information is diffused and educational work is under taken community-wide. The poten-

tial exists for conflict. Considerable discussion, and expression of viewpoints. General

goals may become clear and some commitments may be made.

5. The Planning Process

If the project is blessed by legitimizers, the planning process will begin. The defi -

nition of objectives, availability of options or alternatives, and availability of resources

may be assessed. The end result may be a plan to approach the project with specific in-

formation.

6. Execution Phase

Initiation of the projects is often an occasion to build community spirit and identity

and to cement commitment, depending on the project, it is often an important occasion

in the community.

7. Evaluation

Evaluation is an on-going process (monitoring) but the final assessment is undertaken

upon completion of the project. Community members try to review their experience for

strength and weakness. The experience gained may be used in future community de-

velopment projects.

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Community Development Process in the Philippines

From the lessons of past extension experiences which stipulate that direct trans-

fer of technology to the farms usually failed upon withdrawal of the technical support, it

now being tried to modify approach. Instead of directly bringing the technology to the

farms, it would first develop the attitude of the people towards the adoption of chosen

technologies which they have identified through a Community Development Process

(CDP).

The CDP generates people's participation in community development through the

leadership of Barangay Council. This is based on the basic belief that a local or

barangay government with well-trained leaders can effectively coordinate community

development and plan for public welfare facilities and services to meet the needs of the

people. That the people themselves should be the prime mover of community develop-

ment is the emphasis of CDP. Through the CDP, the barangay officials which compose

the Barangay Development Council (BDC) undergo leadership training on need assess-

ment, project planning and implementation.

The CDP consists of five phases: initiation, legitimation, planning, implementation

and evaluation (Fig. 2). Each phase has a set of activities with a time frame for. The fol-

lowing are the details of CDP activities in each phase:

1. Initiation (10 weeks)

1.1 Formal Launching of the Project

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 1.1a Project Management and the Project Coordinating Officer hold dialogue

with the Municipal and Barangay Officials informing them of the selected

project area(s) from the list of barangays endorsed by the Mayor for selec-

tion.

1.1b Municipal Mayor and/or Barangay Council, through the Barangay Chair-

man, acknowledges the above mentioned information through formal com-

munication sent to the Project Leader or project Coordinating Officer.

1.2 Formation of the Barangay Development Council(BDC)

1.2a Development Worker(DW) assigned in the project area arranges an orien-

tation meeting with the Barangay Council about the action project.

1.2b Barangay Council, through the Chairman, identifies and invites informal

leaders who are prospective members of the BDC.

1.2c Barangay Chairman (BC) holds an organizational meeting with the

prospective members to form the BDC. The composition of the BDC

should indicate the sectoral grouping (i.e. Agriculture/Livelihood. Health

and Nutrition: Infrastructure, Education and Culture: Peace and Order; Fi-

nance and Audit; and Sports and Youth Development.

1.3 Area Familiarization

1.3a DW establishes rapport with the local people.

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 1.3b DW gathers basic information about the barangay and prepares a spot

map indicating land use, location of households, existing economic struc-

ture, etc.

1.4 Needs Assessment

1.4a Sectoral Committees Identify and Prioritize community problems, and

needs.

1.4b BDC re-examines classifies and prioritizes the problems identified by the

sectoral communities.

2. Legitimization (8 weeks)

2.1 BDC presents the identified problems and resources of the community to

the Barangay Assembly for approval.

2.2 BDC invites government and Non-Government Organization (NGO's) to a

dialogue in the barangay for the initial establishment off linkage

3. Planning (12 weeks).

3.1 DW plans with the BDC the conduct of training(s) on the program plan-

ning, leadership and management skills.

3.2 BDC undergoes training on program planning to equip them with the nec-

essary knowledge and skills in the preparation of a Barangay Develop-

ment Plan (BDP).

3.3 BDC conducts workshops to formulate the BDP.

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 3.4 BDC presents the BDP to the community assembly for approval.

3.5 BDC presents the BDP to the Municipal Development Council (MDC)

through the Mayor for their information and participation.

3.6 BDC undergoes leadership and management training to improve their ca-

pabilities.

4. Implementation (24 weeks)

4.1 BDC executes and monitors the implementation of the BDP involving the

sectoral committee and community.

4.2 BDC conductd technical skills, leadership, and management training to im-

prove their capabilities under the leadership of the Education and Training

Committee.

5. Evaluation and Re-planning (2 weeks)

5.1 BDC conducts an assessment of the status of the BDP and re-plans the

activities/projects to be undertaken. The evaluation and replanning tasks

are carried out through workshops.

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 Need Assestment &
Legitimization

Initiation Planning

Evaluation & Re- Implementation

planning

Fig. 2 The Community Development Process

The BDC is composed of seven different sectoral committees namely: Agriculture

and Livelihood, Health and Nutrition, Education and Culture, Sports and Youth Develop-

ment, Peace and Order, Infrastructure and Finance and Audit which are headed by six

elected Barangay Councilmen and the Kabataang Barangay chairman.

The UPLB Rural Development Officers (RDOs) and DA Agriculture and Food

Technologists (AFTs) together with the Technical Assistance Team (TAT) from the Col-

lege of Agriculture, are directly involved in effecting the CDP in each of the selected pi-

lot barangays.

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 The Dynamics of Community Development Practice

Introduction

Community Development has adopted, modified or developed various methods

of work. These methods have been determined as having operational validity for com-

munity development. When these instruments (methods) are applied in the field situa-

tion the principles of community development can become conditions of reality in the

community. The understated methods are those of major importance professional com-

munity worker.

I. Direct Interaction with Individuals and Groups

It is basic to the profession that considerable amount of time will be spent work -

ing with groups. How does one relate to a group so that the greatest amount of self-di -

recting human development occurs? What functions should be performed or not per-

formed? What conditions does he set forth as regulator of his relationship to the group?

The professional worker must be aware of himself in relation to the various

groups and individuals with whom he relates. The more he becomes like the group in at-

titude, beliefs, and outlook, the less effective he tends to become. It is not the purpose

of the community development worker to reinforce the present but to enable people to

question the present. The input of the community development worker is that question,

suggestion, or information that creates the realization that the situation can be different.

The situation might be improved. The worker must, however, be in close enough step to

the community drum that he can relate to various community groups over a period of

time.

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 The community development worker will work with different groups having many

varying and sometimes conflicting interests. It is the responsibility of the professional

community development worker to remain a free man and not become the property of

any vested interest group. This may become increasingly difficult as the worker remains

in an area. Many workers tend to become comfortable over a period of time working

with the same groups, organizations, and individuals. It becomes easier not to encour-

age the drawing in of new people with different ideas, attitudes, and concerns. It is par-

ticularly difficult to avoid being labelled a member of a certain group or clique when one

resides in an area with his family. One guide for this situation might be welcome in all

groups but belong to none.

The community development worker does not make decisions for groups with

which he is working as a professional. It is very easy to respond when the question

asked what shall we do about this? Seldom if ever thus there a situation in which the

community development worker cannot respond by pointing out two or more courses of

action. One does not develop humans by making decisions for them. If the dependency

relationship is avoided, the professional worker will be freer to express even his own

personal feelings: His opinions and insights can be added ingredient without being a

dominant one. The worker should raise questions, insert ideas, present data and infor-

mation, and challenge community folklore so that its validity is tested. He encourages

people to examine variables which had been used in arriving a decisions. The commu -

nity development worker "engages with“ as opponent to “doing for."

No group, individuals, or interest is denied access to the munity development

process. Community development is equally interested in all individuals and in all

29
groups. This is a fortunate situation for the community development worker, since he

does not have to de fine or locate his audience. Workers should be most wary of identi-

fying types of people or interest areas upon which to bestow their efforts. It is the role of

the community development worker to encourage citizens of diverse points of view to

discuss these differences in a creative manner rather attempting to pierce their oppo-

nents with the right and proper point of view. Workers should try to insure that all points

of view are brought into open discussion. It is deadly to a community development

process for apparent agreement to be achieved while leaving many opinions unex-

pressed.

II. Community Self-Surveys

The community self-survey or the community opinion survey has been used ex-

tensively by many communities. In some communities one of the most mis-used instru -

ments. It would appear that some communities have developed a conditioned response

"we have a problem - let's do a survey.” Before a survey can be of greatest benefit if

one needs to understand why a community self-survey is used, what contributions it can

make, and what its limitations are.

One of the strongest recommendation for using a self-survey is that it allows and

even encourages people to think about the area in which they reside. Further it encour-

ages large numbers of people to make known their ideas, concerns, and to express

what they like and dislike about their area. It can be used as an informal election tool by

encouraging people to express their preference or belief regarding who they feel has

been effective in causing improvements to occur in blocking improvements. (Improve-

ments is normative and is likely to be different for various people.)

30
 The community survey is not necessarily a fact-gathering device in the usual

sense. It is an attitude-gathering device since it measure what people think to be true.

The attitudes and reality may or may not be related, according to the "clear eye of the

trained observer. People act on what they hold to be true. What is reality has little im-

portance of it is not regarded as truth when people are formulating plans. Reality will, of

course, effect the outcome of planning.

The community development worker is not usually interested in sampling proce -

dures to the same extent as a person engaged in a formal study of the community. The

community development worker is more likely to be concerned with as wide a distribu-

tion of the survey as possible. He is concerned that all the various viewpoints of the

community have an opportunity to be expressed. The sampling or distribution procedure

would probably be stated as every third household, or every fifth person, etc. In some

communities each household has had an opportunity to express itself. The community

development worker is more interested in involving as many people as possible than he

is in having an exact statistical sample.

Many organizations have developed a so-called "standard" survey form. These

are of little benefit to a community (which is the reason for one not being included here).

Their major contribution is an example. A survey should be developed by the people of

the community who are going to use the survey. It is well to use the "standard" form as

guides, as is well to use the advice and consultation of someone competent in survey

construction, but final form should be a creation of the community.

In survey construction, it is most important to structure the questions in such a

manner that a pre-determined answer is not demanded. The results from such a man-

31
ner that a predetermined answer is not demanded. The results from a question such as

"Are you in favor of good schools?" are of questionable validity. Questions requiring

technical competence of particular subject matter should not be included.

The purpose of using a community self-survey is to provide large numbers of

people with an opportunity to state their true opinion in such a manner that the opinion

and the giver of the specific opinion cannot be related. It provides the opportunity for the

respondent to think about what he wishes it to be in the future. It is an excellent device

to teach large numbers of people a method of social science research on a low but

meaningful level of sophistication. It can provide people interested in community work

with information about what per what people care about, what they are concerned

about, and what they would like to see stay the same or change. It reveals who they feel

are capable of making these improvements.

One of the major results of a community survey can be the large numbers or high

percentages of the area citizens are arouse thinking about their community. The survey

can furnish the community with a clear picture of various attitudes held regarding the

community It can point out in many cases what people want to improve and so what ex -

tent they will support such improvements.

A community survey can have many long-range effects. In some cases, areas of

concern have been identified that communities have tackled over a period of ten to

twelve years. Areas have been transformed to a major extent socially, economically,

physically, and politically. It has also been recorded that some communities have bene-

fited little from community surveys.

32
III. Community Self-Studies
In many cases, a community self-study grow out of people expressing several

different concerns. This is almost to be expected unless a state of crisis exists within the

community. Several different methods may be used in establishing these various area

of concern. (A community self-survey is one method.) These concerns may be in areas

such as education. Race relations, health and social service development, utilities, and

government structure and ser areas of concern are complex and have many different la

probability, major areas of community life will require considerable and planning before

a group can arrive at a plan acceptable for community action in the area of concern.

In the past, some programs brought a pre-determined or types of committees to

the community. This practice has been largely dropped by community development

worker in favor of selecting committees or study groups on the basis of interest. It is

commonly thought in many communities that it is necessary to put people who are “ex-

perts” or highly informed in a professional sense on communities in which they have

particular skill, i.e. putting all the doctors on the medical committee, all the teachers on

the education committee, etc. Other methods may be effective in getting the non-profes -

sional viewpoint of quality of service and institutions

In developing a community self-study, it is important to build in the implementa-

tion as a continuous process rather than as a separate stage of the process. This pro-

vides a sense of importance for the study process so that results can be more obvious:

A community self-study has the potential to do in-depth investigation of one or

several areas of community life. Complex situations can be dealt with by citizens in a

systematic manner. People tend to be baffled at the maze of community and regional

33
relationships. The self-study can and does point out that if one phase of the community

is altered many different segments of the environment are influenced.

The community self-study can, and, if properly carried out, does to a major de-

gree with data of a verifiable nature. The study group will want to compare the existing

information relating to problem area to determine if there are sufficient data on which to

base sound decision making. If not, the group must deal in the area of research, of

which many of them have very little knowledge. When people begin to develop and dis-

cover information about themselves and their community they tend to act upon that in-

formation. People tend to trust data they helped develop. It is therefore important that

they understand the basic tools and stages of scientific investigation.

Development of data by citizens of a community means that much of the myth

and folklore is brought into question. What is considered valid can be retained and that

judged invalid can be discarded. The use of the community self-study using the scien-

tific method has the potential of providing a group of people with a much sounder base

on which to make community decisions.

IV. Group Discussion and Decision-making Workshop

As the community development worker begins recording various interest areas

and people who show interest, patterns of concern may develop. Descriptions of areas

of concern would include the intensity of the interest, whether it is broad-based, if pro -

fessionals i particular field are concerned, and what information people have concerning

their interest.

34
 The community development worker can investigate to determine what has been

done in the area previously. He can find contributing factors and pinpoint people and

groups who have similar concern. If enough interest is shown these people and groups

may be brought together to consider their mutual interests in depth.

There are advantages and disadvantages of using the workshop approach to

problems. In many cases, people come into such sessions with a charge (perhaps a

self-imposed charge) of representing a group or segment of society they feel must be

protected or defended. It may be necessary to search for a common area of agreement

or concern with which the workshop members can identify.

Decision-making workshops can be a forum through which diverse elements of

the community may interact concerning particular problems of development in the unit

of society with which they are interested. This allows for face-to face discussion issues

in a development sense rather than from the framework of conflict.

The workshop atmosphere permits and encourages a frankness that is difficult to

develop in most situations through which human interact. Most social situations encour-

ages the playing of social games which for the most part are meaningless exercises in-

tact. The workshop can be a setting through which these social barriers to meaningful

interaction can be stripped away and the situation viewed through the eve of reality. Is-

sues can be discussed and dealt with in such a manner. that a decision is made based

on both increased understanding and information.

V. Use of Resource People

35
 Community development professionals do not in most cases have answers to

specific community problems. Nor should they be expected to have the answers”.

As a community development professional and the people of a community go

through the process of community development, questions will be asked, problems will

be raised, and new problems will be created. The people may or may not know the solu-

tions or they may not be satisfied with the answers they have devised or always used.

In these situations, the community in finding new and/or different solutions.

The introduction of the professionally trained resource person can create as

many problems as it solves. If the resource person is not familiar with community devel-

opment procedure he may not interact with the people in such a manner that is con-

ducive to community self-study and community decision-making. He may give one solu-

tion which he feel is correct and may omit other solutions for community consideration

which would be more applicable to that particular community. If there is only one alter -

native, and it is rejected, the process of investigation comes to a standstill.

The community development worker needs to be aware that professional training

rarely produces people-oriented specialists. from training the specialist receives, this

orientation is not surprising. It may, in fact, be expected. His training is probably directed

at projects and programs rather than the underlying “people problems” that may have

the problems with which the projects are concerned. The trained resource person has a

vast potential for helping to upgrade man's life. He may know how to grow better crops,

organize larger demonstrations, plan towns, prevent and cure many diseases. He may

know how to build water works, roads, and schools, but in many cases, outright rejec-

tion of both specialist and the community development worker could and has occurred.

36
In most cases, the professionals from the various fields of endeavor are shocked,

amazed, and sometimes even angered when people do not accept the use of improve -

ments designed for their own good”.

There have been many costly, well done master plans drawn by highly compe-

tent planners for numerous towns and cities which are now collecting dust on some

shelf because the people who would not accept the plan after it had been drawn.

It is a fact that our technical knowledge is far ahead of our usage of the technical.

Does it not seem logical that there is a hum interaction problem involved in the non-ac-

ceptance and non-usage of new knowledge?

It becomes the task of the community development professional to interact with

the specialist to teach him the method of work used in community development. The

community development professional can create an understanding that professional ef-

forts to help people has a greater probability of success if they take into account the

people, their aspirations, their culture, the educational and economic levels. the re-

source person needs to be aware that people are involved, and needs to know how to

interact with the people in the community in the discussions of their problems in a way

constant with community development principles of involvement and of the final decision

being made by the people from several possibilities.

It is valid and necessary to assume that resource people are an important part of

community development. How they are used and when they are used are highly sensi -

tive areas in relationship to benefit gained. A parade of knowledgeable people giving

forth information that is unwanted or mis-timed may be of little apparent value.

37
Community development professionals are not a little of this or a little of that. They are

not agriculturists, engineers, social workers, school masters. They are community de-

velopment professionals versed in the profession and are outside resource person to be

trained in community development or know the techniques of working with people. By

working together, a significant impact can be made.

VI. Use of Resources Other Than People

A multitude of programs have been devised by various agencies, both private

and public, which have an effect upon common development professionals. There are

many ways of working with relating to them.

The professional community development worker does not go about searching

for communities which are interested in specific agency programs to implement be-

cause the programs are “good” or because the money is available and “they may as

well as get their cut.” Among examples of this attitude and possible results are medical

clinics in small communities standing empty because no doctor can be secured to set

up practice in that particular locale.

There are half-used hospitals built with Foundation funds which are not paying

their way. Elementary schools have been built in the face of a rapidly declining popula -

tion and have become a tremendous tax burden on the community. The community de-

velopment worker may engage with a community in a variety of ways to help people dis-

cover what problems exist and how to develop plans to make their environment a more

desirable place to live. If a program from a private, regional, provincial, or local agency

can be of the benefit to a community identified problem and solution, then by all means

the resources of the program should be used. It is not the business of the community

38
development worker to hustle the programs of any organization (not even the programs

of the agency by which he is employed) unless the program or programs under question

have been named as beneficial by those people affected by the programs.

The community development professional has a role in making people aware that

certain programs are available for their consideration. One difficult problem in dealing

with the various programs is that they tend to be governed by inflexible rules, guide -

lines, eligibility regulations and are usually designed to deal with a rather small segment

of the community. Thus, the professional community development worker may serve in

a role of helping people discover ways of fitting various programs into the community

problem-solving process. One highly important method of assisting people in their rela-

tionship to local, provincial and regional bureaucracies is helping people to secure a

face-to-face relationship with agency personnel. this makes it somewhat more difficult

for the guideline oriented to hide from the people's criticism. Communities may decide in

a logical way what their needs are, and base decisions on data and information.

VII. Presentation of Data and Information

The feeding data and information should be accomplished in such a manner that

the quality of group decisions will be enhanced. the data and information must be in-

serted into the ongoing process in such a manner as not to impair the process of search

and discovery by the group. The form and timing of data presentation are of concern to

the community development worker.

If data presented in such a manner that certain decision are forced or discussion

halted and other alternatives overlooked, then the principles of community development

have been violated. This can happen both knowingly and unknowingly.

39
 If there is more than one position surrounding an issue, the community develop-

ment worker must be willing to discuss all points and present the facts as he can best

determine them, leaving the decision making to the person or groups with which he is

interacting.

The professional community development worker has an obligation to introduce

the data and information involved in a discussion and explanation of the community de-

velopment process. The creation of an understanding of the process and the principles

from which the process has been developed is an important phase of the professional's

obligation to the members of the community.

Available sources of data and information are not necessarily known by the audi-

ence group. These may be rather simple sources, such as government data books, cen-

sus materials, etc. The community development worker can serve an important function

by supplying information about sources of data as well as instructions regarding han-

dling data and developing it into usable form.

The community development worker must be willing to make data and informa-

tion available to groups for and against various issues. His data, time, and information

must be mutually obtainable. This may also provide him with the opportunity of bringing

the groups into face-to-face conferences based on data and facts rather than past feuds

and automatic reactions.

Data and information should be handled so that it is interjected to enhance the

study-action process in a meaningful manner

40
VIII. Creation of Organization
A cardinal rule of principle of community development activity should be that one

does not create organization before he knows what the problem is. The organization

formed should grow out the function it organizational solutions. is going to serve. Func -

tional problems are not necessarily solved by

A highly structured community development organization is not as pre-requisite

for community development. A group does not need to have officers, by-laws, etc., to be

functioning group. On record are some community forums which have existed over a

period of years with little or no organization. At each meeting, the date and place are set

for the next meeting. These may vary by days, weeks, or months.

The community development worker does not lead with ideas and makes sug-

gestions which are organizational in nature. He makes suggestions in view of what has

been identified as areas of interest by the people and according to his professional prin-

ciples.

The creation of organization, and its pros and cons, have been given consider-

able attention in the literature and in workshops and conferences. There seems to be an

argument that organization or structure is either good or bad. It would seem to be an ar -

gument has missed the mark. More significant discussion may center upon how such

organizations or structures are developed in light of community development principles.

It is apparent that some types of organization is necessary to carry out a long range

study, planning and action program in a community or area.

41
 Because a type of organization has worked in one area does not mean that it is a

valid organization elsewhere. It may be but, one of the pitfalls a community develop-

ment worker must avoid is an organizational set. In field operations, it is possible to be-

come comfortable with one approach and take or develop the attitude that this is the

way one goes about doing community development. This attitude is likely to have re-

sults that are not necessarily desirable for either the worker or the community.

In the creation of organization for community development work, it is most impor-

tant to realize that there are different types of organization. Two major types are the or-

ganization of the agency that sponsors the worker and those developed by the worker

to carry out community development at the local level.

IX. Group Participation and Group Selection

The community development process is open to anyone in a community who

wishes to participate. If community development is going to be based on ideal of a par-

ticipatory democracy it must be an open process.

It is not the business of community development personnel to go about selecting

leaders or identifying power structure” members with whom to work. Leaders, members

of the elite, and powerful members of the community are welcome, but not to the exclu-

sion of other segments of society.

A community development worker's obligation is to relate to communities in such

a manner that the activity of decision-making becomes an open forum. Thus, everyone

an express himself if he so desires. This expression of opinion, belief or desire may take

several forms, from filling out a survey from which is open-ended and encourages ex-

42
pression to stating a position in a community meeting. One of the primary roles of the

community development worker is the creation of arenas in which people can express

themselves and have an impact a decision which have an effect upon their well-being.

Volumes have been written concerning where the leadership is and how to iden-

tify This is useless activity for the community development worker. If a group of people

is interested and concerned about their community, they are the focal point for the com-

munity development worker. He may, and probably should attempt to broaden this base

to include as many elements of the community as possible. Out of these groups, leader -

ship will emerge or can be developed. Prior credential or position in the community are

not necessary to lead in community development effort. It is not the purpose of commu-

nity development to identify or enforce the present leadership structure in the co munity.

Neither is the purpose of community development work munity. set out to upset or de-

stroy the present leadership structure in the community.

Changes in leadership may occur due to the community development process.

These changes can take several forms. Established leaders may change attitudes and

pattern of behavior. Established leadership might be replaced or a blending of new and

old leadership may occur. These changes can and do occur in both the formal and infor-

mal leadership structures.

It is entirely possible that the so called power figures will view the community de-

velopment process as threat to their leadership positions. This can create very interest-

ing situations, but if the worker can validate that his activities are in accordance with the

principles of community development he is obligated to continue the development of the

43
community development process. Of course, the worker's supervisors and the agency

which employs him must back him in order for this situation to occur.

In some cases, it is assumed that the community development worker must get

the approval of the established leadership to create a community development process

in the area. If any group of people requests the services of the community development

worker, no group or person has the right to deny the people access to his services.

It can be assumed that not all people in communities will want to participate in a

formal community development process. There may be very sound reasons why many

people do not want to participate in community affairs. They may have been taught that

they have little or nothing to contribute to the community decision-making process. If

this situation prevails, the community development worker must work to establish an en-

vironment which encourages participation. A difference in attitude from that of non-in-

volvement to involvement may be necessary to develop. A new self-image needs to be

acquired by the members of the community, so that each citizen's contribution is consid-

ered worthwhile.

If community development is truly interested in the development of people so that

they may become increasingly more competent to deal with their environment effec-

tively, then the groups with which it is involved must be on the basis of self-selection. In

community development, the people define the areas of interest and concern and

choose who shall address themselves to that problem. It is the business of community

development workers to relate to the community in such a manner that this situation will

occur.

44
 When participation is based on interest rather that on duty or obligation, the qual -

ity of that participation may be greater.

X. Methods Combination

The community development worker does not usually relate to a community or

group using only one method or procedure. Then munity development worker will use

the method which seems most able at the time and for the particular situation with which

he is faced Over a period of time a community development worker will utilize many dif -

ferent approaches and methods, all of which adhere to community development princi-

ples and beliefs. Background knowledge of the situation and sensitivity to the cues

which the community provides assist the worker in knowing which methods are appro-

priate for a specific situation.

Summary
In the day-to-day operation of community development activity, it is difficult to

identify or separate the theory from the practice of community development. This is as it

should be for the practice and theory should be so intertwines that they are self-support-

ing, each testing and strengthening the other.

The various methods discussed should not be thought of as separate and apart.

it is entirely possible and probably desirable that the community development worker

use many of the methods at the same time in his assigned area. The first method dis -

45
cussed (direct interaction with individuals and groups) is basic to the establishment of

any community development activity.

The community development theory and practice are a guide both the worker

and the people who make up the community. developmental relationship which the

worker encourages help to b a knowledgeable community which can function on its own

through community development process. The human development which suits is worth

the effort

REFERENCES:
BLACKBURN, D. 1989. Foundations and Changing Practices In
Extension. Guelph. University of Guelph.
Community Development As A Process. Colombia: University of Missouri Press.
CARY, L. 1970
CRUZ, F. 1992.
New Perspectives In Community Development College - Laguna: DAERS- UPLB.
GILL, D. 1990.
“The Role of Extension in Community Development”. Saskatoon: Canadian Society of
Extension.
GRIFFITHS, H. 1974.
“The Aims and Objectives of Community Development”. Vol. 9 No. 2. Community Devel-

opment Journal. London: Oxford University Press.

JONES, B. et al. 1991.

“Problem-Solving, Community Building, and Systems Interaction: An Integrated Model

for Community Development. Vol. No. 22, No. 2, Journal of Community Development

Society. Ames: Iowa State University

46
LITTRELL, D. 1984.
The Theory and Practice of Community Development: A Guide for Practitioners. Colum-

bia: University of Missouri - Columbia.

REFERENCES:

BLACKBURN, D. 1989. Foundations and Changing Practices In

Extension. Guelph. University of Guelph
Community Development As A Process.
CARY, L. 1970
Colombia: University of Missouri Press.
New Perspectives In Community Devel-
CRUZ, F. 1992. opment College - Laguna: DAERS-
UPLB.
“The Role of Extension in Community
GILL, D. 1990. Development”. Saskatoon: Canadian
Society of Extension.

GRIFFITHS, H. 1974. “The Aims and Objectives of Community

Development”. Vol. 9 No. 2. Community
Development Journal. London: Oxford
University Press.

JONES, B. et al. 1991. “Problem-Solving, Community Building,

and Systems Interaction: An Integrated
Model for Community Development. Vol.
No. 22, No. 2, Journal of Community
Development Society. Ames: Iowa State
University
The Theory and Practice of Community
LITTRELL, D. 1984. Development: A Guide for Practitioners.
Columbia: University of Missouri - Co-
lumbia.

47
48