Psych 261 – Physiological Psychology

Module 1 – Lecture notes

Physiological psychology (the study of the physiology of the nervous system)

Psychology grew out of philosophy
What is thinking, what is a mind? What is consciousness
Descartes, Kant, Mill, etc.
Later physiology was used to explain the mind
Wundt wrote first textbook
Physiology related to consciousness
When go to sleep change consciousness
The role of brain in our behaviour

Lessons from Blindsight

Some people have split brain

There is a large tract of fibers that connect all brain cells from the right hemisphere of your
brain to the brain cells on the left side of your brain. This tract is called the corpus callosum
and it is the major interhemispheric connection
Unfortunately, there are some individuals with epilepsy which involves a coordinated
activity of their nerve cells that is excessive and severe and leads to the formation of
seizures.
One of the approaches to treating these cases of severe refractory epilepsy is for the
neurosurgeon to go in and to make a section of that corpus callosum. He essentially cuts it
in half and disconnects the right half of the brain from the left half of the brain.
Consciousness does not require the entire brain
Language is localized in the left hemisphere
Regardless of which ear you talk to, it goes to both hemispheres.
Each nostril goes to each hemisphere. Split brain may not be able to tell what the smell was.

rubber hand illusion.

In this setting what happens is a person’s hand is placed out of sight below a table. Then
within their sight and nearby, a rubber hand is placed that they can see. The experimenter
will use a brush like a paintbrush to softly stroke the subject’s hand. Simultaneously and in
the same direction they will stroke the rubber hand. If you do it carefully enough and long
enough, the person who is watching will begin to have the illusory perception that the
rubber hand is in fact their own.
Using functional magnetic resonance imaging device, allows experimenters to see which
part of the brain are active at a particular time.
Stroking the hand, see activation in the parietal lobes
So you need that perceptual sense of touch which is triggered by the parietal lobe to be
integrated with areas in the front part of the brain for the illusion to take place. So even in
normal human beings like you and me, it is possible to manipulate conscious experience
even for something as basic or fundamental as what your own hand is.

How do you research the mind?

“I think, therefore I am”.
was an early scientist, one who proposed some of the early investigations into the nervous
system?

Descartes important contributions to us in psychology is the discovery of the model and its
role in advancing psychological studies.
Thought of the nervous system as hydraulics. He tried to explain the nervous system in
simpler concepts and simpler metaphors.
The brain communicated with the muscles by little teeny squeezes of fluids that caused the
muscles to swell up and contract, which is what he did think in large part based on
experiences of hydraulics and mechanical fountains in gardens around France at the time he
was living.

In Descartes time, science was done by an observational method.

Descartes was the first scientists to learn that the lens in the eye inverted the retinal image.
(looking at the Ox)

Muller in psychology is most known for his doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies. He pointed
out that all of the nerves basically carry the same message.
Muller suggested that there was something related to the functional partitioning of the
nervous system to separate systems or channels that would lead to different perceptual
experiences such as light or sound or taste or touch. (nerve cells in ears are activated by
sound, nerve cells in eyes are activated by light, nerve cells in nose are activated by smell).

Flourens developed a method of experimental ablation where he went in an lesioned areas

of animal brains and looked for the loss of function that was associated with them. He
tended to use electrical lesioning.

Fritsch and Hitzig developed a method of electrical stimulation. So where Flourens looked
for loss of function, Fritsch and Hitzig looked for gain of function. If you electrically
stimulated one side of the front part of a dog’s brain, you could get twitching of muscles on
the other side of the dog.

Lessons from Brocas Area

Paul Pierre Broca
Neuorologist, anthropologist and surgeon.
known as Tan in the psychological literature.
made the assertion that the anterior left frontal region of our brain is particularly important
and functionally specialized for language.

Study approaches
design a model of nervous system
test the model by experimentation
brain lesions
brain stimulation

Neurons
Nerve cells; the information-processing and information-transmitting cells of the nervous
system.

Informed consent
The process in which researchers must inform any potential participant about the nature of
the research study, how any data will be collected and stored, and what the anticipated
benefits and costs of participating will be.

Natural selection
The process by which inherited traits that confer a selective advantage (increase an animal’s
likelihood to live and reproduce) become more prevalent in a population.

Reflex
An automatic, stereotyped movement that is produced as the direct result of a stimulus.

Monism
The belief that the world consists only of matter and energy and that the mind is a
phenomenon produced by the workings of the nervous system.

Evolution
A gradual change in the structure and physiology of plant and animal species—generally
producing more complex organisms—as a result of natural selection.

Neurogenesis
Production of new neurons through the division of neural stem cells; occurs in the
hippocampus and olfactory bulb and appears to play a role in learning.

Experimental Ablation
The research method in which the function of a part of the brain is inferred by observing the
behaviors an animal can no longer perform after that part is damaged.

Dualism
The belief that the body is physical but the mind (or soul) is not.

Selective Advantage
A characteristic of an organism that permits it to produce more than the average number of
offspring of its species.

Generalization
A type of scientific explanation; a general conclusion based on many observations of similar
phenomena.

Reduction
A type of scientific explanation; a phenomenon is described in terms of the more
elementary processes that underlie it.

Neoteny
A slowing of the process of maturation, allowing more time for growth; an important factor
in the development of large brains.

Neuroethics
An interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding implications of and developing best
practices in ethics for neuroscience research.

Behavioural Neuroscientists
A scientist who studies the physiology of behavior, primarily by performing physiological
and behavioral experiments with laboratory animals.

doctrine of specific nerve energies

Müller’s conclusion that, because all nerve fibers carry the same type of message, sensory
information must be specified by the particular nerve fibers that are active.

Functionalism
The principle that the best way to understand a biological phenomenon (a behavior or a
physiological structure) is to try to understand its useful functions for the organism.

Mutation
A change in the genetic information contained in the chromosomes of sperm or eggs, which
can be passed on to an organism’s offspring; provides genetic variability.

Module 2 – Lecture notes

Many of the medicines used to treat neurological disorders, such as antiseizure medicines
work at the level of interneuronal communication. Many of the medicines used to treat
psychiatric disorders, such as antidepressants work to increase the level of neurotransmitters
in the synaptic cleft. These are concepts that are part of today’s module.
Glia cells which are the supporting or “glue” cells of the nervous system. They are involved
in nutrition, structural support, immune functions as well as facilitating neuronal conduction.
Neurons are the fundamental processing units of the nervous systems. These are the
transistors that make the machine work.

The dendrites which are on the left side of the figure, are the receptive part of the neuron.
This is the area where the messages come into the neuron. This is the part of the cell that is
“catching” the signal that has been tossed to it from another cell. Scattered along the
dendrites of many neurons are dendritic spines. These are the little thornlike or tentacle
structures you see in the illustration. This is the location where many synaptic contacts—the
connections from one neuron to another—are made.

A signal comes in at the dendrite and travels down the dendrite until it reaches the soma,
which is another name for the cell body. It is at the cell body that computations are done. All
of the different potentials that have arrived at all of the different dendrites are summed
together and it is decided at the soma whether or not to send the signal further down the axon.

The axon extends off to your right. It is the efferent component of the neuron. “Efferent,”
means that it is taking the signal away from the soma. The afferent with the letter “a”, is
when it is bringing information into the soma. Dendrites are the afferent part of the pathway,
the axon the efferent. Along the axon of this illustration you see something referred to as the
myelin sheath. That is an insulating material that helps speed neuronal conduction and we
will discuss that more later when we talk about some of the glial cell types.

The flow of neural information

- Neuorns conduct their signal from dendrites to soma to axon
- Glial cells provide support for neurons.

Neurons are cells

- Nucleus contains the genetic instructions
- Cytoplasm is the location of protein assembly
- Centre of soma is the nucleus
- The nucleus is the central sac that contains the genetic material of the cell. The genes
are laid together in chromosomes and they are chemically made up of DNA.
 - about 25-30,000 genes in the human genome
- Set of instructions (DNA) is transcribed into the messenger RNA which is then able
to leave the nucleus and go out into the cytoplasm which is the supporting, largely
water-filled sac that makes up the cell body. There specialized cellular constituents
read the messages off the mRNA and use it to build chains of proteins. Ribosomes
participate in this process, and ribosomal DNA gives neurons some of the
characteristic

Supply Lines
- Cytoskeleton
- Axoplasmic flow

- Pink tube is the section of the axon

- Neuronal cytoskeleton gives the nerve its shape, also serves something of the
plumbing system.
- axoplasmic flow that can go both away from the cell body or towards the cell body. If
it is going away from the cell body it is orthograde transport or anterograde transport.
If it returning towards the cell body it is retrograde

The oligodendrocytes make myelin in the central nervous system. The Schwann cells make it
in the peripheral nervous system.
Schwann cells, if a nerve is injured, will make a little tunnel for the nerve to grow back along.
That is one of the reasons that it is much more difficult to recover from a central nervous
system injury, like a stroke, than it is from a peripheral nervous system injury,
multiple sclerosis will effect only the myelin of the central nervous system, while other
conditions such as diseases known as Guillain-Barre tend to much more likely to affect
myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

The potential is measured as the difference between the electrical potential of the sea water
and the internal portion of the axon.

presynaptic inhibition
The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the
amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.

Exocytosis
The secretion of a substance by a cell through means of vesicles; the process by
which neurotransmitters are secreted.

Nucleus
A structure in the central region of a cell, containing the nucleolus and
chromosomes.

Neurotransmitter
A chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect
on another neuron.

Ligand
A chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.

Motor neuron
A neuron located within the central nervous system that controls the contraction of a
muscle or the secretion of a gland.

Inhibitory Postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

An inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused
by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.

Presynaptic membrane
The membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane
and through which the neurotransmitter is released.

Binding site
The location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds.

Membrane potential
The electrical charge across a cell membrane; the difference in electrical potential
inside and outside the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum
Parallel layers of membrane found within the cytoplasm of a cell. Rough
endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes and is involved with production of
proteins that are secreted by the cell. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site of
synthesis of lipids and provides channels for the segregation of molecules involved
in various cellular processes.

Diffusion
Movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low
concentration.

Microtubule
A long strand of bundles of protein filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of
the cytoskeleton and involved in transporting substances from place to place within
the cell.

Mitochondrion
An organelle that is responsible for extracting energy from nutrients.

Cytoskeleton
Formed of microtubules and other protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a
cohesive mass that gives a cell its shape.

Postsynaptic potential
Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by
liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse.
Endocrine gland
A gland that liberates its secretions into the extracellular fluid around capillaries and
hence into the bloodstream.

Presynaptic facilitation
The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; increases the
amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A molecule of prime importance to cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown
liberates energy.

Depolarization
Reduction (toward zero) of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting
potential; membrane potential becomes more positive.

Node of Ranvier
A naked portion of a myelinated axon between adjacent oligodendroglia or Schwann
cells.

Astrocyte
A glial cell that provides support for neurons of the central nervous system, provides
nutrients and other substances, and regulates the chemical composition of the
extracellular fluid.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A long, complex macromolecule consisting of two interconnected helical strands;
along with associated proteins, strands of DNA constitute the chromosomes.

Dendrite
A branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives information
from the terminal buttons of other neurons.

Neural Integration
The process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and
control the rate of firing of a neuron.
Synaptic vesicle
A small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains molecules of a
neurotransmitter.

Target cell
The type of cell that is directly affected by a hormone or other chemical signal.

Hyperpolarization
An increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting
potential; membrane potential becomes more negative.

Schwann cell
A cell in the peripheral nervous system that is wrapped around a myelinated axon,
providing one segment of its myelin sheath.
Nucleolus
A structure within the nucleus of a cell that produces the ribosomes.

Retrograde
In a direction along an axon from the terminal buttons toward the cell body.

Second messenger
A chemical produced when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that
results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell.

Electrostatic pressure
The attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the
repulsive force between atomic particles charged with the same sign.

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

An excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by
the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button

Extracellular fluid
Body fluids located outside of cells.

Glia
The supporting cells of the central nervous system.

Oscilloscope
A laboratory instrument that is capable of displaying a graph of voltage as a function
of time on the face of a cathode ray tube.

Saltatory conduction
Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to
jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.

Peptide
A chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. Most neuromodulators, and
some hormones, consist of peptide molecules.
Microelectrode
A very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual neurons.

Oligodendrocyte
A type of glial cell in the central nervous system that forms myelin sheaths.

Area postrema
A region of the medulla where the blood–brain barrier is weak; poisons can be
detected there and can initiate vomiting.

Postsynaptic receptor
A receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a
binding site for a neurotransmitter.

Steroid
A chemical of low molecular weight, derived from cholesterol. Steroid hormones
affect their target cells by attaching to receptors found within the nucleus.

Release zone
A region of the interior of the presynaptic membrane of a synapse to which synaptic
vesicles attach and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

Acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts of the peripheral
nervous system; responsible for muscular contraction.

Threshold of excitation
The value of the membrane potential that must be reached to produce an action
potential.

Gap junction
A special junction between cells that permits direct communication by means of
electrical coupling.

Neuromodulator
A naturally secreted substance that acts like a neurotransmitter except that it is not
restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid.

Ion
A charged molecule. Cations are positively charged, and anions are negatively
charged.

Reuptake
The reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through the
presynaptic membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.

Lysosome
An organelle surrounded by membrane; contains enzymes that break down waste
products.
Enzymatic deactivation
The destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release—for example,
the destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase.

Ribosome
A cytoplasmic structure, made of protein, that serves as the site of production of
proteins translated from mRNA.

Synapse
A junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another
neuron.

Golgi apparatus
A complex of parallel membranes in the cytoplasm that wraps the products of a
secretory cell.

Hormone
A chemical substance that is released by an endocrine gland that has effects on target
cells in other organs.

Metabotropic receptor
A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme
that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the membrane
of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.

Blood-brain barrier
A semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in
the walls of the brain’s capillaries.

Peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including the
nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord.

Anterograde
In a direction along an axon from the cell body toward the terminal buttons.

Resting potential
The membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by excitatory or
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; approximately -70 mV in the giant squid axon.

Messenger ribonucleic acid

A macromolecule that delivers genetic information concerning the synthesis of a
protein from a portion of a chromosome to a ribosome.

Action potential
The brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information
along an axon.

Microglia
The smallest of glial cells; they act as phagocytes and protect the brain from invading
microorganisms.

Axon
The long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a
neuron to its terminal buttons.

Voltage-dependent ion channel

An ion channel that opens or closes according to the value of the membrane
potential.

Synaptic cleft
The space between the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane.

Dendritic spine
A small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another
neuron forms a synapse.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
The enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated by the terminal
buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.

Postsynaptic membrane
The cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the
cell that receives the message.

Autoreceptor
A receptor molecule located on a presynaptic neuron that responds to the
neurotransmitter released by that neuron.

Gene
The functional unit of the chromosome, which directs synthesis of one or more
proteins.

Axoplasmic transport
An active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the
length of the axon.

Chromosome
A strand of DNA, with associated proteins, found in the nucleus; carries genetic
information.

Ion channel
A specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells.

Myelin sheath
A sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from
spreading between adjacent axons.

All-or-none law
The principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propagated,
without decrement, to the end of the fiber.

Neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel

An ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a
postsynaptic receptor.

Intracellular fluid
The fluid contained within cells.

Rate law
The principle that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being
transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon
fires.

Cytoplasm
The viscous, semiliquid substance contained in the interior of a cell.

Terminal button
The bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron;
sends information to that neuron.

Interneuron
A neuron located entirely within the central nervous system.

Membrane
A structure consisting principally of lipid molecules that defines the outer boundaries
of a cell and also constitutes many of the cell organelles, such as the Golgi
apparatus.

Ionotropic receptor
A receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion channel that
opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.

G protein
A protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules
when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor.

Soma
The cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus.

Sensory neuron
A neuron that detects changes in the external or internal environment and sends
information about these changes to the central nervous system.

Electrolyte
An aqueous solution of a material that ionizes—namely, a soluble acid, base, or salt.

Sodium-potassium transporter
A protein found in the membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and
transports potassium ions into the cell.

Phagocytosis
The process by which cells engulf and digest other cells or debris caused by cellular
degeneration.

Enzyme
A molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking
a substance into two parts.

Presynaptic inhibition
The action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the
amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.

Module 3

Neural tube
A hollow tube, closed at the rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in
embryonic development; serves as the origin of the central nervous system.

Red Nucleus
A large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor
cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord.

Reticular formation
A large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from
the medulla to the diencephalon.

Ventral route
The spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers.

Cerebral aqueduct
A narrow tube interconnecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, located in
the center of the mesencephalon.

Cauda equina
A bundle of spinal roots located caudal to the end of the spinal cord.

Corpus callosum
A large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association
cortex on each side of the brain.
Cingulate gyrus
A strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the
cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum.

Neurosecretory cell
A neuron that secretes a hormone or hormonelike substance.

Neocortex
The phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary
motor cortex, and association cortex.

Posterior
With respect to the central nervous system, located near or toward the tail.

Primary auditory cortex

The region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory
system.

Cerebellum
A major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containing the two cerebellar
hemispheres, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the
motor system.

Choroid Plexus
The highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces
cerebrospinal fluid.

Medial geniculate nucleus

A group of cell bodies within the medial geniculate body of the thalamus; receives
fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex.

Lateral fissure
The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal
lobes.

Midsagittal plane
The plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into
two symmetrical halves.

Cerebellar peduncle
One of three bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal
pons.

Anterior pituitary gland

The anterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland whose secretions are
controlled by the hypothalamic hormones.

Lateral
Toward the side of the body, away from the middle.
Radial glia
Special glia with fibers that grow radially outward from the ventricular zone to the
surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain
development.

Third ventricle
The ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon.

Ipsilateral
Located on the same side of the body.

Spinal cord
The cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla.

Sulcus
A groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure.

Meninges
The three layers of tissue that encase the central nervous system: the dura mater,
arachnoid membrane, and pia mater.
Spinal root
A bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse
and form a spinal nerve.

Diencephalon
A region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and
the hypothalamus.

Dorsal root ganglion

A nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons.

Basal ganglia
A group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus
pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system.

Ventricle
One of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The portion of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s vegetative
functions.

Fornix
A fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including
the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of the limbic system.

Mammillary bodies
A protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus,
containing some hypothalamic nuclei; part of the limbic system.
Superior colliculi
Protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the visual system.

Tegmentum
The ventral part of the midbrain; includes the periaqueductal gray matter, reticular
formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra.

Superior sagittal sinus

A venous sinus located in the midline just dorsal to the corpus callosum, between the
two cerebral hemispheres.

Nucleus (plural: nuclei)

An identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the central nervous system.

Midbrain
The mesencephalon; the central of the three major divisions of the brain.

Cerebellar cortex
The cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum.

Hypothalamus
The group of nuclei of the diencephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in
regulation of the autonomic nervous system, control of the anterior and posterior
pituitary glands, and integration of species-typical behaviors.

Motor association cortex

The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex; also known as the
premotor cortex.

Substantia nigra
A darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate
with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills the ventricular system of the brain and
the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Subarachnoid space
The fluid-filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid
membrane and the pia mater.

Sympathetic division
The portion of the autonomic nervous system that controls functions that accompany
arousal and expenditure of energy.

Limbic system
A group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala,
hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their
interconnecting fiber bundles.
Horizontal section
A slice through the brain parallel to the ground.

Thalamus
The largest portion of the diencephalon located above the hypothalamus; contains
nuclei that project information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive
information from it.

Postganglionic neuron
Neurons of the autonomic nervous system that form synapses directly with their
target organ.

Ventral
“Toward the belly”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction
perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of
the body.

Subcortical region
The region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface.

Obstructive hydrocephalus
A condition in which all or some of the brain’s ventricles are enlarged; caused by an
obstruction that impedes the normal flow of CSF.

Primary visual cortex

The region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual
system. Also known as striate cortex.

Efferent axon
An axon directed away from the central nervous system, conveying motor
commands to muscles and glands.

Hindbrain
The most caudal of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the
metencephalon and myelencephalon.

Olfactory bulb
The protrusion at the end of the olfactory nerve; receives input from the olfactory
receptors.

Saggital section
A slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground.

Fourth ventricle
The ventricle located between the cerebellum and the dorsal pons, in the center of
the metencephalon.

Subarachnoid space
The fluid-filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid
membrane and the pia mater.

Primary visual cortex

The region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual
system. Also known as striate cortex.

Midsagittal plane
The plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into
two symmetrical halves.

Cranial nerve
A peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain.

Caudal
“Toward the tail”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along the
neuraxis away from the front of the face.

Rostral
“Toward the beak”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction along
the neuraxis toward the front of the face.

Preganglionic neuron
The efferent neuron of the autonomic nervous system whose cell body is located in a
cranial nerve nucleus or in the intermediate horn of the spinal gray matter and whose
terminal buttons synapse upon postganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia.

Apoptosis
Death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a genetic mechanism
inside the cell.

Medulla oblongata
The most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon, immediately
rostral to the spinal cord

Progenitor cells
Cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of the central nervous
system.

Diencephalon
A region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and
the hypothalamus.

Midbrain
The mesencephalon; the central of the three major divisions of the brain.

Sympathetic ganglia
Nodules that contain synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of
the sympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic ganglion chain
One of a pair of groups of sympathetic ganglia that lie ventrolateral to the vertebral
column.

Gyrus
A convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or
fissures.

Projection Fiber
An axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with
neurons in another region.

sensory association cortex

Those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of
primary sensory cortex.

Lateral geniculate nucleus

A group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives
fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex.

Dura mater
The outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible.

Ventricular zone
A layer of cells that line the inside of the neural tube; contains progenitor cells that
divide and give rise to cells of the central nervous system.

ventrolateral nucleus
A nucleus of the thalamus that receives inputs from the cerebellum and sends axons
to the primary motor cortex.

Primary somatosensory cortex

The region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the
somatosensory system.

Superior colliculi
Protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the visual system.

Frontal lobe
The anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to
the temporal lobe.

cerebral hemisphere
One of the two major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex.

Contralateral
Located on the opposite side of the body.

Medial
Toward the middle of the body, away from the side.

Temporal lobe
The region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the
parietal and frontal lobes.

Hippocampus
A forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic
system.

Parietal lobe
The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal
lobe.

Occipital lobe
The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes.

Fornix
A fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including
the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of the limbic system.

Cross section
With respect to the central nervous system, a slice taken at right angles to the
neuraxis.

Optic chiasm
An X-shaped connection between the optic nerves, located below the base of the
brain, just anterior to the pituitary gland.

Subventricular zone (SVZ)

A layer of progenitor cells located just inside the ventricular zone; thicker in
mammals with large brains.

Spinal cord
The cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla.

posterior pituitary gland

The posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-
secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus.

Forebrain
The most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the telencephalon
and diencephalon.

Pons
The region of the metencephalon rostral to the medulla, caudal to the midbrain, and
ventral to the cerebellum.

Dorsal
“Toward the back”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a direction
perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or the back.

Dorsal root
The spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers.

Periaqueductal gray matter

The region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; contains neural
circuits involved in species-typical behaviors.

Inferior colliculi
Protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the auditory system.

Vagus nerve
The largest of the cranial nerves, conveying efferent fibers of the parasympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system to organs of the thoracic and abdominal
cavities.

afferent axon
An axon directed toward the central nervous system, conveying sensory information.

Frontal section
A slice through the brain parallel to the forehead.

lateral ventricle
One of the two ventricles located in the center of the telencephalon.
Central sulcus
The sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.

parasympathetic division
The portion of the autonomic
nervous system that controls functions that occur during a relaxed state.

symmetrical division
Division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to two identical progenitor cells; increases
the size of the ventricular zone and hence the brain that develops from it.

limbic cortex
Phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge (“limbus”) of the cerebral
hemispheres; part of the limbic system.

fissure
A major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus.

calcarine fissure
A fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; most of the
primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks.
deep cerebellar nuclei
Nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres; receive projections from the
cerebellar cortex and send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the
brain.

prefrontal cortex
The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex.

Pia mater
The inner layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain; thin and
delicate.

mesencephalon
The midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes
the tectum and the tegmentum.

adrenal medulla
The inner portion of the adrenal gland, located atop the kidney, controlled by
sympathetic nerve fibers; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Tectum
The dorsal part of the midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colliculi.

arachnoid membrane
The middle layer of the meninges, located between the outer dura mater and inner
pia mater.

primary motor cortex

The region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements
of skeletal muscles.

brain stem
The “stem” of the brain, from the medulla to the midbrain, excluding the cerebellum.

amygdala
A structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part
of the limbic system.

somatic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the movement of skeletal
muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the central nervous system.

ventral root
The spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers.

anterior
With respect to the central nervous system, located near or toward the head.
cerebral cortex
The outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres.

neuraxis
An imaginary line drawn through the center of the length of the central nervous
system, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain.

asymmetrical division
Division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to another progenitor cell and a neuron,
which migrates away from the ventricular zone toward its final resting place in the
brain.

insular cortex
A sunken region of the cerebral cortex that is normally covered by the rostral
superior temporal lobe and caudal inferior frontal lobe.

radial glia
Special glia with fibers that grow radially outward from the ventricular zone to the
surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain
development.

arachnoid granulation
Small projections of the arachnoid membrane through the dura mater into the
superior sagittal sinus; CSF flows through them to be reabsorbed into the blood
supply.

caudal block
The anesthesia and paralysis of the lower part of the body produced by injection of a
local anesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina.

spinal nerve
A peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord.

midsagittal plane
The plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into
two symmetrical halves.

Cranial nerve
A peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain.

sympathetic ganglion chain

One of a pair of groups of sympathetic ganglia that lie ventrolateral to the vertebral
column.