The three grades of metazoan animals

Animalia
KINGDOM:

GRADE: Parazoa Mesozoa Eumetazoa

PHYLA: Placozoa Porifera Mesozoa All other

animal phyla
Phylum Porifera

the sponges
 Phylum Porifera

Branch Parazoa – “beside + animal”

Sponges are at the cellular level of

organization and have no tissues or organs.

Sponges are assemblages of cells embedded

in a protein matrix and supported by a
skeleton of needle-like structures.
External Morphology
 General Body Plan
osculum
(plural=oscula)

spongocoel

ostia
choanocytes (singular=ostium)

water
General Body Plan
Choanocytes: “collar cells”

• diagnostic of phylum Porifera

• consist of a long flagellum
surrounded by a “collar” of
microvilli
• functions:
-obtaining food
-creating water currents
-reproduction
 General Body Plan
osculum
(plural=oscula)

spongocoel

ostia
choanocytes (singular=ostium)

water
 3 Body Types
Based on the complexity of the water canals:

• Asconoid

• Syconoid

• Leuconoid

Increasing size
Increasing Surface Area :Volume
 Asconoid Body Type
osculum
(plural=oscula)

spongocoel
ostia
(singular=ostium)

water

Choanocytes line the

spongocoel (the black
shaded area)
 Syconoid Body Type
osculum
(plural=oscula)

ostia
incurrent (singular=ostium)
canals

radial
canals
spongocoel
choanocytes line the
radial canals (the black
shaded area)
Syconoid Body Type
prosopyle:
opening from
incurrent canal to
radial canal

apopyle: radial canal:

opening from radial lined with
canal to choanocytes
spongocoel
 Leuconoid Body Type
oscula

flagellated
chambers

spongocoel

ostia

Choanocytes line the

flagellated chambers
(the black shaded area)
 Leuconoid Body Type
prosopyle: opening ostia
form incurrent canals to
flagellated chambers
incurrent
canal
apopyle: opening form
flagellated chambers to
spongocoel
 3 Body Types
Based on the complexity of the water canals:

• Asconoid

• Syconoid

• Leuconoid

Increasing size
Increasing Surface Area :Volume
SA = l2 X 6
V = l3
The large SA:V of
leuconoid sponges

More space for

choanocytes

More water flow

Larger size
Microscopic Morphology

archaeocyte porocyte
(amoebocyte)

choanocyte

pinacocyte mesohyl

spicules
Skeletal Elements
Mesohyl

• proteinaceous matrix that

contains skeletal material and
certain cell types
• equivalent to the connective
tissue in other organisms
• made of collagen
and spongin
Skeletal Elements
Spicules

• made of calcium carbonate or

silica
• often used in taxonomic
identification
Cell Types
Choanocytes

• diagnostic of phylum Porifera

• consist of a long flagellum
surrounded by a “collar” of
microvilli
• functions:
-obtaining food
-creating water currents
-reproduction
Cell Types
Archaeocytes

• also called “amoebocytes”

• found throughout mesohyl
• totipotent Æ can differentiate into
any other type of cell
• functions:
- digestion through phagocytosis
- make spicules
- reproduction
 Cell Types
Pinacocytes

• line the exterior surface of the

sponge
outside of sponge

inside of sponge

• functions:
- some can regulate water flow
by moving (open/close ostia)
 Cell Types
Porocytes

• found in asconoid sponges

• form tubes in the body wall
outside of sponge

inside of sponge

where water can pass through

• functions:
- allow water flow
 Physiology
Feeding
– Sessile filter-feeders

Digestion
– Intracellular

Gas exchange
– Simple diffusion

Excretion (nitrogenous waste removal)

– Simple diffusion
 Physiology

Reproduction

1. Asexual
• fragmentation
• budding
• regeneration
• gemmules
Physiology

Gemmules:
-in freshwater sponges only

–resistant mass of
archaeocytes that are
produced in unfavorable
conditions

–when the environment is

favorable, they will develop
into sponges
 Physiology

Reproduction

2. Sexual
usually monoecious
(a single individual produces both male and
female gametes; both sexes are within one
individual)
• sperm are released into the water and eggs are
retained within the sponge
• motile larvae are produced
Some sponge larvae
crawl along the bottom,
whereas others are free
swimming.
Some free-swimming larvae are
capable of fusing with others!

B.
Larvae eventually settle
and metamorphose into
adults
 Ecology
• most sponges are marine (~5000 species) but
there are ~150 freshwater sponge species
• Sponges are found at all depths but certain
species are restricted to particular depths due
to how their spicules are formed
• There are few sponge predators because they
usually contain distasteful toxins
• Some predators (e.g. sea slugs) sequester
these sponge toxins which in turn deters their
own predators
 Ecology
Symbiosis –
the living together of 2 different species in an
intimate relationship

Types of symbiotic relationships:

– Mutualism= both partners benefit

– Commensalism= 1 partner benefits, 1 partner is unaffected
– Parasitism= 1 partner benefits, 1 partner is harmed

There are examples of all 3 of these types of

symbiotic relationships occurring in Sponges
 Ecology
Mutualism –
• certain ‘endosymbiotic’ bacteria and algae living
within the sponge provide additional food for the
sponge while the sponge provides a place for the
bacteria and algae to grow

• some crabs will attach a piece of

sponge to their body to use as
camouflage and to deter predators
while the sponge gets to move
around
 Ecology
Commensalism –
• many different species live within sponges and
receive food and shelter benefits but do nothing for
the sponge
e.g. 15cm² piece of sponge in California was found
to house 100 different species of plants + animals

e.g.Venus’s Flower basket

a pair of shrimp live their entire lives
within 1 sponge
 Ecology
Parasitism –
• boring sponges are parasites on certain corals
because they bore into the calcium carbonate base
of the coral for protection and kill part of the coral
in the process
 FSU Research on Sponges: Dr. Janie Wulff

[email protected]

Smithsonian Institution
field station at Carrie
Bow Cay
The sponge communities of reefs and
mangrove islands are very different. What
factors are responsible for this difference?

1. Abiotic factors: Light, turbidity, nutrients,

substrate, physical disturbance…
2. Biotic factors: competition, predation,
parasitism…
The sponge communities of reefs and
mangrove islands are very different. What
factors are responsible for this difference?

1. Abiotic factors: Light, turbidity, nutrients,

substrate, physical disturbance…
2. Biotic factors: competition, predation,
parasitism…

Determining which of these is more important is

difficult because reefs and mangroves differ in
abiotic and biotic factors.
What factors determine the diversity of
sponges in a habitat?
What factors determine the diversity of
sponges in a habitat?

Twin Cays Pelican Cay

-Species composition: there are 167 species in

both habitats combined, but 78 % of the
species are found in only one of the two
locations.
What factors determine the diversity of
sponges in a habitat?

Twin Cays
•Sponges grow on
mangrove roots
•Sponge diversity is
typical of mangrove
stands throughout the
Western Atlantic
What factors determine the diversity of
sponges in a habitat?

Pelican Cay

•Sponges grow on
mangrove roots
•Sponge diversity is
typical of shallow coral
reefs
Why do these two similar habitats have such
different sponge communities ?

Transplant experiments: small pieces of sponge

from each habitat were attached to mangrove
roots in the native and non native habitat

Twin Cay Pelican Cay

sponges sponges
Why do these two similar habitats have such
different sponge communities ?

Transplant experiments:
1. Caging experiments: the role of predation

uncaged TC sponge Twin Cay

sponges
transplanted in
caged TC sponge Pelican Cay
Competition Results:

Songe survival (Twin cay sponges in Pelican Cay)

80
% survival

60

40

20

0
caged uncaged
Treatment
 Competition Results:
Sponge predators in Pelican Cay:

Gray angelfish Redband parrotfish

These spongivores are also present on reefs.

Why do these two similar habitats have such
different sponge communities ?

Transplant experiments:
1. Caging experiments: the role of predation
2. Competitor free space: the role of
competition
TC sponge

uncaged PC sponge Pelican Cay

sponges
transplanted in
sponge attached Twin Cays
to pvc
Competition Results:

Sponges in
competitor free
space have
higher survival

Wulff, in press
Competition Results:

Sponges in
competitor free
space tend to
grow more

Wulff, in press
 Competition Results:

Pelican Cay
Twin Cays There is a
positive
relationship
between growth
and survival in
Twin Cays, but
not in Pelican
Cay

Wulff, in press
The sponge communities of reefs and
mangrove islands are very different. What
factors are responsible for this difference?

Dr. Wulff’s research suggests that biotic factors

(predation and competition) are important :
•Competition plays a more important role in
determining sponge diversity in mangrove habitats.
•Predation plays a more important role in determining
sponge diversity in coral reef habitats.
The sponge communities of reefs and
mangrove islands are very different. What
factors are responsible for this difference?

Dr. Wulff’s research also suggests that there

maybe a trade-off between competitive ability
and predator defense:

Species found
Defensive ability

on reefs ?

Species found
in mangroves ?
Competitive ability