Overall Score: 81.

75

IZMIR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPERTMENT OF FOOD ENGINEERING

FE 322 UNIT OPERATIONS LABORATORY

Experiment 3: Linear Heat Conduction I

Group 7

Duygu Evrim Bilen – 250205008

İrem Merve Bölükbaşı – 250205026

Derya Ulu – 250205019

Arda Altundağ – 240205021

Arda Salman - 230205010

RA Cansu ÖZEL TAŞCI

1
ABSTRACT

Steady state heat transfer involves many engineering application.s The objective of this
experiment is to understand heat conduction along a composite bar and evaluate the
were
temperature reading by position along the bar. In the experiment, three different situations are
was
observed. Firstly, the temperature distribution in a uniform plan wall is monitored. Then, solid
were
material and insulating material are placed on the specimen position and temperature changes
were
are monitored. By using Fourier's law, thermal conductivity values of the materials used in the
were
experiments are calculated. As a result of this experiment, in a medium with constant heat
transfer, the temperature also changed according to the location of the data received. The
thermal conductivity value of the materials used in the medium also affected this temperature
change. When the insulating material is used, we see that the temperature drops quite
seriously compared to other experimental data.
A well planned abstract. Next time, add your findings in numerical values (your results after the
calculations.) Additionally, justify your text in Word while writing.

Most importantly, your keywords are missing here.

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................ 3
LIST OF SYMBOLS....................................................................................................................... 4
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Steady State Conduction Through a Uniform Plane Wall ....................................................... 7
2. MATERIAL & METHODS ............................................................................................................ 8
2.1 MATERIAL AND SETUP...................................................................................................... 8
2.1.1 Material and setup in Exercise A - Steady State Conduction through a Uniform Plane
Wall 8
2.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ........................................................................................ 10
2.2.1 OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................. 10
2.2.2 PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Material and setup in Exercise B - Use of the Fourier Rate Equation ................................... 11
2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ........................................................................................ 12
2.4.1 OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................. 12
2.4.2 PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................... 13
2.4.3 Material and setup in Exercise C - Application and Thermal Conductivity of Insulators
13
2.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ........................................................................................ 15
2.5.1 Objective ....................................................................................................................... 15
2.5.2 Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 15
3. CALCULATIONS & RESULTS .................................................................................................. 16
3.1 Exercise A ............................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 Exersice B: ............................................................................................................................ 20
3.3 Exercise C.............................................................................................................................. 29
4. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 34
5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 36
6. RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................. 36
7. REFERENCES ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

3
LIST OF SYMBOLS

Name Symbol Symbols are fine.

You do not have to add the whole
formula here.

Heat Flow 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑥𝐼 (W)

(𝑝𝑖𝑥𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 )
Cross sectional area 𝐴=
4
(𝑚2 )

(𝑇2(℃)−𝑇3(℃))
Temperature at hot face of insulator 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 (℃) − (℃)
2

𝑇6(℃)−𝑇7(℃)
Temperature at cold face of insulator 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6(℃) + ( )(℃)
2

Temperature difference across insulator ∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)

(𝑄𝑥∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠 ) W.m
Thermal conductivity of insulated disk 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = ( )
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 ℃

Temperature difference in heated section ∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇3 (℃)

𝑥13 𝑄 W.m
Conductivity in heated section 𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 = ∆𝑇 ( )
ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡 ℃

Temperature difference in intermediate section ∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇4 − 𝑇5 (℃)

𝑥45 𝑄 W.m
Conductivity intermediate section 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ∆𝑇 ( )
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑡 ℃

Temperature difference in cooled section ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑇6 − 𝑇8 (℃)

𝑥68 𝑄 W.m
Conductivity in cooled section 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = ∆𝑇 ( )
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 ℃

4
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Linear Heat Conduction system

Figure 2.1: Experimental set up that contains, from left to right: HT11C, HT10XC

Figure 2.2: The sketch of the device

Figure 2.3: One continuous wall of uniform cross section and material

Figure 2.4: The flow chart of the experiment (For Exercise A).

Figure 2.5: The sketch of the device

Figure 2.6: One continuous wall of uniform cross section and material.

Figure 2.7: The flow chart of the experiment (For Exercise B).

Figure 2.8: The sketch of the device

Figure 2.9: One continuous wall of uniform cross section and material.

Figure 2.10: The flow chart of the experiment (For Exercise C).

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Temperature differences of the experiment

Table 2: Current, voltage and water flow rate for different measurements.

Table 3: Tabulated formulas

Table 4: Formulas used in the experiment

Table 5: Given data.

5
 1. INTRODUCTION

Heat conduction is the transmission of thermal energy by more energetic particles in

in liquids, gases, and solids.
the environment to particles with less energetic ones. Conduction can occur liquids and gases,
in
solids. The most important factor determining the rate of heat transfer is temperature
difference. The greater the temperature difference, the greater the rate of heat transfer.
Heat transfer problems are divided into two categories as steady state and unsteady
state(transient). The conditions where the temperature at a certain point does not change with
respect to time is called as steady state while unsteady state implies variation with time or
time dependence. According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat will always conduct
from higher temperature to lower temperature (Singh, Heldman, 2008). The rate of heat
conduction occurring in a certain direction in the medium is directly proportional to the
temperature difference of the medium and the surface area where the heat transfer occurs, but
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer. The formula that defines the mentioned
relationships mathematically and enables the solution of these one-dimensional problems is
called Fourier's law. This formula shows that the thermal conductivity of the material is also a
part of this equation, which should be considered.

Heat transfer rate expressed by the equation:

(Eq.1)
Where:
Q̊ is the amount of heat transferred per unit time W
k is the thermal conductivity of the material (W/m.K)
dT/dx is the temperature gradient (K/m)
A is the area of the material (m2)
If the heat transfer rate is divided by heat transfer area, the heat flux is obtained, and
the average heat flux is expressed as
Q̊
𝑞̇ = 𝐴 (W/m2) (Eq.2)

Linear heat conduction experiment was examined in three parts. These were ‘Steady
State Conduction through a Uniform Plane Wall’ which was part A and ‘Use of the Fourier

6
 Rate Equation’ which was part B and ‘Application and Thermal Conductivity of Insulators’
which was part C.

Figure 1.1: Linear Heat Conduction system

1.1 Steady State Conduction Through a Uniform Plane Wall

was
The purpose of this experiment A is to understand how a temperature is distributed for
steady-state conduction of energy through a uniform plane wall. Furthermore, the effect of the
was
change in heat flow is demonstrated.
was
Using the Fourier Rate Equation, it is shown how to interpret the relationship between
temperature difference, heat flux, and distance in a solid material with constant cross-sectional
area and thermal conductivity.
was
In this experiment, an insulating part is placed in the cylinder and the temperature change
was T was
is measured. thus, the thermal conductivity of the insulating material is determined.
this is Part C, i think, but as you did not mention it, it is read like the rest of the Part A

7
 2. MATERIAL & METHODS
2.1 MATERIAL AND SETUP

2.1.1 Material and setup in Exercise A - Steady State Conduction through a Uniform
Plane Wall

• Armfield HT10XC - Heat Transfer Service Unit.

• Armfield HT11C – Linear Heat Conduction accessory.
• The Thermal Paste in Operating the Equipment.
• The Thermocouples.
• The Voltage Control Potentiometer.
• The Socket Marked OUTPUT 2
• The Socket Marked AUXILIARY OUTPUT.
• The AUXILIARY CONTROL Knob.
• The AUXILIARY POWER Socket.
• A computer.

Figure 2.1: Experimental set up that contains, from left to right: HT11C, HT10XC.
Avoid replicating figures, the device was already in the Introduction section.

8
 Figure 2.2: The sketch of the device

Figure 2.1 shows that the working principle of the heat operator consists of two parts
and it shows that the upper part is heated by the resistance and the lower part is cooled by the
circulation through which the mains water flows.
As the heated and cooled sections, which are two end faces, are tightly locked to each
other and in good contact, these sections are considered as a continuous wall consisting of a
uniform cross-section and material.

Figure 2.3: One continuous wall of uniform cross section and material

9
 2.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

2.2.1 OBJECTIVE Objectives are better in the last paragraphs of Introductions.

The purpose of the experiment is to measure the temperature distribution for steady-
state conduction of energy over a uniform plane and to show the effects of changes in heat
flow.

2.2.2 PROCEDURE

These

Figure 2.4: The flow chart of the experiment (For Exercise A). VG!

The experiment was begun with the panel on the service console was checked. Then
the cooling water opened and the flow control valve adjusted almost 1.5 litres/min. The heater
voltage was set 9 volts on computer. The HT11C was waited to stabilize and temperature

10
 values was recorded. The procedure was applied for 12V,17V and 21V.
According to Fourier's law of heat conduction, the errors of the recorded data were calculated:

𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝐴 ( ) (𝑊) (Eq. 3)
𝑑𝑥

2.3 Material and setup in Exercise B - Use of the Fourier Rate Equation

• Armfield HT11C – Linear Heat Conduction accessory. When you are using the same device,
you can just give the changes in the materials,
• Armfield HT10XC - Heat Transfer Service Unit. for instance in this one, you added a brass
• The Thermal Paste in Operating the Equipment. section between two walls.

• The Thermocouples.
• The Voltage Control Potentiometer.
• The Socket Marked OUTPUT 2.
• The Socket Marked AUXILIARY OUTPUT.
• The Socket Marked Fw.
• The AUXILIARY CONTROL Knob.
• The AUXILIARY POWER Socket.
• A computer.

Figure 2.5: The sketch of the device

The working principle of the device works as heating with voltage at the top and
cooling with water cycle at the bottom, as in the exercise A, but in this experiment, brass was

11
added between the hot and cold regions. Brass had two thermocouples, one in the hot and the
cold region.
With good interaction of end sections and tight interlocking of heated, intermediate
and cooled three sections, the three sections are designed as a single section and a continuous
wall of the material.

Figure 2.6: One continuous wall of uniform cross section and material.
Since the sign of the Fourier equation is positive in the direction of the temperature
drop, the equation has a negative sign. For convenience, the equation can be rearranged as
follows:

∆𝑇
𝑄̇ cond = 𝑘𝐴 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑇 = (𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏)
∆𝑥

2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE This is also the headline of Section 2.2

2.4.1 OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the experiment is to determine the heat flow rate from materials for
one dimensional constant heat flow using the Fourier rate equation.

12
 2.4.2 PROCEDURE

Figure 2.7: The flow chart of the experiment (For Exercise B).
The experiment was begun the panel displays on the service console was checked.
Then the cooling water was opened and the flow control valve was adjusted 1.5 litres/min.
The heater voltage was set to 12V and then HT11C was waited to stabilize on computer. The
values were recorded when the temperature was stable. After that the heater voltage was set to
17V and the above procedures was repeated.

2.4.3 Material and setup in Exercise C - Application and Thermal Conductivity of

Insulators

• Armfield HT11C – Linear Heat Conduction accessory. Check the comment on repeated sections.
• Armfield HT10XC - Heat Transfer Service Unit. In this particular ExC, the only additional
• The Thermocouples. material is the cork disk.

• The Voltage Control Potentiometer. Try to write the shortest text without
compromising the important data.
• The Socket Marked OUTPUT 2. Repeated sections not only makes the text
look longer, but also distract the reader.
• The AUXILIARY CONTROL Knob.
• The AUXILIARY POWER Socket.

13
• The Socket Marked AUXILIARY OUTPUT.
• The cold water flow rate sensor.
• The Socket Marked Fw.
• The selector switch.
• The cork disk.
• A computer.

Figure 2.8: The sketch of the device

The working principle of the device consists of three parts: heating with voltage at the
top, a tightly compressed cork disc section to form a composite rod with an insulated disc
with unknown thermal conductivity in the middle, and cooling of the water circulator at the
bottom.

Figure 2.9: One continuous wall of uniform cross section and material.

14
The underlined sentences are discussions. Do not place them in Materials and Methods section.
A small amount of heat has passed from one part to the other part. The reason for this
is the insulator part. Using the Fourier rate equation the thermal conductivity coefficient of the
insulator, the temperature differences with known heat flux can be calculated. this equation:

∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 (∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 = (𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ) (Eq. 4)
𝑖𝑛𝑠

𝑄
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝐴 (Eq.5)
𝑖𝑛𝑠 (𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 −𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 )

2.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

2.5.1 Objective

The purpose of the experiment is to observe its effects using poor conductors and
determine the thermal conductivity of the insulator.

2.5.2 Procedure

Waited to stabilize OR waited for stabilization

Figure 2.10: The flow chart of the experiment (For Exercise C).

15
 The experiment was begun the panel displays on the service console was checked.
Then the cooling water was opened and the flow control valve was adjusted 1.5 litres/min.
The heater voltage was set to 1.5 volts and then HT11C was waited to stabilize on computer.
The values were recorded when the temperature was stable. After that the heater voltage was
set to 2 volts. The HT11C was waited to stabilize and the above procedures was repeated.

3. CALCULATIONS & RESULTS

3.1 Exercise A

The heater voltage was set to respectively 9,10V, 9,10V, 9,30V, 12,10V, 12,00V,
11,90V, 17,10V,17,20V, 17,30V, 21,10V and 21,00V, and the temperature data were
recorded using the computer program. The results of each set of readings are given in the
table below:

Table 6: Temperature differences of the experiment This is not a good legend for your table.
Table 6. The calculations of the experiment with units??

Heat flow (power to heater) 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑥𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Temperature difference in heated ∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇3 ℃

section
Temperature differences in ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑇6 − 𝑇8 ℃
heated section

this experiment do not have excessive data, so it is OK here for this one, but place your raw data in Appendix seciton,
it is better in the flow of reading.
Table 7: Current, voltage and water flow rate for different measurements.

T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8 Heater Heater Water flow

(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) voltage (V) current rate (l/min)
(A)
29,90 27,70 26,60 24,00 20,13 18,46 9,10 0,89 1,06
29,60 27,40 26,30 23,80 19,93 18,26 9,10 0,88 0,97

16
30,10 27,90 26,80 23,80 19,93 18,26 9,30 0,89 0,96
40,70 35,20 31,90 27,00 22,20 18,60 12,10 1,19 1,06
40,40 34,90 31,60 26,80 22,00 18,40 12,00 1,17 1,07
40,90 35,40 32,10 26,80 22,00 18,40 11,90 1,15 0,98
60,30 53,20 46,60 35,30 27,40 21,60 17,10 1,70 1,05
60,00 52,90 46,30 35,10 27,20 21,40 17,20 1,65 1,02
60,50 53,40 46,80 35,10 27,20 21,40 17,30 1,75 1,03
80,80 70,10 59,90 42,00 30,30 24,20 21,10 2,12 1,05
80,50 69,80 59,60 41,80 30,10 24,00 21,00 2,10 1,06
81,00 70,30 60,10 41,80 30,10 24,00 21,10 2,07 1,04

Temperature Differences for Exercise A

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00 12,00

Series1 Series2 Series3 Series4 Series5 Series6

You should define these series

Graph 1: Data for six measurement sets

∆T
𝑄 = ∆x ∆x
W.m
Q = constant( ℃
)

∆T
= Gradient(℃/m)
∆x

17
 Q =V∗I

where;

Q = Heat flow (power to heater):

𝑉 = Heater voltage (Volts):

I = Heater current(A)

For 9,10 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.10𝑉∗0.84𝐴 W.m

= 110 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.069
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 110℃⁄𝑚 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 9.10𝑉∗0.84𝐴 W.m

= 184.66 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.04139
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 184.66℃⁄𝑚 ℃

For 9.30 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.3 𝑉∗0.89𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 110 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.075245
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 110℃⁄𝑚 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 9.3 𝑉∗0.89𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 184.66 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.044
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 184.66℃⁄𝑚 ℃

For 12.10 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 293.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.049
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 280 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.51
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

18
For 12 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 293.3 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.4786
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆Tcold 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 280 ℃⁄m = 0.0501
∆x68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

For 11.9 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 293.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.04665
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 280 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.0488
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

For 17.1 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 456.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.063657
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 456.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.063657
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

For 17.2 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 456.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.062146
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 456.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.062146
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

For 17.3 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 456.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.066296
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 456.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.066296
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

19
For 21.1 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 696.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.064209
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 593.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.075391
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

For 21 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 696.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.063301
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 593.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.074326
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

For 21.1 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 696.67 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.062694
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑄 𝑊.𝑚
= 593.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = 0.073613
∆𝑥68 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℃

only one volt solution was enough, thank you for your additional effort!

3.2 Exercise B:

The distance between each thermocouple is 0.015m.

The distance between thermocouple T1 and T3 𝑥13 = 0.03(𝑚)

The distance between thermocouple T4 and T5 𝑥45 = 0.015(𝑚)

The distance between thermocouple T6 and T8 𝑥68 = 0.03(𝑚)

Diameter of bar=𝐷 = 0.025𝑚

20
The distance between thermocouple T3 or T6 and the end face is 0.0075m.

The conductivity of the Brass sections is approximately 121 W/m °C.

Table 8: Tabulated formulas

21
 y = -2,8952x + 41,854
Temperature Differences for Exercise B R² = 0,9716

70,00

60,00

50,00

40,00

30,00

20,00

10,00

0,00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Series1 Series2 Series3 Series4

Series5 Series6 Linear (Series1) Linear (Series2)
Linear (Series3) Linear (Series5) Linear (Series6)

Graph 2: Temperature differences for Exercise B

Calculated temperature values for 12 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 (℃) = 𝑇1(℃) − 𝑇3(℃) = 8.4(℃)

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (℃) = 𝑇6(℃) − 𝑇8(℃) =8.8(℃)

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 − ((𝑇2 − 𝑇3)/2) =29.950(℃)

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6 + ((𝑇6 − 𝑇7)/2)= 29.1(℃)

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 0.85(℃)

𝑄(𝑊).∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴 = -3329.9𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃))

22
 𝑥68 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑊)
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 95.141 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑥𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑚2 )
𝑥13 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑤)
𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 = = 90.817 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡(℃) 𝑥𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡(𝑚2 )

Calculated temperature values for 11.9 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 (℃) = 𝑇1(℃) − 𝑇3(℃) = 8.8(℃)

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (℃) = 𝑇6(℃) − 𝑇8(℃) =8.4(℃)

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 − ((𝑇2 − 𝑇3)/2) =29.650(℃)

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6 + ((𝑇6 − 𝑇7)/2)= 28.9(℃)

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 0.75(℃)

𝑄(𝑊).∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴 = -3241.6𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃))

𝑥68 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑊)
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 92.617 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑥𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑚2 )

𝑥13 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑤)
𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 = = 88.407 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡(℃) 𝑥𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡(𝑚2 )

23
Calculated temperature values for 11.8 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 (℃) = 𝑇1(℃) − 𝑇3(℃) = 8.8(℃)

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (℃) = 𝑇6(℃) − 𝑇8(℃) =8.4(℃)

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 − ((𝑇2 − 𝑇3)/2) =30.15(℃)

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6 + ((𝑇6 − 𝑇7)/2)= 28.9(℃)

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 1.25(℃)

𝑄(𝑊).∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴 = -3154.3𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃))

𝑥68 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑊)
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 90.122 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑥𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑚2 )
𝑥13 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑤)
𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 = = 86.026 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡(℃) 𝑥𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡(𝑚2 )

Calculated temperature values for 17 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 (℃) = 𝑇1(℃) − 𝑇3(℃) = 13.7(℃)

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (℃) = 𝑇6(℃) − 𝑇8(℃) = 13.7(℃)

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 − ((𝑇2 − 𝑇3)/2) =43(℃)

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6 + ((𝑇6 − 𝑇7)/2)= 38.950(℃)

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4.05(℃)

24
 𝑄(𝑊).∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴 = -6924.6𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃))

𝑥68 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑊)
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 121.31 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑥𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑚2 )

𝑥13 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑤)
𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 = = 121.31 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡(℃) 𝑥𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡(𝑚2 )

Calculated temperature values for 17.1 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 (℃) = 𝑇1(℃) − 𝑇3(℃) = 13.7(℃)

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (℃) = 𝑇6(℃) − 𝑇8(℃) = 13.7(℃)

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 − ((𝑇2 − 𝑇3)/2) =42.7(℃)

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6 + ((𝑇6 − 𝑇7)/2)= 38.75(℃)

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 3.95(℃)

𝑄(𝑊).∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴 = -6747.7𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃))

𝑥68 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑊)
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 118.21 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑥𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑚2 )

𝑥13 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑤)
𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 = = 118.21 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡(℃) 𝑥𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡(𝑚2 )

25
Calculated temperature values for 17.2 volts:

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 (℃) = 𝑇1(℃) − 𝑇3(℃) = 13.7(℃)

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (℃) = 𝑇6(℃) − 𝑇8(℃) = 13.7(℃)

𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 − ((𝑇2 − 𝑇3)/2) =43.2(℃)

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6 + ((𝑇6 − 𝑇7)/2)= 38.75(℃)

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4.45(℃)

𝑄(𝑊).∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴 = -7225.1𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑥(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)−𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃))

𝑥68 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑊)
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = = 126.57 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑥𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑚2 )
𝑥13 (𝑚)𝑥𝑄(𝑤)
𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 = = 126.57 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃
∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡(℃) 𝑥𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡(𝑚2 )

Heat power and thermal conductivity values:

For 12V

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.0𝑉∗0.94𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 998.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.013102
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 143.33℃⁄𝑚 ℃

∆Tcold Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m

= 970 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0134
∆x68 gradient 189℃⁄m ℃

Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 =28.33 ℃⁄m = = 0.46165
gradient 728℃⁄m ℃

26
For 11.9V

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.0𝑉∗0.94𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 988.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0128
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 143.33℃⁄𝑚 ℃

∆Tcold Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m

= 963.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0132
∆x68 gradient 189℃⁄m ℃

Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 =25 ℃⁄m = = 0.509
gradient 728℃⁄m ℃

For 11.8V

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.0𝑉∗0.94𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 1005 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0123
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 143.33℃⁄𝑚 ℃

∆Tcold Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m

= 963.33 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0128
∆x68 gradient 189℃⁄m ℃

Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 =41.667 ℃⁄m = = 0.297
gradient 728℃⁄m ℃

For 17V

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.0𝑉∗0.94𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 1433.3 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0189
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 143.33℃⁄𝑚 ℃

27
 ∆Tcold Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m
= 1298.3 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0209
∆x68 gradient 189℃⁄m ℃

Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 =135℃⁄m = = 0.2014
gradient 728℃⁄m ℃

For 17.1V

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.0𝑉∗0.94𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 1423.3 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0186
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 143.33℃⁄𝑚 ℃

∆Tcold Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m

= 1291.7 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0205
∆x68 gradient 189℃⁄m ℃

Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 =131.67℃⁄m = = 0.2013
gradient 728℃⁄m ℃

For 17.2V

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑄 9.0𝑉∗0.94𝐴 𝑊.𝑚

= 1440 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0197
∆𝑥13 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 143.33℃⁄𝑚 ℃

∆Tcold Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m

= 1291.7 ℃⁄𝑚 = = 0.0219
∆x68 gradient 189℃⁄m ℃

Q 9.0V∗0.94A W.m
∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 =148.33℃⁄m = = 0.19133
gradient 728℃⁄m ℃

28
To calculate U:

For 12V 𝑈 =1205.4

For 11.9V 𝑈 =1178.8

For 11.8V 𝑈 =1121.5

For 17V 𝑈 = 1431.5

For 17.1V 𝑈 = 1398.5

For17.2V 𝑈 = 1478.3

3.3 Exercise C

Distance between thermocouple T1 and T3 𝑥13 = 0.03𝑚

Distance between thermocouple T4 and T5 𝑥45 = 0.015𝑚

Distance between thermocouple T6 and T8 𝑥68 = 0.03𝑚

Diameter of bar in contact with bar = 0.025𝑚

29
Table 9: Formulas used in the experiment

Heat Flow (power to 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑥𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

heater)
Cross sectional area of bar (𝑝𝑖𝑥𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 ) 𝑚2
𝐴=
4
Temperature at hot face of (𝑇2(℃) − 𝑇3(℃)) (℃)
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 (℃) −
insulator 2

Temperature at cold face of 𝑇6(℃) − 𝑇7(℃) (℃)

𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6(℃) + ( )
insulator 2
Temperature difference ∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 (℃)
across insulator

Thermal conductivity of (𝑄𝑥∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠 ) W. m

𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 =
insulated disk 𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 ℃

Table 10: Given data better in Appendix

Heater voltage Heater current

T1 (°C) T2 (°C) T3 (°C) T6 (°C) T7 (°C) T8 (°C) (V) (A)
48,9 48,3 48,3 20,9 19,5 19,8 1,59 0,11
48,7 48 47,9 20,7 19,4 20,6 1,61 0,11
49 48,6 48 20,6 19,6 19,7 1,61 0,12
44 44,1 40,8 20,5 19,7 19,7 2,1 0,16
44,1 43,7 40,5 20,8 19,8 19,6 2,09 0,17
43,8 43,5 40,6 20,8 19,9 19,4 2,09 0,17

30
 Temperature Difference of Exercise C
60

50
This trend was what you are expected
40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Series1 Series2 Series3 Series4

Series5 Series6 Linear (Series1) Linear (Series2)
Linear (Series2) Linear (Series2) Linear (Series3) Linear (Series3)
Linear (Series4) Linear (Series4) Linear (Series5) Linear (Series5)
Linear (Series6) Linear (Series6)

Graph 3: Temperature Difference of Exercise C

For 1.59 V

𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼 = 1.59 𝑥0.11=0.1749W

(𝑝𝑖𝑥𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 ) (3.14𝑥0.0252 ) −4
𝐴= = = 4.906𝑥10
4 4

(𝑇2(℃)−𝑇3(℃)) (48.3(℃)−48.3(℃))
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 (℃) − =48.3(℃) − =48.3(℃)
2 2

𝑇6(℃)−𝑇7(℃) 20.9(℃)−19.5(℃)
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6(℃) + ( )=20.9(℃) + ( )=21.6(℃)
2 2

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =48.3(℃) −21.6(℃) =26.7(℃)

(𝑄𝑥∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠 ) (0.225(m)𝑥0.03(𝑚))
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = = =0.5148𝑊𝑥𝑚
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 4.91𝑥 10−4 𝑥26.7 ℃

31
For 1.61V

𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼 = 1.61 𝑥0.11=0.1771W

(𝑝𝑖𝑥𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 ) (3.14𝑥0.0252 )
𝐴= = = 4.906𝑥10
−4
4 4

(𝑇2(℃)−𝑇3(℃)) (48(℃)−47.9(℃))
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 (℃) − 2
=47.9(℃) − =47.85(℃)
2

𝑇6(℃)−𝑇7(℃) 20.7(℃)−19.4(℃)
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6(℃) + ( )=20.7(℃) + ( )=21.35(℃)
2 2

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =47.85(℃) − 21.35(℃) =26.5(℃)

(𝑄𝑥∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠 ) (0.225(w)x0.03(m))
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = = =0.5187𝑊𝑥𝑚
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 4.91𝑥10−4 𝑥26.5 ℃

For 1.61 V

𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼 = 1.61 𝑥0.12=0.W

(𝑝𝑖𝑥𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 ) (3.14𝑥0.0252 )
𝐴= = = 4.906𝑥10−4
4 4

(𝑇2(℃)−𝑇3(℃)) (48.6(℃)−48(℃))
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 (℃) − 2
=48(℃) − =47.7(℃)
2

32
 𝑇6(℃)−𝑇7(℃) 20.6(℃)−19.6(℃)
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6(℃) + ( )=20.6(℃) + ( )=21.1(℃)
2 2

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =47.7(℃) −21.1(℃) =26.6(℃)

(𝑄𝑥∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠 ) (0.225(m)𝑥0.03(𝑚)) 𝑊𝑥𝑚

𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = = =0.051682
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 4.91𝑥 10−4 𝑥26.7 ℃

For 2.1 V

𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼 = 2.1𝑥0.16=0.336W

(𝑝𝑖𝑥𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 ) (3.14𝑥0.0252 )
𝐴= = = 4.906𝑥10
−4
4 4

(𝑇2(℃)−𝑇3(℃)) (48.6(℃)−48(℃))
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 (℃) − =48(℃) − =39.15(℃)
2 2

𝑇6(℃)−𝑇7(℃) 20.6(℃)−19.6(℃)
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6(℃) + ( )=20.6(℃) + ( )=20.90(℃)
2 2

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =47.7(℃) −21.1(℃) =18.250(℃)

(𝑄𝑥∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠 ) (0.225(m)𝑥0.03(𝑚)) 𝑊𝑥𝑚

𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = = =0.0753
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 4.91𝑥 10−4 𝑥26.7 ℃

For 2.09 V

𝑄 = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼 = 2.09𝑥0.17=0.3553W

33
 (𝑝𝑖𝑥𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 ) (3.14𝑥0.0252 ) −4
𝐴= = = 4.906𝑥10
4 4

(𝑇2(℃)−𝑇3(℃)) (48.6(℃)−48(℃))
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇3 (℃) − 2
=48(℃) − =39.15(℃)
2

𝑇6(℃)−𝑇7(℃) 20.6(℃)−19.6(℃)
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇6(℃) + ( )=20.6(℃) + ( )=21.25(℃)
2 2

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 =47.7(℃) −21.1(℃) =17.90(℃)

(𝑄𝑥∆𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑠 ) (0.225(m)𝑥0.03(𝑚)) 𝑊𝑥𝑚

𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = = = 0.076801
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 4.91𝑥 10−4 𝑥26.7 ℃

4. DISCUSSION
what is Polarpedia?
According to Polarpedia, temperature profile is how temperature of something
changes as a function of distance. The relationship between the temperature profile and the
Fourier’s rate of conduction equation is that, to obtain a general relation for Fourier’s law of
heat conduction, we need to know its temperature distribution. (Cengel, 1997)
Our experiment includes 3 steps. In the first part of the experiment, differences of
temperature gradients at different voltage values were observed. The flow rate of the water
during the experiment changes between 0,96 and 1,07. First, 9.10V and the difference voltage
value which calculates the difference between hot and cold temperature is applied. When the
first of the first part is done with 9,1V, the values of Δ𝑇hot = 110 ℃⁄𝑚 and ΔTcold
=184.66 ℃⁄𝑚 are found. The same method was used in all 12 cases. Then, when there are
differences in voltage, the differences of hot and cold gradient are investigated. When we
examined these differences, we noticed that the values of the hot and cold gradients increased
when the voltage increased. In the graph drawn by using the values, we saw that it is not flat,
but a little trapezoid.

34
 In the second part of the experiment, the conductivity and flow of the bar were
calculated using the voltage and current values. In addition, the differences between various
voltage values and temperature gradients were examined. The flow rates of the water during
the experiment change between 0,96 and 1,07. There are 6 parts in the exercise B. 12 volts is
added and the temperature difference between hot, intermediate, and cold was measured
(Δ𝑇hot =8.4(℃), Δ𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0.85(℃) and Δ𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 =8.8(℃). After calculating the temperature
gradients, the conductivity in the heated, intermediate, and cold sections is predicted
(𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 ==90.817 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃, 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 = -3329.9𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃ and 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 95.141 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃ ).

In the second of the second part, 11,9 volts is added and the temperature difference
between hot, intermediate, and cold was measured once more (Δ𝑇hot =8.8(℃),
Δ𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 ==0.75(℃)and Δ𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 =8.4(℃). After calculating the temperature gradients, the
conductivity in the heated, intermediate, and cold sections is predicted
(𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 =88.407 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃, 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑡 =-3241.6𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃ and 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 =92.617 𝑤⁄𝑚 ∗ ℃).

The gradient of the line increases with the increase in heat flow. In the last part of the
experiment, keeping the voltage between 1,59 to 2,1, a thin disk was placed between the
sections and their temperature was observed. Temperature values are shown in table 3.6.
Since the average temperature gradient and heat flow of the two brass sections are known, the
thermal conductivity of the insulated disc was calculated as with respect to 1.59V, 1.61V,
𝑊∗𝑚 𝑊∗𝑚 𝑊∗𝑚
1.61V, 2.1V, 2.09V, 2.09V as 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.5148 , 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.5187 , 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.051682 ,
℃ ℃ ℃
𝑊∗𝑚 𝑊∗𝑚 𝑊∗𝑚
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.0753 , 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.078111 and 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.076801 .
℃ ℃ ℃

According to the Fourier equation, heat flow and thermal conductivity are directly
proportional. When we compare it with the k values that we found in the second exercise, we
can say that this is the reason for the very small conductivity of the disc in this experiment.

In addition, as the temperature increases, heat loss occurs in the sections. The
calculation was made by assuming that there is no heat loss in the examination. However, due
to heat loss, definitive results cannot be obtained.
First of all for this section, you have already provided the results in tables and graphs. There is no need to mention
them again in the text. You can simply cite the corresponding graph or figure while dicussing the findings.

Secondly, you could find the literature data about the theermal conductivities of the materials we used. These
literature comparisons were missing in the discussion. If you add these kind of comparisons from books, scientific
journals or standards, your discussion would be improved.

Tip: Let's say you calculated thermal conductivity of brass: 35

Open Google Scholar>write "thermal+conductivity+brass">search and find appropriate literature>write the values
in your report>comment as "in compatible/in accordance" if they are similar, comment "not in accordance with..." if they
are not>discuss why they are not similar>always cite the literature at the end.
 5. CONCLUSION
This is not in Times New Roman.

1. This experiment performs the determination of the temperature gradient during linear
heat transfer through conduction across the wall.
2. The Linear Heat Conduction experiment enables the investigation of the fundamental
laws of heat transfer through conduction through a solid.
3. In the experiment, it seems that the contact resistance cannot be ignored.
4. Therefore, in the process of constant heat transfer from a medium at any location, the
temperature or heat flux remains constant over time, but these two quantities may vary
from one location to another.
5. The thermal conductivity of a material, varies with temperature.
6. It was observed that each temperature profile is a straight line.
use technical terms, linear is better than a straight line

6. RECOMMENDATION

The recommendations for this experiment are listed below:

1. Extra required, such as insulator foam that prevents heat loss.

2. To reach a more accurate temperature, the dwell time must be extended.

36
 7. REFERENCES
Çengel, Y. (1997). Heat and Mass Transfer.

R. Paul Singh, D. R. (2021). Introduction to Food Engineering. Retrieved from ACADEMIC

PRESS: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-398530-9.00015-2

Sevcan ÜNLÜTÜRK, K. S. (2018). Unit Operations In Food Processing.

Singh, R. P. (2009). Introduction to Food Engineering.

Try to find more literature.

Çengel is your lecture book,

Singh is your lecture book as well,
Ünlütürk is your professor,

Last one is another version of your lecture book.

It seems that you did not try to find any other research related to thermal conductivity other than the ones we already
gave you.

37