CHAPTER 3.

DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

3.1. INTRODUCTION

3.1.1. Analysis vs. Design

Two different types of problems arise in the study of reinforced concrete:
Analysis: Given a cross section, concrete strength, reinforcement size and location, and yield
strength, compute the resistance or strength. In analysis there should be one unique answer.
Design: Given a factored design moment, select a suitable cross section, including dimensions,
concrete strength, reinforcement, and so on. In design there are many possible solutions.

3.1.2. Statics of Beam Action

A beam is a structural member that supports applied loads and its own weight primarily by
internal moments and shears. Figure 3-1a shows a simple beam that supports its own dead
weight, w per unit length, plus a concentrated load, P. If the axial applied load, N, is equal to
zero, as shown, the member is referred to as a beam. If N is a compressive force, the member
is called a beam-column. This chapter will be restricted to the very common case where N=0.

Figure 3-1: Internal forces in a beam

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The loads w and P cause bending moments, distributed as shown in Figure 3-1b. The bending
moment is a load effect calculated from the loads by using the laws of statics. For a simply
supported beam of a given span and for a given set of loads w and P, the moments are
independent of the composition and size of the beam.
At any section within the beam, the internal resisting moment, M, shown in Figure 3-1c is
necessary to equilibrate the bending moment. An internal resisting shear, V, also is required,
as shown.
The internal resisting moment, M, results from an internal compressive force, C, and an internal
tensile force, T, separated by a lever arm, jd, as shown in Figure 3-1d. Because there are no
external axial loads, summation of the horizontal forces gives

− =0 = (3.1)

If moments are summed about an axis through the point of application of the compressive force,
C, the moment equilibrium of the free body gives

= (3.2)

Similarly, if moments are summed about the point of application of the tensile force, T,

= (3.3)

Because C = T, these two equations are identical. Equations (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) come directly
from statics and are equally applicable to beams made of steel, wood, or reinforced concrete.
The conventional elastic beam theory results in the equation = / , which, for an
uncracked, homogeneous rectangular beam without reinforcement, gives the distribution of
stresses shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3-2: Elastic beam stresses and stress blocks

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The stress diagram shown in Figure 3-2c and d may be visualized as having a “volume”; hence,
one frequently refers to the compressive stress block. The resultant compressive force C, which
is equal to the volume of the compressive stress block in Figure 3-2d, is given by

= ( )
( )
(3.4)

In a similar manner, one could compute the force T from the tensile stress block. The forces C
and T act through the centroids of the volumes of the respective stress blocks. In the elastic
case, these forces act at ℎ/3 above or below the neutral axis, so that = 2ℎ/3.
From Equations (3.3) and (3.4) and Figure 3-2, we can write

=σ ( ) (3.5)

/
=σ ( ) (3.6)
/

or, because

= ℎ /12 (3.7)

And

= ℎ/2 (3.8)

It follows that

= (3.9)
( )

Thus, for the elastic case, identical answers are obtained from the traditional beam stress
equation (3.9), and when the stress block concept is used in equation (3.5)
The elastic beam theory in equation (3.9) is not used in the design of reinforced concrete beams,
because the compressive stress-strain relationship for concrete becomes nonlinear at higher
strain values. What is even more important is that concrete cracks at low tensile stresses,
making it necessary to provide steel reinforcement to carry the tensile force, T.

3.1.3. Distribution of Strains and Stresses Across a Section in Bending

The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the
regions of tensile strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is carried by the reinforcement.
It is also assumed that plane sections of a structural member remain plane after straining, so
that across the section there must be a linear distribution of strains.

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 Figure 3-3: Singly reinforced rectangular beam

Figure 3-3 shows the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and the resultant strain
diagram, together with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete:
1. The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly proportional
to the strains, which generally occurs at the loading levels encountered under working
conditions and is, therefore, used at the serviceability limit state.
2. The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the
compressive strains are within the plastic range, and it is associated with the design for
the ultimate limit state.
3. The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular
parabolic distribution.

3.2. ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE FOR FLEXURE

3.2.1. Basic Assumptions for Flexure at the ULS

The theory of flexure for reinforced concrete is based on three basic assumptions, which are
sufficient to allow one to calculate the moment resistance of a beam.
1. Section’s perpendicular to the axis of bending that are plane before bending remains
plane after bending.
2. The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the same level.
3. The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement can be computed from the strains by
using stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
4. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
The first of these is the traditional “plane sections remain plane” assumption made in the
development of flexural theory for beams constructed with any material. The second
assumption is necessary, because the concrete and the reinforcement must act together to carry
load. This assumption implies a prefect bond between the concrete and the steel.
However, the assumptions are not strictly true. The deformations within a section are very
complex, and, locally, plane sections do not remain plane. Nor, due to local bond slip, are the

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strains in the concrete exactly the same as those in the steel. Nevertheless, on average, the
assumptions are correct, and are certainly sufficiently true for practical purposes for design of
normal members.

3.2.2. Possible Range of Strain Distributions at ULS

The possible range of strain distributions given in CES 149, 2015, section 6.1(6) is shown in
Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4: Possible strain distributions in the ultimate limit state

A more elaborative diagram for the possible strain distributions is shown in the figure below

Figure 3-5: Ultimate Strain distributions

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3.2.3. Limiting Compressive Strains at ULS
It is universal to define failure of concrete in compression by means of a limiting compressive
strain. The formulation of the limit varies from code to code, for example the American
Concrete Institute code, ACI 318, uses a limit of 0.003, while the UK code BS 8110 uses
0.0035. For concrete strengths not exceeding 50 N/mm 2, the Eurocode adopts values of 0.0035
for flexure and for combined bending and axial load where the neutral axis remains within the
section, and a limit of between 0.0035 and 0.002 for sections loaded so that the whole section
is in compression. The logic behind the reduction in the strain limit for axial compression is
that, in axial compression, failure will occur at the strain corresponding to the attainment of the
maximum compressive stress. This is 0.002 for concrete strengths not exceeding 50 N/mm 2. In
flexure, considerably higher strains can be reached before the maximum capacity of the section
is reached, and the value of 0.0035 has been obtained empirically.

3.3. TYPES OF FLEXURAL FAILURES

There are three types of flexural failures of reinforced concrete sections: tension, compression
and balanced failures.

Figure 3.6: Strain profiles at the flexural strength of a section

A. Tension Failure (under-reinforced Section): > = /

If the steel content As of the section is small, the steel will reach fyd before the concrete reaches
its maximum strain of εcu. Such a beam is said to be under reinforced. With further increase in
loading, the steel force remains constant at Asfyd, but results a large plastic deformation in the
steel, wide cracking in the concrete and large increase in compressive strain in the extreme
fiber of concrete. With this increase in strain the stress distribution in the concrete becomes
distinctly non-linear resulting in increase of the mean stress. Because equilibrium of internal
forces should be maintained, the depth of the N.A decreases, which results in the increment of

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the lever arm z. The flexural strength is reached when concrete strain reaches εcu. This
phenomenon is shown in Figure 3-7. This type of failure is preferable and is used for design
because such yield failure is gradual and is preceded by visible signs of distress, such as the
widening and lengthening of cracks and the marked increase in deflection. If a beam in a
building fails in a ductile manner, the occupants of the building have warning of the impending
failure and hence have an opportunity to leave the building before the final collapse, thus
reducing the consequence of collapse.

Figure 3-7: Tension Failure

B. Compression Failure (over-reinforced Section): < = / → =

If the steel content As is large, the concrete may reach its capacity before steel yields. Such a
beam is said to be over reinforced. In such a case the N.A depth increases considerably causing
an increase in compressive force. Again, the flexural strength of the section is reached εcu. The
section fails suddenly in a brittle fashion without warning of the failure as the widths of the
flexural cracks in the tension zone of the concrete are small, owing to the low steel stress. This
phenomenon is shown in Figure 3-8.

Figure 3-8: Compression Failure

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C. Balanced Failure (Balanced Reinforcement): = = /
At balanced failure the steel reaches fyd and the concrete reaches a strain of εcu simultaneously.
Such a beam has balanced reinforcement. This failure also exhibits a brittle type of failure
which marks the boundary between ductile tension failure and brittle compression failure.

Figure 3-9: Balanced Failure

3.4. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE AT THE ULS

Two requirements are satisfied throughout the flexural analysis and design of reinforced
concrete beams and columns:
1. Stress and strain compatibility: The stress at any point in a member must correspond
to the strain at that point
2. Equilibrium: Internal forces must balance the external load effects

3.4.1. Analysis of Singly Reinforced Beam Sections

3.4.1.1. General Procedure

The general procedure of analysis of singly reinforced concrete beams for its flexural resistance
is as follows.

Step 1: Assume the type of failure

From section 3.4, there are three possible types of failure for reinforced concrete
beams under flexure. These are compression failure, tension failure and
balanced failure.
Step 2: Draw the strain profile corresponding to the type of failure

a. Tension failure b. Compression failure c. Balanced failure

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 Step 3: Take any of the three possible stress strain relationships for concrete to define
the stress block

a. Using parabola-rectangle diagram

b. Using Bi-linear diagram

c. Using rectangular diagram

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 Step 4: Apply condition of equilibrium to the given stress block and conditions of
compatibility to the strain profile to estimate the neutral axis depth
Step 5: Calculate the unknown strain and check if the assumed type of failure is correct
Step 6: If the assumption is correct, apply the moment equilibrium to the stress block
and estimate the moment capacity
Step 7: If it is not correct, assume another type of failure and repeat steps 2 to step 6
until the assumption is proven to be true

3.4.1.2. Simplified Equations for Moment and Force Equilibrium from Stress-Strain
Relationship
 Assumptions
1. The section is rectangular with width b and effective depth d
2. Cylindrical compressive strength of the concrete is less than 50MPa
3. Strains are in ‰ (x 10-3)
4. = /
5. is the compression strain at the ultimate fiber in the compressed region of the section
6. d is effective depth of the cross section defined as the distance from the center of the tensile
reinforcement bars to the top most compressed fiber
 Force equilibrium
= =
 Moment equilibrium
= (1 − ) = (1 − )
 Values of and
1. Using Parabolic rectangular stress – strain relationship

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2. Using Bi-linear stress-stress relationship

3. Using simplified rectangular block

3.4.1.3. Simplified Procedure for Analysis of Singly Reinforced Beam Sections Using the
Parabolic-Rectangular Stress-Strain Relationship
Step 1: Assume the type of failure
 Tension Failure
-Rupture of steel = 25, (limiting value taken from British National Annex)
-The strain in the steel exceeded the yield strain and the most compressed concrete
has reached the crushing strain. = 3.5 and >
 Compression Failure
-Assume = 3.5 and <
Step 2: Draw the strain profile corresponding to the type of failure and use the similarity
of triangles to develop a relationship between the unknown strain and the neutral
axis.
Step 3: Use the equation of corresponding to the assumption in step 1 and the
relationship developed in step 2 to calculate the unknown strain and neutral axis
depth.
Step 4: Check if the assumption in step 1 is correct and if it is, proceed to step 8. If the
assumption is not correct repeat step 1 to 6 with another assumption.
Step 5: Calculate the value of
Step 6: Calculate the moment resistance

3.4.1.4. Simplified Rectangular Stress Block

The actual distribution of the compressive force in a section has the form of a rising parabola.
The compressive stress-strain curve for concrete may be assumed to be rectangular trapezoidal,
parabolic or any other shape, which is easier for computation, provided that it adequately
predicts the test results. Therefore; as a simplification, CES149 recommends (EC2 also) the

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use of the equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution for sections which are partly in
tension (beams or columns with large eccentricity), as shown below.

Figure 3-10: Strain and stress distribution across beam depth/equivalent rectangular
stress block
Design Equations for Bending
Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force in the reinforcing steel, and a
resultant compressive force in the concrete which acts through the centroid of the effective
area of concrete in compression.
For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment, M, must be balanced by the moment of resistance
of the section so that:
= = (3.10)
ℎ ℎ ℎ
=
=
ℎ = 0.8 ℎ
= − (3.11)

So that substituting in equation 2.10

=
and replacing from equation 2.11 gives
= (2 − 2 )
=2 ( − ) (3.12)
Rearranging and substituting =

( / ) − ( / ) + /2 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation:
= 1 + √1 − 2 (3.13)

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 ℎ :

→ =
.
Taking moment about , the moment of resistance of the section is computed as:
= where =
=

= (3.14)

The Balanced Section

According to EC2, the concrete section with the depth of neutral axis at the specified maximum
depth of 0.45d is often referred to as the balanced section.
= 0.45
The depth of the stress block is
= 0.8 = 0.8 0.45 = 0.36
The force in the concrete stress block is:
0.85
= = (0.36 )( )( ) = 0.36 ℎ = = 0.567
1.5
For equilibrium the force in the concrete must be balanced by the force in the steel. So that

= = , ℎ = = 0.87
.

∑ =0 → =
, = 0.36 /

The ultimate moment of resistance of the balanced section is:

=
.
Where = − = − = 0.82

Then, = (0.36 )(0.82 ) = . (3.15)

and
= 0.295 =

When > = 0.295 then the section cannot be singly reinforced and compression

reinforcing steel is required in the compression zone of the section.

Generally, ductility is a design requirement in reinforced concrete structures to ensure that a

brittle failure will not occur. CES149 limits the depth of the neutral axis x to 0.45d for concrete
strength classes less than or equal to C50/60 (and 0.35d for concrete classes C55/67 and greater)
in order to provide a ductile, i.e. under reinforced, section. Thus
= 0.45

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Other codes of practice such as the ACI ensure ductility by limiting the reinforcement ratio,
to a value below some specified value which is a function of the balanced reinforcement ratio,
.
≤ 0.75 ℎ = /

Analysis equations for a singly reinforced section with a known area of steel reinforcement
The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a given section
with a known area of steel reinforcement.
For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile force in the steel:
=
=0.8 ℎ
=
ℎ

= → = /0.8

The moment of resistance of the section is computed by taking moment about

=

= −

= −

These equations assume the tension reinforcement has yielded, which will be the case if
<0.45 . If this is not the case, the problem would require solving by trying successive values
of x until = .

3.4.2. ANALYSIS OF DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM SECTIONS

If a beam cross section is limited because of architectural or other considerations, it may happen
that the concrete cannot develop the compression force required to resist the given bending
moment. In this case, reinforcement is added in the compression zone, resulting in a doubly
reinforced beam, i.e., one with compression as well as tension reinforcement (see Fig. 3.11).
The use of compression reinforcement has decreased markedly with the use of strength design
method, which account for the full-strength potential of the concrete on the compressive side
of the neutral axis. However, there are situations in which compressive reinforcement is used
for reasons other than strength, such as
1. Reduced sustained-load deflections. First and most important, the addition of
compression reinforcement reduces the long-term deflections of a beam subjected to
sustained loads. Creep of the concrete in the compression zone transfers load from the
concrete to the compression steel, reducing the stress in the concrete. Because of the lower

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 compression stress in the concrete, it creeps less, leading to a reduction in sustained-load
deflections.

2. Increased ductility. The addition of compression reinforcement causes a reduction in the

depth of the compression stress block and the strain in the tension reinforcement at failure
increases resulting in more ductile behavior.

3. Change of mode of failure from compression to tension. When enough compression

steel is added to a beam, the compression zone is strengthened sufficiently to allow the
tension steel to yield before the concrete crushes. The beam then displays a ductile mode
of failure.

4. Fabrication ease. When assembling the reinforcing cage for a beam, it is customary to
provide small bars in the corner of the stirrups to hold the stirrups in place in the form and
also to help anchor the stirrups. If developed properly, these bars in effect are compression
reinforcement, although they generally are disregarded in design, because they have only a
small effect on the moment strength.

3.4.2.1. General Procedure

If the design ultimate moment M is greater than the ultimate moment of resistance of concrete
, then compression reinforcement is required.

Provided that ≤ 0.38 ( . . ℎ )

Where: is the depth of the compression steel from the compression face

Figure 3-11: Strain and equivalent rectangular stress distribution for a doubly reinforced
beam Section
Derivations of Basic Equations
The depth of neutral axis, < 0.45 , is the maximum value allowed by the code in order to
ensure a tension failure with a ductile section. Therefore,
= − 0.4 = − 0.4(0.45 ) = 0.82
∑ = 0: = +

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  With the compression reinforcement at yield ( > → = )
= + 0.8
= + 0.8(0.45 )
= + 0.36 (3.16)
Taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel,
= + ( − )
= 0.36 (0.82 ) + ( − )
= 0.295 + ( − ) (3.17)
From equation 3.17:
.
= (3.18)
( )

Multiplying both sides of equation (3.16) by = 0.82 and rearranging gives

( )= ( ) + 0.36 (0.82 )
.
= + (3.19)

Substituting = 0.295 and = / into these equations would convert them into:
( )
= (3.18)*
( )

= + (3.19)*

In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so that the steel
stress = .
 If compression steel has not yielded, ≤ → = ≤
From the proportions of the strain distribution diagram:
0.0035
= →
−
Where is obtained from the relation
0.0035
= ℎ =
−
∑ = 0: = +
= + 0.8
= + 0.36 (3.20)
Taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel,
= + ( − )
= 0.295 + ( − )

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 .
= (3.21)
′
( )

Multiplying both sides of equation (2.20) by = 0.82 and rearranging gives

( )= ( ) + 0.36 (0.82 )
.
= +
′
(3.22)

Where:
= /1.15
= 0.85 /1.5
The above equations apply for concrete strength classes less than or equal to C50/60. For
concrete classes greater than C50/60 similar equations, with different constants, can be derived
based on the CEC149 requirement for these classes.

For under reinforced section of known area of reinforcement:

Moment of Resistance of Section
 With the compression reinforcement at yield =
= + 0.8
( )
=
.

Taking the moment about the centroid of the compression zone :

= + (0.4 − )
= ( − 0.4 ) + (0.4 − ) (3.23)

 If compression steel has not yielded, ≤ → =

0.0035
= →
−
∑ = 0: = +
= + 0.8

=
.

Taking the moment about the centroid of the compression zone :

= + (0.4 − )
= ( − 0.4 ) + (0.4 − ) (3.24)
The general procedure of analysis of doubly reinforced concrete beams for its flexural
resistance is as follows.
Step 1: Assume the type of failure

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 Step 2: Draw the strain profile corresponding to the type of failure

Step 3: Assume the strain in the negative reinforcement either to be greater than the
yield strain or to be less than the yield strain

Step 4: Take any of the three possible stress strain relationships for concrete
described in chapter 1 to define the stress block

Step 5: Take the stress strain relationship for the reinforcement bar
Step 6: Apply condition of equilibrium to the given stress block and conditions of
compatibility to the strain profile to estimate the neutral axis depth

Step 7: Calculate the strain in the compression reinforcement bars and check if the
assumption is step 3 in correct.

Step 8: If the assumption is true, proceed to step 9, otherwise revise the assumption
in step 3 and repeat steps 4 to 7.

Step 9: Calculate the unknown strain and check if the assumed type of failure is
correct. If the assumption is correct, proceed to step 10, otherwise repeat step
1 to 9 assuming another type of failure mode.

Step 10: Apply the moment equilibrium to the stress block and estimate the moment
capacity

3.4.3. ANALYSIS OF FLANGED SECTIONS

3.4.3.1. Introduction
In monolithic beam and slab construction, where the web of the beam projects below the slab,
the beam is considered as a flanged section for sagging moments. The slab is designed to span
between the beams. The beams span between external supports such as columns, walls, etc.
The reactions from the slabs act as load on the beam. When a series of beams are used to
support a concrete slab, because of the monolithic nature of concrete construction, the slab acts
as the flange of the beams. The end beams become L-beams while the intermediate beams
become T-beams. In designing the intermediate beams, it is assumed that the loads acting on
half the slab on the two sides of the beam are carried by the beam.
In the floor system shown in Figure 3-12, the slab is assumed to carry the loads in one direction
to beams that carry them in the perpendicular direction. During construction, the concrete in
the columns is placed and allowed to harden before the concrete in the floor is placed. In the

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next construction operation, concrete is placed in the beams and slab in a monolithic pour. As
a result, the slab serves as the top flange of the beams, as indicated by the shading in Figure
3.12. Such a beam is referred to as a T-beam. The interior beam, AB, has flange on both sides.
The spandrel beam, CD, with a flange on one side only, is often referred to as an inverted L-
beam.

Figure -3-12: T-beams in a one-way slab floor

Figure 2-13: Positive and negative moment regions in a T-beam

An exaggerated deflected view of the interior beam is shown in Figure 3.13. This beam
develops positive moments at midspan (section A-A) and negative moments over the supports
(section B-B). At midspan, the compression zone is in the flange, as shown in Figure 3.13b and
Figure 3.13d. Generally, it is rectangular, as shown Figure 3.13b, although, in very rare cases

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for typical reinforced concrete construction, the neutral axis may shift down into the web,
giving a T-shaped compression zone, as shown in Figure 3.13d. At the support, the
compression zone is at the bottom of the beam and is rectangular, as shown in Figure 3.13c.

3.4.3.2. Effective flange width

The forces acting on the flange of a simply supported T-beam are illustrated in Figure 3-14. At
the support, there are no longitudinal compressive stresses in the flange, but at midspan, the
full width is stressed in compression. The transition requires horizontal shear stresses on the
web-flange interface as shown in Figure 3-14. As a result, there is a “shear-lag” effect, and the
portions of the flange closest to the web are more highly stressed than those portions farther
away, as shown in Figure 3-14 and Figure 3-15.

Figure 3-14: Actual flow of forces on a T-beam flange

Figure 3-15a shows the distribution of the flexural compressive stresses in a slab that forms the
flanges of a series of parallel beam at a section of maximum positive moment. The compressive
stress is a maximum over each web, dropping between the webs. When analyzing and
designing the section for positive moments, an effective compression flange width is used
(Figure 3-15b). When this width, , is stressed uniformly, it will give approximately the same
compression force that actually is developed in the full width of the compression zone.

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 Figure 3-15: Effective width of T-beams

According to EN 1992-1-1-2004, in T beams the effective flange width, over which uniform
conditions of stress can be assumed, depends on the web and flange dimensions, the type of
loading, the span, the support conditions and the transverse reinforcement. The effective width
of flange should be based on the distance between points of zero moment, which may be
obtained from Figure 3-16. may be taken as 0.85 when there is continuity at one end of the
span, and 0.7 when there is continuity at both ends. For up-stand beams, when considering
hogging moments, may be taken as 0.3 at internal supports and 0.15 at end supports.

Figure 3-16: Definition of , for calculation of flange width

Note: The length of the cantilever, , should be less than half the adjacent span and the ratio
of adjacent spans should lie between 2/3 and 1.5.
The effective flange width parameters are shown in Figure 3-17 below.

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 Figure 3-17: Effective flange width parameters

The effective flange width for a T beam or L beam may be derived as:
=∑ , + ≤ (3.25)
Where
, = 0.2 + 0.1 ≤ 0.2 (3.26)
and
, ≤ (3.27)

3.4.3.3. Procedure of Analysis of Flanged Beam for Flexure

a) Flanged beam subjected to negative moment
For a flanged beam with a negative moment, the compression zone will be the bottom
rectangular part of the web, thus following the procedures for analysis of rectangular sections
will be appropriate.
b) Flanged beam subjected to positive moment
If a flanged beam is subjected to positive moment, the neutral axis might remain within the
flange of the beam or it might be in the web of the beam.
For the case where the neutral axis remains in the flange, the section may be treated as a
rectangular section, and the procedures of analysis of rectangular sections can be adopted.
However, if the neutral axis is in the web of the beam, a different approach for analysis is
necessary and in doing so, adopting the rectangular stress relationship for the concrete in
compression will simplify the analysis.
The general procedure for the analysis of flanged beam subjected to positive moment according
to EN 1992-1-1-2004 is as follows.
Step 1: Assume the neutral axis to be in the flange
Step 2: Assume the strain in the tension reinforcement to be greater than the yield strain
Step 3: Use the procedure of analysis of singly reinforced concrete sections to estimate
neutral axis depth
Step 4: Check if the assumption in step 1 is correct

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 Step 5: If the assumption is correct, estimate the moment resistance of the section using the
procedures of rectangular reinforced concrete sections. If not correct, proceed to step
6.
Step 6: Take the neutral axis to be below the flange

Step 7: Take the rectangular stress strain relationship for the concrete under compression
and calculate the moment resistance using force equilibrium.
The compression forces are as follows:
 In the flange of width ( – ), the compression force is
= ( − )
 In the web, the compression force is
=
The corresponding lever arms about the tension steel are
= − /2
= − /2
Taking moments about tension steel, the moment of resistance is given by:
= +

= − − + − (3.28)

From equilibrium,
=
= +
If the amount of steel provided is sufficient to cause yielding of the steel, then =
.
= +
= − +

= (3.29)

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 Step 8: Calculate the strain in the tension reinforcement and check if the assumption of step
2 is correct. If it is not found to be true, revise the procedure assuming the steel has
not yielded.

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