HISTORY OF

REFRIGERATION
CHAPTER 1
REFRIGERATION
-the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the
surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to the required
temperature.
-one of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the preservation
of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures.
-Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to
human beings by means of air conditioning.
REFRIGERATION IS NOT SAME AS COOLING!
• Cooling can be spontaneous and the final temperature need not be lower than
the surroundings
• Refrigeration is not spontaneous and the final temperature should be lower than
the surroundings.
Example:
1. Cooling of a hot cup of coffee by leaving it on a table
2. Cooling of a glass of water by adding ice
AIR CONDITIONING

-the treatment of air so as to simultaneously control its temperature, moisture

content, cleanliness, odour and circulation, as required by occupants, a process, or
products in the space.
History of refrigeration broadly divided into two category :

1) Age of Natural refrigeration :

-from pre-historic times to the beginning of 19th century
2) Age of artificial refrigeration:
- from 19th century onward
NATURAL REFRIGERATION
1) Use of natural ice
a) Transported from colder region
b) Harvested in winter and stored in ice houses for summer use
c) Produced by nocturnal cooling - ice was made by keeping a thin layer of
water in a shallow earthen tray, and then exposing the tray to the night sky.
2)Use of evaporative cooling - process of reducing the temperature of a system by
evaporation of water. Very effective when the surrounding air is dry.
3)Cooling by salt solutions - certain substances such as common salt, when added
to water dissolve in water and absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic
process).
LIMITATIONS OF NATURAL METHODS
• Dependent of local condition .
• Uncertainty due to dependence on weather.
• Difficult to produce large amount of refrigeration.
• Not available to every one.
 ARTIFICIAL REFRIGERATION
• The early attempt:
• In 1755 , the Scottish professor William Cullen produce small quantity
of ice by evaporating ethyl ether under vacuum
• The principle involves:
• Absorption of large quantity of heat (latent heat) when a liquid boils at
low temperature under the action of vacuum. Based on the working
principle, refrigeration systems can be classified as vapour compression
systems, vapour absorption systems, gas cycle systems etc.
• VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
□In 1805 , the American engineer , Oliver Evans describe a closed cycle for
producing refrigeration in continuous manner.
□In 1835 , Jakob Perkins patent and builds the system describe by Oliver Evans,
using ethyl ether as refrigerant in London.
□The American engineer Alexander Twining received a British patent in 1850 for
a vapour compression system by use of ether, ammonia and carbon dioxide.
□ James Harrison obtain a patent in 1856 for a vapour compression system using
ether, alcohol or ammonia
□ Charles Tellier of France patented in 1864, a refrigeration system using
dimethyl ether which has a normal boiling point of −23.6˚C.
• VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Other landmark events:
□1874: Raoul Pictet design the first sulphur dioxide based system in Geneva.
□1877: Carl von Linde of Germany builds the first ammonia based system
□1885: Fraunz Windhausen builds the first carbon dioxide based system in
Germany.
□1920: Edmund Copeland and Harry Edwards builds iso-butane based
domestic refrigerators.
 Jacob Perkins’ Machine
The refrigerant (ether or other volatile fluid)
boils in evaporator B taking heat from
surrounding water in container A. The pump
C draws vapour away and compresses it to
higher pressure at which it can condense to
liquids in tubes D, giving out heat to water in
vessel E. Condensed liquid flows through the
weight loaded valve H, which maintains the
difference of pressure between the condenser
and evaporator. The small pump above H is
used for charging the apparatus with
refrigerant.
• Domestic Refrigerators
□ Natural ice based (domestic ice box) was invented in 1803 and used for more then
century. The domestic ice box used to be made of wood with suitable insulation.
□ General Electric Company introduced the first domestic refrigerator in 1911, followed
by Frigidaire in 1915 and Kelvinator in 1918.
□ The initial domestic refrigerators used mainly sulphur dioxide as refrigerant. Some
units used methyl chloride and methylene chloride. These refrigerants were replaced by
Freon-12 in 1930s.
□ In the beginning these refrigerators were equipped with open type compressors driven
by belt drive. General Electric Company introduced the first refrigerator with a
hermetic compressor in 1926.
□ First refrigerators used water-cooled condensers, which were soon replaced by air
cooled condensers.
Growth of Compression System
The rapid growth is attributed to the
simultaneous development of:
1) electric motors and compressor
2) batter shaft seals
3) automatic control, and
4) introduction of CFCs in 1930s
• Development of Air Conditioning Systems
□ Eastman Kodak installed the first air conditioning system in 1891 in Rochester, New
York for the storage of photographic films.
□ The first domestic air conditioning system was installed in a house in Frankfurt in 1894.
□ An air conditioning system was installed in a printing press in 1902 and in a telephone
exchange in Hamburg in 1904. Many systems were installed in tobacco and textile
factories around 1900.
□ A private library in St Louis, USA was air conditioned in 1895, and a casino was air
conditioned in Monte Carlo in 1901.
□ The widespread development of air conditioning is attributed to the American scientist
and industrialist Willis Carrier. Carrier studied the control of humidity in 1902 and
designed a central air conditioning plant using air washer in 1904.
Vapour Compressrion Refrigeration System
The refrigeration effect is obtained in the cold region as
heat is extracted by the vaporization of refrigerant in the
evaporator. The refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is
compressed in the compressor to a high pressure at which
its saturation temperature is greater than the ambient or any
other heat sink. Hence when the high pressure, high
temperature refrigerant flows through the condenser,
condensation of the vapour into liquid takes place by heat
rejection to the heat sink. To complete the cycle, the high
pressure liquid is made to flow through an expansion valve.
In the expansion valve the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant decrease. This low pressure and low temperature
refrigerant vapour evaporates in the evaporator taking heat
from the cold region. It should be observed that the system
operates on a closed cycle. The system requires input in the
form of mechanical work. It extracts heat from a cold space
and rejects heat to a high temperature heat sink.
• VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
□1810: John Leslie demonstrates the basic principal using water and H2SO4.
H2SO4 absorbs water vapour and this becomes the principle of removing the
evaporated water vapour requiring no compressor or pump.
□1860: Ferdinand Carre invents aqua-ammonia system in France.
□1878: Windhausen develops water – H2SO4 system and replaced H2SO4 with
Lithium Bromide (LiBr).
□1922: Swedish students, Balzar von Platen and Carl Munters, invented a three
fluid system that did not require a pump (Pumpless Absorption System).
□1926: Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard patent a pumpless system.
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
The most commonly used fluids in the absorption system are water as absorbent and ammonia
as refrigerant. The vapour from the evaporator is allowed to be mixed and absorbed in the
absorber. The heat of absorption generated in the process is rejected from the absorber to the
circulating cold water in a heat exchanger dipped in the solution contained in the absorber

The strong aqua-ammonia solution from the absorber is pumped upto the condenser pressure
and fed to the generator which is the main energy consuming element of the system. Heat is
supplied to the generator. The boiling point of refrigerant NH3, is lower than that of the
absorbing liquid H2O, hence the vapours leaving the generator are predominantly those of
refrigerant.

These vapours then pass on to the condenser. The liquid refrigerant from the condenser, then,
passes through an expansion valve or throttle valve to the evaporator where it absorbs heat
from the substances or bodies to be refrigerated. Liquid refrigerant is then evaporated and the
vapours enter the absorber completing the cycle.

The weak aqua-ammonia solution in the generator left due to separation of refrigerant vapour
is drained back to the absorber for repeating the cycle.

The weak aqua-ammonia solution leaving the generator is at high pressure and the pressure in
the absorber is the evaporator pressure which is less than the generator or condenser pressure,
hence a pressure reducing valve is provided in the weak solution line to the absorber.
• SOLAR ENERGY BASED REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
□Development of solar based absorption refrigeration systems begin in 1950s
□Professor G.O.G. L f of America is one of the pioneers in the area of solar
refrigeration using flat plate collectors.
□USSR develops a 250 kg ice/day system using parabolic solar collectors
□The first solar air conditioning system was installed in an experimental solar
house in University of Queensland, Australia in 1966
• GAS CYCLE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
□ Dr. John Gorrie develops the 1st air cycle refrigeration system in Florida in
1844.
□Steam engine driven air cycle system develops by Alexander Carnegie Kirk in
1862.
□ Henry Bell and James Coleman carry out several design improvement .
□ Paul Gifford perfects the open type machine in 1875. Widely used in aircraft air
conditioning .
Open Type Air Cycle Refrigeration System
The basic system shown here consists of a compressor, an
expander and a heat exchanger. Air from the cold room is
compressed in the compressor. The hot and high pressure
air rejects heat to the heat sink (cooling water) in the heat
exchanger. The warm but high pressure air expands in the
expander. The cold air after expansion is sent to the cold
room for providing cooling. The work of expansion partly
compensates the work of compression; hence both the
expander and the compressor are mounted on a common
shaft.
• STEAM JET REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
□ In 1838, the Frenchman Pelletan was granted a patent for the compression of steam by means
of a jet of motive steam.
□ Around 1900, the Englishman Charles Parsons studied the possibility of reduction of pressure
by an entrainment effect from a steam jet.
□ French Engineer Maurice Leblanc develops steam jet refrigeration system in 1907
□ Westinghouse commercializes the system in 1909 in Paris
□ From 1910 onwards, stem jet refrigeration systems were used mainly in breweries, chemical
factories, warships etc.
□ In 1926, the French engineer Follain improved the machine by introducing multiple stages of
vaporization and condensation of the suction steam.
□ The credit for first developing these closed vapour jet refrigeration systems goes to the Russian
engineer, I.S. Badylkes around 1955.
Steam Jet Refrigeration System
If water is sprayed into a chamber where a low pressure is maintained, a part
of the water will evaporate. The enthalpy of evaporation will cool the
remaining water to its saturation temperature at the pressure in the chamber.
Obviously lower temperature will require lower pressure. Water freezes at 0oC
hence temperature lower than 4oC cannot be obtained with water. In this
system, high velocity steam is used to entrain the evaporating water vapour.
High-pressure motive steam passes through either convergent or convergent
divergent nozzle where it acquires either sonic or supersonic velocity and low
pressure of the order of 0.009 kPa corresponding to an evaporator temperature
of 4oC. The high momentum of motive steam entrains or carries along with it
the water vapour evaporating from the flash chamber. Because of its high
velocity it moves the vapours against the pressure gradient up to the condenser
where the pressure is 5.6-7.4 kPa corresponding to condenser temperature of
35-45oC. The motive vapour and the evaporated vapour both are condensed
and recycled.
DEVELOPMENT OF
REFRIGERANT AND
COMPRESSOR
CHAPTER 2
 Refrigerant
-any body or substance that acts as a cooling medium by extracting heat from
another body or substance
-In closed cycle vapour compression, absorption systems, air cycle refrigeration
systems the refrigerant is a working fluid that undergoes cyclic changes.
-In a thermoelectric system the current carrying electrons may be treated as a
refrigerant.
 Importance of Refrigerant Selection
The type of refrigerant used decides:
i. System design aspect
ii. Size and weight of the system
iii. Initial and operating cost
iv. Safety issues
v. Serviceability, and
vi. Reliability
 Refrigerant Development
The development can be divided into three distinct phases:
i. Early Refrigerants (prior to the development of CFCs)
ii. Chloro-fluoro-carbon (CFC) based refrigerants
iii. Refrigerants in the aftermath of stratospheric ozone layer depletion
 Early Refrigerants
□Ethyl ether is the first refrigerant to be used by Jakob Perkins in 1835
□ Alexander Twining proposes use of ammonia and carbon dioxide in 1850
□ Charles Tellier tries dimethyl ether in 1864
□ Raoul Pictet uses Sulphur dioxide in 1874
□ Linde builds ammonia system in 1877
□ Windhausen uses carbon dioxide in 1885
□ Hydrocarbons and their mixtures are also tried around this time
 Early Refrigerants – problem faced
i. Toxicity (e.g. ethers, ammonia)
ii. Flammability (e.g. hydrocarbons)
iii. Material compatibility (e.g. ammonia)
iv. Chemical stability (e.g. So2)
v. Operating pressure (e.g. CO2)
vi. Limited temperature range (all)
 CFCs are invented
□ Thomas Midgley Jr. and his associates take up the task of developing
refrigerants that are free from problems associated with early refrigerants in 1928
in USA.
□A systematic study of periodic table is carried out and eight elements are singled
out for new refrigerant development
□CFCs are synthesized by partial or full replacement of H-atoms in hydrocarbons
EIGHT ELEMENTS 1A 4A 5A 6A 7A
1 6 7 9 9
Midgley and his colleagues then made H C N O F
three interesting observations: (1.008) (12.011) (14.007) (15.999) (18.998)

i.Flammability decreases from left to 16 17

S Cl
right for the eight elements (32.064) (35.453)
ii.Toxicity generally decreases from 35
Br
the heavy elements at the bottom to (79.904)
the lighter elements at the top
Gases at room temperature
iii.Every known refrigerant at that
Liquid at room temperature
time was made from the combination
Solid at room temperature
of those eight “Midgley” elements.
 Commercialization of CFCs
□CFCs under the trade name of FREONS enter the market in 1930s
□ Freon-12 (CCl2F2) is introduced in 1931
□ Freon-11 (CCl3F) is introduced in 1932.
□ Freon-22 (CHClF2) and other CFCs are introduced
□A numbering system is introduced to denote and identify various refrigerants
 Early Refrigerant vs CFCs
Compared to the early refrigerants, CFCs are
□Non-toxic
□Non-flammable
□Chemically stable
□Compatible with common materials
□Available for a wide refrigeration temperature range
 Impact of CFCs
□All early refrigerants except ammonia are replaced by various CFCs
□Rapid growth in refrigeration due to the widespread use of CFCs
□Refrigeration enters households in the form of domestic refrigerators and air
conditions.
□Production and consumption of CFCs increase exponentially
 Ozone layer depletion – the other side of CFCs
□In 1974, Rowland and Molina propose the theory of Ozone Layer Depletion due
to CFCs released into atmosphere
□Subsequently studies confirm ozone depleting potential (OPD) of CFCs and
related substances
□ Montreal Protocol banning the use of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs)
such as CFCs in signed in 1987
 Ozone layer depletion – Consequences
□In human beings, increased instances of:
i. Skin cancer
ii. Cataracts
iii. Weakened immune systems
iv. Damages DNA structure
□Adverse effect on crop yield
□Adverse effect on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem
 Global Warming and CFCs
□ CFCs are also found to contribute significantly to global warming
□ Global Warming Potential (GWP) of CFCs are estimated to be thousands of
times greater than carbon dioxide
□Refrigerants contribute to global warming directly (due to their emissions) and
indirectly (through their primary energy consumption)
 Consequences od increased global warming
□Change in weather and wind flow patterns
□Increased sea levels due to polar ice cap melting
□Redistribution of crops and animals
 Replacements for CFCs
□Substances replacing CFCs should
i. Be non-Ozone Depleting (non-ODS)
ii. Have as low a GWP as possible
□Several synthetic and natural refrigerant replacements have been found for
CFCs
 Candidate
Refrigerants for
replacing CFCs
 Compressor development – A brief history
□Compressor is the most CRITICAL component of a vapour compression
refrigeration system because:
i. It is the major cost component
ii. It has a great influence on:
- Energy consumption
- Reliability, and
- Serviceability of the system
 Compressor development – A brief history
□Compressors can be classified into
1. Positive displacement type
- Reciprocating
- Rotary
- Screw
- Scroll
2. Roto-dynamic type
 Reciprocating compressors
□ P.N. Russel begins the manufacture of vertical
two-cylinder compressors in 1859
□ Charles Tellier develops horizontal, single cylinder
compressor in 1863
□ T.S.C. Lowe develops carbon dioxide compressors in
1868
□ Raoul Pictet develops horizontal, oil-free sulphur
dioxide compressor in 1874
□ In 1877, Carl von Linde introduces horizontal,
double-acting compressors
 Early Compressor
□First compressor is hand operated
□Steam engine driven compressors are developed in 1850s
□Early compressors were:
i. Open type
ii. Low speed (~ 50 rpm)
iii. Large size (0.5 m dia., 1.2 m stroke)
iv. Small clearance and large valves
v. Could handle liquid-vapor mxtures
 Important Landmarks

□1897, Belgian John Lebrun introduces rotary stuffing box to reduce leakage
□Electric motor driven compressors are introduced in 1900s
□High speed (~ 500 rpm) compressors are introduced in 1920
□ Hermetic compressor introduced in 1918
□ Hermetic compressors design perfected in 1930s
 Effect of compressor speed
Year Refrigerant No. of cylinders Speed (rpm) Cooling capacity per unit weight

1910 NH3 2 cylinders 70 6.5 kcal/h per kg

1940 NH3 4 cylinders 400 42 kcal/h per kg

1975 R22 16 cylinders in 1750 200 kcal/h per kg

W-arrangement
 Other positive displacement compressors
□French engineer Henri Corblin patents diaphragm compressor in 1919

□ Rotary vane and rolling piston type compressors enter the market in 1920s
□ A. Lysholm of Sweden originates the idea of screw compressor in 1934
□ Scroll type compressors are commercialized in 1980s

Rotary Vane Compressor Screw Compressor Scroll type Compressor

 Centrifugal compressors
□Conceptualized by Auguste Rateau of France in 1890
□ Willis H. Carrier of USA is credited with large scale use of
centrifugal compressors for air conditioning applications
(1920s)

□ Rapid growth with the development of CFCs in 1930s

□ Currently used with a wide variety of refrigerants in large
capacity plants
 Centrifugal vs Reciprocating
□ Compared to reciprocating type, centrifugal compressors are:
i. Compact for large capacity system
ii. Refrigerant flow is steady
iii. Less vibration and wear

Reciprocating compressors are:

iv. Simpler in construction, and
v. Good part load performance
APPLICATIONS OF
REFRIGERATION
CHAPTER 3
 Relation between Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
□ Refrigeration and air conditioning are generally treated in a single subject due to
the fact that one of the most important applications of refrigeration is in cooling
and dehumidification as required for summer air conditioning.
 Applications of Refrigeration
The major applications of refrigeration can be grouped into following four major
equally important areas.:
□ Food processing, preservation and distribution
□ Chemical and process industries
□ Special Applications
□ Comfort Air-conditioning
 Refrigeration in Food processing, preservation and distribution
□Food preservation is one of the classical and most important applications of
refrigeration
□It is well known that food products can be preserved for a longer time, if stored at
low temperatures.
□Both live products as well as dead products can be preserved for longer times
using refrigeration
• Live products (e.g. fruits, vegetables) – these products gets spoiled due to:
1. Bacterial activity, and
2. Enzymatic processing
• Dead products such as fish, meat get spoiled due to bacterial activity
Effect of storage temperature on useful storage life of food products
Average useful storage life (days)
Food Product 0oC 22oC 38oC
Meat 6-10 1 <1
Fish 2-7 1 <1
Poultry 5-18 1 <1
Dry meats and fish > 1000 > 350 & < 1000 > 100 & < 350
Fruits 2 - 180 1 – 20 1–7
Dry fruits > 1000 > 350 & < 1000 > 100 & < 350
Leafy vegetables 3 - 20 1–7 1–3
Root crops 90 - 300 7 – 50 2 – 20
Dry seeds > 1000 > 350 & < 1000 > 100 & < 350
 Cold chain
□For effective preservation of food products a cold chain is required
□A typical cold chain for fresh products consists of the following steps:
1. Refrigeration for post-harvest treatment
2. Refrigeration transport
3. Refrigeration during food processing
4. Cold storage for storing food
5. Refrigeration at retail supermarket, etc
6. Refrigeration at end user’s place
Ammonia based refrigeration plant for a large cold storage Photograph of a typical cold storage
 Benefits of Cold Chain
□Reduced food spoilage
□Excess crop of fruits and vegetables can be stored for use during peak demands
and during off-season
□Food products can be made available in places where they are not grown
□Distress selling by farmers during on-season can be prevented
• Conditions required for storage of food products vary from product to
product.
• The storage life depends on:
1. The type of products stored
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Air velocity inside the cold storage, and
5. Initial quality of the food products
 Recommended storage conditions for fruits and vegetables
Storage Relative Maximum, Storage time in cold storages
Temperature, oC Humidity, recommended storage for vegetables in tropical
% time countries
Apples 0–4 90 – 95 2 - 6 months -
Beetroot 0 95 – 99 4 – 6 months
Cabbage 0 95 – 99 5 – 6 months 2 months
Carrots 0 98 – 100 5 – 9 months 2 months
Cauliflower 0 95 3 – 4 weeks 1 week
Cucumber 10 - 13 90 – 95 10 – 14 days
Eggplant 8 - 12 90 – 95 7 days
Lettuce 0 95 – 100 2 – 3 weeks
Melons 7 - 10 90 - 95 2 weeks
Mushrooms 0-4 95 2-5 1 day
Onions 0 65 - 70 6 – 8 months
Oranges 0-4 85 - 90 3 – 4 months
Peas, Green 0 95 - 98 1 – 2 weeks
Pears 0 90 - 95 2 – 5 months
Potatoes 4 - 16 90 - 95 2 – 8 months
Pumpkin 10 - 13 70 – 75 6 – 8 months
Spinach 0 95 1 – 2 weeks 1 week
 Storage of other food products
□Food products such as meat, fish, poultry can be stored for longer period in
frozen consitions (≈-25oC)
□Dairy products such as milk, butter, ice cream requires refrigeration at various
temperature during processing and also during storage.
□Beverage such as fruit juices, cold drinks, wine, beer, etc. also require
refrigeration during processing and storage
 Frozen Food Storage
□ In general, most of the food products can be stored for longer periods in frozen condition
□ Normally, freezing should be done rapidly to reduce ice crystal growth
□ A wide variety of techniques such as blast freezing, contact freezing, immersion freezing,
Individual Quick Freezing (IQF) are employed for frozen foods
□ Normally, large refrigeration capacities are required for food freezing as the process has to be
rapid
□ Sometimes liquid nitrogen, solid carbon dioxide are also used for this purpose
□ A process called “Freeze-Drying” is also used for preservation of food products
□ Domestic refrigerator has become an essential kitchen appliance in almost all household
□ Of late, supermarket refrigeration is becoming popular especially in large cities
□ Refrigeration is also required in remote and rural areas for preservation of farm produce,
dair products, etc.
Section of a Supermarket with Refrigerated Display cases
 Application of Refrigeration in chemical and process industries
□For separation and liquefaction of gases in petrochemical industries and
refineries
□For removal of heat of reaction in various chemical industries
□For dehumidification of process air in pharmaceutical industries, etc.
□For recovery of solvents, storage of low boiling liquids, etc.
 Special applications of refrigeration
• Manufacturing
□ Cold treatment of metals in the manufacture of precision parts, cutting tools to
improve:
1. Dimensional accuracy
2. Hardness, wear resistance and tool life
• Medical
□ For storage of blood plasma, tissues, etc.
□ For manufacture and storage of drugs
□ In surgery for local anesthesia
 Special Application (contd.)
• In construction for
□ Setting of concrete
□ For freezing wet soils to facilitate excavation
• Desalination of water by freezing
• Manufacture of ice, ice cubes, flakes, etc.
• Preparation of ice skating rinks
• For storage of vaccines, medicines in remote and rural areas
 Application of Air Conditioning
• Air conditioning is required for:
1. Providing thermal comfort to humans and other living beings – Comfort air
Conditioning
2. Providing conditions required for various products and processes in industries –
Industrial air conditioning
 Industrial Air Conditioning
□The main purpose is to provide favorable surrounding conditions so that the
required processes can be carried out and required products can be produced.
□The industrial air conditioning systems must also provide at least a partial
measure of comfort to the people working in the industries.
□Requirements vary from industry to industry
 Industrial Air Conditioning - Examples

□ Textile industries
□ Printing presses
□ Manufacturing of precision parts
□ Semi-conductor industries
□ Pharmaceuticals
□ Photographic materials
□ Computer rooms
□ Power plants
□ Vehicular Air Conditioning
 Comfort Air Conditioning
□ The objective of comfort air conditioning is to provide thermal comfort to the occupants
□ Thermal comfort may be defined as “the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with its
surroundings”
□ Thermal comfort requires that the core temperature of a human body be maintained at about
37oC
□ Similar to a heat engine, a human body converts the chemical energy contained in food into
heat and work
□ To maintain temperature at required level, the body has to reject heat continuously
□ The condition of the surroundings affects temperature of the body
□ The basic objective of a comfort air conditioning system is to provide suitable conditions in the
surroundings.
 Comfort Conditions
• To provide comfort, the conditions in the occupied space should be kept at:
□ Operative temperature: 20 to 26oC
□ Humidity: Dew point temperature of 2 – 17oC
□ Average air velocity: 0.15 to 0.25 m/s
□ The exact values may vary slightly based on factors such as activity level, clothing, etc.
□ Depending on outside conditions (hot or cold) a cooling or heating system may be
required to maintain inside conditions
 Classification of Comfort Air Conditioning Systems
□Air conditioning systems for residences
□Commercial air conditioning systems
□Air conditioning systems for hospitals
□Mobile air conditioning systems, etc.
• The required capacity, type of the refrigeration system, design aspects, etc. vary
significantly depending upon the final application
Window type room air conditioner
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
□An air conditioning system must also provide a clean and healthy
environment for the occupants.
□ Sick building syndrome is very common in poorly designed air conditioned
buildings due to inadequate ventilation and use of improper materials
 Air Conditioning and Energy
□ Air conditioning systems must be energy efficient as they consume huge amount of
energy.
□ Energy efficiency depends on:
1. Proper design of air conditioned building
2. Selection of suitable refrigeration systems
3. Selection of suitable indoor conditions
4. Selection of suitable controls
5. Use of thermal energy storage, etc.
VAPOR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
 Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
► Most common refrigeration cycle in use today
► There are four principal
control volumes involving
these components:
► Evaporator
► Compressor
► Condenser
► Expansion valve Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture

All energy transfers by work and heat are taken as positive

in the directions of the arrows on the schematic and energy
balances are written accordingly.
 The Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
The processes of this cycle are
Process 4-1: two-phase liquid-vapor
mixture of refrigerant is evaporated through
heat transfer from the refrigerated space.
Process 1-2: vapor refrigerant is
compressed to a relatively high
temperature and pressure requiring work
input.
Process 2-3: vapor refrigerant condenses
to liquid through heat transfer to the cooler
surroundings. Process 3-4: liquid
refrigerant expands to the evaporator
pressure.
p-h Diagram
 The Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
► Engineering model:
►Each component is analyzed as a control
volume at steady state.
► Dry compression is presumed:
the refrigerant is a vapor.
► The compressor operates adiabatically.
► The refrigerant expanding through the valve
undergoes a throttling process.
► Kinetic and potential energy changes are
ignored.
Applying mass and energy rate balances

Refrigerating Effect
(RE) - is the amount
of heat gained from
the load.

RE = h1 - h4, KJ/kg
Evaporator RE = m(h1 - h4), KW
RE = Qin

For chilling water:

Applying mass and energy rate balances
 Applying mass and energy rate balances

Compressor Power (Wc) - is

the power needed to compress
the refrigerant.

Wc = h2 - h1 , KJ/kg = m(h2 -
h1), KW
Compressor where: m = mass of
refrigerant circulated
Assuming adiabatic
compression
Applying mass and energy rate balances

Heat Rejected (QR) - is

the amount of heat
rejected to the cooling
medium.

QR = h2 – h3 , KJ/kg
Condenser
QR = m(h2 – h3), KW

For cooling water:

QR = mw cp (t2 – t1)
 Applying mass and energy rate balances

Expansion Valve Process

(h3 = h4)
h3 = h4
h3 = hf4 + xhfg4
hfg4 = hg4 - hf4

where:
x = quality after
Expansion valve expansion or weight of
Assuming a throttling flash gas per unit weight of
process refrigerant circulated
 Performance
parameters
Coefficient of Performance (COP)

► The coefficient of performance is

the ratio of the refrigerating effect to the
work of compression

► The power per KW of refrigeration is the inverse of

the coefficient of performance, and an efficient
refrigeration system has a low value of power per kW
of refrigeration but a high COP
 Performance
parameters
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
► The power per Ton of refrigeration is the inverse of
the coefficient of performance, and an efficient
refrigeration system has a low value of power per ton of
refrigeration but a high COP
 Performance
parameters
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
► the ratio removed at the evaporator (refrigerating
effects) to the electrical energy consumed. This shall
confirm with the standards set by the Department of
Energy.
 Performance
parameters
Volume Flow at Suction (V1)

V1 = mv1 , m3/sec

Standard Refrigeration Cycle

Evaporation Temp: 5oF (-15oC)

Condenser Temp: 86oF (30oC)
CHILLING AND COOLING LOAD
CHILLING AND COOLING LOAD
 MOTOR AND COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

a.Efficiency of motor = Pom / Pim

b.Efficiency of coupling = Pic / Pom
c.Efficiency of compressor = Poc /
Pic
d.Over-all efficiency = Poc / Pim
where:
Pim = power input of motor
Pom = power output of motor
Pic = power input of compressor
Poc = power output of compressor
= m(h2 - h1)
 REFRIGERATION
COMPRESSORS
A. Compressor Output = m (h - h ) B. Volume flow at
2 1
suction, V1 = mv1 C. Volume Displacement, VD
Single Acting Cylinder:

Double Acting Cylinder:

where:
v1 = specific volume at suction D = bore = diameter
L = length of stroke c = no. of cylinders
N= number of cycles completed per unit time
N= (n)(1) (number of cylinders) for single-acting
compressor
N= (n)(2) (number of cylinders) for double-acting
compressor
 REFRIGERATION COMPRESSORS

D. Volumetric Efficiency,

E. Compression ratio = v1 /v2

where: c = percent clearance

v2 = specific volume at discharge
REFRIGERATION COMPRESSORS
Example
A simple saturated refrigeration cycle for R-12 system operates at an evaporating
temperature of -5oC and a condensing temperature of 40oC. Determine (a) the
refrigerating effect per kg, (b) the work per kg, (c) the heat rejected at the condenser
per kg, (d) the COP. For a refrigerating capacity of 1 kW, determine the (e) total heat
rejected at the condenser, (f) the work, and (g) the volume flow rate.
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
1. A standard vapor compression cycle developing 100 kW of refrigeration using
Ammonia refrigerant operates with a condensing temperature of 36oC and an
evaporating temperature of -20oC. Calculate:
a. Refrigerating effect in KJ/kg
b. the circulation rate of refrigerant in kg/sec
c. the power required by compressor in KW
d. the coefficient of performance
e. the volume flow rate measure at the compression suction in L/sec
f. the power per KW of refrigeration
g. the compressor discharge temperature
 Effect of Operating Conditions

► Effect of increasing the

Vaporizing Temperature
► The refrigerating effect per
unit mass increases
► The mass flow rate per ton
decreases
► The volume flow rate per
ton decreases
► The COP increases
► The work per ton decreases
► The heat rejected at the
condenser per ton decreases
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
A R-12 simple saturated refrigerating cycle operates at an evaporating temperature of
-10oC and a condensing temperature of 40oC. Show the effects of increasing the
vaporizing temperature to 5oC.
 Effect of Operating Conditions

► Effect of increasing the

Condensing Temperature
► The refrigerating effect per
unit mass decreases
► The mass flow rate per ton
increases
► The volume flow rate per
ton increases
► The COP decreases
► The work per ton increases
► The heat rejected at the
condenser per ton increases
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
A simple saturated refrigerating cycle using R-12 as the refrigerant, operates at a
condensing temperature of 40oC and an evaporating temperature of -10oC. Show the
effects of increasing the condensing temperature to 50oC.
 Effect of Operating Conditions

► Effect of Superheating the

Suction Vapor (when
superheating produces useful
cooling)
► The refrigerating effect per unit
mass increases
► The mass flow rate per ton
decreases
► The volume flow rate per ton
decreases
► The COP increases
► The work per ton decreases
 Effect of Operating Conditions

► Effect of Superheating the Suction

Vapor (when superheating occurs
without useful cooling)
► The refrigerating effect per unit
mass decreases
► The mass flow rate per ton
increases
► The volume flow rate per ton
increases
► The COP decreases
► The work per ton increases
► The heat rejected at the
condenser per ton increases
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
A simple saturated refrigerating cycle for R-12 system operates at an evaporating
temperature of -5oC and a condensing temperature of 40oC. Show the effects of
superheating the suction vapor from -5oC to 15oC.
 Effect of Operating Conditions

► Effect of subcooling the liquid

► The refrigerating effect per unit
mass increases
► The mass flow rate per ton
decreases
► The volume flow rate per ton
decreases
► The COP increases
► The work per ton decreases
► The heat rejected at the
condenser per ton decreases
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
A simple saturated refrigerating cycle using R-12 as the refrigerant operates at an
evaporating temperature of -5oC and a condensing temperature of 40oC. Show the
effects of subcooling from 40oC to 30oC before reaching the expansion valve.
DEGREE SUPERHEATING AND DEGREE SUBCOOLING

Degree superheating - is the

difference between actual
temperature entering the
compressor and the evaporator
temperature.

°SH = t1 - tevap

Degree subcooling - is the

difference between condenser
temperature and the actual
temperature entering the expansion
valve.

°SC = tcon - t3
Example
A refrigerant 22, four cylinder, 85 x 70mm, compressor operating at 28r/s, a
condensing temperature of 38oC and an evaporating temperature of -2oC carries a
refrigerating load of 112KW. The motor driving the compressor has an efficiency of
92% and draws 32.5 KW. There is a 5oC subcooling and 7oC superheating of the
suction gas entering the compressor. Compute (a) the actual volumetric efficiency
and (b) the compression efficiency.
 Refrigeration System with
Liquid-Suction Heat Exchanger
The functions of heat
exchager are:

1. To ensure that no
liquid enters the
compressor, and

2. To subcool the liquid

from the condenser to
prevent bubbles of vapor
Example
A simple saturated refrigeration cycle using R12 as refrigerant operates at an
evaporating temperature of -5oC and a condensing temperature of 40oC. Show the
effects of installing a heat exchager that would superheat the suction vapor from -5oC
to 15oC in the heat exchager.
 Features of
Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle
As the refrigerant flows through the
system there will be pressure drops
in the condenser, evaporator, and
piping. Heat losses or gains will
occur depending on the temperature
difference between the refrigerant
and the surroundings. Compression
will be polytropic with friction and
heat transfer instead of isentropic.
The actual vapor compression cycle
may have some or all of the items of
departure from the simple saturation
cycle as shown on the p-h diagram
in the figure.
 Features of
Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle

The pressure drop in the evaporator is large and that in the condenser is
small. Due to various pressure drops, the capacity of the plant is
decreased and the power consumption per unit of refrigeration is
increased. The COP of the actual cycle is reduced.
 Features of
Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle
Process State
Superheating of the vapor in the evaporator 10-11
Heat gain in the suction line 11-12
Pressure drop in the suction line 12-13
Pressure drop due to wire drawing at the compressor suction valve 13-1
Polytropic compression with friction and heat transfer 1-2
Pressure drop at the compressor discharge valve 2-3
Pressure drop in the delivery line 3-4
Heat loss in the delivery line 4-5
Pressure drop in the condenser 5-6
Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser 6-7
Heat gain in the liquid line 7-8
Pressure drop in the evaporator 9-10
• THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
□ In 1821, the German physicist T.J. Seebeck reported that when two junctions of dissimilar
metals are kept at two different temperatures, an electro motive force (emf) is developed,
resulting in flow of electric current.
□ In 1834, a Frenchmen, J. Peltier observed the reverse effect.
□ In 1838, H.F.E. Lenz froze a drop of water by the Peltier effect using antimony and bismuth
□ In 1857, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proved by thermodynamic analysis that Seebeck
effect and Peltier effect are related and he discovered another effect called Thomson effect after
his name.
□ The Russian scientist, A. F. Ioffe is one of the pioneers in the area of thermoelectric
refrigeration systems using semiconductors.
□ 1949: Russia develops thermoelectric domestic refrigerator
□ Large capacity system are develops in USA since 1960
• VORTEX TUBE SYSTEMS
□French engineer Georges Ranque discovers the vortex (Ranque) effect in 1931.
□In 1945, German physicist Rudolph Hilsch explains the science behind vortex
tube .
□Since then mainly used in special application such as spot cooling of electric and
machine part , cooling jackets etc.
REFRIGERANTS
CHAPTER 4
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFRIGERANT
□ Primary refrigerant are used directly as working fluids in refrigeration systems
□They undergo phase change while providing refrigeration
□ Secondary refrigerant are those liquids that are used to transport energy from
one location to other
□They do not undergo phase change
□Water and brines are the commonly used secondary refrigerants
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFRIGERANT
□If the operating temperatures are above 0 oC, then pure water can be used as
secondary refrigerant, for example in large air conditioning systems
□Antifreezes or brines are used when refrigeration is required at sub-zero
temperatures, e.g. in cold storage.
□The commonly used secondary refrigerants are the solutions of water and
ethylene glycol, propylene glycol or calcium chloride.
Refrigerant Selection Criteria
□ Selection of refrigerant for a particular application is based on the following
requirements:
i. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties
ii. Environmental and safety properties, and
iii. Economics
Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties:
The requirements are:
a)Suction pressure: At a given evaporator temperature, the saturation pressure
should be above atmospheric for prevention of air or moisture ingress into the
system and ease of leak detection. Higher suction pressure is better as it leads to
smaller compressor displacement
b)Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature, the discharge pressure
should be as small as possible to allow light-weight construction of compressor,
condenser etc.
c)Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for high volumetric efficiency
and low power consumption
d)Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large as possible so that the required
mass flow rate per unit cooling capacity will be small
The a-d requirements are somewhat contradictory, as the operating pressures,
temperatures and latent heat of vaporization are related by Clausius-Clapeyron
Equation:

Since the change in entropy of vaporization is relatively small, from the

above equation it can be shown that:
e)Isentropic index of compression: Should be as small as possible so that the
temperature rise during compression will be small
f)Liquid specific heat: Should be small so that degree of subcooling will be large
leading to smaller amount of flash gas at evaporator inlet
g)Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that the degree of superheating will be
small
h) Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity in both liquid as well as vapour phase
should be high for higher heat transfer coefficients
i)Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both liquid and vapour phases for smaller
frictional pressure drops
 Thermal
Conductivities
and Viscosities of
Saturated
Refrigerant
Liquid and Vapor
□ The thermodynamic properties are interrelated and mainly depend on normal
boiling point, critical temperature, molecular weight and structure.
□ The normal boiling point indicates the useful temperature levels as it is directly
related to the operating pressures
□ A high critical temperature yields higher COP due to smaller compressor superheat
and smaller flash gas losses.
□ The important properties such as latent heat of vaporization and specific heat
depend on the molecular weight and structure of the molecule.
Environmental and safety properties
□Major factor in deciding the usefulness of a particular refrigerant
□The important environmental and safety properties are:
a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the Montreal protocol, the ODP
of refrigerants should be zero (i.e., no Chlorine or Bromine atoms)
b) Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants should have as low a GWP value
as possible to minimize the problem of global warming.
c) Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): Naturally, refrigerants with as a low a
value of TEWI are preferable from global warming point of view.
d) Toxicity: Refrigerants used in a refrigeration system should be nontoxic.
o toxicity is a relative term, which becomes meaningful only when the degree of
concentration and time of exposure required to produce harmful effects are specified.
o Refrigerants such as R12, R22 are non-toxic in the presence of air, however, in the
presence of an open flame they decompose and release harmful gases.
o In general the degree of hazard depends on:
- Amount of refrigerant used vs total space
- Type of occupancy
- Presence of open flames
- Odor of refrigerant, and
- Maintenance condition
e) Flammability: The refrigerants should preferably be non-flammable
and nonexplosive.
o For flammable refrigerants special precautions should be taken to avoid accidents.
o ASHRAE has divided refrigerants into six safety groups (A1 to A3 and B1 to B3).
o Refrigerants belonging to Group A1 (e.g. R11, R12, R22, R134a, R744, R718) are least
hazardous, while refrigerants belonging to Group B3 (e.g. R1140) are most hazardous.
Other important properties are:
f) Chemical stability
g) Compatibility
h) Miscibility with lubricating oils
i) Dielectric strength
j) Ease of leak detection

Economic Properties
a) Cost of Refrigerant
b) Availability and Supply
c) Storage and Handling
Classification of Refrigerants
Designation of Refrigerants
□Since a large number of refrigerants have been developed over the years for a
wide variety of applications, a numbering system has been adopted to designate
various refrigerants.
□All the refrigerants are designated by R followed by a unique number.
i. Fully saturated, halogenated compounds:

o These refrigerants are derivatives of alkanes (CnH2n+2)

o These refrigerants are designated by R XYZ, where:
o X+1 indicates the number of Carbon (C) atoms

o Y-1 indicates number of Hydrogen (H) atoms, and

o Z indicates number of Fluorine (F) atoms
o The balance indicates the number of Chlorine atoms.
o Only 2 digits indicates that the value of X is zero.
Ex: R 22
X = 0 ⇒ No. of Carbon atoms = 0+1 = 1 ⇒ derivative of methane (CH4)
Y = 2 ⇒ No. of Hydrogen atoms = 2-1 = 1
Z = 2 ⇒ No. of Fluorine atoms = 2
The balance = 4 – no. of (H+F) atoms = 4-1-2 = 1 ⇒ No. of Chlorine atoms = 1
∴The chemical formula of R 22 = CHClF2
Similarly it can be shown that the chemical formula of:
R12 = CCl2F2
R134a = C2H2F4 (derivative of ethane)

*(letter a stands for isomer, e.g. molecules having same chemical composition but
different atomic arrangement, e.g. R134 and R134a)
ii. Inorganic refrigerants: These are designated by number 7 followed by the
molecular weight of the refrigerant (rounded-off).

Ex.:
Ammonia: Molecular weight is 17, ∴ the designation is R 717
Carbon dioxide: Molecular weight is 44, ∴ the designation is R 744
Water: Molecular weight is 18, ∴ the designation is R 718
Air: Molecular weight is 29, ∴ the designation is R 729
iii. Refrigerant Mixtures: mixture of two (binary) or more pure refrigerant
fluids The refrigerant mixtures can be divided into:
1. Azeotropic mixture -usually binary mixtures that behave like a pure liquid.
-designated by 500 series
R 500: Mixture of R 12 (73.8 %) and R 152a (26.2%)
R 502: Mixture of R 22 (48.8 %) and R 115 (51.2%)
R503: Mixture of R 23 (40.1 %) and R 13 (59.9%)
R507A: Mixture of R 125 (50%) and R 143a (50%)
2. Zeotropic mixtures – exhibit a significant temperature variation during constant
pressure phase change process, such as condensation and evaporation.
- designated by 400 series
R404A : Mixture of R 125 (44%), R 143a (52%) and R 134a (4%)
R407A : Mixture of R 32 (20%), R 125 (40%) and R 134a (40%)
R407B : Mixture of R 32 (10%), R 125 (70%) and R 134a (20%)
R410A : Mixture of R 32 (50%) and R 125 (50%)
iv. Hydrocarbons:

Saturated Hydrocarbons
Propane (C3H8): R 290
n-butane (C4H10) : R 600
iso-butane (C4H10): R 600a

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
R1150 (C2H4)
R1270 (C3H6)
Comparison between different refrigerants
□Synthetic refrigerants that were commonly used for refrigeration, cold storage
and air conditioning applications are: R 11 (CFC 11), R 12 (CFC 12), R 22
(HCFC 22), R 502 (CFC 12+HCFC 22) etc.
□However, these refrigerants have to be phased out due to their Ozone Depletion
Potential (ODP).
□The synthetic replacements for the older refrigerants are: R-134a (HFC-134a)
and blends of HFCs.
□Generally, synthetic refrigerants are non-toxic and non-flammable.
□However, compared to the natural refrigerants the synthetic refrigerants offer
lower performance and they also have higher Global Warming Potential (GWP).
□As a result, the synthetic refrigerants face an uncertain future.
Comparison between different refrigerants
□ The oldest and most commonly used natural refrigerant is ammonia.
□ Ammonia has good thermodynamic, thermophysical and environmental properties.
□ However, it is toxic and is not compatible with some of the common materials of construction
such as copper, which somewhat restricts its application.
□ Other natural refrigerants that are being suggested are hydrocarbons (HCs) and carbon di-oxide
(R-744).
□ In spite of some practical problems, these refrigerants are being considered as they are
environmentally safe, inexpensive and offer good performance.
 Refrigerant Application Substitute suggested
Retrofit(R)/New (N)
R 11(CFC) Large air conditioning systems R 123 (R,N)
NBP = 23.7oC Industrial heat pumps R 141b (N)
hfg at NBP=182.5 kJ/kg T As foam blowing agent R 245fa (N)
=197.98oC n-pentane (R,N)
cr
Cp/Cv = 1.13
ODP = 1.0
GWP = 3500
R 12 (CFC) Domestic refrigerators R 22 (R,N)
NBP = -29.8oC Small air conditioners R 134a (R,N)
Commonly used hfg at NBP=165.8 kJ/kg Water coolers R 227ea (N)
o R 401A,R 401B (R,N)
Small cold storages
Refrigerants and Tcr =112.04 C
Cp/Cv = 1.126
R 411A,R 411B (R,N)
R 717 (N)
their Properties ODP = 1.0
GWP = 7300

R 22 (HCFC) Air conditioning systems R 410A, R 410B (N)

NBP = -40.8oC Cold storages R 417A (R,N)
hfg at NBP=233.2 kJ/kg R 407C (R,N)
T =96.02oC R 507,R 507A (R,N)
cr
R 404A (R,N)
Cp/Cv = 1.166 R 717 (N)
ODP = 0.05
GWP = 1500

R 134a (HFC) Used as replacement for R 12 No replacement required

NBP = -26.15oC h at in domestic refrigerators, water
fg
NBP=222.5 kJ/kg coolers, automobile A/Cs etc * Immiscible in mineral oils
* Highly hygroscopic
T =101.06oC
 Refrigerant Application Substitute suggested
Retrofit(R)/New (N)
R 717 (NH3) Cold storages No replacement required
NBP = -33.35oC Ice plants
hfg at NBP=1368.9 kJ/kg Food processing * Toxic and flammable
T =133.0oC
Frozen food cabinets * Incompatible with copper
cr
* Highly efficient
Cp/Cv = 1.31
* Inexpensive and available
ODP = 0.0
GWP = 0.0
R 744 (CO2) Cold storages No replacement required
Commonly used NBP = -78.4oC Air conditioning systems * Very low critical temperature
h at 40oC=321.3 kJ/kg Simultaneous cooling and * Eco-friendly
fg
Refrigerants and T =31.1oC
cr
heating (Transcritical cycle) * Inexpensive and available

Cp/Cv = 1.3
their Properties ODP = 0.0
GWP = 1.0
R718 (H2O) Absorption systems Steam jet No replacement required
NBP = 100.oC systems * High NBP
hfg at NBP=2257.9 kJ/kg * High freezing point
T =374.15oC * Large specific volume
cr
* Eco-friendly
Cp/Cv = 1.33
* Inexpensive and available
ODP = 0.0
GWP = 1.0
R600a (iso-butane) Replacement for R 12 No replacement required
NBP = -11.73oC h at Domestic refrigerators * Flammable
fg
Water coolers * Eco-friendly
NBP=367.7 kJ/kg
T =135.0oC
cr

Cp/Cv = 1.086
ODP = 0.0
GWP = 3.0
□ Refrigerant Mixtures offer the advantage of tailoring the composition to suit
various temperature requirements
□It is also possible to control the properties such as toxicity, flammability, oil
miscibility by manipulating the composition.
□Hence, they are finding greater use
□However, since the composition of zeotropic mixtures change due to leakage, use
of these substances require greater care
□Design of equipment is also complex