Computational Fluid

Dynamics
[AERO 423]
Sumit Krishnan
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering, ASETL
Amity University Lucknow Campus-226028
E-mail: [email protected]
 CFD: Module I
Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions

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What is CFD? Why? When?
 CFD is a full form of Computational Fluid Dynamics
 Its scope is not just limited to fluid dynamics, it can be applied to any process which
involves computational transport phenomenon such as computational fluid dynamics,
heat transfer, mass transfer etc.
 Any fluid flow are governed by three fundamental principles: ( 1) mass is conserved; (2)
Newton's second law (force = mass x acceleration); and (3) energy is conserved. These
fundamental physical principles can be expressed in terms of basic mathematical
equations, which in their most general form are either integral equations or partial
differential equations. Computational fluid dynamics is the art of replacing the integrals
or the partial derivatives in these equations with discretized algebraic forms, which in
turn are solved to obtain numbers for the flow field values at discrete points in time
and/or space. The end product of CFD is indeed a collection of numbers, in contrast to
a closed-form analytical solution.
Applications:
Historically, the early development of CFD in the 1960s and 1970s was driven by
the needs of the aerospace community. However, modern CFD cuts
across all disciplines where the flow of a fluid is important.

 Aerospace Engineering
 Automobile Engineering
 Civil Engineering
 Biomedical Engineering
 Industrial Manufacturing
 Naval Architecture Engineering
Automobile Engineering

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Civil Engineering

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Biomedical Engineering

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Industrial Manufacturing

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Naval Architecture Engineering

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MODELS OF THE FLOW
In obtaining the basic equations of fluid motion, the following philosophy is always followed:
➢ 1. Choose the appropriate fundamental physical principles from the law of physics, such as
i. Mass is conserved.
ii. F = ma (Newton's second law).
iii. Energy is conserved.
➢ 2. Apply these physical principles to a suitable model of the flow.
➢ 3. From this application, extract the mathematical equations which embody such physical principles.

For a continuum fluid, one of the four models given below needs to be constructed:

➢ Finite control volume fixed in space with the fluid moving through it.
➢ Finite control volume moving with the fluid such that the same fluid particles are always
in the same control volume.
➢ Infinitesimal fluid element fixed in space with the fluid moving through it.
➢ Infinitesimal fluid element moving along a streamline with the velocity V equal to the
local flow velocity at each point.
Fig. Models of the flow
Concept of substantial derivative
( TIME RATE OF CHANGE FOLLOWING A MOVING FLUID ELEMENT )
Consider an infinitesimally small fluid element moving with the flow.
The motion of this fluid element is shown in more detail in Fig. 2. Here, the fluid element is moving
through Cartesian space. The unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes are i, j, and k, respectively. The
vector velocity field in this Cartesian space is given by V = ui+vj +wk

Fig. 2 Fluid element moving in the fluid flow

where the x, y, and z components of velocity are given, respectively, by
u = u(x, y, z, t)
v = v(x, y, z, t)
w = w(x, y, z, t)
Note that we are considering in general an unsteady flow, where u, v, and w are
functions of both space and time t. In addition, the scalar density field is given by
𝜌 = 𝜌(x, y, z, t)
At time t1, the fluid element is located at point I in Fig. 2.3. At this point and time,
the density of the fluid element is
𝜌1 = 𝜌(x1, Y1, z1, t1)
At a later time t2, the same fluid element has moved to point 2 in Fig. 2.3. Hence, at
time t2, the density of this same fluid element is
𝜌2 = 𝜌(x2, Y2, z2, t2)
Since 𝜌 = 𝜌 (x, y, z, t), we can expand this function in a Taylor series about point 1
as follows:

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This is physically the average time rate of change in density of the fluid element as it moves from point I to point 2. In
the limit, as t2 approaches t1, this term becomes

Here, D𝜌/Dt is a symbol for the instantaneous time rate of change of density of the fluid element as it moves through
point 1. By definition, this symbol is called the substantial derivative D𝜌/Dt. Note that D𝜌/Dt is the time rate of change
of density of the given fluid element as it moves through space. Here, our eyes are locked on the fluid element as it is
moving, and we are watching the density of the element change as it moves through point 1. This is different from
(𝜕𝜌Τ𝜕𝑡)1, which is physically the time rate of change of density at the fixed point 1. For (𝜕𝜌Τ𝜕𝑡)1, we fix our eyes on
the stationary point I and watch the density change due to transient fluctuations in the flow field. Thus, D𝜌/Dt and
𝜕𝜌Τ𝜕𝑡are physically and numerically different quantities.
14
Above Equation represents a definition of the substantial derivative operator in vector notation;
thus, it is valid for any coordinate system.
15
Focusing on Eq., we once again emphasize that D/Dt is the substantial derivative, which is
physically that time rate of change following a moving fluid element; 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑡 is called the local
derivative, which is physically the time rate of change at a fixed point; V · 𝛻 is called the
convective derivative, which is physically the time rate of change due to the movement of the
fluid element from one location to another in the flow field where the flow properties are
spatially different. The substantial derivative applies to any flow-field variable, for example,
Dp/Dt, DT/Dt, Du/Dt, etc., where p and T are the static pressure and temperature, respectively.
For example

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THE DIVERGENCE OF THE VELOCITY (𝛻 · V)
 The governing flow equations are frequently expressed in terms of the
substantial derivative and divergence of velocity so it is important to have a
physical understanding of this term.
 Consider the finite control volume moving with the fluid. Its mass is fixed,
invariant with time. However, its volume and control surface are changing
with time as it moves to different regions of the flow where different values
of 𝜌 exist. That is, this moving control volume of fixed mass is constantly
increasing or decreasing its volume and is changing its shape, depending on
the characteristics of the flow.
The change in the volume of the control volume, ,, due to just the movement
of dS over a time increment 𝛻𝑡 is

The total change in volume of the whole control volume is equal to the
summation over the total control surface.

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Applying the divergence theorem from vector calculus we obtain

Imagine that moving control volume is shrunk to a very small volume

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Different Types of Flows
Flow classifications
 Laminar vs. turbulent flow.
– Laminar flow: fluid particles move in smooth, layered fashion (no substantial mixing of
fluid occurs).
– Turbulent flow: fluid particles move in a chaotic, “tangled” fashion (significant mixing
of fluid occurs).
 Steady vs. unsteady flow.
– Steady flow: flow properties at any given point in space are constant in time, e.g. p =
p(x,y,z).
– Unsteady flow: flow properties at any given point in space change with time, e.g. p =
p(x,y,z,t).

Reference: Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics

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Instructor: André Bakker
 Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian
In the late seventeenth century Isaac Newton stated that shear stress in a fluid is
proportional to the time-rate-of-strain, i.e. velocity gradients. Such fluids are called
Newtonian fluids. (Fluids in which τ is not proportional to the velocity gradients are
non-Newtonian fluids; blood flow is one example.) In virtually all practical
aerodynamic problems, the fluid can be assumed to be Newtonian.

 Incompressible vs. compressible flow.

– Incompressible flow: volume of a given fluid particle does not change.
• Implies that density is constant everywhere.
• Essentially valid for all liquid flows.

– Compressible flow: volume of a given fluid particle can change with position.
• Implies that density will vary throughout the flow field.
• Compressible flows are further classified according to the value of the
Mach number (M), where.
• M < 1 - Subsonic.
• M > 1 - Supersonic 9/4/2020 20
 Single phase vs. multiphase flow.
– Single phase flow: fluid flows without phase change (either liquid or gas).
– Multiphase flow: multiple phases are present in the flow field (e.g. liquid-gas, liquid-solid, gas-solid)

 Homogeneous vs. heterogeneous flow.

– Homogeneous flow: only one fluid material exists in the flow field.
– Heterogeneous flow: multiple fluid/solid materials are present in the flow field (multi-species flows).

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Integral form of conservation equations:
(Finite control volume model)
The fluid flow equations that we directly obtain by applying the fundamental physical
principles to a finite control volume are in integral form. These integral forms of the
governing equations can be manipulated to indirectly obtain partial differential equations.
The equations so obtained from the finite control volume fixed in space in either integral or
partial differential form, are called the conservation form of the governing equations. The
equations obtained from the finite control volume moving with the fluid, in either integral
or partial differential form, are called the non-conservation form of the governing
equations.

Differential form of conservation equations:

(Infinitesimal Fluid Element Model)
The fundamental physical principles are applied to just the fluid element itself.
This application leads directly to the fundamental equations in partial
differential equation form. Moreover, the particular partial differential equations
obtained directly from the fluid element fixed in space are again the
conservation form of the equations. The partial differential equations obtained 22
directly from the moving fluid element are again called the non-conservation
form of the equations.
The Continuity Equation:
Physical Principle: Mass is Conserved

Consider the model of a finite control volume fixed in space, as sketched in Figure. At a
point on the control surface, the flow velocity is V and the vector elemental surface area is
dS. Also let dV be an elemental volume inside the finite control volume. Applied to this
control volume, our fundamental physical principle that mass is conserved means

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where B and C are just convenient symbols for the left and right sides, respectively. First, let us
obtain an expression for B. The mass flow of a moving fluid across any fixed surface (say, in kg/s,
or slug/s) is equal to the product of (density) × (area of surface) × (component of velocity
perpendicular to the surface). Hence the elemental mass flow across the area dS is

The net mass flow out of the entire control volume through the control surface S is the summation
over S of the elemental mass flows

Now consider the right side. The mass contained within the elemental volume
The total mass inside the control volume is therefore

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It is the integral form of the continuity equation; it is also in conservation form.

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Let us cast derived continuity equation in the form of a differential equation.
Since the control volume considered is fixed in space, the limits of integration
for the integrals are constant, and hence the time derivative ∂/∂t can be placed
inside the integral.

Applying the divergence theorem from vector calculus, the surface integral can be
expressed as a volume integral

After replacing the surface integral, we get

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Since the finite control volume is arbitrarily drawn in space, the only way for the integral
to equal zero is for the integrand to be zero at every point within the control volume.
Hence,

It is the continuity equation in a partial differential form obtained indirectly from

integral form.
Examining the above derivation in light of our discussion, we may note that:
(1) By applying the model of a finite control volume, we have obtained continuity equation
directly in integral form.
(2) Only after some manipulation of the integral form did we indirectly obtain a partial
differential equation,
(3) By choosing the model to be fixed in space, we have obtained the conservation form of
the continuity equations.

Reference: Anderson, John D., Jr., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 2nd Edition McGraw-Hill,
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New York, 1991.
 The Momentum Equation:

Newton’s 2nd law, expressed above, when applied to the moving fluid element in Figure 1, below, says
that the net force on the fluid element equals its mass times the acceleration of the element. This is a
vector relation, and hence can be split into three scalar relations along the x, y, and z-axes. Let us
consider only the x-component of Newton’s 2nd law, Fx = m ax . (1)
where Fx and ax are the scalar x-components of the force and acceleration respectively.

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Reference: COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS BY JHON D ANDERSON JR.

First, consider the left side of Eq. (1). We say that the moving fluid element experiences a force
in the x-direction. What is the source of this force?
There are two sources:
(1) Body forces, which act directly on the volumetric mass of the fluid element. These forces
‘act at a distance’; examples are gravitational, electric and magnetic forces.
(2) Surface forces, which act directly on the surface of the fluid element. They are due to only
two sources: (a) the pressure distribution acting on the surface, imposed by the outside fluid
surrounding the fluid element, and (b) the shear and normal stress distributions acting on the
surface, also imposed by the outside fluid ‘tugging’ or ‘pushing’ on the surface by means of
friction.
Let us denote the body force per unit mass acting on the fluid element by f , with fx as its x-
component. The volume of the fluid element is (dx dy dz); hence,

(2)

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The shear and normal stresses in a fluid are related to the time-rate-of-change of the
deformation of the fluid element, as sketched in Fig. 2 for just the xy plane. The shear
stress, denoted by τxy in this figure, is related to the time rate-of-change of the shearing
deformation of the fluid element, whereas the normal stress, denoted by τxx in Fig. 2, is
related to the time-rate-of-change of volume of the fluid element.
As a result, both shear and normal stresses depend on velocity gradients in the flow, In
most viscous flows, normal stresses (such as τxx) are much smaller than shear stresses, and
many times are neglected. Normal stresses (say τxx in the x-direction) become important
when the normal velocity gradients (say ∂u/∂x) are very large, such as inside a shock wave.
For the moving fluid element we can write

Fig. 2. Illustration of shear

and normal stresses

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(3)
The total force in the x-direction, Fx, is given by the sum of Eqs. (2) and (3). Adding, and
cancelling terms, we obtain

(4)

Equation (4) represents the left-hand side of Eq. (1).

Considering the right-hand side of Eq. (1), recall that the mass of the fluid element is
fixed and is equal to
m = ρ dx dy dz (5)

Also, recall that the acceleration of the fluid element is the time-rate-of-change of its
velocity. Hence, the component of acceleration in the x-direction, denoted by ax, is simply
the time-rate-of-change of u; since we are following a moving fluid element, this time-rate-
of-change is given by the substantial derivative. Thus,

(6)
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 Combining Eqs. (1), (4), (5) and (6), we obtain

(6a)

(6b)

(6c)

Equations (6a, b and c) are the x-, y- and z-components respectively of the momentum equation. Note
that they are partial differential equations obtained directly from an application of the fundamental
physical principle to an infinitesimal fluid element. Moreover, since this fluid element is moving with
the flow, Eqs. (6a, b and c) are in non-conservation form. They are scalar equations, and are called
the Navier–Stokes equations in honour of two men—the Frenchman M. Navier 9/4/2020 and the Englishmen
32

G. Stokes—who independently obtained the equations in the first half of the nineteenth century.
The Navier-Stokes equations in conservation form are given below:

(7a)

(7b)

(7c)

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For Newtonian fluids, Stokes, in 1845, obtained:

where μ is the molecular viscosity coefficient and λ is the bulk viscosity coefficient.
Stokes made the hypothesis that

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Substituting the expressions for stresses into Eq. (7 a, b and c), we obtain the complete
Navier–Stokes equations in conservation form:

(8a)

(8b)

(8c)
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The Energy Equation:
Physical Principle: Energy is Conserved

A statement of this principle is the first law of thermodynamics, which, when applied to the moving
fluid element in Fig. 2.5, becomes

(1)

where A, B and C denote the respective terms above.

Obtaining expression for C: (Refer for such derivation)
It can be shown that the rate of doing work by a force exerted on a moving body is equal to the
product of the force and the component of velocity in the direction of the force. Hence the rate of
work done by the body force acting on the fluid element moving at a velocity V is
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Reference: COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS BY JHON D ANDERSON JR.

With regard to the surface forces (pressure plus shear and normal stresses), consider just the
forces in the x-direction, shown in Fig. 1 below.

Fig. 1 Energy fluxes associated with an infinitesimally small, moving fluid element. For simplicity, only the
fluxes in the x direction are shown 9/4/2020 37
Considering all the surface forces shown in Fig. 1, the net rate of work done on the moving fluid
element due to these forces is simply

The above expression considers only surface forces in the x-direction. When the surface forces in
the y- and z-directions are also included, similar expressions are obtained. In total, the net rate of
work done on the moving fluid element is the sum of the surface force contributions in the x-, y-
and z-directions, as well as the body force contribution. This is denoted by C in Eq. 1, and is
given by

(2)

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Let us turn our attention to B in Eq. (1), i.e. the net flux of heat into the element. This heat flux is
due to: (1) volumetric heating such as absorption or emission of radiation, and (2) heat transfer
across the surface due to temperature gradients, i.e. thermal conduction. Define ˙q as the rate of
volumetric heat addition per unit mass. Noting that the mass of the moving fluid element in Fig. 1
is ρ dx dy dz, we obtain

(3)

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Finally, let us write the expression for term A in Eq. (1)
The term A denotes the time-rate-of-change of energy of the fluid element. The total energy of
a moving fluid per unit mass is the sum of its internal energy per unit mass, e, and its kinetic
energy per unit mass, V2/2. Hence, the total energy is (e + V2/2). Since we are following a
moving fluid element, the time-rate-of-change of energy per unit mass is given by the
substantial derivative. Since the mass of the fluid element is ρ dx dy dz, we have

(4)

The final form of the energy equation is obtained by substituting Eqs. (2), (3) and (4) into Eq.
(1), obtaining:

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(5)
This is the non-conservation form of the energy equation; also note that it is in terms of the total
energy, (e+V2/2). Once again, the non-conservation form results from the application of the
fundamental physical principle to a moving fluid element.
The left-hand side of Eq. (5) involves the total energy, (e+V2/2). Frequently, the energy equation is
written in a form that involves just the internal energy, e, which is given below:

(6)

Equation (6) is the energy equation in terms of internal energy, e. Note that the body force terms
have cancelled; the energy equation when written in terms of e does not explicitly contain the
body force. Eq. (6) is still in nonconservation form. 9/4/2020 41
The energy equation in conservation form is as follows:

(7)

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Summary of the Governing Equations
for Fluid Dynamics
 Equations for Viscous Flow
Continuity Equation:
Non-conservation form

Conservation form

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 Momentum equations

Non-conservation form

Conservation form

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 Energy equation

Non-conservation form

Conservation form

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 Equations for Inviscid Flow

Continuity equation:

(Non-conservation form)

(Conservation form)

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Momentum equations

(Non-conservation form)

(Conservation form)

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Energy equation

(Non-conservation form)

(Conservation form)

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Comments on the Governing
Equations:
1) They are a coupled system of non-linear partial differential equations, and hence are very
difficult to solve analytically. To date, there is no general closed-form solution to these
equations.
2) For the momentum and energy equations, the difference between the non conservation and
conservation forms of the equations is just the left-hand side. The right-hand side of the
equations in the two different forms is the same.
3) Note that the conservation form of the equations contain terms on the left-hand side which
include the divergence of some quantity, such as Δ· (ρV), Δ· ( etc. For this reason, the
conservation form of the governing equations is sometimes called the divergence form.
4) The normal and shear stress terms in these equations are functions of the velocity
gradients.

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5) The system contains five equations in terms of six unknown flow-field variables, ρ, p, u, v,
w, e. In aerodynamics, it is generally reasonable to assume the gas is a perfect gas (which
assumes that intermolecular forces are negligible. For a perfect gas, the equation of state is
p = ρRT
where R is the specific gas constant. This provides a sixth equation, but it also introduces a
seventh unknown, namely temperature, T. A seventh equation to close the entire system must be
a thermodynamic relation between state variables. For example,
e = e(T, p)
For a calorically perfect gas (constant specific heats), this relation would be
e = c vT
where cv is the specific heat at constant volume.

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6) In former sections, the momentum equations for a viscous flow were identified as the
Navier–Stokes equations, which is historically accurate. However, in the modern CFD
literature, this terminology has been expanded to include the entire system of flow
equations for the solution of a viscous flow—continuity and energy as well as momentum.
Therefore, when the computational fluid dynamic literature discusses a numerical solution
to the ‘complete Navier–Stokes equations’, it is usually referring to a numerical solution of
the complete system of equations, In this sense, in the CFD literature, a ‘Navier–Stokes
solution’ simply means a solution of a viscous flow problem using the full governing
equations.

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Classification of partial differential
equations:
 A general partial differential equation in coordinates x and y:

2 2 2  

a 2 +b +c 2 +d +e + f + g = 0
x xy y x y

 Characterization depends on the roots of the higher order (here second order) terms:
– (b2-4ac) > 0 then the equation is called hyperbolic.
– (b2-4ac) = 0 then the equation is called parabolic.
– (b2-4ac) < 0 then the equation is called elliptic.
Note: if a, b, and c themselves depend on x and y, the equations may be of different type,
depending on the location in x-y space. In that case the equations are of mixed type.

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Origin of Terms:
 The origin of the terms “elliptic,” “parabolic,” or “hyperbolic” used to label these
equations is simply a direct analogy with the case for conic sections.
 The general equation for a conic section from analytic geometry is:
ax2 + bxy + cy2 + dx + ey + f = 0

where if.
i. (b2-4ac) > 0 the conic is a hyperbola.
ii. (b2-4ac) = 0 the conic is a parabola.
iii. (b2-4ac) < 0 the conic is an ellipse.

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General behaviour of different classes of PDEs and their
impact on physical computational fluid dynamics:
Elliptic problems:
 Elliptic equations are characteristic of equilibrium problems, this includes
many (but not all) steady state flows.
 Examples are potential flow, the steady state temperature distribution in a
rod of solid material, and equilibrium stress distributions in solid objects
under applied loads.
 For potential flows the velocity is expressed in terms of a velocity potential:
u= Because the flow is incompressible, .u=0, which results in 2=0. This is
also known as Laplace’s equation:

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 The solution depends solely on the boundary conditions. This is also known as
a boundary value problem.
 A disturbance in the interior of the solution affects the solution everywhere
else. The disturbance signals travel in all directions.
 As a result, solutions are always smooth, even when boundary conditions are
discontinuous. This makes numerical solution easier!

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Parabolic problems:
 Parabolic equations describe marching problems. This includes time dependent
problems which involve significant amounts of dissipation. Examples are unsteady
viscous flows and unsteady heat conduction. Steady viscous boundary layer flow is
also parabolic (march along streamline, not in time).
 An example is the transient temperature distribution in a cooling down rod:

 The temperature depends on both the initial and boundary conditions. This is also
called an initial-boundary-value problem.
 Disturbances can only affect solutions at a later time.
 Dissipation ensures that the solution is always smooth
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Hyperbolic problems:
 Hyperbolic equations are typical of marching problems with negligible dissipation.
 An example is the wave equation:

 This describes the transverse displacement of a string during small amplitude vibrations. If y is
the displacement, x the coordinate along the string, and a the initial amplitude, the solution is:

 Note that the amplitude is independent of time, i.e. there is no dissipation.

 Hyperbolic problems can have discontinuous solutions.
 Disturbances may affect only a limited region in space. This is called the zone of influence.
Disturbances propagate at the wave speed c.
 Local solutions may only depend on initial conditions in the domain of dependence.
 Examples of flows governed by hyperbolic equations are shockwaves in transonic and
supersonic flows. 9/4/2020 57
Classification of fluid flow equations:
Steady Flow Unsteady Flow
Viscous flow Elliptic Parabolic
Inviscid flow M<1(Subsonic), Elliptic Hyperbolic
M>1(Supersonic), Hyperbolic
Hyperbolic
Thin shear Parabolic Parabolic
layers

 For inviscid flows at M<1, pressure disturbances travel faster than the flow speed. If M>1,
pressure disturbances can not travel upstream. Limited zone of influence is a characteristic of
hyperbolic problems.
 In thin shear layer flows, velocity derivatives in flow direction are much smaller than those
in the cross flow direction. Equations then effectively contain only one (second order) term
and become parabolic. Also the case for other strongly directional flows such as fully
developed duct flow and jets.
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Reference: Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, André Bakker
Example: The blunt-nosed body Problem
 Blunt-nosed body designs are used for supersonic and
hypersonic speeds (e.g. Apollo capsules and space shuttle)
because they are less susceptible to aerodynamic heating
than sharp nosed bodies.
 There is a strong, curved bow shock wave, detached from
the nose by the shock detachment distance δ.
 Calculating this flow field was a major challenge during the
1950s and 1960s because of the difficulties involved in
solving for a flow field that is elliptic in one region and
hyperbolic in others.
 Today’s CFD solvers can routinely handle such problems,
provided that the flow is calculated as being transient. 59