3 ANISMS AND

TIONS
A Single organism cannot live alone, due to which there is always
seen an
inter-relationship between organisms and their surrounding. The branch of CHAPTER CHECKLIST
biology which deals with different principles that control this relationship
and consists of various levels is known as Organism andits
ecology. In this chapter, we explore
ecology at its organismic and population levels. Environment
Ecology
Environment

TOPIC 1 Adaptation
Populations
Organism and its Environment Population Attributes
AgePyramid
ECOLOGY Population Growth
It is the study of the interactions among organisms and between organism and Life History Variations
its physical (abiotic) environment. It consists of two branches Autecology, i.e. Population Interactions
at the level of and Synecology, i.e. study of ecology at
species
study of ecology
the level of communities.

Organisational Levels of Ecology

with four levels of organisation
Ecology is basically concerned environment
component of the
at
1. Organism It refers to livingthe
forms the basic unit of study of ecology.
individual level. It
similar
sum total of all organisms having
2. Population It refers to the fertile
interbreed among themselves and produce
features and potential to
offsprings. of all the populations
of different species in a

3. Communities Assemblage
specific g e o g r a p h i c a l area.
and
unit which consists
of a major vegetation type
4. Biome Ir is a large climatic zone. Tropical
rainforest,
fauna in a particular biomes of India.
associated the major
sea coast,
deserts, etc., are
deciduous forest,
 BIOLOGY Class 12th
Allinone |
in ecology factors ir
NOTE Other
impotant
terms used

The physico-chemical nclude

Habitat It refers t o a spectic place or locality delimited
features and barriers where
oy
tcm
major ahiotic
and soil
and biotic factors iinclude
factors
combination of
factors, pnysical
iture, water, light competitors, etc.,
community dwells.
pathogecns parasites, predators, with
Of an represents the physical
.Niche The ecological niche organism which the
space occupied by it, the
resources it utilises and its functional role organism inte
system.
in the ecological

Ecosystem The organisis

and their environment in a particular Abiotic Factors
the environmen
area.
. Biosphere It is the surface of earth with all its life forms, i.e. union non-living conditional factor or thingof
that influences the survival and reproduction tunctions.
of all ecosystems. It is a highly ordered system. of
organism is called an abiotic factor. Abiotic factors can
determine which species of organisms will survive in a given
ENVIRONMENTT environment.
An environment is termed as the sum total of all external Some important factors are discussed below
conditions (biotic and abiotic) which influence the
organisms in terms of survival and reproduction. Ecology at Temperature
It is the most
the organismic level deals with how different organisms are ecologically signiticant environmental factor.
adapted to their environment in terms of their survival and It varies seasonally on land and decreases
the equator towards the poles and from
progressively from
reproduction and is basically physiological ecology. plains to the
mountain tops. It ranges from sub-zero levels in
The factors like rotation of the earth around the sun and
and
polar areas
tilting of the earth on its axis cause annual variations in the high altitudes to >50°C in tropical deserts in summer.
intensity and duration of temperature, resulting in distinct There are also certain unique habitats such as thermal
seasons. These seasonal variations together with annual springs, deep sea hydrothermal vents where the average
variations in precipitation (both rain and snow) lead to the temperature exceeds 100°C.
formation of major biomes, such as desert, rainforest and Physiological functions as well as geographical distribution of
tundra (mentioned in fig. 13.1).
plants and animals are governed by the temperature
30 conditions and their thermal tolerance.
25 Desert Grassland Organisms which
can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of
temperatures are
called eurythermal, e.g. most mammals and birds while
Tropical forest
Temperate forest organisms which can tolerate a narrow range of temperatures
are called stenothermal, e.g. polar bear, amphibians.
Coniferous forest Water
It is the second most important factor influencing lite of
Arctic and Alpine tundra Life
organisms.
water and cannot
earth is known to have
on in originated
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 sustain without it. The productivity
450 and distribution of plants is dependent on availability ot
Mean annual precipitation
(cm)
Fig. 13.1 Biome distribution with water.
respect to annual
temperature and precipitation For aquatic organisms, pH, chemical composition and
Regional and local variations within each biome temperature of water is important. They are also aftected by
formation of a wide lead to the the
not variety of
just in a few favourable habitats. Life on eårth exists salinity of water, which is less than 5 parts per thousand
harsh habitats like habitats but even in extreme and in inland waters,
30-35 parts per thousand in sea and >10
Meghalaya forests, scorching
deep occanRajasthan desert, rain-soaked parts per thousand in some
hypersaline lagoons.
permafrost polar regions, trenches, torrential streams, Organisms which can tolerate a wide range of salinity arc
thermal high
springs, stinking compost mountain tops, boiling called
is an pits and even our intestine euryhaline while organisms which can tolerate
unique habitat for
hundreds of microbial narrow range of salinity are called stenohaline. Many
NOTE Ramdeo
to his Misra is known as
efforts, the species. freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water becau
Environment
the
Government of IndiaFather of Ecology in
and Forests in India. Due of osmotic problems arising due to high salinity and
1984. established the Ministry vice-versa.
The habitat of of
two
components
an
organism completely is
Light
factors, abiotic andcharacterised
or
i.e. by
biotic factors. The significance of light lies in the fact hs
depend upon light as a source that allautotrop"
of energy for preparing
their
 323
Organisms and Populations

od by photosynthesis
and release oxygen during the These organisms can achieve the constancyby regulating
factor for life to exist
Therefore, it
is an important optimum temperature and osmotic concentration of
shrubs growing in forests are fluids (the process called body
process

Small herbs
and
homeostasis), in accordance with
on
earth

to
photosynthesise
unde very low light intensities varying external environmental conditions (that tend to
adapted
by the tall, canopied trees.
upset their homeostasis). Living
they are
overshadowe

sunlight to meet their stressful conditions organisms cope with

because

plants depend on
by
of any the following methods
Most for flowering also.
photoperiodic
requirement
Regulate
animals depend upon diurnal and seasonal variations Homeostasis is maintained by
Many
intensity as
cues for timing their foraging, ensuring constant body
in light The availability of temperature and constant osmotic concentration, etc.,
and migratory activities.
by
reproductive
land is closely linked with that of temperature as
physiological and sometimes behavioural means. All birds,
lht on in deep oceans
mammals, few lower vertebrates and invertebrates
rhe sun is the source for both. However, are
endotherms as they have
mechanism of the
500m), the environment is perpetually dark.
thermoregulation and osmoregulation for maintaining their
of solar radiation is also important for
The spectral quality homeostasis.
life. The UV component of light is harmful for many
The mechanisms used for
organisms. Ditferent components of the visible spectrum regulation in most mammals are
are available for marine plants living at different depths of similar to theused by humans who have
ones
constant
the occan. This is why ditterent types of algae, i.e. green, body temperature of 37° C, e.g. during summer, sweating
brown and red alga occur at difterent depths in sea in the occurs
profusely and the evaporation down the brings
upper, middle and deep layers ot water, respectively. temperature of the body to constant 37 C. During winter,
NOTE () Plants growing in bright light are called sun plants or
shivering (a kind of exercise that produces heat) and
occurs
heliophytes while plants growing in shade or low intensity raises the body
temperature again to
such mechanism to maintain their37 C.
light are called sciophytes. Plants do not have
(i) Limnetic (open water) zone in deep lakes and oceans has
internal temperature.
three parts-photic (algae present), aphotic
present) and benthic
(no producers Conform
(corals, sponges).
About 99% of animals and
Soil almost all plants cannot
maintain a constant internal
The nature and environment. Their body
properties of soil in different places vary temperature changes with the ambient
significanty. It is dependent mainly on the they are ectothermns. i.e. temperature,
) Climate following factors A
) Weathering process majority of aquatic animals
) concentration of their body fluidschange the osmotic
Whether soil is according to the
(v) Soil transported or sedimentary environment (ambient water
osmotic
development process Such animals and concentration).
plants are called osmoconformers.
Water holding capacity
determined by its
and
percolation of the
various soil is Thermoregulation is
energetically expensive for many
composition, grain size and characteristics, such soi1
organisms. This is specially true for small
as
shrews and animals like
These
characteristics of soilaggregation. function of humming birds. Heat loss or heat
gain Is a

along with its pH, mineral surface area.

omposition,
that can grow topography, etc., determine
in
particular habitat and thethetype
that can feed on them.
a type of plants
of animals
DOtom
of sediments
benthic animals and its
In aquatic
environment
characteristics determine also, the Contornmers
that can live the type
Responses to Abiotic there.
Factors
Regulators

Partial regulators
above discussed factors
ng course of
the
million yearshighly
are
ve evolved variable.
of existence, Therefore,
permits all relatively const
a
iich many species
nstant internal environment,
nctions to the biochemical reac actions and physiological
chance the proceed with maximal External level

overall 'fitness' ofmax

tion

the efficiency and thus, g . 13.2

Diagrammatic
representde

species.
organismic response
 324 Allinone | BIOLOGY
OGY CHClass 12th
Since, small animals have a larger surface area relative to their Adaptations in Plants
loose body heat very fast in cold
volume, they tend to Different plants show different
environmental conditions.
physiological adaptations. A few anatomical
. Then, they have expend much energy to generate
to body
small
adaptations in plants are as follows examples of
metabolism. Due to this reason, very
heat through Adaptations in Desert Plants
animals are polar regions.
rarely found in
s o m e species have evolved the
(Xerophytic Plants)
.During the course of evolution,
environmental conditions but, only Roots grow very deep to explore any
ability to regulate their which they simply conform.
available underground water. possibili of
over a limited range. beyond
Many desert plants have a thick cuticle on thei.
Such animals are called partial regulators. r leaf
surfaces and have their stomata arranged in deen
Migrate to minimise water loss through transpiration

Ifan organism moves away temporarily from a stressful habitat

also have a special photosynthetic pathway knoThey
when the stressful period
and return, Crassulacean Acid Metabolism, (CAM) that. as
to a more hospitable area
is over, the process is called migration.
Birds undertake long their stomata to remain closed during day time senables
distance migrations during winter, minimise transpiration.
as to
e.g. the
Keoladeo National Park in Bharatpur (Rajasthan) Some desert plants like Opuntia, have no leaves. Thei
hosts thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia and leaves are reduced to spines and photosynthesis occur
CCurs
other extremely cold Northern regions every winter. in flattened stems.

Suspend Adaptations in Aquatic Habitats

and under unfavourable
lower plants
.Some bacteria, fungi (Hydrophytic Plants)
conditions form thick-walled spores to overcome stressful plants or hydrophytes have evolved
suitable Aquatic
conditions. These spores germinate on the onset of aerenchyma for buoyancy and floating. They have
environment.
covering of wax to avoid damage through water. Roots
In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative are generally absent in plants like Hydrilla and
reproductive structures (propagules) help to pass over stress
Nymphaea.
metabolic
periods and dispersal. They do so by reducing their to Saline Environments
activity and entering into a state of dormancy.
Under Adaptations
tavourable moisture and temperature conditions, they (Halophytic Plants)
germinate to form new plants. The plants ofsaline habitats which not only have the
Some organisms are unable to migrate so they might avoid ability to tolerate high concentration of salts in their
the stress by escaping in time. These organisms suspend their rooting medium but are also able to obtain their water
metabolic functions during the stressful period and resume supply from the same are called halophytes.
their functions at the return of favourable conditions. For These are found in tidal marshes, coastal dunes
example, bear undergoes winter sleep called hibernation and algae are also
mangroves and saline soils. Certain green
certain animals like snails and fish undergo summer sleep found in these areas, e.g. Dunaliella.
known as aestivation. Under unfavourable conditions, many excess salr
zooplanktons enter diapause (a stage of suspended Mangroves are the areas that not only have
but also have excess water and anaerobic conditio
development). besides difficulty in anchoring and seed germinatio
A number of plants possess small negatively
ADAPTATION geotrophic vertical roots called pneumatophores
Any attribute of an organism (have lenticels for gaseous exchange), e.g. Avicem
behavioural) that enables it (morphological, physiological or
survive and reproduce in its
to
Aegiatilis.
habitat be referred
can
adaptation.
These adaptations have led the
to as
Another adaptation of mangrove plants is vivipary
formation of some
to
seed germination while the fruit is still attached
features have evolved specialised
and peculiar features. These
period of time, through the process
over a
long plants, e.g. Rhizophora, Aegiceras, Ceriops.
these of natural selection. Thus, NOTE Oxygen release by plants This actsi the most
gnificant

adaptations become genetically fixed. long term adaptation of wetland species to soil
anaerobiosis,
eg
Eichhornia, Pistia, etc.
 325
Organismsa n dP o p u l a t
m s a n d P o p u l a t i o n s

th
Adaptations at High Altitudes
daptationsin Animals

and behavioural in Humans

Adap
physiological
S o m e examples
are At high altitude places like Rohtang Pass near Manali
different
etc. Son
esses,
(in China occupied
have
( 3500 m) and Mansarovar
stresses,

environmental

4pnimals
from altitude sickness.
f
adaptations ro
Tibet) pecople suffer
Rat
symptoms include nausea, fatigue and
g i r e nb e l o w

The common
is capable of
K a n g a r o o

in because at low atmospheric

heart palpitations. This is
American
deserts
Adaptations
in lorth
Nor oxidation of its does not get enough
kangaroo
rat
iby internal
pressure of high altitudes, body
he
The water
requirement

The relief occurs gradually due to

all its Oxygen.
meeting is a
byproduct).

volume of
fat
(water that minimal acclimatisation.

body te its urine so

this low oxygen stress by
up with
concentrate

can
also
excretory
products. The body copes
It
is used
to expel red blood cells production.
i) increasing
the binding affinity of haemoglobin.
water Lizards
Desert
in drops (ii) decreasing
Adaptations body t e m p e r a t u r e rate.
(iii) increasing the breathing altitudes of Himalayas have
when the
from sun
when the
Thev absorb heat and move
into shade
at high
comfort
zone
NOTE () Tribal people living
in plains.
below the starts increasing. higher RBC c o u n t
than people living
flourish in
ambient
temperature

and escape
from the above (e.g. archaebacteria) c a n
Certain bacteria
burrow into the soil (i) 100° C such as,
exceeding
Some species
temperature
places having the
hot springs, etc., with
behavioural responses.
heat. These
are
hydrothermal vents,
ground deep sea
These enzymes
enzymes they possess.
Adaptations in Mammals help of certain
temperatures.
have shorter e a r s c a n withstand high
colder climates generally tolerate temperatures
Mammals from rule. and fishes can
This is called Allen's
invertebrates
(ii) Some anti-freeze
minimise heat loss. extra solutes like glycerol and
and limbs to
have a thick layer
below 0°C by of body fluids.
mammals like seals lower the freezing point
proteins that
In polar regions, aquatic acts as a n
insulator and
below their skin that
of fat (blubber)
heat.
reduces the loss of body

TOPIC PRACTICE 1||

osmotic
9. animals that change the
VERY SHORT ANSWER Type Questions Aquatic
fluidds
concentration of their body
1Mark to the environment are known by
according
NCERT Exemplar which name?
.What are eurythermic species?
in India where
. What do we call the species that can tolerate 10. Name the National Park
arrive in winter from
narrow range of temperature? migratory birds
Siberia.
Which of the two, stenothermals or eurythermals, stressful
bears escape from
Show wide range of distribution on earth and why? l1. Mention how do Delhi 2013C
time in winter.
Between amphibians and birds, which is more organism that
enters
example o f
an
Hikely to be able to cope with global warming? Give 12 Give an Delhi 2014
reason. diapause' and why.
mammals
o f the polar region
Species that can tolerate wide range 13. Why do small limbs?

called... of salinity are ears

and
short

have short in
NCERT Exemplar of
mammals

adaptations
Name two Mention the

processes, 'photoperiod'
1t.

one each in
dependent polar seas.
region remain2
plants and in animals. Antarctica

What determines the type of benthic D, How do

fishes in

aquatic ecosystem? animals in a n

active
in sea
water?

unable to grow in
All India2016
Mention the factors that mango
trees

determine the water

holding capacity of soil. , Why are
temperate climate?
 326 Allnone | BIOLOGY Class
12th
17. Name a plant group which exhibits vivipary. 32. Enumerate the adaptations that help
18. Name the amino acid which is normally halophytessurvive in salty conditions.
to
accumulated by xerophytes. All India 2015C
33. Plants that inhabit a rainforest are not
a wetland. Explain. found in
SHORT ANSWER Type I Questions Delhi 2016
34, Why the plants that inhabit a desert are not
2 Marks|
found in a
mangrove? Give reasons. Delhi
19. Define population and community. NCERT 2016C
35. Many freshwater animals cannot survive in
20. How does temperature affect the organisms?
marine environment. Explain.
Delhi 2015
, 2Most living organisms cannot survive at
temperature above 45°C. How are some
microbes able to live in habitats with
SHORT ANSWER Type II Questions
temperature exceeding 100°C? NCERT 3 Marks
22. Shark is eurythermal while polar bear is 36. i) 'Organisms may be conformers or regulators'.
stenothermal. What is the advantage the former Explain this statement and give one example
of each.
has and what is the consttraint the later has?
Delhi 2015C (ii) Why are there more conformers than
regulators in the animal world?
23. Ifaquarium,
marine fish is placed in freshwater
a a
will the fish be able to survive? Why
All India 2017, 2016C

or why not? 37. Are humming birds and fish regulators or

NCERT
conformers? Give reasons in support of your
2Why do submerged plants receive weaker answer.
illumination than exposed floating plants in a Delhi 2017C
lake? NCERT Exemplar 38. Distinguish between the following
1) Hibernation and aestivation
How is diapause different from hibernation?
5. NCERT (ii) Ectotherms and endotherms NCERT
or
Bear hibernates, whereas some species of 39. The following graph
zooplanktons enter diapause to avoid stressful represents the
external conditions. How are these two ways organismic response to
different from each other? Foreign 2011 certain environmental
26. Why do high altitude areas have brighter condition (e.g
sunlight and lower temperatures as compared temperature)
to the plains? NCERT Exemplar (i) Which one among A External level
and B depicts conformers?
2Define phenotypic adaptation. Give one NCERT i ) What does the other line graph depict?
example.
(ii) How do these organisms differ from each
28. How do mammals living in colder regions and other with reference to homeostasis?
seals living in polar regions able to reduce the
Delhi 2015C
(iv) Mention the category to which humans
loss of their body heat?
belong.
Heat loss o r heat gain depends upon the surface a n example for
29.
area of the organism's body. Explain with the
40. Give
(i) An endothermic animal1
help of a suitable example. All India 2016C (ii) An ectothermic animal
or (ii) An organism of benthic zone NCERT
small animals rarely found in ) State how the constant
Explain, why are

the polar regions? Delhi 2013

beneficial to organisms.internal environment is
(ii) Explain any two
30. Why do people living in high altitud.
have alternatives by which
organisms can overcome
RBC count?
more haemoglobin and high conditions. stressful external
sickness
31. Why do people suffer from altitude 42. In certain seasons All India 2014
after reaching the high altitude regions? How we sweat
does their body a c c l i m a t i s e d
after a couple
oof
Delhi 2015
some other season
we
shiver.
profusely while in
days? Explain.
Delhi 2016C
 Und Populations
nisiilsall
Orga

lain
43. Explain with the help of
327
three ifferent ways by suitable
examples the
overcome
their
short duration.
stressfulwhich organisms
conditions lasting for 47.
Name and of
How do snails angroves expl
mangrovXplain three adaptations
to the conditions prevailing in
ils, seeds, bears, Delhi 2016
and cteria lapt to zooplanktons, furungi Sunderbans (West Bengal).
for their survival? conditions LONG
unfavourable ANSWER Type
45. Water is very essential for
All India 2015 5 Marks|
foatures each for plants andlife. Write any three 8 . Does
Questions
enable them to survive in wateranimals, which light factor
environment. scarce organisms? Writeaffect the
distribut n of

suaable
examples of brief note a
All India 2011 giving either plants or
During a school trip to animals.
vour classmate suddenly'Rohtang Pass', one of t9. List the
various abiotic
NCERT Exemplar
developed 'altitude
sickness'. But, he/she recovered
S
50. Write a environmental raCE
time. after some short note on CERT
i) Adaptations in desert plants and animals.
)Mention one symptom to diagnose the (i)
sickness. Adaptations in plants to
i) What caused the sickness? ii) Behavioural adaptationswater scarcity.
in animals.
iv) Importance of light to plants.
ii) How could she/he recover
by her/himself (v) Effect of
after some time? temperature or water
Delhi 2016 che
adaptations of animals. scarcity and
NCERT

L Eurythermic species arethose species which

possess
EXPLANATIONS| or 12
show a wide range of temperature tolerance. Many zooplanktons in lakes and ponds enter
They enter into diapause due to some adversediapause.
2 Stenothermal organisms. environmental conditions such as drought, extreme
3. Eurythermal organisms, e.g. birds show wide range of temperature, reduced food availability, which in turn,
delays the overall development.
distribution because they can thrive in wide range of
13. They have short ears and short limbs in order to
temperature. (1/2+1/2)
minimise the heat loss in colder climates.
4. Birds are more likely able to cope with global warming
14. Mammals have a thick layer of fat, which is called
as they can tolerate a wide range of temperatures
blubber below their skin that acts as an insulator and
(eurythermals). reduces loss of body heat (e.g. seals).
5. Euryhaline species. Water, another major abiotic
15. Fishes in Antarctica region accumulate anti-freeze
component affects the life of several aquatic organisms. point
proteins and glycerol, which lower the freezing adverse
of
The quality of water like pH, salinity (salt survive in
body fluids, making them capable to

concentration) are some of the water related problems conditions.

or species that climate
faced by aquatic organisms. Organisms as
16. Mango trees unable to grow in temperate
are
of
tolerate wide range of salinity are regarded affects the kinetics
can because low temperature
basal metabolism
and through this
euryhaline species. 1/2)
enzyme's functioning
physiological
functions of the
animals. (1/2 activity and other
+
in plants and migration in
Flowering benthic
organism get affected.
determine the seeds, while
stil
germination of
The sediment characteristics Vivipary
means

is exhibited halophytes
II. in
animals in an aquatic ecosystem. attached to the tree. It
is
size and aggregation. accumulated by xerophytes
doil composition, grain 18. Amino acid normally

proline.
Osmoconformers. no. 321.
Refer to text
on page 322.
Keoladeo National Park. 19. on page
no.
into
in winter by going 20. Refer to text
"Temperature'
stressful time
LS eScape from
as winter sleep.
uDernation, also known
 328 Allinone| BIOLOGY Cla o
Class 12th
21 In most animals, the metabolic reactions occur in a 31. People visiting high altitude
narrow range of temperature, eg. human at 37°C. sickness. This is because the
regions experience.
Above this temperature, enzymes get denatured. OxVgen. The person shows
body does not altitud
The microbes live in habitats with temperatures and heart palpitations. Aftersymptoms of nausea h
couple of days, the gue
exceeding 100'C, because they are adapted to such responds gradually by physiological adaptation T
temperatures and they have heat tolerant enzymes.
22 A few organisms can tolerate and thrive in wide range
(2) compensates low O, availability by
i) increasing RBCs production.
adaptation. The body
of temperature (they are called eurythermal), but a (i) decreasing binding capacity of
vast majority of them are restricted to narrow range of (ii) increased breathing rate. haemoglobin
temperatures (such organisms are called 32 Refer to text
stenothermal).
'Adaptation to saline
environment' on ha. 2
no. 324.
The levels of thermal tolerance of different species 33. The rainforest plants have thin, smooth
determine to a large extent their geographical a bark becas.
they do not need thick bark to prevent ause
distribution. (2)
smoothness of the
bark makes it difficult for The moisture.
23 other nla
Amarine fish will not be able to maintain osmolarity, to grow on their surface. While in
wetland, plants have plants
if placed in a freshwater aquarium. It would not be roots in the soil under the water but
able to survive due to the change in its environment.(2)
they grow above th, the
water for respiration
(pneumatophores). They have
24. Submerged plants receive weaker illumination than adapted to growing in very wet soil. So,
rainforest plants
are not found in wetland.
exposed floating
plants in a lake because all colours of
the visible components of the spectrum of light do not 34. Inxerophytic (desert) condition, plant roots grow deeply
enter or penetrate in the depths of water. (2) toexplore any possibility of underground water, leaves
are highly reduced
25. Differences between diapause and hibernation are (spine) to minimise transpiration.
Leaves may have sunken stomata, stem has thick
Diapause Hibernation cuticle
and are fleshy to preserve moisture. While
mangrove has
It is a dormant stage in It is a state of salty condition so that specialised root grows negatively
the development of an inactivation in an geotropic and called pneumatophores, leaves are thin,
organism. ectothermic mature small and green.
organism.
Stems are usually cuticularised. That is
It occurs both in summer
It occurs only in winter.
why desert inhabit
and winter. plants are not found in a mangrove.
2
e.g. zooplanktons during 35. Many freshwater animals cannot survive in marine
stresstul conditions. e.g. bear during winter
environment because of the osmotic problems they would
face.
(2)
26. Refer to text The animals would loose water from their
'Light' on page no. 322 and 323. body because ot
27.
Phenotypic adaptation involves non-genetic changes higher concentration of salt in the surrounding water
in individuals to
environmental conditions, e.g. (hypertonic solution). This will pose serious threat to their
acclimatisation in humans at high altitudes. survival. 2
(1 +1)
28. Mammals from colder 36. (i) Some organisms called conformers because they
are
climates generally have shorter
ears and limbs to cannot maintain constant internal environment, eg
minimise heat los: This is called
Allen's rule. plants. On the other hand, certain
organisms are called
In polar seas, regulators as they can maintain their internal
aquatic mammals like seals
layer of fat (blubber) below their skin thathave a thick environment in response to external conditions, eg
insulator and reduces loss of acts as an
humans. (1)
29. Small animals like
body heat. (2)
(ii) In the animal world, conformers are more he
humming bird or shrew, have a than
large surface area relative to their volume.
regulators because thermoregulation is energeticaly
tend to lose
body heat very fast during coldSo, they
or
expensive for many
organisms. This is specially tru
conditions. They need to small animals like shrews and humming birds. Heatloss

generate body heat through spend more energy to and heat

metabolism. Due to this, gain is a function of surface area.
smaller animals are
rarely found in
polar regions.
Since, small animals have a larger surface area
i
ative

30. We all know that the (2) to their volume,

atmospheric pressure tends they tend to loose body heat vey
decrease as altitude increases. to
higher altitudes have Hence, the
people
compensate the lowv living
on 37.
to Humming birds and fish
conformers, as they
are
ntain

oxygen availability. Thus, they have higher levels of a constant internal environment. Their
haemoglobin (RBCs) in the blood, which changes with the ambient temperature, body tempera
i.e. they arc
take in more
oxygen.
helps them to ectotherms. Refer to text on
(2) no. 323. page
 a n i s m s a n d P o p u l a t i o n s
329
(ii) Hibernating (frogs) or aestivating (snails) or
(1)
on page
no.
324.
e n d o t h e r m s ard
undergo diapause (zooplanktons).
ifferences to
text
between rm
ectother ms and (ii) Thick-walled spores are formed in stressful
Refer
2R (i)
Endotherms conditions and germinate under suitable
conditions, e.g. bacteria, fungi and lower groups
Ectotherms
They m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t
of plants. (1x3)
Their b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e
body temperature.
44. Ways to adapt to unfavourable conditions are
fluctuates with
e n v i r o n m e n t a l t e m p e r a t u r e .

They are called

(i) Snails undergo aestivation (summer sleep) to
avoid summer related problems.
called homeothermic or
are
also
warm-blooded animals. (ii) Bears undergo hibernation (winter sleep) during
They
poikilotherms or
cold-blooded animals.
winter.
mammals.
birds and enter a stage of suspended
e.g. (iii) Zooplanktons
most of the development called diapause.
invertebrates a n d reptiles.
e.g.
(1) Bacteria and fungi slow down their metabolic rate
(iv) to overcome
(1/2) and form thick-walled spores
These spores germinate
conformers (1/2) stressful conditions.
depicts become suitable. (3)
A regulators. when the conditions
39 6) line B depicts
other are i.e. in
(i)
The and regulators of plants to water scarcity,
conformers

45. Adaptations 324.

Refer to text o n page no.
between

()
Differences
Regulators xerophytic plants. like in
animals to water scarcity
Conformers
These o r g a n i s m s maintain Adaptations of n o . 325. (1x3)
Refer to text o n page
cannot
maintain a a constant internal kangaroo rat.
of 'altitude sickness'
These are
environment despite
46. (i) The primary symptoms
constant internal

environment and change etc. (1)

changes in the headache, n a u s e a , fatigue,
to the
ambient
environment. caused due to the
low atmosphere
according Sickness was
atmospheric conditions.
(ii) altitude. Due to this,
show a much wider
pressure prevailing at high (1)
They of sufficient oxygen.
shovw a
narrow range ange of distribution. (1%) the body gets deprived
They (1)
of distribution. no. 326.
Refer to Q. No. 31. on page
(1/2) (ii)
regulators. no. 324 (Halophytic plants)
Humans a r e 47. Refer to text on page
(iv)
(ii) Frog for photosynthesis.
40. ) Human being (1x3) 48 Plants require sunlight factor that affects
Therefore, light is a n important
(ii) Marine invertebrate/fish.

permits all
biochemical
For example,
Constant internal
environment
the distribution of plants.
4 ) functions to proceed with of small plants (herbs and shrubs)
reactions and physiological fitness of the i) Many species
maximal efficiency and thus,
enhance the overall
growing in forests
are adapted to photosynthesise
(14) conditions so they
species. optimally under very low light
(1) under tall,
no. 324. distributed in shady a r e a s
(i) Refer to text on page are seen

by ensuring constant body

canopied trees.
42 Homeostasis is maintained
(1) to
constant osmotic
concentration.
(i) Many plants in the shade will grow vertically
temperature and
constant body temperature (37°C) gain access to light.
Human body maintains
These plants will appear to have smaller leaves
by following way
outside temperature is very high than our than others of the same species of the same age
In summers, the Due
body temperature. to this, profuse sweating occurs. found in conditions with better sunlight.
the body.
evaporation and cooling effect
on
This causes (ii) Large sized trees will be present in areas that get
In winters, the outside temperature is much lower than our abundant sunlight.
kind of exercise
body temperature. This causes shivering,
a
(2) (iv) Plants dependent on sunlight to meet their
that produces heat and raises the body temperature. photoperiodic requirements of flowering, will try
43. Organisms either migrate or suspend their metabolic to be distributed in area where this requirement is
stressful for short
duration. being met for their reproductive success. 5)
vities, when conditions a r e condition are as
49. Refer to text Abiotic factors on page no. 322 and 323.
e examples of response of organisms
follows 50. ) . (ii). (ii) Refer to text on page no. 324 and 325.
habitat to more favourable
0) Moving away from stressful stressful period
is (iv), (v) Refer to text on page no. 322 and 323.
area and return to their habitat when
cold countries
Siberia and other
over, e.g. birds from of Rajasthan in winters.
grate to Sanctuary Bharatpur
ITOPIC2 of e
population is refe
Populations particular species,
The growth
shapeof the pyramids.
status the
reflected by the
of a
individuals
and
can
pyramids are as follows
The three types of age
is a set of area

Population geographical
in a particular small area Stable (ii) Declining
found
that occupies
a very (i)
which a r e
A group
of
G) Expanding
interbreed.
The population
called local population. opulation.
called Agrou
in size, is is Post-reproductive
smaller populations
and is local area
related
such closely an important
Population ecology is genetics
Reproductive
metapopulation. population
because it links
ecology to Pre-reproductive
Stable
Expanding
of ccology Declining
and evolution of age pyramids for human
Fig. 13.3 Representation
POPULATION ATTRIBUTES populations

individual
attributes that an

A population
has certain
them are given below POPULATION GROWTTH
have. Some of
organism does
not
the number of
Is not
1. Population size
or density It is volume. The size of a population
for any species a sStatic

unit area or
with time. It depends on
individuals of a species per parameter, it keeps
changing
Population Density (PD)
factors such as food availability, predation pressure and
Number of individuals in a region (N). pD = of a population in a given
adverse weather. The density
Size of unit area in the region (S) fluctuates due to the four
habitat during a given period
2. Birth rate o r Natality It is
the number of births of new basic processes
individuals per unit of population per unit time, 1. Natality It refers to the number of during births a

last year and that added to the

given period in the population
are
e.g. if in a pond, there are 20 lotus plants
through reproduction, 8 new plants are added, taking initial density.
the current population to 28. Then, birth rate 8/20 = =
2. Mortality It is the number of deaths in the population
0.4 offspring per lotus per year.
during a given period.
3. Death rate or Mortality It is the number of loss of
individuals per unit of population per unit time due to Immigration
death or due to the different environmental changes,
competition, predation, etc. +
e.g. if in a laboratory population of 40 individuals,
4 fruitflies died during a specified time interval, Natality T
Population Mortality
then,
the death rate 4/40 0.1 individuals
= =

per fruitfly per

(8) Density (D)
week. (N)
4. Sex ratio An individual is either a male or a female
but
a
population has sex ratio. It is the number of
females Emigration
and males per 1000 individuals of a
given time. population in a (E)
Fig. 13.4 Factors influencing
population densy
AGE PYRAMID 3.
Immigration It is the number the
individuals
Population at any given time is
composed of individuals of same species that have comeof into the habitat
When the from
different ages. age distribution (per cent elsewhere during the time under

individualsof a
given age or
age groupP) Is
plotted for the 4.
consideration. per
population, this is called age pyramid.
Emigration It is the number of individuals of
the

The age pyramids of human population generally show the population

during
who left the
habitat and elsewhere

distribution of males and females in a

combine
a
given time movc
diagram.
Out of these
four, period.
increase in natality and an

immigrat
population density,
emigration contribute ration contribute
to
and
the nsity,
decrease
*se in
while mortality
to
in population density
populauo
 Organisms and Populations 331
So, if N time ,
then its densitv Any species growing
at
time
e
is the population density
t + ne poOpL
at
resource exponentially
conditions without under unlimited
1 is E)] population densities in any check, can reach
) - (D+ short time.
N, +|(8+
NOTE
a
enormous
the The
=

where, N Timc. B =Birth rate, r

value for human
I = Imm
N =
Population del
"igration, D =
r=
Death ratc and E = Emigration population in lndia was
Logistic Growth 0.0205 in 1981.
can see population density
that
Practically, population of
e above
will incrcase.
cquation we
it (2B+ 7) is more than (D4
no
unlimited resources any species in at

Growth Models
its
disposal. This nature
competition among the individuals leads
has
fittest. Therefore, a and the survival of to
Srudying abour the behaviour and pattern of different
support maximum
a
given habitat has enough resourcestheto
animals can help us to learn a lesson on how to control the
further growth is possible number, beyond which
human population growth. The rwo models of population
This is called the
possible. no

growth are exponential growth and logistic growth.

that habitat. carrying capacity (K) for that
Exponential Growth species in
When N is plotted in relation
Availability ot resources (food and space) is essential for the to time the
shows sigmoid curve and t,
logistic
crowth of population. Their unlimited availability results in this type of growth
opulations exponential growth. The increase or decrease
Verhulst-Pearl Logistic growth
Growth. It is calculated
is called
C as

n
inpopulation density during a unit time period () is dNldt = N - N
calculatedas
d K
dNIdt = (b - d)N
n where, N is
population
r Let (b- d) =r, then, dN Idt = 7N capacity and ris intrinsic
density at time t, Kis
carrying
rate of natural increase.
where, s population size, b is birth per capita,
d is death per capita, t is time
r is intrinsic rate ot
period
and natural increase. K
*******************************************ooeaenn
ris an important parameter that assesses the effects of biotic ON
and abiotic factors on
population growth. It is different for dt
different organisms, e.g. its value is 0.015 for
and 0.12 for flour beetle. The above
Norway rat
-shaped curve as shown in graph.
equation results in a
Time (t)-
Fig. 13.6 Population growth curve
showing
dN = rN logistic growth
A population growing in habitat with limited resources a
.... ********
shows initially lag phase followed
a

acceleration, deceleration and finally an by phaseswhen

of
the population asymptote,
density reaches the carrying capacity (K).
This model is more realistic in nature because no
growth can sustain exponential growth indefinitelypopulation
as there
Time (t)- will be competition for the basic needs due to
finite
Fig. 13.5 Population growth resources.
curve showing
exponential growth NOTE () Human population growth curve will become S-shaped,
egral form of exponential through efforts being made throughout the world to reduce
growth equation is the rate of population growth and make it stationary.
N, = Noe" (i) Census is an official counting of population and preparing
ehere
iTe,N=Population density after time t data about age groups, births, deaths, sex ratio education,
etc.
N=Population density at time zero (ii) In India, first census was carried out in 1872. It has been
r conducted regularly at interval of ten years after this, the last
Intrinsic rate of natural increase
being in 2011. Census is conducted as
per the provisions
eBase of natural
logarithms (2.71828). made under the Census Act, 1948.
 Alline

predator
prey species,
e.g. arfish
Sta.

competing i n t e r t i dlal
al munitiesof
332 among
Pisaster
in the rocky
Coast. In a field experime when all
L I F E H I S T O R Y V A R I A T I O N S
Pacific
American
removed from the area, more than
or were
fitness starfish ecame extin
their
reproductive the i n v e r t e b r a t e s
beca thin;
where they of
10 species
maximise
habitat competition.
evolve to the interspecitic
Populations
r
value) in organisms because of
fitness (high pressures, year, are introduced into a
Darwinian set ofselection strategy certain exotic species
Ive.
Under a
particular
efficient
reproductive
(iit) When become
they
invasive and
start
does nos
area,
towards the most
geographical land does
invaded not have
evolve to species
species because the
varies from fast
The of breeding lifetime (Pacific spreading rickly pear cactus introduce
in their
rate
e.-g. pric
Some species
breed only once

breed many
times
natural predators,
w a s brought under control
bamboo), while in early 1920s
some

salmon fish and

and mammals). in Australia
its predator (1.e.
a moth) in the
in their lifetime (birds small-sized
by introducing
a large
number of
Some organisms produce a small country.
whereas others produce over exploits prey, then
its
oftsprings (oysters), etficient and
Ifa predator is
and mammals). too
(birds it, the predator
number of large-sized oftsprings become extinct. Following
life history traits of organisms
have
the prey might of the lack of food. This ic
According ecologists,
to
the biotic will also become
extinct because
constraints imposed by
evolved in relation to the n a t u r e are prudent. Prey species have
and abiotic components of
habitats in which they live. why predators in mechanisms to lessen the impact of
evolved various defence
follows
POPULATION INTERACTIONS predation. These
are as

species of insects
and frogs cryptically are
and (a) Some
In nature, living organisms such as animals, plants coloured (camouflaged) to avoid being detected easily
live in isolation and therefore, interact in
microbes, cannot

various ways to form a biological community. Interspecific by the predator.

interactions occur between the populations of two different Some are poisonous and therefore, avoided by the
species living together within a community. These predators.
interactions could be beneficial (+), detrimental () or Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predators
neutral (0) as shown in table below (birds) because of a special chemical present in its
Population interactions and their effects are as follows body. The butterfly acquires this chemical during its
Name of Interaction Effect on Effect on caterpillar stage by feeding on a poisonous weed.
Species A Species B (b) Nearly 25% of all insects are known to
Mutualism be
phytophagous (feeding on plant sap and other parts of
Competition plants) apart from other herbivores. So, plants have
Predation evolved various defences
Acacia against them, e.g. thorns or
Parasitism and cactus are the most commonn
Commensalism morphological means of defence.
Amensalism
Some plants produce highly poisonous
like cardiac glycosides, e.g. weed chemicals
Predation makes the herbivore
sick, etc.
Calotropis that

It is an interspecific interaction, where an animal called Chemicals like

predator kills and consumes the other weaker animal called strychnine, opium,nicotine, caffeine, quinine,
prey. This is a biological control method. It is the nature's mechanisms against etc., are actually derci
way of transferring energy to higher trophic levels, which is grazers and browsers.
fixed by plants at the first trophic level, e.g. tiger (predator)
and deer (prey). Important roles of predators are as follows Competition
lt is
generally believed to
) In the absence of predators, prey species could achieve compete tor the same occur when closely related
very high population densities and cause instability. this is not
always resources that are specie
So, besides acting as 'conduits for energy transfer Some true. limiting. HOw
across trophic levels, predators play very important role totally unrelated
$ame resources, e.g. inspecies could also the
in providing population stability. lakes,
visiting some shallow compete for u
their common flamingoes and South
Ci) They help in maintaining species diversity in a food, i.e. resident fishes Ameriafor
community, by reducing the intensity of competition
Resources need not zooplanktons. compe
In be
interterence limiting for
competition, the competition oc
feeding efficiency one
to cur.

Or

ASRADANAGIM
 msa
Dganismsan
nd Po
dP opulations
333
(c) Loss of digestive system.
due to the interfering and
be reduced the (d) High reproductive capacity.
ecies might

of the
other species, although
presence were
introduced in (i) The life cycles of parasites are often complex, involving
when goats
nhibitory
eg. tortoise became
extinct one or two intermediate hosts or vectors to facilitate
are plenty,
the Abingdon
souslands, of the parasitisation of its primary host. For example,
browsing efticiency
due to greater
n
i t h i n .
adecade (a) Human liver fluke (a trematode parasite) depends
as a process in on two intermediate hosts (a snail and
a fish) to
be best defined
can
S t s

Competition (mcasured in termns ofits , complete its life cycle.

re,
o n e speCIes
fieness of lower in the needs
, T h e r e f o r e ,

(b) Malarial parasite (Plasmodium)

a vector
whicht. h the
of increase)
is signiticantly
hosts.
intrinsic
rate of (mosquito) to spread to
other
harm the host. The harm is done
he species.
of
(iii) Majority of parasites
a n o t h e r

of another
evidence
presence provides
Camoetitive
release
phenomenon,
in whicha in the following ways
mp
in
nature. lt Isa to a small
the survival, growth and reproductive
omperition
ies whose distributi ution is restricted

of a
They reduce
of the host.
e s
because
of the presence
ability
area
to expand its density.
epgraphical
They reduce its population
is found
sSpecies,
superior the competing vulnerable to
competitively when the host more

distributional range
dramatigally,
They might render
it physically weak.
predation by making
removed.

is
experimentally
that on the
species field experiments
showed
Parasites
Connel's elegant Scotland, the larger and competitively ely Types of main types
broadly divided into following surface of the
,

of
sea coasts intertidal area
rocky d o m i n a t e s the Parasites are
Balanus external
barnacle from that o n the
Superior
the smaller
barnacle
Chathamalus
1. Ectoparasites depend shelter, e.g. lice on
food and
and excludes host organism for
in marine fishes and
Z0Ne. states that two
humans, ticks on dogs, copepods
exclusion principle that grows on hedge plants.
Gause's competitive the s a m e
resources
Cuscuta, a parasitic plant
competing for at different
dosely related species the competitively
inferior
2. Endoparasites
live inside the host's body
indefinitely and etc., for food
and shelter,
cannot co-exist
This may hold true in
sites like liver, kidney, lungs, etc. The life
eliminated eventually.
one will be liver Huke, Plasmodium,
but not in other cases.
e.g. tapeworm, because of
m o r e complex
of limited
resources
case are
mechanism evolved by cycles of endoparasites
Resource partitioning is
a
If
their extreme specialisation.
for co-existence. two species in which one
Competitung species avoid is an example of parasitism
they could NOTE Brood parasitism (host)
the same resource, nest of another organism
Compete for its eggs in the
instance, different times of organism (parasite) lays birds have evolved
Competition by choosing, for incubate them. The eggs
of parasitic
for the later to host bird from
to reduce the chances of
teding or difterent foraging patterns. to resemble the host's egg cuckoo (koel,
five closely the parasitic eggs from nest, e.g.
in this relation, Mac Arthur showed that detecting and ejecting
breeding season (spring
to summer).
the same tree were parasite) and crow (host) during
eated species of warblers living
on
behavioural
u to avoid competition and co-exist due to Commensalism
aiferences in their foraging activities. where one species
It is the interaction between species,
two

harmed nor benefitted.

other is neither
Parasitism is benefitted and the
commensalism are
the mode of interaction berween two species in which Some examples of
on a mango tree gets
esparasire) depends the other species (host) for on An orchid growing as an epiphyte
tree, while the mango
and shelter and damages the host. In this process, one shelter and nutrition from mango
I s benefitted (parasite), while the other is being tree is neither
benefitted nor harmed.
armed (host). benefitted by
back of whale are
Adaptation methods of a parasite are Barnacles growing on the well as
different locations for food
as

site is host-specific in a way that both host getting moved to benefitted nor harmed.
shelter, while the whale is neither
tparasite tend to co-evolve. According to ts close to area where the
cattle are
yie,a parasite evolved special Egrets always forage the cattle
a Loss of adaptations as cattle egrets are benefitted by
unnecessary grazing. The the cattle stir
6) Presence of sense
organs. the insects. When
through easy detection of from the vegetation
on to host. dhesive organs or suckers for insects are flushed out
clinging up the bushes,
to be catched by cattle egrets.
 334 Allinone| BIOLOGY Class
12th
d e a anemone has stinging tentacles and the clown fish lives larvae. In return, the wasp Pollinates the
among them. The fish gets protection from predators, inflorescence, while searching
for able egg-layi
suitable
which stay away from the stinging tentacles. The anemonee sites.
the clown ii) Mediterranean orchid Ophrys
does not appear to derive any benefit by hosting employs 'sexual
fish. to get
pollinated by a species of bee. One petaldeceit
ofi
flower bears an uncanny
the bee in size, colour andresemblanceThe female of
to the
Mutualism markings. male
attracted to what it perceives as a temale beei
lt1s an interaction that confers benefits to both the
and
pseudocopulates' with the flower.
interacting species. Some examples of mutualism are
During this process, pollens are dusted from the
.Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationshipP flower onto the male bee. When the same
bee
between a fungus and photosynthesising or
cyanobacteria. Here, the fungus helps in the absorption of
algae pseudocopulates with another flower, it transters pollens
to it and thus, pollinates the flower.
nutrients and provides protection, while algae prepares the
food. Amensalism
Mycorrhizae show close mutual association between fungi
It is an interaction berween different species, in which
and the roots of higher plants. Fungi help the in plant species is harmed and the other is neither benefitted nor
one

absorption of nutrients, while the plant provides food for harmed, e.g. Penicillium a mould secretes penicillin which
the fungus, e.g. many members of genus Glomus.
kills bacteria but the mould remains unaffected.
.Plants need help from animals for pollination and dispersal NOTE () Predation, parasitism and commensalism share a common
of seeds. In return, plants provide nectar, pollens and fruits characteristic of the interacting species living close
to them. together.
T o safeguard the (ii) Protocooperation is an interaction between two different
mutually beneficial
system, plant-animal
species in which both are mutually benefitted but they can
interactions involve co-evolution of the mutualists, i.e. the
live without each other. It is also called facultative
evolution of the flower and its pollinator species are tightly mutualism, e.g. sea anemone is carried from place to place
linked with one another. For example, by the moving crab and is benefitted by getting more places
) Fig and its partner wasp species, the female wasp uses the for the food. Hermit crab may also derive benefit through
fruit not only as an oviposition (egg-laying) site but uses camouflage and protection provided by sea anemone
because of the presence of stinging cells in the later.
the developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing its

TOPIC PRACTICE 2
VERY SHORT ANSWER Type Questions 6. State Gause's competitive exclusion
1 Mark principle.
All India 2014
1. What would be the
the resources
growth rate pattern, when 7. Mention how closely related
species of
are unlimited? NCERT Exemplar warblers are able to co-exist in a competitive
2. Define the terms
'acceleration' and environment.
deceleration' with respect to 8. What is the
curve of population. logistic growth ecological principle behind the
3. Provide
biological control method of managing pest
an instance where the insects? NCERT
of species can be population size
estimated indirectly, without 9. State the type of interaction that
actually counting them or seeing them. exists betwee
ticks and dogs. All India 2015C
4. What Delhi 2016C
are the 10. Give the
and other
organisms that feed on plant sap name of two parasitic plants and two
plant parts called? NCERT Exemplar parasitic animals.
5. Why the 11. Name the two intermediate
Calotropis plants are not grazed by hosts on which the
goats and cattle? human liver fluke to depends complete its life
cycle so as to
facilitate
primary host. parasitisation ofDelhi
its
2014
g a n i s m sa n n d .

the
interaction
that exists between sucker SHORT ANSWER Type II Questions
Delhi 2016C, 2015 C
N alame
n
fish and shark. 3 Marks
associationthat the genus 27, List any three important characteristics of a
lame
the type of
13 Nan
All India 2014 population and explain.
exhibits with higher plants. NCERT
Glomus
in which one species 28. (i) Write the
association
importance of measuring the size
Name the substance or a change in of a
population in a habitat or an
4.
4.
nroduces poisonous that is harmful to
conditions ecosystem.
environmental
another species. (i) Explain with the help of an example how the
in Galapagos island percentage cover is more meaningful
tortoise
Abingdon
C Why did the measure of population size than mere
become e x t i n c t ?
number.
statement which best explains All India 2013
the
6. Select
parasitism. 29. Study the graph given below and answer
benefitted the questions that follows. Delhi 20114
(i) One organism is
benefitted.
(i) Both the organisms are
other is not affected.
(i) One organism is benefitted,
affected. 2
(iv) One organism is benefitted, other is A
NCERT

SHORT ANSWER Type 1 Questions

2Marks
17. List any four characteristics that are employed in
human population census. NCERT Exemplar Time (t)

18. Draw labelled diagrams of stable and declining age Write the status of food and space in the
(i)
pyramids of human population. curves A and B.
All India 2015C In the absence of predators, which one of
(ii)
19. Write the exponential equation for J-shaped the two curves would appropriately depict
growth form. the prey population?

20. Construct an age pyramid which reflects a stable (i) Time has been shown on X-axis and there
growth status of human population. is a parallel dotted line above it. Give the
Delhi 2014; All India 2014 significance of this dotted line.
21. Define 'zero population growth rate. 30. If a population growing exponentially
Draw an age pyramid for the same. NCERT Exemplar doubles in size in three years. What is the
22. What are the different ways in which intrinsic rate of increase (r) of the
alter the
parasite can
population of hosts? population? NCERT
3. An orchid 31. What is 'predation'? Explain with the help of
plant is growing on the branch of mango
tree. How do you describe this interaction between suitable examples why is it required in a
the orchid and community with rich biodiversity.
mango tree? NCERT
. Describe the mutual All India 2015C
relationship between the fig
ree and wasp and comment on the 32. Name important defence mechanisms in
that
operates in their relationship. phenomenon
All India 2014 plants against herbivory. NCERT
3. What
advantage does the sea anemone get in 33. Explain co-evolution with reference to
Sea
anemone-hermit the
crab interaction as facultative parasites and their hosts. Mention any four
mutualism? Give an
of mutualism. alternative term for this kind special adaptive features evolved in
life.
parasites for their parasitic modeAllofIndia
46. What is 2015
mutualism? Mention any two
Where the examples or

exploited inorganisms involved are commercialIy

agriculture. All India 2015 Explain parasitism and co-evolution
with
India 2016
the help of o n e example of each.All
 AllinOne | BIOLOGY Clas
Class 12th
336
38. G) Compare giving reasons, the
34. Give reason

S-shaped models of J-shaped a

(i) Population
of different species
with each other.
a r e not

species.
population growth of
of a
capable of breeding
Intraspecific competition
is m o r e intense (i) Explain 'fitness of a
species', as
mentione by
(ii) than Darwin.
interspecific competition. All India 2017
Parasites tend to
loose certain organs. 39. 'Analysis of age pyramids for man
(ii)
NCERT Exemplar
can provide important
inputs
ts for populatior
35. Fill in the blanks
planning strategies'. Explain. long- term
Species A Species B Type of Example Delhi 2015
Interaction 40. The following diagrams are the age pyramids.
different populations. Comment on the of
these populations.
status
of
NCERT Exemplar
Commensalism
Post-reproductive
36. Name and explain the type of interaction that
Reproductive
exists in mycorrhizae and between cattle egret A
Pre-reproductive
and grazing cattle. All India 2016
41. With the help of suitable diagram describe the
LONG ANSWER Type Questions logistic population growth curve. NCERT
5 Marks 42. Define the following terms and give one
example of each.
37. 6) List the different attributes that a population (i) Commensalism (ii) Parasitism
has and not an individual organism. NCERT (ii) Camouflage (iv) Mutualism
(i) What is population density? Explain any three (v) Interspecific competition
different ways the population density can be
NCERT
measured, with the help of an example each. 43. Explain the various types of interactions
All India 2015
between species.

L In case of
unlimited
EXPLANATIONS|
resources, the pattern of growth
rate is exponential. 9. Parasitism (Ectoparasite).
2 Acceleration Increasing rate of 10. Parasitic
plants are
Cuscuta and Viscum and
Deceleration Decreasing rate of populations. (1/2)
animals
parasitic
3. populations. mites and lice.
are
Tiger population in natural (1/2) (1/2+1/2)
parks is based on The human liver fluke
4. The
organisms that pugmarks. i.e. freshwater snail andrequires
two intermediate hosts,
plants are termed as feed on plant sap and other parts fish to complete its life cycle
5. phytophagous.
Calotropis produces highly
of and facilitates
12 Sucker fish and
parasitisation of its primary host. (1/2+1/2)
that can make shark is
the
grazed by goats and herbivorepoisonous
sick
cardiac
and glycosides 13. Mycorrhizae/mutualism. commensalism.
6. It states cattle. hence, they are not
that two 14. Amensalism
the same closely related
resources species competing for
cannot co-exist B. Due to
competitively
by the inferior one will be indefinitely and introduced
greater
in
browsing efficiency of goats that were
superior one. eliminated the
16. (iv) One Galapagos Island.
7. Due to
eventually
activities.behavioural differences in their
organism is benefitted, other
parasitism. For details, is affected explain
8. The foraging refer to text on no. 33.
pest ecological principle
. A
population has the page
insects is based behind the employed in human follovwing characteristics that are
ability ofbiological
prey on the
population in that habitat. predator control
to
of () population census
Natality and mortality
reduce (i) Sex ratio
(ii) Population density
(iv) Age distribution.
(1/2x4
Organisms and Populations
337

an interaction that confers benefits

on
26. Mutualism is
both the interacting species. Two examples where
18. Post
reproductive organisms involved are commercially exploited in
mycorrhizae and lichen. Refer to text on
agriculture are

Reproductive page no. 334. (1+1)

Pre- Declining (1D 27. Refer to text on page no. 330.

Stable
reproductive

28. (i) Measurement of population in habitat determines

growth form is
equation for J-shaped the relative abundance of a particular species and
19. Exponential
dN = rN its effect on the available resources of that

dt particular habitat. (1)

size,
is the rate of change in population of
where. dN/ dt (ii) The percentage cover is meaningful
more measure
increase and N'is the
natural the
of numbers because
'r is intrinsic rate
(2) population size than mere

relative abundance of a species is not only determined

population size.

growth status of
reflects stable but by the relative
by number of individuals
that a
20. The age pyramid follows
be represented as
abundance in both biomass and number, e.g. in a unit
human population can
area, the number
of grass species or relative
Post abundance in number is high but not the relative
reproductive biomass, if the same area has one or two Ficus
low in relative abundance of
bengalensis tree, it is very
Reproductive number but high in relative abundance of biomass.
(2)
Pre
reproductive Stable (2) 29. (1) A--Unlimited food and space (1/2)
individuals are
(1/2)
21. When the pre-reproductive age group B-Limited food and space
and
comparatively fewer and both reproductive 1)
are almost in equal stage,
i.e. at (ii) Curve B
post-reproductive stages
population growth rate. (1) carrying capacity. It is
same level, it is zero
(iii) The dotted line represents the
obtained for the capacity of a given habitat having enough
An inverted bell-shaped age pyramid is
zero population growth rate.
resources to support maximum possible number,
beyond which no further growth is possible. (1)

30 It case of exponential growth of population,

N, = No e" .(1)
where, N, = Population density at time t
(1)
N =
Population density before time t.
2 Following are the ways in which parasite can alter the r= Intrinsic rate of increase.
population of host N
We can also write equation (i) as = e
) They can shorten the life cycle of the host and can
No
weaken it.
N
(i) They can drastically reduce the reproduction to the Given, 2 , t =3 yrs = 2= e"
extent of causing sterility. No
(ii) They reduce its population density. (2) Taking log, on both sides.
25. Orchid is an epiphytic plant that grows on a mango tree n 2=rt [log, =n;, ne^ = x]
branch and they together show commensalism. In this In 2 n 2 0.69314
r= = = 00.23104
interaction, orchid is benefitted and the mango tree is t 3 3
neither harmed nor benefitted at all. (1+1)
Intrinsic increase rate (r %) =
0.23104 x100 2310%.
4. The relationship between fig tree and wasp shows (3
mutualism. The wasp while searching for sites to lay its 31. Predation is an interaction where
organism one
gg, pollinates the fig's inflorescence (predator) kills and eats the other weaker organism
On the other hand, the fig not only provides shelter called prey. Predation is a natural
way of transferring
the energy fixed
(fruit) for oviposition but also allows wasp's larva to by plants, to higher trophic levels. (1
feed on its seeds. (1x2) Examples-snake eating a frog, tiger killing and eating a
deer. Predators keep
h e sea anemone is transported on the back of hermit prey population under control
which otherwise could achieve very high
crab for reaching new food sources. Alternative term for
densities and cause population
this type of mutualism is
protocooperation. (2) instability
in ecosystem.
 nutrients from
338 help plant in the absorption
of essential
om
diversity in
a turn it provides the fungi with enev..
a species
the soil, while in
are benefitted
yielding carbohydrates. Both partners
maintaining competition
in of
also help the
intensity
(2)
They
by
reducing (1%)
community species.
cattle share commensalism
The cattle egret and grazing
prey
nearly 25%
competing
and
among
The grazing cattle flush out insects
predators of plantsplants). So, plants type of relationship.
are
So, it becomes easier for egret
from grass while grazing.
herbivores on
(feeding
32 The phytophagous defence against
one partner gets
o n them. In this,
chemical

to catch and feed

are
insects well a s
as
morphological remains unaffected.
show
herbivores such as cactus.
benefit, while other (1%)
well a s
Acacia as
population has but not an
individual
of r o s e
and
such opium,
as 37 (i) Attributes that a
Thorns chemicals,
(i) produce protect
them organism.
Certain plants etc., to
(i) caffeine,
nicotine, Birth rate, death rate, sex ratios, age pyramids or age
animals.
quinine, the
grazed by cardiac
distribution (any two). Refer to text on page no. 330,
against being poisonous
produces
highly this (2)
Calotropis do not eat
(ii) cattle and goats individuals per
is the number of
So, the
glycosides. (1x3) (ii) Population density of measuring
plant. unit area at a given time/period. Ways
where many parasites
is a phenomenon both population density.
33.
Co-evolution
in such a way that cover, e.g. hundred
have evolved
to be host-specific
i.e. if the host
(a) Biomass o r percentage
tend to co-evolve, plants
Parthenium one and huge banyan tree.
the host and parasite mechanism for rejecting
or
relative density, e.g. the number of
develops/evolves special (b) By measuring
to evolve from lake.
the parasite has
a
fish per trap
caught
resisting the parasite them to succeed population.
c o u n t e r a c t and
neutralise
(c) Numbers, e.g. human
mechanism to (1)
with the same host species. (d) Indirect estimation, e.g. without seeing or actually
to their counting population sizes, e.g. the tiger census is
Parasites have special adaptations according often based on pug marks and faecal pellets. (3)
of unnecessary organs,
sense
lifestyles such as; loss
or suckers, loss of digestive
presence of
adhesive organs 38 ) Comparison between J-shaped and S-shaped model of
reproductive system. (1)
system, and high population growth
34. () Because of various types of biological (e.g. breeding S-shaped populat
and J-shaped n
behaviour, inability to form fertile hybrids) population growth growth
physical barriers (e-g habitat and geographical
distribution). (1)
Population growth occurs in Population growth
i) Because the requirements of individuals of the same Occurs in S-shaped
J-shaped manner when
species are very similar, hence they compete more manner when
resources are unlimited ina
resources are limited
intensely. (1) habitat.
in a habitat.
i) Because parasites obtain nourishment and other
things from host, e.g. they have reduced and ingesting A stationary or steady phase A stationary or steady
egesting organs. (1)
is seldom achieved. phase is reached.

35. Population crashes

Species A
Species B Type of ultimately due to mass Population seldom
Interaction Example mortality. CrasheS.

Predation Phytophago
us animal
The growth curve
initially depicts a lag
and plants
The growth curve is phase followed by
Sea characterised by initial lag acceleration phase,
Protocooperatic anemone
and hermit
phase followed by deceleration phase
crab
acceleration phase. and an upper
asymptote that
An orchid
represents the carying
Comnensalism growing as
an epiphyte capacity.
on a mango

36. tree. ) Fitness of

(5

Mycorrhizae It is an species as mentioned by Darwin

Darwinian fitness
a
roots of
higher plants. association
called between fungi and
(1x3)
It is
mutualism. The population evolves(high value) states that the
to maximise
fungi inthe habitat where it lives. its reproductive fitness
Sciection Under
strategy.evolve particular set or
a
pressure, organisms
efficient reproductive towards the most
Organisms and Populations 339

of the
The rate of breeding varies from species to species. people), Hence, through the in-depth analysis
etc.
resource
Some species breed only once in their lifetime (Pacific age pyramids, better planning strategies,
be obtained.
salmon fish and bamboo), while some breed many times allocation and other planning benefits can
(2)
in their lifetime (birds and mammals). Some organisms
produce a large number of small-sized offsprings pyramid. In this
40. Figure A It is a 'pyramid'-shaped age
stage is very large
(oysters). whereas other produce a small number of figure, the base, i.e. pre-reproductive
and
large-sized offspring (birds and mammals). (2) as compared with
the reproductive
post-reproductive stages of
the population. This type of
39. Age pyTamid displays the age distribution structure indicates that
the population would
( individuals of a given age or age group) for the age
increase rapidly.
population. Population any given at composed of
time is
In this
individuals of different ages. For human population, the 'inverted bell'-shaped pyramid.
Figure B It is an
and reproductive stages a r e
age pyTanmids generally show age distribution
of males figure, the pre-reproductive indicates that the
structure
and females in a combined diagram. same. This type of age
population is stable.
of
The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status
the
the population that whether it is growing, stable or Figure C It is an urn-shaped pyramid. In the figure,
are less than
pre-reproductive and reproductive stages
declining. of this population. In this
the post-reproductive stages of
Post-reproductive population, more older people are present. This type
is
structure indicates that the population definitely
age (5)
Reproductive declining.
Pre-reproductive 41. Refer to text on page no. 331 (fig. 13.6).
Expanding no. 333.
42 (i) Commensalism Refer to text on page
no. 333.
(i) Parasitism Refer to text on page
of blending of an
(iii) Camouflage It is a phenomenon similar colour,
organism with the surrounding due to

marking and shape, avoid the

so as to predators, e.g.
Stable Declining9
leaf-like insects such as grasshopper.
Representation of age pyramids for 334.
human population (iv) Mutualism Refer to text on page no.
(3) the competition
It is
(v) Interspecific competition
death among the members of
different species for limited
It tells us about an area's population, birth and natural resources. The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos
and elderly people, etc.
rates, dependants, young people c a n be used for long
Islands became extinct within a decade after goats
These are important inputs that due to the
were introduced on the Island, apparently
to create job opportunities
term planning strategies, e.g. the (1x5)
efficiency of goats.
(if there are m o r e young people), to focus on control of greater browsing
birth rate), to improve and interaction' on page no. 332.
population (in c a s e of high 43. Refer to text 'Population
nvest more on medical
facilities (in case of low elderly