Room air distribution :

design and evaluation

Geoffrey E Whittle

Technical Note 4/86

CONTENTS Page No.
1. Introduction 1
2. Thermal Comfort 1
2.1 Comfort standards 2

2.1.1 C I B S E Guide 2
2.1.2 ASHRAE 55-1981 3
2.1.3 Other therinsl cnil1fot.t standards 3
3. A i r distribution principles 4
3.1 The performance o f j e t s 4
3.1.1 Free j e t s 5
3.1.1.1 Axisymmetric j e t s 5
3.1.1.2 Plane j e t s 8
3.1.1.3 V e r t i c a l buoyant j e t s 9
3.1.2 Wall j e t s 10
3.2 G r i 1l e s and d i f f u s e r s 11
3.2.1 Nozzles and g r i l l e s 11
3.2.2 L i n e a r and s l o t d i f f u s e r s and l i n e a r g r i l l e s 11
3.2.3 C i r c u l a r and r e c t a n g u l a r d i f f u s e r s 11
3.2.4 S w i r l type diffusers 12
3.2.5 Other types 12
4. Thermal environment - system d e s i g n and e v a l u a t i o n 12
4.1 Design d a t a f o r normal a p p l i c a t i o n s 12
4.1.1 C e i l i n g mounted systems 12
4.1.1.1 V a r i a b l e volume 14
4.1.2 S i d e - w a l l mounted g r i l l e s 15
4.1.3 S i l l - l e v e l systems 16
4.1.4 F l o o r systems 17
4.1.5 Local s u p p l y systems 18
4.1 6 Low s u p p l y f l o w r a t e s 18
4.1 7 Cold windows 19
4.1 8 Influence o f j e t obstructions 19
4.2 Des gn e v a l u a t i o n f o r c r i t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s 20
4.2 1 Physical modelling 20
4.2.2 Numerical m o d e l l i n g 21
4.3 E v a l u a t i o n o f i n s t a l l e d systems 21
4.3.1 S i t e investigations 21
Re f e r e nc es

A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . No p a r t o f t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n s may be reproduced,
s t o r e d i n a r e t r i e v a l system, o r t r a n s m i t t e d i n any form o r by any
means, e l e c t r o n i c , mechanical, photocopying, r e c o r d i n g , o r o t h e r w i s e ,
w i t h o u t the p r i o r w r i t t e n permission o f the publishers.

C o p y r i g h t B S R I A May 1986

ISBN 0 86022 138 5

Building Services Research and Information Association

OldBracknell Lane West. Bracknell. Berkshire. RCl24AH. Tel: (0344)42651I Telex: 848288BSRlACG
 1. Introduction
For thermal comfort a p p l i c a t i o n s , a b u i l d i n g v e n t i l a t i o n system should i n t r o d u c e a i r i n t o
a room such t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g a i r speed and temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e occupied
zone i s as u n i f o r m as p o s s i b l e t o m i n i m i s e areas o f h i g h v e l o c i t y and t o p r e v e n t t h e
occurrence of steep temperature g r a d i e n t s . I n b u i l d i n g s such as o f f i c e s where t h e
occupancy i s m a i n l y sedentary o r 1 i g h t l y a c t i v e t h e n t h i s requirement i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
important. An a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n o f system r e f l e c t s a s y n t h e s i s o f many s k i l l s . Here,
however, a t t e n t i o n i s l i m i t e d t o a s t u d y o f t h e importance o f thermal c o m f o r t requirements
and o f t h e aerodynamic and thermal performance o f supply a i r t e r m i n a l d e v i c e s .

BSRIA has been a c t i v e i n s t u d y i n g room a i r movement i n r e l a t i o n t o thermal c o m f o r t f o r t h e

p a s t 20 y e a r s . D u r i n g t h e course o f t h e work a number o f design guides and research
papers have been issued. T h i s t e c h n i c a l n o t e reviews these p u b l i c a t i o n s t o g e t h e r w i t h
o t h e r r e l e v a n t work from elsewhere.

The purpose of t h i s t e c h n i c a l note, then, i s t o p r o v i d e a r e v i e w o f c u r r e n t l y r e l e v a n t

thermal comfort standards r e l a t e d t o a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e concerning t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n of a i r t e r m i n a l d e v i c e s i n a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g systems.

It i s i n t e n d e d t h a t t h i s r e v i e w be of b e n e f i t t o those i n v o l v e d i n b o t h t h e conceptual and

t h e d e t a i l e d design o f room a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems.

References a r e g i v e n t o l e a d on t o t h e f u r t h e r study o f t h e s u b j e c t area.

.
2. Thermal comfort
Thermal c o m f o r t can be d e f i n e d i n terms o f t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t a s u b j e c t
experiences w i t h h i s o r h e r thermal environment. I t i s found t o be dependent on a number
o f environmental, p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s . Environmental f a c t o r s i n c l u d e
a i r temperature, r a d i a n t temperature, a i r speed and t h e h u m i d i t y o f t h e surrounding a i r .
P h y s i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s encompass m e t a b o l i c r a t e , t h e r a t e o f s e n s i b l e and l a t e n t heat
r e l e a s e from t h e body, and e x t e r n a l a c t i v i t y l e v e l . Psychological i n d i c a t o r s are
d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e b u t may w e l l i n c l u d e age, sex and o t h e r aspects such as p e r s o n a l i t y
and temporal mental d i s p o s i t i o n . A f u r t h e r and i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e concerning thermal
c o m f o r t i s c l o t h i n g l e v e l , which i d e n t i f i e s t h e thermal r e s i s t a n c e t o s e n s i b l e heat
t r a n s f e r between t h e body and t h e surroundings. U l t i m a t e l y , however, i t i s s k i n
temperature and t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e thermal r e c e p t o r s beneath t h e s k i n (which a r e
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r communicating w i t h t h e b r a i n ) which i n d i c a t e t o t h e s u b j e c t t h e thermal
s t a t e o f t h e body.

Many s t u d i e s have been undertaken t o d e f i n e thermal c o m f o r t i n terms o f t h e above f a c t o r s .

The general procedure has been t o s u b j e c t a p o p u l a t i o n sample, whose a c t i v i t y and c l o t h i n g
l e v e l a r e f i x e d and who a r e i n a steady thermal s t a t e , t o a ' r a n g e o f environmental
c o n d i t i o n s (see F a n g e d ) . By s p e c i f y i n g an a c t i v i t y and c l o t h i n g l e v e l i t i's p o s s i b l e t o
r e s t r i c t t h e study o f thermal c o m f o r t t o an a n a l y s i s o f fewer v a r i a b l e s , and t o d e f i n e
c r i t e r i a o f comfort a p p r o p r i a t e t o s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s - t h e d e s i g n engineer i s u s u a l l y

- 1 -
i n t e r e s t e d i n a s t a t m e n t o f c o m f o r t r e l a t e d t o a s p e c i f i e d t y p e o f a c t i v i t y and c l o t h i n g
level. T h i s i s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n which has been e x t r a c t e d from research p r o j e c t s over t h e
y e a r s and embodied i n t h e thermal c o m f o r t standards. P e r i o d i c a l l y t h e standards a r e
reviewed t o r e f l e c t t h e l a t e s t research f i n d i n g s , b u t s i n c e t h e reviews i n t h e main tend
t o occur on an ad hoc b a s i s t h e r e i s n o t always t o t a l c o n s i s t e n c y between a l l o f t h e
accepted standards. However, w h i l s t t h e r e a r e some d i f f e r e n c e s a common theme can be
identified.

The most w i d e l y used thermal c o m f o r t standards a r e reviewed below; Jackman2 and W h i t t l e

and 8ennett3 p r o v i d e a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f comfort standards a p p l i e d t o t h e study
o f room a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n performance.

2.1 Comfort standards

2.1.1 CIBSE guide
Dry r e s u l t a n t temperature i s recommended f o r use i n t h e UK by t h e CIBSE. It i s
d e f i n e d as t h e temperature recorded by a thermometer p o s i t i o n e d a t t h e c e n t r e o f
a blackened g l o b e lOOmm i n diameter. The CIBSE Guide4 s p e c i f i e s a range o f d r y
r e s u l t a n t temperature a p p r o p r i a t e t o a number o f d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s
( i m p l i c i t l y d e f i n e d by a c t i v i t y and c l o t h i n g l e v e l ) , and recommends t h a t f o r
uniform comfort c o n d i t i o n s t h e design f i g u r e should n o t v a r y by more than
+/-1.5K i n t h e occupied space. I n o f f i c e s t h e recommended temperature i s 20OC.
Other recommended temperatures cover a range from 13OC f o r f a c t o r y occupants
p e r f o r m i n g heavy work t o 26OC i n t h e pool h a l l s o f swimming baths.

For sedentary occupation d u r i n g w i n t e r a general range o f r e s u l t a n t

temperatures o f 19OC t o 23OC i s s t a t e d f o r thermal n e u t r a l i t y when t h e a i r speed
l e s s t h a n O.lm/s. I n summer h i g h e r temperatures can be t o l e r a t e d . A h u m i d i t y
range o f 40% t o 70% i s recommended as being t o l e r a b l e , and a correspondence i s
shown between r e q u i r e d c o m f o r t temperature and outdoor temperature.

To a l l o w t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a i r movement on thermal comfort t o be considered i t i s

necessary t o c o r r e c t t h e v a l u e o f d r y r e s u l t a n t temperature from t h e recommended
s t i l l a i r value. The c o r r e c t i o n i s zero up t o O.lm/s a i r speed, and t1.3K a t
0.3m/s. I t i s s t a t e d t h a t a i r speeds g r e a t e r than 0.3m/s a r e probably
unacceptable except d u r i n g summer.

Sections 8Z5 and 836 o f t h e CIBSE Guide a l s o d i s c u s s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a i r

movement.on thermal c o m f o r t and a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n q u a l i t y . Maximum t o l e r a b l e a i r
speeds f o r ‘general’ and ’back o f neck’ exposure a r e g i v e n as f u n c t i o n s o f a i r
temperature. For example, a t a m o v i n g - a i r temperature o f 25OC t h e maximum
recommended speeds f o r ’general’ and ’back o f neck’ exposures’ are 0.24m/s and
0.20m/s, respectively.

- 2 -
 2.1.2 ASHRAE 5 5 - 1981
ASHRAE Standard 55-19817 d i s c u s s e s thermal c o m f o r t i n terms o f an o p e r a t i v e
temperature d e f i n e d as t h e u n i f o r m t e m p e r a t u r e of a r a d i a n t l y black enclosure
i n which an occupant would exchange t h e same amount o f h e a t by r a d i a t i o n and
c o n v e c t i o n as i n t h e a c t u a l n o n - u n i f o r m environment. Operative temperature i s
numer c a l l y t h e average, weighted by r e s p e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s , o f
t h e a r and mean r a d i a n t temperature.

Re1a t onships a r e d e f i n e d , f o r 80% a c c e p t a b i l i t y , between o p e r a t i v e temperature

and h u m i d i t y f o r persons i n t y p i c a l summer and w i n t e r c l o t h i n g a t l i g h t , m a i n l y
. sedentary a c t i v i t y . They a r e shown g r a p h i c a l l y as an envelope o f c o m f o r t where
t h e ranges o f a c c e p t a b l e d r y b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e a r e f r o m 20OC t o 24OC d u r i n g
w i n t e r and 23OC t o 27OC d u r i n g summer.

Maximum mean a i r speeds f o r t h e occupied zone a r e s p e c i f i e d as 0.15m/s d u r i n g

w i n t e r and 0.25m/s d u r i n g summer. However d u r i n g summer a mean a i r speed of up
t o 0.8m/s can be regarded as c o m f o r t a b l e p r o v i d e d i t i s compensated by an
i n c r e a s e i n o p e r a t i v e temperature up t o a maximum o f 28%.
I t must be p o i n t e d
o u t though t h a t a i r speeds as h i g h as 0.8m/s would n o t be t o l e r a t e d w i t h i n an
o f f i c e environment s i n c e a t t h e s e r a t e s o f a i r movement l o o s e papers c o u l d w e l l
be blown from desk s u r f a c e s .

The ASHRAE s t a n d a r d a1 so s p e c i f i e s a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and measurement

procedures f o r s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f room a i r movement.

2 . 1 . 3 Other thermal comfort standards

Fanger’s thermal c o m f o r t equation1, which i s based on a h e a t energy balanc 0
t h e human body, a l l o w s a s t a t i s t i c a l l y based i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c o m f o r t l e v e l t o
be q u a n t i f i e d . The h e a t energy balance i s o b t a i n e d by e q u a t i n g t h e r a t e o f heat
p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e body by metabolism and performance o f e x t e r n a l work t o t h e
h e a t l o s s f r o m t h e body by t h e processes of e v a p o r a t i o n , r e s p i r a t i o n , r a d i a t i o n ,
c o n d u c t i o n and c o n v e c t i o n f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c l o t h i n g and t h e s k i n .
Comfort i s assessed f o r any c o m b i n a t i o n o f c o n d i t i o n s i n terms o f t h e number o f
persons, expressed as a percentage, who would be s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e thermal
environment. I t i s shown t h a t even i n an o p t i m a l l y c o m f o r t a b l e thermal
environment a small percentage o f t h e occupants (5%) w i l l s t i l l n o t be t o t a l l y
satisfied. Fanger’s a n a l y s i s has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
standard IS0 77308.

D I N Standard 1946 P a r t 29, which i s used i n West Germany s p e c i f i e s room a i r

temperatures i n t h e range 22OC t o 25OC as t h e l i m i t o f c o m f o r t f o r an o u t s i d e
temperature n o t exceeding 26OC. The i n f l u e n c e o f h i g h e r a i r speeds i s t o be
compensated by h i g h e r temperatures.

- 3 -
 Although developed as an i n d i c a t o r o f t h e r e l a t i v e performance o f g r i l l e s and
d i f f u s e r s t h e A i r D i s t r i b u t i o n Performance Index (ADPI)1° i s a means o f
assessing t h e i n f l u e n c e on thermal c o m f o r t o f a d e f i n e d e f f e c t i v e draught
temperature due t o a i r movement. ADP1 i s used e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e USA as an
i n d i c t o r o f t h e u n i f o r m i t y of a thermal environment.

C u r r e n t l y , a s i g n i f i c a n t r e s e a r c h e f f o r t i s b e i n g focussed on t h e e f e c t o f
f l u c t u a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s on thermal comfort, and s p e c i f i c a l l y whether p r e s e n t Y
d e f i n e d upper l i m i t s o f a i r movement may be t o o h i g h l l .

3. Air Distribution principles

3.1 The performance of jets

A b a s i c understanding of t h e performance of j e t s i s fundamental t o t h e design o r
a n a l y s i s o f a i r movement i n enclosures. The r e l a t i o n s h i p s governing j e t
behaviour, which a r e g e n e r a l l y e m p i r i c a l , a r e reviewed below. The f l o w regime
i s turbulent i n a l l j e t flows o f p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t .

The performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g j e t i n an e n c l o s u r e a r e
d e s c r i b e d i n terms o f t h e throw, t h e spread and t h e drop o f t h e j e t . These
d e f i n i t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 1; t h e y d e f i n e t h e envelope o f t h e j e t i n terms
o f a c o n t o u r o f c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y , u s u a l l y 0.5m/s, although terminal v e l o c i t i e s
of zero, 0.25m/s, and 0.6m/s a r e a l s o used.

,
Throw

Jet
Horizontal
spread
T r op

__
Plan
plane o f Elevation defines line o f
discharge constant velocity
o f jet (visual), usually
0.5mIs

F i g u r e 1: Throw, Drop and Spread of a Cooled J e t .

- 4 -
3.1.1 Free jets
A f r e e j e t i s d e f i n e d as a j e t i s s u i n g i n t o f r e e space where u n r e s t r i c t e d
d i f f u s i o n o f momentum and entrainment o f room a i r i s a l l o w e d t o t a k e p l a c e . In
p r a c t i c a l terms ' f r e e space' can be i n t e r p r e t e d as being a l a r g e room o r
e n c l o s u r e where t h e t r a j e c t o r y o f t h e j e t i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e
p r o x i m i t y o f a room s u r f a c e . Immediately t h e a i r leaves t h e o u t l e t t h e boundary
o f t h e j e t begins t o spread due t h e process of t u r b u l e n t d i f f u s i o n o r m i x i n g
w i t h t h e surroundings. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e d i f f u s i o n process i s t o e n t r a i n
room a i r and induce a general a i r movement w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n i n g enclosure which
d e f i n e s t h e room. A t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e downstream o f t h e o u t l e t t h e d i f f u s i o n
process reaches t h e c e n t r e - l i n e o r a x i s of t h e j e t and i t s c e n t r e - l i n e v e l o c i t y
t h e n s t a r t s t o decay. The process o f d i f f u s i o n o f momentum continues u n t i l t h e
j e t can no l o n g e r be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from i t s surrounds.

3.1.1.1 Axisymmetric jets

F i g u r e 2 shows i n d i a g r a m a t i c form a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f an
axisymmetric f r e e j e t . A x i a l symmetry i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a f r e e j e t
d i s c h a r g e d n o r m a l l y from a c i r c v l a r n o z z l e .
I n t h i s case t h e a x i a l ( z ) , r a d i a l
(r) and t a n g e n t i a l ( e ) v e l o c i t y components o f t h e j e t a r e f u n c t i o n s o n l y of r
and z and remain i n v a r i a n t w i t h angle e around t h e a x i s . I n p r a c t i c e , f r e e j e t s
d i s c h a r g e d n o r m a l l y from n o n - c i r c u l a r nozzles a l s o a t t a i n a x i a l symmetry a t a
d i s t a n c e downstream. Buoyancy f o r c e s which are induced by a non-uniform
temperature f i e l d a c t t o d i s t o r t a x i a l symmetry.

. i e t boundarv

1
o u t l e t ' plane
velocity
contour

Figure 2: Cross-Section of a Two-Dimensional Jet

- 5 -
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e v e l o c i t y decay i n a f r e e j e t i s o f t h e f o r m shown i n
F i g u r e 3. The decay occurs i n f o u r s t a g e s l O . I n t h e f i r s t stage which extends
o v e r a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o u r d i a m e t e r s t h e v e l o c i t y a t t h e c e n t r e - 1 i n e remains
constant. The second stage i s a t r a n s i t i o n a l zone, which i n some analyses i s
neglected1*. The main zone which dominates t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and i s t h e area
o f main e n g i n e e r i n g i n t e r e s t extends f o r 10 t o 100 d i a m e t e r s depending on t h e
i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y and t h e o u t l e t shape. I n t h i s zone t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
t h e v e l o c i t y on t h e c e n t r e - l i n e of t h e j e t and t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e o u t l e t i s
a p p r o x i m a t e l y o f t h e form:
i
-
vX
a
1
-
VO X

where Vx = v e l o c i t y a t distance x (m/s)

Vo = i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f j e t (m/s)
x = distance f r o m o u t l e t (m)
d = diameter o f j e t (m)

Jet becomes
indistinguishable
from surroundings

constant
transition
zone
main zone ’
of expression
vx 1.0
- terminal
zone
VO

\
\
(log-log
Plot) X
-
d

Figure 3: Velocity Decay of a Free Jet

- 6 -
 Based on f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e d a t a B a t u r i n l z has f i t t e d e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o
c a l c u l a t e t h e v e l o c i t y decay and o t h e r perforliiance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
axisymmetric f r e e j e t s . The v e l o c i t y decay i s d e f i n e d by Equation 2, below:

-"x - - 0.48

I ,

d where d = d i a m e t e r o f j e t (m), and

.t a i s a f u n c t i o n o f t y p e o f o u t l e t as shown below:

Included angle
a o f spread (deg:

convergent n o z z l e 0.066 - 0.071 25 - 27

c y l i n d r i c a l tube 0.076 - 0.080 29
a x i a l f a n w i t h g u i d e vanes 0.12 44
cased a x i a l f a n w i t h open g r i l l e 0.24 78
t u r b u l e n c e producer ( s w i r l d i f f u s e r ) 0.27 a5
w i t h e i g h t vanes a t 45O t o j e t c e n t r e - l i n e

The h i g h e r t h e v a l u e o f 'a' then t h e f a s t e r w i l l t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e j e t

decay and t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e spread o f t h e j e t . The i n c l u d e d a n g l e of
spread o f an a x i s y m m e t r i c j e t i s about 25O t o g r e a t e r t h a n 85O depending on t h e
o u t l e t type. The a n g l e o f spread as d e f i n e d by B a t u r i n s p e c i f i e s t h e envelope
o f z e r o v e l o c i t y , t h a t i s , a c o n t o u r s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r from t h e a x i s so t h a t t h e
j e t has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e .

The f i n a l zone o f t h e j e t i s where t h e v e l o c i t y q u i c k l y decays t o a l o w v a l u e

and t h e j e t becomes i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m i t s surroundings.

D e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s between a j e t and i t s surroundings due t o temperature

v a r i a t i o n w i l l cause a h o r i z o n t a l l y p r o j e c t e d j e t t o d e f l e c t from i t s i n i t i a l
t r a j e c t o r y , e i t h e r upwards i n t h e case o f a warm j e t o r downwards i f a c o l d j e t .
The a c t u a l t r a j e c t o r y w i l l depend on t h e Archimedes number o f t h e j e t i n
r e l a t i o n t o i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s . Archimedes number i s t h e r a t i o o f i n e r t i a t o
buoyancy f o r c e s and i s d e f i n e d as:

- 7 -
 where Ar = Archimedes number
T = temperature (K)
At = temperature difference (K)
V = jet velocity (m/s)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
1 = characteristic dimension (m)

It is more familiar in other branches of engineering, but in a slightly

different form, as Froude number.

Mullejansl3, Van Gunst et a114 and Jackman15 have discussed the performance of
horizontally projected jets in finite enclosures and from their findings have
modified the Archimedes number to reflect the influence of the room, see Section
4.1.2.

Holmesl6 provides tabulated information on the approximate throw of a warm air

jet discharged downwards (see also Section 3.1.1.3).

Experimental evidence has shown that heat transfer.in a jet (the diffusion of
temperature) occurs faster than the diffusion of velocity (or momentum)l7 and so
temperature profiles in a jet appear similar to velocity profiles but are I
flatter and therefore indicate a faster rate of spread and decay of temperature b
"
downstream.

3.1.1.2 Plane jets

Plane jets are those formed by long narrow slots which are usually defined as
having a ratio of length to width (aspect ratio) not less than about 20. The
nature of the jet i s that velocity components and fluid properties can be fully
defined on a flat plane normal to the length of the slot. Velocity components
and gradients of fluid properties normal to the plane are zero.

Baturin has dentified the following empirical relationsh p for the velocity
decay in the main zone of a plane jet:
1

"x
- = 1.2
(4)

vo E+ 0'41

- a -
 - .

where b = t h e e f f e c t i v e h a l f - w i d t h o f t h e s l o t (m), and

a i s t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e t y p e o f o u t l e t as shown below:

aspect r a t i o a

convergent a p e r t u r e 20 0.11
sharp-edged s l o t 12 0.12
rectangular duct o u t l e t s 20 0.10 - 0.15
10 0.09 - 0.14

3.1.1.3 Vertical buoyant jets

Non-isothermal j e t s discharged v e r t i c a l l y w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d by buoyancy f o r c e s
such t h a t t h e throw w i l l e i t h e r be increased o r decreased depending on t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f d i s c h a r g e o f t h e j e t and a l s o t h e temperature o f t h e j e t r e l a t i v e
t o i t s surroundings.

A downward d i s c h a r g e d warm a i r j e t w i l l behave i n t h e same way as an upward

discharged c o l d a i r j e t . - I n these cases t h e buoyancy f o r c e s w i l l a c t t o reduce
t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s and t h e r e f o r e t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e j e t would
be reduced. T h i s would be i m p o r t a n t i n t h e design o f a h e a t i n g system which made
use o f nozzles a t c e i l i n g h e i g h t . The successful o p e r a t i o n o f t h e system would
h i n g e on t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e nozzles t o p r o j e c t t h e warm a i r t o t h e occupied
zone, w h i l s t e n s u r i n g t h a t i f operated under near i s o t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n s ( o r
indeed c o o l i n g c o n d i t i o n s ) excessive a i r movement a t ground l e v e l would n o t be
induced.

Holmes16 has o u t 1 i n e d a design procedure f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f downward

discharged warm a i r j e t s . The procedure a l l o w s a c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e throw o f a
j e t from e i t h e r open-ended c i r c u l a r d u c t s o r from d u c t s w i t h a f i t t e d n o z z l e -
type terminal. The t h r o w o f t h e j e t , as d e f i n e d by Holmes, i s t h e d i s t a n c e t o a
t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y o f zero. The d a t a i s presented i n t a b u l a t e d form t o a i d
s e l e c t i o n of d u c t / n o z z l e s i z e o r l e n g t h o f throw.

- 9 -
 The downward d i s c h a r g e of c o l d a i r o r upward d i s c h a r g e o f warm a i r i s a
c o n f i g u r a t i o n where t h e buoyancy forces a c t i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n as t h e i n e r t i a
forces. Experimental d a t a f o r buoyant j e t s discharged i n t o calm o r s t a b l y
s t r a t i f i e d environments have been reviewed by Chen and RodilB. I t i s shown i n
t h e above case t h a t a buoyant j e t i s s u i n g i n t o a calm environment i n i t i a l l y
decays i n v e l o c i t y u n t i l i t e v e n t u a l l y behaves as a p u r e plume. As a p u r e
plume, i t i s d r i v e n by buoyancy forces o n l y and moves a t a c o n s t a n t f i n i t e
velocity. Although, i n p r a c t i c e , a i r movement c u r r e n t s i n a room can d e s t r o y
t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a p u r e plume, c a r e must s t i l l be e x e r c i s e d t o ensure t h a t t h e
performance o f such j e t s i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n .

The downward p r o j e c t i o n o f a i r occurs i n l a m i n a r f l o w c l e a n room a p p l i c a t ons

where a i r i s d i s c h a r g e d u n i f o r m l y from t h e c e i l i n g and e x t r a c t e d from t h e space
a t low l e v e l t h r o u g h wa 1 o r f l o o r t i l e s / g r i l l e s . The room a i r v e l o c i t y s i n
t h e r e g i o n o f 0.4m/s an t h e system i s designed t o produce a p i s t o n t y p e
displacement f l o w . V e n t i l a t i o n r a t e s o f several hundred a i r changes p e r hour
a r e a c h i e v a b l e . Although termed l a m i n a r , t h e f l o w regime i s t u r b u l e n t though of
lower i n t e n s i t y turbulence than i s evident i n a d i f f u s i o n type a i r conditioning
application.

3.1.2. Wall jets

Wall j e t s d i s c h a r g e along a s u r f a c e such as a w a l l o r c e i l i n g . The i n t e r a c t i o n
of t h e j e t and t h e s u r f a c e generates .a f o r c e such t h a t t h e j e t w i l l be a t t r a c t e d
t o and f l o w along a s u r f a c e . T h i s phenomenon, which i s v e r y b e n e f i c i a l f o r a i r
d i f f u s on design, i s known as t h e coanda e f f e c t . With c o r r e c t design i t a l l o w s
c o o l a r t o be d i s c h a r g e d i n w a l l j e t form beneath a c e i l i n g w i t h o u t being
d e f l e c ed down i n t o t h e occupied zone. The attachment t o t h e c e i l i n g
c o u n t e r a c t s any n e g a t i v e buoyancy f o r c e s . To o p e r a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y t h e supply
v e l o c i t y o f t h e a i r should n o t be l e s s t h a n 1.5m/s.

B r i t i s h Standard 4773, P a r t 119, d e s c r i b e s a t e s t procedure f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

performance o f a i r t e r m i n a l d e v i c e s i n terms o f t h e throw and spread o f t h e j e t
under i s o t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n s . It i s i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e d a t a produced be used by
manufacturers i n r a t i n g t h e i r products. C r i t i c i s m s o f t h e Standard a r e t h a t i t
r e l a t e s m a i n l y t o i s o t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n s and t h a t i t does n o t e x p l o r e t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between a i r t e r m i n a l d e v i c e performance and room geometry. The
Standard i s p r e s e n t l y under review.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Standard IS0 521920 a l s o d e f i n e s a t e s t method f o r r a t i n g a i r

t e r m i n a l devices, b u t o n l y under i s o t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n s .

- 10 -
3.2 Grilles and diffusers
The g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f g r i l l e s and d i f f u s e r s a r e reviewed below and some
guidance i s g i v e n on t y p i c a l a i r change r a t e s based on a s u p p l y t o room a i r
t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e o f 10K21.

3.2.1 Nozzles and grilles

Nozzles, u s u a l l y of c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n , a r e g e n e r a l l y used f o r l o n g t h r o w
a p p l i c a t i o n s (up t o 20m t o 30m), a l t h o u g h some d e v i c e s a l l o w an a l t e r n a t i v e mode
o f o p e r a t i o n u s i n g a f l a r e d d i f f u s e r which can reduce t h e throw. Nozzles and
l o n g - t h r o w g r i l l e s have been used p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n f a c t o r y h e a t i n g systems and
auditoria. T h e i r use can w i t h c a r e be extended t o o t h e r l a r g e - b u i l d i n g
a p p l i c a t i o n s where c o m f o r t r e q u i r e m e n t s may be q u i t e s t r i n g e n t . I t i s
d e s i r a b l e , though, t h a t f l e x i b i l i t y be b u i l t i n t o t h e system t o a l l o w some
adjustment o f t h e n o z z l e d i s c h a r g e a n g l e d u r i n g commissioning.

G r i l l e s , which may have f i x e d o r a d j u s t a b l e d e f l e c t o r vanes d i s c h a r g e a i r i n a

t h r e e dimensional f l o w p a t t e r n i n a d i r e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r , o r near
perpendicular, t o the g r i l l e face. I n t h e main zone o f expansion t h e v e l o c i t y
o f t h e a i r reduces i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e o u t l e t . They
a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g a i r change r a t e s up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
8 t o l0ach.

3.2.2 Linear and slot diffusers and linear grilles

L i n e a r and s l o t d i f f u s e r s e i t h e r s i n g l e o r m u l t i - s l o t produce a two dimensional
f l o w p a t t e r n w i t h i n an i n c l u d e d a n g l e o f about 200. A l i t t l e way from t h e
o u t l e t t h e v e l o c i t y decays i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e . s q u a r e r o o t o f t h e d i s t a n c e from
the diffuser. They a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g a i r change r a t e s
up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15ach.

3.2.3 Circular and rectangular diffusers

C i r c u l a r o r r e c t a n g u l a r d i f f u s e r s a r e n o r m a l l y used i n c e i l i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s and
a l l o w a h i g h a i r f l o w r a t e t o be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o a room. I n t h e main zone o f
expansion t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e a i r stream reduces i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e
distance from the o u t l e t . They a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g a i r
change r a t e s up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2Oach.

Depending on t h e d e t a i l e d d e s i g n o f t h e d i f f u s e r a l t e r n a t i v e a i r f l o w p a t t e r n s
can be produced. For example, a m u l t i - c o n e c i r c u l a r d i f f u s e r may have t h e
a b i l i t y t o p r o j e c t t h e a i r beneath t h e c e i l i n g o r , by adjustment, t o d i s c h a r g e
t h e a i r downwards. F l e x i b i l i t y o f f l o w p a t t e r n c o n t r o l can be p r o v i d e d by
a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n o f square o r r e c t a n g u l a r c e i l i n g d i f f u s e r .

- 11 -
 -- . -. - . . ,. .,

3.2.4 Swirl type diffusers

S w i r l i n d u c i n g d i f f u s e r s can be o f c i r c u l a r o u t l e t form f i t t e d w i t h a d j u s t a b l e
d e f l e c t o r vanes which i m p a r t a s t r o n g s w i r l a c t i o n t o t h e f l o w t o p r o v i d e r a p i d
d i f f u s i o n o f supply a i r i n t o a room t h e r e b y m i n i m i s i n g areas of l o c a l l y h i g h
velocity. They can be l o c a t e d a t c e i l i n g l e v e l and s e t t o produce a
h o r i z o n t a l l y p r o j e c t e d r a d i a l j e t , o r can be a d j u s t e d t o p r o j e c t a i r v e r t i c a l l y
downwards22. O r , t h e y may be l o c a t e d a t f l o o r l e v e l as p a r t of an a p p r o p r i a t e l y
designed system. (see S e c t i o n 4 . 1 . 4 ) .

Other designs o f d i f f u s e r can p r o v i d e a s w i r l i n g a i r f l o w by t h e g e o m e t r i c a l

form o f t h e a p e r t u r e b u t w i t h o u t u s i n g d e f l e c t o r blades. These types may be
l i n e a r o r r a d i a l f l o w devices.

S w i r l t y p e d i f f u s e r s p r o v i d e a r a p i d d i f f u s i o n o f supply a i r i n t o a room and a r e

t h e r e f o r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r h i g h l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n s and a l s o where a l i m i t e d space
i s available.

3.2.5 Other types

Other t y p e s of d i f f u s e r can i n c l u d e those u t i l i s e d as p a r t of a u s e r -
c o n t r o l l a b l e l o c a l a i r d i f f u s i o n system such as a desk o r w o r k - s t a t i o n
system22.

4. Thermal environment-system design and evaluation

The q u a l i t y o f t h e environmental m i c r o - c l i m a t e w i t h i n a room i s dependent on t h e balance
o f t h e momentum f l o w i n t h e supply a i r and t h e buoyancy f o r c e s generated by thermal
t r a n s f e r w i t h i n t h e room. The g e o m e t r i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f a room and supply system and
t h e magnitude o f t h e thermal l o a d a l s o i n f l u e n c e t h e performance o f t h e a i r d i f f u s i o n
system. I n many cases t h e expected performance o f a system i s w e l l known from p a s t
experience and e s t a b l i s h e d d e s i g n procedures can be used. A t other times t h i s i s n o t t h e
case and an a l t e r n a t i v e approach must be considered. T h i s s e c t i o n discusses these two
situations.

4.1 Design data for normal applications

41 1.1 Ceiling mounted systems

Jackman23 s t u d i e d t h e performance o f l i n e a r and c i r c u l a r c e i l i n g d i f f u s e r s , and
o u t l i n e d a d e s i g n procedure. I n t h e case o f c i r c u l a r d i f f u s e r s t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p d e f i n i n g t h e v e l o c i t y decay of t h e supply j e t was found t o be o f
t h e form:

. .

- 12 -
 K JAe
x + xo

where K = a constant
A, = e f f e c t i v e area o f d i f f u s e r (m2)
xo = d i s t a n c e o f apparent o r i g i n o f j e t f r o m
c e n t r e o f d i f f u s e r (m)

A t y p i c a l v a l u e f o r K f o r c i r c u l a r d i f f u s e r s i s 1.1

For l i n e a r s l o t d i f f u s e r s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p was i d e n t i f i e d as,

where b = e f f e c t i v e s l o t w i d t h (m)

A t y p i c a l v a l u e f o r K f o r l i n e a r s l o t d i f f u s e r s i s 2.35.

I t was found t h a t t h e mean room a i r speed was a p p r o x i m a t e l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

s q u a r e - r o o t o f t h e momentum f l o w o f t h e s u p p l y j e t , i . e .

where VR = mean room a i r speed (m/s)

M = momentum f l o w i n s u p p l y a i r
= mass f l o w r a t e x d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y (N)

A d d i t i o n a l l y , an e x p r e s s i o n was d e r ved by Jackman r e l a t i n g t h e mean room

v e l o c i t y t o t h e room dimensions and t h e t h r o w o f t h e a i r stream, where t h e
l a t t e r i s expressed as a p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e room l e n g t h . H i s proposed d e s i g n
method was based on:

i) S i z i n g o f d i f f u s e r s t o produce a t h r o w t o a t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y o f 0.5m/s
equal t o 3/4 o f t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e end w a l l o r t o an aerodynamic
boundary.

- 13 -
 ii) I d e a l l y f o r c i r c u l a r d i f f u s e r s l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t r e o f a c e i l i n g area,
t h e l e n g t h o f t h e room s h o u l d equal t h e w i d t h . Where t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e
and c i r c u l a r d i f f u s e r s a r e t o be r e t a i n e d t h e l e n g t h t o w i d t h r a t i o s h o u l d
n o t exceed 1.5.

iii) The d i f f u s e r s s h o u l d be l o c a t e d f l u s h w i t h t h e u n d e r s i d e o f t h e c e i l i n g
and t h e r e s h o u l d be no s i g n i f i c a n t o b s t r u c t i o n s such as l i g h t f i t t i n g s o r
changes i n c e i l i n g h e i g h t i n t h e a i r f l o w p a t h . The i n f l u e n c e o f c e i l i n g
beams and l i g h t f i t t i n g s on j e t t r a j e c t o r y i s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.1.8

iv) I s o t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n s were assumed as t h e b a s i s o f t h e t a b u l a t e d mean room

a i r speeds which would n o r m a l l y be i n t h e range O.lm/s t o 0.2m/s. In
approximate terms, when c o o l a i r i s s u p p l i e d i n t o a room t h e mean a i r
speeds a r e expected t o i n c r e a s e by 20%, and when warm a i r i s s u p p l i e d t o
decrease by 20%.

v) Any area r e q u i r i n g s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t should be s e p a r a t e l y considered. For

example l o c a l a c t i o n s h o u l d be t a k e n t o c o u n t e r a s t r o n g down-wash o f c o l d
a i r f r o m a window (see S e c t i o n 4.1.7).

vi) Any area o f o v e r l a p of i n f l u e n c e from one t e r m i n a l t o another s h o u l d be

avoided s i n c e t h i s can r e s u l t i n l o c a l l y h i g h a i r v e l o c i t i e s b e i n g
generated.

vii) The r a t i o o f t h e l e n g t h of a room, i n t h e streamwise d i r e c t i o n , t o t h e

w i d t h o r h e i g h t s h o u l d n o t exceed a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 : l t o ensure s t a b i l i t y of
t h e a i r movement p a t t e r n .

As a g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n , a i r which i s d i s c h a r g e d a t an a n g l e downwards
f r o m t h e c e i l i n g may s t i l l a t t a c h t o t h e c e i l i n g s u r f a c e i f t h e i n i t i a l
a n g l e does n o t exceed 4 5 O .

4.1.1.1 Variable volume

V a r i a b l e volume systems a l l o w advantage t o be t a k e n o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f c o o l i n g
l o a d s f r o m zone t o zone i n a b u i l d i n g , economising on i n s t a l l e d f a n c a p a c i t y .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , m a j o r energy savings f o l l o w from r e d u c t i o n s i n f a n power d u r i n g
t i m e s when t h e system i s n o t o f f - s e t t i n g maximum room h e a t g a i n s . Since f a n
power i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e cube o f f l o w r a t e c o n s i d e r a b l e savings can be
achieved. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , r e d u c i n g f l o w r a t e a l o n e may i n f l u e n c e t h e q u a l i t y of
a i r distribution. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i f a f i x e d d i s c h a r g e area

- 14 -
 t e r m i n a l i s used, s i n c e t h e momentum o f t h e s u p p l y a i r reduces as t h e square of
discharge v e l o c i t y . The c o m b i n a t i o n o f a s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n s u p p l y a i r
momentum, and, i f r e h e a t i s used w i t h a c e i l i n g supply, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
buoyancy f o r c e s may r e s u l t i n poor a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n . Under c o o l i n g a reduced
d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y may r e s u l t i n t h e s u p p l y j e t becoming detached from t h e
c e i l i n g and causing h i g h l o c a l v e l o c i t i e s w i t h i n t h e room (dumping). T h i s may
o c c u r a t s u p p l y v e l o c i t i e s below 1.5m/s.

A g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d approach i s t o use a v a r i a b l e area a i r t e r m i n a l d e v i c e

which w i l l t e n d t o m a i n t a i n s u p p l y v e l o c i t y a t r e d u c i n g a r f l o w r a t e s , a l t h o u g h
t h i s i s n o t common p r a c t i c e .

Holmes24 has s t u d i e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f VAV systems and has d e s c r i b e d a d e s i g n

procedure f o r c e i l i n g mounted systems used i n c o o l i n g app i c a t i o n s . The d e s i g n
methodology a l l o w s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f b o t h f i x e d and v a r i a b l e area d e v i c e s

4.1.2 Side-wall mounted grilles

Jackman15 s t u d i e d a i r movement i n rooms w i t h s i d e - w a l l g r i l l e s and developed a
d e s i g n procedure. The emphasis i n h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t r a j e c t o r y of
h o r i z o n t a l l y p r o j e c t e d j e t s as i n f l u e n c e d by momentum and buoyancy forces. A
m o d i f i e d Archirnedes number was d e f i n e d t o c o r r e l a t e j e t performance o v e r a range
o f conditions. P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o assessing t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e
proximity o f the j e t t o the ceiling. The r e v i s e d Archimedes number combined j e t
d a t a and room d a t a such t h a t :

where Arcorr = c o r r e c t e d Archimedes number

Ae = e f f e c t i v e area o f supply d e v i c e (m2)
b = w i d t h o f s u p p l y a p e r t u r e (m)
d = d i s t a n c e below c e i l i n g o f upper edge o f
s u p p l y a p e r t u r e (m)
Dh = h y d r a u l i c d i a m e t e r o f room p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o strearnwise d i r e c t i o n (m)

- 15 -
 \

Dh -
-
2 BH
B t H

B = Room w i d t h (m)
H = Room h e i g h t (m)

From t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l programme and based on t h e d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s s e t o u t ,

r e l a t i o n s h i p s were d e r i v e d t o p r e d i c t t h e drop o f t h e s u p p l y j e t , t h e aspect
r a t i o and p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e g r i l l e , and t h e mean room a i r v e l o c i t y . For a
s u c c e s s f u l d e s i g n i t was found necessary t o s i z e t h e s u p p l y g r i l l e such t h a t i t
would p r o j e c t t h e j e t , t o a t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y o f 0.5m/s, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3/4 o f
the distance t o the opposite w a l l .

I t was concluded t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e most c r i t i c a l requirement was t h e avoidance

of h i g h v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e occupied p a r t o f a room, t h i s c o u l d be achieved w i t h
c a r e f u l d e s i g n which t o o k advantage o f j e t attachment t o t h e c e i l i n g .

N i e l s e n and M 0 1 l e r ~d ~i s c u s s e d t h e use o f a s i d e - w a l l d i f f u s e r which would a l l o w

a h i g h a i r f l o w r a t e t o be i n t r o d u c e d by r a p i d l y d i f f u s i n g t h e momentum o f t h e
a i r i n t o t h e main body o f t h e room. T h i s was shown t o be a d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e
a l l o w i n g a h i g h t h e r m a l l o a d t o be s u c c e s s f u l l y o f f - s e t .

4.1.3 Sill-level systems

Jackman26 d e f i n e d a d e s i g n procedure f o r s i l l - l e v e l systems

For e f f e c t i v e design i t i s again a requirement t h a t t h e throw o f the g r i l l e t o a

t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y o f 0.5m/s should be t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3/4 o f t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g
t h e c e i l i n g t o the opposite w a l l . The t h r o w o f a s i l l mounted t e r m i n a l under
s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s may t h e r e f o r e be l o n g e r t h a n a t e r m i n a l mounted i n t h e
ceiling.

An a d d i t i o n a l t e s t o f a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n i s t h a t t h e d i s c h a r g e o f a i r from a
f l o o r l e v e l o r window s i l l o u t l e t s h o u l d decay i n v e l o c i t y t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
0.75m/s a t c e i l i n g l e v e l t o a v o i d e x c e s s i v e downward d e f l e c t i o n from t h e
c e i 1ing6.

F i g u r e 4 shows t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s o f a i r streams, i n diagrammatic form, i n b o t h

s u c c e s s f u l and unsuccessful designs. I t i s necessary t o make use o f t h e j e t
s u r f a c e attachment p r i n c i p l e ( t h e coanda e f f e c t ) t o ensure t h a t h i g h v e l o c i t i e s
i n t h e occupied zone a r e avoided.

- 16 -
 ,
jet discharge v e l o c i t y discharge v e l o c i t y
envelope t o o low f o r cooled j e t too high

I------

cool a i r supply - ideal trajectory

temperature d i f f e r e n t i a l
too great

Figlire 4 : Main Air Stream T r a j e c t o r i e s - S i l l Mounted Grilles

(Jackman2 )

4.1.4 Floor systems

F l o o r systems o f f e r t h e advantage t h a t t h e y a r e designed t o d i r e c t l y c o n d i t i o n
t h e occupied zone o f t h e room. An a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e i s t h a t because t h e main
d i r e c t i o n o f a i r movement corresponds w i t h t h a t induced by h e a t r e l e a s e from
occupants and equipment t h e a i r movement p a t t e r n s a r e p o t e n t i a l l y more s t a b l e
t h a n o t h e r systems. Under c o o l i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s a p r o p o r t i o n o f h e a t g a i n s
w i t h i n t h e space can w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n be a l l o w e d t o convect i n t o t h e
upper p a r t of t h e room above head h e i g h t . A t t h i s l e v e l h i g h e r temperatures can
be a l l o w e d t o p r e v a i l w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y c a u s i n g d i s c o m f o r t i n t h e occupied
zone. A m a j o r b e n e f i t f o r c o o l i n g systems i s i n t h e energy savings f r o m a
reduced e f f e c t i v e thermal oad on t h e occupied space.

D u r i n g w i n t e r h e a t i n g cond t i o n e d a i r i s s u p p l i e d d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e occupied
zone. The disadvantage o f some c e i l i n g mounted s u p p l y systems, i . e . an
inabi 1 it y t o produce a c c e p t a b l e a i r movement and t h e tendency t o develop steep
temperature g r a d i e n t s d u r i n g w i n t e r h e a t i n g i s overcome.

Since a i r i s b e i n g s u p p l i e d d i r e c t l y within t h e occupied zone i t i s necessary t o

m i n i m i s e t h e d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y and ensure a l s o t h a t under c o o l i n g t h e
temperature o f t h e a i r i s n o t t o o low. A l o w e r l i m i t t o s u p p l y a i r temperature
o f 16OC should be observed. A swirl type diffuser i s appropriate f o r t h i s
a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h a t i t w i l l r a p i d l y d i f f u s e t h e momentum o f t h e s u p p l y a i r i n t o
t h e room.

- 17 -
4.1.5 Local supply systems
Local s u p p l y a i r systems a r e t h o s e which a r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o s e a t i n g
arrangements such as i n t h e a t r e s o r courtrooms o r a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o desks o r
work-stations. They a r e q u i t e w i d e l y used i n Europe, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n West
Germany. A f i r s t r e q u i r e m e n t though i s t h a t t h e s e a t i n g o r desk arrangement
s h o u l d be pre-determined and i d e a l l y f i x e d . T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y met
by t h e f o r m a l i s e d s e a t i n g arrangements o f t h e a t r e s and c o u r t rooms. I n t h i s
a p p l i c a t i o n s u p p l y a i r j e t s a r e formed a t seated head l e v e l by upward a i r f l o w I

t h r o u g h d u c t i n g w i t h i n t h e s e a t back. A i r f r o m near f l o o r l e v e l may be

scavenged by an i n d u c t i o n s l o t and p r i m a r y a i r n o z z l e s a t l o w l e v e l a l s o w i t h i n
t h e s e a t back.

I n an o f f i c e environment some f l e x i b i l i t y can be p r o v i d e d by modular d e s i g n o f

systems and an a p p r o p r i a t e f l o o r l a y o u t u s i n g removable f l o o r t i l e s o v e r a f l o o r
plenum. F o r s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n t h e s u p p l y a i r c o n d i t i o n s should be s i m i l a r t o
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s discussed above. I n p r a c t i c e a combination o f desk o u t l e t s and
f l o o r g r i l l e s w i l l be t h e a p p r o p r i a t e way o f c o n d i t i o n i n g a space. I n many
cases i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o p r o v i d e t h e occupant w i t h some c o n t r o l o f a i r f l o w
d i r e c t i o n and/or v e l o c i t y .
The v e l o c i t y o f a i r a t t h e o u t l e t o f a l o c a l s u p p l y
system should n o t exceed about lm/s.

4.1.6 Low supply flow rates

A i r movement i n a room r e s u l t s from t h e r e l a t i v e magnitude o f t h e momentum f l o w
o f t h e s u p p l y a i r and t h e buoyancy f o r c e s generated by energy t r a n s f e r s .
reference^^^,^^,^^ p r o v i d e d e s i g n i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n where s u p p l y - t o -
room a i r temperature d i f f e r e n c e s a r e i n t h e range 5K t o 10K, and where t h e
momentum f l o w d i c t a t e s t h e a i r movement p a t t e r n . Here, t h e s i t u a t i o n i s
c o n s i d e r e d where h i g h e r temperature d i f f e r e n c e s up t o 15K a r e used, and where
t h e s u p p l y f l o w r a t e s a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y reduced.

Holmes and Caygi11z7 s t u d i e d t h i s problem and i d e n t i f i e d f o r a range o f h e a t

l o a d s t h e minimum supply momentum a t which s a t i s f a c t o r y a i r movement c o n d i t i o n s
c o u l d s t i l l be achieved. I t was found t h a t t h e r a t i o M/qH should n o t be l e s s
t h a n 0.07 i f t h e i n t e r n a l h e a t l o a d i s n o t t o dominate t h e a i r movement, where

M = momentum f l o w o f s u p p l y a i r (N)
q = heat l o a d (kW)
H = h e i g h t o f room (m).

The d e s i g n a l l o w s mean room a i r speeds and temperature g r a d i e n t s t o be

predicted.

- ia -
 General comments were made r e l a t i n g t o t h e p Formance o f s u p p l y d i f f u s e r s . For
example, i t was found t h a t c i r c u l a r d i f f u s e r s tended t o produce a more u n i f o r m
v e l o c i t y f i e l d t h a n l i n e a r d i f f u s e r s , a l t h o u g h t h e performance of t h e l a t t e r
t y p e was found t o be l e s s s e n s i t i v e t o momentum changes.

4.1.7 Cold windows

The use o f c e i l i n g mounted s u p p l y systems i n v o l v i n g t h e d i s c h a r g e o f a i r
h o r i z o n t a l l y beneath t h e c e i l i n g can r e s u l t i n poor a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i f
a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n procedures a r e n o t adopted. The d e s i g n requirements a r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a c o l d window; in this
case t h e a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n system may be unable t o overcome o r m i n i m i s e t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f t h e downward f l o w o f c o l d a i r .

Where i t i s n o t f e a s i b l e t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c o l d window by
u n d e r - s i l l h e a t i n g i t i s necessary t o pay c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e
a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n system. Holmes.28 has i l l u s t r a t e d an a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n
procedure f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n based on a t h e o r e t i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l
work. An aim o f t h e d e s i g n method was t o ensure t h a t t h e temperature d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e main body o f t h e room and t h e area i n f l u e n c e d by t h e c o l d window d i d
n o t exceed 2 K . It was c o n f i r m e d i n t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e t h r o w o f a c e i l i n g
d i f f u s e r t o a t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y o f 0.5m/s should be t o 3/4 o f t h e d i s t a n c e t o
t h e opposing w a l l .

4.1.8 Influence of jet obstructions

Design i n f o r m a t i o n a p p l i e d t o t h e performance o f w a l l j e t s assumes t h a t t h e j e t
i s f l o w i n g o v e r a smooth s u r f a c e . I n p r a c t i c e , o b s t r u c t i o n s due t o c e i l i n g
beams o r l i g h t f i t t i n g s may be p r e s e n t , which, i f c l o s e r t o t h e j e t source t h a n
a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l d i s t a n c e w i l l cause t h e j e t t o be d e f l e c t e d from t h e c e i l i n g
and down i n t o t h e occupied p a r t o f t h e room. Holmes and Sachariewicz29 s t u d i e d
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f j e t o b s t r u c t i o n s and d e f i n e d a method o f checking i n a proposed
d e s i g n whether t h e r e may be a problem. A r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d between
t h e h e i g h t o f t h e o b s t r u c t i o n and t h e c r i t i c a l d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e v i r t u a l o r i g i n
o f t h e j e t , b o t h parameters were made d i m e n s i o n l e s s by r e l a t i n g them t o t h e s l o t
height. F o r example, f o r an o b s t r u c t i o n o f h e i g h t t h r e e t i m e s t h e e f f e c t i v e
s l o t height the r a t i o o f the c r i t i c a l distance (from the v i r t u a l o r i g i n o f the
j e t ) t o t h e s l o t h e i g h t was t h i r t y . R e l a t i o n s h i p s were a l s o d e f i n e d f o r
p r e d i c t i n g t h e maximum s e p a r a t i o n from t h e c e i l i n g o f t h e l i n e o f maximum
v e l o c i t y , and a l s o t h e v e l o c i t y decay o f t h e j e t as i n f l u e n c e d by t h e
o b s t r u c t ion.

- 19 -
 Nielsen30,31 a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t o f c e i l i n g o b s t r u c t i o n s . I n a typical
room he showed t h a t a c e i l i n g o b s t r u c t i o n such as a l i g h t - f i t t i n g o f h e i g h t
lOOmm can be s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f l e c t a s u p p l y j e t down i n t o t h e occupied zone.
The c r i t i c a l h e i g h t o f an o b s t r u c t i o n was demonstrated t o be a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
geometry o f and t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e s u p p l y opening and t h e h e i g h t o f t h e room.
The i n f l u e n c e o f n o n - i s o t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n s was a l s o examined.

4.2 Design evaluation for critical applications

S i t u a t i o n s a r i s e where e i t h e r s t a n d a r d d e s i g n methods prove inadequate f o r t h e
t a s k i n hand, o r due t o t h e c r i t i c a l i t y of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n a d d i t i o n a l c o n f i d e n c e
i n a d e s i g n needs t o be developed. I n these s i t u a t i o n s modelling o the
r e s u l t i n g a i r movement p a t t e r n s can provde a g r e a t e r f e e l f o r t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e d e s i g n and a l s o a l l o w o p t i m i s a t i o n t o t a k e p ace b e f o r e
t h e design i s f i n a l i s e d . Two o p t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r m o d e l l i n g - p hy s ic a1
model 1 ing and n u m e r i c a l model 1 ing .

4.2.1 Physical modelling

BSRIA have been i n v o l v e d i n p h y s i c a l m o d e l l i n g o f room a i r movement o v e r many
y e a r s encompassing v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s . The procedure i s u s u a l l y t o b u i l d i n
t h e l a b o r a t o r y a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e module, o f t h e proposed b u i l d i n g , and o p e r a t e t h e
model under d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s so t h a t a d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f room a i r
d i s t r i b u t i o n performance can be undertaken.

Where t h e b u i l d i n g comprises i n d i v i d u a l rooms t h e n an a p p r o p r i a t e s i z e and

o r i e n t a t i o n o f room would be s e l e c t e d . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y open
p l a n b u i l d i n g a t e s t module would be i d e n t i f i e d based on t h e m o d u l a r i t y of
l a y o u t o f t h e room a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n system. U s u a l l y aerodynamic boundaries t o a
module can be i d e n t i f i e d and r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y model as p h y s i c a l
walls.

P l a n t and a i r d i f f f u s i o n equipment a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d so t h a t s p e c i f i e d a i r f l o w
r a t e s , temperatures and equipment can be p r o v i d e d and t h e performance of t h e
system monitored. It i s i m p o r t a n t t o a p p l y a p p r o p r i a t e boundary c o n d i t i o n s t o
r e p r e s e n t h e a t t r a n s f e r r a t e s across s u r f a c e s .

The s i z e o f a b u i l d i n g may p r e c l u d e f u l l - s c a l e l a b o r a t o r y modelli'ng, f o r example

atrium buildings o r theatres; i n t h e s e cases r e d u c e d - s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s may
be , c a r r i e d o u t . The s c a l e f a c t o r ( l e n g t h s c a l e of model d i v i d e d by l e n g t h s c a l e
o f b u i l d i n g ) should be k e p t as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e b u t s c a l e f a c t o r s as small as
1/12 have been employed i n t h e p a s t . The d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e r e d u c e d - s c a l e
model i s r e l a t e d t o t h e f u l l - s i z e b u i l d i n g a c c o r d i n g t o e s t a b l i s h e d s c a l i n g
1aws.

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 V i s u a l i s a t i o n o f a i r movement p a t t e r n s can be undertaken u s i n g smoke as a t r a c e r
(see S e c t i o n 4.3.1). The d e t a i l e d measurements o f a i r speeds and temperature
d i s t r i b u t i o n s obtained using sophisticated instrumentation are i n t e r p r e t e d using
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e thermal c o m f o r t Standards and Guides and c u r r e n t c o m f o r t
research f i n d i n g s .

The i n f l u e n c e o f any r e f i n e m e n t s t o t h e design which a r e deemed necessary can

r e a d i l y be s t u d i e d a t t h e m o d e l l i n g stage.

4.2.2 Numerical modelling

Numerical m o d e l l i n g o f a i r movement i n rooms i n v o l v e s a p p l y i n g t h e fundamental
c o n s e r v a t i o n e q u a t i o n s o f momentum, energy and mass t o p r e d i c t a i r speeds and
temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s . The c o n s e r v a t i o n e q u a t i o n s which a r e o f p a r t i a l
d i f f e r e n t i a l form, a r e i n t e g r a t e d n u m e r i c a l l y over t h e f l o w f i e l d . This s a
process o f a l g e b r a i c a l l y s a t i s f y i n g t h e p h y s i c a l laws over a l a r g e number o f
c o n t r o l volumes which t o g e t h e r make up t h e room o r e n c l o s u r e under study. Work
i s underway a t BSRIA and elsewhere i n a p p l y i n g and v a l i d a t i n g these t o o l s
S u f f i c i e n t p r o g r e s s has been made such t h a t , i f used w i t h c a r e , t h e y may
a l r e a d y make a c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h e d e s i g n process.

4.3 Evaluation of installed systems

I t i s sometimes necessary t o make a d e t a i l e d assessment o f t h e performance o f an
a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n system i n a r e a l b u i l d i n g u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and
experimental procedures.

-.3.1 Site investigations

L

One d i f f i c u l t y o f s t u d y i n g a i r movement i n r e a l b u i l d i n g s i s t h e l a c k o f c o n t r o l
t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r has over t h e thermal c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h e main i t i s
p o s s i b l e o n l y t o s t u d y t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e system under t h e thermal l o a d s
p r e v a i l i n g a t t h e t i m e of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l t h o u g h i n some cases i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o deceive t h e p l a n t i n t o p r o v i d i n g c o o l i n g o r h e a t i n g by, f o r example,
a d j u s t i n g thermostat settings. Because o f t h e s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e t h a t thermal
l o a d can have on room a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e weather
c o n d i t i o n s , occupancy and o t h e r thermal g a i n s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n
t o g e t h e r w i t h any manual adjustments made t o t h e c o n t r o l s e t t i n g s . The
i n v e s t i g a t o r must a l s o be aware o f t h e dynamics o f t h e systems s i n c e
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a sudden and s u b s t a n t i a l change t o t h e r m o s t a t s e t t i n g s w i l l
propagate t h r o u g h t h e system i n a f i n i t e t i m e p e r i o d . Continuous m o n i t o r i n g o f
c o n d i t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n must be m a i n t a i n e d . The system a i r f l o w
r a t e i s o f t e n h i g h l y r e l e v a n t d a t a t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e thermal
environment a l t h o u g h i n many i n s t a l l a t i o n s i t can be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t i f y

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accurately. Techniques such as p i t o t t r a v e r s e s i n t h e ductwork, c a l i b r a t e d a i r
f l o w hoods, t r a c e r gas i n j e c t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g , and o t h e r procedures may be
adopted.

V i s u a l i s a t i o n o f a i r movement p a t t e r n s i s o f t e n a p p r o p r i a t e u s i n g a hand h e l d
smoke p u f f e r . T h i s can r e a d i l y i n d i c a t e d i r e c t i o n s o f a i r movement b u t c a r e
s h o u l d be t a k e n t o ensure t h a t t h e person h o l d i n g t h e smoke p u f f e r o r anyone
s t a n d i n g c l o s e by does n o t i n f l u e n c e t h e l o c a l a i r movement. Smoke bombs o r
thermal based smoke g e n e r a t o r s a r e p r o b a b l y o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r use i f t h e
b u i l d i n g i s n o t occupied. They a l s o t e n d t o produce so much smoke t h a t t h e
v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n s o f any u n d e r l y i n g a i r movement p a t t e r n may be q u i c k l y
obscured. Any buoyancy i n f l u e n c e from smoke produced by thermal r e a c t i o n should
be noted. The use o f s t i l l photography supported by hand w r i t t e n n o t e s and/or
t h e use o f v i d e o photography can be a means o f p r o v i d i n g a permanent r e c o r d o f
observations. A s k e t c h o f a i r movement p a t t e r n s on planes t h r o u g h t h e f l o w
f i e l d a r e u s e f u l means o f communicating t h e essence o f f l o w p a t t e r n s t o o t h e r s .

Smoke as a t r a c e r s h o u l d be used w i t h c a u t i o n s i n c e i t may t r i g g e r d e t e c t o r s i n

an automated f i r e m o n i t o r i n g system.

Hot f i l m o r h o t w i r e thermal anemometers a r e s u i t a b l e f o r a i r movement s t u d i e s .

S p h e r i c a l headed probes a r e l a r g e l y omni - d i r e c t i o n a l and hence r e c o r d t h e
magnitude o f t h e v e l o c i t y . They o p e r a t e w i t h a c c e p t a b l e r e s o l u t i o n and
r e p e a t a b i l i t y i n t h e range >/= 0.05m/s. Below 0.05m/s c o n v e c t i o n due t o h e a t
t r a n s f e r from t h e sensor can induce s p u r i o u s a i r movement s i g n a l s . It i s
p e r m i s s i b l e t o use a p o r t a b l e hand-held anemometer f o r an i n i t i a l assessment of
c o n d i t i o n s b u t where d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d t h e n a more i n t e n s i v e
approach i s needed. A i r v e l o c i t y r e a d i n g s a t between t h r e e t o f i v e h e i g h t s from
a n k l e l e v e l (0.lm) t o head l e v e l (1.8m) w i l l g i v e adequate coverage o f t h e
occupied h e i g h t . A p l a n g r i d spacing o f l m t o 2m, o r g r e a t e r , i f t h e zone
studied i s l a r g e w i l l g i v e acceptable s p a t i a l r e s o l u t i o n .

A i r movement i n a m e c h a n i c a l l y v e n t i l a t e d room i s t u r b u l e n t , h a v i n g a l a r g
a m p l i t u d e and a f a i r l y l o w frequency dominant f l u c t u a t i o n . It i s therefore
necessary t o measure a i r speeds o v e r a s u i t a b l e t i m e p e r i o d , n o r m a l l y n o t l e s s
t h a n 2 minutes, t o o b t a i n a r e l i a b l e mean value. I f d i s c r e t e sampling i s used,
which w i t h a d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n system i s g e n e r a l l y t h e more convenient approach,
t h e n a sampling p e r i o d increment of 1 o r 2 seconds i s a p p r o p r i a t e . It i s o f t e n
c o n v e n i e n t t o measure t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e space a t t h e same p h y s i c a l
l o c a t i o n s as a i r speed. However temperature can be o b t a i n e d by a s i n g l e
snapshot measurement r a t h e r t h a n u s i n g t h e l o n g i n t e g r a t i o n t i m e necessary f o r
a i r speed measurements. Thermocouples connected t o a d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n system
can g i v e a f a i r l y q u i c k and a c c u r a t e (t/- 0.2K) measure of temperature. Other
t y p e s o f sensor a r e a l s o r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , sometimes t h e y
can be o b t a i n e d as p a r t o f t h e anemometer system. A i r temperature sensors can

- 22 -
 be p r o t e c t e d from r a d i a t i o n by u s i n g small s h i e l d s made from aluminium f o i l o r
aluminium coated tape. Dry r e s u l t a n t temperature as used t o d e f i n e c o m f o r t
temperature i n t h e CIBSE Guide can be measured d i r e c t l y u s i n g a lOOmm diameter
g l o b e thermometer.'

Radiant temperature can be o b t a i n e d by combining t h e i n f o r m a t i o n from a globe

thermometer w i t h a i r temperature and a i r speed measurements. A globe
thermometer has a t i m e c o n s t a n t o f several minutes which must be taken i n t o
account t o m i n i m i s e e r r o r s .

The h u m i d i t y o f t h e a i r can be o b t a i n e d from measurements made w i t h a s l i n g

hygrometer, o r where l o n g - t e r m m o n i t o r i n g i s b e i n g undertaken t h e n a
thermohydrograph may be a p p r o p r i a t e a l t h o u g h t h e accuracy o f some o f t h e l a t t e r
t y p e s o f i n s t r u m e n t may be l i m i t e d .

References
1. FANGER, P.O. 'Thermal Comfort'. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.

2. JACKMAN, P.J. 'Parameters a f f e c t i n g t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a i r d i f f u s i o n

systems and d e v i c e s ' . Expoclima, Brusse'ls, November 1986.

3. WHITTLE, G.E. and BENNETT, K.M. 'An i n d e x f o r r a t i n g t h e performance

o f s u p p l y a i r t e m i n a l d e v i c e s used i n a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g ' . Expoc7ima,
Brussels, November 1986.

4. CIBSE Guide. S e c t i o n A l . 'Environmental C r i t e r i a f o r Design', 1978.

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( r e q u i r e m e n t s ) ' , 1976.

6. C I B S E Guide. S e c t i o n 83. ' V e n t i l a t i o n and a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g (Systems and

Equipment)', 1977.

7. ASHRAE Standard 55-1981. 'Thermal environmental c o n d i t i o n s f o r human

occupancy', 1981.

8. I S 0 Standard 7730. 'Moderate thermal environments - D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f

t h e PMV and PPD I n d i c e s and t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r
thermal c o m f o r t ' , 1985.

9. D I N Standard 1946, P a r t 2. ' A i r c o n d i t i o n i n g - H e a l t h requirements',

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application'. Business News Publishing Co. Michigan, 1976.

11. CHRISTENSEN, N.K., ALBRECHTSEN, O., FANGER, P.O. and

TRZECIAKIEWICZ, Z . . A i r movement and draughts. Proc. 3 r d 1nt.Conf. on
I n d o o r A i r Q u a l i t y and Climate, I n d o o r A i r , vo1.5, 301-308,
Swedish Counci 1 f o r B u i l d i n g Research, Stockholm, 1984.

12. BATURIN, V.V. 'Fundamentals o f i n d u s t r i a l v e n t i l a t i o n ' . Pergamon

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t r a n s f e r i n m e c h a n i c a l l y v e n t i l a t e d rooms', ( i n German).
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I - 23 -
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14. VAN GUNST, E. ERKELENS, P.J. and COENDERS, W.P.J. ‘Some r e s u l t s o f

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e s u p p l y o f c o o l e d a i r i n a t e s t room’.
Proceedings o f the 4 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f Heating and Air
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15. JACKMAN, P.J. ‘ A i r movement i n rooms w i t h s i d e - w a l l mounted g r i l l e -

A d e s i g n procedure’. HVRA Laboratory Report No.65, B r a c k n e l l , 1970.

16. HOLMES, M.J. ’Throw o f v e r t i c a l l y d i s c h a r g- e d warm a i r j e t s ’ . BSRIA

Technica7 Note TN 3/76, Bracknell; 1976.

17. ABRAMOVICH, G.M. ’The t h e o r y o f t u r b u l e n t j e t s ‘ . The M I Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963.

18. CHEN, C.J. and RODI, W. ‘ V e r t i c a l t u r b u l e n t buoyant j e t s - A r e v ew o f

e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a ’ . Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980.

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f o r a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems’. BSI. 1971.

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aerodynamic t e s t i n g and r a t i n g o f a i r t e r m i n a l d e v i c e s ’ . 1984.

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Germany and Design f o r Sound L t d . , Colchester, Essex.

23. JACKMAN, P.J. ’ A i r movement n rooms w i t h c e i l i n g - m o u n t e d d i f f u s e r s ’ .

HVRA Laboratory Report No.81 Bracknel 1 , 1973.

24. HOLMES, M.J. ‘ D e s i g n i n g v a r i a b l e volume systems‘. HVRA A p p l i c a t i o n

Guide 11/74, Bracknell , 1974.

25. NIELSEN, P.V. and MOLLER, A.T.A. ’New developments i n room a i r

d i s t r i b u t i o n ’ , A i r c o n d i t i o n i n g systems d e s i g n f o r b u i l d i n g s .
Construction I n d u s t r y Conference Centre Ltd. Nottingham, 1982.

26. JACKMAN, P.J. ’ A i r movement i n rooms w i t h s i l l - m o u n t e d g r l l e s - A

d e s i g n procedure‘. HVRA Report No.71, Bracknel I , 1971.

27. HOLMES, M.J. and CAYGILL, C. ‘ A i r movement i n rooms w i t h ow s u p p l y

a i r f l o w r a t e s ’ . HVRA Laboratory Repprt No.83, B r a c k n e l l , 1973.

28. HOLMES, M.J. ’Room a i r movement w i t h c e i l i n g mounted d i f f u s e r s - The

i n f l u e n c e o f c o l d windows‘. BSRIA App7ication Guide 2/75, Brackne77,
3975,

29. HOLMES, M.J. and SACHARIEWICZ, E. ’The e f f e c t o f c e i l i n g beams and

l i g h t f i t t i n g s on v e n t i l a t i n g j e t s ’ . HVRA Laboratory Report No.79,
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30. NIELSEN, P.V. The i n f l u e n c e o f c e i l i n g - m o u n t e d o b s t a c l e s on t h e a i r

f l o w p a t t e r n i n a i r c o n d i t i o n e d rooms a t d i f f e r e n t h e a t l o a d s ’ .
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31. NIELSEN, P.V. ’ A i r d i f f u s i o n i n rooms w i t h c e i l i n g mounted o b s t a c l e s

and two-dimensional i s o t h e r m a l f l o w ’ . 16th I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f
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