8011-Yash Agarwal-Bxe Manual

Lab Manual –Basic electronics Engineering Pattern 2020
Table of contents
Sr. No. Contents

Demonstration of CRO for its usage in test and measurements.
1
Demonstration of DMM for its usage in test and measurements.

2
Simulate half wave and full wave rectifier circuits using diode and observe
3 input and output waveforms.
Simulate LC/RC oscillator using BJT.

4
Simulate Single Stage MOSFET Common Source amplifier circuit with

5 bypass capacitor.
6 Simulate Inverting and Non Inverting amplifier using Opamp.
Name:YASH NAVIN AGARWAL
Roll No.:8011
G.R. No.:22010195
Batch:H1
Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

1
EXPERIMENT NO: 01
Demonstration of CRO for its usage in test and measurements.

2
Aim: Demonstration of CRO for its usage in test and measurements.
Apparatus : CRO, Function Generator , BNC connector
Theory:
An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits because
it allows you to see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way of investigating
an electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and output of each system block,
checking that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next. With a
little practice, you will be able to find and correct faults quickly and accurately.
The diagram shows a Dual trace oscilloscope, a popular instrument in Engineering. Your
oscilloscope may look different but will have similar controls.
The function of an oscilloscope is extremely simple: it draws a V/t graph, a graph of voltage
against time, voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and time on the horizontal or X-axis.As you
can see, the screen of this oscilloscope has 8 squares or divisions on the vertical axis, and 10
squares or divisions on the horizontal axis. Usually, these squares are 1 cm in each direction:
An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated CRO, for cathode-ray oscilloscope, or commonly
just scope or O-scope) is a type of electronic test equipment that allows signal voltages to be
viewed, usually as a two-dimensional graph .

3
Description:
1) Exterior : A typical oscilloscope is a box with a display screen, numerous input

connectors, and control knobs and buttons on the front panel. To aid measurement, a
grid called the graticule is drawn on the face of the screen. Each square in the
graticule is known as a division
2) Inputs : The signal to be measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is
usually a coaxial connector such as a BNC or N type. If the signal source has its own
coaxial connector, then a simple coaxial cable is used; otherwise, a specialized cable
called a 'scope probe', supplied with the oscilloscope, is used. General-purpose
oscilloscopes have a standardized input resistance of 1 mega ohm in parallel with a
capacitance of around 20 Pico farads. This allows the use of standard oscilloscope
probes. Scopes for use with very high frequencies may have 50-ohm inputs, which
must be either connected directly to a 50-ohm signal source or used with Z 0 or active
probes. It is used for measuring voltage.
3) The trace : In its simplest mode, the oscilloscope repeatedly draws a horizontal line
called the trace across the middle of the screen from left to right. One of the controls,
the timebase control, sets the speed at which the line is drawn, and is calibrated in
seconds per division. If the input voltage departs from zero, the trace is deflected

4
either upwards or downwards. Another control, the vertical control, sets the scale of
the vertical deflection, and is calibrated in volts per division. The resulting trace is a
plot of voltage against time, with the more distant past on the left and the more recent
past on the right. If the input signal is periodic, then a nearly stable trace can be
obtained just by setting the time base to match the frequency of the input signal. For
example, if the input signal is a 50 Hz sine wave, then its period is 20 ms, so the time
base should be adjusted so that the time between successive horizontal sweeps is 20
ms. this mode is called continual sweep. Since the calibrated oscilloscope time base
may not exactly match the period of the input signal, the trace will drift across the
screen making measurements difficult. If the time base is adjusted to stabilize the
trace, the time per horizontal division is altered, and usually uncalibrated.
4) Trigger : To provide a more stable trace, modern oscilloscopes have a function called
the trigger. When using triggering, the scope will pause each time the sweep reaches
the extreme right side of the screen. The scope then waits for a specified event before
drawing the next trace. The trigger event is usually the input waveform reaching
some user-specified threshold voltage in the specified direction (going positive or
going negative).The effect is to resynchronize the time base to the input signal,
preventing horizontal drift of the trace. In this way, triggering allows the display of
periodic signals such as sine waves and square waves. Trigger circuits also allow the
display of non periodic signals such as single pulses or pulses that don't recur at a
fixed rate.
5) Types of trigger include:

● External trigger, a pulse from an external source connected to a dedicated input on the
scope.
● Edge trigger, an edge-detector that generates a pulse when the input signal crosses a
specified threshold voltage in a specified direction.
● Video trigger, a circuit that extracts synchronizing pulses from video formats such as
PAL and NTSC and triggers the time base on every line, a specified line, every field,
or every frame. This circuit is typically found in a waveform monitor device.
● Delayed trigger, which waits a specified time after an edge trigger before starting the
sweep. No trigger circuit acts instantaneously, so there is always a certain delay, but a

5
trigger delay circuit extends this delay to a known and adjustable interval. In this way,
the operator can examine a particular pulse in a long train of pulses.
6) X-Y mode: Most modern oscilloscopes have several inputs for voltages, and thus can
be used to plot one varying voltage versus another. This is especially useful for
graphing I-V curves (current versus voltage characteristics) for components such as
diodes, as well as Lissajous patterns. Lissajous figures are an example of how an
oscilloscope can be used to track phase differences between multiple input signals.
This is very frequently used in broadcast engineering to plot the left and right
stereophonic channels, to ensure that the stereo generator is calibrated properly.
7) Other features: Some oscilloscopes have cursors, which are lines that can be moved
about the screen to measure the time interval between two points, or the difference
between two voltages.
Oscilloscopes may have two or more input channels, allowing them to display more than one
input signal on the screen. Usually the oscilloscope has a separate set of vertical controls for
each channel, but only one triggering system and time base.
Sometimes the event that the user wants to see may only happen occasionally. To catch
these events, some oscilloscopes, known as "storage scopes", preserve the most recent sweep
on the screen. This was originally achieved by using a special CRT, a "storage tube", which
would retain the image of even a very brief event for a long time.
Some digital oscilloscopes can sweep at speeds as slow as once per hour, emulating a strip
chart recorder. That is, the signal scrolls across the screen from right to left. Most
oscilloscopes with this facility switch from a sweep to a strip-chart mode at about one sweep
per ten seconds. This is because otherwise, the scope looks broken: it's collecting data, but
the dot cannot be seen.
Oscilloscopes were originally analog devices. In more recent times digital signal
sampling is more often used for all but the simplest models.
Many oscilloscopes have different plug-in modules for different purposes, e.g., high-
sensitivity amplifiers of relatively narrow bandwidth, differential amplifiers, amplifiers with
4 or more channels, sampling plugins for repetitive signals of very high frequency, and
special-purpose plugins.

6
Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO):

The earliest and simplest type of oscilloscope consisted of a cathode ray tube, a vertical
amplifier, a timebase, a horizontal amplifier and a power supply. These are now called
'analogue' scopes to distinguish them from the 'digital' scopes that became common in the
1990s and 2000s.
Before the introduction of the CRO in its current form, the cathode ray tube had already been
in use as a measuring device. The cathode ray tube is an evacuated glass envelope, similar to
that in a black-and-white television set, with its flat face covered in a phosphorescent material
(the phosphor). The screen is typically less than 20 cm in diameter, much smaller than the
one in a television set.
In the neck of the tube is an electron gun, which is a heated metal plate with a wire mesh
(the grid) in front of it. A small grid potential is used to block electrons from being
accelerated when the electron beam needs to be turned off, as during sweep retrace or when
no trigger events occur. A potential difference of at least several hundred volts is applied to
make the heated plate (the cathode) negatively charged relative to the deflection plates. For
higher bandwidth oscilloscopes where the trace may move more rapidly across the phosphor
target, a positive post-deflection acceleration voltage of over 10,000 volts is often used,
increasing the energy (speed) of the electrons that strike the phosphor. The kinetic energy of
the electrons is converted by the phosphor into visible light at the point of impact. When
switched on, a CRT normally displays a single bright dot in the center of the screen, but the
dot can be moved about electro statically or magnetically. The CRT in an oscilloscope uses
electrostatic deflection.
Between the electron gun and the screen are two opposed pairs of metal plates called
the deflection plates. The vertical amplifier generates a potential difference across one pair of
plates, giving rise to a vertical electric field through which the electron beam passes. When
the plate potentials are the same, the beam is not deflected.
When the top plate is positive with respect to the bottom plate, the beam is deflected
upwards; when the field is reversed, the beam is deflected downwards. The horizontal
amplifier does a similar job with the other pair of deflection plates, causing the beam to move
left or right. This deflection system is called electrostatic deflection, and is different from the
electromagnetic deflection system used in television tubes. In comparison to magnetic
deflection, electrostatic deflection can more readily follow random changes in potential, but
is limited to small deflection angles.

7
The time base is an electronic circuit that generates a ramp voltage. This is a voltage that
changes continuously and linearly with time. When it reaches a predefined value the ramp is
reset, with the voltage reestablishing its initial value. When a trigger event is recognized the
reset is released, allowing the ramp to increase again. The timebase voltage usually drives the
horizontal amplifier. Its effect is to sweep the electron beam at constant speed from left to
right across the screen, and then quickly return the beam to the left in time to begin the next
sweep. The time base can be adjusted to match the sweep time to the period of the signal.
Meanwhile, the vertical amplifier is driven by an external voltage (the vertical input) that is
taken from the circuit or experiment that is being measured. The amplifier has very high input
impedance, typically one mega ohm, so that it draws only a tiny current from the signal
source. The amplifier drives the vertical deflection plates with a voltage that is proportional
to the vertical input. Because the electrons have already been accelerated by hundreds of volt,
this amplifier also has to deliver almost hundred volts and this with a very high bandwidth.
The gain of the vertical amplifier can be adjusted to suit the amplitude of the input voltage. A
positive input voltage bends the electron beam upwards, and a negative voltage bends it
downwards, so that the vertical deflection of the dot shows the value of the input. The
response of this system is much faster than that of mechanical measuring devices such as the
multi meter, where the inertia of the pointer slows down its response to the input.
When all these components work together, the result is a bright trace on the screen that
represents a graph of voltage against time. Voltage is on the vertical axis, and time on the
horizontal.
Observing high speed signals, especially non-repetitive signals, with a conventional
CRO is difficult, due to non-stable or changing triggering threshold which makes it hard to
"freeze" the waveform on the screen. This often requires the room to be darkened or a special
viewing hood to be placed over the face of the display tube. To aid in viewing such signals,
special oscilloscopes have borrowed from night vision technology, employing a micro
channel plate in the tube face to amplify faint light signals.
Although a CRO allows one to view a signal, in its basic form it has no means of
recording that signal on paper for the purpose of documentation. Therefore, special
oscilloscope cameras were developed to photograph the screen directly. Early cameras used
roll or plate film, while in the 1970s Polaroid instant cameras became popular.
The vertical amplifier and time base controls are calibrated to show the vertical distance on
the screen that corresponds to a given voltage difference, and the horizontal distance that

8
corresponds to a given time interval.The power supply is an important component of the

scope. It provides low voltages to power the cathode heater in the tube, and the vertical and
horizontal amplifiers. High voltages are needed to drive the electrostatic deflection plates.
These voltages must be very stable. Any variations will cause errors in the position and
brightness of the trace.
Later analogue oscilloscopes added digital processing to the standard design. The same
basic architecture - cathode ray tube, vertical and horizontal amplifiers - was retained, but the
electron beam was controlled by digital circuitry that could display graphics and text mixed
with the analogue waveforms. The extra features that this system provides include:
● on-screen display of amplifier and time base settings;
● voltage cursors - adjustable horizontal lines with voltage display;
● time cursors - adjustable vertical lines with time display;
● on-screen menus for trigger settings and other functions
Observations: Connect function generator output to CRO & observe different waveform at
different frequency.
Amplitude Measurement:
No. of Divisions Volt/Div Amplitude level
AC 1Vp-p
2V p-p
5 Vp-p
DC 2 V
5V
Frequency Measurement:

9
Conclusion:
1.For taking measurements with an Oscilloscope for the alternating current (AC)
amplitude we start by plugging the AC signal into one of the oscilloscope’s inputs
before optimizing the signal. The AC signal will oscillate and resemble a sine wave. We
will measure the signal’s amplitude by counting the number of vertical divisions
between the signal’s highest and lowest points (i.e. its peak and trough). We get the
amplitude in volts by multiplying the number of vertical divisions by your volts/division
setting.
2. For frequency, we will count the number of horizontal divisions from one high point to
the next (i.e. peak to peak) of your oscillating signal. Next, we will multiply the number
of horizontal divisions by the Time/division to find the signal’s period. You can calculate
the signal’s frequency with this equation: frequency=1/period.
3.In order taking measurements with an Oscilloscope for a direct current (DC) signal’s
voltage, we first turn on your oscilloscope without connecting the input signal. Then
count the number of vertical divisions that your oscilloscope line shifts and multiply the
vertical divisions by the volts/division to find the DC signal voltage.
Thus we have studied CRO.From this we, understand how to use CRO.

10
EXPERIMENT NO: 02
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Demonstration of DMM for its usage in test and

measurements.

11
Aim : Study of Digital Multimeter (DMM)

1. Measurement of dc voltage, dc current, ac (rms) voltage, ac (rms) current,
resistance and capacitance. Understand the effect of decimal point on
resolution. Comment on bandwidth.
2. To test continuity, PN junction and transistor.
Apparatus: DMM, Resistor, Capacitors, Transistor, Regulated Power Supply.
Theory:
Multimeter measure some aspect of electricity and helps us in troubleshooting. So,
first let us understand some aspects of electricity. Electricity passing through a conductor is
generates flow of current by means of power supply. The pressure created by power supply is
called voltage. Resistance is any restriction to the flow of the current in a conductor. Voltage,
current and resistance are the three most fundamental components of electricity. Voltage is
measured in volts, current in amps and resistance in ohms.
Voltage and Current Measurement

Voltage is the pressure that is applied to a conductor. There are two common types of power
sources, Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC). Alternating Voltage is the most
common form of electricity. It is the power supplied by the utility or generators, which flows
through our electrical circuits. The symbol for AC voltage is V~. DC Voltage is a constant
level of stored energy. It is stored in batteries or converted from alternating voltage through
the use of electronic rectifiers. The symbol for DC voltage is V--- .
Current is the flow of electricity through a conductor. As with voltage, there are two types of
current, AC and DC. The symbol for current is the letter A.
The third component is resistance, measured in Ohms. Resistance in the circuit impedes the
flow of current through a conductor. The symbol for resistance is the Greek Omega, Ω,
sometimes referred to as the horseshoe.
Multimeter :
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A standard multimeter may
include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are two
categories of multimeter; analog multimeter and digital multimeter (often abbreviated

12
DMM.) A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field
service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy.
They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring
systems. Multimeter are available in a wide ranges of features and prices. Cheap multimeter
can cost less than INR 200, while the top of the line multimeter can cost more than INR 8000.
Types of Multimeter:
Analog meters use a needle movement and calibrated scale to indicate values. These were
popular for years, but recently their numbers have declined. Every voltmeter has an internal
resistance or impedance. The input impedance of an analog meter is expressed in ―Ohms per
Volt
Fig. 1 Pointer scale
Contemporary multimeter can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
● Voltage in volts.
● Current in amperes.
● Resistance in ohms.
● Additionally, multimeter may also measure:
● Capacitance in farads.
● Frequency in hertz
● Duty cycle as a percentage.
● Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.
● Conductance in siemens.
● Inductance in henrys
● Audio signal levels in decibels.

13
The Digital Multimeter (DMMs) feature a digital or liquid crystal display (LCD).
Measurement readings are displayed as numerical values on the LCD Display. The display
also alerts you to any pertinent symbols and warnings.
Digital multimeter also includes circuits for:
● Continuity that beeps when a circuit conducts.
● Diodes and Transistors
Fig. 2 Front Panel of Digital Multimeter
Digital Multimeter use different techniques internally, to measure AC, DC voltage,

Resistance and Amperes. An advantage of a digital multimeter is their accuracy and input
protection. Their input resistance or impedance is very high, in the range of 1,000,000 to
10,000,000 ohms, so there is little effect on the measurement. On good quality meters, their
inputs are also protected from faults and misuse. Test instruments today devote a good deal of
architecture to overload protection. Most digital 5 meters meet some safety standard such as
UL601010 or IEC (International Electro-technical Commission).
Setting the Function :

The dial of the DMM allows you to choose the function you’re interested in measuring.
Whether you intend to measure one of the three elements of Ohm’s Law, or a more advanced
function like frequency or capacitance, you must first set the dial to the appropriate function.
Setting the Range:

The dial also plays another essential role in measuring electricity – that of determining the
range of measurement. The range you select on the dial determines the placement of the

14
decimal point as it appears on the LCD. In turn, the position of the decimal point determines
how refined, or precise, your reading is. This is called resolution.
Fig.3 Setting the Range and Function
Table 1. DMM Measurement functions
Understanding Count, Resolution and Accuracy

The count is the maximum number of digits that can be shown on the display. In most cases
this value is one less that the Count of the display. For example if you have a 2000 count unit,
the maximum reading per range is 1999 or one less than 2000.
Table 2. DMM Range setting
To get a better understanding of resolution, let’s take an example. If you are using a manual
ranging unit that is set on 20V and you’re measuring an application that puts out more than

15
20V, the display will read ―OL‖, or overload. You must reset the dial to a higher range and
take a new reading. The most refined reading, therefore, uses the range that provides the best
resolution without overloading. Select the range just higher than the expected reading.
Meter Accuracy:
Most meter’s accuracy are expressed as a +/- percentage of input + a +/- number of counts,
expressed as +/-{ X% + No. of counts}. For example, the Ideal 61-342 is a 4000 count
display with a basic DC Voltage accuracy of +/-{0.5% + 5} The +5 is called the count or
floor and refers to the least significant digit of the display in reference to range and
resolution. If we want to determine the maximum error of the meter that is measuring a
source of 12V, first determine the percentage error and add the count or floor.
The % accuracy for a 12V source would be 12 x 0.005= 0.06
To determine the count, we must determine the meter’s range and resolution. If the display is
a 4000 count display, we need to determine the best range and resolution. For 12 V this
would be the 40V range. The display maximum resolution is 39.99 and the least significant
digit would be 0.01 with a total count of 0.05
The accuracy of the meter is +/- (0.06 +.05) which is = +/- 0.11, so the Low limit is 11.89 and
the High limit would be 12.11
Display Counts & Resolution

The display count is the maximum digital resolution of the multimeter. A 2000 count display,
has a maximum reading of 1999, one less than the display count. A 4000-count display has a
maximum reading of 3999. These two displays are the most common, 5000, 20,000 and even
50,000 count displays are also available. The display count determines maximum range and
resolution.
The display count is important in determining the maximum resolution (number of digits
after the decimal point) of the reading. As an example, let’s look at the difference when
measuring a 240-volt supply with a 2000 count and 4000-count multimeter and what range
you would set the meter to.
The 2000 count display would be in the 600V range and display 280 volts. The maximum
resolution is 1 volt.

16
Table 3. DMM range and resolution
The 4000-count multimeter would be in the 400V range and have a maximum resolution
of .1V. The unit would display the measurement as 280.0 volts.
Port Panel
The port panel is where you plug in your test leads. The diagram below explains where the
test leads go for specific tests.
Instrument Input Jacks or Ports

The input jacks or ports of your meter are the working ends of the instrument. Use care when
connecting leads to your instrument. Pay close attention and be sure to connect the leads into
the correct port that is marked for the measurement selected on the dial.
DC Voltage Measurements: To measure DC voltage, we place the Red lead into the V
ΩCOM port. Turn the dial or switch to VDC or V
If it is a manual ranging meter set it for the proper range. As in the example below, we want
to measure a 9V battery so the best range would be the 20 V range. If you have an auto-
ranging meter you only need to set the function on the dial to VDC or V .
AC Voltage Measurement: To measure AC voltage, we place the Red lead into the V Ωport
and black lead into the COM port. Turn the dial or switch to VAC or V ~
If it is a manual ranging meter set it for the proper range. As an example the meter would be
set to the 200 V range to measure a 120V outlet. . If you have an auto-ranging meter you only
need to set function to VAC or V~.
Remember that it is always a good practice to connect the black lead first then the red

17
Current Measurements
Current is the electron flow that causes electrical equipment to operate. When the equipment
is turned on, it is considered to be a load on the circuit. A load is any electrical component,
such as a lamp, stereo, motor or heating element, that draws current. Current is measured in
amperes, or amps. To measure using a meter we must open the circuit and make the
measurement in Series with the load.
Fig. 4. Current Measurement
Continuity Measurement
Continuity is a quick check to see if a circuit is complete. Good fuses and closed switches
have continuity. During a continuity measurement, the multimeter sends a small current
potential through the circuit to measures the resistance of the circuit. The value for the
maximum resistance can vary from meter to meter. Most will indicate continuity from 0 to 50
ohms. We can hear a beep tone if the circuit has continuity.
Fig. 5. Continuity Measurement
Resistance Measurements
When you first place the meter in the (Ω) function the meter will give a display of OL or 1
indicating an infinite reading. For resistance measurements, place the test leads on each side
of the resistor.

18
Fig. 6. Resistance Measurement
Diode Measurement
A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow in only one direction. The
standard Ohms function on a digital multimeter does not supply enough energy to test a
diode. The diode function applies an appropriate amount of pressure, (or voltage potential),
and measures the voltage drop across the diode.
To test a diode, first measure the forward bias of the diode. For most silicon diodes the
voltage drop should measure around .5V +/- .2V.
Next, measure the reverse bias of the diode. You should see an ―OL or overload condition
on the display.
Fig. 7. Diode Measurement
Capacitance Measurement
A capacitor is a device that stores energy. To test a capacitor, first remove power from the
device. Remember that a capacitor stores energy so the next step is to discharge the device.
Never test without verifying that the energy has been discharged from the capacitor.

19
Fig. 8. Capacitance Measurement
Frequency Measurement
Frequency is measured in Hertz. This is the number of cycles per second of an Alternating
waveform to complete one cycle or transition from 0 to max amplitude positive back to 0 to
max amplitude negative then back to 0.
Testing the transistor:

Step 1: (Base to Emitter)
Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the BASE (B) of the transistor. Hook the
negative meter lead to the EMITTER (E) of the transistor. For an good NPN transistor, the
meter should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V. If you are testing PNP transistor,
you should see “OL” (Over Limit).
Step 2: (Base to Collector)
Keep the postitive lead on the BASE (B) and place the negative lead to the COLLECTOR
(C).For an good NPN transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and
0.9V. If you are testing PNP transistor, you should see “OL” (Over Limit).
Step 3: (Emitter to Base)
Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the EMITTER (E) of the transistor. Hook the
negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the transistor. For an good NPN transistor, you
should see “OL” (Over Limit).If you are testing PNP transistor, the meter should show a
voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V.
Step 4: (Collector to Base)
Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the COLLECTOR (C) of the transistor. Hook
the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the transistor.For an good NPN transistor, you
should see “OL” (Over Limit).If you are testing PNP transistor, the meter should show a
voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V.
Step 5: (Collector to Emitter)

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Hook the positive meter lead to the COLLECTOR (C) and the negative meter lead to
the EMITTER (E) - A good NPN or PNP transistor will read ”OL” /Over Limit on the meter.
Swap the leads (Positive to Emitter and Negative to Collector) – Once again, a good NPN or
PNP transistor should read “OL”.
hfe measurement:
A transistor's specifications measure in units called hfe or beta. This is the ratio of the
currents flowing to the transistor's collector and to its base, with typical values being between
20 and 1,000. You can measure only loose transistors this way, not those wired in a circuit.
1. Turn the multimeter on. Set it to read hfe by turning the function selector knob.
2. Find the pin arrangement on the data sheet of the transistor you want to test. Insert the
base, collector and emitter pins in the corresponding NPN transistor socket on the
multimeter. If you don't have a data sheet, rearrange the pins in the socket until you find
the right combination. When you have the right combination, you should see a positive
HFE reading on the multimeter display.
3. Read the measured HFE on the multimeter display. Try different transistors and compare
the results. Two transistors of the same kind may have different HFE measurements.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
1. Resistors (Fixed Value):

Sr. No BY Color Code DMM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2. Variable Resistor :
Min Value : Max Value :
3. Frequency:
Sr. No Frequency by Generator Frequency On DMM

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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4. Voltage Measurement:
Sr. No Supply Voltage Voltage on DMM

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5. Current Measurement:
6. Diode:
Sr. No Parameter Diode 1 Diode 2

1. No.
2. Type
3. Cut In
7. Transistors :
Sr. No Parameter Transistor 1 Transistor 2

1. Type
2. Package
3. Terminal
Identification
4. hfe
Conclusion: Thus we have studied DMM.From this experiment we understand how to

use DMM.

22
EXPERIMENT NO: 03
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Simulate half wave and full wave rectifier circuits using
diode and observe input and output waveforms.

23
Aim: Simulate half wave and full wave rectifier circuits using diode and observe input and
output waveforms.
Software: Multisim software
Theory:
A rectifier is an electronic device that converts AC voltage into DC voltage. In other words, it
converts alternating current to direct current. A rectifier is used in almost all electronic
devices. Mostly it is used to convert the mains voltage into DC voltage in the power supply
section. By using DC voltage supply electronic devices work. According to the period of
conduction, rectifiers are classified into two categories: Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave
Rectifier
Working of the Half Wave Rectifier:-

In a half-wave rectifier circuit, the load resistance is connected in series with the PN junction
diode. Alternating current is the input of the half-wave rectifier. A step-down transformer
takes an input voltage and the resulting output of the transformer is given to the load resistor
and to the diode.
During the positive half cycle, the diode is under forwarding bias condition and it conducts
current to RL (Load resistance). A voltage is developed across the load, which is the same as
the input AC signal of the positive half cycle. Alternatively, during the negative half cycle,
the diode is under reverse bias condition and there is no current flow through the diode. Only
the AC input voltage appears across the load and it is the net result which is possible during
the positive half cycle.
Working of the Full Wave Rectifier:-

The center tapped full wave rectifier employs a transformer with the secondary winding AB
tapped at the center point C. It converts the AC input voltage into DC voltage. The two
diodes D1 and D2 are connected in the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram below.
When AC supply is switched ON the alternating voltage, Vin appears across the terminals
AB of the secondary winding of the transformer. During the positive half cycle of the
secondary voltage, end A becomes positive, and end B becomes negative. Thus, the diode D1
becomes forward biased, and diode D2 becomes reverse biased. When the Diode D1 is

24
conducting, the current (i) flows through the diode D1, through load resistor R 1 to the ground.
During the negative half-cycle, the end B becomes positive, and end A becomes negative.
This makes the diode D2 forward biased, and diode D1 reverse biased. When the diode D2
conducts, diode D1 does not conduct. The current (i) flows through the diode D2, through
load resistor R1 to the ground. The current flowing through the load resistor R 1 is in the same
direction during both the positive as well as the negative half cycle of the input. Hence, the
DC output voltage (Vout = i × R1) is obtained across the load resistor.
Circuit Diagram:
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit:-
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit:-
Procedure:
1. Draw the schematics of half wave rectifier circuit and full wave rectifier circuit in
Multisim.
2. Observe the output on CRO and measure the frequency and peak amplitude of the

25
output signal.
3. Calculate average value of the output voltage for both the rectifier circuits.
4. Use below formulae’s to calculate average value of the output voltage.
For Half Wave Rectifier Circuit,
For Half Wave Rectifier Circuit,
Result Table:
Sr. Measured Parameters For Half Wave For Full Wave
No Rectifier Rectifier
1 Vin(Peak) 3.9V 330V
2 Vout(Peak) 0.9V 90V
3 Vavg 1.2402V 210.08V
Simulation Result Screenshot:

HWR-HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

26
FWR-FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
Conclusion: Thus we obtained and observed the waveforms for half wave and full wave
rectifier on CRO.From this we understand the concept of half wave and Full
wave'rectifier

27
EXPERIMENT NO: 04
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Simulate LC/RC oscillator using BJT.

28
Aim: Simulate Colpitt oscillator (LC oscillator) using BJT

.
Theory: Colpitt is one type of sinusoidal LC oscillator which has a lot of applications. The
Colpitt oscillator can be realized using valves, transistors, BJT or op-amp. It is much similar
to the Hartley oscillator except tank circuit. In Colpitt oscillator the tank circuit consists of
two capacitors in series and an inductor connected in parallel to the serial combination. The
frequency of the oscillations is determined by the value of the capacitors and inductor in the
tank circuit.
Colpitt oscillator is generally used in RF applications and the typical operating range is 20
KHz to 300 MHz. In Colpitt oscillator, the capacitive voltage divider setup in the tank circuit
works as the feedback source and this arrangement gives better frequency stability when
compared to the Hartley oscillator which uses an inductive voltage divider setup for
feedback.
Circuit Diagram:
Operation: Using BJT voltage divider biasing CE amplifier, the oscillator circuit is designed.
The output of amplifier is fed back to the input through tank circuit.Capacitors C1, C2 and
inductor L1 forms the tank circuit. Feedback to the base of BJT is taken from the junction of
Capacitor C2 and inductor L1 in the tank circuit. When power supply is switched ON,

29
capacitors C1 and C2 starts charging. When they are fully charged they starts discharging
through the inductor L1. When the capacitors are fully discharged, the electrostatic energy
stored in the capacitors gets transferred to the inductor as magnetic flux. The inductor starts
discharging and capacitors gets charged again. This transfer of energy back and forth between
capacitors and inductor is the basis of oscillation. Voltage across C2 is phase opposite to that
of the voltage across the C1 and it is the voltage across C2 that is fed back to the transistor.
The energy lost in the tank circuit is compensated by the transistor and the oscillations are
sustained. The tank circuit produces 180° phase shift and the transistor itself produces
another 180° phase shift. That means the input and output are in phase and it is a necessary
condition of positive feedback for maintaining sustained oscillations. The frequency of
oscillations of the Colpitt oscillator can be determined using the equation below.
Where L is the inductance of the inductor in the tank circuit and C is the effective capacitance
of the capacitors in the tank circuit. If C1 and C2 are the individual capacitance, then the
effective capacitance of the serial combination C= (C1C2)/(C1+C2). By using ganged
variable capacitors in place of C1 and C2, the Colpitt oscillator can be made variable.
Advantages of Colpitt oscillator: Main advantage of Colpitt oscillator over Hartley

oscillator is the improved performance in the high frequency region. This is because the
capacitors provide a low reactance path for the high frequency signals and thus the output
signals in the high frequency domain will be more sinusoidal. Due to the excellent
performance in the high frequency region, the Colpitt oscillator can be even used in
microwave applications.

30
Circuit Diagram Screenshot:
Procedure:
5. Draw the schematic of Colpitt oscillator in Multisim.

6. Observe the output on CRO or run the transient analysis and measure the frequency
and peak amplitude of the output signal.
7. Compare practical and theoretical values.
Results:
Simulation Result Screenshot:

31
1) Frequency (Theoretical) = 10.6584 KHZ
2) Frequency (Practical) =9.77775 KHZ
Conclusion: Thus we have studied to Simulate LC/RC oscillator using BJT

32
EXPERIMENT NO: 05
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Simulate Single Stage MOSFET Common Source

amplifier circuit with bypass capacitor.

33
Aim: Simulate AC, transient and DC response of MOSFET single stage CS amplifier.
Theory: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor, or MOSFET for short, is an
excellent choice for small signal linear amplifiers as their input impedance is extremely high
making them easy to bias. But for a MOSFET to produce linear amplification, it has to
operate in its saturation region, unlike the Bipolar Junction Transistor. But just like the BJT,
it too needs to be biased around a centrally fixed Q-point.
Basic Common-Source MOSFET Amplifier:
Consider the basic MOSFET amplifier circuit shown below. If we apply a small time-varying
signal to the input, then under the right circumstances the MOSFET circuit can act as a linear
amplifier providing the transistors Q-point is somewhere near the center of the saturation
region, and the input signal is small enough for the output to remain linear.

34
Fig. 1. Circuit Diagram
This simple enhancement-mode common source MOSFET amplifier configuration uses a

single supply at the drain and generates the required gate voltage, VG using a resistor divider.
We remember that for a MOSFET, no current flows into the gate terminal and from this we
can make the following basic assumptions about the MOSFET amplifiers DC operating
conditions.
and the gate-to-source voltage, VGS is given as:
For proper operation of the MOSFET, this gate-source voltage must be greater than the
threshold voltage of the MOSFET, that is VGS > VTH. Since IS = ID, the gate voltage, VG is
therefore equal too:

35
To set the MOSFET amplifier gate voltage to this value we select the values of the
resistors, R1 and R2 within the voltage divider network to the correct values. As we know
from above, “no current” flows into the gate terminal of a MOSFET so the formula for
voltage division is given as:
Graphical representations of frequency response curves are called Bode Plots and as such
Bode plots are generally said to be a semi-logarithmic graphs because one scale (x-axis) is
logarithmic and the other (y-axis) is linear (log-lin plot) as shown.

36
Fig.2: Magnitude response of (a) RC-coupled amplifier (b) Transformer-coupled amplifier and
(c) Direct-coupled amplifier
Frequency Response Curve
Then we can see that the frequency response of any given circuit is the variation in its
behaviour with changes in the input signal frequency as it shows the band of frequencies over
which the output (and the gain) remains fairly constant. The range of frequencies either big or
small between ƒL and ƒH is called the circuit’s bandwidth. So from this we are able to
determine at a glance the voltage gain (in dB) for any sinusoidal input within a given
frequency range.
As mentioned above, the Bode diagram is a logarithmic presentation of the frequency

response. Most modern audio amplifiers have a flat frequency response as shown above over
the whole audio range of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This range of frequencies, for an
audio amplifier is called its Bandwidth, (BW) and is primarily determined by the frequency
response of the circuit.
Frequency points ƒL and ƒH relate to the lower corner or cut-off frequency and the upper
corner or cut-off frequency points respectively were the circuits gain falls off at high and low
frequencies. These points on a frequency response curve are known commonly as the -3dB
(decibel) points. So the bandwidth is simply given as:
Bandwidh ( BW )=F H −F L
Procedure:
1. Draw the CS amplifier circuit using n-channel MOSFET (2N7000) in MultiSim.

2. Observe input and output waveform either by connecting function generator and CRO
to the circuit or by running transient analysis.

37
3. Do AC analysis and observe the frequency response (magnitude and phase response).
4. Calculate gain, input impedance and output impedance of amplifier either from
transient response or AC response.
5. Also calculate 3-dB bandwidth from magnitude response.
6. Do DC analysis to get a plot for Vin vs. Vout.
Circuit Diagram snap shot (with bypass capacitor amplifier):
Screen shot of output waveform for with bypass capacitor amplifier:

38
Screen shot of
Frequency response for with bypass capacitor amplifier:
DC Analysis of Voltage divider biasing circuit

39
Observation Table:
DC Analysis of Voltage Divider biasing circuit
Parameters DMM measured values

ID 1.053mA
VDS 6.082V
Voltage Gain Measurement:
Parameters Practical value (Without

bypass cap.)
Vi, p-p 20mV
Vo, p-p 50mV
gain Av 2.5mV
Voltage Gain Measurement:

40
Parameters Practical value (With

bypass cap.)
Vi, p-p 1160mV
Vo, p-p 20mV
gain Av 58
Frequency Response
Parameters Practical value (With
bypass cap.)
Band width 855.44 KHZ
Result Comparison Table for amplifier
Parameters Without bypass capacitor With bypass capacitor

Av 2.5 58
BW 1.67MHZ 855.44KHZ
Conclusion:
Thus we have studied Simulate Single Stage MOSFET Common Source amplifier circuit
with bypass capacitor.

41
EXPERIMENT NO: 06
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Simulate Inverting and Non Inverting amplifier using

Op-amp.
Aim: Simulate Inverting and Non Inverting amplifier using Op-amp.

42
Theory:
It is basic job of operational amplifier is to amplify the signal .Op-amp circuit is

built using different capacitors and registers. Op-amp is able to perform different
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, differentiation and integration.
It amplifies the difference between two input signal. It is also called as differential
amplifier.
Symbol of Op-amp
Circuit of Inverting amplifier:-

In an inverting amplifier circuit, the operational amplifier inverting input receives
feedback from the output of the amplifier. Assuming the op-amp is ideal and applying the
concept of virtual short at the input terminals of op-amp, the voltage at the inverting terminal
is equal to non-inverting terminal. The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is
connected to ground. As the gain of the op amp itself is very high and the output from the
amplifier is a matter of only a few volts, this means that the difference between the two input
terminals is exceedingly small and can be ignored. As the non-inverting input of the
operational amplifier is held at ground potential this means that the inverting input must be
virtually at earth potential.

43
Applying KCL at inverting node we can calculate voltage gain,

Voltage gain (A)= Vout/ Vin = – Rf/Rin
Circuit of Non-inverting amplifier:-

The non-inverting amplifier is one in which the output is in phase with respect to the input.
The feedback is applied at the inverting input. However, the input is now applied at the non-
inverting input. The output is a non-Inverted (in terms of phase) amplified version of
input. The gain of the non-inverting amplifier circuit for the operational amplifier is easy to
determine.
The voltage gain can be calculated by applying KCL at the inverting node,
Voltage gain (A) = Vout/ Vin = (1+ Rf/Rin)

44
Procedure
1. Draw the circuit of inverting and non-inverting amplifier in Multisim.
2. Find the output voltage ,Vout and the input voltage Vin on CRO for both the
circuits .
3. Calculate the practical and theoretical gain:
Practical gain using formula Vout/Vin
Theoretical gain use the formula given above in theory
Observation Table:
For Inverting Amplifier:
Vin Vout Practical gain Theoretical gain
Vout/Vin – Rf/Rin
2V 4V 2 2
For Non inverting Amplifier:

Vin Vout Practical gain Theoretical gain
(1+ Rf/Rin)
2V 6V 3 3
Conclusion :
Thus we have studied to simulate Inverting and Non Inverting amplifier using
Op-amp.

45
Screen Shot of inverting amplifier Circuit:
Screen shot of inverting amplifier output :

46
Screen Shot of Non -inverting amplifier Circuit:
Screen shot of Non inverting amplifier output:

47

48

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Lab Manual –Basic electronics Engineering Pattern 2020

Sr. No. Contents

Demonstration of DMM for its usage in test and measurements.

Simulate LC/RC oscillator using BJT.

Simulate Single Stage MOSFET Common Source amplifier circuit with

6 Simulate Inverting and Non Inverting amplifier using Opamp.

Name:YASH NAVIN AGARWAL

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Demonstration of CRO for its usage in test and measurements.

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Aim: Demonstration of CRO for its usage in test and measurements.

Apparatus : CRO, Function Generator , BNC connector

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

1) Exterior : A typical oscilloscope is a box with a display screen, numerous input

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

5) Types of trigger include:

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO):

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

corresponds to a given time interval.The power supply is an important component of the

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Demonstration of DMM for its usage in test and

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Aim : Study of Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Voltage and Current Measurement

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Fig. 1 Pointer scale

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Fig. 2 Front Panel of Digital Multimeter

Digital Multimeter use different techniques internally, to measure AC, DC voltage,

Setting the Function :

Setting the Range:

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Fig.3 Setting the Range and Function

Table 1. DMM Measurement functions

Understanding Count, Resolution and Accuracy

Table 2. DMM Range setting

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Display Counts & Resolution

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Table 3. DMM range and resolution

Instrument Input Jacks or Ports

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Fig. 4. Current Measurement

Fig. 5. Continuity Measurement

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Fig. 6. Resistance Measurement

Fig. 7. Diode Measurement

Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune.

Fig. 8. Capacitance Measurement

Testing the transistor:

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1. Resistors (Fixed Value):

Min Value : Max Value :

Sr. No Frequency by Generator Frequency On DMM