Groff

groff
The GNU implementation of troff

Edition 1.22.4
Autumn 2018
by Trent A. Fisher
and Werner Lemberg
This manual documents GNU troff version 1.22.4.
Copyright c 1994–2018 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this doc-
ument under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover texts
being “A GNU Manual,” and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a)
below. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
“GNU Free Documentation License.”
(a) The FSF’s Back-Cover Text is: “You have the freedom to copy
and modify this GNU manual. Buying copies from the FSF sup-
ports it in developing GNU and promoting software freedom.”
i
Table of Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 What Is groff? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 groff Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Macro Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Preprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Invoking groff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Macro Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Font Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Paper Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Invocation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6.1 grog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Tutorial for Macro Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Common Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.1 Paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.2 Sections and Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.3 Headers and Footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.4 Page Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.5 Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.6 Footnotes and Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.7 Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.8 Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.9 Paper Formats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.10 Multiple Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.11 Font and Size Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.12 Predefined Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.13 Preprocessor Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.14 Configuration and Customization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Macro Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1.1 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1.2 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
ii The GNU Troff Manual
4.1.3 Macros to set fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.1.4 Miscellaneous macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1.5 Predefined strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.1.6 Preprocessors in man pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1.7 Optional man extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Custom headers and footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Ultrix-specific man macros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Simple example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 mdoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.1 Introduction to ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3.2 General structure of an ms document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3.3 Document control registers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Margin Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Text Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Paragraph Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Footnote Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Miscellaneous Number Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.4 Cover page macros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.5 Body text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3.5.1 Paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3.5.2 Headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.5.3 Highlighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.5.4 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.5.5 Indentation values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3.5.6 Tab Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3.5.7 Displays and keeps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3.5.8 Tables, figures, equations, and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3.5.9 An example multi-page table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.5.10 Footnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.6 Page layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3.6.1 Headers and footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3.6.2 Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.6.3 Multiple columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.6.4 Creating a table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.6.5 Strings and Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.7 Differences from AT&T ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3.7.1 troff macros not appearing in groff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.7.2 groff macros not appearing in AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.8 Naming Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4 me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.6 mom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
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5 gtroff Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.1 Filling and Adjusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.2 Hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.3 Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.4 Tab Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.1.5 Implicit Line Breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.1.6 Input Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1.7 Input Encodings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.1 Default Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.3 Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.5 Embedded Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.5.1 Requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.5.1.1 Request and Macro Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.5.2 Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.5.3 Escapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.5.3.1 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.6 Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.6.1 Setting Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.6.2 Interpolating Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.6.3 Auto-increment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.6.4 Assigning Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.6.5 Built-in Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.7 Manipulating Filling and Adjusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.8 Manipulating Hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.9 Manipulating Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.10 Tabs and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.10.1 Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.10.2 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.11 Character Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.12 Troff and Nroff Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.13 Line Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.14 Line Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.15 Page Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.16 Page Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.17 Fonts and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.17.1 Changing Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.17.2 Font Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.17.3 Font Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.17.4 Using Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.17.5 Character Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.17.6 Special Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.17.7 Artificial Fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.17.8 Ligatures and Kerning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
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5.18 Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5.18.1 Changing Type Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.18.2 Fractional Type Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.19 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.20 Conditionals and Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.20.1 Operators in Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.20.2 if-else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.20.3 while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.21 Writing Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.21.1 Copy-in Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.21.2 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.22 Page Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.23 Drawing Requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.24 Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.24.1 Page Location Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.24.2 Diversion Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.24.3 Input Line Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.24.4 Blank Line Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.24.5 Leading Spaces Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.24.6 End-of-input Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.25 Diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.26 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.27 Suppressing output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.28 Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.29 I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.30 Postprocessor Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.31 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.32 gtroff Internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.33 Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.33.1 Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.34 Implementation Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6 Preprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.1 geqn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.1.1 Invoking geqn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.2 gtbl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.2.1 Invoking gtbl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.3 gpic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.3.1 Invoking gpic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.4 ggrn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.4.1 Invoking ggrn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.5 grap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.6 gchem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.6.1 Invoking gchem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.7 grefer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.7.1 Invoking grefer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
v
6.8 gsoelim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

6.8.1 Invoking gsoelim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.9 preconv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.9.1 Invoking preconv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7 Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

7.1 Special Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2 grotty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2.1 Invoking grotty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.3 grops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3.1 Invoking grops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3.2 Embedding PostScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.4 gropdf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.4.1 Invoking gropdf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.4.2 Embedding PDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.5 grodvi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.5.1 Invoking grodvi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.6 grolj4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.6.1 Invoking grolj4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.7 grolbp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.7.1 Invoking grolbp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.8 grohtml. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.8.1 Invoking grohtml. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.8.2 grohtml specific registers and strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.9 gxditview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.9.1 Invoking gxditview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8 File formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

8.1 gtroff Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.1.1 Language Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.1.1.1 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.1.1.2 Argument Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.1.1.3 Document Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.1.2 Command Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.1.2.1 Comment Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.1.2.2 Simple Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.1.2.3 Graphics Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.1.2.4 Device Control Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.1.2.5 Obsolete Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.1.3 Intermediate Output Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.1.4 Output Language Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.2 Font Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.2.1 DESC File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.2.2 Font File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
vi The GNU Troff Manual
9 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
A Copying This Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
B Request Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
C Escape Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
D Operator Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
E Register Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
F Macro Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
G String Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
H Glyph Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
I Font File Keyword Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
J Program and File Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
K Concept Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

1
1 Introduction
GNU troff (or groff) is a system for typesetting documents. troff is
very flexible and has been used extensively for some thirty years. It is well
entrenched in the Unix community.
1.1 What Is groff?

groff belongs to an older generation of document preparation systems,
which operate more like compilers than the more recent interactive
WYSIWYG1 systems. groff and its contemporary counterpart, TEX, both
work using a batch paradigm: The input (or source) files are normal
text files with embedded formatting commands. These files can then be
processed by groff to produce a typeset document on a variety of devices.
groff should not be confused with a word processor, an integrated sys-
tem of editor and text formatter. Also, many word processors follow the
WYSIWYG paradigm discussed earlier.
Although WYSIWYG systems may be easier to use, they have a number
of disadvantages compared to troff:
• They must be used on a graphics display to work on a document.
• Most of the WYSIWYG systems are either non-free or are not very
portable.
• troff is firmly entrenched in all Unix systems.
• It is difficult to have a wide range of capabilities within the confines of
a GUI/window system.
• It is more difficult to make global changes to a document.
“GUIs normally make it simple to accomplish simple actions
and impossible to accomplish complex actions.” –Doug Gwyn
(22/Jun/91 in comp.unix.wizards)
1.2 History
troff can trace its origins back to a formatting program called RUNOFF,
written by Jerry Saltzer, which ran on the CTSS (Compatible Time Shar-
ing System, a project of MIT, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
in the mid-sixties.2 The name came from the use of the phrase “run off a
document”, meaning to print it out. Bob Morris ported it to the 635 archi-
tecture and called the program roff (an abbreviation of runoff). It was
rewritten as rf for the PDP-7 (before having Unix), and at the same time
1
What You See Is What You Get
2
Jerome H. Saltzer, a grad student then, later a Professor of Electrical Engineering,
now retired. Saltzer’s PhD thesis was the first application for RUNOFF and is available
from the MIT Libraries.
2 The GNU Troff Manual
(1969), Doug McIlroy rewrote an extended and simplified version of roff in

the BCPL programming language.
In 1971, the Unix developers wanted to get a PDP-11, and to justify the
cost, proposed the development of a document formatting system for the
AT&T patents division. This first formatting program was a reimplementa-
tion of McIlroy’s roff, written by J. F. Ossanna.
When they needed a more flexible language, a new version of roff called
nroff (“Newer roff”) was written. It had a much more complicated syntax,
but provided the basis for all future versions. When they got a Graphic
Systems CAT Phototypesetter, Ossanna wrote a version of nroff that would
drive it. It was dubbed troff, for “typesetter roff”, although many people
have speculated that it actually means “Times roff” because of the use
of the Times font family in troff by default. As such, the name troff is
pronounced ‘t-roff’ rather than ‘trough’.
With troff came nroff (they were actually the same program except
for some ‘#ifdef’s), which was for producing output for line printers and
character terminals. It understood everything troff did, and ignored the
commands that were not applicable (e.g. font changes).
Since there are several things that cannot be done easily in troff, work
on several preprocessors began. These programs would transform certain
parts of a document into troff, which made a very natural use of pipes in
Unix.
The eqn preprocessor allowed mathematical formulae to be specified in
a much simpler and more intuitive manner. tbl is a preprocessor for for-
matting tables. The refer preprocessor (and the similar program, bib)
processes citations in a document according to a bibliographic database.
Unfortunately, Ossanna’s troff was written in PDP-11 assembly lan-
guage and produced output specifically for the CAT phototypesetter. He
rewrote it in C, although it was now 7000 lines of uncommented code and
still dependent on the CAT. As the CAT became less common, and was no
longer supported by the manufacturer, the need to make it support other
devices became a priority. However, before this could be done, Ossanna died
by a severe heart attack in a hospital while recovering from a previous one.
So, Brian Kernighan took on the task of rewriting troff. The newly
rewritten version produced device independent code that was very easy for
postprocessors to read and translate to the appropriate printer codes. Also,
this new version of troff (called ditroff for “device independent troff”)
had several extensions, which included drawing functions.
Due to the additional abilities of the new version of troff, several new
preprocessors appeared. The pic preprocessor provides a wide range of
drawing functions. Likewise the ideal preprocessor did the same, although
via a much different paradigm. The grap preprocessor took specifications
for graphs, but, unlike other preprocessors, produced pic code.
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
James Clark began work on a GNU implementation of ditroff in

early 1989. The first version, groff 0.3.1, was released June 1990. groff
included:
• A replacement for ditroff with many extensions.
• The soelim, pic, tbl, and eqn preprocessors.
• Postprocessors for character devices, PostScript, TEX DVI, and
X Windows. GNU troff also eliminated the need for a separate nroff
program with a postprocessor that would produce ASCII output.
• A version of the me macros and an implementation of the man macros.
Also, a front-end was included that could construct the, sometimes
painfully long, pipelines required for all the post- and preprocessors.
Development of GNU troff progressed rapidly, and saw the additions of
a replacement for refer, an implementation of the ms and mm macros, and
a program to deduce how to format a document (grog).
It was declared a stable (i.e. non-beta) package with the release of ver-
sion 1.04 around November 1991.
Beginning in 1999, groff has new maintainers (the package was an or-
phan for a few years). As a result, new features and programs like grn, a
preprocessor for gremlin images, and an output device to produce HTML
and XHTML have been added.
1.3 groff Capabilities

So what exactly is groff capable of doing? groff provides a wide range of
low-level text formatting operations. Using these, it is possible to perform a
wide range of formatting tasks, such as footnotes, table of contents, multiple
columns, etc. Here’s a list of the most important operations supported by
groff:
• text filling, adjusting, and centering
• hyphenation
• page control
• font and glyph size control
• vertical spacing (e.g. double-spacing)
• line length and indenting
• macros, strings, diversions, and traps
• number registers
• tabs, leaders, and fields
• input and output conventions and character translation
• overstrike, bracket, line drawing, and zero-width functions
• local horizontal and vertical motions and the width function
• three-part titles
• output line numbering

• conditional acceptance of input
• environment switching
• insertions from the standard input
• input/output file switching
• output and error messages
1.4 Macro Packages

Since groff provides such low-level facilities, it can be quite difficult to use
by itself. However, groff provides a macro facility to specify how certain
routine operations (e.g. starting paragraphs, printing headers and footers,
etc.) should be done. These macros can be collected together into a macro
package. There are a number of macro packages available; the most common
(and the ones described in this manual) are man, mdoc, me, ms, and mm.
1.5 Preprocessors
Although groff provides most functions needed to format a document, some
operations would be unwieldy (e.g. to draw pictures). Therefore, programs
called preprocessors were written that understand their own language and
produce the necessary groff operations. These preprocessors are able to
differentiate their own input from the rest of the document via markers.
To use a preprocessor, Unix pipes are used to feed the output from the
preprocessor into groff. Any number of preprocessors may be used on a
given document; in this case, the preprocessors are linked together into one
pipeline. However, with groff, the user does not need to construct the pipe,
but only tell groff what preprocessors to use.
groff currently has preprocessors for producing tables (tbl), typesetting
equations (eqn), drawing pictures (pic and grn), processing bibliographies
(refer), and drawing chemical structures (chem). An associated program
that is useful when dealing with preprocessors is soelim.
A free implementation of grap, a preprocessor for drawing graphs, can
be obtained as an extra package; groff can use grap also.
Unique to groff is the preconv preprocessor that enables groff to han-
dle documents in various input encodings.
There are other preprocessors in existence, but, unfortunately, no free
implementations are available. Among them is a preprocessor for drawing
mathematical pictures (ideal).
1.6 Output Devices

groff actually produces device independent code that may be fed into a
postprocessor to produce output for a particular device. Currently, groff
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
has postprocessors for PostScript devices, character terminals, X Windows

(for previewing), TEX DVI format, HP LaserJet 4 and Canon LBP printers
(which use CAPSL), HTML, XHTML, and PDF.
1.7 Credits
Large portions of this manual were taken from existing documents, most
notably, the manual pages for the groff package by James Clark, and Eric
Allman’s papers on the me macro package.
The section on the man macro package is partly based on Susan G. Klein-
mann’s groff_man manual page written for the Debian GNU/Linux system.
Larry Kollar contributed the section on the ms macro package.
7
2 Invoking groff
This section focuses on how to invoke the groff front end. This front end
takes care of the details of constructing the pipeline among the preprocessors,
gtroff and the postprocessor.
It has become a tradition that GNU programs get the prefix ‘g’ to distin-
guish it from its original counterparts provided by the host (see Section 2.2
[Environment], page 12, for more details). Thus, for example, geqn is GNU
eqn. On operating systems like GNU/Linux or the Hurd, which don’t con-
tain proprietary versions of troff, and on MS-DOS/MS-Windows, where
troff and associated programs are not available at all, this prefix is omit-
ted since GNU troff is the only used incarnation of troff. Exception:
‘groff’ is never replaced by ‘roff’.
In this document, we consequently say ‘gtroff’ when talking about the
GNU troff program. All other implementations of troff are called AT&T
troff, which is the common origin of all troff derivates (with more or less
compatible changes). Similarly, we say ‘gpic’, ‘geqn’, etc.
2.1 Options
groff normally runs the gtroff program and a postprocessor appropriate
for the selected device. The default device is ‘ps’ (but it can be changed
when groff is configured and built). It can optionally preprocess with any
of gpic, geqn, gtbl, ggrn, grap, gchem, grefer, gsoelim, or preconv.
This section only documents options to the groff front end. Many
of the arguments to groff are passed on to gtroff, therefore those
are also included. Arguments to pre- or postprocessors can be found
in Section 6.3.1 [Invoking gpic], page 189, Section 6.1.1 [Invoking geqn],
page 189, Section 6.2.1 [Invoking gtbl], page 189, Section 6.4.1 [Invoking
ggrn], page 189, Section 6.7.1 [Invoking grefer], page 189, Section 6.6.1
[Invoking gchem], page 189, Section 6.8.1 [Invoking gsoelim], page 189,
Section 6.9.1 [Invoking preconv], page 190, Section 7.2.1 [Invoking grotty],
page 191, Section 7.3.1 [Invoking grops], page 192, Section 7.4.1 [Invoking
gropdf], page 193, Section 7.8.1 [Invoking grohtml], page 196, Section 7.5.1
[Invoking grodvi], page 194, Section 7.6.1 [Invoking grolj4], page 194,
Section 7.7.1 [Invoking grolbp], page 195, and Section 7.9.1 [Invoking
gxditview], page 197.
The command-line format for groff is:
groff [ -abceghijklpstvzCEGNRSUVXZ ] [ -dcs ] [ -Darg ]
[ -ffam ] [ -Fdir ] [ -Idir ] [ -Karg ]
[ -Larg ] [ -mname ] [ -Mdir ] [ -nnum ]
[ -olist ] [ -Parg ] [ -rcn ] [ -Tdev ]
[ -wname ] [ -Wname ] [ files... ]
The command-line format for gtroff is as follows.
gtroff [ -abcivzCERU ] [ -dcs ] [ -ffam ] [ -Fdir ]

[ -mname ] [ -Mdir ] [ -nnum ] [ -olist ]
[ -rcn ] [ -Tname ] [ -wname ] [ -Wname ]
[ files... ]
Obviously, many of the options to groff are actually passed on to gtroff.
Options without an argument can be grouped behind a single -. A file-
name of - denotes the standard input. It is possible to have whitespace
between an option and its parameter.
The grog command can be used to guess the correct groff command to
format a file.
Here’s the description of the command-line options:
‘-a’ Generate an ASCII approximation of the typeset output. The
read-only register .A is then set to 1. See Section 5.6.5 [Built-in
Registers], page 77. A typical example is
groff -a -man -Tdvi troff.man | less
which shows how lines are broken for the DVI device. Note that
this option is rather useless today since graphic output devices
are available virtually everywhere.
‘-b’ Print a backtrace with each warning or error message. This
backtrace should help track down the cause of the error. The
line numbers given in the backtrace may not always be correct:
gtroff can get confused by as or am requests while counting
line numbers.
‘-c’ Suppress color output.
‘-C’ Enable compatibility mode. See Section 5.34 [Implementation
Differences], page 185, for the list of incompatibilities between
groff and AT&T troff.
‘-dcs’
‘-dname=s’
Define c or name to be a string s. c must be a one-letter name;
name can be of arbitrary length. All string assignments happen
before loading any macro file (including the start-up file).
‘-Darg’ Set default input encoding used by preconv to arg. Implies -k.
‘-e’ Preprocess with geqn.
‘-E’ Inhibit all error messages.
‘-ffam’ Use fam as the default font family. See Section 5.17.2 [Font
Families], page 111.
‘-Fdir’ Search dir for subdirectories devname (name is the name of
the device), for the DESC file, and for font files before looking
in the standard directories (see Section 2.4 [Font Directories],
Chapter 2: Invoking groff 9
page 14). This option is passed to all pre- and postprocessors

using the GROFF_FONT_PATH environment variable.
‘-g’ Preprocess with ggrn.
‘-G’ Preprocess with grap. Implies -p.
‘-h’ Print a help message.
‘-i’ Read the standard input after all the named input files have
been processed.
‘-Idir’ This option may be used to specify a directory to search for files.
It is passed to the following programs:
• gsoelim (see Section 6.8 [gsoelim], page 189, for more de-
tails); it also implies groff’s -s option.
• gtroff; it is used to search files named in the psbb and so
requests.
• grops; it is used to search files named in the \X’ps: import
and \X’ps: file escapes.
The current directory is always searched first. This option may
be specified more than once; the directories are searched in the
order specified. No directory search is performed for files speci-
fied using an absolute path.
‘-j’ Preprocess with gchem. Implies -p.
‘-k’ Preprocess with preconv. This is run before any other prepro-
cessor. Please refer to preconv’s manual page for its behaviour
if no -K (or -D) option is specified.
‘-Karg’ Set input encoding used by preconv to arg. Implies -k.
‘-l’ Send the output to a spooler for printing. The command used for
this is specified by the print command in the device description
file (see Section 8.2 [Font Files], page 212, for more info). If not
present, -l is ignored.
‘-Larg’ Pass arg to the spooler. Each argument should be passed with
a separate -L option. Note that groff does not prepend a ‘-’ to
arg before passing it to the postprocessor. If the print keyword
in the device description file is missing, -L is ignored.
‘-mname’ Read in the file name.tmac. Normally groff searches for this
in its macro directories. If it isn’t found, it tries tmac.name
(searching in the same directories).
‘-Mdir’ Search directory dir for macro files before the standard direc-
tories (see Section 2.3 [Macro Directories], page 13).
‘-nnum’ Number the first page num.
‘-N’ Don’t allow newlines with eqn delimiters. This is the same as
the -N option in geqn.
‘-olist’ Output only pages in list, which is a comma-separated list of
page ranges; ‘n’ means print page n, ‘m-n’ means print every
page between m and n, ‘-n’ means print every page up to n, ‘n-’
means print every page beginning with n. gtroff exits after
printing the last page in the list. All the ranges are inclusive on
both ends.
Within gtroff, this information can be extracted with the ‘.P’
register. See Section 5.6.5 [Built-in Registers], page 77.
If your document restarts page numbering at the beginning of
each chapter, then gtroff prints the specified page range for
each chapter.
‘-p’ Preprocess with gpic.
‘-Parg’ Pass arg to the postprocessor. Each argument should be passed
with a separate -P option. Note that groff does not prepend
‘-’ to arg before passing it to the postprocessor.
‘-rcn’
‘-rname=n’
Set number register c or name to the value n. c must be a
one-letter name; name can be of arbitrary length. n can be any
gtroff numeric expression. All register assignments happen
before loading any macro file (including the start-up file).
‘-R’ Preprocess with grefer. No mechanism is provided for passing
arguments to grefer because most grefer options have equiv-
alent commands that can be included in the file. See Section 6.7
[grefer], page 189, for more details.
Note that gtroff also accepts a -R option, which is not accessi-
ble via groff. This option prevents the loading of the troffrc
and troffrc-end files.
‘-s’ Preprocess with gsoelim.
‘-S’ Safer mode. Pass the -S option to gpic and disable the open,
opena, pso, sy, and pi requests. For security reasons, this is
enabled by default.
‘-t’ Preprocess with gtbl.
‘-Tdev’ Prepare output for device dev. The default device is ‘ps’, unless
changed when groff was configured and built. The following
are the output devices currently available:
ps For PostScript printers and previewers.
pdf For PDF viewers or printers.
dvi For TEX DVI format.

X75 For a 75 dpi X11 previewer.
X75-12 For a 75 dpi X11 previewer with a 12 pt base font in
the document.
X100 For a 100 dpi X11 previewer.
X100-12 For a 100 dpi X11 previewer with a 12 pt base font
in the document.
ascii For typewriter-like devices using the (7-bit) ASCII
character set.
latin1 For typewriter-like devices that support the Latin-1
(ISO 8859-1) character set.
utf8 For typewriter-like devices that use the Unicode
(ISO 10646) character set with UTF-8 encoding.
cp1047 For typewriter-like devices that use the EBCDIC en-
coding IBM cp1047.
lj4 For HP LaserJet4-compatible (or other PCL5-
compatible) printers.
lbp For Canon CAPSL printers (LBP-4 and LBP-8 series
laser printers).
html
xhtml To produce HTML and XHTML output, respec-
tively. Note that this driver consists of two parts,
a preprocessor (pre-grohtml) and a postprocessor
(post-grohtml).
The predefined gtroff string register .T contains the current
output device; the read-only number register .T is set to 1 if
this option is used (which is always true if groff is used to call
gtroff). See Section 5.6.5 [Built-in Registers], page 77.
The postprocessor to be used for a device is specified by the
postpro command in the device description file. (See Section 8.2
[Font Files], page 212, for more info.) This can be overridden
with the -X option.
‘-U’ Unsafe mode. This enables the open, opena, pso, sy, and pi
requests.
‘-wname’ Enable warning name. Available warnings are described in
Section 5.33 [Debugging], page 180. Multiple -w options are
allowed.
‘-Wname’ Inhibit warning name. Multiple -W options are allowed.
‘-v’ Make programs run by groff print out their version number.
‘-V’ Print the pipeline on stdout instead of executing it. If specified
more than once, print the pipeline on stderr and execute it.
‘-X’ Preview with gxditview instead of using the usual postproces-
sor. This is unlikely to produce good results except with -Tps.
Note that this is not the same as using -TX75 or -TX100 to view
a document with gxditview: The former uses the metrics of
the specified device, whereas the latter uses X-specific fonts and
metrics.
‘-z’ Suppress output from gtroff. Only error messages are printed.
‘-Z’ Do not postprocess the output of gtroff. Normally groff au-
tomatically runs the appropriate postprocessor.
2.2 Environment
There are also several environment variables (of the operating system, not
within gtroff) that can modify the behavior of groff.
GROFF_BIN_PATH
This search path, followed by PATH, is used for commands exe-
cuted by groff.
GROFF_COMMAND_PREFIX
If this is set to X, then groff runs Xtroff instead of
gtroff. This also applies to tbl, pic, eqn, grn, chem, refer,
and soelim. It does not apply to grops, grodvi, grotty,
pre-grohtml, post-grohtml, preconv, grolj4, gropdf, and
gxditview.
The default command prefix is determined during the installa-
tion process. If a non-GNU troff system is found, prefix ‘g’ is
used, none otherwise.
GROFF_ENCODING
The value of this environment value is passed to the preconv
preprocessor to select the encoding of input files. Setting this
option implies groff’s command-line option -k (that is, groff
actually always calls preconv). If set without a value, groff
calls preconv without arguments. An explicit -K command-line
option overrides the value of GROFF_ENCODING. See the manual
page of preconv for details.
GROFF_FONT_PATH
A colon-separated list of directories in which to search for the
devname directory (before the default directories are tried). See
Section 2.4 [Font Directories], page 14.
GROFF_TMAC_PATH
A colon-separated list of directories in which to search for macro
files (before the default directories are tried). See Section 2.3
[Macro Directories], page 13.
GROFF_TMPDIR
The directory in which groff creates temporary files. If this
is not set and TMPDIR is set, temporary files are created in
that directory. Otherwise temporary files are created in a
system-dependent default directory (on Unix and GNU/Linux
systems, this is usually /tmp). grops, grefer, pre-grohtml,
and post-grohtml can create temporary files in this directory.
GROFF_TYPESETTER
The default output device.
SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH
A timestamp (expressed as seconds since the Unix epoch) to use
in place of the current time when initializing time-based built-in
registers such as \n[seconds].
Note that MS-DOS and MS-Windows ports of groff use semi-colons,
rather than colons, to separate the directories in the lists described above.
2.3 Macro Directories

All macro file names must be named name.tmac or tmac.name to make
the -mname command-line option work. The mso request doesn’t have this
restriction; any file name can be used, and gtroff won’t try to append or
prepend the ‘tmac’ string.
Macro files are kept in the tmac directories, all of which constitute the
tmac path. The elements of the search path for macro files are (in that
order):
• The directories specified with gtroff’s or groff’s -M command-line
option.
• The directories given in the GROFF_TMAC_PATH environment variable.
• The current directory (only if in unsafe mode using the -U command-line
switch).
• The home directory.
• A platform-dependent directory, a site-specific (platform-independent)
directory, and the main tmac directory; the default locations are
/usr/local/lib/groff/site-tmac
/usr/local/share/groff/site-tmac
/usr/local/share/groff/1.22.3/tmac
assuming that the version of groff is 1.22.3, and the installation prefix
was /usr/local. It is possible to fine-tune those directories during the
installation process.
2.4 Font Directories

Basically, there is no restriction how font files for groff are named and how
long font names are; however, to make the font family mechanism work (see
Section 5.17.2 [Font Families], page 111), fonts within a family should start
with the family name, followed by the shape. For example, the Times family
uses ‘T’ for the family name and ‘R’, ‘B’, ‘I’, and ‘BI’ to indicate the shapes
‘roman’, ‘bold’, ‘italic’, and ‘bold italic’, respectively. Thus the final font
names are ‘TR’, ‘TB’, ‘TI’, and ‘TBI’.
All font files are kept in the font directories, which constitute the font
path. The file search functions always append the directory devname,
where name is the name of the output device. Assuming, say, DVI out-
put, and /foo/bar as a font directory, the font files for grodvi must be in
/foo/bar/devdvi.
The elements of the search path for font files are (in that order):
• The directories specified with gtroff’s or groff’s -F command-line
option. All device drivers and some preprocessors also have this option.
• The directories given in the GROFF_FONT_PATH environment variable.
• A site-specific directory and the main font directory; the default loca-
tions are
/usr/local/share/groff/site-font
/usr/local/share/groff/1.22.3/font
assuming that the version of groff is 1.22.3, and the installation prefix
was /usr/local. It is possible to fine-tune those directories during the
installation process.
2.5 Paper Size

In groff, the page size for gtroff and for output devices are handled sepa-
rately. See Section 5.15 [Page Layout], page 105, for vertical manipulation
of the page size. See Section 5.13 [Line Layout], page 101, for horizontal
changes.
A default paper size can be set in the device’s DESC file. Most output
devices also have a command-line option -p to override the default paper
size and option -l to use landscape orientation. See Section 8.2.1 [DESC
File Format], page 212, for a description of the papersize keyword, which
takes the same argument as -p.
A convenient shorthand to set a particular paper size for gtroff is
command-line option -dpaper=size. This defines string paper, which is
processed in file papersize.tmac (loaded in the start-up file troffrc by
default). Possible values for size are the same as the predefined values for
the papersize keyword (but only in lowercase) except a7–d7. An appended
‘l’ (ell) character denotes landscape orientation.
For example, use the following for PS output on A4 paper in landscape
orientation:
groff -Tps -dpaper=a4l -P-pa4 -P-l -ms foo.ms > foo.ps

Note that it is up to the particular macro package to respect default page
dimensions set in this way (most do).
2.6 Invocation Examples

This section lists several common uses of groff and the corresponding com-
mand lines.
groff file
This command processes file without a macro package or a preprocessor.
The output device is the default, ‘ps’, and the output is sent to stdout.
groff -t -mandoc -Tascii file | less
This is basically what a call to the man program does. gtroff processes the
manual page file with the mandoc macro file (which in turn either calls the
man or the mdoc macro package), using the tbl preprocessor and the ASCII
output device. Finally, the less pager displays the result.
groff -X -m me file
Preview file with gxditview, using the me macro package. Since no -T
option is specified, use the default device (‘ps’). Note that you can either
say ‘-m me’ or ‘-me’; the latter is an anachronism from the early days of
Unix.1
groff -man -rD1 -z file
Check file with the man macro package, forcing double-sided printing –
don’t produce any output.
2.6.1 grog
grog reads files, guesses which of the groff preprocessors and/or macro
packages are required for formatting them, and prints the groff command
including those options on the standard output. It generates one or more of
the options -e, -man, -me, -mm, -mom, -ms, -mdoc, -mdoc-old, -p, -R, -g,
-G, -s, and -t.
A special file name - refers to the standard input. Specifying no files
also means to read the standard input. Any specified options are included
in the printed command. No space is allowed between options and their
arguments. The only options recognized are -C (which is also passed on) to
enable compatibility mode, and -v to print the version number and exit.
For example,
grog -Tdvi paper.ms
1
The same is true for the other main macro packages that come with groff: man, mdoc,
ms, mm, and mandoc. This won’t work in general; for example, to load trace.tmac,
either ‘-mtrace’ or ‘-m trace’ must be used.
guesses the appropriate command to print paper.ms and then prints it to the
command line after adding the -Tdvi option. For direct execution, enclose
the call to grog in backquotes at the Unix shell prompt:
‘grog -Tdvi paper.ms‘ > paper.dvi
As seen in the example, it is still necessary to redirect the output to some-
thing meaningful (i.e. either a file or a pager program like less).
17
3 Tutorial for Macro Users

Most users tend to use a macro package to format their papers. This means
that the whole breadth of groff is not necessary for most people. This
chapter covers the material needed to efficiently use a macro package.
3.1 Basics
This section covers some of the basic concepts necessary to understand how
to use a macro package.1 References are made throughout to more detailed
information, if desired.
gtroff reads an input file prepared by the user and outputs a formatted
document suitable for publication or framing. The input consists of text,
or words to be printed, and embedded commands (requests and escapes),
which tell gtroff how to format the output. For more detail on this, see
Section 5.5 [Embedded Commands], page 67.
The word argument is used in this chapter to mean a word or number
that appears on the same line as a request, and which modifies the meaning
of that request. For example, the request
.sp
spaces one line, but
.sp 4
spaces four lines. The number 4 is an argument to the sp request, which
says to space four lines instead of one. Arguments are separated from the
request and from each other by spaces (no tabs). More details on this can
be found in Section 5.5.1.1 [Request and Macro Arguments], page 68.
The primary function of gtroff is to collect words from input lines, fill
output lines with those words, justify the right-hand margin by inserting
extra spaces in the line, and output the result. For example, the input:
Now is the time
for all good men
to come to the aid
of their party.
Four score and seven
years ago, etc.
is read, packed onto output lines, and justified to produce:
Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party.
Four score and seven years ago, etc.
Sometimes a new output line should be started even though the current
line is not yet full; for example, at the end of a paragraph. To do this it
is possible to cause a break, which starts a new output line. Some requests
1
This section is derived from Writing Papers with nroff using -me by Eric P. Allman.
cause a break automatically, as normally do blank input lines and input lines
beginning with a space.
Not all input lines are text to be formatted. Some input lines are requests
that describe how to format the text. Requests always have a period (‘.’)
or an apostrophe (‘’’) as the first character of the input line.
The text formatter also does more complex things, such as automatically
numbering pages, skipping over page boundaries, putting footnotes in the
correct place, and so forth.
Here are a few hints for preparing text for input to gtroff.
• First, keep the input lines short. Short input lines are easier to edit,
and gtroff packs words onto longer lines anyhow.
• In keeping with this, it is helpful to begin a new line after every comma
or phrase, since common corrections are to add or delete sentences or
phrases.
• End each sentence with two spaces – or better, start each sentence on
a new line. gtroff recognizes characters that usually end a sentence,
and inserts sentence space accordingly.
• Do not hyphenate words at the end of lines – gtroff is smart enough
to hyphenate words as needed, but is not smart enough to take hyphens
out and join a word back together. Also, words such as “mother-in-law”
should not be broken over a line, since then a space can occur where
not wanted, such as “mother- in-law”.
gtroff double-spaces output text automatically if you use the request
‘.ls 2’. Reactivate single-spaced mode by typing ‘.ls 1’.2
A number of requests allow to change the way the output looks, some-
times called the layout of the output page. Most of these requests adjust
the placing of whitespace (blank lines or spaces).
The bp request starts a new page, causing a line break.
The request ‘.sp N’ leaves N lines of blank space. N can be omitted
(meaning skip a single line) or can be of the form N i (for N inches) or N c
(for N centimeters). For example, the input:
.sp 1.5i
My thoughts on the subject
.sp
leaves one and a half inches of space, followed by the line “My thoughts on
the subject”, followed by a single blank line (more measurement units are
available, see Section 5.2 [Measurements], page 62).
Text lines can be centered by using the ce request. The line after ce
is centered (horizontally) on the page. To center more than one line, use
2
If you need finer granularity of the vertical space, use the pvs request (see Section 5.18.1
[Changing Type Sizes], page 128).
Chapter 3: Tutorial for Macro Users 19
‘.ce N’ (where N is the number of lines to center), followed by the N lines.

To center many lines without counting them, type:
.ce 1000
lines to center
.ce 0
The ‘.ce 0’ request tells groff to center zero more lines, in other words,
stop centering.
All of these requests cause a break; that is, they always start a new line.
To start a new line without performing any other action, use br.
3.2 Common Features

gtroff provides very low-level operations for formatting a document. There
are many common routine operations that are done in all documents. These
common operations are written into macros and collected into a macro pack-
age.
All macro packages provide certain common capabilities that fall into the
following categories.
3.2.1 Paragraphs
One of the most common and most used capability is starting a paragraph.
There are a number of different types of paragraphs, any of which can be
initiated with macros supplied by the macro package. Normally, paragraphs
start with a blank line and the first line indented, like the text in this manual.
There are also block style paragraphs, which omit the indentation:
Some men look at constitutions with sanctimonious
reverence, and deem them like the ark of the covenant, too
sacred to be touched.
And there are also indented paragraphs, which begin with a tag or label at
the margin and the remaining text indented.
one This is the first paragraph. Notice how the first
line of the resulting paragraph lines up with the
other lines in the paragraph.
longlabel
This paragraph had a long label. The first
character of text on the first line does not line up
with the text on second and subsequent lines,
although they line up with each other.
A variation of this is a bulleted list.
. Bulleted lists start with a bullet. It is possible
to use other glyphs instead of the bullet. In nroff
mode using the ASCII character set for output, a dot
is used instead of a real bullet.
3.2.2 Sections and Chapters

Most macro packages supply some form of section headers. The simplest
kind is simply the heading on a line by itself in bold type. Others supply
automatically numbered section heading or different heading styles at dif-
ferent levels. Some, more sophisticated, macro packages supply macros for
starting chapters and appendices.
3.2.3 Headers and Footers

Every macro package gives some way to manipulate the headers and footers
(also called titles) on each page. This is text put at the top and bottom of
each page, respectively, which contain data like the current page number,
the current chapter title, and so on. Its appearance is not affected by the
running text. Some packages allow for different ones on the even and odd
pages (for material printed in a book form).
The titles are called three-part titles, that is, there is a left-justified
part, a centered part, and a right-justified part. An automatically gener-
ated page number may be put in any of these fields with the ‘%’ character
(see Section 5.15 [Page Layout], page 105, for more details).
3.2.4 Page Layout

Most macro packages let the user specify top and bottom margins and other
details about the appearance of the printed pages.
3.2.5 Displays
Displays are sections of text to be set off from the body of the paper. Major
quotes, tables, and figures are types of displays, as are all the examples used
in this document.
Major quotes are quotes that are several lines long, and hence are set in
from the rest of the text without quote marks around them.
A list is an indented, single-spaced, unfilled display. Lists should be used
when the material to be printed should not be filled and justified like normal
text, such as columns of figures or the examples used in this paper.
A keep is a display of lines that are kept on a single page if possible. An
example for a keep might be a diagram. Keeps differ from lists in that lists
may be broken over a page boundary whereas keeps are not.
Floating keeps move relative to the text. Hence, they are good for things
that are referred to by name, such as “See figure 3”. A floating keep appears
at the bottom of the current page if it fits; otherwise, it appears at the top
of the next page. Meanwhile, the surrounding text ‘flows’ around the keep,
thus leaving no blank areas.
3.2.6 Footnotes and Annotations

There are a number of requests to save text for later printing.
Chapter 3: Tutorial for Macro Users 21
Footnotes are printed at the bottom of the current page.

Delayed text is very similar to a footnote except that it is printed when
called for explicitly. This allows a list of references to appear (for example)
at the end of each chapter, as is the convention in some disciplines.
Most macro packages that supply this functionality also supply a means
of automatically numbering either type of annotation.
3.2.7 Table of Contents

Tables of contents are a type of delayed text having a tag (usually the page
number) attached to each entry after a row of dots. The table accumulates
throughout the paper until printed, usually after the paper has ended. Many
macro packages provide the ability to have several tables of contents (e.g. a
standard table of contents, a list of tables, etc).
3.2.8 Indices
While some macro packages use the term index, none actually provide that
functionality. The facilities they call indices are actually more appropriate
for tables of contents.
To produce a real index in a document, external tools like the makeindex
program are necessary.
3.2.9 Paper Formats

Some macro packages provide stock formats for various kinds of documents.
Many of them provide a common format for the title and opening pages of
a technical paper. The mm macros in particular provide formats for letters
and memoranda.
3.2.10 Multiple Columns

Some macro packages (but not man) provide the ability to have two or more
columns on a page.
3.2.11 Font and Size Changes

The built-in font and size functions are not always intuitive, so all macro
packages provide macros to make these operations simpler.
3.2.12 Predefined Strings

Most macro packages provide various predefined strings for a variety of uses;
examples are sub- and superscripts, printable dates, quotes and various spe-
cial characters.
3.2.13 Preprocessor Support

All macro packages provide support for various preprocessors and may ex-
tend their functionality.
For example, all macro packages mark tables (which are processed with
gtbl) by placing them between TS and TE macros. The ms macro package
has an option, ‘.TS H’, that prints a caption at the top of a new page (when
the table is too long to fit on a single page).
3.2.14 Configuration and Customization

Some macro packages provide means of customizing many of the details of
how the package behaves. This ranges from setting the default type size to
changing the appearance of section headers.
23
4 Macro Packages
This chapter documents the main macro packages that come with groff.
Different main macro packages can’t be used at the same time; for exam-
ple
groff -m man foo.man -m ms bar.doc
doesn’t work. Note that option arguments are processed before non-option
arguments; the above (failing) sample is thus reordered to
groff -m man -m ms foo.man bar.doc
4.1 man
This is the most popular and probably the most important macro package
of groff. It is easy to use, and a vast majority of manual pages are based
on it.
4.1.1 Options
The command-line format for using the man macros with groff is:
groff -m man [ -rLL=length ] [ -rLT=length ] [ -rFT=dist ]
[ -rcR=1 ] [ -rC1 ] [ -rD1 ] [-rHY=flags ]
[ -rPnnn ] [ -rSxx ] [ -rXnnn ]
[ -rIN=length ] [ -rSN=length ] [ files... ]
It is possible to use ‘-man’ instead of ‘-m man’.
-rcR=1 This option (the default if a TTY output device is used) creates
a single, very long page instead of multiple pages. Use -rcR=0
to disable it.
-rC1 If more than one manual page is given on the command line,
number the pages continuously, rather than starting each at 1.
-rD1 Double-sided printing. Footers for even and odd pages are for-
matted differently.
-rFT=dist
Set the position of the footer text to dist. If positive, the distance
is measured relative to the top of the page, otherwise it is relative
to the bottom. The default is −0.5 i.
-rHY=flags
Set hyphenation flags. Possible values are 1 to hyphenate with-
out restrictions, 2 to not hyphenate the last word on a page, 4 to
not hyphenate the last two characters of a word, and 8 to not
hyphenate the first two characters of a word. These values are
additive; the default is 8.
-rIN=length
Set the body text indentation to length. If not specified, the
indentation defaults to 7 n (7 characters) in nroff mode and 7.2 n
otherwise. For nroff, this value should always be an integer

multiple of unit ‘n’ to get consistent indentation.
-rLL=length
Set line length to length. If not specified, the line length is set
to respect any value set by a prior ‘ll’ request (which must be
in effect when the ‘TH’ macro is invoked), if this differs from the
built-in default for the formatter; otherwise it defaults to 78 n
in nroff mode (this is 78 characters per line) and 6.5 i in troff
mode.1
-rLT=length
Set title length to length. If not specified, the title length de-
faults to the line length.
-rPnnn Page numbering starts with nnn rather than with 1.
-rSxx Use xx (which can be 10, 11, or 12 pt) as the base document
font size instead of the default value of 10 pt.
-rSN=length
Set the indentation for sub-subheadings to length. If not speci-
fied, the indentation defaults to 3 n.
-rXnnn After page nnn, number pages as nnna, nnnb, nnnc, etc. For
example, the option -rX2 produces the following page numbers:
1, 2, 2a, 2b, 2c, etc.
4.1.2 Usage
This section describes the available macros for manual pages. For further
customization, put additional macros and requests into the file man.local,
which is loaded immediately after the man package.
.TH title section [extra1 [extra2 [extra3]]] [Macro]
Set the title of the man page to title and the section to section, which
must have a value between 1 and 8. The value of section may also have
a string appended, e.g. ‘.pm’, to indicate a specific subsection of the man
pages.
Both title and section are positioned at the left and right in the header
line (with section in parentheses immediately appended to title. extra1
is positioned in the middle of the footer line. extra2 is positioned at the
1
Note that the use of a ‘.ll length’ request to initialize the line length, prior to use
of the ‘TH’ macro, is supported for backward compatibility with some versions of the
man program. Always use the -rLL=length option, or an equivalent ‘.nr LL length’
request, in preference to such a ‘.ll length’ request. In particular, note that in nroff
mode, the request ‘.ll 65n’, (with any length expression that evaluates equal to 65 n,
i.e., the formatter’s default line length in nroff mode), does not set the line length to
65 n (it is adjusted to the man macro package’s default setting of 78 n), whereas the use
of the -rLL=65n option, or the ‘.nr LL 65n’ request does establish a line length of 65 n.
Chapter 4: Macro Packages 25
left in the footer line (or at the left on even pages and at the right on odd
pages if double-sided printing is active). extra3 is centered in the header
line.
For HTML and XHTML output, headers and footers are completely sup-
pressed.
Additionally, this macro starts a new page; the new line number is 1 again
(except if the -rC1 option is given on the command line) – this feature
is intended only for formatting multiple man pages; a single man page
should contain exactly one TH macro at the beginning of the file.
.SH [heading] [Macro]
Set up an unnumbered section heading sticking out to the left. Prints out
all the text following SH up to the end of the line (or the text in the next
line if there is no argument to SH) in bold face (or the font specified by
the string HF), one size larger than the base document size. Additionally,
the left margin and the indentation for the following text is reset to its
default value.
.SS [heading] [Macro]
Set up an unnumbered (sub)section heading. Prints out all the text fol-
lowing SS up to the end of the line (or the text in the next line if there is
no argument to SS) in bold face (or the font specified by the string HF),
at the same size as the base document size. Additionally, the left margin
and the indentation for the following text is reset to its default value.
.TP [nnn] [Macro]
Set up an indented paragraph with label. The indentation is set to nnn
if that argument is supplied (the default unit is ‘n’ if omitted), otherwise
it is set to the previous indentation value specified with TP, IP, or HP (or
to the default value if none of them have been used yet).
The first line of text following this macro is interpreted as a string to be
printed flush-left, as it is appropriate for a label. It is not interpreted as
part of a paragraph, so there is no attempt to fill the first line with text
from the following input lines. Nevertheless, if the label is not as wide
as the indentation the paragraph starts at the same line (but indented),
continuing on the following lines. If the label is wider than the indentation
the descriptive part of the paragraph begins on the line following the label,
entirely indented. Note that neither font shape nor font size of the label
is set to a default value; on the other hand, the rest of the text has default
font settings.
.LP [Macro]
.PP [Macro]
.P [Macro]
These macros are mutual aliases. Any of them causes a line break at the
current position, followed by a vertical space downwards by the amount
specified by the PD macro. The font size and shape are reset to the
default value (10 pt roman if no -rS option is given on the command

line). Finally, the current left margin and the indentation is restored.
.IP [designator [nnn]] [Macro]

Set up an indented paragraph, using designator as a tag to mark its
beginning. The indentation is set to nnn if that argument is supplied
(default unit is ‘n’), otherwise it is set to the previous indentation value
specified with TP, IP, or HP (or the default value if none of them have been
used yet). Font size and face of the paragraph (but not the designator)
are reset to their default values.
To start an indented paragraph with a particular indentation but without
a designator, use ‘""’ (two double quotes) as the first argument of IP.
For example, to start a paragraph with bullets as the designator and 4 en
indentation, write
.IP \(bu 4
.HP [nnn] [Macro]

Set up a paragraph with hanging left indentation. The indentation is set
to nnn if that argument is supplied (default unit is ‘n’), otherwise it is
set to the previous indentation value specified with TP, IP, or HP (or the
default value if non of them have been used yet). Font size and face are
reset to their default values.
.RS [nnn] [Macro]

Move the left margin to the right by the value nnn if specified (default
unit is ‘n’); otherwise it is set to the previous indentation value specified
with TP, IP, or HP (or to the default value if none of them have been used
yet). The indentation value is then set to the default.
Calls to the RS macro can be nested.
.RE [nnn] [Macro]

Move the left margin back to level nnn, restoring the previous left margin.
If no argument is given, it moves one level back. The first level (i.e., no
call to RS yet) has number 1, and each call to RS increases the level by 1.
To summarize, the following macros cause a line break with the insertion
of vertical space (which amount can be changed with the PD macro): SH, SS,
TP, LP (PP, P), IP, and HP.
The macros RS and RE also cause a break but do not insert vertical space.
Finally, the macros SH, SS, LP (PP, P), and RS reset the indentation to its
default value.
4.1.3 Macros to set fonts

The standard font is roman; the default text size is 10 points. If command-
line option -rS=n is given, use n points as the default text size.
.SM [text] [Macro]

Set the text on the same line or the text on the next line in a font that
is one point size smaller than the default font.
.SB [text] [Macro]

Set the text on the same line or the text on the next line in bold face
font, one point size smaller than the default font.
.BI text [Macro]

Set its arguments alternately in bold face and italic, without a space
between the arguments. Thus,
.BI this "word and" that
produces “thisword andthat” with “this” and “that” in bold face, and
“word and” in italics.
.IB text [Macro]

Set its arguments alternately in italic and bold face, without a space
between the arguments.
.RI text [Macro]

Set its arguments alternately in roman and italic, without a space between
the arguments.
.IR text [Macro]

Set its arguments alternately in italic and roman, without a space between
the arguments.
.BR text [Macro]

Set its arguments alternately in bold face and roman, without a space
.RB text [Macro]

Set its arguments alternately in roman and bold face, without a space
.B [text] [Macro]
Set text in bold face. If no text is present on the line where the macro is
called, then the text of the next line appears in bold face.
.I [text] [Macro]
Set text in italic. If no text is present on the line where the macro is
called, then the text of the next line appears in italic.
4.1.4 Miscellaneous macros

The default indentation is 7.2 n in troff mode and 7 n in nroff mode except
for grohtml, which ignores indentation.
.DT [Macro]
Set tabs every 0.5 inches. Since this macro is always executed during a
call to the TH macro, it makes sense to call it only if the tab positions
have been changed.
.PD [nnn] [Macro]
Adjust the empty space before a new paragraph (or section). The op-
tional argument gives the amount of space (default unit is ‘v’); without
parameter, the value is reset to its default value (1 line in nroff mode,
0.4 v otherwise).
This affects the macros SH, SS, TP, LP (as well as PP and P), IP, and HP.
The following two macros are included for BSD compatibility.
.AT [system [release]] [Macro]
Alter the footer for use with AT&T manpages. This command exists only
for compatibility; don’t use it. The first argument system can be:
3 7th Edition (the default)
4 System III
5 System V
An optional second argument release to AT specifies the release number
(such as “System V Release 3”).
.UC [version] [Macro]
Alters the footer for use with BSD manpages. This command exists only
for compatibility; don’t use it. The argument can be:
3 3rd Berkeley Distribution (the default)
4 4th Berkeley Distribution
5 4.2 Berkeley Distribution
4.1.5 Predefined strings

The following strings are defined:
\*[S] [String]
Switch back to the default font size.
\*[HF] [String]
The typeface used for headings. The default is ‘B’.
\*[R] [String]
The ‘registered’ sign.
\*[Tm] [String]
The ‘trademark’ sign.
\*[lq] [String]
\*[rq] [String]
Left and right quote. This is equal to \(lq and \(rq, respectively.
4.1.6 Preprocessors in man pages

If a preprocessor like gtbl or geqn is needed, it has become common usage
to make the first line of the man page look like this:
’\" word
Note the single space character after the double quote. word consists of
letters for the needed preprocessors: ‘e’ for geqn, ‘r’ for grefer, ‘t’ for
gtbl. Modern implementations of the man program read this first line and
automatically call the right preprocessor(s).
4.1.7 Optional man extensions

Use the file man.local for local extensions to the man macros or for style
changes.
Custom headers and footers

In groff versions 1.18.2 and later, you can specify custom headers and footers
by redefining the following macros in man.local.
.PT [Macro]
Control the content of the headers. Normally, the header prints the com-
mand name and section number on either side, and the optional fifth
argument to TH in the center.
.BT [Macro]
Control the content of the footers. Normally, the footer prints the page
number and the third and fourth arguments to TH.
Use the FT number register to specify the footer position. The default is
−0.5 i.
Ultrix-specific man macros

The groff source distribution includes a file named man.ultrix, contain-
ing macros compatible with the Ultrix variant of man. Copy this file into
man.local (or use the mso request to load it) to enable the following macros.
.CT key [Macro]
Print ‘<CTRL/key>’.
.CW [Macro]
Print subsequent text using the constant width (Courier) typeface.
.Ds [Macro]
Begin a non-filled display.
.De [Macro]
End a non-filled display started with Ds.
.EX [indent] [Macro]
Begin a non-filled display using the constant width (Courier) typeface.
Use the optional indent argument to indent the display.
.EE [Macro]
End a non-filled display started with EX.
.G [text] [Macro]
Set text in Helvetica. If no text is present on the line where the macro is
called, then the text of the next line appears in Helvetica.
.GL [text] [Macro]
Set text in Helvetica Oblique. If no text is present on the line where
the macro is called, then the text of the next line appears in Helvetica
Oblique.
.HB [text] [Macro]
Set text in Helvetica Bold. If no text is present on the line where the
macro is called, then all text up to the next HB appears in Helvetica Bold.
.TB [text] [Macro]
Identical to HB.
.MS title sect [punct] [Macro]
Set a manpage reference in Ultrix format. The title is in Courier instead
of italic. Optional punctuation follows the section number without an
intervening space.
.NT [C] [title] [Macro]
Begin a note. Print the optional title, or the word “Note”, centered on
the page. Text following the macro makes up the body of the note, and
is indented on both sides. If the first argument is C, the body of the
note is printed centered (the second argument replaces the word “Note”
if specified).
.NE [Macro]
End a note begun with NT.
.PN path [punct] [Macro]
Set the path name in constant width (Courier), followed by optional punc-
tuation.
.Pn [punct] path [punct] [Macro]
If called with two arguments, identical to PN. If called with three argu-
ments, set the second argument in constant width (Courier), bracketed
by the first and third arguments in the current font.
.R [Macro]
Switch to roman font and turn off any underlining in effect.
.RN [Macro]
Print the string ‘<RETURN>’.
.VS [4] [Macro]
Start printing a change bar in the margin if the number 4 is specified.
Otherwise, this macro does nothing.
.VE [Macro]
End printing the change bar begun by VS.
Simple example
The following example man.local file alters the SH macro to add some extra
vertical space before printing the heading. Headings are printed in Helvetica
Bold.
.\" Make the heading fonts Helvetica
.ds HF HB
.
.\" Put more whitespace in front of headings.
.rn SH SH-orig
.de SH
. if t .sp (u;\\n[PD]*2)
. SH-orig \\$*
..
4.2 mdoc
See the groff mdoc(7) man page (type man groff_mdoc at the command
line).
4.3 ms
The -ms macros are suitable for reports, letters, books, user manuals, and
so forth. The package provides macros for cover pages, section headings,
paragraphs, lists, footnotes, pagination, and a table of contents.
4.3.1 Introduction to ms
The original -ms macros were included with AT&T troff as well as the
man macros. While the man package is intended for brief documents that
can be read on-line as well as printed, the ms macros are suitable for longer
documents that are meant to be printed rather than read on-line.
The ms macro package included with groff is a complete, bottom-up
re-implementation. Several macros (specific to AT&T or Berkeley) are not
included, while several new commands are. See Section 4.3.7 [Differences
from AT&T ms], page 55, for more information.
4.3.2 General structure of an ms document

The ms macro package expects a certain amount of structure, but not as
much as packages such as man or mdoc.
The simplest documents can begin with a paragraph macro (such as LP
or PP), and consist of text separated by paragraph macros or even blank
lines. Longer documents have a structure as follows:
Document type
If you invoke the RP (report) macro on the first line of the docu-
ment, groff prints the cover page information on its own page;
otherwise it prints the information on the first page with your
document text immediately following. Other document formats
found in AT&T troff are specific to AT&T or Berkeley, and are
not supported in groff.
Format and layout
By setting number registers, you can change your document’s
type (font and size), margins, spacing, headers and footers, and
footnotes. See Section 4.3.3 [ms Document Control Registers],
page 33, for more details.
Cover page
A cover page consists of a title, the author’s name and institu-
tion, an abstract, and the date.2 See Section 4.3.4 [ms Cover
Page Macros], page 36, for more details.
Body Following the cover page is your document. You can use the ms
macros to write reports, letters, books, and so forth. The pack-
age is designed for structured documents, consisting of para-
graphs interspersed with headings and augmented by lists, foot-
notes, tables, and other common constructs. See Section 4.3.5
[ms Body Text], page 38, for more details.
Table of contents
Longer documents usually include a table of contents, which you
can invoke by placing the TC macro at the end of your document.
The ms macros have minimal indexing facilities, consisting of the
IX macro, which prints an entry on standard error. Printing the
table of contents at the end is necessary since groff is a single-
pass text formatter, thus it cannot determine the page number of
each section until that section has actually been set and printed.
Since ms output is intended for hardcopy, you can manually re-
locate the pages containing the table of contents between the
cover page and the body text after printing.
2
Actually, only the title is required.
4.3.3 Document control registers

The following is a list of document control number registers. For the sake of
consistency, set registers related to margins at the beginning of your docu-
ment, or just after the RP macro. You can set other registers later in your
document, but you should keep them together at the beginning to make
them easy to find and edit as necessary.
Margin Settings
\n[PO] [Register]
Defines the page offset (i.e., the left margin). There is no explicit right
margin setting; the combination of the PO and LL registers implicitly
define the right margin width.
Effective: next page.
Default value: 1 i.
\n[LL] [Register]
Defines the line length (i.e., the width of the body text).
Effective: next paragraph.
Default: 6 i.
\n[LT] [Register]
Defines the title length (i.e., the header and footer width). This is usually
the same as LL, but not necessarily.
Default: 6 i.
\n[HM] [Register]
Defines the header margin height at the top of the page.
Default: 1 i.
\n[FM] [Register]
Defines the footer margin height at the bottom of the page.
Default: 1 i.
Text Settings
\n[PS] [Register]
Defines the point size of the body text. If the value is larger than or equal
to 1000, divide it by 1000 to get a fractional point size. For example, ‘.nr
PS 10250’ sets the document’s point size to 10.25 p.
Default: 10 p.
\n[VS] [Register]
Defines the space between lines (line height plus leading). If the value is
larger than or equal to 1000, divide it by 1000 to get a fractional point
size. Due to backwards compatibility, VS must be smaller than 40000
(this is 40.0 p).
Default: 12 p.
\n[PSINCR] [Register]
Defines an increment in point size, which is applied to section headings at
nesting levels below the value specified in GROWPS. The value of PSINCR
should be specified in points, with the p scaling factor, and may include
a fractional component; for example, ‘.nr PSINCR 1.5p’ sets a point size
increment of 1.5 p.
Effective: next section heading.
Default: 1 p.
\n[GROWPS] [Register]
Defines the heading level below which the point size increment set by
PSINCR becomes effective. Section headings at and above the level spec-
ified by GROWPS are printed at the point size set by PS; for each level
below the value of GROWPS, the point size is increased in steps equal to
the value of PSINCR. Setting GROWPS to any value less than 2 disables the
incremental heading size feature.
Effective: next section heading.
Default: 0.
\n[HY] [Register]
Defines the hyphenation level. HY sets safely the value of the low-level hy
register. Setting the value of HY to 0 is equivalent to using the nh request.
Default: 6.
\n[FAM] [Register]
Defines the font family used to typeset the document.
Default: as defined in the output device.
Paragraph Settings
\n[PI] [Register]
Defines the initial indentation of a (PP macro) paragraph.
Default: 5 n.
\n[PD] [Register]
Defines the space between paragraphs.
Default: 0.3 v.
\n[QI] [Register]
Defines the indentation on both sides of a quoted (QP, QS, and QE macros)
paragraph.
Default: 5 n.
\n[PORPHANS] [Register]
Defines the minimum number of initial lines of any paragraph that should
be kept together, to avoid orphan lines at the bottom of a page. If a new
paragraph is started close to the bottom of a page, and there is insufficient
space to accommodate PORPHANS lines before an automatic page break,
then the page break is forced, before the start of the paragraph.
Default: 1.
\n[HORPHANS] [Register]
Defines the minimum number of lines of the following paragraph that
should be kept together with any section heading introduced by the NH or
SH macros. If a section heading is placed close to the bottom of a page,
and there is insufficient space to accommodate both the heading and at
least HORPHANS lines of the following paragraph, before an automatic page
break, then the page break is forced before the heading.
Default: 1.
Footnote Settings
\n[FL] [Register]
Defines the length of a footnote.
Effective: next footnote.
Default: \n[LL] ∗ 5/6.
\n[FI] [Register]
Defines the footnote indentation.
Default: 2 n.
\n[FF] [Register]
The footnote format:
0 Print the footnote number as a superscript; indent the foot-
note (default).
1 Print the number followed by a period (like 1.) and indent

the footnote.
2 Like 1, without an indentation.
3 Like 1, but print the footnote number as a hanging paragraph.
Default: 0.
\n[FPS] [Register]
Defines the footnote point size. If the value is larger than or equal to
1000, divide it by 1000 to get a fractional point size.
Default: \n[PS] − 2.
\n[FVS] [Register]
Defines the footnote vertical spacing. If the value is larger than or equal
to 1000, divide it by 1000 to get a fractional point size.
Default: \n[FPS] + 2.
\n[FPD] [Register]
Defines the footnote paragraph spacing.
Default: \n[PD]/2.
Miscellaneous Number Registers

\n[MINGW] [Register]
Defines the minimum width between columns in a multi-column docu-
ment.
Default: 2 n.
\n[DD] [Register]
Sets the vertical spacing before and after a display, a tbl table, an eqn
equation, or a pic image.
Default: 0.5 v.
4.3.4 Cover page macros

Use the following macros to create a cover page for your document in the
order shown.
.RP [no] [Macro]

Specifies the report format for your document. The report format creates
a separate cover page. The default action (no RP macro) is to print a
subset of the cover page on page 1 of your document.
If you use the word no as an optional argument, groff prints a title
page but does not repeat any of the title page information (title, author,
abstract, etc.) on page 1 of the document.
.P1 [Macro]
(P-one) Prints the header on page 1. The default is to suppress the
header.
.DA [. . . ] [Macro]
(optional) Prints the current date, or the arguments to the macro if any,
on the title page (if specified) and in the footers. This is the default for
nroff.
.ND [. . . ] [Macro]
(optional) Prints the current date, or the arguments to the macro if any,
on the title page (if specified) but not in the footers. This is the default
for troff.
.TL [Macro]
Specifies the document title. groff collects text following the TL macro
into the title, until reaching the author name or abstract.
.AU [Macro]
Specifies the author’s name, which appears on the line (or lines) immedi-
ately following. You can specify multiple authors as follows:
.AU
John Doe
.AI
University of West Bumblefuzz
.AU
Martha Buck
.AI
Monolithic Corporation
...
.AI [Macro]
Specifies the author’s institution. You can specify multiple institutions
in the same way that you specify multiple authors.
.AB [no] [Macro]
Begins the abstract. The default is to print the word ABSTRACT, cen-
tered and in italics, above the text of the abstract. The word no as an
optional argument suppresses this heading.
.AE [Macro]
Ends the abstract.
The following is example mark-up for a title page.

.RP
.TL
The Inevitability of Code Bloat
in Commercial and Free Software
.AU
J. Random Luser
.AI
University of West Bumblefuzz
.AB
This report examines the long-term growth
of the code bases in two large, popular software
packages; the free Emacs and the commercial
Microsoft Word.
While differences appear in the type or order
of features added, due to the different
methodologies used, the results are the same
in the end.
.PP
The free software approach is shown to be
superior in that while free software can
become as bloated as commercial offerings,
free software tends to have fewer serious
bugs and the added features are in line with
user demand.
.AE
... the rest of the paper follows ...
4.3.5 Body text

This section describes macros used to mark up the body of your document.
Examples include paragraphs, sections, and other groups.
4.3.5.1 Paragraphs
The following paragraph types are available.
.PP [Macro]
Sets a paragraph with an initial indentation.
.LP [Macro]
Sets a paragraph without an initial indentation.
.QP [Macro]
Sets a paragraph that is indented at both left and right margins by
the amount of the register QI. The effect is identical to the HTML
<BLOCKQUOTE> element. The next paragraph or heading returns mar-
gins to normal. QP inserts vertical space of amount set by register PD
before the paragraph.
.QS [Macro]
.QE [Macro]
These macros begin and end a quoted section. The QI register controls
the amount of indentation. Both QS and QE insert inter-paragraph vertical
space set by register PD. The text between QS and QE can be structured
further by use of the macros LP or PP.
.XP [Macro]
Sets a paragraph whose lines are indented, except for the first line. This
is a Berkeley extension.
The following markup uses all four paragraph macros.

.NH 2
Cases used in the study
.LP
The following software and versions were
considered for this report.
.PP
For commercial software, we chose
.B "Microsoft Word for Windows" ,
starting with version 1.0 through the
current version (Word 2000).
.PP
For free software, we chose
.B Emacs ,
from its first appearance as a standalone
editor through the current version (v20).
See [Bloggs 2002] for details.
.QP
Franklin’s Law applied to software:
software expands to outgrow both
RAM and disk space over time.
.LP
Bibliography:
.XP
Bloggs, Joseph R.,
.I "Everyone’s a Critic" ,
Underground Press, March 2002.
A definitive work that answers all questions
and criticisms about the quality and usability of
free software.

The PORPHANS register (see Section 4.3.3 [ms Document Control Regis-
ters], page 33) operates in conjunction with each of these macros, to inhibit
the printing of orphan lines at the bottom of any page.
4.3.5.2 Headings
Use headings to create a hierarchical structure for your document. The ms
macros print headings in bold, using the same font family and point size as
the body text.
The following describes the heading macros:
.NH curr-level [Macro]
.NH S level0 . . . [Macro]
Numbered heading. The argument is either a numeric argument to indi-
cate the level of the heading, or the letter S followed by numeric arguments
to set the heading level explicitly.
If you specify heading levels out of sequence, such as invoking ‘.NH 3’

after ‘.NH 1’, groff prints a warning on standard error.
\*[SN] [String]
\*[SN-DOT] [String]
\*[SN-NO-DOT] [String]
After invocation of NH, the assigned section number is made available in
the strings SN-DOT (as it appears in a printed section heading with default
formatting, followed by a terminating period), and SN-NO-DOT (with the
terminating period omitted). The string SN is also defined, as an alias for
SN-DOT; if preferred, you may redefine it as an alias for SN-NO-DOT, by
including the initialization
.als SN SN-NO-DOT
at any time before you would like the change to take effect.
\*[SN-STYLE] [String]
You may control the style used to print section numbers, within numbered
section headings, by defining an appropriate alias for the string SN-STYLE.
The default style, in which the printed section number is followed by a
terminating period, is obtained by defining the alias
.als SN-STYLE SN-DOT
If you prefer to omit the terminating period, from section numbers ap-
pearing in numbered section headings, you may define the alias
.als SN-STYLE SN-NO-DOT
Any such change in section numbering style becomes effective from the
next use of .NH, following redefinition of the alias for SN-STYLE.
.SH [match-level] [Macro]
Unnumbered subheading.
The optional match-level argument is a GNU extension. It is a number
indicating the level of the heading, in a manner analogous to the curr-
level argument to .NH. Its purpose is to match the point size, at which
the heading is printed, to the size of a numbered heading at the same
level, when the GROWPS and PSINCR heading size adjustment mechanism
is in effect. See Section 4.3.3 [ms Document Control Registers], page 33.
The HORPHANS register (see Section 4.3.3 [ms Document Control Regis-
ters], page 33) operates in conjunction with the NH and SH macros, to inhibit
the printing of orphaned section headings at the bottom of any page.
4.3.5.3 Highlighting
The ms macros provide a variety of methods to highlight or emphasize text:
.B [txt [post [pre]]] [Macro]
Sets its first argument in bold type. If you specify a second argument,
groff prints it in the previous font after the bold text, with no inter-
vening space (this allows you to set punctuation after the highlighted
text without highlighting the punctuation). Similarly, it prints the third

argument (if any) in the previous font before the first argument. For
example,
.B foo ) (
prints (foo).
If you give this macro no arguments, groff prints all text following in
bold until the next highlighting, paragraph, or heading macro.
.R [txt [post [pre]]] [Macro]
Sets its first argument in roman (or regular) type. It operates similarly
to the B macro otherwise.
.I [txt [post [pre]]] [Macro]
Sets its first argument in italic type. It operates similarly to the B macro
otherwise.
.CW [txt [post [pre]]] [Macro]
Sets its first argument in a constant width face. It operates similarly
to the B macro otherwise.
.BI [txt [post [pre]]] [Macro]
Sets its first argument in bold italic type. It operates similarly to the
B macro otherwise.
.BX [txt] [Macro]
Prints its argument and draws a box around it. If you want to box a
string that contains spaces, use a digit-width space (\0).
.UL [txt [post]] [Macro]
Prints its first argument with an underline. If you specify a second argu-
ment, groff prints it in the previous font after the underlined text, with
no intervening space.
.LG [Macro]
Prints all text following in larger type (two points larger than the current
point size) until the next font size, highlighting, paragraph, or heading
macro. You can specify this macro multiple times to enlarge the point
size as needed.
.SM [Macro]
Prints all text following in smaller type (two points smaller than the
current point size) until the next type size, highlighting, paragraph, or
heading macro. You can specify this macro multiple times to reduce the
point size as needed.
.NL [Macro]
Prints all text following in the normal point size (that is, the value of the
PS register).
\*[{] [String]
\*[}] [String]
Text enclosed with \*{ and \*} is printed as a superscript.
4.3.5.4 Lists
The IP macro handles duties for all lists.
.IP [marker [width]] [Macro]

The marker is usually a bullet glyph (\[bu]) for unordered lists, a number
(or auto-incrementing number register) for numbered lists, or a word or
phrase for indented (glossary-style) lists.
The width specifies the indentation for the body of each list item; its
default unit is ‘n’. Once specified, the indentation remains the same for
all list items in the document until specified again.
The PORPHANS register (see Section 4.3.3 [ms Document Control Regis-
ters], page 33) operates in conjunction with the IP macro, to inhibit the
printing of orphaned list markers at the bottom of any page.
The following is an example of a bulleted list.

A bulleted list:
.IP \[bu] 2
lawyers
.IP \[bu]
guns
.IP \[bu]
money
Produces:
A bulleted list:
o lawyers
o guns
o money
The following is an example of a numbered list.
.nr step 1 1
A numbered list:
.IP \n[step] 3
lawyers
.IP \n+[step]
guns
.IP \n+[step]
money
Produces:
A numbered list:
1. lawyers
2. guns
3. money
Note the use of the auto-incrementing number register in this example.
The following is an example of a glossary-style list.
A glossary-style list:
.IP lawyers 0.4i
Two or more attorneys.
.IP guns
Firearms, preferably
large-caliber.
.IP money
Gotta pay for those
lawyers and guns!
Produces:
lawyers
guns Firearms, preferably large-caliber.
money
Gotta pay for those lawyers and guns!
In the last example, the IP macro places the definition on the same line
as the term if it has enough space; otherwise, it breaks to the next line and
starts the definition below the term. This may or may not be the effect
you want, especially if some of the definitions break and some do not. The
following examples show two possible ways to force a break.
The first workaround uses the br request to force a break after printing
the term or label.

.IP lawyers 0.4i
.IP guns
.br
Firearms, preferably large-caliber.
.IP money
The second workaround uses the \p escape to force the break. Note the
space following the escape; this is important. If you omit the space, groff
prints the first word on the same line as the term or label (if it fits) then
breaks the line.

.IP lawyers 0.4i
.IP guns
\p Firearms, preferably large-caliber.
.IP money
To set nested lists, use the RS and RE macros. See Section 4.3.5.5 [Inden-
tation values in ms], page 46, for more information.
For example:

.IP \[bu] 2
Lawyers:
.RS
.IP \[bu]
Dewey,
.IP \[bu]
Cheatham,
.IP \[bu]
and Howe.
.RE
.IP \[bu]
Guns
Produces:
o Lawyers:
o Dewey,
o Cheatham,
o and Howe.
o Guns
4.3.5.5 Indentation values

In many situations, you may need to indentation a section of text while
still wrapping and filling. See Section 4.3.5.4 [Lists in ms], page 43, for an
example of nested lists.
.RS [Macro]
.RE [Macro]
These macros begin and end an indented section. The PI register controls
the amount of indentation, allowing the indented text to line up under
hanging and indented paragraphs.
See Section 4.3.5.7 [ms Displays and Keeps], page 46, for macros to in-
dentation and turn off filling.
4.3.5.6 Tab Stops

Use the ta request to define tab stops as needed. See Section 5.10 [Tabs and
Fields], page 92.
.TA [Macro]
Use this macro to reset the tab stops to the default for ms (every 5n). You
can redefine the TA macro to create a different set of default tab stops.
4.3.5.7 Displays and keeps

Use displays to show text-based examples or figures (such as code listings).
Displays turn off filling, so lines of code are displayed as-is without in-
serting br requests in between each line. Displays can be kept on a single
page, or allowed to break across pages.
.DS L [Macro]
.LD [Macro]
.DE [Macro]
Left-justified display. The ‘.DS L’ call generates a page break, if necessary,
to keep the entire display on one page. The LD macro allows the display
to break across pages. The DE macro ends the display.
.DS I [Macro]
.ID [Macro]
.DE [Macro]
Indents the display as defined by the DI register. The ‘.DS I’ call gen-
erates a page break, if necessary, to keep the entire display on one page.
The ID macro allows the display to break across pages. The DE macro
ends the display.
.DS B [Macro]
.BD [Macro]
.DE [Macro]
Sets a block-centered display: the entire display is left-justified, but in-
dented so that the longest line in the display is centered on the page. The
‘.DS B’ call generates a page break, if necessary, to keep the entire display
on one page. The BD macro allows the display to break across pages. The
DE macro ends the display.
.DS C [Macro]
.CD [Macro]
.DE [Macro]
Sets a centered display: each line in the display is centered. The ‘.DS C’
call generates a page break, if necessary, to keep the entire display on one
page. The CD macro allows the display to break across pages. The DE
macro ends the display.
.DS R [Macro]
.RD [Macro]
.DE [Macro]
Right-justifies each line in the display. The ‘.DS R’ call generates a page
break, if necessary, to keep the entire display on one page. The RD macro
allows the display to break across pages. The DE macro ends the display.
.Ds [Macro]
.De [Macro]
These two macros were formerly provided as aliases for DS and DE, re-
spectively. They have been removed, and should no longer be used. The
original implementations of DS and DE are retained, and should be used
instead. X11 documents that actually use Ds and De always load a spe-
cific macro file from the X11 distribution (macros.t) that provides proper
definitions for the two macros.
On occasion, you may want to keep other text together on a page. For
example, you may want to keep two paragraphs together, or a paragraph
that refers to a table (or list, or other item) immediately following. The ms
macros provide the KS and KE macros for this purpose.
.KS [Macro]
.KE [Macro]
The KS macro begins a block of text to be kept on a single page, and the
KE macro ends the block.
.KF [Macro]
.KE [Macro]
Specifies a floating keep; if the keep cannot fit on the current page, groff
holds the contents of the keep and allows text following the keep (in the
source file) to fill in the remainder of the current page. When the page
breaks, whether by an explicit bp request or by reaching the end of the
page, groff prints the floating keep at the top of the new page. This
is useful for printing large graphics or tables that do not need to appear
exactly where specified.
You can also use the ne request to force a page break if there is not
enough vertical space remaining on the page.
Use the following macros to draw a box around a section of text (such as
a display).
.B1 [Macro]
.B2 [Macro]
Marks the beginning and ending of text that is to have a box drawn
around it. The B1 macro begins the box; the B2 macro ends it. Text in
the box is automatically placed in a diversion (keep).
4.3.5.8 Tables, figures, equations, and references

The ms macros support the standard groff preprocessors: tbl, pic, eqn,
and refer. You mark text meant for preprocessors by enclosing it in pairs
of tags as follows.
.TS [H] [Macro]

.TE [Macro]
Denotes a table, to be processed by the tbl preprocessor. The optional
argument H to TS instructs groff to create a running header with the
information up to the TH macro. groff prints the header at the beginning
of the table; if the table runs onto another page, groff prints the header
on the next page as well.
.PS [Macro]
.PE [Macro]
Denotes a graphic, to be processed by the pic preprocessor. You can
create a pic file by hand, using the AT&T pic manual available on the
Web as a reference, or by using a graphics program such as xfig.
.EQ [align] [Macro]

.EN [Macro]
Denotes an equation, to be processed by the eqn preprocessor. The op-
tional align argument can be C, L, or I to center (the default), left-justify,
or indent the equation.
.[ [Macro]
.] [Macro]
Denotes a reference, to be processed by the refer preprocessor. The GNU
refer(1) man page provides a comprehensive reference to the preprocessor
and the format of the bibliographic database.
4.3.5.9 An example multi-page table

The following is an example of how to set up a table that may print across
two or more pages.

.TS H
allbox expand;
cb | cb .
Text ...of heading...
_
.TH
.T&
l | l .
... the rest of the table follows...
.CW
.TE
4.3.5.10 Footnotes
The ms macro package has a flexible footnote system. You can specify either
numbered footnotes or symbolic footnotes (that is, using a marker such as a
dagger symbol).
\*[*] [String]
Specifies the location of a numbered footnote marker in the text.
.FS [Macro]
.FE [Macro]
Specifies the text of the footnote. The default action is to create a num-
bered footnote; you can create a symbolic footnote by specifying a mark
glyph (such as \[dg] for the dagger glyph) in the body text and as an
argument to the FS macro, followed by the text of the footnote and the
FE macro.
You can control how groff prints footnote numbers by changing the
value of the FF register. See Section 4.3.3 [ms Document Control Registers],
page 33.
Footnotes can be safely used within keeps and displays, but you should
avoid using numbered footnotes within floating keeps. You can set a second
\** marker between a \** and its corresponding .FS entry; as long as each
FS macro occurs after the corresponding \** and the occurrences of .FS are
in the same order as the corresponding occurrences of \**.
4.3.6 Page layout

The default output from the ms macros provides a minimalist page layout:
it prints a single column, with the page number centered at the top of each
page. It prints no footers.
You can change the layout by setting the proper number registers and
strings.
4.3.6.1 Headers and footers

For documents that do not distinguish between odd and even pages, set the
following strings:
\*[LH] [String]
\*[CH] [String]
\*[RH] [String]
Sets the left, center, and right headers.
\*[LF] [String]
\*[CF] [String]
\*[RF] [String]
Sets the left, center, and right footers.
For documents that need different information printed in the even and
odd pages, use the following macros:
.OH ’left’center’right’ [Macro]

.EH ’left’center’right’ [Macro]
.OF ’left’center’right’ [Macro]
.EF ’left’center’right’ [Macro]
The OH and EH macros define headers for the odd and even pages; the OF
and EF macros define footers for the odd and even pages. This is more
flexible than defining the individual strings.
You can replace the quote (’) marks with any character not appearing in
the header or footer text.
To specify custom header and footer processing, redefine the following

macros:
.PT [Macro]
.HD [Macro]
.BT [Macro]
The PT macro defines a custom header; the BT macro defines a custom
footer. These macros must handle odd/even/first page differences if nec-
essary.
The HD macro defines additional header processing to take place after
executing the PT macro.
4.3.6.2 Margins
You control margins using a set of number registers. See Section 4.3.3 [ms
Document Control Registers], page 33, for details.
4.3.6.3 Multiple columns

The ms macros can set text in as many columns as do reasonably fit on the
page. The following macros are available; all of them force a page break if
a multi-column mode is already set. However, if the current mode is single-
column, starting a multi-column mode does not force a page break.
.1C [Macro]
Single-column mode.
.2C [Macro]
Two-column mode.
.MC [width [gutter]] [Macro]

Multi-column mode. If you specify no arguments, it is equivalent to the
2C macro. Otherwise, width is the width of each column and gutter is the
space between columns. The MINGW number register controls the default
gutter width.
4.3.6.4 Creating a table of contents

The facilities in the ms macro package for creating a table of contents are
semi-automated at best. Assuming that you want the table of contents
to consist of the document’s headings, you need to repeat those headings
wrapped in XS and XE macros.
.XS [page] [Macro]

.XA [page] [Macro]
.XE [Macro]
These macros define a table of contents or an individual entry in the
table of contents, depending on their use. The macros are very simple;
they cannot indent a heading based on its level. The easiest way to work
around this is to add tabs to the table of contents string. The following
is an example:

.NH 1
Introduction
.XS
Introduction
.XE
.LP
...
.CW
.NH 2
Methodology
.XS
Methodology
.XE
.LP
...

You can manually create a table of contents by beginning with the XS
macro for the first entry, specifying the page number for that entry as the
argument to XS. Add subsequent entries using the XA macro, specifying
the page number for that entry as the argument to XA. The following is
an example:

.XS 1
Introduction
.XA 2
A Brief History of the Universe
.XA 729
Details of Galactic Formation
...
.XE

.TC [no] [Macro]

Prints the table of contents on a new page, setting the page number to i
(Roman lowercase numeral one). You should usually place this macro at
the end of the file, since groff is a single-pass formatter and can only
print what has been collected up to the point that the TC macro appears.
The optional argument no suppresses printing the title specified by the
string register TOC.
.PX [no] [Macro]

Prints the table of contents on a new page, using the current page num-
bering sequence. Use this macro to print a manually generated table of
contents at the beginning of your document.
The optional argument no suppresses printing the title specified by the

string register TOC.
The Groff and Friends HOWTO includes a sed script that automatically
inserts XS and XE macro entries after each heading in a document.
Altering the NH macro to automatically build the table of contents is
perhaps initially more difficult, but would save a great deal of time in the
long run if you use ms regularly.
4.3.6.5 Strings and Special Characters

The ms macros provide the following predefined strings. You can change
the string definitions to help in creating documents in languages other than
English.
\*[REFERENCES] [String]
Contains the string printed at the beginning of the references (bibliogra-
phy) page. The default is ‘References’.
\*[ABSTRACT] [String]
Contains the string printed at the beginning of the abstract. The default
is ‘ABSTRACT’.
\*[TOC] [String]
Contains the string printed at the beginning of the table of contents.
\*[MONTH1] [String]
\*[MONTH2] [String]
\*[MONTH3] [String]
\*[MONTH4] [String]
\*[MONTH5] [String]
\*[MONTH6] [String]
\*[MONTH7] [String]
\*[MONTH8] [String]
\*[MONTH9] [String]
\*[MONTH10] [String]
Prints the full name of the month in dates. The default is ‘January’,
‘February’, etc.
The following special characters are available3 :
\*[-] [String]
Prints an em dash.
3
For an explanation what special characters are see Section 7.1 [Special Characters],
page 191.
\*[Q] [String]
\*[U] [String]
Prints typographer’s quotes in troff, and plain quotes in nroff. \*Q is the
left quote and \*U is the right quote.
Improved accent marks are available in the ms macros.
.AM [Macro]
Specify this macro at the beginning of your document to enable extended
accent marks and special characters. This is a Berkeley extension.
To use the accent marks, place them after the character being accented.
Note that groff’s native support for accents is superior to the following
definitions.
The following accent marks are available after invoking the AM macro:
\*[’] [String]
Acute accent.
\*[‘] [String]
Grave accent.
\*[^] [String]
Circumflex.
\*[,] [String]
Cedilla.
\*[~] [String]
Tilde.
\*[:] [String]
Umlaut.
\*[v] [String]
Hacek.
\*[_] [String]
Macron (overbar).
\*[.] [String]
Underdot.
\*[o] [String]
Ring above.
The following are standalone characters available after invoking the AM
macro:
\*[?] [String]
Upside-down question mark.
\*[!] [String]
Upside-down exclamation point.
\*[8] [String]
German ß ligature.
\*[3] [String]
Yogh.
\*[Th] [String]
Uppercase thorn.
\*[th] [String]
Lowercase thorn.
\*[D-] [String]
Uppercase eth.
\*[d-] [String]
Lowercase eth.
\*[q] [String]
Hooked o.
\*[ae] [String]
Lowercase æ ligature.
\*[Ae] [String]
Uppercase Æ ligature.
4.3.7 Differences from AT&T ms

This section lists the (minor) differences between the groff -ms macros and
AT&T troff -ms macros.
• The internals of groff -ms differ from the internals of AT&T troff -ms.
Documents that depend upon implementation details of AT&T troff
-ms may not format properly with groff -ms.
• The general error-handling policy of groff -ms is to detect and report
errors, rather than silently to ignore them.
• groff -ms does not work in compatibility mode (that is, with the -C
option).
• There is no special support for typewriter-like devices.
• groff -ms does not provide cut marks.
• Multiple line spacing is not supported. Use a larger vertical spacing
instead.
• Some Unix ms documentation says that the CW and GW number registers
can be used to control the column width and gutter width, respectively.
These number registers are not used in groff -ms.
• Macros that cause a reset (paragraphs, headings, etc.) may change the
indentation. Macros that change the indentation do not increment or
decrement the indentation, but rather set it absolutely. This can cause
problems for documents that define additional macros of their own. The
solution is to use not the in request but instead the RS and RE macros.
• To make groff -ms use the default page offset (which also specifies
the left margin), the PO register must stay undefined until the first -ms
macro is evaluated. This implies that PO should not be used early in
the document, unless it is changed also: Remember that accessing an
undefined register automatically defines it.
\n[GS] [Register]
This number register is set to 1 by the groff -ms macros, but it is not
used by the AT&T troff -ms macros. Documents that need to determine
whether they are being formatted with AT&T troff -ms or groff -ms
should use this number register.
Emulations of a few ancient Bell Labs macros can be re-enabled by calling
the otherwise undocumented SC section-header macro. Calling SC enables
UC for marking up a product or application name, and the pair P1/P2 for
surrounding code example displays.
These are not enabled by default because (a) they were not documented,
in the original ms manual, and (b) the P1 and UC macros collide with different
macros with the same names in the Berkeley version of ms.
These groff emulations are sufficient to give back the 1976 Kernighan &
Cherry paper Typesetting Mathematics – User’s Guide its section headings,
and restore some text that had gone missing as arguments of undefined
macros. No warranty express or implied is given as to how well the typo-
graphic details these produce match the original Bell Labs macros.
4.3.7.1 troff macros not appearing in groff

Macros missing from groff -ms are cover page macros specific to Bell Labs
and Berkeley. The macros known to be missing are:
.TM Technical memorandum; a cover sheet style
.IM Internal memorandum; a cover sheet style
.MR Memo for record; a cover sheet style
.MF Memo for file; a cover sheet style
.EG Engineer’s notes; a cover sheet style
.TR Computing Science Tech Report; a cover sheet style
.OK Other keywords
.CS Cover sheet information
.MH A cover sheet macro
4.3.7.2 groff macros not appearing in AT&T troff

The groff -ms macros have a few minor extensions compared to the AT&T
troff -ms macros.
.AM [Macro]
Improved accent marks. See Section 4.3.6.5 [ms Strings and Special Char-
acters], page 53, for details.
.DS I [Macro]
Indented display. The default behavior of AT&T troff -ms was to indent;
the groff default prints displays flush left with the body text.
.CW [Macro]
Print text in constant width (Courier) font.
.IX [Macro]
Indexing term (printed on standard error). You can write a script to
capture and process an index generated in this manner.
The following additional number registers appear in groff -ms:
\n[MINGW] [Register]
Specifies a minimum space between columns (for multi-column output);
this takes the place of the GW register that was documented but apparently
not implemented in AT&T troff.
Several new string registers are available as well. You can change these
to handle (for example) the local language. See Section 4.3.6.5 [ms Strings
and Special Characters], page 53, for details.
4.3.8 Naming Conventions

The following conventions are used for names of macros, strings and number
registers. External names available to documents that use the groff -ms
macros contain only uppercase letters and digits.
Internally the macros are divided into modules; naming conventions are
as follows:
• Names used only within one module are of the form module*name.
• Names used outside the module in which they are defined are of the
form module@name.
• Names associated with a particular environment are of the form envi-
ronment:name; these are used only within the par module.
• name does not have a module prefix.
• Constructed names used to implement arrays are of the form ar-
ray!index.
Thus the groff ms macros reserve the following names:
• Names containing the characters *, @, and :.
• Names containing only uppercase letters and digits.
4.4 me
See the meintro.me and meref.me documents in groff’s doc directory.
4.5 mm
See the groff mm(7) man page (type man groff_mm at the command line).
4.6 mom
The main documentation files for the mom macros are in HTML format. Ad-
ditional, useful documentation is in PDF format. See the groff(1) man page,
section “Installation Directories”, for their location.
• toc.html Entry point to the full mom manual.
• macrolist.html Hyperlinked index of macros with brief descriptions,
arranged by category.
• mom-pdf.pdf PDF features and usage.
The mom macros are in active development between groff releases. The
most recent version, along with up-to-date documentation, is available at
http://www.schaffter.ca/mom/mom-05.html.
The groff mom(7) man page (type man groff_mom at the command line)
contains a partial list of available macros, however their usage is best under-
stood by consulting the HTML documentation.
59
5 gtroff Reference
This chapter covers all of the facilities of gtroff. Users of macro packages
may skip it if not interested in details.
5.1 Text
gtroff input files contain text with control commands interspersed through-
out. But, even without control codes, gtroff still does several things with
the input text:
• filling and adjusting
• adding additional space after sentences
• hyphenating
• inserting implicit line breaks
5.1.1 Filling and Adjusting

When gtroff reads text, it collects words from the input and fits as many
of them together on one output line as it can. This is known as filling.
Once gtroff has a filled line, it tries to adjust it. This means it widens
the spacing between words until the text reaches the right margin (in the
default adjustment mode). Extra spaces between words are preserved, but
spaces at the end of lines are ignored. Spaces at the front of a line cause a
break (breaks are explained in Section 5.1.5 [Implicit Line Breaks], page 60).
See Section 5.7 [Manipulating Filling and Adjusting], page 79.
5.1.2 Hyphenation
Since the odds are not great for finding a set of words, for every output
line, which fit nicely on a line without inserting excessive amounts of space
between words, gtroff hyphenates words so that it can justify lines without
inserting too much space between words. It uses an internal hyphenation
algorithm (a simplified version of the algorithm used within TEX) to indicate
which words can be hyphenated and how to do so. When a word is hyphen-
ated, the first part of the word is added to the current filled line being output
(with an attached hyphen), and the other portion is added to the next line
to be filled.
See Section 5.8 [Manipulating Hyphenation], page 84.
5.1.3 Sentences
Although it is often debated, some typesetting rules say there should be
different amounts of space after various punctuation marks. For example,
the Chicago typesetting manual says that a period at the end of a sentence
should have twice as much space following it as would a comma or a period
as part of an abbreviation.
gtroff does this by flagging certain characters (normally ‘!’, ‘?’, and
‘.’) as end-of-sentence characters. When gtroff encounters one of these
characters at the end of a line, it appends a normal space followed by a
sentence space in the formatted output. (This justifies one of the conventions
mentioned in Section 5.1.6 [Input Conventions], page 61.)
In addition, the following characters and symbols are treated transpar-
ently while handling end-of-sentence characters: ‘"’, ‘’’, ‘)’, ‘]’, ‘*’, \[dg],
\[rq], and \[cq].
See the cflags request in Section 5.17.4 [Using Symbols], page 114, for
more details.
To prevent the insertion of extra space after an end-of-sentence character
(at the end of a line), append \&.
5.1.4 Tab Stops

gtroff translates tabulator characters, also called tabs (normally code point
ASCII 0x09 or EBCDIC 0x05), in the input into movements to the next
tabulator stop. These tab stops are initially located every half inch across
the page. Using this, simple tables can be made easily. However, it can often
be deceptive as the appearance (and width) of the text on a terminal and
the results from gtroff can vary greatly.
Also, a possible sticking point is that lines beginning with tab charac-
ters are still filled, again producing unexpected results. For example, the
following input
1 2 3
4 5
produces
1 2 3 4 5
See Section 5.10 [Tabs and Fields], page 92.
5.1.5 Implicit Line Breaks

An important concept in gtroff is the break. When a break occurs, gtroff
outputs the partially filled line (unjustified), and resumes collecting and
filling text on the next output line.
There are several ways to cause a break in gtroff. A blank line not only
causes a break, but it also outputs a one-line vertical space (effectively a
blank line). Note that this behaviour can be modified with the blank line
macro request blm. See Section 5.24.4 [Blank Line Traps], page 159.
A line that begins with a space causes a break and the space is output at
the beginning of the next line. Note that this space isn’t adjusted, even in
fill mode; however, the behaviour can be modified with the leading spaces
macro request lsm. See Section 5.24.5 [Leading Spaces Traps], page 159.
The end of file also causes a break – otherwise the last line of the document
may vanish!
Chapter 5: gtroff Reference 61
Certain requests also cause breaks, implicitly or explicitly. This is dis-

cussed in Section 5.7 [Manipulating Filling and Adjusting], page 79.
5.1.6 Input Conventions

Since gtroff does filling automatically, it is traditional in groff not to
try and type things in as nicely formatted paragraphs. These are some
conventions commonly used when typing gtroff text:
• Break lines after punctuation, particularly at the end of a sentence and
in other logical places. Keep separate phrases on lines by themselves,
as entire phrases are often added or deleted when editing.
• Try to keep lines less than 40–60 characters, to allow space for inserting
more text.
• Do not try to do any formatting in a WYSIWYG manner (i.e., don’t try
using spaces to get proper indentation).
5.1.7 Input Encodings

Currently, the following input encodings are available.
cp1047 This input encoding works only on EBCDIC platforms (and vice
versa, the other input encodings don’t work with EBCDIC); the
file cp1047.tmac is by default loaded at start-up.
latin-1 This is the default input encoding on non-EBCDIC platforms;
the file latin1.tmac is loaded at start-up.
latin-2 To use this encoding, either say ‘.mso latin2.tmac’ at the very
beginning of your document or use ‘-mlatin2’ as a command-
line argument for groff.
latin-5 For Turkish. Either say ‘.mso latin5.tmac’ at the very begin-
ning of your document or use ‘-mlatin5’ as a command-line
argument for groff.
latin-9 (latin-0)
This encoding is intended (at least in Europe) to replace latin-1
encoding. The main difference to latin-1 is that latin-9 con-
tains the Euro character. To use this encoding, either say
‘.mso latin9.tmac’ at the very beginning of your document or
use ‘-mlatin9’ as a command-line argument for groff.
Note that it can happen that some input encoding characters are not
available for a particular output device. For example, saying
groff -Tlatin1 -mlatin9 ...
fails if you use the Euro character in the input. Usually, this limitation
is present only for devices that have a limited set of output glyphs (e.g.
-Tascii and -Tlatin1); for other devices it is usually sufficient to install
proper fonts that contain the necessary glyphs.
Due to the importance of the Euro glyph in Europe, the groff package now
comes with a PostScript font called freeeuro.pfa, which provides various
glyph shapes for the Euro. In other words, latin-9 encoding is supported for
the -Tps device out of the box (latin-2 isn’t).
By its very nature, -Tutf8 supports all input encodings; -Tdvi has sup-
port for both latin-2 and latin-9 if the command-line -mec is used also to
load the file ec.tmac (which flips to the EC fonts).
5.2 Measurements
gtroff (like many other programs) requires numeric parameters to specify
various measurements. Most numeric parameters1 may have a measurement
unit attached. These units are specified as a single character that immedi-
ately follows the number or expression. Each of these units are understood,
by gtroff, to be a multiple of its basic unit. So, whenever a different mea-
surement unit is specified gtroff converts this into its basic units. This
basic unit, represented by a ‘u’, is a device dependent measurement, which
is quite small, ranging from 1/75 th to 1/72000 th of an inch. The values may
be given as fractional numbers; however, fractional basic units are always
rounded to integers.
Some of the measurement units are completely independent of any of the
current settings (e.g. type size) of gtroff.
Although groff’s basic unit is device-dependent, it may still be smaller
than the smallest unit the device is capable of producing. The register .H
specifies how many groff basic units constitute the current device’s basic unit
horizontally, and the register .V specifies this value vertically.
i Inches. An antiquated measurement unit still in use in certain
backwards countries with incredibly low-cost computer equip-
ment. One inch is defined to be 2.54 cm (worldwide since 1964).
c Centimeters. One centimeter is about 0.3937 in.
p Points. This is a typesetter’s measurement used for measure
type size. It is 72 points to an inch.
P Pica. Another typesetting measurement. 6 picas to an inch (and
12 points to a pica).
s
z See Section 5.18.2 [Fractional Type Sizes], page 130, for a dis-
cussion of these units.
f Fractions. Value is 65536. See Section 5.28 [Colors], page 169,
for usage.
1
those that specify vertical or horizontal motion or a type size
The other measurements understood by gtroff depend on settings cur-

rently in effect in gtroff. These are very useful for specifying measurements
that should look proper with any size of text.
m Ems. This unit is equal to the current font size in points. So
called because it is approximately the width of the letter ‘m’ in
the current font.
n Ens. In groff, this is half of an em.
v Vertical space. This is equivalent to the current line spacing.
See Section 5.18 [Sizes], page 127, for more information about
this.
M 100ths of an em.
5.2.1 Default Units

Many requests take a default unit. While this can be helpful at times, it
can cause strange errors in some expressions. For example, the line length
request expects em units. Here are several attempts to get a line length of
3.5 inches and their results:
3.5i ⇒ 3.5i
7/2 ⇒ 0i
7/2i ⇒ 0i
(7 / 2)u ⇒ 0i
7i/2 ⇒ 0.1i
7i/2u ⇒ 3.5i
Everything is converted to basic units first. In the above example it is
assumed that 1 i equals 240 u, and 1 m equals 10 p (thus 1 m equals 33 u).
The value 7 i/2 is first handled as 7 i/2 m, then converted to 1680 u/66 u,
which is 25 u, and this is approximately 0.1 i. As can be seen, a scaling
indicator after a closing parenthesis is simply ignored.
Thus, the safest way to specify measurements is to always attach a scaling
indicator. If you want to multiply or divide by a certain scalar value, use ‘u’
as the unit for that value.
5.3 Expressions
gtroff has most arithmetic operators common to other languages:
• Arithmetic: ‘+’ (addition), ‘-’ (subtraction), ‘/’ (division), ‘*’ (multipli-
cation), ‘%’ (modulo).
gtroff only provides integer arithmetic. The internal type used for
computing results is ‘int’, which is usually a 32-bit signed integer.
• Comparison: ‘<’ (less than), ‘>’ (greater than), ‘<=’ (less than or equal),
‘>=’ (greater than or equal), ‘=’ (equal), ‘==’ (the same as ‘=’).
• Logical: ‘&’ (logical and), ‘:’ (logical or).
• Unary operators: ‘-’ (negating, i.e. changing the sign), ‘+’ (just for
completeness; does nothing in expressions), ‘!’ (logical not; this works
only within if and while requests).2 See below for the use of unary
operators in motion requests.
The logical not operator, as described above, works only within if and
while requests. Furthermore, it may appear only at the beginning of
an expression, and negates the entire expression. Attempting to insert
the ‘!’ operator within the expression results in a ‘numeric expression
expected’ warning. This maintains compatibility with old versions of
troff.
Example:
.nr X 1
.nr Y 0
.\" This does not work as expected
.if (\n[X])&(!\n[Y]) .nop X only
.
.\" Use this construct instead
.if (\n[X]=1)&(\n[Y]=0) .nop X only
• Extrema: ‘>?’ (maximum), ‘<?’ (minimum).
Example:
.nr x 5
.nr y 3
.nr z (\n[x] >? \n[y])
The register z now contains 5.
• Scaling: (c;e). Evaluate e using c as the default scaling indicator. If
c is missing, ignore scaling indicators in the evaluation of e.
Parentheses may be used as in any other language. However, in gtroff
they are necessary to ensure order of evaluation. gtroff has no operator
precedence; expressions are evaluated left to right. This means that gtroff
evaluates ‘3+5*4’ as if it were parenthesized like ‘(3+5)*4’, not as ‘3+(5*4)’,
as might be expected.
For many requests that cause a motion on the page, the unary operators
‘+’ and ‘-’ work differently if leading an expression. They then indicate a
motion relative to the current position (down or up, respectively).
Similarly, a leading ‘|’ operator indicates an absolute position. For ver-
tical movements, it specifies the distance from the top of the page; for hor-
izontal movements, it gives the distance from the beginning of the input
line.
‘+’ and ‘-’ are also treated differently by the following requests and es-
capes: bp, in, ll, lt, nm, nr, pl, pn, po, ps, pvs, rt, ti, \H, \R, and \s.
Here, leading plus and minus signs indicate increments and decrements.
2
Note that, for example, ‘!(-1)’ evaluates to ‘true’ because gtroff treats both negative
numbers and zero as ‘false’.
See Section 5.6.1 [Setting Registers], page 72, for some examples.
\B’anything’ [Escape]
Return 1 if anything is a valid numeric expression; or 0 if anything is
empty or not a valid numeric expression.
Due to the way arguments are parsed, spaces are not allowed in expres-
sions, unless the entire expression is surrounded by parentheses.
See Section 5.5.1.1 [Request and Macro Arguments], page 68, and
Section 5.20 [Conditionals and Loops], page 136.
5.4 Identifiers
Like any other language, gtroff has rules for properly formed identifiers.
In gtroff, an identifier can be made up of almost any printable character,
with the exception of the following characters:
• Whitespace characters (spaces, tabs, and newlines).
• Backspace (ASCII 0x08 or EBCDIC 0x16) and character code 0x01.
• The following input characters are invalid and are ignored if groff runs
on a machine based on ASCII, causing a warning message of type ‘input’
(see Section 5.33 [Debugging], page 180, for more details): 0x00, 0x0B,
0x0D–0x1F, 0x80–0x9F.
And here are the invalid input characters if groff runs on an EBCDIC
host: 0x00, 0x08, 0x09, 0x0B, 0x0D–0x14, 0x17–0x1F, 0x30–0x3F.
Currently, some of these reserved codepoints are used internally, thus
making it non-trivial to extend gtroff to cover Unicode or other char-
acter sets and encodings that use characters of these ranges.
Note that invalid characters are removed before parsing; an identifier
foo, followed by an invalid character, followed by bar is treated as
foobar.
For example, any of the following is valid.
br
PP
(l
end-list
@_
Note that identifiers longer than two characters with a closing bracket (‘]’)
in its name can’t be accessed with escape sequences that expect an identifier
as a parameter. For example, ‘\[foo]]’ accesses the glyph ‘foo’, followed
by ‘]’, whereas ‘\C’foo]’’ really asks for glyph ‘foo]’.
To avoid problems with the refer preprocessor, macro names should not
start with ‘[’ or ‘]’. Due to backwards compatibility, everything after ‘.[’
and ‘.]’ is handled as a special argument to refer. For example, ‘.[foo’
makes refer to start a reference, using ‘foo’ as a parameter.
\A’ident’ [Escape]
Test whether an identifier ident is valid in gtroff. It expands to the
character 1 or 0 according to whether its argument (usually delimited by
quotes) is or is not acceptable as the name of a string, macro, diversion,
number register, environment, or font. It returns 0 if no argument is
given. This is useful for looking up user input in some sort of associative
table.
\A’end-list’
⇒ 1
See Section 5.5.3 [Escapes], page 70, for details on parameter delimiting
characters.
Identifiers in gtroff can be any length, but, in some contexts, gtroff
needs to be told where identifiers end and text begins (and in different ways
depending on their length):
• Single character.
• Two characters. Must be prefixed with ‘(’ in some situations.
• Arbitrary length (gtroff only). Must be bracketed with ‘[’ and ‘]’ in
some situations. Any length identifier can be put in brackets.
Unlike many other programming languages, undefined identifiers are
silently ignored or expanded to nothing. When gtroff finds an undefined
identifier, it emits a warning, doing the following:
• If the identifier is a string, macro, or diversion, gtroff defines it as
empty.
• If the identifier is a number register, gtroff defines it with a value of 0.
See Section 5.33.1 [Warnings], page 183., Section 5.6.2 [Interpolating Reg-
isters], page 74, and Section 5.19 [Strings], page 131.
Note that macros, strings, and diversions share the same name space.
.de xxx
. nop foo
..
.
.di xxx
bar
.br
.di
.
.xxx
⇒ bar
As can be seen in the previous example, gtroff reuses the identifier ‘xxx’,
changing it from a macro to a diversion. No warning is emitted! The contents
of the first macro definition is lost.
See Section 5.6.2 [Interpolating Registers], page 74, and Section 5.19
[Strings], page 131.
5.5 Embedded Commands

Most documents need more functionality beyond filling, adjusting and im-
plicit line breaking. In order to gain further functionality, gtroff allows
commands to be embedded into the text, in two ways.
The first is a request that takes up an entire line, and does some large-
scale operation (e.g. break lines, start new pages).
The other is an escape that can be usually embedded anywhere in the
text; most requests can accept it even as an argument. Escapes generally do
more minor operations like sub- and superscripts, print a symbol, etc.
5.5.1 Requests
A request line begins with a control character, which is either a single quote
(‘’’, the no-break control character) or a period (‘.’, the normal control
character). These can be changed; see Section 5.11 [Character Translations],
page 96, for details. After this there may be optional tabs or spaces followed
by an identifier, which is the name of the request. This may be followed by
any number of space-separated arguments (no tabs here).
Since a control character followed by whitespace only is ignored, it is com-
mon practice to use this feature for structuring the source code of documents
or macro packages.
.de foo
. tm This is foo.
..
.
.
.de bar
. tm This is bar.
..
Another possibility is to use the blank line macro request blm by assigning
an empty macro to it.
.de do-nothing
..
.blm do-nothing \" activate blank line macro
.de foo
. tm This is foo.
..
.de bar
. tm This is bar.
..
.blm \" deactivate blank line macro

See Section 5.24.4 [Blank Line Traps], page 159.

To begin a line with a control character without it being interpreted,
precede it with \&. This represents a zero width space, which means it does
not affect the output.
In most cases the period is used as a control character. Several requests
cause a break implicitly; using the single quote control character prevents
this.
\n[.br] [Register]
A read-only number register, which is set to 1 if a macro is called with
the normal control character (as defined with the cc request), and set
to 0 otherwise.
This allows reliable modification of requests.
.als bp*orig bp
.de bp
. tm before bp
. ie \\n[.br] .bp*orig
. el ’bp*orig
. tm after bp
..
Using this register outside of a macro makes no sense (it always returns
zero in such cases).
If a macro is called as a string (that is, using \*), the value of the .br
register is inherited from the caller.
5.5.1.1 Request and Macro Arguments

Arguments to requests and macros are processed much like the shell: The
line is split into arguments according to spaces.3
An argument to a macro that is intended to contain spaces can either
be enclosed in double quotes, or have the spaces escaped with backslashes.
This is not true for requests.
Here are a few examples for a hypothetical macro uh:
.uh The Mouse Problem
.uh "The Mouse Problem"
.uh The\ Mouse\ Problem
The first line is the uh macro being called with 3 arguments, ‘The’, ‘Mouse’,
and ‘Problem’. The latter two have the same effect of calling the uh macro
with one argument, ‘The Mouse Problem’.4
3
Plan 9’s troff implementation also allows tabs for argument separation – gtroff
intentionally doesn’t support this.
4
The last solution, i.e., using escaped spaces, is “classical” in the sense that it can be
found in most troff documents. Nevertheless, it is not optimal in all situations, since
‘\ ’ inserts a fixed-width, non-breaking space character that can’t stretch. gtroff
provides a different command \~ to insert a stretchable, non-breaking space.
A double quote that isn’t preceded by a space doesn’t start a macro

argument. If not closing a string, it is printed literally.
For example,
.xxx a" "b c" "de"fg"
has the arguments ‘a"’, ‘b c’, ‘de’, and ‘fg"’. Don’t rely on this obscure
behaviour!
There are two possibilities to get a double quote reliably.
• Enclose the whole argument with double quotes and use two consecutive
double quotes to represent a single one. This traditional solution has
the disadvantage that double quotes don’t survive argument expansion
again if called in compatibility mode (using the -C option of groff):
.de xx
. tm xx: ‘\\$1’ ‘\\$2’ ‘\\$3’
.
. yy "\\$1" "\\$2" "\\$3"
..
.de yy
. tm yy: ‘\\$1’ ‘\\$2’ ‘\\$3’
..
.xx A "test with ""quotes""" .
⇒ xx: ‘A’ ‘test with "quotes"’ ‘.’
⇒ yy: ‘A’ ‘test with ’ ‘quotes""’
If not in compatibility mode, you get the expected result
xx: ‘A’ ‘test with "quotes"’ ‘.’
yy: ‘A’ ‘test with "quotes"’ ‘.’
since gtroff preserves the input level.
• Use the double quote glyph \(dq. This works with and without com-
patibility mode enabled since gtroff doesn’t convert \(dq back to a
double quote input character.
Note that this method won’t work with Unix troff in general since the
glyph ‘dq’ isn’t defined normally.
Double quotes in the ds request are handled differently. See Section 5.19
[Strings], page 131, for more details.
5.5.2 Macros
gtroff has a macro facility for defining a series of lines that can be invoked
by name. They are called in the same manner as requests – arguments also
may be passed basically in the same manner.
See Section 5.21 [Writing Macros], page 141, and Section 5.5.1.1 [Request
and Macro Arguments], page 68.
5.5.3 Escapes
Escapes may occur anywhere in the input to gtroff. They usually begin
with a backslash and are followed by a single character, which indicates
the function to be performed. The escape character can be changed; see
Section 5.11 [Character Translations], page 96.
Escape sequences that require an identifier as a parameter accept three
possible syntax forms.
• The next single character is the identifier.
• If this single character is an opening parenthesis, take the following two
characters as the identifier. Note that there is no closing parenthesis
after the identifier.
• If this single character is an opening bracket, take all characters until a
closing bracket as the identifier.
Examples:
\fB
\n(XX
\*[TeX]
Other escapes may require several arguments and/or some special format.
In such cases the argument is traditionally enclosed in single quotes (and
quotes are always used in this manual for the definitions of escape sequences).
The enclosed text is then processed according to what that escape expects.
Example:
\l’1.5i$bu’
Note that the quote character can be replaced with any other character
that does not occur in the argument (even a newline or a space character)
in the following escapes: \o, \b, and \X. This makes e.g.
A caf
\o
e\’
in Paris
⇒ A café in Paris
possible, but it is better not to use this feature to avoid confusion.
The following escape sequences (which are handled similarly to characters
since they don’t take a parameter) are also allowed as delimiters: \%, ‘\ ’,
\|, \^, \{, \}, \’, \‘, \-, \_, \!, \?, $, \/, \,, \&, \:, \~, \0, \a, \c, \d,
\e, \E, \p, \r, \t, and \u. Again, don’t use these if possible.
No newline characters as delimiters are allowed in the following escapes:
\A, \B, \Z, \C, and \w.
Finally, the escapes \D, \h, \H, \l, \L, \N, \R, \s, \S, \v, and \x can’t
use the following characters as delimiters:
• The digits 0-9.

• The (single-character) operators ‘+-/*%<>=&:().’.
• The space, tab, and newline characters.
• All escape sequences except \%, \:, \{, \}, \’, \‘, \-, \_, \!, \/, \c,
\e, and \p.
To have a backslash (actually, the current escape character) appear in
the output several escapes are defined: \\, \e or \E. These are very similar,
and only differ with respect to being used in macros or diversions. See
Section 5.11 [Character Translations], page 96, for an exact description of
those escapes.
See Section 5.34 [Implementation Differences], page 185, Section 5.21.1
[Copy-in Mode], page 144, and Section 5.25 [Diversions], page 162,
Section 5.4 [Identifiers], page 65, for more information.
5.5.3.1 Comments
Probably one of the most5 common forms of escapes is the comment.
\" [Escape]
Start a comment. Everything to the end of the input line is ignored.
This may sound simple, but it can be tricky to keep the comments from
interfering with the appearance of the final output.
If the escape is to the right of some text or a request, that portion of the
line is ignored, but the space leading up to it is noticed by gtroff. This
only affects the ds and as request and its variants.
One possibly irritating idiosyncracy is that tabs must not be used to line
up comments. Tabs are not treated as whitespace between the request
and macro arguments.
A comment on a line by itself is treated as a blank line, because after
eliminating the comment, that is all that remains:
Test
\" comment
Test
produces
Test
Test
To avoid this, it is common to start the line with .\", which causes the
line to be treated as an undefined request and thus ignored completely.
Another commenting scheme seen sometimes is three consecutive single
quotes (’’’) at the beginning of a line. This works, but gtroff gives a
warning about an undefined macro (namely ’’), which is harmless, but
irritating.
5
Unfortunately, this is a lie. But hopefully future gtroff hackers will believe it :-)
\# [Escape]
To avoid all this, gtroff has a new comment mechanism using the \#
escape. This escape works the same as \" except that the newline is also
ignored:
Test
\# comment
Test
produces
Test Test
as expected.
.ig [end] [Request]

Ignore all input until gtroff encounters the macro named .end on a line
by itself (or .. if end is not specified). This is useful for commenting out
large blocks of text:
text text text...
.ig
This is part of a large block
of text that has been
temporarily(?) commented out.
We can restore it simply by removing

the .ig request and the ".." at the
end of the block.
..
More text text text...
produces
text text text... More text text text...
Note that the commented-out block of text does not cause a break.
The input is read in copy-mode; auto-incremented registers are affected
(see Section 5.6.3 [Auto-increment], page 75).
5.6 Registers
Numeric variables in gtroff are called registers. There are a number of
built-in registers, supplying anything from the date to details of formatting
parameters.
See Section 5.4 [Identifiers], page 65, for details on register identifiers.
5.6.1 Setting Registers

Define or set registers using the nr request or the \R escape.
Although the following requests and escapes can be used to create regis-
ters, simply using an undefined register will cause it to be set to zero.
.nr ident value [Request]

\R’ident value’ [Escape]
Set number register ident to value. If ident doesn’t exist, gtroff creates
it.
The argument to \R usually has to be enclosed in quotes. See Section 5.5.3
[Escapes], page 70, for details on parameter delimiting characters.
The \R escape doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff; in other words,
it vanishes completely after gtroff has processed it.
For example, the following two lines are equivalent:
.nr a (((17 + (3 * 4))) % 4)
\R’a (((17 + (3 * 4))) % 4)’
⇒ 1
Note that the complete transparency of \R can cause surprising effects if
you use number registers like .k, which get evaluated at the time they
are accessed.
.ll 1.6i
.
aaa bbb ccc ddd eee fff ggg hhh\R’:k \n[.k]’
.tm :k == \n[:k]
⇒ :k == 126950
.
.br
.
aaa bbb ccc ddd eee fff ggg hhh\h’0’\R’:k \n[.k]’
.tm :k == \n[:k]
⇒ :k == 15000
If you process this with the PostScript device (-Tps), there will be
a line break eventually after ggg in both input lines. However, after
processing the space after ggg, the partially collected line is not overfull
yet, so troff continues to collect input until it sees the space (or in this
case, the newline) after hhh. At this point, the line is longer than the line
length, and the line gets broken.
In the first input line, since the \R escape leaves no traces, the check for
the overfull line hasn’t been done yet at the point where \R gets handled,
and you get a value for the .k number register that is even greater than
the current line length.
In the second input line, the insertion of \h’0’ to emit an invisible zero-
width space forces troff to check the line length, which in turn causes
the start of a new output line. Now .k returns the expected value.
Both nr and \R have two additional special forms to increment or decre-
ment a register.
.nr ident +value [Request]
.nr ident -value [Request]
\R’ident +value’ [Escape]

\R’ident -value’ [Escape]
Increment (decrement) register ident by value.
.nr a 1
.nr a +1
\na
⇒ 2
To assign the negated value of a register to another register, some care
must be taken to get the desired result:
.nr a 7
.nr b 3
.nr a -\nb
\na
⇒ 4
.nr a (-\nb)
\na
⇒ -3
The surrounding parentheses prevent the interpretation of the minus sign
as a decrementing operator. An alternative is to start the assignment
with a ‘0’:
.nr a 7
.nr b -3
.nr a \nb
\na
⇒ 4
.nr a 0\nb
\na
⇒ -3
.rr ident [Request]

Remove number register ident. If ident doesn’t exist, the request is ig-
nored.
.rnn ident1 ident2 [Request]

Rename number register ident1 to ident2. If either ident1 or ident2
doesn’t exist, the request is ignored.
.aln ident1 ident2 [Request]

Create an alias ident1 for a number register ident2. The new name and
the old name are exactly equivalent. If ident1 is undefined, a warning
of type ‘reg’ is generated, and the request is ignored. See Section 5.33
[Debugging], page 180, for information about warnings.
5.6.2 Interpolating Registers

Numeric registers can be accessed via the \n escape.
\ni [Escape]
\n(id [Escape]
\n[ident] [Escape]
Interpolate number register with name ident (one-character name i, two-
character name id). This means that the value of the register is expanded
in-place while gtroff is parsing the input line. Nested assignments (also
called indirect assignments) are possible.
.nr a 5
.nr as \na+\na
\n(as
⇒ 10
.nr a1 5
.nr ab 6
.ds str b
.ds num 1
\n[a\n[num]]
⇒ 5
\n[a\*[str]]
⇒ 6
5.6.3 Auto-increment
Number registers can also be auto-incremented and auto-decremented. The
increment or decrement value can be specified with a third argument to the
nr request or \R escape.
.nr ident value incr [Request]

Set number register ident to value; the increment for auto-incrementing
is set to incr. Note that the \R escape doesn’t support this notation.
To activate auto-incrementing, the escape \n has a special syntax form.
\n+i [Escape]
\n-i [Escape]
\n+(id [Escape]
\n-(id [Escape]
\n+[ident] [Escape]
\n-[ident] [Escape]
Before interpolating, increment or decrement ident (one-character name i,
two-character name id) by the auto-increment value as specified with
the nr request (or the \R escape). If no auto-increment value has been
specified, these syntax forms are identical to \n.
For example,
.nr a 0 1
.nr xx 0 5
.nr foo 0 -2
\n+a, \n+a, \n+a, \n+a, \n+a
.br
\n-(xx, \n-(xx, \n-(xx, \n-(xx, \n-(xx
.br
\n+[foo], \n+[foo], \n+[foo], \n+[foo], \n+[foo]
produces
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
-5, -10, -15, -20, -25
-2, -4, -6, -8, -10
To change the increment value without changing the value of a register
(a in the example), the following can be used:
.nr a \na 10
5.6.4 Assigning Formats

When a register is used, it is always textually replaced (or interpolated) with
a representation of that number. This output format can be changed to a
variety of formats (numbers, Roman numerals, etc.). This is done using the
af request.
.af ident format [Request]
Change the output format of a number register. The first argument
ident is the name of the number register to be changed, and the second
argument format is the output format. The following output formats are
available:
1 Decimal arabic numbers. This is the default format: 0, 1, 2,
3, . . .
0...0 Decimal numbers with as many digits as specified. So, ‘00’
would result in printing numbers as 01, 02, 03, . . .
In fact, any digit instead of zero does work; gtroff only
counts how many digits are specified. As a consequence, af’s
default format ‘1’ could be specified as ‘0’ also (and exactly
this is returned by the \g escape, see below).
I Upper-case Roman numerals: 0, I, II, III, IV, . . .
i Lower-case Roman numerals: 0, i, ii, iii, iv, . . .
A Upper-case letters: 0, A, B, C, . . . , Z, AA, AB, . . .
a Lower-case letters: 0, a, b, c, . . . , z, aa, ab, . . .
Omitting the number register format causes a warning of type ‘missing’.
See Section 5.33 [Debugging], page 180, for more details. Specifying a
nonexistent format causes an error.
The following example produces ‘10, X, j, 010’:

.nr a 10
.af a 1 \" the default format
\na,
.af a I
\na,
.af a a
\na,
.af a 001
\na
The largest number representable for the ‘i’ and ‘I’ formats is 39999 (or
−39999); Unix troff uses ‘z’ and ‘w’ to represent 10000 and 5000 in
Roman numerals, and so does gtroff. Currently, the correct glyphs of
Roman numeral five thousand and Roman numeral ten thousand (Uni-
code code points U+2182 and U+2181, respectively) are not available.
If ident doesn’t exist, it is created.
Changing the output format of a read-only register causes an error. It
is necessary to first copy the register’s value to a writeable register, then
apply the af request to this other register.
\gi [Escape]
\g(id [Escape]
\g[ident] [Escape]
Return the current format of the specified register ident (one-character
name i, two-character name id). For example, ‘\ga’ after the previous
example would produce the string ‘000’. If the register hasn’t been defined
yet, nothing is returned.
5.6.5 Built-in Registers

The following lists some built-in registers that are not described elsewhere
in this manual. Any register that begins with a ‘.’ is read-only. A complete
listing of all built-in registers can be found in tie E [Register Index], page 239.
\n[.F] This string-valued register returns the current input file name.
\n[.H] Number of basic units per horizontal unit of output device res-
olution. See Section 5.2 [Measurements], page 62.
\n[.R] The number of number registers available. This is always 10000
in GNU troff; it exists for backward compatibility.
\n[.U] If gtroff is called with the -U command-line option to activate
unsafe mode, the number register .U is set to 1, and to zero
otherwise. See Section 2.1 [Groff Options], page 7.
\n[.V] Number of basic units per vertical unit of output device resolu-
tion. See Section 5.2 [Measurements], page 62.
\n[seconds]
The number of seconds after the minute, normally in the range 0
to 59, but can be up to 61 to allow for leap seconds. Initialized
at start-up of gtroff.
\n[minutes]
The number of minutes after the hour, in the range 0 to 59.
Initialized at start-up of gtroff.
\n[hours]
The number of hours past midnight, in the range 0 to 23. Ini-
tialized at start-up of gtroff.
\n[dw] Day of the week (1–7).
\n[dy] Day of the month (1–31).
\n[mo] Current month (1–12).
\n[year] The current year.
\n[yr] The current year minus 1900. Unfortunately, the documentation
of Unix Version 7’s troff had a year 2000 bug: It incorrectly
claimed that yr contains the last two digits of the year. That
claim has never been true of either AT&T troff or GNU troff.
Old troff input that looks like this:
’\" The following line stopped working after 1999
This document was formatted in 19\n(yr.
can be corrected as follows:
This document was formatted in \n[year].
or, to be portable to older troff versions, as follows:
.nr y4 1900+\n(yr
This document was formatted in \n(y4.
\n[.c]
\n[c.] The current input line number. Register ‘.c’ is read-only,
whereas ‘c.’ (a gtroff extension) is writable also, affecting both
‘.c’ and ‘c.’.
\n[ln] The current output line number after a call to the nm request to
activate line numbering.
See Section 5.31 [Miscellaneous], page 176, for more information
about line numbering.
\n[.x] The major version number. For example, if the version number
is 1.03 then .x contains ‘1’.
\n[.y] The minor version number. For example, if the version number
is 1.03 then .y contains ‘03’.
\n[.Y] The revision number of groff.
\n[$$] The process ID of gtroff.

\n[.g] Always 1. Macros should use this to determine whether they are
running under GNU troff.
\n[.A] If the command-line option -a is used to produce an ASCII ap-
proximation of the output, this is set to 1, zero otherwise. See
Section 2.1 [Groff Options], page 7.
\n[.O] This read-only register is set to the suppression nesting level (see
escapes \O). See Section 5.27 [Suppressing output], page 168.
\n[.P] This register is set to 1 (and to 0 otherwise) if the current page is
actually being printed, i.e., if the -o option is being used to only
print selected pages. See Section 2.1 [Groff Options], page 7, for
more information.
\n[.T] If gtroff is called with the -T command-line option, the number
register .T is set to 1, and zero otherwise. See Section 2.1 [Groff
Options], page 7.
\*[.T] A single read-write string register that contains the current out-
put device (for example, ‘latin1’ or ‘ps’). This is the only string
register defined by gtroff.
5.7 Manipulating Filling and Adjusting

Various ways of causing breaks were given in Section 5.1.5 [Implicit Line
Breaks], page 60. The br request likewise causes a break. Several other
requests also cause breaks, but implicitly. These are bp, ce, cf, fi, fl, in,
nf, rj, sp, ti, and trf.
.br [Request]
Break the current line, i.e., the input collected so far is emitted without
adjustment.
If the no-break control character is used, gtroff suppresses the break:
a
’br
b
⇒ a b
Initially, gtroff fills and adjusts text to both margins. Filling can be
disabled via the nf request and re-enabled with the fi request.
.fi [Request]
\n[.u] [Register]
Activate fill mode (which is the default). This request implicitly enables
adjusting; it also inserts a break in the text currently being filled. The
read-only number register .u is set to 1.
The fill mode status is associated with the current environment (see
Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166).
See Section 5.14 [Line Control], page 104, for interaction with the \c
escape.
.nf [Request]
Activate no-fill mode. Input lines are output as-is, retaining line breaks
and ignoring the current line length. This command implicitly disables
adjusting; it also causes a break. The number register .u is set to 0.
The fill mode status is associated with the current environment (see
See Section 5.14 [Line Control], page 104, for interaction with the \c
escape.
.ad [mode] [Request]

\n[.j] [Register]
Set adjusting mode.
Activation and deactivation of adjusting is done implicitly with calls to
the fi or nf requests.
mode can have one of the following values:
l Adjust text to the left margin. This produces what is tradi-

tionally called ragged-right text.
r Adjust text to the right margin, producing ragged-left text.
c Center filled text. This is different to the ce request, which

only centers text without filling.
b
n Justify to both margins. This is the default used by gtroff.
Finally, mode can be the numeric argument returned by the .j register.

Using ad without argument is the same as saying .ad \[.j]. In partic-
ular, gtroff adjusts lines in the same way it did before adjusting was
deactivated (with a call to na, say). For example, this input code
.de AD
. br
. ad \\$1
..
.
.de NA
. br
. na
..
.
textA
.AD r
.nr ad \n[.j]
textB
.AD c
textC
.NA
textD
.AD \" back to centering
textE
.AD \n[ad] \" back to right justifying
textF
produces the following output:
textA
textB
textC
textD
textE
textF
As just demonstrated, the current adjustment mode is available in the
read-only number register .j; it can be stored and subsequently used to
set adjustment.
The adjustment mode status is associated with the current environment
(see Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166).
.na [Request]
Disable adjusting. This request won’t change the current adjustment
mode: A subsequent call to ad uses the previous adjustment setting.
The adjustment mode status is associated with the current environment
.brp [Request]
\p [Escape]
Break, adjusting the current line per the current adjustment mode.
With \p, this break will happen at the next word boundary. The \p itself
is removed entirely, adding neither a break nor a space where it appears
in input; it can thus be placed in the middle of a word to cause a break

at the end of that word.
In most cases this produces very ugly results since gtroff doesn’t have
a sophisticated paragraph building algorithm (as TEX has, for example);
instead, gtroff fills and adjusts a paragraph line by line:
This is an uninteresting sentence.
This is an uninteresting sentence.\p
is formatted as
This is an uninteresting sentence. This is an
uninteresting sentence.
.ss word space size [sentence space size] [Request]

\n[.ss] [Register]
\n[.sss] [Register]
Change the size of a space between words. It takes its units as one
twelfth of the space width parameter for the current font. Initially both
the word space size and sentence space size are 12. In fill mode, the
values specify the minimum distance.
If two arguments are given to the ss request, the second argument sets
the sentence space size. If the second argument is not given, sentence
space size is set to word space size. The sentence space size is used in
two circumstances: If the end of a sentence occurs at the end of a line
in fill mode, then both an inter-word space and a sentence space are
added; if two spaces follow the end of a sentence in the middle of a line,
then the second space is a sentence space. If a second argument is never
given to the ss request, the behaviour of Unix troff is the same as that
exhibited by GNU troff. In GNU troff, as in Unix troff, a sentence
should always be followed by either a newline or two spaces.
The read-only number registers .ss and .sss hold the values of the pa-
rameters set by the first and second arguments of the ss request.
The word space and sentence space values are associated with the current
environment (see Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166).
Contrary to AT&T troff, this request is not ignored if a TTY output
device is used; the given values are then rounded down to a multiple of 12
(see Section 5.34 [Implementation Differences], page 185).
The request is ignored if there is no parameter.
Another useful application of the ss request is to insert discardable hor-
izontal space, i.e., space that is discarded at a line break. For example,
paragraph-style footnotes could be separated this way:
.ll 4.5i
1.\ This is the first footnote.\c
.ss 48
.nop
.ss 12
2.\ This is the second footnote.
The result:
1. This is the first footnote. 2. This
is the second footnote.
Note that the \h escape produces unbreakable space.
.ce [nnn] [Request]
\n[.ce] [Register]
Center text. While the ‘.ad c’ request also centers text, it fills the text
as well. ce does not fill the text it affects. This request causes a break.
The number of lines still to be centered is associated with the current
The following example demonstrates the differences. Here is the input:
.ll 4i
.ce 1000
This is a small text fragment that shows the differences
between the ‘.ce’ and the ‘.ad c’ request.
.ce 0
.ad c
This is a small text fragment that shows the differences
And here the result:
This is a small text fragment that
shows the differences
This is a small text fragment that

shows the differences between the ‘.ce’
and the ‘.ad c’ request.
With no arguments, ce centers the next line of text. nnn specifies the
number of lines to be centered. If the argument is zero or negative,
centering is disabled.
The basic length for centering text is the line length (as set with the ll
request) minus the indentation (as set with the in request). Temporary
indentation is ignored.
As can be seen in the previous example, it is a common idiom to turn on
centering for a large number of lines, and to turn off centering after text
to be centered. This is useful for any request that takes a number of lines
as an argument.
The .ce read-only number register contains the number of lines remaining
to be centered, as set by the ce request.
.rj [nnn] [Request]
\n[.rj] [Register]
Justify unfilled text to the right margin. Arguments are identical to the
ce request. The .rj read-only number register is the number of lines to
be right-justified as set by the rj request. This request causes a break.
The number of lines still to be right-justified is associated with the current
5.8 Manipulating Hyphenation

Here a description of requests that influence hyphenation.
.hy [mode] [Request]
\n[.hy] [Register]
Enable hyphenation. The request has an optional numeric argument,
mode, to restrict hyphenation if necessary:
1 The default argument if mode is omitted: hyphenation is
enabled, and the first and the last characters of a word are
not hyphenated. This is also the start-up value of gtroff.
2 Do not hyphenate the last word on a page or column.
4 Do not hyphenate the last two characters of a word.
8 Do not hyphenate the first two characters of a word.
16 Allow hyphenation before the last character of a word.
32 Allow hyphenation after the first character of a word.
The values in the previous table are additive. For example, value 12 causes
gtroff to neither hyphenate the last two nor the first two characters of
a word. Note that value 13 would do exactly the same; in other words,
value 1 need not be added if the value is larger than 1.
Some values cannot be used together because they contradict; for in-
stance, values 4 and 16, and values 8 and 32.
The number of characters at the beginning of a word after which the
first hyphenation point should be inserted is determined by the patterns
themselves; it can’t be reduced further without introducing additional,
invalid hyphenation points (unfortunately, this information is not part
of a pattern file, you have to know it in advance). The same is true for
the number of characters at the end of word before the last hyphenation
point should be inserted. For example, the code
.ll 1
.hy 48
splitting
returns
s-
plit-
t-
in-
g
instead of the correct ‘split-ting’. US-English patterns as distributed
with groff need two characters at the beginning and three characters at
the end; this means that value 4 of hy is mandatory. Value 8 is possible
as an additional restriction, but values 1 (the default!), 16, and 32 should
be avoided.
Here is a table of left and right minimum values for hyphenation as needed
by the patterns distributed with groff; see the groff tmac(5) man page
(type man groff_tmac at the command line) for more information on
groff’s language macro files.
language pattern name left min right min

Czech cs 2 2
US English us 2 3
French fr 2 3
German traditional det 2 2
German reformed den 2 2
Swedish sv 1 2
Hyphenation exceptions within pattern files (i.e., the words within a
\hyphenation group) also obey the hyphenation restrictions given by
hy. However, exceptions specified with the hw do not.
The current hyphenation restrictions can be found in the read-only num-
ber register ‘.hy’.
The hyphenation mode is associated with the current environment (see
.nh [Request]
Disable hyphenation (i.e., set the hyphenation mode to zero). Note that
the hyphenation mode of the last call to hy is not remembered.
The hyphenation mode is associated with the current environment (see
.hlm [nnn] [Request]
\n[.hlm] [Register]
\n[.hlc] [Register]
Set the maximum number of consecutive hyphenated lines to nnn. If this
number is negative, there is no maximum. The default value is −1 if
nnn is omitted. This value is associated with the current environment
(see Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166). Only lines output from
a given environment count towards the maximum associated with that
environment. Hyphens resulting from \% are counted; explicit hyphens

are not.
The current setting of hlm is available in the .hlm read-only number reg-
ister. Also the number of immediately preceding consecutive hyphenated
lines are available in the read-only number register ‘.hlc’.
.hw word1 word2 . . . [Request]
Define how word1, word2, etc. are to be hyphenated. The words must be
given with hyphens at the hyphenation points. For example:
.hw in-sa-lub-rious
Besides the space character, any character whose hyphenation code value
is zero can be used to separate the arguments of hw (see the documentation
for the hcode request below for more information). In addition, this
request can be used more than once.
Hyphenation points specified with hw are not subject to the restrictions
given by the hy request.
Hyphenation exceptions specified with the hw request are associated with
the current hyphenation language; it causes an error if there is no current
hyphenation language.
This request is ignored if there is no parameter.
In old versions of troff there was a limited amount of space to store such
information; fortunately, with gtroff, this is no longer a restriction.
\% [Escape]
\: [Escape]
To tell gtroff how to hyphenate words on the fly, use the \% escape,
also known as the hyphenation character. Preceding a word with this
character prevents it from being hyphenated; putting it inside a word
indicates to gtroff that the word may be hyphenated at that point.
Note that this mechanism only affects that one occurrence of the word;
to change the hyphenation of a word for the entire document, use the hw
request.
The \: escape inserts a zero-width break point (that is, the word breaks
but without adding a hyphen).
... check the /var/log/\:httpd/\:access_log file ...
Note that \X and \Y start a word, that is, the \% escape in (say)
‘\X’...’\%foobar’ and ‘\Y’...’\%foobar’ no longer prevents hyphen-
ation but inserts a hyphenation point at the beginning of ‘foobar’; most
likely this isn’t what you want to do.
.hc [char] [Request]
Change the hyphenation character to char. This character then works
the same as the \% escape, and thus, no longer appears in the output.
Without an argument, hc resets the hyphenation character to be \% (the
default) only.
The hyphenation character is associated with the current environment

.hpf pattern file [Request]
.hpfa pattern file [Request]
.hpfcode a b [c d . . . ] [Request]
Read in a file of hyphenation patterns. This file is searched for in the
same way as name.tmac (or tmac.name) is searched for if the -mname
option is specified.
It should have the same format as (simple) TEX patterns files. More
specifically, the following scanning rules are implemented.
• A percent sign starts a comment (up to the end of the line) even if
preceded by a backslash.
• No support for ‘digraphs’ like \$.
• ^^xx (x is 0–9 or a–f) and ^^x (character code of x in the range
0–127) are recognized; other use of ^ causes an error.
• No macro expansion.
• hpf checks for the expression \patterns{...} (possibly with white-
space before and after the braces). Everything between the braces
is taken as hyphenation patterns. Consequently, { and } are not
allowed in patterns.
• Similarly, \hyphenation{...} gives a list of hyphenation exceptions.
• \endinput is recognized also.
• For backwards compatibility, if \patterns is missing, the whole file
is treated as a list of hyphenation patterns (only recognizing the %
character as the start of a comment).
If no hpf request is specified (either in the document or in a macro pack-
age), gtroff won’t hyphenate at all.
The hpfa request appends a file of patterns to the current list.
The hpfcode request defines mapping values for character codes in hy-
phenation patterns. hpf or hpfa then apply the mapping (after reading
the patterns) before replacing or appending them to the current list of
patterns. Its arguments are pairs of character codes – integers from 0
to 255. The request maps character code a to code b, code c to code d,
and so on. You can use character codes that would be invalid otherwise.
By default, everything maps to itself except letters ‘A’ to ‘Z’, which map
to ‘a’ to ‘z’.
The set of hyphenation patterns is associated with the current language
set by the hla request. The hpf request is usually invoked by the troffrc
or troffrc-end file; by default, troffrc loads hyphenation patterns and
exceptions for American English (in files hyphen.us and hyphenex.us).
A second call to hpf (for the same language) replaces the hyphenation
patterns with the new ones.
Invoking hpf causes an error if there is no current hyphenation language.
.hcode c1 code1 [c2 code2 . . . ] [Request]

Set the hyphenation code of character c1 to code1, that of c2 to code2,
etc. A hyphenation code must be a single input character (not a special
character) other than a digit or a space.
To make hyphenation work, hyphenation codes must be set up. At start-
up, groff only assigns hyphenation codes to the letters ‘a’–‘z’ (mapped
to themselves) and to the letters ‘A’–‘Z’ (mapped to ‘a’–‘z’); all other
hyphenation codes are set to zero. Normally, hyphenation patterns con-
tain only lowercase letters, which should be applied regardless of case. In
other words, the words ‘FOO’ and ‘Foo’ should be hyphenated exactly the
same way as the word ‘foo’ is hyphenated, and this is what hcode is good
for. Words that contain other letters won’t be hyphenated properly if the
corresponding hyphenation patterns actually do contain them. For ex-
ample, the following hcode requests are necessary to assign hyphenation
codes to the letters ‘ÄäÖöÜüß’ (this is needed for German):
.hcode ä ä Ä ä
.hcode ö ö Ö ö
.hcode ü ü Ü ü
.hcode ß ß
Without those assignments, groff treats German words like ‘Kindergärten’
(the plural form of ‘kindergarten’) as two substrings ‘kinderg’ and ‘rten’
because the hyphenation code of the umlaut a is zero by default. There
is a German hyphenation pattern that covers ‘kinder’, so groff finds the
hyphenation ‘kin-der’. The other two hyphenation points (‘kin-der-gär-
ten’) are missed.
This request is ignored if it has no parameter.
.hym [length] [Request]
\n[.hym] [Register]
Set the (right) hyphenation margin to length. If the current adjustment
mode is not ‘b’ or ‘n’, the line is not hyphenated if it is shorter than
length. Without an argument, the hyphenation margin is reset to its
default value, which is 0. The default scaling indicator for this request is
‘m’. The hyphenation margin is associated with the current environment
A negative argument resets the hyphenation margin to zero, emitting a
warning of type ‘range’.
The current hyphenation margin is available in the .hym read-only num-
ber register.
.hys [hyphenation space] [Request]
\n[.hys] [Register]
Set the hyphenation space to hyphenation space. If the current adjust-
ment mode is ‘b’ or ‘n’, don’t hyphenate the line if it can be justified
by adding no more than hyphenation space extra space to each word
space. Without argument, the hyphenation space is set to its default
value, which is 0. The default scaling indicator for this request is ‘m’.
The hyphenation space is associated with the current environment (see
A negative argument resets the hyphenation space to zero, emitting a
warning of type ‘range’.
The current hyphenation space is available in the .hys read-only number
register.
.shc [glyph] [Request]

Set the soft hyphen character to glyph.6 If the argument is omitted,
the soft hyphen character is set to the default glyph \(hy (this is the
start-up value of gtroff also). The soft hyphen character is the glyph
that is inserted when a word is hyphenated at a line break. If the soft
hyphen character does not exist in the font of the character immediately
preceding a potential break point, then the line is not broken at that
point. Neither definitions (specified with the char request) nor transla-
tions (specified with the tr request) are considered when finding the soft
hyphen character.
.hla language [Request]

\n[.hla] [Register]
Set the current hyphenation language to the string language. Hyphen-
ation exceptions specified with the hw request and hyphenation patterns
specified with the hpf and hpfa requests are both associated with the
current hyphenation language. The hla request is usually invoked by the
troffrc or the troffrc-end files; troffrc sets the default language to
‘us’.
The current hyphenation language is available as a string in the read-only
number register ‘.hla’.
.ds curr_language \n[.hla]
\*[curr_language]
⇒ us
5.9 Manipulating Spacing

.sp [distance] [Request]
Space downwards distance. With no argument it advances 1 line. A nega-
tive argument causes gtroff to move up the page the specified distance.
If the argument is preceded by a ‘|’ then gtroff moves that distance
from the top of the page. This request causes a line break, and that adds
the current line spacing to the space you have just specified. The default
scaling indicator is ‘v’.
6
Soft hyphen character is a misnomer since it is an output glyph.
For convenience you may wish to use the following macros to set the
height of the next line at a given distance from the top or the bottom of
the page:
.de y-from-top-down
. sp |\\$1-\\n[.v]u
..
.
.de y-from-bot-up
. sp |\\n[.p]u-\\$1-\\n[.v]u
..
A call to ‘.y-from-bot-up 10c’ means that the bottom of the next line
will be at 10 cm from the paper edge at the bottom.
If a vertical trap is sprung during execution of sp, the amount of vertical
space after the trap is discarded. For example, this
.de xxx
..
.
.wh 0 xxx
.
.pl 5v
foo
.sp 2
bar
.sp 50
baz
results in
foo
bar
baz
The amount of discarded space is available in the number register .trunc.
To protect sp against vertical traps, use the vpt request:
.vpt 0
.sp -3
.vpt 1
.ls [nnn] [Request]
\n[.L] [Register]
Output nnn−1 blank lines after each line of text. With no argument,
gtroff uses the previous value before the last ls call.
.ls 2 \" This causes double-spaced output
.ls 3 \" This causes triple-spaced output
.ls \" Again double-spaced
The line spacing is associated with the current environment (see

The read-only number register .L contains the current line spacing set-
ting.
See Section 5.18.1 [Changing Type Sizes], page 128, for the requests vs
and pvs as alternatives to ls.
\x’spacing’ [Escape]
\n[.a] [Register]
Sometimes, extra vertical spacing is only needed occasionally, e.g. to allow
space for a tall construct (like an equation). The \x escape does this. The
escape is given a numerical argument, usually enclosed in quotes (like
‘\x’3p’’); the default scaling indicator is ‘v’. If this number is positive
extra vertical space is inserted below the current line. A negative number
adds space above. If this escape is used multiple times on the same line,
the maximum of the values is used.
See Section 5.5.3 [Escapes], page 70, for details on parameter delimiting
characters.
The .a read-only number register contains the most recent (non-negative)
extra vertical line space.
Using \x can be necessary in combination with the \b escape, as the
following example shows.
This is a test with the \[rs]b escape.
.br
.br
This is a test with \b’xyz’\x’-1m’\x’1m’.
.br
.br
produces
This is a test with the \b escape.
x
This is a test with y.
z
.ns [Request]
.rs [Request]
\n[.ns] [Register]
Enable no-space mode. In this mode, spacing (either via sp or via blank
lines) is disabled. The bp request to advance to the next page is also
disabled, except if it is accompanied by a page number (see Section 5.16

[Page Control], page 107, for more information). This mode ends when
actual text is output or the rs request is encountered, which ends no-
space mode. The read-only number register .ns is set to 1 as long as
no-space mode is active.
This request is useful for macros that conditionally insert vertical space
before the text starts (for example, a paragraph macro could insert some
space except when it is the first paragraph after a section header).
5.10 Tabs and Fields

A tab character (ASCII char 9, EBCDIC char 5) causes a horizontal movement
to the next tab stop (much like it did on a typewriter).
\t [Escape]
This escape is a non-interpreted tab character. In copy mode (see
Section 5.21.1 [Copy-in Mode], page 144), \t is the same as a real tab
character.
.ta [n1 n2 . . . nn T r1 r2 . . . rn] [Request]

\n[.tabs] [Register]
Change tab stop positions. This request takes a series of tab specifiers
as arguments (optionally divided into two groups with the letter ‘T’) that
indicate where each tab stop is to be (overriding any previous settings).
Tab stops can be specified absolutely, i.e., as the distance from the left
margin. For example, the following sets 6 tab stops every one inch.
.ta 1i 2i 3i 4i 5i 6i
Tab stops can also be specified using a leading ‘+’, which means that the
specified tab stop is set relative to the previous tab stop. For example,
the following is equivalent to the previous example.
.ta 1i +1i +1i +1i +1i +1i
gtroff supports an extended syntax to specify repeat values after the ‘T’
mark (these values are always taken as relative) – this is the usual way to
specify tabs set at equal intervals. The following is, yet again, the same
as the previous examples. It does even more since it defines an infinite
number of tab stops separated by one inch.
.ta T 1i
Now we are ready to interpret the full syntax given at the beginning: Set
tabs at positions n1, n2, . . . , nn and then set tabs at nn+r1, nn+r2, . . . ,
nn+rn and then at nn+rn+r1, nn+rn+r2, . . . , nn+rn+rn, and so on.
Example: ‘4c +6c T 3c 5c 2c’ is equivalent to ‘4c 10c 13c 18c 20c 23c
28c 30c ...’.
The material in each tab column (i.e., the column between two tab stops)
may be justified to the right or left or centered in the column. This is
specified by appending ‘R’, ‘L’, or ‘C’ to the tab specifier. The default
justification is ‘L’. Example:
.ta 1i 2iC 3iR
Some notes:
• The default unit of the ta request is ‘m’.
• A tab stop is converted into a non-breakable horizontal movement
that can be neither stretched nor squeezed. For example,
.ds foo a\tb\tc
.ta T 5i
\*[foo]
creates a single line, which is a bit longer than 10 inches (a string is
used to show exactly where the tab characters are). Now consider
the following:
.ds bar a\tb b\tc
.ta T 5i
\*[bar]
gtroff first converts the tab stops of the line into unbreakable hori-
zontal movements, then splits the line after the second ‘b’ (assuming
a sufficiently short line length). Usually, this isn’t what the user
wants.
• Superfluous tabs (i.e., tab characters that do not correspond to a
tab stop) are ignored except the first one, which delimits the char-
acters belonging to the last tab stop for right-justifying or centering.
Consider the following example
.ds Z foo\tbar\tfoo
.ds ZZ foo\tbar\tfoobar
.ds ZZZ foo\tbar\tfoo\tbar
.ta 2i 4iR
\*[Z]
.br
\*[ZZ]
.br
\*[ZZZ]
.br
which produces the following output:
foo bar foo
foo bar foobar
foo bar foobar
The first line right-justifies the second ‘foo’ relative to the tab stop.
The second line right-justifies ‘foobar’. The third line finally right-
justifies only ‘foo’ because of the additional tab character, which
marks the end of the string belonging to the last defined tab stop.
• Tab stops are associated with the current environment (see

• Calling ta without an argument removes all tab stops.
• The start-up value of gtroff is ‘T 0.5i’.
The read-only number register .tabs contains a string representation of
the current tab settings suitable for use as an argument to the ta request.
.ds tab-string \n[.tabs]
\*[tab-string]
⇒ T120u
The troff version of the Plan 9 operating system uses register .S for the
same purpose.
.tc [fill-glyph] [Request]
Normally gtroff fills the space to the next tab stop with whitespace. This
can be changed with the tc request. With no argument gtroff reverts
to using whitespace, which is the default. The value of this tab repetition
character is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26
[Environments], page 166).7
.linetabs n [Request]
\n[.linetabs] [Register]
If n is missing or not zero, enable line-tabs mode, or disable it otherwise
(the default). In line-tabs mode, gtroff computes tab distances relative
to the (current) output line instead of the input line.
For example, the following code:
.ds x a\t\c
.ds y b\t\c
.ds z c
.ta 1i 3i
\*x
\*y
\*z
in normal mode, results in the output
a b c
in line-tabs mode, the same code outputs
a b c
Line-tabs mode is associated with the current environment. The read-
only register .linetabs is set to 1 if in line-tabs mode, and 0 in normal
mode.
5.10.1 Leaders
Sometimes it may be desirable to use the tc request to fill a particular
tab stop with a given glyph (for example dots in a table of contents), but
7
Tab repetition character is a misnomer since it is an output glyph.
also normal tab stops on the rest of the line. For this gtroff provides an
alternate tab mechanism, called leaders, which does just that.
A leader character (character code 1) behaves similarly to a tab character:
It moves to the next tab stop. The only difference is that for this movement,
the fill glyph defaults to a period character and not to space.
\a [Escape]
This escape is a non-interpreted leader character. In copy mode (see
Section 5.21.1 [Copy-in Mode], page 144), \a is the same as a real leader
character.
.lc [fill-glyph] [Request]
Declare the leader repetition character.8 Without an argument, leaders
act the same as tabs (i.e., using whitespace for filling). gtroff’s start-
up value is a dot (‘.’). The value of the leader repetition character is
associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26 [Environments],
page 166).
For a table of contents, to name an example, tab stops may be defined
so that the section number is one tab stop, the title is the second with the
remaining space being filled with a line of dots, and then the page number
slightly separated from the dots.
.ds entry 1.1\tFoo\a\t12
.lc .
.ta 1i 5i +.25i
\*[entry]
This produces
1.1 Foo.......................................... 12
5.10.2 Fields
Fields are a more general way of laying out tabular data. A field is defined as
the data between a pair of delimiting characters. It contains substrings that
are separated by padding characters. The width of a field is the distance on
the input line from the position where the field starts to the next tab stop. A
padding character inserts stretchable space similar to TEX’s \hss command
(thus it can even be negative) to make the sum of all substring lengths plus
the stretchable space equal to the field width. If more than one padding
character is inserted, the available space is evenly distributed among them.
.fc [delim-char [padding-char]] [Request]
Define a delimiting and a padding character for fields. If the latter is
missing, the padding character defaults to a space character. If there is
no argument at all, the field mechanism is disabled (which is the default).
Note that contrary to e.g. the tab repetition character, delimiting and
8
Leader repetition character is a misnomer since it is an output glyph.
padding characters are not associated to the current environment (see

Example:
.fc # ^
.ta T 3i
#foo^bar^smurf#
.br
#foo^^bar^smurf#
and here the result:
foo bar smurf
foo bar smurf
5.11 Character Translations

The control character (‘.’) and the no-break control character (‘’’) can be
changed with the cc and c2 requests, respectively.
.cc [c] [Request]

Set the control character to c. With no argument the default control
character ‘.’ is restored. The value of the control character is associated
with the current environment (see Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166).
.c2 [c] [Request]

Set the no-break control character to c. With no argument the default
control character ‘’’ is restored. The value of the no-break control char-
acter is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26 [Envi-
ronments], page 166).
See Section 5.5.1 [Requests], page 67.
.eo [Request]
Disable the escape mechanism completely. After executing this request,
the backslash character ‘\’ no longer starts an escape sequence.
This request can be very helpful in writing macros since it is not necessary
then to double the escape character. Here an example:
.\" This is a simplified version of the

.\" .BR request from the man macro package
.eo
.de BR
. ds result \&
. while (\n[.$] >= 2) \{\
. as result \fB\$1\fR\$2
. shift 2
. \}
. if \n[.$] .as result \fB\$1
\*[result]
. ft R
..
.ec
.ec [c] [Request]
Set the escape character to c. With no argument the default escape
character ‘\’ is restored. It can be also used to re-enable the escape
mechanism after an eo request.
Note that changing the escape character globally likely breaks macro
packages since gtroff has no mechanism to ‘intern’ macros, i.e., to con-
vert a macro definition into an internal form that is independent of its
representation (TEX has this mechanism). If a macro is called, it is exe-
cuted literally.
.ecs [Request]
.ecr [Request]
The ecs request saves the current escape character in an internal register.
Use this request in combination with the ec request to temporarily change
the escape character.
The ecr request restores the escape character saved with ecs. Without
a previous call to ecs, this request sets the escape character to \.
\\ [Escape]
\e [Escape]
\E [Escape]
Print the current escape character (which is the backslash character ‘\’
by default).
\\ is a ‘delayed’ backslash; more precisely, it is the default escape char-
acter followed by a backslash, which no longer has special meaning due
to the leading escape character. It is not an escape sequence in the usual
sense! In any unknown escape sequence \X the escape character is ignored
and X is printed. But if X is equal to the current escape character, no
warning is emitted.
As a consequence, only at top-level or in a diversion a backslash glyph
is printed; in copy-in mode, it expands to a single backslash, which then
combines with the following character to an escape sequence.
The \E escape differs from \e by printing an escape character that is not

interpreted in copy mode. Use this to define strings with escapes that
work when used in copy mode (for example, as a macro argument). The
following example defines strings to begin and end a superscript:
.ds { \v’-.3m’\s’\En[.s]*60/100’
.ds } \s0\v’.3m’
Another example to demonstrate the differences between the various es-
cape sequences, using a strange escape character, ‘-’.
.ec -
.de xxx
--A’foo’
..
.xxx
⇒ -A’foo’
The result is surprising for most users, expecting ‘1’ since ‘foo’ is a valid
identifier. What has happened? As mentioned above, the leading escape
character makes the following character ordinary. Written with the de-
fault escape character the sequence ‘--’ becomes ‘\-’ – this is the minus
sign.
If the escape character followed by itself is a valid escape sequence, only
\E yields the expected result:
.ec -
.de xxx
-EA’foo’
..
.xxx
⇒ 1
\. [Escape]
Similar to \\, the sequence \. isn’t a real escape sequence. As before,
a warning message is suppressed if the escape character is followed by a
dot, and the dot itself is printed.
.de foo
. nop foo
.
. de bar
. nop bar
\\..
.
..
.foo
.bar
⇒ foo bar
The first backslash is consumed while the macro is read, and the second
is swallowed while executing macro foo.
A translation is a mapping of an input character to an output glyph.

The mapping occurs at output time, i.e., the input character gets assigned
the metric information of the mapped output character right before input
tokens are converted to nodes (see Section 5.32 [Gtroff Internals], page 178,
for more on this process).
.tr abcd . . . [Request]
.trin abcd. . . [Request]
Translate character a to glyph b, character c to glyph d, etc. If there is an
odd number of arguments, the last one is translated to an unstretchable
space (‘\ ’).
The trin request is identical to tr, but when you unformat a diversion
with asciify it ignores the translation. See Section 5.25 [Diversions],
page 162, for details about the asciify request.
Some notes:
• Special characters (\(xx, \[xxx], \C’xxx’, \’, \‘, \-, \_), glyphs
defined with the char request, and numbered glyphs (\N’xxx’) can
be translated also.
• The \e escape can be translated also.
• Characters can be mapped onto the \% and \~ escapes (but \% and
\~ can’t be mapped onto another glyph).
• The following characters can’t be translated: space (with one ex-
ception, see below), backspace, newline, leader (and \a), tab (and
\t).
• Translations are not considered for finding the soft hyphen character
set with the shc request.
• The pair ‘c\&’ (this is an arbitrary character c followed by the zero
width space character) maps this character to nothing.
.tr a\&
foo bar
⇒ foo br
It is even possible to map the space character to nothing:
.tr aa \&
foo bar
⇒ foobar
As shown in the example, the space character can’t be the first char-
acter/glyph pair as an argument of tr. Additionally, it is not pos-
sible to map the space character to any other glyph; requests like
‘.tr aa x’ undo ‘.tr aa \&’ instead.
If justification is active, lines are justified in spite of the ‘empty’ space
character (but there is no minimal distance, i.e. the space character,
between words).
• After an output glyph has been constructed (this happens at the mo-
ment immediately before the glyph is appended to an output glyph
list, either by direct output, in a macro, diversion, or string), it is no

longer affected by tr.
• Translating character to glyphs where one of them or both are un-
defined is possible also; tr does not check whether the entities in its
argument do exist.
See Section 5.32 [Gtroff Internals], page 178.
• troff no longer has a hard-coded dependency on Latin-1; all
charXXX entities have been removed from the font description files.
This has a notable consequence that shows up in warnings like can’t
find character with input code XXX if the tr request isn’t han-
dled properly.
Consider the following translation:
.tr éÉ
This maps input character é onto glyph É, which is identical to
glyph char201. But this glyph intentionally doesn’t exist! Instead,
\[char201] is treated as an input character entity and is by de-
fault mapped onto \[’E], and gtroff doesn’t handle translations of
translations.
The right way to write the above translation is
.tr é\[’E]
In other words, the first argument of tr should be an input character
or entity, and the second one a glyph entity.
• Without an argument, the tr request is ignored.
.trnt abcd. . . [Request]
trnt is the same as the tr request except that the translations do not
apply to text that is transparently throughput into a diversion with \!.
See Section 5.25 [Diversions], page 162, for more information.
For example,
.tr ab
.di x
\!.tm a
.di
.x
prints ‘b’ to the standard error stream; if trnt is used instead of tr it
prints ‘a’.
5.12 Troff and Nroff Mode

Originally, nroff and troff were two separate programs, the former for
TTY output, the latter for everything else. With GNU troff, both pro-
grams are merged into one executable, sending its output to a device driver
(grotty for TTY devices, grops for PostScript, etc.) which interprets the
intermediate output of gtroff. For Unix troff it makes sense to talk about
Nroff mode and Troff mode since the differences are hardcoded. For GNU
troff, this distinction is not appropriate because gtroff simply takes the
information given in the font files for a particular device without handling
requests specially if a TTY output device is used.
Usually, a macro package can be used with all output devices. Never-
theless, it is sometimes necessary to make a distinction between TTY and
non-TTY devices: gtroff provides two built-in conditions ‘n’ and ‘t’ for
the if, ie, and while requests to decide whether gtroff shall behave like
nroff or like troff.
.troff [Request]
Make the ‘t’ built-in condition true (and the ‘n’ built-in condition false)
for if, ie, and while conditional requests. This is the default if gtroff
(not groff) is started with the -R switch to avoid loading of the start-up
files troffrc and troffrc-end. Without -R, gtroff stays in troff mode
if the output device is not a TTY (e.g. ‘ps’).
.nroff [Request]
Make the ‘n’ built-in condition true (and the ‘t’ built-in condition false)
for if, ie, and while conditional requests. This is the default if gtroff
uses a TTY output device; the code for switching to nroff mode is in the
file tty.tmac, which is loaded by the start-up file troffrc.
See Section 5.20 [Conditionals and Loops], page 136, for more details on
built-in conditions.
5.13 Line Layout

The following drawing shows the dimensions that gtroff uses for placing
a line of output onto the page. They are labeled with the request that
manipulates each dimension.
-->| in |<--
|<-----------ll------------>|
+----+----+----------------------+----+
| : : : |
+----+----+----------------------+----+
-->| po |<--
|<--------paper width---------------->|
These dimensions are:
po Page offset – this is the leftmost position of text on the final
output, defining the left margin.
in Indentation – this is the distance from the left margin where
text is printed.
ll Line length – this is the distance from the left margin to right
margin.
A simple demonstration:
.ll 3i
This is text without indentation.
The line length has been set to 3\~inch.
.in +.5i
.ll -.5i
Now the left and right margins are both increased.
.in
.ll
Calling .in and .ll without parameters restore
the previous values.
Result:
This is text without indenta-
tion. The line length has
been set to 3 inch.
Now the left and
right margins are
both increased.
Calling .in and .ll without
parameters restore the previ-
ous values.
.po [offset] [Request]

.po +offset [Request]
.po -offset [Request]
\n[.o] [Register]
Set horizontal page offset to offset (or increment or decrement the cur-
rent value by offset). Note that this request does not cause a break, so
changing the page offset in the middle of text being filled may not yield
the expected result. The initial value is 1 i. For TTY output devices, it
is set to 0 in the startup file troffrc; the default scaling indicator is ‘m’
(and not ‘v’ as incorrectly documented in the original Unix troff manual).
The current page offset can be found in the read-only number register
‘.o’.
If po is called without an argument, the page offset is reset to the previous
value before the last call to po.
.po 3i
\n[.o]
⇒ 720
.po -1i
\n[.o]
⇒ 480
.po
\n[.o]
⇒ 720
.in [indent] [Request]

.in +indent [Request]
.in -indent [Request]
\n[.i] [Register]
Set indentation to indent (or increment or decrement the current value
by indent). This request causes a break. Initially, there is no indentation.
If in is called without an argument, the indentation is reset to the previous
value before the last call to in. The default scaling indicator is ‘m’.
The indentation is associated with the current environment (see
If a negative indentation value is specified (which is not allowed), gtroff
emits a warning of type ‘range’ and sets the indentation to zero.
The effect of in is delayed until a partially collected line (if it exists) is
output. A temporary indentation value is reset to zero also.
The current indentation (as set by in) can be found in the read-only
number register ‘.i’.
.ti offset [Request]

.ti +offset [Request]
.ti -offset [Request]
\n[.in] [Register]
Temporarily indent the next output line by offset. If an increment or
decrement value is specified, adjust the temporary indentation relative to
the value set by the in request.
This request causes a break; its value is associated with the current envi-
ronment (see Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166). The default scaling
indicator is ‘m’. A call of ti without an argument is ignored.
If the total indentation value is negative (which is not allowed), gtroff
emits a warning of type ‘range’ and sets the temporary indentation to
zero. ‘Total indentation’ is either offset if specified as an absolute value,
or the temporary plus normal indentation, if offset is given as a relative
value.
The effect of ti is delayed until a partially collected line (if it exists) is
output.
The read-only number register .in is the indentation that applies to the
current output line.
The difference between .i and .in is that the latter takes into account
whether a partially collected line still uses the old indentation value or a
temporary indentation value is active.
.ll [length] [Request]

.ll +length [Request]
.ll -length [Request]
\n[.l] [Register]
\n[.ll] [Register]
Set the line length to length (or increment or decrement the current value
by length). Initially, the line length is set to 6.5 i. The effect of ll is
delayed until a partially collected line (if it exists) is output. The default
scaling indicator is ‘m’.
If ll is called without an argument, the line length is reset to the previous
value before the last call to ll. If a negative line length is specified (which
is not allowed), gtroff emits a warning of type ‘range’ and sets the line
length to zero.
The line length is associated with the current environment (see
The current line length (as set by ll) can be found in the read-only
number register ‘.l’. The read-only number register .ll is the line length
that applies to the current output line.
Similar to .i and .in, the difference between .l and .ll is that the latter
takes into account whether a partially collected line still uses the old line
length value.
5.14 Line Control

It is important to understand how gtroff handles input and output lines.
Many escapes use positioning relative to the input line. For example, this
This is a \h’|1.2i’test.
This is a
\h’|1.2i’test.
produces
This is a test.
This is a test.
The main usage of this feature is to define macros that act exactly at the
place where called.
.\" A simple macro to underline a word
.de underline
. nop \\$1\l’|0\[ul]’
..
In the above example, ‘|0’ specifies a negative distance from the current
position (at the end of the just emitted argument \$1) back to the beginning
of the input line. Thus, the ‘\l’ escape draws a line from right to left.
gtroff makes a difference between input and output line continuation;
the latter is also called interrupting a line.
\RET [Escape]
\c [Escape]
\n[.int] [Register]
Continue a line. \RET (this is a backslash at the end of a line immediately
followed by a newline) works on the input level, suppressing the effects
of the following newline in the input.
This is a \
.test
⇒ This is a .test
The ‘|’ operator is also affected.
\c works on the output level. Anything after this escape on the same
line is ignored except \R, which works as usual. Anything before \c on
the same line is appended to the current partial output line. The next
non-command line after an interrupted line counts as a new input line.
The visual results depend on whether no-fill mode is active.
• If no-fill mode is active (using the nf request), the next input text
line after \c is handled as a continuation of the same input text line.
.nf
This is a \c
test.
⇒ This is a test.
• If fill mode is active (using the fi request), a word interrupted with
\c is continued with the text on the next input text line, without an
intervening space.
This is a te\c
st.
⇒ This is a test.
Note that an intervening control line that causes a break is stronger than
\c, flushing out the current partial line in the usual way.
The .int register contains a positive value if the last output line was
interrupted with \c; this is associated with the current environment (see
5.15 Page Layout

gtroff provides some very primitive operations for controlling page layout.
.pl [length] [Request]

.pl +length [Request]
.pl -length [Request]
\n[.p] [Register]
Set the page length to length (or increment or decrement the current
value by length). This is the length of the physical output page. The
default scaling indicator is ‘v’.
The current setting can be found in the read-only number register ‘.p’.
Note that this only specifies the size of the page, not the top and bottom
margins. Those are not set by gtroff directly. See Section 5.24 [Traps],
page 155, for further information on how to do this.
Negative pl values are possible also, but not very useful: No trap is
sprung, and each line is output on a single page (thus suppressing all
vertical spacing).
If no argument or an invalid argument is given, pl sets the page length
to 11 i.
gtroff provides several operations that help in setting up top and bottom
titles (or headers and footers).
.tl ’left’center’right’ [Request]
Print a title line. It consists of three parts: a left justified portion, a
centered portion, and a right justified portion. The argument separator
‘’’ can be replaced with any character not occurring in the title line. The
‘%’ character is replaced with the current page number. This character
can be changed with the pc request (see below).
Without argument, tl is ignored.
Some notes:
• The line length set by the ll request is not honoured by tl; use the
lt request (described below) instead, to control line length for text
set by tl.
• A title line is not restricted to the top or bottom of a page.
• tl prints the title line immediately, ignoring a partially filled line
(which stays untouched).
• It is not an error to omit closing delimiters. For example, ‘.tl /foo’
is equivalent to ‘.tl /foo///’: It prints a title line with the left
justified word ‘foo’; the centered and right justified parts are empty.
• tl accepts the same parameter delimiting characters as the \A escape;
see Section 5.5.3 [Escapes], page 70.
.lt [length] [Request]
.lt +length [Request]
.lt -length [Request]
\n[.lt] [Register]
The title line is printed using its own line length, which is specified (or
incremented or decremented) with the lt request. Initially, the title line
length is set to 6.5 i. If a negative line length is specified (which is not
allowed), gtroff emits a warning of type ‘range’ and sets the title line
length to zero. The default scaling indicator is ‘m’. If lt is called without
an argument, the title length is reset to the previous value before the last
call to lt.
The current setting of this is available in the .lt read-only number reg-
ister; it is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26 [En-
vironments], page 166).
.pn page [Request]

.pn +page [Request]
.pn -page [Request]
\n[.pn] [Register]
Change (increase or decrease) the page number of the next page. The only
argument is the page number; the request is ignored without a parameter.
The read-only number register .pn contains the number of the next page:
either the value set by a pn request, or the number of the current page
plus 1.
.pc [char] [Request]
Change the page number character (used by the tl request) to a different
character. With no argument, this mechanism is disabled. Note that this
doesn’t affect the number register %.
See Section 5.24 [Traps], page 155.
5.16 Page Control

.bp [page] [Request]
.bp +page [Request]
.bp -page [Request]
\n[%] [Register]
Stop processing the current page and move to the next page. This request
causes a break. It can also take an argument to set (increase, decrease)
the page number of the next page (which actually becomes the current
page after bp has finished). The difference between bp and pn is that pn
does not cause a break or actually eject a page. See Section 5.15 [Page
Layout], page 105.
.de newpage \" define macro
’bp \" begin page
’sp .5i \" vertical space
.tl ’left top’center top’right top’ \" title
’sp .3i \" vertical space
.. \" end macro
bp has no effect if not called within the top-level diversion (see Section 5.25
[Diversions], page 162).
The read-write register % holds the current page number.
The number register .pe is set to 1 while bp is active. See Section 5.24.1
[Page Location Traps], page 155.
.ne [space] [Request]
It is often necessary to force a certain amount of space before a new page
occurs. This is most useful to make sure that there is not a single orphan
line left at the bottom of a page. The ne request ensures that there is
a certain distance, specified by the first argument, before the next page
is triggered (see Section 5.24 [Traps], page 155, for further information).
The default scaling indicator for ne is ‘v’; the default value of space is 1 v
if no argument is given.
For example, to make sure that no fewer than 2 lines get orphaned, do
the following before each paragraph:
.ne 2
text text text
ne then automatically causes a page break if there is space for one line
only.
.sv [space] [Request]

.os [Request]
sv is similar to the ne request; it reserves the specified amount of vertical
space. If the desired amount of space exists before the next trap (or the
bottom page boundary if no trap is set), the space is output immediately
(ignoring a partially filled line, which stays untouched). If there is not
enough space, it is stored for later output via the os request. The default
value is 1 v if no argument is given; the default scaling indicator is ‘v’.
Both sv and os ignore no-space mode. While the sv request allows neg-
ative values for space, os ignores them.
\n[nl] [Register]
This register contains the current vertical position. If the vertical position
is zero and the top of page transition hasn’t happened yet, nl is set
to negative value. gtroff itself does this at the very beginning of a
document before anything has been printed, but the main usage is to
plant a header trap on a page if this page has already started.
Consider the following:
.de xxx
. sp
. tl ’’Header’’
. sp
..
.
First page.
.bp
.wh 0 xxx
.nr nl (-1)
Second page.
Result:
First page.
...
Header
Second page.
...
Without resetting nl to a negative value, the just planted trap would be
active beginning with the next page, not the current one.
See Section 5.25 [Diversions], page 162, for a comparison with the .h and
.d registers.
5.17 Fonts and Symbols

gtroff can switch fonts at any point in the text.
The basic set of fonts is ‘R’, ‘I’, ‘B’, and ‘BI’. These are Times Roman,
Italic, Bold, and Bold Italic. For non-TTY devices, there is also at least one
symbol font that contains various special symbols (Greek, mathematics).
5.17.1 Changing Fonts

.ft [font] [Request]
\ff [Escape]
\f(fn [Escape]
\f[font] [Escape]
\n[.sty] [Register]
The ft request and the \f escape change the current font to font (one-
character name f, two-character name fn).
If font is a style name (as set with the sty request or with the styles
command in the DESC file), use it within the current font family (as set
with the fam request, the \F escape, or the family command in the DESC
file).
It is not possible to switch to a font with the name ‘DESC’ (whereas this
name could be used as a style name; however, this is not recommended).
With no argument or using ‘P’ as an argument, .ft switches to the pre-
vious font. Use \f[] to do this with the escape. The old syntax forms
\fP or \f[P] are also supported.
Fonts are generally specified as upper-case strings, which are usually 1 to
4 characters representing an abbreviation or acronym of the font name.
This is no limitation, just a convention.
The example below produces two identical lines.
eggs, bacon,
.ft B
spam
.ft
and sausage.
eggs, bacon, \fBspam\fP and sausage.

Note that \f doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff. As a conse-
quence, it can be used in requests like mc (which expects a single character
as an argument) to change the font on the fly:
.mc \f[I]x\f[]
The current style name is available in the read-only number register ‘.sty’
(this is a string-valued register); if the current font isn’t a style, the empty
string is returned. It is associated with the current environment.
See Section 5.17.3 [Font Positions], page 113, for an alternative syntax.
.ftr f [g] [Request]

Translate font f to font g. Whenever a font named f is referred to in a
\f escape sequence, in the F and S conditional operators, or in the ft,
ul, bd, cs, tkf, special, fspecial, fp, or sty requests, font g is used.
If g is missing or equal to f the translation is undone.
Note that it is not possible to chain font translations. Example:
.ftr XXX TR
.ftr XXX YYY
.ft XXX
⇒ warning: can’t find font ‘XXX’
.fzoom f [zoom] [Request]

\n[.zoom] [Register]
Set magnification of font f to factor zoom, which must be a non-negative
integer multiple of 1/1000th. This request is useful to adjust the optical
size of a font in relation to the others. In the example below, font CR is
magnified by 10% (the zoom factor is thus 1.1).
.fam P
.fzoom CR 1100
.ps 12
Palatino and \f[CR]Courier\f[]
A missing or zero value of zoom is the same as a value of 1000, which
means no magnification. f must be a real font name, not a style.
Note that the magnification of a font is completely transparent to troff;
a change of the zoom factor doesn’t cause any effect except that the
dimensions of glyphs, (word) spaces, kerns, etc., of the affected font are
adjusted accordingly.
The zoom factor of the current font is available in the read-only number
register ‘.zoom’, in multiples of 1/1000th. It returns zero if there is no
magnification.
5.17.2 Font Families

Due to the variety of fonts available, gtroff has added the concept of font
families and font styles. The fonts are specified as the concatenation of
the font family and style. Specifying a font without the family part causes
gtroff to use that style of the current family.
Currently, fonts for the devices -Tps, -Tpdf, -Tdvi, -Tlj4, -Tlbp, and
the X11 fonts are set up to this mechanism. By default, gtroff uses the
Times family with the four styles ‘R’, ‘I’, ‘B’, and ‘BI’.
This way, it is possible to use the basic four fonts and to select a different
font family on the command line (see Section 2.1 [Groff Options], page 7).
.fam [family] [Request]

\n[.fam] [Register]
\Ff [Escape]
\F(fm [Escape]
\F[family] [Escape]
\n[.fn] [Register]
Switch font family to family (one-character name f, two-character name
fm). If no argument is given, switch back to the previous font family. Use
\F[] to do this with the escape. Note that \FP doesn’t work; it selects
font family ‘P’ instead.
The value at start-up is ‘T’. The current font family is available in the
read-only number register ‘.fam’ (this is a string-valued register); it is
associated with the current environment.
spam,
.fam H \" helvetica family
spam, \" used font is family H + style R = HR
.ft B \" family H + style B = font HB
spam,
.fam T \" times family
spam, \" used font is family T + style B = TB
.ft AR \" font AR (not a style)
baked beans,
.ft R \" family T + style R = font TR
and spam.
Note that \F doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff. As a conse-
as an argument) to change the font family on the fly:
.mc \F[P]x\F[]
The ‘.fn’ register contains the current real font name of the current font.
This is a string-valued register. If the current font is a style, the value of
\n[.fn] is the proper concatenation of family and style name.
.sty n style [Request]

Associate style with font position n. A font position can be associated
either with a font or with a style. The current font is the index of a font
position and so is also either a font or a style. If it is a style, the font that
is actually used is the font which name is the concatenation of the name
of the current family and the name of the current style. For example, if
the current font is 1 and font position 1 is associated with style ‘R’ and
the current font family is ‘T’, then font ‘TR’ is used. If the current font
is not a style, then the current family is ignored. If the requests cs, bd,
tkf, uf, or fspecial are applied to a style, they are instead applied to
the member of the current family corresponding to that style.
n must be a non-negative integer value.
The default family can be set with the -f option (see Section 2.1 [Groff
Options], page 7). The styles command in the DESC file controls which
font positions (if any) are initially associated with styles rather than fonts.
For example, the default setting for PostScript fonts
styles R I B BI
is equivalent to
.sty 1 R
.sty 2 I
.sty 3 B
.sty 4 BI
fam and \F always check whether the current font position is valid; this
can give surprising results if the current font position is associated with
a style.
In the following example, we want to access the PostScript font FooBar
from the font family Foo:
.sty \n[.fp] Bar
.fam Foo
⇒ warning: can’t find font ‘FooR’
The default font position at start-up is 1; for the PostScript device,
this is associated with style ‘R’, so gtroff tries to open FooR.
A solution to this problem is to use a dummy font like the following:
.fp 0 dummy TR \" set up dummy font at position 0
.sty \n[.fp] Bar \" register style ‘Bar’
.ft 0 \" switch to font at position 0
.fam Foo \" activate family ‘Foo’
.ft Bar \" switch to font ‘FooBar’
See Section 5.17.3 [Font Positions], page 113.
5.17.3 Font Positions

For the sake of old phototypesetters and compatibility with old versions of
troff, gtroff has the concept of font positions, on which various fonts are
mounted.
.fp pos font [external-name] [Request]

\n[.f] [Register]
\n[.fp] [Register]
Mount font font at position pos (which must be a non-negative integer).
This numeric position can then be referred to with font changing com-
mands. When gtroff starts it is using font position 1 (which must exist;
position 0 is unused usually at start-up).
The current font in use, as a font position, is available in the read-only
number register ‘.f’. This can be useful to remember the current font for
later recall. It is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26
[Environments], page 166).
.nr save-font \n[.f]
.ft B
... text text text ...
.ft \n[save-font]
The number of the next free font position is available in the read-only
number register ‘.fp’. This is useful when mounting a new font, like so:
.fp \n[.fp] NEATOFONT
Fonts not listed in the DESC file are automatically mounted on the next
available font position when they are referenced. If a font is to be mounted
explicitly with the fp request on an unused font position, it should be
mounted on the first unused font position, which can be found in the .fp
register. Although gtroff does not enforce this strictly, it is not allowed
to mount a font at a position whose number is much greater (approx.
1000 positions) than that of any currently used position.
The fp request has an optional third argument. This argument gives the
external name of the font, which is used for finding the font description
file. The second argument gives the internal name of the font, which is
used to refer to the font in gtroff after it has been mounted. If there is no
third argument then the internal name is used as the external name. This
feature makes it possible to use fonts with long names in compatibility
mode.
Both the ft request and the \f escape have alternative syntax forms to
access font positions.
.ft nnn [Request]

\fn [Escape]
\f(nn [Escape]
\f[nnn] [Escape]
Change the current font position to nnn (one-digit position n, two-digit
position nn), which must be a non-negative integer.
If nnn is associated with a style (as set with the sty request or with the
styles command in the DESC file), use it within the current font family
(as set with the fam request, the \F escape, or the family command in
the DESC file).
this is font 1
.ft 2
this is font 2
.ft \" switch back to font 1
.ft 3
this is font 3
.ft
this is font 1 again
See Section 5.17.1 [Changing Fonts], page 109, for the standard syntax
form.
5.17.4 Using Symbols

A glyph is a graphical representation of a character. While a character is an
abstract entity containing semantic information, a glyph is something that
can be actually seen on screen or paper. It is possible that a character has
multiple glyph representation forms (for example, the character ‘A’ can be
either written in a roman or an italic font, yielding two different glyphs);
sometimes more than one character maps to a single glyph (this is a ligature
– the most common is ‘fi’).
A symbol is simply a named glyph. Within gtroff, all glyph names of
a particular font are defined in its font file. If the user requests a glyph
not available in this font, gtroff looks up an ordered list of special fonts.
By default, the PostScript output device supports the two special fonts
‘SS’ (slanted symbols) and ‘S’ (symbols) (the former is looked up before the
latter). Other output devices use different names for special fonts. Fonts
mounted with the fonts keyword in the DESC file are globally available.
To install additional special fonts locally (i.e. for a particular font), use the
fspecial request.
Here are the exact rules how gtroff searches a given symbol:
• If the symbol has been defined with the char request, use it. This hides
a symbol with the same name in the current font.
• Check the current font.
• If the symbol has been defined with the fchar request, use it.
• Check whether the current font has a font-specific list of special fonts;
test all fonts in the order of appearance in the last fspecial call if
appropriate.
• If the symbol has been defined with the fschar request for the current
font, use it.
• Check all fonts in the order of appearance in the last special call.
• If the symbol has been defined with the schar request, use it.
• As a last resort, consult all fonts loaded up to now for special fonts and
check them, starting with the lowest font number. Note that this can
sometimes lead to surprising results since the fonts line in the DESC file
often contains empty positions, which are filled later on. For example,
consider the following:
fonts 3 0 0 FOO
This mounts font foo at font position 3. We assume that FOO is a special
font, containing glyph foo, and that no font has been loaded yet. The
line
.fspecial BAR BAZ
makes font BAZ special only if font BAR is active. We further assume
that BAZ is really a special font, i.e., the font description file contains
the special keyword, and that it also contains glyph foo with a special
shape fitting to font BAR. After executing fspecial, font BAR is loaded
at font position 1, and BAZ at position 2.
We now switch to a new font XXX, trying to access glyph foo that is
assumed to be missing. There are neither font-specific special fonts
for XXX nor any other fonts made special with the special request, so
gtroff starts the search for special fonts in the list of already mounted
fonts, with increasing font positions. Consequently, it finds BAZ before
FOO even for XXX, which is not the intended behaviour.
See Section 8.2 [Font Files], page 212, and Section 5.17.6 [Special Fonts],
page 122, for more details.
The list of available symbols is device dependent; see the groff char(7)
man page for a complete list of all glyphs. For example, say
man -Tdvi groff_char > groff_char.dvi
for a list using the default DVI fonts (not all versions of the man program
support the -T option). If you want to use an additional macro package to
change the used fonts, groff must be called directly:
groff -Tdvi -mec -man groff_char.7 > groff_char.dvi
Glyph names not listed in groff char(7) are derived algorithmically, using
a simplified version of the Adobe Glyph List (AGL) algorithm, which is
described in https://github.com/adobe-type-tools/agl-aglfn. The
(frozen) set of glyph names that can’t be derived algorithmically is called
groff glyph list (GGL).
• A glyph for Unicode character U+XXXX[X [X ]], which is not a compos-
ite character is named uXXXX[X[X]]. X must be an uppercase hexadeci-
mal digit. Examples: u1234, u008E, u12DB8. The largest Unicode value
is 0x10FFFF. There must be at least four X digits; if necessary, add
leading zeroes (after the ‘u’). No zero padding is allowed for charac-
ter codes greater than 0xFFFF. Surrogates (i.e., Unicode values greater
than 0xFFFF represented with character codes from the surrogate area
U+D800-U+DFFF) are not allowed too.
• A glyph representing more than a single input character is named
‘u’ component1 ‘_’ component2 ‘_’ component3 . . .
Example: u0045_0302_0301.
For simplicity, all Unicode characters that are composites must be de-
composed maximally (this is normalization form D in the Unicode stan-
dard); for example, u00CA_0301 is not a valid glyph name since U+00CA
(latin capital letter e with circumflex) can be further decom-
posed into U+0045 (latin capital letter e) and U+0302 (combining
circumflex accent). u0045_0302_0301 is thus the glyph name for
U+1EBE, latin capital letter e with circumflex and acute.
• groff maintains a table to decompose all algorithmically derived glyph
names that are composites itself. For example, u0100 (latin letter
a with macron) is automatically decomposed into u0041_0304. Ad-
ditionally, a glyph name of the GGL is preferred to an algorithmically
derived glyph name; groff also automatically does the mapping. Exam-
ple: The glyph u0045_0302 is mapped to Ê.
• glyph names of the GGL can’t be used in composite glyph names; for
example, Ê_u0301 is invalid.
\(nm [Escape]
\[name] [Escape]
\[component1 component2 . . . ] [Escape]
Insert a symbol name (two-character name nm) or a composite glyph
with component glyphs component1, component2, . . . There is no special
syntax for one-character names – the natural form ‘\n’ would collide with
escapes.9
If name is undefined, a warning of type ‘char’ is generated, and the escape
is ignored. See Section 5.33 [Debugging], page 180, for information about
warnings.
groff resolves \[...] with more than a single component as follows:
• Any component that is found in the GGL is converted to the uXXXX
form.
• Any component uXXXX that is found in the list of decomposable
glyphs is decomposed.
9
Note that a one-character symbol is not the same as an input character, i.e., the
character a is not the same as \[a]. By default, groff defines only a single one-
character symbol, \[-]; it is usually accessed as \-. On the other hand, gtroff has
the special feature that \[charXXX] is the same as the input character with character
code XXX. For example, \[char97] is identical to the letter a if ASCII encoding is
active.
• The resulting elements are then concatenated with ‘_’ in between,

dropping the leading ‘u’ in all elements but the first.
No check for the existence of any component (similar to tr request) is
done.
Examples:
\[A ho] ‘A’ maps to u0041, ‘ho’ maps to u02DB, thus the final glyph
name would be u0041_02DB. Note this is not the expected
result: The ogonek glyph ‘ho’ is a spacing ogonek, but for
a proper composite a non-spacing ogonek (U+0328) is nec-
essary. Looking into the file composite.tmac one can find
‘.composite ho u0328’, which changes the mapping of ‘ho’
while a composite glyph name is constructed, causing the
final glyph name to be u0041_0328.
\[Ê u0301]
\[Ê aa]
\[E a^ aa]
\[E ^ ’] ‘Ê’ maps to u0045_0302, thus the final glyph name is
u0045_0302_0301 in all forms (assuming proper calls of the
composite request).
It is not possible to define glyphs with names like ‘A ho’ within a groff font
file. This is not really a limitation; instead, you have to define u0041_
0328.
\C’xxx’ [Escape]
Typeset the glyph named xxx.10 Normally it is more convenient to use
\[xxx], but \C has the advantage that it is compatible with newer ver-
sions of AT&T troff and is available in compatibility mode.
.composite from to [Request]
Map glyph name from to glyph name to if it is used in \[...] with more
than one component. See above for examples.
This mapping is based on glyph names only; no check for the existence
of either glyph is done.
A set of default mappings for many accents can be found in the file
composite.tmac, which is loaded at start-up.
\N’n’ [Escape]
Typeset the glyph with code n in the current font (n is not the input
character code). The number n can be any non-negative decimal integer.
Most devices only have glyphs with codes between 0 and 255; the Unicode
output device uses codes in the range 0–65535. If the current font does
not contain a glyph with that code, special fonts are not searched. The \N
10
\C is actually a misnomer since it accesses an output glyph.
escape sequence can be conveniently used in conjunction with the char

request:
.char \[phone] \f[ZD]\N’37’
The code of each glyph is given in the fourth column in the font descrip-
tion file after the charset command. It is possible to include unnamed
glyphs in the font description file by using a name of ‘---’; the \N escape
sequence is the only way to use these.
No kerning is applied to glyphs accessed with \N.
Some escape sequences directly map onto special glyphs.
\’ [Escape]
This is a backslash followed by the apostrophe character, ASCII character
0x27 (EBCDIC character 0x7D). The same as \[aa], the acute accent.
\‘ [Escape]
This is a backslash followed by ASCII character 0x60 (EBCDIC character
0x79 usually). The same as \[ga], the grave accent.
\- [Escape]
This is the same as \[-], the minus sign in the current font.
\_ [Escape]
This is the same as \[ul], the underline character.
.cflags n c1 c2 . . . [Request]
Input characters and symbols have certain properties associated with it.11
These properties can be modified with the cflags request. The first
argument is the sum of the desired flags and the remaining arguments
are the characters or symbols to have those properties. It is possible
to omit the spaces between the characters or symbols. Instead of single
characters or symbols you can also use character classes (see Section 5.17.5
[Character Classes], page 121, for more details).
1 The character ends sentences (initially characters ‘.?!’ have
this property).
2 Lines can be broken before the character (initially no char-
acters have this property). This only works if both the char-
acters before and after have non-zero hyphenation codes (as
set with the hcode request). Use value 64 to override this
behaviour.
4 Lines can be broken after the character (initially the character
‘-’ and the symbols ‘\[hy]’ and ‘\[em]’ have this property).
11
Note that the output glyphs themselves don’t have such properties. For gtroff, a
glyph is a numbered box with a given width, depth, and height, nothing else. All
manipulations with the cflags request work on the input level.
This only works if both the characters before and after have
non-zero hyphenation codes (as set with the hcode request).
Use value 64 to override this behaviour.
8 The character overlaps horizontally if used as a horizontal
line building element. Initially the symbols ‘\[ul]’, ‘\[rn]’,
‘\[ru]’, ‘\[radicalex]’, and ‘\[sqrtex]’ have this property.
16 The character overlaps vertically if used as vertical line build-
ing element. Initially symbol ‘\[br]’ has this property.
32 An end-of-sentence character followed by any number of char-
acters with this property is treated as the end of a sentence
if followed by a newline or two spaces; in other words the
character is transparent for the purposes of end-of-sentence
recognition – this is the same as having a zero space factor
in TEX (initially characters ‘"’)]*’ and the symbols ‘\[dg]’,
‘\[rq]’, and ‘\[cq]’ have this property).
64 Ignore hyphenation code values of the surrounding charac-
ters. Use this in combination with values 2 and 4 (initially
no characters have this property). For example, if you need
an automatic break point after the en-dash in number ranges
like ‘3000–5000’, insert
.cflags 68 \(en
into your document. Note, however, that this can lead to bad
layout if done without thinking; in most situations, a better
solution instead of changing the cflags value is to insert \:
right after the hyphen at the places that really need a break
point.
128 Prohibit a line break before the character, but allow a line
break after the character. This works only in combination
with flags 256 and 512 (see below) and has no effect otherwise.
256 Prohibit a line break after the character, but allow a line
break before the character. This works only in combination
with flags 128 and 512 (see below) and has no effect otherwise.
512 Allow line break before or after the character. This works
only in combination with flags 128 and 256 and has no effect
otherwise.
Contrary to flag values 2 and 4, the flags 128, 256, and 512
work pairwise. If, for example, the left character has value
512, and the right character 128, no line break gets inserted.
If we use value 6 instead for the left character, a line break
after the character can’t be suppressed since the right neigh-
bour character doesn’t get examined.
.char g [string] [Request]

.fchar g [string] [Request]
.fschar f g [string] [Request]
.schar g [string] [Request]
Define a new glyph g to be string (which can be empty).12 Every time
glyph g needs to be printed, string is processed in a temporary environ-
ment and the result is wrapped up into a single object. Compatibility
mode is turned off and the escape character is set to ‘\’ while string is
being processed. Any emboldening, constant spacing or track kerning is
applied to this object rather than to individual characters in string.
A glyph defined by these requests can be used just like a normal glyph
provided by the output device. In particular, other characters can be
translated to it with the tr or trin requests; it can be made the leader
character by the lc request; repeated patterns can be drawn with the
glyph using the \l and \L escape sequences; words containing the glyph
can be hyphenated correctly if the hcode request is used to give the
glyph’s symbol a hyphenation code.
There is a special anti-recursion feature: Use of g within the glyph’s
definition is handled like normal characters and symbols not defined with
char.
Note that the tr and trin requests take precedence if char accesses the
same symbol.
.tr XY
X
⇒ Y
.char X Z
X
⇒ Y
.tr XX
X
⇒ Z
The fchar request defines a fallback glyph: gtroff only checks for glyphs
defined with fchar if it cannot find the glyph in the current font. gtroff
carries out this test before checking special fonts.
fschar defines a fallback glyph for font f : gtroff checks for glyphs
defined with fschar after the list of fonts declared as font-specific special
fonts with the fspecial request, but before the list of fonts declared as
global special fonts with the special request.
Finally, the schar request defines a global fallback glyph: gtroff checks
for glyphs defined with schar after the list of fonts declared as global
special fonts with the special request, but before the already mounted
special fonts.
12
char is a misnomer since an output glyph is defined.
See Section 5.17.4 [Using Symbols], page 114, for a detailed description
of the glyph searching mechanism in gtroff.
.rchar c1 c2 . . . [Request]
.rfschar f c1 c2 . . . [Request]
Remove the definitions of glyphs c1, c2, . . . This undoes the effect of a
char, fchar, or schar request.
It is possible to omit the whitespace between arguments.
The request rfschar removes glyph definitions defined with fschar for
glyph f.
See Section 7.1 [Special Characters], page 191.
5.17.5 Character Classes

Classes are particularly useful for East Asian languages such as Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean, where the number of needed characters is much larger
than in European languages, and where large sets of characters share the
same properties.
.class n c1 c2 . . . [Request]
In groff, a character class (or simply “class”) is a set of characters,
grouped by some user aspect. The class request defines such classes
so that other requests can refer to all characters belonging to this set
with a single class name. Currently, only the cflags request can handle
character classes.
A class request takes a class name followed by a list of entities. In its
simplest form, the entities are characters or symbols:
.class [prepunct] , : ; > }
Since class and glyph names share the same namespace, it is recommended
to start and end the class name with [ and ], respectively, to avoid
collisions with normal groff symbols (and symbols defined by the user).
In particular, the presence of ] in the symbol name intentionally prevents
the usage of \[...], thus you must use the \C escape to access a class
with such a name.
You can also use a special character range notation, consisting of a start
character or symbol, followed by ‘-’, and an end character or symbol.
Internally, gtroff converts these two symbol names to Unicode values
(according to the groff glyph gist), which then give the start and end
value of the range. If that fails, the class definition is skipped.
Finally, classes can be nested, too.
Here is a more complex example:
.class [prepunctx] \C’[prepunct]’ \[u2013]-\[u2016]
The class ‘prepunctx’ now contains the contents of the class prepunct as
defined above (the set ‘, : ; > }’), and characters in the range between
U+2013 and U+2016.
If you want to add ‘-’ to a class, it must be the first character value in
the argument list, otherwise it gets misinterpreted as a range.
Note that it is not possible to use class names within range definitions.
Typical use of the class request is to control line-breaking and hyphen-
ation rules as defined by the cflags request. For example, to inhibit line
breaks before the characters belonging to the prepunctx class, you can
write:
.cflags 2 \C’[prepunctx]’
See the cflags request in Section 5.17.4 [Using Symbols], page 114, for
more details.
5.17.6 Special Fonts

Special fonts are those that gtroff searches when it cannot find the re-
quested glyph in the current font. The Symbol font is usually a special
font.
gtroff provides the following two requests to add more special fonts. See
Section 5.17.4 [Using Symbols], page 114, for a detailed description of the
glyph searching mechanism in gtroff.
Usually, only non-TTY devices have special fonts.
.special [s1 s2 . . . ] [Request]

.fspecial f [s1 s2 . . . ] [Request]
Use the special request to define special fonts. Initially, this list is empty.
Use the fspecial request to designate special fonts only when font f is
active. Initially, this list is empty.
Previous calls to special or fspecial are overwritten; without argu-
ments, the particular list of special fonts is set to empty. Special fonts
are searched in the order they appear as arguments.
All fonts that appear in a call to special or fspecial are loaded.
See Section 5.17.4 [Using Symbols], page 114, for the exact search order
of glyphs.
5.17.7 Artificial Fonts

There are a number of requests and escapes for artificially creating fonts.
These are largely vestiges of the days when output devices did not have a
wide variety of fonts, and when nroff and troff were separate programs.
Most of them are no longer necessary in GNU troff. Nevertheless, they are
supported.
\H’height’ [Escape]
\H’+height’ [Escape]
\H’-height’ [Escape]
\n[.height] [Register]
Change (increment, decrement) the height of the current font, but not
the width. If height is zero, restore the original height. Default scaling
indicator is ‘z’.
The read-only number register .height contains the font height as set by
\H.
Currently, only the -Tps and -Tpdf devices support this feature.
Note that \H doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff. As a conse-
.mc \H’+5z’x\H’0’
In compatibility mode, gtroff behaves differently: If an increment or
decrement is used, it is always taken relative to the current point size and
not relative to the previously selected font height. Thus,
.cp 1
\H’+5’test \H’+5’test
prints the word ‘test’ twice with the same font height (five points larger
than the current font size).
\S’slant’ [Escape]
\n[.slant] [Register]
Slant the current font by slant degrees. Positive values slant to the right.
Only integer values are possible.
The read-only number register .slant contains the font slant as set by
\S.
Currently, only the -Tps and -Tpdf devices support this feature.
Note that \S doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff. As a conse-
.mc \S’20’x\S’0’
This request is incorrectly documented in the original Unix troff manual;
the slant is always set to an absolute value.
.ul [lines] [Request]
The ul request normally underlines subsequent lines if a TTY output
device is used. Otherwise, the lines are printed in italics (only the term
‘underlined’ is used in the following). The single argument is the num-
ber of input lines to be underlined; with no argument, the next line is
underlined. If lines is zero or negative, stop the effects of ul (if it was
active). Requests and empty lines do not count for computing the num-
ber of underlined input lines, even if they produce some output like tl.
Lines inserted by macros (e.g. invoked by a trap) do count.
At the beginning of ul, the current font is stored and the underline font
is activated. Within the span of a ul request, it is possible to change
fonts, but after the last line affected by ul the saved font is restored.
This number of lines still to be underlined is associated with the current

environment (see Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166). The underline
font can be changed with the uf request.
The ul request does not underline spaces.
.cu [lines] [Request]
The cu request is similar to ul but underlines spaces as well (if a TTY
output device is used).
.uf font [Request]
Set the underline font (globally) used by ul and cu. By default, this is
the font at position 2. font can be either a non-negative font position or
the name of a font.
.bd font [offset] [Request]
.bd font1 font2 [offset] [Request]
\n[.b] [Register]
Artificially create a bold font by printing each glyph twice, slightly offset.
Two syntax forms are available.
• Imitate a bold font unconditionally. The first argument specifies the
font to embolden, and the second is the number of basic units, minus
one, by which the two glyphs are offset. If the second argument is
missing, emboldening is turned off.
font can be either a non-negative font position or the name of a font.
offset is available in the .b read-only register if a special font is active;
in the bd request, its default unit is ‘u’.
• Imitate a bold form conditionally. Embolden font1 by offset only if
font font2 is the current font. This command can be issued repeat-
edly to set up different emboldening values for different current fonts.
If the second argument is missing, emboldening is turned off for this
particular current font.
This affects special fonts only (either set up with the special com-
mand in font files or with the fspecial request).
.cs font [width [em-size]] [Request]
Switch to and from constant glyph space mode. If activated, the width of
every glyph is width/36 ems. The em size is given absolutely by em-size;
if this argument is missing, the em value is taken from the current font size
(as set with the ps request) when the font is effectively in use. Without
second and third argument, constant glyph space mode is deactivated.
Default scaling indicator for em-size is ‘z’; width is an integer.
5.17.8 Ligatures and Kerning

Ligatures are groups of characters that are run together, i.e, producing a
single glyph. For example, the letters ‘f’ and ‘i’ can form a ligature ‘fi’ as in
the word ‘file’. This produces a cleaner look (albeit subtle) to the printed
output. Usually, ligatures are not available in fonts for TTY output devices.
Most PostScript fonts support the fi and fl ligatures. The C/A/T
typesetter that was the target of AT&T troff also supported ‘ff’, ‘ffi’, and
‘ffl’ ligatures. Advanced typesetters or ‘expert’ fonts may include ligatures
for ‘ft’ and ‘ct’, although GNU troff does not support these (yet).
Only the current font is checked for ligatures and kerns; neither special
fonts nor entities defined with the char request (and its siblings) are taken
into account.
.lg [flag] [Request]
\n[.lg] [Register]
Switch the ligature mechanism on or off; if the parameter is non-zero or
missing, ligatures are enabled, otherwise disabled. Default is on. The
current ligature mode can be found in the read-only number register .lg
(set to 1 or 2 if ligatures are enabled, 0 otherwise).
Setting the ligature mode to 2 enables the two-character ligatures (fi, fl,
and ff) and disables the three-character ligatures (ffi and ffl).
Pairwise kerning is another subtle typesetting mechanism that modifies
the distance between a glyph pair to improve readability. In most cases (but
not always) the distance is decreased. For example, compare the combination
of the letters ‘V’ and ‘A’. With kerning, ‘VA’ is printed. Without kerning
it appears as ‘VA’. Typewriter-like fonts and fonts for terminals where all
glyphs have the same width don’t use kerning.
.kern [flag] [Request]
\n[.kern] [Register]
Switch kerning on or off. If the parameter is non-zero or missing, enable
pairwise kerning, otherwise disable it. The read-only number register
.kern is set to 1 if pairwise kerning is enabled, 0 otherwise.
If the font description file contains pairwise kerning information, glyphs
from that font are kerned. Kerning between two glyphs can be inhibited
by placing \& between them: ‘V\&A’.
See Section 8.2.2 [Font File Format], page 215.
Track kerning expands or reduces the space between glyphs. This can be
handy, for example, if you need to squeeze a long word onto a single line or
spread some text to fill a narrow column. It must be used with great care
since it is usually considered bad typography if the reader notices the effect.
.tkf f s1 n1 s2 n2 [Request]
Enable track kerning for font f. If the current font is f the width of
every glyph is increased by an amount between n1 and n2 (n1, n2 can be
negative); if the current point size is less than or equal to s1 the width is
increased by n1; if it is greater than or equal to s2 the width is increased
by n2; if the point size is greater than or equal to s1 and less than or
equal to s2 the increase in width is a linear function of the point size.
The default scaling indicator is ‘z’ for s1 and s2, ‘p’ for n1 and n2.
Note that the track kerning amount is added even to the rightmost glyph
in a line; for large values it is thus recommended to increase the line
length by the same amount to compensate it.
Sometimes, when typesetting letters of different fonts, more or less space
at such boundaries is needed. There are two escapes to help with this.
\/ [Escape]
Increase the width of the preceding glyph so that the spacing between
that glyph and the following glyph is correct if the following glyph is a
roman glyph. For example, if an italic f is immediately followed by a ro-
man right parenthesis, then in many fonts the top right portion of the f
overlaps the top left of the right parenthesis. Use this escape sequence
whenever an italic glyph is immediately followed by a roman glyph with-
out any intervening space. This small amount of space is also called italic
correction.
\f[I]f\f[R])
⇒ f)
\f[I]f\/\f[R])
⇒ f)
\, [Escape]
Modify the spacing of the following glyph so that the spacing between
that glyph and the preceding glyph is correct if the preceding glyph is
a roman glyph. Use this escape sequence whenever a roman glyph is
immediately followed by an italic glyph without any intervening space.
In analogy to above, this space could be called left italic correction, but
this term isn’t used widely.
q\f[I]f
⇒ qf
q\,\f[I]f
⇒ qf
\& [Escape]
Insert a zero-width character, which is invisible. Its intended use is to
stop interaction of a character with its surroundings.
• It prevents the insertion of extra space after an end-of-sentence char-
acter.
Test.
Test.
⇒ Test. Test.
Test.\&
Test.
⇒ Test. Test.
• It prevents interpretation of a control character at the beginning of

an input line.
.Test
⇒ warning: ‘Test’ not defined
\&.Test
⇒ .Test
• It prevents kerning between two glyphs.
VA
⇒ VA
V\&A
⇒ VA
• It is needed to map an arbitrary character to nothing in the tr re-
quest (see Section 5.11 [Character Translations], page 96).
\) [Escape]
This escape is similar to \& except that it behaves like a character declared
with the cflags request to be transparent for the purposes of an end-of-
sentence character.
Its main usage is in macro definitions to protect against arguments start-
ing with a control character.
.de xxx
\)\\$1
..
.de yyy
\&\\$1
..
This is a test.\c
.xxx ’
This is a test.
⇒This is a test.’ This is a test.
This is a test.\c
.yyy ’
This is a test.
⇒This is a test.’ This is a test.
5.18 Sizes
gtroff uses two dimensions with each line of text, type size and vertical
spacing. The type size is approximately the height of the tallest glyph.13
Vertical spacing is the amount of space gtroff allows for a line of text;
13
This is usually the parenthesis. Note that in most cases the real dimensions of the
glyphs in a font are not related to its type size! For example, the standard PostScript
font families ‘Times Roman’, ‘Helvetica’, and ‘Courier’ can’t be used together at 10 pt;
to get acceptable output, the size of ‘Helvetica’ has to be reduced by one point, and
the size of ‘Courier’ must be increased by one point.
normally, this is about 20% larger than the current type size. Ratios smaller
than this can result in hard-to-read text; larger than this, it spreads the
text out more vertically (useful for term papers). By default, gtroff uses
10 point type on 12 point spacing.
The difference between type size and vertical spacing is known, by type-
setters, as leading (this is pronounced ‘ledding’).
5.18.1 Changing Type Sizes

.ps [size] [Request]
.ps +size [Request]
.ps -size [Request]
\ssize [Escape]
\n[.s] [Register]
Use the ps request or the \s escape to change (increase, decrease) the
type size (in points). Specify size as either an absolute point size, or as a
relative change from the current size. The size 0 (for both .ps and \s),
or no argument (for .ps only), goes back to the previous size.
Default scaling indicator of size is ‘z’. If size is negative, it is set to 1 u.
The read-only number register .s returns the point size in points as a
decimal fraction. This is a string. To get the point size in scaled points,
use the .ps register instead.
.s is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26 [Environ-
ments], page 166).
snap, snap,
.ps +2
grin, grin,
.ps +2
wink, wink, \s+2nudge, nudge,\s+8 say no more!
.ps 10
The \s escape may be called in a variety of ways. Much like other escapes
there must be a way to determine where the argument ends and the text
begins. Any of the following forms are valid:
\sn Set the point size to n points. n must be either 0 or in the
range 4 to 39.
\s+n
\s-n Increase or decrease the point size by n points. n must be
exactly one digit.
\s(nn Set the point size to nn points. nn must be exactly two digits.
\s+(nn
\s-(nn
\s(+nn
\s(-nn Increase or decrease the point size by nn points. nn must be
exactly two digits.
Note that \s doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff. As a conse-

.mc \s[20]x\s[0]
See Section 5.18.2 [Fractional Type Sizes], page 130, for yet another syn-
tactical form of using the \s escape.
.sizes s1 s2 . . . sn [0] [Request]

Some devices may only have certain permissible sizes, in which case
gtroff rounds to the nearest permissible size. The DESC file specifies
which sizes are permissible for the device.
Use the sizes request to change the permissible sizes for the current
output device. Arguments are in scaled points; the sizescale line in the
DESC file for the output device provides the scaling factor. For example,
if the scaling factor is 1000, then the value 12000 is 12 points.
Each argument can be a single point size (such as ‘12000’), or a range of
sizes (such as ‘4000-72000’). You can optionally end the list with a zero.
.vs [space] [Request]

.vs +space [Request]
.vs -space [Request]
\n[.v] [Register]
Change (increase, decrease) the vertical spacing by space. The default
scaling indicator is ‘p’.
If vs is called without an argument, the vertical spacing is reset to the
previous value before the last call to vs.
gtroff creates a warning of type ‘range’ if space is negative; the vertical
spacing is then set to smallest positive value, the vertical resolution (as
given in the .V register).
Note that ‘.vs 0’ isn’t saved in a diversion since it doesn’t result in a ver-
tical motion. You explicitly have to repeat this command before inserting
the diversion.
The read-only number register .v contains the current vertical spacing;
it is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26 [Environ-
ments], page 166).
The effective vertical line spacing consists of four components. Breaking

a line causes the following actions (in the given order).
• Move the current point vertically by the extra pre-vertical line space.
This is the minimum value of all \x escapes with a negative argument
in the current output line.
• Move the current point vertically by the vertical line spacing as set with
the vs request.
• Output the current line.
• Move the current point vertically by the extra post-vertical line space.
This is the maximum value of all \x escapes with a positive argument
in the line that has just been output.
• Move the current point vertically by the post-vertical line spacing as
set with the pvs request.
It is usually better to use vs or pvs instead of ls to produce double-
spaced documents: vs and pvs have a finer granularity for the inserted
vertical space compared to ls; furthermore, certain preprocessors assume
single-spacing.
See Section 5.9 [Manipulating Spacing], page 89, for more details on the
\x escape and the ls request.
.pvs [space] [Request]

.pvs +space [Request]
.pvs -space [Request]
\n[.pvs] [Register]
Change (increase, decrease) the post-vertical spacing by space. The de-
fault scaling indicator is ‘p’.
If pvs is called without an argument, the post-vertical spacing is reset to
the previous value before the last call to pvs.
gtroff creates a warning of type ‘range’ if space is zero or negative; the
vertical spacing is then set to zero.
The read-only number register .pvs contains the current post-vertical
spacing; it is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26
5.18.2 Fractional Type Sizes

A scaled point is equal to 1/sizescale points, where sizescale is specified in
the DESC file (1 by default). There is a new scale indicator ‘z’, which has the
effect of multiplying by sizescale. Requests and escape sequences in gtroff
interpret arguments that represent a point size as being in units of scaled
points, but they evaluate each such argument using a default scale indicator
of ‘z’. Arguments treated in this way are the argument to the ps request,
the third argument to the cs request, the second and fourth arguments to
the tkf request, the argument to the \H escape sequence, and those variants
of the \s escape sequence that take a numeric expression as their argument
(see below).
For example, suppose sizescale is 1000; then a scaled point is equivalent to
a millipoint; the request ‘.ps 10.25’ is equivalent to ‘.ps 10.25z’ and thus
sets the point size to 10250 scaled points, which is equal to 10.25 points.
gtroff disallows the use of the ‘z’ scale indicator in instances where
it would make no sense, such as a numeric expression whose default scale
indicator was neither ‘u’ nor ‘z’. Similarly it would make no sense to use a
scaling indicator other than ‘z’ or ‘u’ in a numeric expression whose default
scale indicator was ‘z’, and so gtroff disallows this as well.
There is also new scale indicator ‘s’, which multiplies by the number of
units in a scaled point. So, for example, ‘\n[.ps]s’ is equal to ‘1m’. Be sure
not to confuse the ‘s’ and ‘z’ scale indicators.
\n[.ps] [Register]
A read-only number register returning the point size in scaled points.
.ps is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26 [Envi-
ronments], page 166).
\n[.psr] [Register]
\n[.sr] [Register]
The last-requested point size in scaled points is contained in the .psr
read-only number register. The last requested point size in points as a
decimal fraction can be found in .sr. This is a string-valued read-only
number register.
Note that the requested point sizes are device-independent, whereas the
values returned by the .ps and .s registers are not. For example, if a
point size of 11 pt is requested, and a sizes request (or a sizescale line
in a DESC file) specifies 10.95 pt instead, this value is actually used.
Both registers are associated with the current environment (see
The \s escape has the following syntax for working with fractional type
sizes:
\s[n]
\s’n’ Set the point size to n scaled points; n is a numeric expression
with a default scale indicator of ‘z’.
\s[+n]
\s[-n]
\s+[n]
\s-[n]
\s’+n’
\s’-n’
\s+’n’
\s-’n’ Increase or decrease the point size by n scaled points; n is a
numeric expression (which may start with a minus sign) with a
default scale indicator of ‘z’.
See Section 8.2 [Font Files], page 212.
5.19 Strings
gtroff has string variables, which are entirely for user convenience (i.e.
there are no built-in strings except .T, but even this is a read-write string
variable).
Although the following requests can be used to create strings, simply

using an undefined string will cause it to be defined as empty. See Section 5.4
[Identifiers], page 65.
.ds name [string] [Request]
.ds1 name [string] [Request]
\*n [Escape]
\*(nm [Escape]
\*[name arg1 arg2 . . . ] [Escape]
Define and access a string variable name (one-character name n, two-
character name nm). If name already exists, ds overwrites the previ-
ous definition. Only the syntax form using brackets can take arguments
that are handled identically to macro arguments; the single exception
is that a closing bracket as an argument must be enclosed in double
quotes. See Section 5.5.1.1 [Request and Macro Arguments], page 68,
and Section 5.21.2 [Parameters], page 144.
Example:
.ds foo a \\$1 test
.
This is \*[foo nice].
⇒ This is a nice test.
The \* escape interpolates (expands in-place) a previously defined string
variable. To be more precise, the stored string is pushed onto the input
stack, which is then parsed by gtroff. Similar to number registers, it is
possible to nest strings, i.e., string variables can be called within string
variables.
If the string named by the \* escape does not exist, it is defined as empty,
and a warning of type ‘mac’ is emitted (see Section 5.33 [Debugging],
page 180, for more details).
Caution: Unlike other requests, the second argument to the ds request
takes up the entire line including trailing spaces. This means that com-
ments on a line with such a request can introduce unwanted space into a
string.
.ds TeX T\h’-.2m’\v’.2m’E\v’-.2m’\h’-.1m’X \" Knuth’s TeX
Instead the comment should be put on another line or have the comment
escape adjacent with the end of the string.
.ds TeX T\h’-.2m’\v’.2m’E\v’-.2m’\h’-.1m’X\" Knuth’s TeX
To produce leading space the string can be started with a double quote.
No trailing quote is needed; in fact, any trailing quote is included in your
string.
.ds sign " Yours in a white wine sauce,
Strings are not limited to a single line of text. A string can span several
lines by escaping the newlines with a backslash. The resulting string is
stored without the newlines.
.ds foo lots and lots \

of text are on these \
next several lines
It is not possible to have real newlines in a string. To put a single double
quote character into a string, use two consecutive double quote characters.
The ds1 request turns off compatibility mode while interpreting a string.
To be more precise, a compatibility save input token is inserted at the
beginning of the string, and a compatibility restore input token at the
end.
.nr xxx 12345
.ds aa The value of xxx is \\n[xxx].
.ds1 bb The value of xxx is \\n[xxx].
.
.cp 1
.
\*(aa
⇒ warning: number register ‘[’ not defined
⇒ The value of xxx is 0xxx].
\*(bb
⇒ The value of xxx is 12345.
Strings, macros, and diversions (and boxes) share the same name space.
Internally, even the same mechanism is used to store them. This has some
interesting consequences. For example, it is possible to call a macro with
string syntax and vice versa.
.de xxx
a funny test.
..
This is \*[xxx]
⇒ This is a funny test.
.ds yyy a funny test

This is
.yyy
In particular, interpolating a string does not hide existing macro argu-
ments. Thus in a macro, a more efficient way of doing
.xx \\$@
is
\\*[xx]\\
Note that the latter calling syntax doesn’t change the value of \$0, which
is then inherited from the calling macro.
Diversions and boxes can be also called with string syntax.
Another consequence is that you can copy one-line diversions or boxes to
a string.
.di xxx
a \fItest\fR
.br
.di
.ds yyy This is \*[xxx]\c
\*[yyy].
⇒ This is a test.
As the previous example shows, it is possible to store formatted output
in strings. The \c escape prevents the insertion of an additional blank
line in the output.
Copying diversions longer than a single output line produces unexpected
results.
.di xxx
a funny
.br
test
.br
.di
.ds yyy This is \*[xxx]\c
\*[yyy].
⇒ test This is a funny.
Usually, it is not predictable whether a diversion contains one or more
output lines, so this mechanism should be avoided. With Unix troff,
this was the only solution to strip off a final newline from a diversion.
Another disadvantage is that the spaces in the copied string are already
formatted, making them unstretchable. This can cause ugly results.
A clean solution to this problem is available in GNU troff, using the
requests chop to remove the final newline of a diversion, and unformat
to make the horizontal spaces stretchable again.
.box xxx
a funny
.br
test
.br
.box
.chop xxx
.unformat xxx
This is \*[xxx].
See Section 5.32 [Gtroff Internals], page 178, for more information.
.as name [string] [Request]
.as1 name [string] [Request]
The as request is similar to ds but appends string to the string stored as
name instead of redefining it. If name doesn’t exist yet, it is created.
.as sign " with shallots, onions and garlic,

The as1 request is similar to as, but compatibility mode is switched off
while the appended string is interpreted. To be more precise, a com-
patibility save input token is inserted at the beginning of the appended
string, and a compatibility restore input token at the end.
Rudimentary string manipulation routines are given with the next two
requests.
.substring str n1 [n2] [Request]
Replace the string named str with the substring defined by the indices
n1 and n2. The first character in the string has index 0. If n2 is omitted,
it is implicitly set to the largest valid value (the string length minus one).
If the index value n1 or n2 is negative, it is counted from the end of the
string, going backwards: The last character has index −1, the character
before the last character has index −2, etc.
.ds xxx abcdefgh
.substring xxx 1 -4
\*[xxx]
⇒ bcde
.substring xxx 2
\*[xxx]
⇒ de
.length reg str [Request]
Compute the number of characters of str and return it in the number
register reg. If reg doesn’t exist, it is created. str is read in copy mode.
.ds xxx abcd\h’3i’efgh
.length yyy \*[xxx]
\n[yyy]
⇒ 14
.rn xx yy [Request]
Rename the request, macro, diversion, or string xx to yy.
.rm xx [Request]
Remove the request, macro, diversion, or string xx. gtroff treats subse-
quent invocations as if the object had never been defined.
.als new old [Request]
Create an alias named new for the request, string, macro, or diversion
object named old. The new name and the old name are exactly equivalent
(it is similar to a hard rather than a soft link). If old is undefined, gtroff
generates a warning of type ‘mac’ and ignores the request.
To understand how the als request works it is probably best to think
of two different pools: one pool for objects (macros, strings, etc.), and
another one for names. As soon as an object is defined, gtroff adds it
to the object pool, adds its name to the name pool, and creates a link
between them. When als creates an alias, it adds a new name to the
name pool that gets linked to the same object as the old name.
Now consider this example.
.de foo
..
.
.als bar foo
.
.de bar
. foo
..
.
.bar
⇒ input stack limit exceeded
The definition of macro bar replaces the old object this name is linked to.
However, the alias to foo is still active! In other words, foo is still linked
to the same object as bar, and the result of calling bar is an infinite,
recursive loop that finally leads to an error.
To undo an alias, simply call rm on the aliased name. The object itself is
not destroyed until there are no more aliases.
.chop xx [Request]
Remove (chop) the last character from the macro, string, or diversion
named xx. This is useful for removing the newline from the end of diver-
sions that are to be interpolated as strings. This command can be used
repeatedly; see Section 5.32 [Gtroff Internals], page 178, for details on
nodes inserted additionally by gtroff.
See Section 5.4 [Identifiers], page 65, and Section 5.5.3.1 [Comments],
page 71.
5.20 Conditionals and Loops
5.20.1 Operators in Conditionals

In if, ie, and while requests, in addition to ordinary Section 5.3 [Expres-
sions], page 63, there are several more operators available:
e
o True if the current page is even or odd numbered (respectively).
n True if the document is being processed in nroff mode (i.e., the
.nroff command has been issued). See Section 5.12 [Troff and
Nroff Mode], page 100.
t True if the document is being processed in troff mode (i.e., the

.troff command has been issued). See Section 5.12 [Troff and
Nroff Mode], page 100.
v Always false. This condition is for compatibility with other
troff versions only (identifying a -Tversatec device).
’xxx’yyy’
True if the output produced by xxx is equal to the output pro-
duced by yyy. Other characters can be used in place of the
single quotes; the same set of delimiters as for the \D escape
is used (see Section 5.5.3 [Escapes], page 70). gtroff formats
xxx and yyy in separate environments; after the comparison the
resulting data is discarded.
.ie "|"\fR|\fP" \
true
.el \
false
⇒ true
The resulting motions, glyph sizes, and fonts have to match,14
and not the individual motion, size, and font requests. In the
previous example, ‘|’ and ‘\fR|\fP’ both result in a roman ‘|’
glyph with the same point size and at the same location on
the page, so the strings are equal. If ‘.ft I’ had been added
before the ‘.ie’, the result would be “false” because (the first)
‘|’ produces an italic ‘|’ rather than a roman one.
To compare strings without processing, surround the data with
\?.
.ie "\?|\?"\?\fR|\fP\?" \
true
.el \
false
⇒ false
Since data protected with \? is read in copy-in mode it is even
possible to use incomplete input without causing an error.
.ds a \[
.ds b \[
.ie ’\?\*a\?’\?\*b\?’ \
true
.el \
false
⇒ true
r xxx True if there is a number register named xxx.
14
The created output nodes must be identical. See Section 5.32 [Gtroff Internals],
page 178.
d xxx True if there is a string, macro, diversion, or request named xxx.

m xxx True if there is a color named xxx.
cg True if there is a glyph g available15 ; g is either an ASCII char-
acter or a special character (\N’xxx’, \(gg or \[ggg]); the con-
dition is also true if g has been defined by the char request.
F font True if a font named font exists. font is handled as if it was
opened with the ft request (that is, font translation and styles
are applied), without actually mounting it.
This test doesn’t load the complete font but only its header to
verify its validity.
S style True if style style has been registered. Font translation is ap-
plied.
Note that these operators can’t be combined with other operators like ‘:’
or ‘&’; only a leading ‘!’ (without whitespace between the exclamation mark
and the operator) can be used to negate the result.
.nr xxx 1
.ie !r xxx \
true
.el \
false
⇒ false
A whitespace after ‘!’ always evaluates to zero (this bizarre behaviour is
due to compatibility with Unix troff).
.nr xxx 1
.ie ! r xxx \
true
.el \
false
⇒ r xxx true
It is possible to omit the whitespace before the argument to the ‘r’, ‘d’,
and ‘c’ operators.
See Section 5.3 [Expressions], page 63.
5.20.2 if-else
gtroff has if-then-else constructs like other languages, although the format-
ting can be painful.
.if expr anything [Request]
Evaluate the expression expr, and executes anything (the remainder of
the line) if expr evaluates to a value greater than zero (true). anything is
15
The name of this conditional operator is a misnomer since it tests names of output
glyphs.
interpreted as though it was on a line by itself (except that leading spaces

are swallowed). See Section 5.20.1 [Operators in Conditionals], page 136,
for more info.
.nr xxx 1
.nr yyy 2
.if ((\n[xxx] == 1) & (\n[yyy] == 2)) true
⇒ true
.nop anything [Request]
Executes anything. This is similar to .if 1.
.ie expr anything [Request]
.el anything [Request]
Use the ie and el requests to write an if-then-else. The first request is
the ‘if’ part and the latter is the ‘else’ part.
.ie n .ls 2 \" double-spacing in nroff
.el .ls 1 \" single-spacing in troff
\{ [Escape]
\} [Escape]
In many cases, an if (or if-else) construct needs to execute more than one
request. This can be done using the escapes \{ (which must start the
first line) and \} (which must end the last line).
.ie t \{\
. ds lq ‘‘
. ds rq ’’
.\}
.el \{\
. ds lq ""
. ds rq ""
.\}
5.20.3 while
gtroff provides a looping construct using the while request, which is used
much like the if (and related) requests.
.while expr anything [Request]
Evaluate the expression expr, and repeatedly execute anything (the re-
mainder of the line) until expr evaluates to 0.
.nr a 0 1
.while (\na < 9) \{\
\n+a,
.\}
\n+a
⇒ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Some remarks.
• The body of a while request is treated like the body of a de request:
gtroff temporarily stores it in a macro that is deleted after the loop
has been exited. It can considerably slow down a macro if the body
of the while request (within the macro) is large. Each time the
macro is executed, the while body is parsed and stored again as a
temporary macro.
.de xxx
. nr num 10
. while (\\n[num] > 0) \{\
. \" many lines of code
. nr num -1
. \}
..
The traditional and often better solution (Unix troff doesn’t have
the while request) is to use a recursive macro instead that is parsed
only once during its definition.
.de yyy
. if (\\n[num] > 0) \{\
. \" many lines of code
. nr num -1
. yyy
. \}
..
.
.de xxx
. nr num 10
. yyy
..
Note that the number of available recursion levels is set to 1000 (this
is a compile-time constant value of gtroff).
• The closing brace of a while body must end a line.
.if 1 \{\
. nr a 0 1
. while (\n[a] < 10) \{\
. nop \n+[a]
.\}\}
⇒ unbalanced \{ \}
.break [Request]
Break out of a while loop. Be sure not to confuse this with the br request
(causing a line break).
.continue [Request]
Finish the current iteration of a while loop, immediately restarting the
next iteration.
5.21 Writing Macros

A macro is a collection of text and embedded commands that can be invoked
multiple times. Use macros to define common operations. See Section 5.19
[Strings], page 131, for a (limited) alternative syntax to call macros.
Although the following requests can be used to create macros, simply
using an undefined macro will cause it to be defined as empty. See Section 5.4
[Identifiers], page 65.
.de name [end] [Request]

.de1 name [end] [Request]
.dei name [end] [Request]
.dei1 name [end] [Request]
Define a new macro named name. gtroff copies subsequent lines (start-
ing with the next one) into an internal buffer until it encounters the line
‘..’ (two dots). If the optional second argument to de is present it is used
as the macro closure request instead of ‘..’.
There can be whitespace after the first dot in the line containing the
ending token (either ‘.’ or macro ‘end’). Don’t insert a tab character
immediately after the ‘..’, otherwise it isn’t recognized as the end-of-
macro symbol.16
Here a small example macro called ‘P’ that causes a break and inserts
some vertical space. It could be used to separate paragraphs.
.de P
. br
. sp .8v
..
The following example defines a macro within another. Remember that
expansion must be protected twice; once for reading the macro and once
for executing.
16
While it is possible to define and call a macro ‘.’ with
.de .
. tm foo
..
.
.. \" This calls macro ‘.’!
you can’t use this as the end-of-macro macro: during a macro definition, ‘..’ is never
handled as a call to ‘.’, even if you say ‘.de foo .’ explicitly.
\# a dummy macro to avoid a warning

.de end
..
.
.de foo
. de bar end
. nop \f[B]Hello \\\\$1!\f[]
. end
..
.
.foo
.bar Joe
⇒ Hello Joe!
Since \f has no expansion, it isn’t necessary to protect its backslash.
Had we defined another macro within bar that takes a parameter, eight
backslashes would be necessary before ‘$1’.
The de1 request turns off compatibility mode while executing the macro.
On entry, the current compatibility mode is saved and restored at exit.
.nr xxx 12345
.
.de aa
The value of xxx is \\n[xxx].
..
.de1 bb
The value of xxx is \\n[xxx].
..
.
.cp 1
.
.aa
⇒ warning: number register ‘[’ not defined
⇒ The value of xxx is 0xxx].
.bb
⇒ The value of xxx is 12345.
The dei request defines a macro indirectly. That is, it expands strings
whose names are name or end before performing the append.
This:
.ds xx aa
.ds yy bb
.dei xx yy
is equivalent to:
.de aa bb
The dei1 request is similar to dei but with compatibility mode switched
off during execution of the defined macro.
If compatibility mode is on, de (and dei) behave similar to de1 (and

dei1): A ‘compatibility save’ token is inserted at the beginning, and a
‘compatibility restore’ token at the end, with compatibility mode switched
on during execution. See Section 5.32 [Gtroff Internals], page 178, for
more information on switching compatibility mode on and off in a single
document.
Using trace.tmac, you can trace calls to de and de1.
Note that macro identifiers are shared with identifiers for strings and
diversions.
See [the description of the als request], page 135, for possible pitfalls if
redefining a macro that has been aliased.
.am name [end] [Request]

.am1 name [end] [Request]
.ami name [end] [Request]
.ami1 name [end] [Request]
Works similarly to de except it appends onto the macro named name. So,
to make the previously defined ‘P’ macro actually do indented instead of
block paragraphs, add the necessary code to the existing macro like this:
.am P
.ti +5n
..
The am1 request turns off compatibility mode while executing the ap-
pended macro piece. To be more precise, a compatibility save input token
is inserted at the beginning of the appended code, and a compatibility
restore input token at the end.
The ami request appends indirectly, meaning that gtroff expands strings
whose names are name or end before performing the append.
The ami1 request is similar to ami but compatibility mode is switched off
during execution of the defined macro.
Using trace.tmac, you can trace calls to am and am1.
See Section 5.19 [Strings], page 131, for the als and rn request to create
an alias and rename a macro, respectively.
The de, am, di, da, ds, and as requests (together with their variants)
only create a new object if the name of the macro, diversion or string is
currently undefined or if it is defined to be a request; normally they modify
the value of an existing object.
.return [anything] [Request]

Exit a macro, immediately returning to the caller.
If called with an argument, exit twice, namely the current macro and
the macro one level higher. This is used to define a wrapper macro for
return in trace.tmac.
5.21.1 Copy-in Mode

When gtroff reads in the text for a macro, string, or diversion, it copies the
text (including request lines, but excluding escapes) into an internal buffer.
Escapes are converted into an internal form, except for \n, \$, \*, \\ and
\RET, which are evaluated and inserted into the text where the escape was
located. This is known as copy-in mode or copy mode.
What this means is that you can specify when these escapes are to be
evaluated (either at copy-in time or at the time of use) by insulating the
escapes with an extra backslash. Compare this to the \def and \edef com-
mands in TEX.
The following example prints the numbers 20 and 10:
.nr x 20
.de y
.nr x 10
\&\nx
\&\\nx
..
.y
5.21.2 Parameters
The arguments to a macro or string can be examined using a variety of
escapes.
\n[.$] [Register]
The number of arguments passed to a macro or string. This is a read-only
number register.
Note that the shift request can change its value.
Any individual argument can be retrieved with one of the following es-
capes:
\$n [Escape]
\$(nn [Escape]
\$[nnn] [Escape]
Retrieve the n th, nn th or nnn th argument. As usual, the first form
only accepts a single number (larger than zero), the second a two-digit
number (larger or equal to 10), and the third any positive integer value
(larger than zero). Macros and strings can have an unlimited number of
arguments. Note that due to copy-in mode, use two backslashes on these
in actual use to prevent interpolation until the macro is actually invoked.
.shift [n] [Request]
Shift the arguments 1 position, or as many positions as specified by its
argument. After executing this request, argument i becomes argument
i − n; arguments 1 to n are no longer available. Shifting by negative
amounts is currently undefined.
The register .$ is adjusted accordingly.
\$* [Escape]
\$@ [Escape]
In some cases it is convenient to use all of the arguments at once (for
example, to pass the arguments along to another macro). The \$* escape
concatenates all the arguments separated by spaces. A similar escape
is \$@, which concatenates all the arguments with each surrounded by
double quotes, and separated by spaces. If not in compatibility mode,
the input level of double quotes is preserved (see Section 5.5.1.1 [Request
and Macro Arguments], page 68).
\$^ [Escape]
Handle the parameters of a macro as if they were an argument to the ds
or similar requests.
.de foo
. tm $1=‘\\$1’
. tm $2=‘\\$2’
. tm $*=‘\\$*’
. tm $@=‘\\$@’
. tm $^=‘\\$^’
..
.foo " This is a "test"
⇒ $1=‘ This is a ’
⇒ $2=‘test"’
⇒ $*=‘ This is a test"’
⇒ $@=‘" This is a " "test""’
⇒ $^=‘" This is a "test"’
This escape is useful mainly for macro packages like trace.tmac, which
redefines some requests and macros for debugging purposes.
\$0 [Escape]
The name used to invoke the current macro. The als request can make
a macro have more than one name.
If a macro is called as a string (within another macro), the value of \$0
isn’t changed.
.de foo
. tm \\$0
..
.als foo bar
.
.de aaa
. foo
..
.de bbb
. bar
..
.de ccc
\\*[foo]\\
..
.de ddd
\\*[bar]\\
..
.
.aaa
⇒ foo
.bbb
⇒ bar
.ccc
⇒ ccc
.ddd
⇒ ddd
See Section 5.5.1.1 [Request and Macro Arguments], page 68.
5.22 Page Motions

See Section 5.9 [Manipulating Spacing], page 89, for a discussion of the main
request for vertical motion, sp.
.mk [reg] [Request]

.rt [dist] [Request]
The request mk can be used to mark a location on a page, for movement
to later. This request takes a register name as an argument in which to
store the current page location. With no argument it stores the location
in an internal register. The results of this can be used later by the rt or
the sp request (or the \v escape).
The rt request returns upwards to the location marked with the last mk
request. If used with an argument, return to a position which distance
from the top of the page is dist (no previous call to mk is necessary in this
case). Default scaling indicator is ‘v’.
If a page break occurs between a mk request and its matching rt request,
the rt is silently ignored.
Here a primitive solution for a two-column macro.
.nr column-length 1.5i

.nr column-gap 4m
.nr bottom-margin 1m
.
.de 2c
. br
. mk
. ll \\n[column-length]u
. wh -\\n[bottom-margin]u 2c-trap
. nr right-side 0
..
.
.de 2c-trap
. ie \\n[right-side] \{\
. nr right-side 0
. po -(\\n[column-length]u + \\n[column-gap]u)
. \" remove trap
. wh -\\n[bottom-margin]u
. \}
. el \{\
. \" switch to right side
. nr right-side 1
. po +(\\n[column-length]u + \\n[column-gap]u)
. rt
. \}
..
.
.pl 1.5i
.ll 4i
This is a small test that shows how the
rt request works in combination with mk.
.2c
Starting here, text is typeset in two columns.
Note that this implementation isn’t robust
and thus not suited for a real two-column
macro.
Result:
This is a small test that shows how the

rt request works in combination with mk.
Starting here, isn’t robust

text is typeset and thus not
in two columns. suited for a
Note that this real two-column
implementation macro.
The following escapes give fine control of movements about the page.
\v’e’ [Escape]
Move vertically, usually from the current location on the page (if no
absolute position operator ‘|’ is used). The argument e specifies the
distance to move; positive is downwards and negative upwards. The
default scaling indicator for this escape is ‘v’. Beware, however, that
gtroff continues text processing at the point where the motion ends,
so you should always balance motions to avoid interference with text
processing.
\v doesn’t trigger a trap. This can be quite useful; for example, consider
a page bottom trap macro that prints a marker in the margin to indicate
continuation of a footnote or something similar.
There are some special-case escapes for vertical motion.
\r [Escape]
Move upwards 1 v.
\u [Escape]
Move upwards .5 v.
\d [Escape]
Move down .5 v.
\h’e’ [Escape]
Move horizontally, usually from the current location (if no absolute po-
sition operator ‘|’ is used). The expression e indicates how far to move:
positive is rightwards and negative leftwards. The default scaling indica-
tor for this escape is ‘m’.
This horizontal space is not discarded at the end of a line. To insert
discardable space of a certain length use the ss request.
There are a number of special-case escapes for horizontal motion.
\SP [Escape]
An unbreakable and unpaddable (i.e. not expanded during filling) space.
(Note: This is a backslash followed by a space.)
\~ [Escape]
An unbreakable space that stretches like a normal inter-word space when
a line is adjusted.
\| [Escape]
A 1/6 th em space. Ignored for TTY output devices (rounded to zero).
However, if there is a glyph defined in the current font file with name \|
(note the leading backslash), the width of this glyph is used instead (even
for TTYs).
\^ [Escape]
A 1/12 th em space. Ignored for TTY output devices (rounded to zero).
However, if there is a glyph defined in the current font file with name \^
(note the leading backslash), the width of this glyph is used instead (even
for TTYs).
\0 [Escape]
A space the size of a digit.
The following string sets the TEX logo:
.ds TeX T\h’-.1667m’\v’.224m’E\v’-.224m’\h’-.125m’X
\w’text’ [Escape]
\n[st] [Register]
\n[sb] [Register]
\n[rst] [Register]
\n[rsb] [Register]
\n[ct] [Register]
\n[ssc] [Register]
\n[skw] [Register]
Return the width of the specified text in basic units. This allows hori-
zontal movement based on the width of some arbitrary text (e.g. given as
an argument to a macro).
The length of the string ‘abc’ is \w’abc’u.
⇒ The length of the string ‘abc’ is 72u.
Font changes may occur in text, which don’t affect current settings.
After use, \w sets several registers:
st
sb The highest and lowest point of the baseline, respectively, in
text.
rst
rsb Like the st and sb registers, but takes account of the heights
and depths of glyphs. In other words, this gives the high-
est and lowest point of text. Values below the baseline are
negative.
ct Defines the kinds of glyphs occurring in text:

0 only short glyphs, no descenders or tall glyphs.
1 at least one descender.
2 at least one tall glyph.
3 at least one each of a descender and a tall glyph.
ssc The amount of horizontal space (possibly negative) that
should be added to the last glyph before a subscript.
skw How far to right of the center of the last glyph in the \w
argument, the center of an accent from a roman font should
be placed over that glyph.
\kp [Escape]
\k(ps [Escape]
\k[position] [Escape]
Store the current horizontal position in the input line in number register
with name position (one-character name p, two-character name ps). Use
this, for example, to return to the beginning of a string for highlighting
or other decoration.
\n[hp] [Register]
The current horizontal position at the input line.
\n[.k] [Register]
A read-only number register containing the current horizontal output
position (relative to the current indentation).
\o’abc’ [Escape]
Overstrike glyphs a, b, c, . . . ; the glyphs are centered, and the resulting
spacing is the largest width of the affected glyphs.
\zg [Escape]
Print glyph g with zero width, i.e., without spacing. Use this to overstrike
glyphs left-aligned.
\Z’anything’ [Escape]
Print anything, then restore the horizontal and vertical position. The
argument may not contain tabs or leaders.
The following is an example of a strike-through macro:
.de ST
.nr ww \w’\\$1’
\Z@\v’-.25m’\l’\\n[ww]u’@\\$1
..
.
This is
.ST "a test"
an actual emergency!
5.23 Drawing Requests

gtroff provides a number of ways to draw lines and other figures on the
page. Used in combination with the page motion commands (see Section 5.22
[Page Motions], page 146, for more info), a wide variety of figures can be
drawn. However, for complex drawings these operations can be quite cum-
bersome, and it may be wise to use graphic preprocessors like gpic or ggrn.
See Section 6.3 [gpic], page 189, and Section 6.4 [ggrn], page 189, for more
information.
All drawing is done via escapes.
\l’l’ [Escape]
\l’lg’ [Escape]
Draw a line horizontally. l is the length of the line to be drawn. If it
is positive, start the line at the current location and draw to the right;
its end point is the new current location. Negative values are handled
differently: The line starts at the current location and draws to the left,
but the current location doesn’t move.
l can also be specified absolutely (i.e. with a leading ‘|’), which draws
back to the beginning of the input line. Default scaling indicator is ‘m’.
The optional second parameter g is a glyph to draw the line with. If
this second argument is not specified, gtroff uses the underscore glyph,
\[ru].
To separate the two arguments (to prevent gtroff from interpreting a
drawing glyph as a scaling indicator if the glyph is represented by a single
character) use \&.
Here a small useful example:
.de box
\[br]\\$*\[br]\l’|0\[rn]’\l’|0\[ul]’
..
Note that this works by outputting a box rule (a vertical line), then the
text given as an argument and then another box rule. Finally, the line
drawing escapes both draw from the current location to the beginning of
the input line – this works because the line length is negative, not moving
the current point.
\L’l’ [Escape]
\L’lg’ [Escape]
Draw vertical lines. Its parameters are similar to the \l escape, except
that the default scaling indicator is ‘v’. The movement is downwards
for positive values, and upwards for negative values. The default glyph
is the box rule glyph, \[br]. As with the vertical motion escapes, text
processing blindly continues where the line ends.
This is a \L’3v’test.
Here is the result, produced with grotty.
This is a
|
|
|test.
\D’command arg . . . ’ [Escape]

The \D escape provides a variety of drawing functions. Note that on
character devices, only vertical and horizontal lines are supported within
grotty; other devices may only support a subset of the available drawing
functions.
The default scaling indicator for all subcommands of \D is ‘m’ for hori-
zontal distances and ‘v’ for vertical ones. Exceptions are \D’f ...’ and
\D’t ...’, which use u as the default, and \D’Fx ...’, which arguments
are treated similar to the defcolor request.
\D’l dx dy’
Draw a line from the current location to the relative point
specified by (dx,dy), where positive values mean right and
down, respectively. The end point of the line is the new
current location.
The following example is a macro for creating a box around a
text string; for simplicity, the box margin is taken as a fixed
value, 0.2 m.
.de BOX
. nr @wd \w’\\$1’
\h’.2m’\
\h’-.2m’\v’(.2m - \\n[rsb]u)’\
\D’l 0 -(\\n[rst]u - \\n[rsb]u + .4m)’\
\D’l (\\n[@wd]u + .4m) 0’\
\D’l 0 (\\n[rst]u - \\n[rsb]u + .4m)’\
\D’l -(\\n[@wd]u + .4m) 0’\
\h’.2m’\v’-(.2m - \\n[rsb]u)’\
\\$1\
\h’.2m’
..
First, the width of the string is stored in register @wd. Then,
four lines are drawn to form a box, properly offset by the box
margin. The registers rst and rsb are set by the \w escape,
containing the largest height and depth of the whole string.
\D’c d’ Draw a circle with a diameter of d with the leftmost point at
the current position. After drawing, the current location is
positioned at the rightmost point of the circle.
\D’C d’ Draw a solid circle with the same parameters and behaviour
as an outlined circle. No outline is drawn.
\D’e x y’ Draw an ellipse with a horizontal diameter of x and a ver-

tical diameter of y with the leftmost point at the current
position. After drawing, the current location is positioned at
the rightmost point of the ellipse.
\D’E x y’ Draw a solid ellipse with the same parameters and behaviour
as an outlined ellipse. No outline is drawn.
\D’a dx1 dy1 dx2 dy2’
Draw an arc clockwise from the current location through the
two specified relative locations (dx1,dy1) and (dx2,dy2). The
coordinates of the first point are relative to the current posi-
tion, and the coordinates of the second point are relative to
the first point. After drawing, the current position is moved
to the final point of the arc.
\D’~ dx1 dy1 dx2 dy2 ...’
Draw a spline from the current location to the relative point
(dx1,dy1) and then to (dx2,dy2), and so on. The current
position is moved to the terminal point of the drawn curve.
\D’f n’ Set the shade of gray to be used for filling solid objects to n;
n must be an integer between 0 and 1000, where 0 corresponds
solid white and 1000 to solid black, and values in between
correspond to intermediate shades of gray. This applies only
to solid circles, solid ellipses, and solid polygons. By default,
a level of 1000 is used.
Despite of being silly, the current point is moved horizontally
to the right by n.
Don’t use this command! It has the serious drawback that it
is always rounded to the next integer multiple of the horizon-
tal resolution (the value of the hor keyword in the DESC file).
Use \M (see Section 5.28 [Colors], page 169) or \D’Fg ...’
instead.
\D’p dx1 dy1 dx2 dy2 ...’
Draw a polygon from the current location to the relative po-
sition (dx1,dy1) and then to (dx2,dy2) and so on. When the
specified data points are exhausted, a line is drawn back to
the starting point. The current position is changed by adding
the sum of all arguments with odd index to the actual hori-
zontal position and the even ones to the vertical position.
\D’P dx1 dy1 dx2 dy2 ...’
Draw a solid polygon with the same parameters and be-
haviour as an outlined polygon. No outline is drawn.
Here a better variant of the box macro to fill the box with
some color. Note that the box must be drawn before the text
since colors in gtroff are not transparent; the filled polygon

would hide the text completely.
.de BOX
. nr @wd \w’\\$1’
\h’.2m’\
\h’-.2m’\v’(.2m - \\n[rsb]u)’\
\M[lightcyan]\
\D’P 0 -(\\n[rst]u - \\n[rsb]u + .4m) \
(\\n[@wd]u + .4m) 0 \
0 (\\n[rst]u - \\n[rsb]u + .4m) \
-(\\n[@wd]u + .4m) 0’\
\h’.2m’\v’-(.2m - \\n[rsb]u)’\
\M[]\
\\$1\
\h’.2m’
..
If you want a filled polygon that has exactly the same size as
an unfilled one, you must draw both an unfilled and a filled
polygon. A filled polygon is always smaller than an unfilled
one because the latter uses straight lines with a given line
thickness to connect the polygon’s corners, while the former
simply fills the area defined by the coordinates.
\h’1i’\v’1i’\
\# increase line thickness
\Z’\D’t 5p’’\
\# draw unfilled polygon
\Z’\D’p 3 3 -6 0’’\
\# draw filled polygon
\Z’\D’P 3 3 -6 0’’
\D’t n’ Set the current line thickness to n machine units. A value of
zero selects the smallest available line thickness. A negative
value makes the line thickness proportional to the current
point size (this is the default behaviour of AT&T troff).
Despite of being silly, the current point is moved horizontally
to the right by n.
\D’Fscheme color_components’
Change current fill color. scheme is a single letter denoting
the color scheme: ‘r’ (rgb), ‘c’ (cmy), ‘k’ (cmyk), ‘g’ (gray),
or ‘d’ (default color). The color components use exactly the
same syntax as in the defcolor request (see Section 5.28
[Colors], page 169); the command \D’Fd’ doesn’t take an
argument.
No position changing!
Examples:
\D’Fg .3’ \" same gray as \D’f 700’

\D’Fr #0000ff’ \" blue
See Section 8.1.2.3 [Graphics Commands], page 204.
\b’string’ [Escape]
Pile a sequence of glyphs vertically, and center it vertically on the current
line. Use it to build large brackets and braces.
Here an example how to create a large opening brace:
\b’\[lt]\[bv]\[lk]\[bv]\[lb]’
The first glyph is on the top, the last glyph in string is at the bottom.
Note that gtroff separates the glyphs vertically by 1 m, and the whole
object is centered 0.5 m above the current baseline; the largest glyph
width is used as the width for the whole object. This rather unflexible
positioning algorithm doesn’t work with -Tdvi since the bracket pieces
vary in height for this device. Instead, use the eqn preprocessor.
See Section 5.9 [Manipulating Spacing], page 89, how to adjust the vertical
spacing with the \x escape.
5.24 Traps
Traps are locations that, when reached, call a specified macro. These traps
can occur at a given location on the page, at a given location in the current
diversion, at a blank line, after a certain number of input lines, or at the end
of input.
Setting a trap is also called planting. It is also said that a trap is sprung
if the associated macro is executed.
5.24.1 Page Location Traps

Page location traps perform an action when gtroff reaches or passes a
certain vertical location on the page. Page location traps have a variety of
purposes, including:
• setting headers and footers
• setting body text in multiple columns
• setting footnotes
.vpt flag [Request]
\n[.vpt] [Register]
Enable vertical position traps if flag is non-zero, or disables them oth-
erwise. Vertical position traps are traps set by the wh or dt requests.
Traps set by the it request are not vertical position traps. The param-
eter that controls whether vertical position traps are enabled is global.
Initially vertical position traps are enabled. The current setting of this is
available in the .vpt read-only number register.
Note that a page can’t be ejected if vpt is set to zero.
.wh dist [macro] [Request]

Set a page location trap. Non-negative values for dist set the trap relative
to the top of the page; negative values set the trap relative to the bottom
of the page. Default scaling indicator is ‘v’; values of dist are always
rounded to be multiples of the vertical resolution (as given in register
.V).
macro is the name of the macro to execute when the trap is sprung. If
macro is missing, remove the first trap (if any) at dist.
The following is a simple example of how many macro packages set head-
ers and footers.
.de hd \" Page header
’ sp .5i
. tl ’Title’’date’
’ sp .3i
..
.
.de fo \" Page footer
’ sp 1v
. tl ’’%’’
’ bp
..
.
.wh 0 hd \" trap at top of the page
.wh -1i fo \" trap one inch from bottom
A trap at or below the bottom of the page is ignored; it can be made
active by either moving it up or increasing the page length so that the
trap is on the page.
Negative trap values always use the current page length; they are not
converted to an absolute vertical position:
.pl 5i
.wh -1i xx
.ptr
⇒ xx -240
.pl 100i
.ptr
⇒ xx -240
It is possible to have more than one trap at the same location; to do
so, the traps must be defined at different locations, then moved together
with the ch request; otherwise the second trap would replace the first
one. Earlier defined traps hide later defined traps if moved to the same
position (the many empty lines caused by the bp request are omitted in
the following example):
.de a
. nop a
..
.de b
. nop b
..
.de c
. nop c
..
.
.wh 1i a
.wh 2i b
.wh 3i c
.bp
⇒ a b c
.ch b 1i
.ch c 1i
.bp
⇒ a
.ch a 0.5i
.bp
⇒ a b
\n[.t] [Register]
A read-only number register holding the distance to the next trap.
If there are no traps between the current position and the bottom of the
page, it contains the distance to the page bottom. In a diversion, the
distance to the page bottom is infinite (the returned value is the biggest
integer that can be represented in groff) if there are no diversion traps.
.ch macro [dist] [Request]
Change the location of a trap. The first argument is the name of the
macro to be invoked at the trap, and the second argument is the new
location for the trap (note that the parameters are specified in opposite
order as in the wh request). This is useful for building up footnotes in a
diversion to allow more space at the bottom of the page for them.
Default scaling indicator for dist is ‘v’. If dist is missing, the trap is
removed.
\n[.ne] [Register]
The read-only number register .ne contains the amount of space that was
needed in the last ne request that caused a trap to be sprung. Useful in
conjunction with the .trunc register. See Section 5.16 [Page Control],
page 107, for more information.
Since the .ne register is only set by traps it doesn’t make much sense to
use it outside of trap macros.
\n[.trunc] [Register]
A read-only register containing the amount of vertical space truncated
from an sp request by the most recently sprung vertical position trap,
or, if the trap was sprung by an ne request, minus the amount of vertical
motion produced by the ne request. In other words, at the point a trap
is sprung, it represents the difference of what the vertical position would
have been but for the trap, and what the vertical position actually is.
Since the .trunc register is only set by traps it doesn’t make much sense
to use it outside of trap macros.
\n[.pe] [Register]
A read-only register that is set to 1 while a page is ejected with the bp
request (or by the end of input).
Outside of traps this register is always zero. In the following example,
only the second call to x is caused by bp.
.de x
\&.pe=\\n[.pe]
.br
..
.wh 1v x
.wh 4v x
A line.
.br
Another line.
.br
⇒ A line.
.pe=0
Another line.
.pe=1
An important fact to consider while designing macros is that diversions
and traps do not interact normally. For example, if a trap invokes a header
macro (while outputting a diversion) that tries to change the font on the
current page, the effect is not visible before the diversion has completely
been printed (except for input protected with \! or \?) since the data in
the diversion is already formatted. In most cases, this is not the expected
behaviour.
5.24.2 Diversion Traps

.dt [dist macro] [Request]
Set a trap within a diversion. dist is the location of the trap (identical to
the wh request; default scaling indicator is ‘v’) and macro is the name of
the macro to be invoked. If called without arguments, the diversion trap
is removed.
Note that there exists only a single diversion trap.

The number register .t still works within diversions. See Section 5.25
[Diversions], page 162, for more information.
5.24.3 Input Line Traps

.it n macro [Request]
.itc n macro [Request]
Set an input line trap. n is the number of lines of input that may be read
before springing the trap, macro is the macro to be invoked. Request
lines are not counted as input lines.
For example, one possible use is to have a macro that prints the next
n lines in a bold font.
.de B
. it \\$1 B-end
. ft B
..
.
.de B-end
. ft R
..
The itc request is identical except that an interrupted text line (ending
with \c) is not counted as a separate line.
Both requests are associated with the current environment (see
Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166); switching to another environ-
ment disables the current input trap, and going back reactivates it,
restoring the number of already processed lines.
5.24.4 Blank Line Traps

.blm macro [Request]
Set a blank line trap. gtroff executes macro when it encounters a blank
line in the input file.
5.24.5 Leading Spaces Traps

.lsm macro [Request]
\n[lsn] [Register]
\n[lss] [Register]
Set a leading spaces trap. gtroff executes macro when it encounters
leading spaces in an input line; the implicit line break that normally hap-
pens in this case is suppressed. A line consisting of spaces only, however,
is treated as an empty line, possibly subject to an empty line macro set
with the blm request.
Leading spaces are removed from the input line before calling the leading
spaces macro. The number of removed spaces is stored in register lsn;
the horizontal space that would be emitted if there was no leading space
macro is stored in register lss. Note that lsn and lss are available even
if no leading space macro has been set.
The first thing a leading space macro sees is a token. However, some
escapes like \f or \m are handled on the fly (see Section 5.32 [Gtroff
Internals], page 178, for a complete list) without creating a token at all.
Consider that a line starts with two spaces followed by \fIfoo. While
skipping the spaces \fI is handled too so that groff’s current font is
properly set to ‘I’, but the leading space macro only sees foo, without
the preceding \fI. If the macro should see the font escape you have
to ‘protect’ it with something that creates a token, for example with
\&\fIfoo.
5.24.6 End-of-input Traps

.em macro [Request]
Set a trap at the end of input. macro is executed after the last line of the
input file has been processed.
For example, if the document had to have a section at the bottom of the
last page for someone to approve it, the em request could be used.
.de approval
\c
. ne 3v
. sp (\\n[.t]u - 3v)
. in +4i
. lc _
. br
Approved:\t\a
. sp
Date:\t\t\a
..
.
.em approval
The \c in the above example needs explanation. For historical reasons
(and for compatibility with AT&T troff), the end macro exits as soon as
it causes a page break and no remaining data is in the partially collected
line.
Let us assume that there is no \c in the above approval macro, and
that the page is full and has been ended with, say, a br request. The ne
request now causes the start of a new page, which in turn makes troff
exit immediately for the reasons just described. In most situations this
is not intended.
To always force processing the whole end macro independently of this
behaviour it is thus advisable to insert something that starts an empty
partially filled line (\c) whenever there is a chance that a page break can
happen. In the above example, the call of the ne request assures that
the remaining code stays on the same page, so we have to insert \c only
once.
The next example shows how to append three lines, then starting a new
page unconditionally. Since ‘.ne 1’ doesn’t give the desired effect – there
is always one line available or we are already at the beginning of the next
page – we temporarily increase the page length by one line so that we can
use ‘.ne 2’.
.de EM
.pl +1v
\c
.ne 2
line one
.br
\c
.ne 2
line two
.br
\c
.ne 2
line three
.br
.pl -1v
\c
’bp
..
.em EM
Note that this specific feature affects only the first potential page break
caused by the end macro; further page breaks emitted by the end macro
are handled normally.
Another possible use of the em request is to make gtroff emit a single

large page instead of multiple pages. For example, one may want to
produce a long plain-text file for reading on-screen. The idea is to set
the page length at the beginning of the document to a very large value to
hold all the text, and automatically adjust it to the exact height of the
document after the text has been output.
.de adjust-page-length
. br
. pl \\n[nl]u \" \n[nl] holds the current vert. position
..
.
.de single-page-mode
. pl 99999
. em adjust-page-length
..
.
.\" activate the above code
.single-page-mode
Since only one end-of-input trap does exist and other macro packages may
already use it, care must be taken not to break the mechanism. A simple
solution would be to append the above macro to the macro package’s
end-of-input macro using the .am request.
5.25 Diversions
In gtroff it is possible to divert text into a named storage area. Due to the
similarity to defining macros it is sometimes said to be stored in a macro.
This is used for saving text for output at a later time, which is useful for
keeping blocks of text on the same page, footnotes, tables of contents, and
indices.
For orthogonality it is said that gtroff is in the top-level diversion if no
diversion is active (i.e., the data is diverted to the output device).
Although the following requests can be used to create diversions, sim-
ply using an undefined diversion will cause it to be defined as empty. See
Section 5.4 [Identifiers], page 65.
.di macro [Request]
.da macro [Request]
Begin a diversion. Like the de request, it takes an argument of a macro
name to divert subsequent text into. The da macro appends to an existing
diversion.
di or da without an argument ends the diversion.
The current partially filled line is included into the diversion. See the box
request below for an example. Note that switching to another (empty)
environment (with the ev request) avoids the inclusion of the current
partially filled line.
.box macro [Request]
.boxa macro [Request]
Begin (or append to) a diversion like the di and da requests. The dif-
ference is that box and boxa do not include a partially filled line in the
diversion.
Compare this:
Before the box.
.box xxx
In the box.
.br
.box
After the box.
.br
⇒ Before the box. After the box.
.xxx
⇒ In the box.
with this:
Before the diversion.
.di yyy
In the diversion.
.br
.di
After the diversion.
.br
⇒ After the diversion.
.yyy
⇒ Before the diversion. In the diversion.
box or boxa without an argument ends the diversion.
\n[.z] [Register]
\n[.d] [Register]
Diversions may be nested. The read-only number register .z contains
the name of the current diversion (this is a string-valued register). The
read-only number register .d contains the current vertical place in the
diversion. If not in a diversion it is the same as register nl.
\n[.h] [Register]
The high-water mark on the current page or in the current diversion. It
corresponds to the text baseline of the lowest line on the page. This is a
read-only register.
.tm .h==\n[.h], nl==\n[nl]
⇒ .h==0, nl==-1
This is a test.
.br
.sp 2
.tm .h==\n[.h], nl==\n[nl]
⇒ .h==40, nl==120
As can be seen in the previous example, empty lines are not considered
in the return value of the .h register.
\n[dn] [Register]
\n[dl] [Register]
After completing a diversion, the read-write number registers dn and dl
contain the vertical and horizontal size of the diversion. Note that only
the just processed lines are counted: For the computation of dn and dl,
the requests da and boxa are handled as if di and box had been used –
lines that have been already stored in a macro are not taken into account.
.\" Center text both horizontally & vertically
.
.\" Enclose macro definitions in .eo and .ec
.\" to avoid the doubling of the backslash
.eo
.\" macro .(c starts centering mode
.de (c
. br
. ev (c
. evc 0
. in 0
. nf
. di @c
..
.\" macro .)c terminates centering mode
.de )c
. br
. ev
. di
. nr @s (((\n[.t]u - \n[dn]u) / 2u) - 1v)
. sp \n[@s]u
. ce 1000
. @c
. ce 0
. sp \n[@s]u
. br
. fi
. rr @s
. rm @c
..
.\" End of macro definitions, restore escape mechanism
.ec
\! [Escape]
\?anything\? [Escape]
Prevent requests, macros, and escapes from being interpreted when read
into a diversion. Both escapes take the given text and transparently
embed it into the diversion. This is useful for macros that shouldn’t be
invoked until the diverted text is actually output.
The \! escape transparently embeds text up to and including the end

of the line. The \? escape transparently embeds text until the next
occurrence of the \? escape. Example:
\?anything\?
anything may not contain newlines; use \! to embed newlines in a diver-
sion. The escape sequence \? is also recognized in copy mode and turned
into a single internal code; it is this code that terminates anything. Thus
the following example prints 4.
.nr x 1
.nf
.di d
\?\\?\\\\?\\\\\\\\nx\\\\?\\?\?
.di
.nr x 2
.di e
.d
.di
.nr x 3
.di f
.e
.di
.nr x 4
.f
Both escapes read the data in copy mode.
If \! is used in the top-level diversion, its argument is directly embedded
into the gtroff intermediate output. This can be used for example to
control a postprocessor that processes the data before it is sent to the
device driver.
The \? escape used in the top-level diversion produces no output at all;
its argument is simply ignored.
.output string [Request]
Emit string directly to the gtroff intermediate output (subject to copy
mode interpretation); this is similar to \! used at the top level. An initial
double quote in string is stripped off to allow initial blanks.
This request can’t be used before the first page has started – if you get
an error, simply insert .br before the output request.
Without argument, output is ignored.
Use with caution! It is normally only needed for mark-up used by a
postprocessor that does something with the output before sending it to
the output device, filtering out string again.
.asciify div [Request]
Unformat the diversion specified by div in such a way that ASCII charac-
ters, characters translated with the trin request, space characters, and
some escape sequences that were formatted and diverted are treated like
ordinary input characters when the diversion is reread. It can be also
used for gross hacks; for example, the following sets register n to 1.
.tr @.
.di x
@nr n 1
.br
.di
.tr @@
.asciify x
.x
Note that asciify cannot return all items in a diversion back to their
source equivalent, nodes such as \N[...] will still remain as nodes, so
the result cannot be guaranteed to be a pure string.
See Section 5.21.1 [Copy-in Mode], page 144.
.unformat div [Request]

Like asciify, unformat the specified diversion. However, unformat only
unformats spaces and tabs between words. Unformatted tabs are treated
as input tokens, and spaces are stretchable again.
The vertical size of lines is not preserved; glyph information (font, font
size, space width, etc.) is retained.
5.26 Environments
It happens frequently that some text should be printed in a certain format
regardless of what may be in effect at the time, for example, in a trap
invoked macro to print headers and footers. To solve this gtroff processes
text in environments. An environment contains most of the parameters that
control text processing. It is possible to switch amongst these environments;
by default gtroff processes text in environment 0. The following is the
information kept in an environment.
• font parameters (size, family, style, glyph height and slant, space and
sentence space size)
• page parameters (line length, title length, vertical spacing, line spacing,
indentation, line numbering, centering, right-justifying, underlining, hy-
phenation data)
• fill and adjust mode
• tab stops, tab and leader characters, escape character, no-break and
hyphen indicators, margin character data
• partially collected lines
• input traps
• drawing and fill colours
These environments may be given arbitrary names (see Section 5.4 [Iden-
tifiers], page 65, for more info). Old versions of troff only had environments
named ‘0’, ‘1’, and ‘2’.
.ev [env] [Request]
\n[.ev] [Register]
Switch to another environment. The argument env is the name of the
environment to switch to. With no argument, gtroff switches back to
the previous environment. There is no limit on the number of named
environments; they are created the first time that they are referenced.
The .ev read-only register contains the name or number of the current
environment. This is a string-valued register.
Note that a call to ev (with argument) pushes the previously active en-
vironment onto a stack. If, say, environments ‘foo’, ‘bar’, and ‘zap’ are
called (in that order), the first ev request without parameter switches
back to environment ‘bar’ (which is popped off the stack), and a second
call switches back to environment ‘foo’.
Here is an example:
.ev footnote-env
.fam N
.ps 6
.vs 8
.ll -.5i
.ev
...
.ev footnote-env
\(dg Note the large, friendly letters.
.ev
.evc env [Request]
Copy the environment env into the current environment.
The following environment data is not copied:
• Partially filled lines.
• The status whether the previous line was interrupted.
• The number of lines still to center, or to right-justify, or to underline
(with or without underlined spaces); they are set to zero.
• The status whether a temporary indentation is active.
• Input traps and its associated data.
• Line numbering mode is disabled; it can be reactivated with ‘.nm +0’.
• The number of consecutive hyphenated lines (set to zero).
\n[.w] [Register]
\n[.cht] [Register]
\n[.cdp] [Register]
\n[.csk] [Register]
The \n[.w] register contains the width of the last glyph added to the
current environment.
The \n[.cht] register contains the height of the last glyph added to the
The \n[.cdp] register contains the depth of the last glyph added to
the current environment. It is positive for glyphs extending below the
baseline.
The \n[.csk] register contains the skew (how far to the right of the
glyph’s center that gtroff should place an accent) of the last glyph added
to the current environment.
\n[.n] [Register]
The \n[.n] register contains the length of the previous output line in the
5.27 Suppressing output

\Onum [Escape]
Disable or enable output depending on the value of num:
‘\O0’ Disable any glyphs from being emitted to the device driver,
provided that the escape occurs at the outer level (see \O[3]
and \O[4]). Motion is not suppressed so effectively \O[0]
means pen up.
‘\O1’ Enable output of glyphs, provided that the escape occurs at
the outer level.
\O0 and \O1 also reset the four registers ‘opminx’, ‘opminy’, ‘opmaxx’,
and ‘opmaxy’ to −1. See tie E [Register Index], page 239. These four
registers mark the top left and bottom right hand corners of a box that
encompasses all written glyphs.
For example the input text:
Hello \O[0]world \O[1]this is a test.
produces the following output:
Hello this is a test.
‘\O2’ Provided that the escape occurs at the outer level, enable
output of glyphs and also write out to stderr the page num-
ber and four registers encompassing the glyphs previously
written since the last call to \O.
‘\O3’ Begin a nesting level. At start-up, gtroff is at outer level.
The current level is contained within the read-only register
.O. See Section 5.6.5 [Built-in Registers], page 77.
‘\O4’ End a nesting level. The current level is contained within the
read-only register .O. See Section 5.6.5 [Built-in Registers],
page 77.
‘\O[5Pfilename]’
This escape is grohtml specific. Provided that this escape oc-
curs at the outer nesting level write the filename to stderr.
The position of the image, P, must be specified and must be
one of l, r, c, or i (left, right, centered, inline). filename is
associated with the production of the next inline image.
5.28 Colors
.color [n] [Request]
\n[.color] [Register]
If n is missing or non-zero, activate colors (this is the default); otherwise,
turn it off.
The read-only number register .color is 1 if colors are active, 0 otherwise.
Internally, color sets a global flag; it does not produce a token. Similar
to the cp request, you should use it at the beginning of your document
to control color output.
Colors can be also turned off with the -c command-line option.
.defcolor ident scheme color components [Request]
Define color with name ident. scheme can be one of the following val-
ues: rgb (three components), cmy (three components), cmyk (four com-
ponents), and gray or grey (one component).
Color components can be given either as a hexadecimal string or as posi-
tive decimal integers in the range 0–65535. A hexadecimal string contains
all color components concatenated. It must start with either # or ##; the
former specifies hex values in the range 0–255 (which are internally mul-
tiplied by 257), the latter in the range 0–65535. Examples: #FFC0CB
(pink), ##ffff0000ffff (magenta). The default color name value is
device-specific (usually black). It is possible that the default color for
\m and \M is not identical.
A new scaling indicator f has been introduced, which multiplies its value
by 65536; this makes it convenient to specify color components as fractions
in the range 0 to 1 (1f equals 65536u). Example:
.defcolor darkgreen rgb 0.1f 0.5f 0.2f
Note that f is the default scaling indicator for the defcolor request, thus
the above statement is equivalent to
.defcolor darkgreen rgb 0.1 0.5 0.2
.gcolor [color] [Request]
\mc [Escape]
\m(co [Escape]
\m[color] [Escape]
\n[.m] [Register]
Set (glyph) drawing color. The following examples show how to turn the
next four words red.
.gcolor red
these are in red
.gcolor
and these words are in black.
\m[red]these are in red\m[] and these words are in black.
The escape \m[] returns to the previous color, as does a call to gcolor
without an argument.
The name of the current drawing color is available in the read-only, string-
valued number register ‘.m’.
The drawing color is associated with the current environment (see
Note that \m doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff. As a conse-
as an argument) to change the color on the fly:
.mc \m[red]x\m[]
.fcolor [color] [Request]

\Mc [Escape]
\M(co [Escape]
\M[color] [Escape]
\n[.M] [Register]
Set fill (background) color for filled objects drawn with the \D’...’ com-
mands.
A red ellipse can be created with the following code:
\M[red]\h’0.5i’\D’E 2i 1i’\M[]
The escape \M[] returns to the previous fill color, as does a call to fcolor
without an argument.
The name of the current fill (background) color is available in the read-
only, string-valued number register ‘.M’.
The fill color is associated with the current environment (see Section 5.26
Note that \M doesn’t produce an input token in gtroff.
5.29 I/O
gtroff has several requests for including files:
.so file [Request]

Read in the specified file and includes it in place of the so request. This is
quite useful for large documents, e.g. keeping each chapter in a separate
file. See Section 6.8 [gsoelim], page 189, for more information.
Since gtroff replaces the so request with the contents of file, it makes a
difference whether the data is terminated with a newline or not: Assuming
that file xxx contains the word ‘foo’ without a final newline, this
This is
.so xxx
bar
yields ‘This is foobar’.
The search path for file can be controlled with the -I command-line
option.
.pso command [Request]
Read the standard output from the specified command and includes it in
place of the pso request.
This request causes an error if used in safer mode (which is the default).
Use groff’s or troff’s -U option to activate unsafe mode.
The comment regarding a final newline for the so request is valid for pso
also.
.mso file [Request]
Identical to the so request except that gtroff searches for the specified
file in the same directories as macro files for the -m command-line option.
If the file name to be included has the form name.tmac and it isn’t found,
mso tries to include tmac.name and vice versa. If the file does not exist, a
warning of type ‘file’ is emitted. See Section 5.33 [Debugging], page 180,
for information about warnings.
.trf file [Request]
.cf file [Request]
Transparently output the contents of file. Each line is output as if it
were preceded by \!; however, the lines are not subject to copy mode
interpretation. If the file does not end with a newline, then a newline
is added (trf only). For example, to define a macro x containing the
contents of file f, use
.ev 1
.di x
.trf f
.di
.ev
The calls to ev prevent that the current partial input line becomes part
of the diversion.
Both trf and cf, when used in a diversion, embeds an object in the
diversion which, when reread, causes the contents of file to be transpar-
ently copied through to the output. In Unix troff, the contents of file
is immediately copied through to the output regardless of whether there
is a current diversion; this behaviour is so anomalous that it must be
considered a bug.
While cf copies the contents of file completely unprocessed, trf disallows
characters such as NUL that are not valid gtroff input characters (see
Section 5.4 [Identifiers], page 65).
For cf, within a diversion, ‘completely unprocessed’ means that each line
of a file to be inserted is handled as if it were preceded by \!\\!.
Both requests cause a line break.
.nx [file] [Request]

Force gtroff to continue processing of the file specified as an argument.
If no argument is given, immediately jump to the end of file.
.rd [prompt [arg1 arg2 . . . ]] [Request]

Read from standard input, and include what is read as though it were
part of the input file. Text is read until a blank line is encountered.
If standard input is a TTY input device (keyboard), write prompt to
standard error, followed by a colon (or send BEL for a beep if no argument
is given).
Arguments after prompt are available for the input. For example, the
line
.rd data foo bar
with the input ‘This is \$2.’ prints
This is bar.
Using the nx and rd requests, it is easy to set up form letters. The form
letter template is constructed like this, putting the following lines into a file
called repeat.let:
.ce
\*(td
.sp 2
.nf
.rd
.sp
.rd
.fi
Body of letter.
.bp
.nx repeat.let
When this is run, a file containing the following lines should be redirected
in. Note that requests included in this file are executed as though they were
part of the form letter. The last block of input is the ex request, which tells
groff to stop processing. If this was not there, groff would not know when
to stop.
Trent A. Fisher
708 NW 19th Av., #202
Portland, OR 97209
Dear Trent,
Len Adollar
4315 Sierra Vista
San Diego, CA 92103
Dear Mr. Adollar,
.ex
.pi pipe [Request]

Pipe the output of gtroff to the shell command(s) specified by pipe.
This request must occur before gtroff has a chance to print anything.
pi causes an error if used in safer mode (which is the default). Use
groff’s or troff’s -U option to activate unsafe mode.
Multiple calls to pi are allowed, acting as a chain. For example,
.pi foo
.pi bar
...
is the same as ‘.pi foo | bar’.
Note that the intermediate output format of gtroff is piped to the spec-
ified commands. Consequently, calling groff without the -Z option nor-
mally causes a fatal error.
.sy cmds [Request]

\n[systat] [Register]
Execute the shell command(s) specified by cmds. The output is not saved
anyplace, so it is up to the user to do so.
This request causes an error if used in safer mode (which is the default).
Use groff’s or troff’s -U option to activate unsafe mode.
For example, the following code fragment introduces the current time into
a document:
.sy perl -e ’printf ".nr H %d\\n.nr M %d\\n.nr S %d\\n",\
(localtime(time))[2,1,0]’ > /tmp/x\n[$$]
.so /tmp/x\n[$$]
.sy rm /tmp/x\n[$$]
\nH:\nM:\nS
Note that this works by having the perl script (run by sy) print out the
nr requests that set the number registers H, M, and S, and then reads
those commands in with the so request.
For most practical purposes, the number registers seconds, minutes, and
hours, which are initialized at start-up of gtroff, should be sufficient.
Use the af request to get a formatted output:
.af hours 00
.af minutes 00
.af seconds 00
\n[hours]:\n[minutes]:\n[seconds]
The systat read-write number register contains the return value of the
system() function executed by the last sy request.
.open stream file [Request]

.opena stream file [Request]
Open the specified file for writing and associates the specified stream with
it.
The opena request is like open, but if the file exists, append to it instead
of truncating it.
Both open and opena cause an error if used in safer mode (which is the
default). Use groff’s or troff’s -U option to activate unsafe mode.
.write stream data [Request]

.writec stream data [Request]
Write to the file associated with the specified stream. The stream must
previously have been the subject of an open request. The remainder of
the line is interpreted as the ds request reads its second argument: A
leading ‘"’ is stripped, and it is read in copy-in mode.
The writec request is like write, but only write appends a newline to
the data.
.writem stream xx [Request]

Write the contents of the macro or string xx to the file associated with
the specified stream.
xx is read in copy mode, i.e., already formatted elements are ignored.
Consequently, diversions must be unformatted with the asciify request
before calling writem. Usually, this means a loss of information.
.close stream [Request]

Close the specified stream; the stream is no longer an acceptable argument
to the write request.
Here a simple macro to write an index entry.
.open idx test.idx

.
.de IX
. write idx \\n[%] \\$*
..
.
.IX test entry
.
.close idx
\Ve [Escape]
\V(ev [Escape]
\V[env] [Escape]
Interpolate the contents of the specified environment variable env (one-
character name e, two-character name ev) as returned by the function
getenv. \V is interpreted in copy-in mode.
5.30 Postprocessor Access

There are two escapes that give information directly to the postprocessor.
This is particularly useful for embedding PostScript into the final docu-
ment.
.device xxx [Request]
\X’xxx’ [Escape]
Embeds its argument into the gtroff output preceded with ‘x X’.
The escapes \&, \), \%, and \: are ignored within \X, ‘\ ’ and \~ are
converted to single space characters. All other escapes (except \\, which
produces a backslash) cause an error.
Contrary to \X, the device request simply processes its argument in copy
mode (see Section 5.21.1 [Copy-in Mode], page 144).
If the ‘use_charnames_in_special’ keyword is set in the DESC file, spe-
cial characters no longer cause an error; they are simply output verbatim.
Additionally, the backslash is represented as \\.
‘use_charnames_in_special’ is currently used by grohtml only.
.devicem xx [Request]
\Yn [Escape]
\Y(nm [Escape]
\Y[name] [Escape]
This is approximately equivalent to ‘\X’\*[name]’’ (one-character
name n, two-character name nm). However, the contents of the string or
macro name are not interpreted; also it is permitted for name to have
been defined as a macro and thus contain newlines (it is not permitted
for the argument to \X to contain newlines). The inclusion of newlines
requires an extension to the Unix troff output format, and confuses
drivers that do not know about this extension (see Section 8.1.2.4
[Device Control Commands], page 207).
See Chapter 7 [Output Devices], page 191.
5.31 Miscellaneous
This section documents parts of gtroff that cannot (yet) be categorized
elsewhere in this manual.
.nm [start [inc [space [indent]]]] [Request]
Print line numbers. start is the line number of the next output line.
inc indicates which line numbers are printed. For example, the value 5
means to emit only line numbers that are multiples of 5; this defaults
to 1. space is the space to be left between the number and the text; this
defaults to one digit space. The fourth argument is the indentation of
the line numbers, defaulting to zero. Both space and indent are given
as multiples of digit spaces; they can be negative also. Without any
arguments, line numbers are turned off.
gtroff reserves three digit spaces for the line number (which is printed
right-justified) plus the amount given by indent; the output lines are con-
catenated to the line numbers, separated by space, and without reducing
the line length. Depending on the value of the horizontal page offset (as
set with the po request), line numbers that are longer than the reserved
space stick out to the left, or the whole line is moved to the right.
Parameters corresponding to missing arguments are not changed; any
non-digit argument (to be more precise, any argument starting with a
character valid as a delimiter for identifiers) is also treated as missing.
If line numbering has been disabled with a call to nm without an argu-
ment, it can be reactivated with ‘.nm +0’, using the previously active line
numbering parameters.
The parameters of nm are associated with the current environment (see
Section 5.26 [Environments], page 166). The current output line number
is available in the number register ln.
.po 1m
.ll 2i
This test shows how line numbering works with groff.
.nm 999
.br
.nm xxx 3 2
.ll -\w’0’u
.nn 2
And here the result:
This test shows how

line numbering works
999 with groff. This
1000 test shows how line
1001 numbering works with
1002 groff.
This test shows how
line numbering
works with groff.
This test shows how
1005 line numbering
works with groff.
.nn [skip] [Request]
Temporarily turn off line numbering. The argument is the number of
lines not to be numbered; this defaults to 1.
.mc glyph [dist] [Request]
Print a margin character to the right of the text.17 The first argument is
the glyph to be printed. The second argument is the distance away from
the right margin. If missing, the previously set value is used; default
is 10 pt). For text lines that are too long (that is, longer than the text
length plus dist), the margin character is directly appended to the lines.
With no arguments the margin character is turned off. If this occurs
before a break, no margin character is printed.
For compatibility with AT&T troff, a call to mc to set the margin charac-
ter can’t be undone immediately; at least one line gets a margin character.
Thus
.ll 1i
.mc \[br]
.mc
xxx
.br
xxx
produces
xxx |
xxx
For empty lines and lines produced by the tl request no margin character
is emitted.
The margin character is associated with the current environment (see
This is quite useful for indicating text that has changed, and, in fact,
there are programs available for doing this (they are called nrchbar and
changebar and can be found in any ‘comp.sources.unix’ archive).
17
Margin character is a misnomer since it is an output glyph.
.ll 3i
.mc |
This paragraph is highlighted with a margin
character.
.sp
Note that vertical space isn’t marked.
.br
\&
.br
But we can fake it with ‘\&’.
Result:
This paragraph is highlighted |
with a margin character. |
Note that vertical space isn’t |

marked. |
|
But we can fake it with ‘\&’. |
.psbb filename [Request]

\n[llx] [Register]
\n[lly] [Register]
\n[urx] [Register]
\n[ury] [Register]
Retrieve the bounding box of the PostScript image found in filename.
The file must conform to Adobe’s Document Structuring Conventions
(DSC); the command searches for a %%BoundingBox comment and ex-
tracts the bounding box values into the number registers llx, lly,
urx, and ury. If an error occurs (for example, psbb cannot find the
%%BoundingBox comment), it sets the four number registers to zero.
The search path for filename can be controlled with the -I command-line
option.
5.32 gtroff Internals

gtroff processes input in three steps. One or more input characters are
converted to an input token.18 Then, one or more input tokens are converted
to an output node. Finally, output nodes are converted to the intermediate
output language understood by all output devices.
Actually, before step one happens, gtroff converts certain escape se-
quences into reserved input characters (not accessible by the user); such
reserved characters are used for other internal processing also – this is the
18
Except the escapes \f, \F, \H, \m, \M, \R, \s, and \S, which are processed immediately
if not in copy-in mode.
very reason why not all characters are valid input. See Section 5.4 [Identi-
fiers], page 65, for more on this topic.
For example, the input string ‘fi\[:u]’ is converted into a character
token ‘f’, a character token ‘i’, and a special token ‘:u’ (representing u um-
laut). Later on, the character tokens ‘f’ and ‘i’ are merged to a single output
node representing the ligature glyph ‘fi’ (provided the current font has a
glyph for this ligature); the same happens with ‘:u’. All output glyph nodes
are ‘processed’, which means that they are invariably associated with a given
font, font size, advance width, etc. During the formatting process, gtroff
itself adds various nodes to control the data flow.
Macros, diversions, and strings collect elements in two chained lists: a
list of input tokens that have been passed unprocessed, and a list of output
nodes. Consider the following the diversion.
.di xxx
a
\!b
c
.br
.di
It contains these elements.
node list token list element number
line start node — 1

glyph node a — 2
word space node — 3
— b 4
— \n 5
glyph node c — 6
vertical size node — 7
vertical size node — 8
— \n 9
Elements 1, 7, and 8 are inserted by gtroff; the latter two (which are
always present) specify the vertical extent of the last line, possibly modified
by \x. The br request finishes the current partial line, inserting a newline
input token, which is subsequently converted to a space when the diversion is
reread. Note that the word space node has a fixed width that isn’t stretchable
anymore. To convert horizontal space nodes back to input tokens, use the
unformat request.
Macros only contain elements in the token list (and the node list is
empty); diversions and strings can contain elements in both lists.
Note that the chop request simply reduces the number of elements in
a macro, string, or diversion by one. Exceptions are compatibility save
and compatibility ignore input tokens, which are ignored. The substring
request also ignores those input tokens.
Some requests like tr or cflags work on glyph identifiers only; this

means that the associated glyph can be changed without destroying this
association. This can be very helpful for substituting glyphs. In the following
example, we assume that glyph ‘foo’ isn’t available by default, so we provide
a substitution using the fchar request and map it to input character ‘x’.
.fchar \[foo] foo
.tr x \[foo]
Now let us assume that we install an additional special font ‘bar’ that has
glyph ‘foo’.
.special bar
.rchar \[foo]
Since glyphs defined with fchar are searched before glyphs in special fonts,
we must call rchar to remove the definition of the fallback glyph. Anyway,
the translation is still active; ‘x’ now maps to the real glyph ‘foo’.
Macro and request arguments preserve the compatibility mode:
.cp 1 \" switch to compatibility mode
.de xx
\\$1
..
.cp 0 \" switch compatibility mode off
.xx caf\[’e]
⇒ café
Since compatibility mode is on while de is called, the macro xx activates com-
patibility mode while executing. Argument $1 can still be handled properly
because it inherits the compatibility mode status which was active at the
point where xx is called.
After expansion of the parameters, the compatibility save and restore
tokens are removed.
5.33 Debugging
gtroff is not easy to debug, but there are some useful features and strategies
for debugging.
.lf line [filename] [Request]
Change the line number and optionally the file name gtroff shall use
for error and warning messages. line is the input line number of the next
line.
Without argument, the request is ignored.
This is a debugging aid for documents that are split into many files,
then put together with soelim and other preprocessors. Usually, it isn’t
invoked manually.
Note that other troff implementations (including the original AT&T
version) handle lf differently. For them, line changes the line number of
the current line.
.tm string [Request]

.tm1 string [Request]
.tmc string [Request]
Send string to the standard error output; this is very useful for printing
debugging messages among other things.
string is read in copy mode.
The tm request ignores leading spaces of string; tm1 handles its argument
similar to the ds request: a leading double quote in string is stripped to
allow initial blanks.
The tmc request is similar to tm1 but does not append a newline (as is
done in tm and tm1).
.ab [string] [Request]
Similar to the tm request, except that it causes gtroff to stop processing.
With no argument it prints ‘User Abort.’ to standard error.
.ex [Request]
The ex request also causes gtroff to stop processing; see also Section 5.29
[I/O], page 170.
When doing something involved it is useful to leave the debugging state-
ments in the code and have them turned on by a command-line flag.
.if \n(DB .tm debugging output
To activate these statements say
groff -rDB=1 file
If it is known in advance that there are many errors and no useful output,
gtroff can be forced to suppress formatted output with the -z flag.
.pev [Request]
Print the contents of the current environment and all the currently defined
environments (both named and numbered) on stderr.
.pm [Request]
Print the entire symbol table on stderr. Names of all defined macros,
strings, and diversions are print together with their size in bytes. Since
gtroff sometimes adds nodes by itself, the returned size can be larger
than expected.
This request differs from Unix troff: gtroff reports the sizes of diver-
sions, ignores an additional argument to print only the total of the sizes,
and the size isn’t returned in blocks of 128 characters.
.pnr [Request]
Print the names and contents of all currently defined number registers on
stderr.
.ptr [Request]
Print the names and positions of all traps (not including input line traps
and diversion traps) on stderr. Empty slots in the page trap list are
printed as well, because they can affect the priority of subsequently

planted traps.
.fl [Request]
Instruct gtroff to flush its output immediately. The intent is for inter-
active use, but this behaviour is currently not implemented in gtroff.
Contrary to Unix troff, TTY output is sent to a device driver also
(grotty), making it non-trivial to communicate interactively.
This request causes a line break.
.backtrace [Request]
Print a backtrace of the input stack to the standard error stream.
Consider the following in file test:
.de xxx
. backtrace
..
.de yyy
. xxx
..
.
.yyy
On execution, gtroff prints the following:
test:2: backtrace: macro ‘xxx’
test:5: backtrace: macro ‘yyy’
test:8: backtrace: file ‘test’
The option -b of gtroff internally calls a variant of this request on each
error and warning.
\n[slimit] [Register]
Use the slimit number register to set the maximum number of objects
on the input stack. If slimit is less than or equal to 0, there is no limit
set. With no limit, a buggy recursive macro can exhaust virtual memory.
The default value is 1000; this is a compile-time constant.
.warnscale si [Request]
Set the scaling indicator used in warnings to si. Valid values for si are
‘u’, ‘i’, ‘c’, ‘p’, and ‘P’. At startup, it is set to ‘i’.
.spreadwarn [limit] [Request]
Make gtroff emit a warning if the additional space inserted for each
space between words in an output line is larger or equal to limit. A
negative value is changed to zero; no argument toggles the warning on
and off without changing limit. The default scaling indicator is ‘m’. At
startup, spreadwarn is deactivated, and limit is set to 3 m.
For example,
.spreadwarn 0.2m
causes a warning if gtroff must add 0.2 m or more for each interword
space in a line.
This request is active only if text is justified to both margins (using
‘.ad b’).
gtroff has command-line options for printing out more warnings (-w)
and for printing backtraces (-b) when a warning or an error occurs. The
most verbose level of warnings is -ww.
.warn [flags] [Request]
\n[.warn] [Register]
Control the level of warnings checked for. The flags are the sum of the
numbers associated with each warning that is to be enabled; all other
warnings are disabled. The number associated with each warning is listed
below. For example, .warn 0 disables all warnings, and .warn 1 disables
all warnings except that about missing glyphs. If no argument is given,
all warnings are enabled.
The read-only number register .warn contains the current warning level.
5.33.1 Warnings
The warnings that can be given to gtroff are divided into the following
categories. The name associated with each warning is used by the -w and -W
options; the number is used by the warn request and by the .warn register.
‘char’
‘1’ Non-existent glyphs.19 This is enabled by default.
‘number’
‘2’ Invalid numeric expressions. This is enabled by default. See
Section 5.3 [Expressions], page 63.
‘break’
‘4’ In fill mode, lines that could not be broken so that their length
was less than the line length. This is enabled by default.
‘delim’
‘8’ Missing or mismatched closing delimiters.
‘el’
‘16’ Use of the el request with no matching ie request. See
Section 5.20.2 [if-else], page 138.
‘scale’
‘32’ Meaningless scaling indicators.
‘range’
‘64’ Out of range arguments.
19
char is a misnomer since it reports missing glyphs – there aren’t missing input char-
acters, only invalid ones.
‘syntax’
‘128’ Dubious syntax in numeric expressions.
‘di’
‘256’ Use of di or da without an argument when there is no current
diversion.
‘mac’
‘512’ Use of undefined strings, macros and diversions. When an unde-
fined string, macro, or diversion is used, that string is automat-
ically defined as empty. So, in most cases, at most one warning
is given for each name.
‘reg’
‘1024’ Use of undefined number registers. When an undefined number
register is used, that register is automatically defined to have a
value of 0. So, in most cases, at most one warning is given for
use of a particular name.
‘tab’
‘2048’ Use of a tab character where a number was expected.
‘right-brace’
‘4096’ Use of \} where a number was expected.
‘missing’
‘8192’ Requests that are missing non-optional arguments.
‘input’
‘16384’ Invalid input characters.
‘escape’
‘32768’ Unrecognized escape sequences. When an unrecognized escape
sequence \X is encountered, the escape character is ignored, and
X is printed.
‘space’
‘65536’ Missing space between a request or macro and its argument.
This warning is given when an undefined name longer than two
characters is encountered, and the first two characters of the
name make a defined name. The request or macro is not in-
voked. When this warning is given, no macro is automatically
defined. This is enabled by default. This warning never occurs
in compatibility mode.
‘font’
‘131072’ Non-existent fonts. This is enabled by default.
‘ig’
‘262144’ Invalid escapes in text ignored with the ig request. These are
conditions that are errors when they do not occur in ignored
text.
‘color’
‘524288’ Color related warnings.
‘file’
‘1048576’ Missing files. The mso request gives this warning when the re-
quested macro file does not exist. This is enabled by default.
‘all’ All warnings except ‘di’, ‘mac’ and ‘reg’. It is intended that
this covers all warnings that are useful with traditional macro
packages.
‘w’ All warnings.
5.34 Implementation Differences

GNU troff has a number of features that cause incompatibilities with doc-
uments written with old versions of troff.
Long names cause some incompatibilities. Unix troff interprets
.dsabcd
as defining a string ‘ab’ with contents ‘cd’. Normally, GNU troff interprets
this as a call of a macro named dsabcd. Also Unix troff interprets \*[ or
\n[ as references to a string or number register called ‘[’. In GNU troff,
however, this is normally interpreted as the start of a long name. In com-
patibility mode GNU troff interprets long names in the traditional way
(which means that they are not recognized as names).
.cp [n] [Request]
.do cmd [Request]
\n[.C] [Register]
If n is missing or non-zero, turn on compatibility mode; otherwise, turn
it off.
The read-only number register .C is 1 if compatibility mode is on, 0 oth-
erwise.
Compatibility mode can be also turned on with the -C command-line
option.
The do request turns off compatibility mode while executing its arguments
as a gtroff command. However, it does not turn off compatibility mode
while processing the macro itself. To do that, use the de1 request (or
manipulate the .C register manually). See Section 5.21 [Writing Macros],
page 141.
.do fam T
executes the fam request when compatibility mode is enabled.
gtroff restores the previous compatibility setting before interpreting any
files sourced by the cmd.
Two other features are controlled by -C. If not in compatibility mode,
GNU troff preserves the input level in delimited arguments:
.ds xx ’
\w’abc\*(xxdef’
In compatibility mode, the string ‘72def’’ is returned; without -C the re-
sulting string is ‘168’ (assuming a TTY output device).
Finally, the escapes \f, \H, \m, \M, \R, \s, and \S are transparent for
recognizing the beginning of a line only in compatibility mode (this is a
rather obscure feature). For example, the code
.de xx
Hello!
..
\fB.xx\fP
prints ‘Hello!’ in bold face if in compatibility mode, and ‘.xx’ in bold face
otherwise.
GNU troff does not allow the use of the escape sequences \|, \^, \&,
\{, \}, \SP, \’, \‘, \-, \_, \!, \%, and \c in names of strings, macros,
diversions, number registers, fonts or environments; Unix troff does. The
\A escape sequence (see Section 5.4 [Identifiers], page 65) may be helpful in
avoiding use of these escape sequences in names.
Fractional point sizes cause one noteworthy incompatibility. In Unix
troff the ps request ignores scale indicators and thus
.ps 10u
sets the point size to 10 points, whereas in GNU troff it sets the point size
to 10 scaled points. See Section 5.18.2 [Fractional Type Sizes], page 130, for
more information.
In GNU troff there is a fundamental difference between (unformatted)
input characters and (formatted) output glyphs. Everything that affects how
a glyph is output is stored with the glyph node; once a glyph node has been
constructed it is unaffected by any subsequent requests that are executed,
including bd, cs, tkf, tr, or fp requests. Normally glyphs are constructed
from input characters at the moment immediately before the glyph is added
to the current output line. Macros, diversions and strings are all, in fact, the
same type of object; they contain lists of input characters and glyph nodes
in any combination. A glyph node does not behave like an input character
for the purposes of macro processing; it does not inherit any of the special
properties that the input character from which it was constructed might
have had. For example,
.di x
\\\\
.br
.di
.x
prints ‘\\’ in GNU troff; each pair of input backslashes is turned into one
output backslash and the resulting output backslashes are not interpreted
as escape characters when they are reread. Unix troff would interpret
them as escape characters when they were reread and would end up printing
one ‘\’. The correct way to obtain a printable backslash is to use the \e
escape sequence: This always prints a single instance of the current escape
character, regardless of whether or not it is used in a diversion; it also works
in both GNU troff and Unix troff.20 To store, for some reason, an escape
sequence in a diversion that is interpreted when the diversion is reread, either
use the traditional \! transparent output facility, or, if this is unsuitable,
the new \? escape sequence.
See Section 5.25 [Diversions], page 162, and Section 5.32 [Gtroff Inter-
nals], page 178, for more information.
20
To be completely independent of the current escape character, use \(rs, which repre-
sents a reverse solidus (backslash) glyph.
189
6 Preprocessors
This chapter describes all preprocessors that come with groff or which are
freely available.
6.1 geqn
6.1.1 Invoking geqn
6.2 gtbl
6.2.1 Invoking gtbl
6.3 gpic
6.3.1 Invoking gpic
6.4 ggrn
6.4.1 Invoking ggrn
6.5 grap
A free implementation of grap, written by Ted Faber, is available as an extra
package from the following address:
http://www.lunabase.org/~faber/Vault/software/grap/
6.6 gchem
6.6.1 Invoking gchem
6.7 grefer
6.7.1 Invoking grefer
6.8 gsoelim
6.8.1 Invoking gsoelim
6.9 preconv
6.9.1 Invoking preconv
191
7 Output Devices
7.1 Special Characters

See Section 8.2 [Font Files], page 212.
7.2 grotty
The postprocessor grotty translates the output from GNU troff into a
form suitable for typewriter-like devices. It is fully documented on its manual
page, grotty(1).
7.2.1 Invoking grotty

The postprocessor grotty accepts the following command-line options:
-b Do not overstrike bold glyphs. Ignored if -c isn’t used.
-B Do not underline bold-italic glyphs. Ignored if -c isn’t used.
-c Use overprint and disable colours for printing on legacy Teletype
printers (see below).
-d Do not render lines (that is, ignore all \D escapes).
-f Use form feed control characters in the output.
-Fdir Put the directory dir/devname in front of the search path for the
font and device description files, given the target device name.
-h Use horizontal tabs for sequences of 8 space characters.
-i Request italic glyphs from the terminal. Ignored if -c is active.
-o Do not overstrike.
-r Highlight italic glyphs. Ignored if -c is active.
-u Do not underline italic glyphs. Ignored if -c isn’t used.
-U Do not overstrike bold-italic glyphs. Ignored if -c isn’t used.
-v Print the version number.
The -c mode for TTY output devices means that underlining is done by
emitting sequences of ‘_’ and ‘^H’ (the backspace character) before the actual
character. Literally, this is printing an underline character, then moving the
caret back one character position, and printing the actual character at the
same position as the underline character (similar to a typewriter). Usually,
a modern terminal can’t interpret this (and the original Teletype machines
for which this sequence was appropriate are no longer in use). You need a
pager program like less that translates this into ISO 6429 SGR sequences
to control terminals.
7.3 grops
The postprocessor grops translates the output from GNU troff into a form
suitable for Adobe PostScript devices. It is fully documented on its man-
ual page, grops(1).
7.3.1 Invoking grops

The postprocessor grops accepts the following command-line options:
-bflags Use backward compatibility settings given by flags as docu-
mented in the grops(1) manual page. Overrides the command
broken in the DESC file.
-cn Print n copies of each page.
-Fdir Put the directory dir/devname in front of the search path for
the font, prologue and device description files, given the target
device name, usually ps.
-g Tell the printer to guess the page length. Useful for printing
vertically centered pages when the paper dimensions are deter-
mined at print time.
-Ipath ...
Consider the directory path for searching included files speci-
fied with relative paths. The current directory is searched as
fallback.
-l Use landscape orientation.
-m Use manual feed.
-ppapersize
Set the page dimensions. Overrides the commands papersize,
paperlength, and paperwidth in the DESC file. See the
groff font(5) manual page for details.
-Pprologue
Use the prologue in the font path as the prologue instead of the
default prologue. Overrides the environment variable GROPS_
PROLOGUE.
-wn Set the line thickness to n/1000 em. Overrides the default value
n = 40.
7.3.2 Embedding PostScript

The escape sequence
\X’ps: import file llx lly urx ury width [height]’
places a rectangle of the specified width containing the PostScript drawing
from file file bound by the box from llx lly to urx ury (in PostScript
Chapter 7: Output Devices 193
coordinates) at the insertion point. If height is not specified, the embedded

drawing is scaled proportionally.
See Section 5.31 [Miscellaneous], page 176, for the psbb request, which
automatically generates the bounding box.
This escape sequence is used internally by the macro PSPIC (see the
groff tmac(5) manual page).
7.4 gropdf
The postprocessor gropdf translates the output from GNU troff into a
form suitable for Adobe PDF devices. It is fully documented on its manual
page, gropdf(1).
7.4.1 Invoking gropdf

The postprocessor gropdf accepts the following command-line options:
-d Produce uncompressed PDFs that include debugging comments.
-e This forces gropdf to embed all used fonts in the PDF, even if
they are one of the 14 base Adobe fonts.
device name, usually pdf.
-yfoundry
This forces the use of a different font foundry.
-ppapersize
paperlength, and paperwidth in the DESC file. See the
groff font(5) manual page for details.
-s Append a comment line to end of PDF showing statistics, i.e.
number of pages in document. Ghostscript’s ps2pdf(1) com-
plains about this line if it is included, but works anyway.
-ufilename
gropdf normally includes a ToUnicode CMap with any font cre-
ated using text.enc as the encoding file, this makes it easier to
search for words that contain ligatures. You can include your
own CMap by specifying a filename or have no CMap at all by
omitting the filename.
7.4.2 Embedding PDF

The escape sequence
\X’pdf: pdfpic file alignment width [height] [linelength]’
places a rectangle of the specified width containing the PDF drawing from
file file of desired width and height (if height is missing or zero then it is
scaled proportionally). If alignment is -L the drawing is left aligned. If it
is -C or -R a linelength greater than the width of the drawing is required as
well. If width is specified as zero then the width is scaled in proportion to
the height.
7.5 grodvi
The postprocessor grodvi translates the output from GNU troff into the
DVI output format compatible with the TEX document preparation system.
It is fully documented on its manual page, grodvi(1).
7.5.1 Invoking grodvi

The postprocessor grodvi accepts the following command-line options:
-d Do not use tpic specials to implement drawing commands.
font and device description files, given the target device name,
usually dvi.
-ppapersize
paperlength, and paperwidth in the DESC file. See groff font(5)
manual page for details.
n = 40.
7.6 grolj4
The postprocessor grolj4 translates the output from GNU troff into the
PCL5 output format suitable for printing on a HP LaserJet 4 printer. It is
fully documented on its manual page, grolj4(1).
7.6.1 Invoking grolj4

The postprocessor grolj4 accepts the following command-line options:
font and device description files, given the target device name,
usually lj4.
-psize Set the page dimensions. Valid values for size are: letter,
legal, executive, a4, com10, monarch, c5, b5, d1.
n = 40.
The special drawing command \D’R dh dv’ draws a horizontal rectangle
from the current position to the position at offset (dh,dv).
7.7 grolbp
The postprocessor grolbp translates the output from GNU troff into the
LBP output format suitable for printing on Canon CAPSL printers. It is
fully documented on its manual page, grolbp(1).
7.7.1 Invoking grolbp

The postprocessor grolbp accepts the following command-line options:
device name, usually lbp.
-oorientation
Use the orientation specified: portrait or landscape.
-ppapersize
Set the page dimensions. See groff font(5) manual page for de-
tails.
n = 40.
-h Print command-line help.

7.8 grohtml
The grohtml front end (which consists of a preprocessor, pre-grohtml,
and a device driver, post-grohtml) translates the output of GNU troff
to HTML. Users should always invoke grohtml via the groff command
with a \-Thtml option. If no files are given, grohtml will read the standard
input. A filename of - will also cause grohtml to read the standard input.
HTML output is written to the standard output. When grohtml is run by
groff, options can be passed to grohtml using groff’s -P option.
grohtml invokes groff twice. In the first pass, pictures, equations, and
tables are rendered using the ps device, and in the second pass HTML output
is generated by the html device.
grohtml always writes output in UTF-8 encoding and has built-in entities
for all non-composite unicode characters. In spite of this, groff may issue
warnings about unknown special characters if they can’t be found during the
first pass. Such warnings can be safely ignored unless the special characters
appear inside a table or equation, in which case glyphs for these characters
must be defined for the ps device as well.
This output device is fully documented on its manual page, grohtml(1).
7.8.1 Invoking grohtml

The postprocessor grohtml accepts the following command-line options:
-abits Use this number of bits (= 1, 2 or 4) for text antialiasing. De-
fault: bits = 4.
-a0 Do not use text antialiasing.
-b Use white background.
-Ddir Store rendered images in the directory dir.
device name, usually html.
-gbits Use this number of bits (= 1, 2 or 4) for antialiasing of drawings.
Default: bits = 4.
-g0 Do not use antialiasing for drawings.
-h Use the B element for section headings.
-iresolution
Use the resolution for rendered images. Default: resolution =
100 dpi.
-Istem Set the images’ stem name. Default: stem = grohtml-XXX
(XXX is the process ID).
-jstem Place each section in a separate file called stem-n.html (where
n is a generated section number).
-l Do not generate the table of contents.

-n Generate simple fragment identifiers.
-ooffset Use vertical padding offset for images.
-p Display the page rendering progress to stderr.
-r Do not use horizontal rules to separate headers and footers.
-ssize Set the base font size, to be modified using the elements BIG and
SMALL.
-Slevel Generate separate files for sections at level level.
-V Generate a validator button at the bottom.
-y Generate a signature of groff after the validator button, if any.
7.8.2 grohtml specific registers and strings

\n[ps4html] [Register]
\*[www-image-template] [String]
The registers ps4html and www-image-template are defined by the
pre-grohtml preprocessor. pre-grohtml reads in the troff input, marks
up the inline equations and passes the result firstly to
troff -Tps -rps4html=1 -dwww-image-template=template
and secondly to
troff -Thtml
or
troff -Txhtml
The PostScript device is used to create all the image files (for -Thtml;
if -Txhtml is used, all equations are passed to geqn to produce MathML,
and the register ps4html enables the macro sets to ignore floating keeps,
footers, and headings.
The register www-image-template is set to the user specified template
name or the default name.
7.9 gxditview
7.9.1 Invoking gxditview
199
8 File formats
All files read and written by gtroff are text files. The following two sections
describe their format.
8.1 gtroff Output

This section describes the intermediate output format of GNU troff. This
output is produced by a run of gtroff before it is fed into a device postpro-
cessor program.
As groff is a wrapper program around gtroff that automatically calls
a postprocessor, this output does not show up normally. This is why it is
called intermediate. groff provides the option -Z to inhibit postprocessing,
such that the produced intermediate output is sent to standard output just
like calling gtroff manually.
Here, the term troff output describes what is output by gtroff, while
intermediate output refers to the language that is accepted by the parser
that prepares this output for the postprocessors. This parser is smarter on
whitespace and implements obsolete elements for compatibility, otherwise
both formats are the same.1
The main purpose of the intermediate output concept is to facilitate
the development of postprocessors by providing a common programming
interface for all devices. It has a language of its own that is completely
different from the gtroff language. While the gtroff language is a high-
level programming language for text processing, the intermediate output
language is a kind of low-level assembler language by specifying all positions
on the page for writing and drawing.
The intermediate output produced by gtroff is fairly readable, while
output from AT&T troff is rather hard to understand because of strange
habits that are still supported, but not used any longer by gtroff.
8.1.1 Language Concepts

During the run of gtroff, the input data is cracked down to the information
on what has to be printed at what position on the intended device. So the
language of the intermediate output format can be quite small. Its only
elements are commands with and without arguments. In this section, the
term command always refers to the intermediate output language, and never
to the gtroff language used for document formatting. There are commands
for positioning and text writing, for drawing, and for device controlling.
1
The parser and postprocessor for intermediate output can be found in the file
groff-source-dir/src/libs/libdriver/input.cpp.
8.1.1.1 Separation
AT&T troff output has strange requirements on whitespace. The gtroff
output parser, however, is smart about whitespace by making it maximally
optional. The whitespace characters, i.e., the tab, space, and newline char-
acters, always have a syntactical meaning. They are never printable because
spacing within the output is always done by positioning commands.
Any sequence of space or tab characters is treated as a single syntactical
space. It separates commands and arguments, but is only required when
there would occur a clashing between the command code and the arguments
without the space. Most often, this happens when variable-length command
names, arguments, argument lists, or command clusters meet. Commands
and arguments with a known, fixed length need not be separated by syntac-
tical space.
A line break is a syntactical element, too. Every command argument
can be followed by whitespace, a comment, or a newline character. Thus a
syntactical line break is defined to consist of optional syntactical space that
is optionally followed by a comment, and a newline character.
The normal commands, those for positioning and text, consist of a sin-
gle letter taking a fixed number of arguments. For historical reasons, the
parser allows stacking of such commands on the same line, but fortunately,
in gtroff’s intermediate output, every command with at least one argument
is followed by a line break, thus providing excellent readability.
The other commands – those for drawing and device controlling – have
a more complicated structure; some recognize long command names, and
some take a variable number of arguments. So all ‘D’ and ‘x’ commands
were designed to request a syntactical line break after their last argument.
Only one command, ‘x X’, has an argument that can stretch over several
lines; all other commands must have all of their arguments on the same line
as the command, i.e., the arguments may not be split by a line break.
Empty lines (these are lines containing only space and/or a comment),
can occur everywhere. They are just ignored.
8.1.1.2 Argument Units

Some commands take integer arguments that are assumed to represent values
in a measurement unit, but the letter for the corresponding scale indicator is
not written with the output command arguments. Most commands assume
the scale indicator ‘u’, the basic unit of the device, some use ‘z’, the scaled
point unit of the device, while others, such as the color commands, expect
plain integers.
Note that single characters can have the eighth bit set, as can the names
of fonts and special characters. The names of characters and fonts can be of
arbitrary length. A character that is to be printed is always in the current
font.
Chapter 8: File formats 201
A string argument is always terminated by the next whitespace character

(space, tab, or newline); an embedded ‘#’ character is regarded as part of
the argument, not as the beginning of a comment command. An integer
argument is already terminated by the next non-digit character, which then
is regarded as the first character of the next argument or command.
8.1.1.3 Document Parts

A correct intermediate output document consists of two parts, the prologue
and the body.
The task of the prologue is to set the general device parameters using
three exactly specified commands. gtroff’s prologue is guaranteed to consist
of the following three lines (in that order):
x T device
x res n h v
x init
with the arguments set as outlined in Section 8.1.2.4 [Device Control Com-
mands], page 207. Note that the parser for the intermediate output format
is able to swallow additional whitespace and comments as well even in the
prologue.
The body is the main section for processing the document data. Syntac-
tically, it is a sequence of any commands different from the ones used in the
prologue. Processing is terminated as soon as the first ‘x stop’ command is
encountered; the last line of any gtroff intermediate output always contains
such a command.
Semantically, the body is page oriented. A new page is started by a ‘p’
command. Positioning, writing, and drawing commands are always done
within the current page, so they cannot occur before the first ‘p’ command.
Absolute positioning (by the ‘H’ and ‘V’ commands) is done relative to the
current page; all other positioning is done relative to the current location
within this page.
8.1.2 Command Reference

This section describes all intermediate output commands, both from AT&T
troff as well as the gtroff extensions.
8.1.2.1 Comment Command

#anythinghend of linei
A comment. Ignore any characters from the ‘#’ character up to
the next newline character.
This command is the only possibility for commenting in the in-
termediate output. Each comment can be preceded by arbitrary
syntactical space; every command can be terminated by a com-
ment.
8.1.2.2 Simple Commands

The commands in this subsection have a command code consisting of a sin-
gle character, taking a fixed number of arguments. Most of them are com-
mands for positioning and text writing. These commands are smart about
whitespace. Optionally, syntactical space can be inserted before, after, and
between the command letter and its arguments. All of these commands are
stackable, i.e., they can be preceded by other simple commands or followed
by arbitrary other commands on the same line. A separating syntactical
space is only necessary when two integer arguments would clash or if the
preceding argument ends with a string argument.
C xxxhwhitespacei
Print a special character named xxx. The trailing syntactical
space or line break is necessary to allow glyph names of arbitrary
length. The glyph is printed at the current print position; the
glyph’s size is read from the font file. The print position is not
changed.
cg Print glyph g at the current print position;2 the glyph’s size is
read from the font file. The print position is not changed.
fn Set font to font number n (a non-negative integer).
Hn Move right to the absolute vertical position n (a non-negative
integer in basic units ‘u’ relative to left edge of current page.
hn Move n (a non-negative integer) basic units ‘u’ horizontally to
the right. The original Unix troff manual allows negative values
for n also, but gtroff doesn’t use this.
m color-scheme [component ...]
Set the color for text (glyphs), line drawing, and the outline
of graphic objects using different color schemes; the analogous
command for the filling color of graphic objects is ‘DF’. The color
components are specified as integer arguments between 0 and
65536. The number of color components and their meaning vary
for the different color schemes. These commands are generated
by gtroff’s escape sequence \m. No position changing. These
commands are a gtroff extension.
mc cyan magenta yellow
Set color using the CMY color scheme, having the
3 color components cyan, magenta, and yellow.
md Set color to the default color value (black in most
cases). No component arguments.
mg gray Set color to the shade of gray given by the argument,
an integer between 0 (black) and 65536 (white).
2
‘c’ is actually a misnomer since it outputs a glyph.
mk cyan magenta yellow black

Set color using the CMYK color scheme, having
the 4 color components cyan, magenta, yellow, and
black.
mr red green blue
Set color using the RGB color scheme, having the
3 color components red, green, and blue.
Nn Print glyph with index n (a non-negative integer) of the current
font. This command is a gtroff extension.
nba Inform the device about a line break, but no positioning is done
by this command. In AT&T troff, the integer arguments b
and a informed about the space before and after the current line
to make the intermediate output more human readable without
performing any action. In groff, they are just ignored, but they
must be provided for compatibility reasons.
pn Begin a new page in the outprint. The page number is set to n.
This page is completely independent of pages formerly processed
even if those have the same page number. The vertical position
on the outprint is automatically set to 0. All positioning, writ-
ing, and drawing is always done relative to a page, so a ‘p’
command must be issued before any of these commands.
sn Set point size to n scaled points (this is unit ‘z’). AT&T troff
used the unit points (‘p’) instead. See Section 8.1.4 [Output
Language Compatibility], page 211.
t xxxhwhitespacei
t xxx dummy-arghwhitespacei
Print a word, i.e., a sequence of characters xxx representing
output glyphs which names are single characters, terminated by
a space character or a line break; an optional second integer
argument is ignored (this allows the formatter to generate an
even number of arguments). The first glyph should be printed
at the current position, the current horizontal position should
then be increased by the width of the first glyph, and so on
for each glyph. The widths of the glyphs are read from the
font file, scaled for the current point size, and rounded to a
multiple of the horizontal resolution. Special characters cannot
be printed using this command (use the ‘C’ command for special
characters). This command is a gtroff extension; it is only
used for devices whose DESC file contains the tcommand keyword
(see Section 8.2.1 [DESC File Format], page 212).
u n xxxhwhitespacei
Print word with track kerning. This is the same as the ‘t’ com-
mand except that after printing each glyph, the current horizon-
tal position is increased by the sum of the width of that glyph

and n (an integer in basic units ‘u’). This command is a gtroff
extension; it is only used for devices whose DESC file contains
the tcommand keyword (see Section 8.2.1 [DESC File Format],
page 212).
Vn Move down to the absolute vertical position n (a non-negative
integer in basic units ‘u’) relative to upper edge of current page.
vn Move n basic units ‘u’ down (n is a non-negative integer). The
original Unix troff manual allows negative values for n also, but
gtroff doesn’t use this.
w Informs about a paddable white space to increase readability.
The spacing itself must be performed explicitly by a move com-
mand.
8.1.2.3 Graphics Commands

Each graphics or drawing command in the intermediate output starts with
the letter ‘D’, followed by one or two characters that specify a subcommand;
this is followed by a fixed or variable number of integer arguments that are
separated by a single space character. A ‘D’ command may not be followed
by another command on the same line (apart from a comment), so each ‘D’
command is terminated by a syntactical line break.
gtroff output follows the classical spacing rules (no space between com-
mand and subcommand, all arguments are preceded by a single space char-
acter), but the parser allows optional space between the command letters
and makes the space before the first argument optional. As usual, each space
can be any sequence of tab and space characters.
Some graphics commands can take a variable number of arguments. In
this case, they are integers representing a size measured in basic units ‘u’.
The arguments called h1, h2, . . . , hn stand for horizontal distances where
positive means right, negative left. The arguments called v1, v2, . . . , vn
stand for vertical distances where positive means down, negative up. All
these distances are offsets relative to the current location.
Each graphics command directly corresponds to a similar gtroff \D es-
cape sequence. See Section 5.23 [Drawing Requests], page 151.
Unknown ‘D’ commands are assumed to be device-specific. Its arguments
are parsed as strings; the whole information is then sent to the postprocessor.
In the following command reference, the syntax element hline breaki
means a syntactical line break as defined above.
D~ h1 v1 h2 v2 ... hn vnhline breaki
Draw B-spline from current position to offset (h1,v1), then to
offset (h2,v2), if given, etc. up to (hn,vn). This command takes
a variable number of argument pairs; the current position is
moved to the terminal point of the drawn curve.
Da h1 v1 h2 v2hline breaki
Draw arc from current position to (h1,v1)+(h2,v2) with center
at (h1,v1); then move the current position to the final point of
the arc.
DC dhline breaki
DC d dummy-arghline breaki
Draw a solid circle using the current fill color with diameter d
(integer in basic units ‘u’) with leftmost point at the current po-
sition; then move the current position to the rightmost point of
the circle. An optional second integer argument is ignored (this
allows the formatter to generate an even number of arguments).
This command is a gtroff extension.
Dc dhline breaki
Draw circle line with diameter d (integer in basic units ‘u’) with
leftmost point at the current position; then move the current
position to the rightmost point of the circle.
DE h vhline breaki
Draw a solid ellipse in the current fill color with a horizontal
diameter of h and a vertical diameter of v (both integers in
basic units ‘u’) with the leftmost point at the current position;
then move to the rightmost point of the ellipse. This command
is a gtroff extension.
De h vhline breaki
Draw an outlined ellipse with a horizontal diameter of h and a
vertical diameter of v (both integers in basic units ‘u’) with the
leftmost point at current position; then move to the rightmost
point of the ellipse.
DF color-scheme [component ...]hline breaki

Set fill color for solid drawing objects using different color
schemes; the analogous command for setting the color of text,
line graphics, and the outline of graphic objects is ‘m’. The color
components are specified as integer arguments between 0 and
65536. The number of color components and their meaning vary
for the different color schemes. These commands are generated
by gtroff’s escape sequences \D’F ...’ and \M (with no other
corresponding graphics commands). No position changing. This
command is a gtroff extension.
DFc cyan magenta yellowhline breaki

Set fill color for solid drawing objects using the
CMY color scheme, having the 3 color components
cyan, magenta, and yellow.
DFdhline breaki
Set fill color for solid drawing objects to the default
fill color value (black in most cases). No component
arguments.
DFg grayhline breaki
Set fill color for solid drawing objects to the shade
of gray given by the argument, an integer between
0 (black) and 65536 (white).
DFk cyan magenta yellow blackhline breaki
Set fill color for solid drawing objects using the
CMYK color scheme, having the 4 color components
cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.
DFr red green bluehline breaki
Set fill color for solid drawing objects using the RGB
color scheme, having the 3 color components red,
green, and blue.
Df nhline breaki
The argument n must be an integer in the range −32767 to
32767.
0 ≤ n ≤ 1000
Set the color for filling solid drawing objects to a
shade of gray, where 0 corresponds to solid white,
1000 (the default) to solid black, and values in be-
tween to intermediate shades of gray; this is obso-
leted by command ‘DFg’.
n < 0 or n > 1000
Set the filling color to the color that is currently be-
ing used for the text and the outline, see command
‘m’. For example, the command sequence
mg 0 0 65536
Df -1
sets all colors to blue.
No position changing. This command is a gtroff extension.
Dl h vhline breaki
Draw line from current position to offset (h,v) (integers in basic
units ‘u’); then set current position to the end of the drawn line.
Dp h1 v1 h2 v2 ... hn vnhline breaki
Draw a polygon line from current position to offset (h1,v1), from
there to offset (h2,v2), etc. up to offset (hn,vn), and from there
back to the starting position. For historical reasons, the posi-
tion is changed by adding the sum of all arguments with odd
index to the actual horizontal position and the even ones to the
vertical position. Although this doesn’t make sense it is kept for
compatibility. This command is a gtroff extension.
DP h1 v1 h2 v2 ... hn vnhline breaki
Draw a solid polygon in the current fill color rather than an
outlined polygon, using the same arguments and positioning as
the corresponding ‘Dp’ command. This command is a gtroff
extension.
Dt nhline breaki
Set the current line thickness to n (an integer in basic units ‘u’)
if n > 0; if n = 0 select the smallest available line thickness; if
n < 0 set the line thickness proportional to the point size (this
is the default before the first ‘Dt’ command was specified). For
historical reasons, the horizontal position is changed by adding
the argument to the actual horizontal position, while the vertical
position is not changed. Although this doesn’t make sense it is
kept for compatibility. This command is a gtroff extension.
8.1.2.4 Device Control Commands

Each device control command starts with the letter ‘x’, followed by a space
character (optional or arbitrary space or tab in gtroff) and a subcommand
letter or word; each argument (if any) must be preceded by a syntactical
space. All ‘x’ commands are terminated by a syntactical line break; no
device control command can be followed by another command on the same
line (except a comment).
The subcommand is basically a single letter, but to increase readability, it
can be written as a word, i.e., an arbitrary sequence of characters terminated
by the next tab, space, or newline character. All characters of the subcom-
mand word but the first are simply ignored. For example, gtroff outputs
the initialization command ‘x i’ as ‘x init’ and the resolution command
‘x r’ as ‘x res’.
In the following, the syntax element hline breaki means a syntactical line
break (see Section 8.1.1.1 [Separation], page 200).
xF namehline breaki
The ‘F’ stands for Filename.
Use name as the intended name for the current file in error
reports. This is useful for remembering the original file name
when gtroff uses an internal piping mechanism. The input file
is not changed by this command. This command is a gtroff
extension.
xf n shline breaki
The ‘f’ stands for font.
Mount font position n (a non-negative integer) with font named s

(a text word). See Section 5.17.3 [Font Positions], page 113.
xH nhline breaki
The ‘H’ stands for Height.
Set glyph height to n (a positive integer in scaled points ‘z’).
AT&T troff uses the unit points (‘p’) instead. See Section 8.1.4
[Output Language Compatibility], page 211.
xihline breaki
The ‘i’ stands for init.
Initialize device. This is the third command of the prologue.
xphline breaki
The ‘p’ stands for pause.
Parsed but ignored. The original Unix troff manual writes
pause device, can be restarted
xr n h vhline breaki
The ‘r’ stands for resolution.
Resolution is n, while h is the minimal horizontal motion, and
v the minimal vertical motion possible with this device; all ar-
guments are positive integers in basic units ‘u’ per inch. This is
the second command of the prologue.
xS nhline breaki
The ‘S’ stands for Slant.
Set slant to n (an integer in basic units ‘u’).
xshline breaki
The ‘s’ stands for stop.
Terminates the processing of the current file; issued as the last
command of any intermediate troff output.
xthline breaki
The ‘t’ stands for trailer.
Generate trailer information, if any. In gtroff, this is actually
just ignored.
xT xxxhline breaki
The ‘T’ stands for Typesetter.
Set name of device to word xxx, a sequence of characters ended
by the next white space character. The possible device names
coincide with those from the groff -T option. This is the first
command of the prologue.
xu nhline breaki
The ‘u’ stands for underline.
Configure underlining of spaces. If n is 1, start underlining of

spaces; if n is 0, stop underlining of spaces. This is needed for
the cu request in nroff mode and is ignored otherwise. This
command is a gtroff extension.
xX anythinghline breaki
The ‘x’ stands for X-escape.
Send string anything uninterpreted to the device. If the line
following this command starts with a ‘+’ character this line is
interpreted as a continuation line in the following sense. The ‘+’
is ignored, but a newline character is sent instead to the device,
the rest of the line is sent uninterpreted. The same applies to
all following lines until the first character of a line is not a ‘+’
character. This command is generated by the gtroff escape
sequence \X. The line-continuing feature is a gtroff extension.
8.1.2.5 Obsolete Command

In AT&T troff output, the writing of a single glyph is mostly done by a very
strange command that combines a horizontal move and a single character
giving the glyph name. It doesn’t have a command code, but is represented
by a 3-character argument consisting of exactly 2 digits and a character.
ddg Move right dd (exactly two decimal digits) basic units ‘u’, then
print glyph g (represented as a single character).
In gtroff, arbitrary syntactical space around and within this
command is allowed to be added. Only when a preceding com-
mand on the same line ends with an argument of variable length
a separating space is obligatory. In AT&T troff, large clusters
of these and other commands are used, mostly without spaces;
this made such output almost unreadable.
For modern high-resolution devices, this command does not make sense
because the width of the glyphs can become much larger than two decimal
digits. In gtroff, this is only used for the devices X75, X75-12, X100, and
X100-12. For other devices, the commands ‘t’ and ‘u’ provide a better
functionality.
8.1.3 Intermediate Output Examples

This section presents the intermediate output generated from the same input
for three different devices. The input is the sentence ‘hell world’ fed into
gtroff on the command line.
High-resolution device ps
This is the standard output of gtroff if no -T option is given.
shell> echo "hell world" | groff -Z -T ps
x T ps
x res 72000 1 1
x init
p1
x font 5 TR
f5
s10000
V12000
H72000
thell
wh2500
tw
H96620
torld
n12000 0
x trailer
V792000
x stop
This output can be fed into grops to get its representation as a
PostScript file.
Low-resolution device latin1
This is similar to the high-resolution device except that the posi-
tioning is done at a minor scale. Some comments (lines starting
with ‘#’) were added for clarification; they were not generated
by the formatter.
shell> echo "hell world" | groff -Z -T latin1
# prologue
x T latin1
x res 240 24 40
x init
# begin a new page
p1
# font setup
x font 1 R
f1
s10
# initial positioning on the page
V40
H0
# write text ‘hell’
thell
# inform about space, and issue a horizontal jump
wh24
# write text ‘world’
tworld
# announce line break, but do nothing because ...
n40 0
# ... the end of the document has been reached
x trailer
V2640
x stop
This output can be fed into grotty to get a formatted text
document.
AT&T troff output
Since a computer monitor has a very low resolution compared
to modern printers the intermediate output for the X Window
devices can use the jump-and-write command with its 2-digit
displacements.
shell> echo "hell world" | groff -Z -T X100
x T X100
x res 100 1 1
x init
p1
x font 5 TR
f5
s10
V16
H100
# write text with jump-and-write commands
ch07e07l03lw06w11o07r05l03dh7
n16 0
x trailer
V1100
x stop
This output can be fed into xditview or gxditview for display-
ing in X.
Due to the obsolete jump-and-write command, the text clusters
in the AT&T troff output are almost unreadable.
8.1.4 Output Language Compatibility

The intermediate output language of AT&T troff was first documented in
the Unix troff manual, with later additions documented in A Typesetter-
independent TROFF, written by Brian Kernighan.
The gtroff intermediate output format is compatible with this specifi-
cation except for the following features.
• The classical quasi device independence is not yet implemented.

• The old hardware was very different from what we use today. So the
groff devices are also fundamentally different from the ones in AT&T
troff. For example, the AT&T PostScript device is called post and
has a resolution of only 720 units per inch, suitable for printers 20
years ago, while groff’s ps device has a resolution of 72000 units per
inch. Maybe, by implementing some rescaling mechanism similar to the
classical quasi device independence, groff could emulate AT&T’s post
device.
• The B-spline command ‘D~’ is correctly handled by the intermediate
output parser, but the drawing routines aren’t implemented in some of
the postprocessor programs.
• The argument of the commands ‘s’ and ‘x H’ has the implicit unit scaled
point ‘z’ in gtroff, while AT&T troff has point (‘p’). This isn’t an
incompatibility but a compatible extension, for both units coincide for
all devices without a sizescale parameter in the DESC file, including
all postprocessors from AT&T and groff’s text devices. The few groff
devices with a sizescale parameter either do not exist for AT&T troff,
have a different name, or seem to have a different resolution. So conflicts
are very unlikely.
• The position changing after the commands ‘Dp’, ‘DP’, and ‘Dt’ is illogical,
but as old versions of gtroff used this feature it is kept for compatibility
reasons.
8.2 Font Files

The gtroff font format is roughly a superset of the ditroff font format
(as used in later versions of AT&T troff and its descendants). Unlike the
ditroff font format, there is no associated binary format; all files are text
files.3 The font files for device name are stored in a directory devname.
There are two types of file: a device description file called DESC and for each
font f a font file called f.
8.2.1 DESC File Format

The DESC file can contain the following types of line. Except for the charset
keyword, which must come last (if at all), the order of the lines is not im-
portant. Later entries in the file, however, override previous values.
charset This line and everything following in the file are ignored. It is
allowed for the sake of backwards compatibility.
family fam
The default font family is fam.
3
Plan 9 troff has also abandoned the binary format.
fonts n F1 F2 F3 ... Fn
Fonts F1 . . . Fn are mounted in the font positions m+1, . . . ,
m+n where m is the number of styles. This command may extend
over more than one line. A font name of 0 means no font is
mounted on the corresponding font position.
hor n The horizontal resolution is n machine units. All horizontal
quantities are rounded to be multiples of this value.
image_generator string
Needed for grohtml only. It specifies the program to generate
PNG images from PostScript input. Under GNU/Linux this
is usually gs but under other systems (notably cygwin) it might
be set to another name.
paperlength n
The physical vertical dimension of the output medium in ma-
chine units. This isn’t used by troff itself but by output de-
vices. Deprecated. Use papersize instead.
papersize string ...
Select a paper size. Valid values for string are the ISO pa-
per types A0–A7, B0–B7, C0–C7, D0–D7, DL, and the US paper
types letter, legal, tabloid, ledger, statement, executive,
com10, and monarch. Case is not significant for string if it holds
predefined paper types. Alternatively, string can be a file name
(e.g. /etc/papersize); if the file can be opened, groff reads the
first line and tests for the above paper sizes. Finally, string can
be a custom paper size in the format length,width (no spaces
before and after the comma). Both length and width must have
a unit appended; valid values are ‘i’ for inches, ‘c’ for centime-
ters, ‘p’ for points, and ‘P’ for picas. Example: 12c,235p. An
argument that starts with a digit is always treated as a custom
paper format. papersize sets both the vertical and horizontal
dimension of the output medium.
More than one argument can be specified; groff scans from left
to right and uses the first valid paper specification.
paperwidth n
The physical horizontal dimension of the output medium in ma-
chine units. This isn’t used by troff itself but by output de-
vices. Deprecated. Use papersize instead.
pass_filenames
Tell gtroff to emit the name of the source file currently being
processed. This is achieved by the intermediate output com-
mand ‘F’. Currently, this is only used by the grohtml output
device.
postpro program
Call program as a postprocessor. For example, the line
postpro grodvi
in the file devdvi/DESC makes groff call grodvi if option -Tdvi
is given (and -Z isn’t used).
prepro program
Call program as a preprocessor. Currently, this keyword is used
by groff with option -Thtml or -Txhtml only.
print program
Use program as a spooler program for printing. If omitted, the
-l and -L options of groff are ignored.
res n There are n machine units per inch.
sizes s1 s2 ... sn 0
This means that the device has fonts at s1, s2, . . . sn scaled
points. The list of sizes must be terminated by 0 (this is digit
zero). Each si can also be a range of sizes m–n. The list can
extend over more than one line.
sizescale n
The scale factor for point sizes. By default this has a value of 1.
One scaled point is equal to one point/n. The arguments to
the unitwidth and sizes commands are given in scaled points.
See Section 5.18.2 [Fractional Type Sizes], page 130, for more
information.
styles S1 S2 ... Sm
The first m font positions are associated with styles S1 . . . Sm.
tcommand This means that the postprocessor can handle the ‘t’ and ‘u’
intermediate output commands.
unicode Indicate that the output device supports the complete Unicode
repertoire. Useful only for devices that produce character enti-
ties instead of glyphs.
If unicode is present, no charset section is required in the font
description files since the Unicode handling built into groff is
used. However, if there are entries in a charset section, they
either override the default mappings for those particular charac-
ters or add new mappings (normally for composite characters).
This is used for -Tutf8, -Thtml, and -Txhtml.
unitwidth n
Quantities in the font files are given in machine units for fonts
whose point size is n scaled points.
unscaled_charwidths
Make the font handling module always return unscaled character
widths. Needed for the grohtml device.
use_charnames_in_special
This command indicates that gtroff should encode special char-
acters inside special commands. Currently, this is only used by
the grohtml output device. See Section 5.30 [Postprocessor Ac-
cess], page 175.
vert n The vertical resolution is n machine units. All vertical quantities
are rounded to be multiples of this value.
The res, unitwidth, fonts, and sizes lines are mandatory. Other com-
mands are ignored by gtroff but may be used by postprocessors to store
arbitrary information about the device in the DESC file.
Here a list of obsolete keywords that are recognized by groff but com-
pletely ignored: spare1, spare2, biggestfont.
8.2.2 Font File Format

A font file, also (and probably better) called a font description file, has two
sections. The first section is a sequence of lines each containing a sequence
of blank delimited words; the first word in the line is a key, and subsequent
words give a value for that key.
name f The name of the font is f.
spacewidth n
The normal width of a space is n.
slant n The glyphs of the font have a slant of n degrees. (Positive means
forward.)
ligatures lig1 lig2 ... lign [0]
Glyphs lig1, lig2, . . . , lign are ligatures; possible ligatures are
‘ff’, ‘fi’, ‘fl’, ‘ffi’ and ‘ffl’. For backwards compatibility, the
list of ligatures may be terminated with a 0. The list of ligatures
may not extend over more than one line.
special The font is special; this means that when a glyph is requested
that is not present in the current font, it is searched for in any
special fonts that are mounted.
Other commands are ignored by gtroff but may be used by postproces-
sors to store arbitrary information about the font in the font file.
The first section can contain comments, which start with the ‘#’ character
and extend to the end of a line.
The second section contains one or two subsections. It must contain a
charset subsection and it may also contain a kernpairs subsection. These
subsections can appear in any order. Each subsection starts with a word on
a line by itself.
The word charset starts the character set subsection.4 The charset line
is followed by a sequence of lines. Each line gives information for one glyph.
A line comprises a number of fields separated by blanks or tabs. The format
is
name metrics type code [entity-name] [-- comment]
name identifies the glyph name5 : If name is a single character c then it
corresponds to the gtroff input character c; if it is of the form ‘\c’ where
c is a single character, then it corresponds to the special character \[c];
otherwise it corresponds to the special character ‘\[name]’. If it is exactly
two characters xx it can be entered as ‘\(xx’. Note that single-letter special
characters can’t be accessed as ‘\c’; the only exception is ‘\-’, which is
identical to \[-].
gtroff supports 8-bit input characters; however some utilities have diffi-
culties with eight-bit characters. For this reason, there is a convention that
the entity name ‘charn’ is equivalent to the single input character whose
code is n. For example, ‘char163’ would be equivalent to the character with
code 163, which is the pounds sterling sign in the ISO Latin-1 character
set. You shouldn’t use ‘charn’ entities in font description files since they
are related to input, not output. Otherwise, you get hard-coded connections
between input and output encoding, which prevents use of different (input)
character sets.
The name ‘---’ is special and indicates that the glyph is unnamed; such
glyphs can only be used by means of the \N escape sequence in gtroff.
The type field gives the glyph type:
1 the glyph has a descender, for example, ‘p’;
2 the glyph has an ascender, for example, ‘b’;
3 the glyph has both an ascender and a descender, for example,
‘(’.
The code field gives the code that the postprocessor uses to print the
glyph. The glyph can also be input to gtroff using this code by means
of the \N escape sequence. code can be any integer. If it starts with ‘0’
it is interpreted as octal; if it starts with ‘0x’ or ‘0X’ it is interpreted as
hexadecimal. Note, however, that the \N escape sequence only accepts a
decimal integer.
The entity-name field gives an ASCII string identifying the glyph that the
postprocessor uses to print the gtroff glyph name. This field is optional
4
This keyword is misnamed since it starts a list of ordered glyphs, not characters.
5
The distinction between input, characters, and output, glyphs, is not clearly separated
in the terminology of groff; for example, the char request should be called glyph since
it defines an output entity.
217
and has been introduced so that the grohtml device driver can encode its
character set. For example, the glyph ‘\[Po]’ is represented as ‘£’ in
HTML 4.0.
Anything on the line after the entity-name field resp. after ‘--’ is ignored.
The metrics field has the form:
width[,height[,depth[,italic-correction
[,left-italic-correction[,subscript-correction]]]]]
There must not be any spaces between these subfields (it has been split here
into two lines for better legibility only). Missing subfields are assumed to
be 0. The subfields are all decimal integers. Since there is no associated
binary format, these values are not required to fit into a variable of type
‘char’ as they are in ditroff. The width subfield gives the width of the
glyph. The height subfield gives the height of the glyph (upwards is positive);
if a glyph does not extend above the baseline, it should be given a zero
height, rather than a negative height. The depth subfield gives the depth of
the glyph, that is, the distance from the baseline to the lowest point below
the baseline to which the glyph extends (downwards is positive); if a glyph
does not extend below the baseline, it should be given a zero depth, rather
than a negative depth. The italic-correction subfield gives the amount of
space that should be added after the glyph when it is immediately to be
followed by a glyph from a roman font. The left-italic-correction subfield
gives the amount of space that should be added before the glyph when it is
immediately to be preceded by a glyph from a roman font. The subscript-
correction gives the amount of space that should be added after a glyph
before adding a subscript. This should be less than the italic correction.
A line in the charset section can also have the format
name "
This indicates that name is just another name for the glyph mentioned in
the preceding line.
The word kernpairs starts the kernpairs section. This contains a se-
quence of lines of the form:
c1 c2 n
This means that when glyph c1 appears next to glyph c2 the space between
them should be increased by n. Most entries in the kernpairs section have a
negative value for n.
219
9 Installation
221
A Copying This Manual

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
Copyright
c 2000-2018 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
http://fsf.org/
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies

of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
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Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be
at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the general
public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with
generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint pro-
grams or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that
is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to
a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made
in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of
markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modi-
fication by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Trans-
parent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not
“Transparent” is called “Opaque”.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII
without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTEX input format, SGML or
XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple
HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples
of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque
formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only
by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD
and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-
generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors
for output purposes only.
The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus
such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this
License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which
do not have any title page as such, “Title Page” means the text near the
most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the beginning
of the body of the text.
The “publisher” means any person or entity that distributes copies of
the Document to the public.
A: Copying This Manual 223
A section “Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document

whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses fol-
lowing text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands
for a specific section name mentioned below, such as “Acknowledge-
ments”, “Dedications”, “Endorsements”, or “History”.) To “Preserve
the Title” of such a section when you modify the Document means that
it remains a section “Entitled XYZ” according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice
which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty
Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License,
but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that
these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the
meaning of this License.
2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either com-
mercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright
notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Docu-
ment are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions
whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical mea-
sures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies
you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in ex-
change for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you
must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies.
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts:
Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the
back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as
the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title
with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add
other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited
to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly,
you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the
actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque
copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using

public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that
this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location
until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque
copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the
public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and
modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it.
In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
(which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of
the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version
if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or enti-
ties responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified
Version, as the publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adja-
cent to the other copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
and required Cover Texts given in the Document’s license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled “History”, Preserve its Title, and add
to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If
there is no section Entitled “History” in the Document, create one

stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
Version as stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
it was based on. These may be placed in the “History” section. You
may omit a network location for a work that was published at least
four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of
the version it refers to gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”,
Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the
substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in
their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are
not considered part of the section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may
not be included in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled “Endorsements”
or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices

that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from
the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these
sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant
Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be
distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties—
for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been ap-
proved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of
Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover
Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through ar-
rangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes
a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrange-
ment made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not
add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission
from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License

give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply
endorsement of any Modified Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under
this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invari-
ant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them
all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and
that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy.
If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different
contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end
of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that
section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment
to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice
of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History”
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled “His-
tory”; likewise combine any sections Entitled “Acknowledgements”, and
any sections Entitled “Dedications”. You must delete all sections Enti-
tled “Endorsements.”
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other docu-
ments released under this License, and replace the individual copies of
this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included
in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other
respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an “aggregate” if the copyright resulting
from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the com-
pilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When the
Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to
the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative
works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies
of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire
aggregate, the Document’s Cover Texts may be placed on covers that

bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent
of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must
appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute
translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing
Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from
their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all
Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant
Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the
license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, pro-
vided that you also include the original English version of this License
and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of
a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this
License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedi-
cations”, or “History”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title
(section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document ex-
cept as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to
copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will automatically
terminate your rights under this License.
However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from
a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and
until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates your license,
and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the
violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated
permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some
reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of vi-
olation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and
you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does
not give you any rights to use it.
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of
the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ
in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.

org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License “or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document specifies
that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License can be used,
that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a version permanently
authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
11. RELICENSING
“Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or “MMC Site”) means any
World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also
provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public
wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A “Massive
Multiauthor Collaboration” (or “MMC”) contained in the site means
any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
“CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit
corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco, Califor-
nia, as well as future copyleft versions of that license published by that
same organization.
“Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or
in part, as part of another Document.
An MMC is “eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License,
and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere
other than this MMC, and subsequently incorporated in whole or in
part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and
(2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.
The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the
site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1,
2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing.
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your

documents
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the
License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices
just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ‘‘GNU
Free Documentation License’’.
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the “with. . . Texts.” line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with
the Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts
being list.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other com-
bination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we rec-
ommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free soft-
ware license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use
in free software.
231
B Request Index
Requests appear without the leading control character (normally either ‘.’
or ‘’’).
A D
ab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 da. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
ad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 de. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
af . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 de1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
aln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 defcolor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
als . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 dei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
am. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 dei1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
am1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
ami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 devicem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
ami1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 di. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
as. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 do. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
as1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 ds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
asciify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 ds1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
dt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
B E
backtrace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
bd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 ec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
blm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 ecr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 ecs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
boxa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 el. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
bp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 em. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
br . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 eo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 ev. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
brp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 evc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
ex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
C F
c2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 fam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
cc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 fc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 fchar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
cf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 fcolor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
ch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 fl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
char . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 fp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
chop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 fschar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 fspecial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
close . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 113
color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 ftr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
composite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 fzoom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
continue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
cp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
cs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 G
cu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 gcolor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
H N
hc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 na . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
hcode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 ne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
hla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 nf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
hlm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
hpf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 nm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
hpfa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 nn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
hpfcode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 nop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
hw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 nr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 75
hy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 nroff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
hym. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
hys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 nx. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
O
I open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
ie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 opena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
if. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 os. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
ig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
itc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 P
pc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
pev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
K pi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
pl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
kern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 pm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
pn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
pnr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
L po. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
ps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
lc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 psbb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 pso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
lf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 ptr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
lg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 pvs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
linetabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
ll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 R
lsm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
lt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 rchar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
rd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
rfschar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
M rj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
mc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 rm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
mk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 rn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
mso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 rnn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
rr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
rt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
B: Request Index 233
S tr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
schar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 trf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
shc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 trin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 trnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
so. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
sp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 U
special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
spreadwarn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 uf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
ul. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
ss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
unformat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
sty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
substring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
sv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 V
sy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
vpt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
vs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
T
ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 W
tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 warn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
ti. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 warnscale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
tkf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 wh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
tl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
tm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
tm1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 writec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
tmc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 writem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
235
C Escape Index
Any escape sequence \X with X not in the list below emits a warning, printing
glyph X.
\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 \d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

\!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 \D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
\" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 \e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
\# . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 \E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
\$. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 \f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 113
\$* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 \F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
\$@ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 \g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
\$^ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 \h. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
\$0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 \H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
\% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 \k. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
\&. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 \l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
\’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 \L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
\). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 \m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
\*. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 \M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
\,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 \n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
\-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 \N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
\. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 \o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
\/. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 \O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
\: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 \p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
\?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 \r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
\^. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 \R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 74
\_. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 \RET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
\‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 \s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
\\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 \S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
\{. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 \SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
\}. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 \t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
\|. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 \u. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
\~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 \v. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
\0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 \V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
\a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 \w. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
\A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 \x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
\b. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 \X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
\B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 \Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
\c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 \z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
\C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 \Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
237
D Operator Index
! –
! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 64
% /
% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
& :
& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
( <
( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 < . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
<= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
<? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
)
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 =
= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
== . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
*
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
>
> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
+ >= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 64 >? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
239
E Register Index
The macro package or program a specific register belongs to is appended in
brackets.
A register name x consisting of exactly one character can be accessed
as ‘\nx’. A register name xx consisting of exactly two characters can be
accessed as ‘\n(xx’. Register names xxx of any length can be accessed as
‘\n[xxx]’.
$ .j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
$$ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 .k. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
.kern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
.l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
% .lg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
.linetabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
.ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
.lt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
. .L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
.m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
.$. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
.a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
.n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
.A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
.ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
.b. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
.br. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 .ns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
.c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 .o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
.cdp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 .O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
.ce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 .p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
.cht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 .pe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
.color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 .pn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
.csk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 .ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 .psr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
.d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 .pvs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
.ev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 .P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
.f. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 .rj. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
.fam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 .R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
.fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 .s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
.fp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 .slant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
.F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 .sr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
.g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 .ss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
.h. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 .sss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
.height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 .sty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
.hla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 .t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
.hlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 .tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
.hlm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 .trunc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
.hy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 .T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
.hym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 .u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
.hys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 .U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
.H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 .v. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
.i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 .vpt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
.in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 .V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
.int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 .w. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
.warn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 L
.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 LL [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
.y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 llx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
.Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 lly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
.z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 ln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
.zoom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 lsn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
lss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
LT [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
C
c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
ct. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 M
MINGW [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 57
minutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
D mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
DD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
dl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
dn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 N
dw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 nl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
dy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
O
F opmaxx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
FAM [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 opmaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
FF [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 opminx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
FI [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 opminy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
FL [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
FM [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
FPD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 P
FPS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
PD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
FVS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
PI [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
PO [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
PORPHANS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
G ps4html [grohtml] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
PS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
GROWPS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
PSINCR [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
GS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Q
H
QI [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
HM [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
HORPHANS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
hp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 R
HY [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 rsb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
rst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
E: Register Index 241
S U
urx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
ury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
sb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
skw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
V
VS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
slimit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
ssc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Y
st. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
systat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 yr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
243
F Macro Index
The macro package a specific macro belongs to is appended in brackets.
They appear without the leading control character (normally ‘.’).
[ D
[ [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 DA [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
De [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
De [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
] DE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 47
] [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Ds [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Ds [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
DS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 47, 57
1 DT [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1C [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2 E
2C [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 EE [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
EF [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
EH [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
A EN [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
AB [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 EQ [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
AE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 EX [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
AI [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
AM [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 57
AT [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
AU [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 F
FE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
B FS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
B [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
B [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
B1 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 G
B2 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
BD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 G [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
BI [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 GL [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
BI [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
BR [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
BT [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
BT [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 H
BX [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 HB [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
HD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
HP [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
C
CD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
CT [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
CW [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
CW [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 57
I P
I [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 P [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
I [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 P1 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
IB [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 PD [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ID [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 PE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
IP [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Pn [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
IP [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 PN [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
IR [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 PP [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
IX [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 PP [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
PS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
PT [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
PT [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
K PX [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
KE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 48
KF [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
KS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Q
QE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
QP [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
L QS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
LD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
LG [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
LP [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
LP [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 R
R [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
R [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
RB [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
M RD [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
MC [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 RE [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
MS [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 RE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
RI [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
RN [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
RP [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
N RS [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
ND [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 RS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
NE [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
NH [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
NL [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
NT [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
S
SB [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
SH [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
SH [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
O SM [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
OF [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 SM [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
OH [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 SS [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
F: Macro Index 245
T V
TA [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 VE [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
TB [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 VS [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
TC [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
TE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
TH [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 X
TL [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 XA [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
TP [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 XE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
TS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 XP [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
XS [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
U
UC [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
UL [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
247
G String Index
The macro package or program a specific string belongs to is appended in
brackets.
A string name x consisting of exactly one character can be accessed as
‘\*x’. A string name xx consisting of exactly two characters can be accessed
as ‘\*(xx’. String names xxx of any length can be accessed as ‘\*[xxx]’.
! ‘
! [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 ‘ [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
’ {
’ [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 { [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
* }
* [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 } [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
, ~
, [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
~ [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
–
- [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3
3 [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
.
. [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 8
.T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 8 [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
: A
: [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 ABSTRACT [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Ae [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
ae [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
?
? [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
C
CF [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
^ CH [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
^ [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
D
d- [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
_ [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 D- [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
H R
HF [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 R [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
REFERENCES [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
RF [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
L RH [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
rq [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
LF [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
LH [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
lq [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 S
S [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SN [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
M SN-DOT [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MONTH1 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 SN-NO-DOT [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MONTH10 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 SN-STYLE [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
MONTH11 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
MONTH12 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
MONTH2 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 T
MONTH3 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 th [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
MONTH4 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Th [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
MONTH5 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Tm [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
MONTH6 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 TOC [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
MONTH7 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
MONTH8 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
MONTH9 [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 U
U [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
O
o [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 V
v [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Q
q [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 W
Q [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 www-image-template [grohtml] . . . . . . . 197
249
H Glyph Name Index

A glyph name xx consisting of exactly two characters can be accessed as
‘\(xx’. Glyph names xxx of any length can be accessed as ‘\[xxx]’.
251
I Font File Keyword Index
# P
# . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 paperlength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
papersize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
paperwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
– pass_filenames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
--- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 postpro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
prepro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
print . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
B
biggestfont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
R
C res . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
charset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 216
S
F sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
sizescale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 114, 212
slant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 122, 213
spacewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
spare1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
H spare2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124, 215
hor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 112, 114, 214
I
image_generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
T
tcommand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
K
kernpairs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
U
unicode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
unitwidth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
L unscaled_charwidths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
ligatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 use_charnames_in_special. . . . . . 175, 215
N V
name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 vert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
253
J Program and File Index
A H
an.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 hyphen.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
hyphenex.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
C
changebar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 L
composite.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 latin1.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
cp1047.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 latin2.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
latin5.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
latin9.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
D less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
DESC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 112, 114, 118, 122
DESC file format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
DESC, and font mounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 M
DESC, and makeindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
use_charnames_in_special . . . . . . . . 175 man, invocation of preprocessors . . . . . . . . 29
ditroff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 man-old.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
man.local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 29
man.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
E man.ultrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
ec.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
eqn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
N
nrchbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
F
freeeuro.pfa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
P
papersize.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
G perl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
pic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
gchem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
post-grohtml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
geqn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
pre-grohtml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
geqn, invocation in manual pages . . . . . . 29
preconv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
ggrn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
gpic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
grap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
grefer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
R
grefer, invocation in manual pages . . . . 29 refer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
groff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
grog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
grohtml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
S
gsoelim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 soelim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
gtbl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
gtbl, invocation in manual pages . . . . . . 29
gtroff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
T
tbl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
trace.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
troffrc. . . . . . . . . . . 10, 14, 87, 89, 101, 102
troffrc-end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 87, 89, 101
tty.tmac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
255
K Concept Index
" .
", at end of sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 119 ., as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
", in a macro argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 .h register, difference to nl . . . . . . . . . . . 163
.ps register, in
comparison with .psr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
% .s register, in comparison with .sr . . . 131
.S register, Plan 9 alias for .tabs . . . . . . 94
%, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
.t register, and diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
.tabs register, Plan 9 alias (.S) . . . . . . . 94
.V register, and vs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
&
&, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
/
/, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
’
’, as a comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
’, at end of sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 119 :
’, delimiting arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 :, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
( <
(, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 <, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
(, starting a
two-character identifier . . . . . . . . . . 66, 70
=
=, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
)
), as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
), at end of sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 119 >
>, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
*
*, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 [
*, at end of sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 119 [, macro names starting
with, and refer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
[, starting an identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 70
+
+, and page motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
+, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 ]
], as part of an identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
], at end of sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 119
– ], ending an identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 70
-, and page motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 ], macro names starting
-, as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 with, and refer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
\ \_, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

\!, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 \_, incompatibilities with
\!, and output request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
\!, and trnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 \_, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71
\!, in top-level diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 \‘, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
\!, incompatibilities with \‘, incompatibilities with
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
\!, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 \‘, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71
\$, when reading text for a macro . . . . 144 \\, when reading text for a macro . . . . 144
\%, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 \{, incompatibilities with
\%, following \X or \Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
\%, in \X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 \{, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71
\%, incompatibilities with \}, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 \}, incompatibilities with
\%, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
\&, and glyph definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 \}, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71
\&, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 \|, incompatibilities with
\&, at end of sentence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
\&, escaping control characters . . . . . . . . . 68 \|, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\&, in \X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 \~, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
\&, incompatibilities with \~, difference to \SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 \~, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\&, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 \0, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\’, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 \a, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
\’, incompatibilities with \a, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 \a, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\’, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 \A, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
$, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 \A, incompatibilities with
$, in \X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
\), used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 \b, limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
\*, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 \b, possible quote characters . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\*, incompatibilities with \B, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 \c, and fill mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
\*, when reading text for a macro . . . . 144 \c, and no-fill mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
\, disabling (eo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 \c, incompatibilities with
\,, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
\-, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 \c, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71
\-, incompatibilities with \C, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 \C, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
\-, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 \d, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\/, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 \D’f ...’ and horizontal resolution . . . 153
\:, in \X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 \D, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\:, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 \e, and glyph definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
\?, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 165 \e, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
\?, in top-level diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 \e, incompatibilities with
\?, incompatibilities with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 \e, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71
\?, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 \E, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
\[, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 \E, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\^, incompatibilities with \f, and font translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 \f, incompatibilities with
\^, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
K: Concept Index 257
\F, and changing fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 \Y, followed by \% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

\F, and font positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 \Z, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\h, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\H, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\H, incompatibilities with |
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 |, and page motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
\H, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
\H, with fractional type sizes. . . . . . . . . . 130
\l, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 8
\l, and glyph definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 8-bit input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
\L, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
\L, and glyph definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
\n, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 A
\n, incompatibilities with
aborting (ab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
absolute position operator (|). . . . . . . . . . 64
\n, when reading text for a macro . . . . 144
accent marks [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
\N, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 access of postprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
\N, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 accessing unnamed glyphs with \N . . . . 216
\o, possible quote characters . . . . . . . . . . . 70 activating kerning (kern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
\p, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71 activating ligatures (lg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
\r, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 activating track kerning (tkf) . . . . . . . . 125
\R, after \c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 ad request, and hyphenation margin . . . 88
\R, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 ad request, and hyphenation space . . . . . 88
\R, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 adjusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
\R, difference to nr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 adjusting and filling, manipulating . . . . . 79
\R, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 adjustment mode register (.j) . . . . . . . . . 81
\RET, when reading text for a macro . . 144 adobe glyph list (AGL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
\s, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 AGL (adobe glyph list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
\s, incompatibilities with alias, diversion, creating (als) . . . . . . . . 135
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 alias, diversion, removing (rm) . . . . . . . . 136
\s, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 alias, macro, creating (als) . . . . . . . . . . . 135
\s, with fractional type sizes. . . . . . . . . . 130 alias, macro, removing (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . 136
\S, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 alias, number register, creating (aln). . . 74
\S, incompatibilities with alias, string, creating (als) . . . . . . . . . . . 135
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 alias, string, removing (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . 136
\SP, difference to \~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 als request, and \$0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
\SP, incompatibilities with am, am1, ami requests, and warnings . . . 184
AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
\SP, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 appending to a diversion (da) . . . . . . . . . 162
\t, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 appending to a file (opena) . . . . . . . . . . . 174
\t, and translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 appending to a macro (am) . . . . . . . . . . . 143
\t, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 appending to a string (as) . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
\t, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 arc, drawing (\D’a ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
\u, used as delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 argument delimiting characters . . . . . . . . 70
\v, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 arguments to macros, and tabs . . . . . . . . 68
\v, internal representation . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 arguments to requests and macros . . . . . 68
\V, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 arguments, and compatibility mode . . . 180
\w, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 arguments, macro (\$) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
\x, allowed delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 arguments, of strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
\X, and special characters. . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 arithmetic operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
\X, followed by \% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 artificial fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
\X, possible quote characters . . . . . . . . . . . 70 as, as1 requests, and comments. . . . . . . . 71
as, as1 requests, and warnings. . . . . . . . 184 break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 79

ASCII approximation output break (br) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
register (.A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 79 break request, in a while loop . . . . . . . . 140
ASCII, output encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 break, implicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
asciify request, and writem . . . . . . . . . 174 built-in registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
assigning formats (af) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 bulleted list, example markup [ms] . . . . . 43
assignments, indirect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
assignments, nested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
AT&T troff, ms macro C
package differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 c unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
auto-increment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 calling convention of preprocessors . . . . . 29
auto-increment, and ig request . . . . . . . . 72 capabilities of groff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
available glyphs, list ce request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79
(groff char(7) man page) . . . . . . . . . . . 115 ce request, difference to ‘.ad c’ . . . . . . . . 80
centered text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
centering lines (ce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 83
B centimeter unit (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
background color name register (.M) . . 170 cf request, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . 171
backslash, printing (\\, cf request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79
\e, \E, \[rs]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 186 changing font family (fam, \F) . . . . . . . . 111
backspace character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 changing font position (\f) . . . . . . . . . . . 114
backspace character, and translations . . 99 changing font style (sty) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
backtrace of input stack changing fonts (ft, \f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
(backtrace). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 changing format, and
baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 read-only registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
basic unit (u) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 changing the font height (\H) . . . . . . . . . 123
basics of macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 changing the font slant (\S) . . . . . . . . . . 123
bd request, and font styles . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 changing the page number
bd request, and font translations . . . . . . 110 character (pc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
bd request, incompatibilities changing trap location (ch) . . . . . . . . . . . 157
with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 changing type sizes (ps, \s) . . . . . . . . . . 128
begin of conditional block (\{) . . . . . . . . 139 changing vertical line spacing (vs) . . . . 129
beginning diversion (di) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 char request, and soft
blank line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 67 hyphen character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
blank line (sp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 char request, and translations . . . . . . . . . 99
blank line macro (blm) . . . . . . . . 60, 67, 159 char request, used with \N . . . . . . . . . . . 117
blank line traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
blank lines, disabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 character class (class) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
block, conditional, begin (\{) . . . . . . . . . 139 character classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
block, conditional, end (\}) . . . . . . . . . . . 139 character properties (cflags) . . . . . . . . . 118
bold face [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 character translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
bold face, imitating (bd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 character, backspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
bottom margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 character, backspace, and
bounding box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
box rule glyph (\[br]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 character, control (.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
box, boxa requests, and warnings . . . . . 184 character, control, changing (cc) . . . . . . . 96
boxa request, and dn (dl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 character, defining (char). . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
bp request, and top-level diversion . . . . 107 character, defining fallback (fchar,
bp request, and traps (.pe) . . . . . . . . . . . 158 fschar, schar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
bp request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79 character, escape, changing (ec) . . . . . . . 97
bp request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 character, escape, while
br glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 defining glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
character, field delimiting (fc) . . . . . . . . . 95 commands, embedded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

character, field padding (fc) . . . . . . . . . . . 95 comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
character, hyphenation (\%) . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 comments in font files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
character, leader repetition (lc). . . . . . . . 95 comments, lining up with tabs . . . . . . . . . 71
character, leader, and translations . . . . . 99 comments, with ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
character, leader, common features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
non-interpreted (\a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 common name space of macros,
character, named (\C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 diversions, and strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
character, newline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 comparison of strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
character, newline, and translations . . . . 99 comparison operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
character, no-break control (’) . . . . . . . . . 67 compatibility mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, 185
character, no-break control, compatibility mode, and parameters . . 180
changing (c2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 composite glyph names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
character, soft hyphen, setting (shc) . . . 89 conditional block, begin (\{). . . . . . . . . . 139
character, space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 conditional block, end (\}) . . . . . . . . . . . 139
character, special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 conditional output for
character, tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 terminal (TTY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
character, tab repetition (tc) . . . . . . . . . . 94 conditional page break (ne) . . . . . . . . . . . 107
character, tab, and translations . . . . . . . . 99 conditionals and loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
character, tab, non-interpreted (\t) . . . . 92 consecutive hyphenated lines (hlm) . . . . . 85
character, tabulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 constant glyph space mode (cs) . . . . . . 124
character, transparent . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 119 contents, table of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 95
character, whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 continuation, input line (\) . . . . . . . . . . . 104
character, zero width space (\&) . . 68, 125, continuation, output line (\c). . . . . . . . . 104
151 continue request, in a while loop . . . . 140
characters, argument delimiting . . . . . . . . 70 continuous underlining (cu) . . . . . . . . . . . 124
characters, end-of-sentence . . . . . . . . . . . 118 control character (.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
characters, hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 control character, changing (cc) . . . . . . . 96
characters, input, and output glyphs, control character, no-break (’) . . . . . . . . . 67
compatibility with AT&T troff . . . . 186 control character, no-break,
characters, invalid for trf request. . . . . 172 changing (c2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
characters, invalid input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 control sequences, for terminals . . . . . . . 191
characters, overlapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 control, line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
characters, special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 control, page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
characters, unnamed, conventions for input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
accessing with \N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 copy mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
chem, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
circle, drawing (\D’c ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . 152 copy-in mode, and \! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
circle, solid, drawing (\D’C ...’) . . . . . 152 copy-in mode, and \? . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 165
class of characters (class) . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 copy-in mode, and \a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
classes, character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 copy-in mode, and \E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
closing file (close) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 copy-in mode, and \t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
code, hyphenation (hcode) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 copy-in mode, and \V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
color name, background, copy-in mode, and cf request . . . . . . . . . 171
register (.M). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 copy-in mode, and device request . . . . 175
color name, drawing, register (.m) . . . . 170 copy-in mode, and ig request . . . . . . . . . . 72
color name, fill, register (.M) . . . . . . . . . . 170 copy-in mode, and length request . . . . 135
color, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 copy-in mode, and macro arguments . . 144
colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 copy-in mode, and output request . . . . 165
colors, fill, unnamed (\D’F...’) . . . . . . 154 copy-in mode, and tm request . . . . . . . . . 181
command prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 copy-in mode, and tm1 request . . . . . . . . 181
command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 copy-in mode, and tmc request . . . . . . . . 181
copy-in mode, and trf request . . . . . . . . 171 default units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

copy-in mode, and write request . . . . . 174 defining character (char) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
copy-in mode, and writec request . . . . 174 defining character class (class) . . . . . . . 121
copy-in mode, and writem request . . . . 174 defining fallback character (fchar,
copying environment (evc) . . . . . . . . . . . 167 fschar, schar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
correction between italic and defining glyph (char) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
roman glyph (\/, \,) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 defining symbol (char) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
correction, italic (\/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 delayed text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
correction, left italic (\,) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 delimited arguments, incompatibilities
cover page macros, [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
cp request, and glyph definitions . . . . . . 120 delimiting character, for fields (fc) . . . . . 95
cp1047, input encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 delimiting characters for arguments . . . . 70
cp1047, output encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 depth, of last glyph (.cdp) . . . . . . . . . . . 168
cq glyph, at end of sentence . . . . . . . 60, 119 DESC file, format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
creating alias, for diversion (als) . . . . . 135 device request, and copy-in mode . . . . 175
creating alias, for macro (als) . . . . . . . . 135 device resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
creating alias, for number devices for output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 191
register (aln). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 dg glyph, at end of sentence . . . . . . . 60, 119
creating alias, for string (als) . . . . . . . . 135 di request, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
creating new characters (char). . . . . . . . 120 differences in implementation . . . . . . . . . 185
credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 digit width space (\0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
cs request, and font styles . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 digits, and delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
cs request, and font translations . . . . . . 110 dimensions, line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
cs request, incompatibilities directories for fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 directories for macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
cs request, with directory, current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
fractional type sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 directory, for tmac files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
current directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 directory, home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
current input file name register (.F) . . . 77 directory, platform-specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
current page number (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 directory, site-specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 14
current time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 disabling \ (eo). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
current time, hours (hours) . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 disabling hyphenation (\%). . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
current time, minutes (minutes) . . . . . . . 78 discardable horizontal space . . . . . . . . . . . 82
current time, seconds (seconds) . . . . . . . 78 discarded space in traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
current vertical position (nl) . . . . . . . . . 108 displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
displays [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
displays, and footnotes [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
D distance to next trap register (.t) . . . . 157
da request, and dn (dl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 ditroff, the program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
da request, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 diversion name register (.z) . . . . . . . . . . 163
date, day of the month register (dy). . . . 78 diversion trap, setting (dt) . . . . . . . . . . . 158
date, day of the week register (dw) . . . . . 78 diversion traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
date, month of the year register (mo) . . . 78 diversion, appending (da) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
date, year register (year, yr) . . . . . . . . . . 78 diversion, beginning (di) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
day of the month register (dy) . . . . . . . . . 78 diversion, creating alias (als) . . . . . . . . . 135
day of the week register (dw) . . . . . . . . . . . 78 diversion, ending (di) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
de request, and while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 diversion, nested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
de, de1, dei requests, and warnings . . . 184 diversion, removing (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 diversion, removing alias (rm) . . . . . . . . . 136
default color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 diversion, renaming (rn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
default indentation [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 diversion, stripping final newline . . . . . . 134
default indentation, resetting [man] . . . . . 26 diversion, top-level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
diversion, top-level, and \! . . . . . . . . . . . 165 em unit (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

diversion, top-level, and \? . . . . . . . . . . . 165 embedded commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
diversion, top-level, and bp . . . . . . . . . . . 107 embedding PDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
diversion, unformatting (asciify) . . . . 165 embedding PostScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
diversion, vertical position in, embolding of special fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
register (.d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 empty line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 empty line (sp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
diversions, and traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 empty space before a paragraph [man] . . 28
diversions, shared name space with en unit (n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
macros and strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 enabling vertical position
dl register, and da (boxa) . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 traps (vpt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
dn register, and da (boxa) . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 encoding, EBCDIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
documents, multi-file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 encoding, input, cp1047. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
documents, structuring the encoding, input, EBCDIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
source code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 encoding, input, latin-1 (ISO 8859-1) . . 61
double quote, in a macro argument . . . . 68 encoding, input, latin-2 (ISO 8859-2) . . 61
double-spacing (ls) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 90 encoding, input, latin-5 (ISO 8859-9) . . 61
double-spacing (vs, pvs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 encoding, input, latin-9 (latin-0,
drawing a circle (\D’c ...’) . . . . . . . . . . 152 ISO 8859-15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
drawing a line (\D’l ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . 152 encoding, output, ASCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
drawing a polygon (\D’p ...’) . . . . . . . 153 encoding, output, cp1047 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
drawing a solid circle (\D’C ...’) . . . . . 152 encoding, output, EBCDIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
drawing a solid ellipse (\D’E ...’) . . . . 153 encoding, output, latin-1
drawing a solid polygon (\D’P ...’) . . 153 (ISO 8859-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
drawing a spline (\D’~ ...’) . . . . . . . . . 153 encoding, output, utf-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
drawing an arc (\D’a ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . 153 end of conditional block (\}) . . . . . . . . . 139
drawing an ellipse (\D’e ...’) . . . . . . . . 153 end-of-input macro (em) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
drawing color name register (.m) . . . . . . 170 end-of-input trap, setting (em) . . . . . . . . 160
drawing horizontal lines (\l). . . . . . . . . . 151 end-of-input traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
drawing requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 end-of-sentence characters . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
drawing vertical lines (\L) . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 ending diversion (di) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
ds request, and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 environment number/name
ds request, and double quotes. . . . . . . . . . 69 register (.ev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
ds request, and leading spaces . . . . . . . . 132 environment variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
ds, ds1 requests, and comments. . . . . . . . 71 environment, copying (evc) . . . . . . . . . . . 167
ds, ds1 requests, and warnings. . . . . . . . 184 environment, dimensions of last glyph (.w,
dumping environments (pev) . . . . . . . . . 181 .cht, .cdp, .csk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
dumping number registers (pnr) . . . . . . 181 environment, previous line
dumping symbol table (pm) . . . . . . . . . . . 181 length (.n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
dumping traps (ptr). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 environment, switching (ev) . . . . . . . . . . 167
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
environments, dumping (pev) . . . . . . . . . 181
E eqn, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
EBCDIC encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 equations [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
EBCDIC encoding of a tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 escape character, changing (ec) . . . . . . . . 97
EBCDIC encoding of backspace . . . . . . . . 65 escape character, while
EBCDIC, input encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 defining glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
EBCDIC, output encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 escapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
el request, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 escaping newline
ellipse, drawing (\D’e ...’) . . . . . . . . . . 153 characters, in strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
ellipse, solid, drawing (\D’E ...’) . . . . 153 ex request, use in debugging . . . . . . . . . . 181
em glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 ex request, used with nx and rd . . . . . . 172
example markup, bulleted list [ms] . . . . . 43 fill colors, unnamed (\D’F...’) . . . . . . . 154
example markup, fill mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 82, 183
glossary-style list [ms]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 fill mode (fi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
example markup, fill mode, and \c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
multi-page table [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
example markup, numbered list [ms] . . . 43 filling and adjusting, manipulating . . . . . 79
example markup, title page . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 final newline, stripping in diversions . . 134
examples of invocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 fl request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79
exiting (ex) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 floating keep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
expansion of strings (\*). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 flush output (fl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
explicit hyphen (\%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 font description file, format . . . . . . 212, 215
expression, limitation of font directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
logical not in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 font families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
expression, order of evaluation . . . . . . . . . 64 font family, changing (fam, \F) . . . . . . . . 111
expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 font file, format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
expressions, and space characters . . . . . . 65 font files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
extra post-vertical line space (\x) . . . . . 130 font files, comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
extra post-vertical line space font for underlining (uf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
register (.a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 font height, changing (\H) . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
extra pre-vertical line space (\x) . . . . . . 129 font path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
extra spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 font position register (.f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
extremum operators (>?, <?) . . . . . . . . . . . 64 font position, changing (\f). . . . . . . . . . . 114
font positions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
font selection [man]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
F font slant, changing (\S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
f unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 font style, changing (sty) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
f unit, and colors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 font styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
factor, zoom, of a font (fzoom) . . . . . . . . 110 font translation (ftr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
fallback character, defining (fchar, font, magnification (fzoom) . . . . . . . . . . . 110
fschar, schar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 font, mounting (fp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
fallback glyph, removing definition font, optical size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
(rchar, rfschar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 font, previous (ft, \f[], \fP) . . . . . . . . . 109
fam request, and changing fonts . . . . . . . 109 font, zoom factor (fzoom) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
fam request, and font positions . . . . . . . 114 fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
families, font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 fonts, artificial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
features, common . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 fonts, changing (ft, \f). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
fi request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79 fonts, PostScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
field delimiting character (fc) . . . . . . . . . . 95 fonts, searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
field padding character (fc) . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 fonts, special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106, 156
fields, and tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 footers [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
figures [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
file formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 footnotes [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
file, appending to (opena) . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 footnotes, and displays [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
file, closing (close) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 footnotes, and keeps [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
file, inclusion (so) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 form letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
file, opening (open) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 format of font description file . . . . . . . . . 212
file, processing next (nx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 format of font description files . . . . . . . . 215
file, writing to (write, writec) . . . . . . . 174 format of font files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
files, font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 format of register (\g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
files, macro, searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 formats, assigning (af) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
fill color name register (.M) . . . . . . . . . . . 170 formats, file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
fp request, and font translations . . . . . . 110 glyphs, unnamed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

fp request, incompatibilities glyphs, unnamed, accessing with \N . . . 216
with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 GNU-specific register (.g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
fractional point sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 186 gpic, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
fractional type sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 186 gpic, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
french-spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 grap, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
fspecial request, and font styles . . . . . 112 gray shading (\D’f ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
fspecial request, and font grefer, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 grefer, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
fspecial request, and glyph grn, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
search order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 grodvi, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
fspecial request, and grodvi, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
imitating bold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 groff – what is it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ft request, and font translations . . . . . . 110 groff capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
groff glyph list (GGL) . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 121
groff invocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
G groff, and pi request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
gchem, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 GROFF_BIN_PATH,
gchem, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
geqn, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 GROFF_COMMAND_PREFIX,
geqn, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
GGL (groff glyph list) . . . . . . . . . . . 115, 121 GROFF_ENCODING,
ggrn, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
ggrn, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 GROFF_FONT_PATH,
glossary-style list, example environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 14
markup [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 GROFF_TMAC_PATH,
glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
glyph for line drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 GROFF_TMPDIR, environment variable . . . 13
glyph names, composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 GROFF_TYPESETTER,
glyph pile (\b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
glyph properties (cflags) . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 grohtml, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
glyph, box rule (\[br]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 grohtml, registers and strings . . . . . . . . . 197
glyph, constant space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 grohtml, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 196
glyph, defining (char) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 grolbp, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
glyph, for line drawing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 grolbp, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
glyph, for margins (mc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 grolj4, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
glyph, italic correction (\/) . . . . . . . . . . . 126 grolj4, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
glyph, last, dimensions (.w, gropdf, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
.cht, .cdp, .csk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 gropdf, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
glyph, leader repetition (lc) . . . . . . . . . . . 95 grops, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
glyph, left italic correction (\,) . . . . . . . 126 grops, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
glyph, numbered (\N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 117 grotty, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
glyph, removing definition grotty, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
(rchar, rfschar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 gsoelim, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
glyph, soft hyphen (hy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 gsoelim, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
glyph, tab repetition (tc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 gtbl, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
glyph, underscore (\[ru]) . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 gtbl, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
glyphs, available, list gtroff, identification register (.g) . . . . . 79
(groff char(7) man page) . . . . . . . . . . . 115 gtroff, interactive use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
glyphs, output, and input characters, gtroff, output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
compatibility with AT&T troff . . . . 186 gtroff, process ID register ($$). . . . . . . . 79
glyphs, overstriking (\o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 gtroff, reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
gxditview, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 I

gxditview, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 i unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
i/o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
IBM cp1047 input encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
H IBM cp1047 output encoding . . . . . . . . . . 11
hanging indentation [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
hcode request, and glyph definitions . . 120 identifiers, undefined. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106, 156 ie request, and font translations . . . . . . 110
headers [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 ie request, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
height, font, changing (\H) . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 ie request, operators to use with . . . . . 136
height, of last glyph (.cht) . . . . . . . . . . . 168 if request, and font translations . . . . . . 110
high-water mark register (.h) . . . . . . . . . 163 if request, and the ‘!’ operator . . . . . . . . 64
history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 if request, operators to use with . . . . . 136
home directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 if-else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
horizontal discardable space . . . . . . . . . . . 82 ig request, and auto-increment . . . . . . . . 72
horizontal input line position ig request, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . . 72
register (hp). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 imitating bold face (bd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
horizontal input line implementation differences . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
position, saving (\k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 implicit breaks of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
horizontal line, drawing (\l) . . . . . . . . . . 151 implicit line breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
horizontal motion (\h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 in request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79
horizontal output line position in request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
register (.k). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 inch unit (i). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
horizontal resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 including a file (so). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
horizontal resolution register (.H) . . . . . . 77 incompatibilities with AT&T troff . . . 185
horizontal space (\h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 increment value without
horizontal space, unformatting . . . . . . . . 134 changing the register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
hours, current time (hours) . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 increment, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
hpf request, and indentation (in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
hyphenation language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 indentation, resetting to default [man] . . 26
hw request, and hy restrictions . . . . . . . . . 86 index, in macro package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
hw request, and indicator, scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
hyphenation language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 indirect assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
hy glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 input and output requests . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
hyphen, explicit (\%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 input characters and output glyphs,
hyphenated lines, consecutive (hlm) . . . . 85 compatibility with AT&T troff . . . . 186
hyphenating characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 input characters, invalid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 input conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
hyphenation character (\%) . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 input encoding, cp1047 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
hyphenation code (hcode) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 input encoding, EBCDIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
hyphenation language register (.hla) . . 89 input encoding, latin-1 (ISO 8859-1) . . . 61
input encoding, latin-2 (ISO 8859-2) . . . 61
hyphenation margin (hym) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
input encoding, latin-5 (ISO 8859-9) . . . 61
hyphenation margin register (.hym) . . . . 88
input encoding, latin-9 (latin-9,
hyphenation patterns (hpf) . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
ISO 8859-15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
hyphenation restrictions
input file name, current, register (.F) . . 77
register (.hy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
input level in delimited arguments . . . . 185
hyphenation space (hys) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
input line continuation (\) . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
hyphenation space register (.hys) . . . . . . 89
input line number register (.c, c.) . . . . . 78
hyphenation, disabling (\%) . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
input line number, setting (lf) . . . . . . . 180
hyphenation, manipulating . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
input line position,
horizontal, saving (\k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
input line trap, setting (it) . . . . . . . . . . . 159 italic glyph, correction after
input line traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 roman glyph (\,) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
input line traps and italic glyph, correction before
interrupted lines (itc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 roman glyph (\/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
input line, horizontal position,
register (hp). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
input stack, backtrace (backtrace) . . . 182 J
input stack, setting limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 justifying text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
input token . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 justifying text (rj) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
input, 8-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
input, standard, reading from (rd) . . . . 172
inserting horizontal space (\h) . . . . . . . . 148
installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
K
interactive use of gtroff . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 keep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
intermediate output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 keep, floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
interpolating registers (\n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 keeps [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
interpolation of strings (\*) . . . . . . . . . . . 132 keeps, and footnotes [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
interrupted line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 kerning and ligatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
interrupted line register (.int) . . . . . . . 105 kerning enabled register (.kern) . . . . . . 125
interrupted lines and input kerning, activating (kern) . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
line traps (itc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 kerning, track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
invalid characters for trf request . . . . . 172
invalid input characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 L
invocation examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 landscape page orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
invoking gchem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 last glyph, dimensions (.w,
invoking geqn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 .cht, .cdp, .csk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
invoking ggrn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 last-requested point size
invoking gpic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 registers (.psr, .sr). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
invoking grefer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 latin-1 (ISO 8859-1), input encoding . . . 61
invoking grodvi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 latin-1 (ISO 8859-1),
invoking groff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 output encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
invoking grohtml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 latin-2 (ISO 8859-2), input encoding . . . 61
invoking grolbp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 latin-5 (ISO 8859-9), input encoding . . . 61
invoking grolj4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 latin-9 (latin-0, ISO 8859-15),
invoking gropdf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 input encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
invoking grops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 layout, line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
invoking grotty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 layout, page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
invoking gsoelim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 lc request, and glyph definitions . . . . . . 120
invoking gtbl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 leader character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
invoking gxditview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 leader character, and translations . . . . . . 99
invoking preconv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 leader character, non-interpreted (\a) . . 95
ISO 6249 SGR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 leader repetition character (lc) . . . . . . . . 95
ISO 8859-1 (latin-1), input encoding . . . 61 leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
ISO 8859-1 (latin-1), leading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
output encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 leading spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
ISO 8859-15 (latin-9, latin-0), leading spaces macro (lsm) . . . . . . . . 60, 159
input encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 leading spaces traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
ISO 8859-2 (latin-2), input encoding . . . 61 leading spaces with ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
ISO 8859-9 (latin-5), input encoding . . . 61 left italic correction (\,) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
italic correction (\/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 left margin (po) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
italic fonts [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 left margin, how to move [man] . . . . . . . . . 26
length of a string (length) . . . . . . . . . . . 135 lines, consecutive hyphenated (hlm) . . . . 85

length of line (ll) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 lines, interrupted, and input
length of page (pl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 line traps (itc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
length of previous line (.n) . . . . . . . . . . . 168 list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
length of title line (lt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 list of available glyphs
length request, and copy-in mode . . . . 135 (groff char(7) man page) . . . . . . . . . . . 115
letters, form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 ll request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
level of warnings (warn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 location, vertical, page,
ligature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 marking (mk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
ligatures and kerning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 location, vertical, page, returning
ligatures enabled register (.lg) . . . . . . . 125 to marked (rt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
ligatures, activating (lg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 logical not, limitation in expression . . . . 64
limitations of \b escape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 logical operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
line break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 60, 79 long names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
line break (br) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 loops and conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
line breaks, with vertical space [man] . . . 26 lq glyph, and lq string [man] . . . . . . . . . . . 29
line breaks, without ls request, alternative to (pvs) . . . . . . . 130
vertical space [man] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 lt request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
line control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
line dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
line drawing glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 M
line indentation (in) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 m unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
line layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 M unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
line length (ll) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 machine unit (u). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
line length register (.l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 macro arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
line length, previous (.n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 macro arguments, and
line number, input, register (.c, c.). . . . 78 compatibility mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
line number, output, register (ln) . . . . . . 78 macro arguments, and tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
line numbers, printing (nm) . . . . . . . . . . . 176 macro basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
line space, extra post-vertical (\x) . . . . 130 macro directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
line space, extra pre-vertical (\x) . . . . . 129 macro files, searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
line spacing register (.L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 macro name register (\$0) . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
line spacing, post-vertical (pvs) . . . . . . . 130 macro names, starting with [ or
line thickness (\D’t ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 ], and refer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
line, blank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 macro packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 23
line, drawing (\D’l ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 macro packages, structuring
line, empty (sp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 the source code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
line, horizontal, drawing (\l) . . . . . . . . . 151 macro, appending (am) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
line, implicit breaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 macro, arguments (\$) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
line, input, continuation (\) . . . . . . . . . . 104 macro, creating alias (als). . . . . . . . . . . . 135
line, input, horizontal macro, end-of-input (em) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
position, register (hp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 macro, removing (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
line, input, horizontal macro, removing alias (rm). . . . . . . . . . . . 136
position, saving (\k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 macro, renaming (rn). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
line, interrupted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
line, output, continuation (\c) . . . . . . . . 104 macros for manual pages [man] . . . . . . . . . 24
line, output, horizontal macros, recursive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
position, register (.k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 macros, searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
line, vertical, drawing (\L) . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 macros, shared name space with
line-tabs mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 strings and diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
lines, blank, disabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 macros, tutorial for users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
lines, centering (ce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 83 macros, writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
magnification of a font (fzoom) . . . . . . . 110 mode, copy-in, and \! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

major quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 mode, copy-in, and \? . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 165
major version number register (.x) . . . . 78 mode, copy-in, and \a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
man macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 mode, copy-in, and \E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
man macros, bold face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 mode, copy-in, and \t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
man macros, custom headers mode, copy-in, and \V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
and footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 mode, copy-in, and cf request . . . . . . . . 171
man macros, default indentation . . . . . . . . 27 mode, copy-in, and device request. . . . 175
man macros, empty space mode, copy-in, and ig request . . . . . . . . . 72
before a paragraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 mode, copy-in, and length request. . . . 135
man macros, hanging indentation . . . . . . . 26 mode, copy-in, and macro
man macros, how to set fonts . . . . . . . . . . . 26 arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
man macros, italic fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 mode, copy-in, and output request. . . . 165
man macros, line breaks with mode, copy-in, and tm request . . . . . . . . 181
vertical space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 mode, copy-in, and tm1 request . . . . . . . 181
man macros, line breaks without mode, copy-in, and tmc request . . . . . . . 181
vertical space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 mode, copy-in, and trf request . . . . . . . 171
man macros, moving left margin . . . . . . . . 26 mode, copy-in, and write request . . . . . 174
man macros, resetting mode, copy-in, and writec request. . . . 174
default indentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 mode, copy-in, and writem request. . . . 174
man macros, tab stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 mode, fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 82, 183
man macros, Ultrix-specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 mode, fill (fi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
man pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 mode, fill, and \c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
manipulating filling and adjusting. . . . . . 79 mode, line-tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
manipulating hyphenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 mode, no-fill (nf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
manipulating spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 mode, no-fill, and \c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
manmacros, BSD compatibility . . . . . . . . . 28 mode, no-space (ns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
manual pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 mode, nroff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
margin for hyphenation (hym) . . . . . . . . . . 88 mode, safer . . . . . . 10, 13, 77, 171, 173, 174
margin glyph (mc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 mode, troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
margin, bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 mode, unsafe . . . . . 11, 13, 77, 171, 173, 174
margin, left (po) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 modifying requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
margin, top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 mom macro package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
mark, high-water, register (.h). . . . . . . . 163 month of the year register (mo). . . . . . . . . 78
marking vertical page location (mk) . . . 146 motion operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
MathML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 motion, horizontal (\h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
maximum values of Roman numerals . . . 77 motion, vertical (\v). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
mdoc macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 motions, page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
me macro package. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 mounting font (fp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
measurement unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 ms macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 ms macros, accent marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
measurements, specifying safely . . . . . . . . 63 ms macros, body text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
minimum values of Roman numerals . . . 77 ms macros, cover page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
minor version number register (.y). . . . . 78 ms macros, creating table of contents . . . 51
minutes, current time (minutes) . . . . . . . 78 ms macros, differences from AT&T . . . . . 55
mm macro package. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 ms macros, displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
mode for constant glyph space (cs) . . . 124 ms macros, document
mode, compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 control registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
mode, compatibility, and ms macros, equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 ms macros, figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
mode, copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 ms macros, footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
mode, copy-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 ms macros, footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
ms macros, general structure . . . . . . . . . . . 32 nm request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

ms macros, headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 no-break control character (’) . . . . . . . . . 67
ms macros, headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 no-break control character,
ms macros, highlighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 changing (c2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
ms macros, keeps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 no-fill mode (nf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
ms macros, lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 no-fill mode, and \c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
ms macros, margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 no-space mode (ns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
ms macros, multiple columns . . . . . . . . . . . 51 node, output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
ms macros, naming conventions . . . . . . . . 57 nr request, and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
ms macros, nested lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 nr request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
ms macros, page layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 nroff mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
ms macros, paragraph handling . . . . . . . . 38 nroff, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
ms macros, references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 number of arguments register (.$) . . . . 144
ms macros, special characters . . . . . . . . . . 53 number of registers register (.R) . . . . . . . 77
ms macros, strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 number register, creating alias (aln) . . . 74
ms macros, tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 number register, removing (rr) . . . . . . . . 74
multi-file documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 number register, renaming (rnn) . . . . . . . 74
multi-line strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 number registers, dumping (pnr). . . . . . 181
multi-page table, example number, input line, setting (lf) . . . . . . . 180
markup [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 number, page (pn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
multiple columns [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 numbered glyph (\N). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 117
numbered list, example markup [ms] . . . 43
numbers, and delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
N numbers, line, printing (nm) . . . . . . . . . . . 176
n unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 numerals, Roman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
name space, common, of macros, numeric expression, valid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
diversions, and strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
name, background color,
register (.M). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 O
name, drawing color, register (.m) . . . . 170 offset, page (po) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
name, fill color, register (.M) . . . . . . . . . . 170 open request, and safer mode . . . . . . . . . . 10
named character (\C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 opena request, and safer mode . . . . . . . . . 10
names, long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 opening file (open) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
naming conventions, ms macros . . . . . . . . 57 operator, scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
ne request, and the .trunc register . . . 158 operators, arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
ne request, comparison with sv . . . . . . . 108 operators, as delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
negating register values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 operators, comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
nested assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 operators, extremum (>?, <?) . . . . . . . . . . 64
nested diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 operators, logical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
nested lists [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 operators, motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
new page (bp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 107 operators, unary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
newline character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 71 optical size of a font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
newline character, and translations . . . . 99 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
newline character, in order of evaluation in expressions . . . . . . 64
strings, escaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 orientation, landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
newline, final, stripping orphan lines, preventing with ne . . . . . . 107
in diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 os request, and no-space mode. . . . . . . . 108
next file, processing (nx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 output and input requests . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
next free font position register (.fp) . . 113 output device name string
nf request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79 register (.T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 79
nl register, and .d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 output device usage number
nl register, difference to .h . . . . . . . . . . . 163 register (.T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
output devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 191 page number character,

output encoding, ASCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 changing (pc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
output encoding, cp1047 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 page number register (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
output encoding, EBCDIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 page offset (po) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
output encoding, latin-1 page orientation, landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
(ISO 8859-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 page, new (bp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
output encoding, utf-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 paper formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
output glyphs, and input paper size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
characters,compatibility with AT&T paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
output line number register (ln) . . . . . . . 78 parameters, and compatibility mode . . 180
output line, continuation (\c). . . . . . . . . 104 parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
output line, horizontal path, for font files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
position, register (.k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 path, for tmac files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
output node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 patterns for hyphenation (hpf) . . . . . . . . . 87
output request, and \! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 PDF, embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
output request, and copy-in mode . . . . 165 pi request, and groff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
output, flush (fl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 pi request, and safer mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
output, gtroff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 pic, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
output, intermediate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 pica unit (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
output, suppressing (\O) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 pile, glyph (\b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
output, transparent (\!, \?) . . . . . . . . . . 164 pl request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
output, transparent (cf, trf) . . . . . . . . . 171 planting a trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
output, transparent, incompatibilities platform-specific directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 pn request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
output, troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 PNG image generation
overlapping characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 from PostScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
overstriking glyphs (\o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 po request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
point size registers (.s, .ps) . . . . . . . . . . 128
point size registers,
P last-requested (.psr, .sr) . . . . . . . . . . 131
p unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 point sizes, changing (ps, \s) . . . . . . . . . 128
P unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 point sizes, fractional . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 186
packages, macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 point unit (p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
padding character, for fields (fc) . . . . . . . 95 polygon, drawing (\D’p ...’) . . . . . . . . 153
page break, conditional (ne) . . . . . . . . . . 107 polygon, solid, drawing (\D’P ...’) . . . 153
page control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 position of lowest text line (.h) . . . . . . . 163
page ejecting register (.pe) . . . . . . . . . . . 158 position, absolute, operator (|) . . . . . . . . 64
page footers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 position, horizontal input
page headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 line, saving (\k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
page layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 position, horizontal, in input
page layout [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 line, register (hp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
page length (pl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 position, horizontal, in output
page length register (.p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 line, register (.k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
page location traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 position, vertical, current (nl) . . . . . . . . 108
page location, vertical, marking (mk) . . 146 position, vertical, in diversion,
page location, vertical, returning register (.d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
to marked (rt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 positions, font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
page motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 post-vertical line spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
page number (pn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 post-vertical line spacing
page number character (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 register (.pvs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
post-vertical line spacing, reference, gtroff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

changing (pvs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 references [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
postprocessor access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 register, creating alias (aln) . . . . . . . . . . . 74
postprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 register, format (\g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
PostScript fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 register, removing (rr). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
PostScript, bounding box . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 register, renaming (rnn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
PostScript, embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
PostScript, PNG image generation . . . . 213 registers specific to grohtml . . . . . . . . . . 197
preconv, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 registers, built-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
preconv, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 registers, interpolating (\n) . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
prefix, for commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 registers, number of, register (.R) . . . . . . 77
preprocessor, calling convention . . . . . . . . 29 registers, setting (nr, \R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
preprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 189 removing alias, for diversion (rm) . . . . . 136
previous font (ft, \f[], \fP) . . . . . . . . . 109 removing alias, for macro (rm) . . . . . . . . 136
previous line length (.n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 removing alias, for string (rm) . . . . . . . . 136
print current page register (.P) . . . . . . . . 10 removing diversion (rm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
printing backslash (\\, \e, removing glyph definition
\E, \[rs]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 186 (rchar, rfschar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
printing line numbers (nm) . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 removing macro (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
printing to stderr (tm, tm1, tmc) . . . . . . 181 removing number register (rr) . . . . . . . . . 74
printing, zero-width (\z, \Z) . . . . . . . . . . 150 removing request (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
process ID of gtroff register ($$) . . . . . . 79 removing string (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
processing next file (nx) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 renaming diversion (rn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
properties of characters (cflags) . . . . . 118 renaming macro (rn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
properties of glyphs (cflags) . . . . . . . . . 118 renaming number register (rnn) . . . . . . . . 74
ps request, and constant renaming request (rn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
glyph space mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 renaming string (rn). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
ps request, incompatibilities request arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 request arguments, and
ps request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 compatibility mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
ps request, with request, removing (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
fractional type sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 request, renaming (rn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
pso request, and safer mode . . . . . . . . . . . 10 request, undefined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
pvs request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
requests for drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
requests for input and output . . . . . . . . . 170
Q requests, modifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
quotes, major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 resolution, device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
quotes, trailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 resolution, horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
resolution, horizontal, register (.H) . . . . . 77
resolution, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
R resolution, vertical, register (.V) . . . . . . . 77
radicalex glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . 119 returning to marked vertical
ragged-left. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 page location (rt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
ragged-right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 revision number register (.Y) . . . . . . . . . . 78
rc request, and glyph definitions . . . . . . 120 rf, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
read-only register, changing format . . . . 77 right-justifying (rj). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
reading from standard input (rd) . . . . . 172 rj request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79
recursive macros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 rn glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
refer, and macro names roff, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
starting with [ or ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 roman glyph, correction after
refer, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 italic glyph (\/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
roman glyph, correction before sp request, and traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

italic glyph (\,) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 sp request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79
Roman numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 space between sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Roman numerals, maximum space between sentences
and minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 register (.sss) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
rq glyph, and rq string [man] . . . . . . . . . . . 29 space between words register (.ss) . . . . . 82
rq glyph, at end of sentence . . . . . . . 60, 119 space character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
rt request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 space character, zero width (\&) . . 68, 125,
ru glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 151
RUNOFF, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 space characters, in expressions . . . . . . . . 65
space, discardable, horizontal . . . . . . . . . . 82
space, discarded, in traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
S space, horizontal (\h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
s unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 130 space, horizontal, unformatting . . . . . . . 134
safer mode . . . . . . . 10, 13, 77, 171, 173, 174 space, unbreakable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
saving horizontal input line space, vertical, unit (v) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
position (\k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 space, width of a digit (\0) . . . . . . . . . . . 149
scaling indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 spaces with ds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
scaling operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 spaces, in a macro argument . . . . . . . . . . . 68
searching fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 spaces, leading and trailing . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
searching macro files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
searching macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 spacing, manipulating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
seconds, current time (seconds) . . . . . . . 78 spacing, vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
sentence space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 special characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 191
sentence space size register (.sss) . . . . . 82 special characters [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 special fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 122, 215
setting diversion trap (dt) . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 special fonts, emboldening . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
setting end-of-input trap (em) . . . . . . . . . 160 special request, and font
setting input line number (lf) . . . . . . . . 180 translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
setting input line trap (it) . . . . . . . . . . . 159 special request, and glyph
setting registers (nr, \R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 search order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
shading filled objects (\D’f ...’) . . . . . 153 spline, drawing (\D’~ ...’) . . . . . . . . . . . 153
shc request, and translations . . . . . . . . . . 99 springing a trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
site-specific directory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 14 sqrtex glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
size of sentence space register (.sss) . . . 82 stacking glyphs (\b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
size of type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 standard input, reading from (rd) . . . . 172
size of word space register (.ss) . . . . . . . 82 stderr, printing to (tm, tm1, tmc) . . . . . . 181
size, optical, of a font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 stops, tabulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
size, paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 string arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 string comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
sizes, fractional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 186 string expansion (\*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
skew, of last glyph (.csk) . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 string interpolation (\*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
slant, font, changing (\S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 string, appending (as) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
soelim, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 string, creating alias (als) . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
soft hyphen character, setting (shc) . . . . 89 string, length of (length) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
soft hyphen glyph (hy). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 string, removing (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
solid circle, drawing (\D’C ...’) . . . . . . 152 string, removing alias (rm) . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
solid ellipse, drawing (\D’E ...’) . . . . . 153 string, renaming (rn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
solid polygon, drawing (\D’P ...’) . . . 153 strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH, strings [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 strings specific to grohtml . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
sp request, and no-space mode . . . . . . . . . 91 strings, multi-line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
strings, shared name space with time, current, minutes (minutes). . . . . . . 78

macros and diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 time, current, seconds (seconds) . . . . . . . 78
stripping final newline in diversions . . . 134 title line (tl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
structuring source code of documents title line length register (.lt) . . . . . . . . . 106
or macro packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 title line, length (lt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
sty request, and changing fonts . . . . . . . 109 title page, example markup . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
sty request, and font positions . . . . . . . 114 titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
sty request, and font translations . . . . . 110 tkf request, and font styles . . . . . . . . . . . 112
styles, font . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 tkf request, and font translations . . . . . 110
substring (substring) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 tkf request, with
suppressing output (\O) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 fractional type sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
sv request, and no-space mode. . . . . . . . 108 tl request, and mc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
switching environments (ev) . . . . . . . . . . 167 tm request, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . . 181
sy request, and safer mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 tm1 request, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . 181
symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 tmac, directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
symbol table, dumping (pm) . . . . . . . . . . 181 tmac, path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
symbol, defining (char) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 tmc request, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . 181
symbols, using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 TMPDIR, environment variable . . . . . . . . . . 13
system() return value token, input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
register (systat) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 top margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
top-level diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
top-level diversion, and \! . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
T top-level diversion, and \? . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
tab character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 71 top-level diversion, and bp . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
tab character, and translations . . . . . . . . . 99 tr request, and glyph definitions . . . . . . 120
tab character, non-interpreted (\t). . . . . 92 tr request, and soft hyphen character . . 89
tab repetition character (tc) . . . . . . . . . . . 94 tr request, incompatibilities
tab settings register (.tabs) . . . . . . . . . . . 94 with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
tab stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 track kerning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
tab stops [man]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 track kerning, activating (tkf) . . . . . . . . 125
tab stops, for TTY output devices . . . . . 94 trailing quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
tab, line-tabs mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 trailing spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 95 translations of characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
table of contents, creating [ms] . . . . . . . . . 51 transparent characters . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 119
tables [ms] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 transparent output (\!, \?) . . . . . . . . . . . 164
tabs, and fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 transparent output (cf, trf). . . . . . . . . . 171
tabs, and macro arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 transparent output, incompatibilities
tabs, before comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 with AT&T troff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
tbl, the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 trap, changing location (ch) . . . . . . . . . . 157
Teletype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 trap, distance, register (.t) . . . . . . . . . . . 157
terminal control sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 trap, diversion, setting (dt) . . . . . . . . . . . 158
terminal, conditional output for. . . . . . . 136 trap, end-of-input, setting (em) . . . . . . . 160
text line, position of lowest (.h) . . . . . . 163 trap, input line, setting (it) . . . . . . . . . . 159
text, gtroff processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 trap, planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
text, justifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 trap, springing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
text, justifying (rj) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
thickness of lines (\D’t ...’) . . . . . . . . . 154 traps, and discarded space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
three-part title (tl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 traps, and diversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
ti request, causing implicit linebreak . . 79 traps, blank line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
ti request, using + and - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 traps, diversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
time, current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 traps, dumping (ptr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
time, current, hours (hours) . . . . . . . . . . . 78 traps, end-of-input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
traps, input line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 unit, z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 130

traps, input line, and units of measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
interrupted lines (itc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 units, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
traps, leading spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 unnamed fill colors (\D’F...’). . . . . . . . 154
traps, page location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 unnamed glyphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
traps, sprung by bp request (.pe) . . . . . 158 unnamed glyphs, accessing with \N . . . 216
trf request, and copy-in mode . . . . . . . . 171 unsafe mode . . . . . 11, 13, 77, 171, 173, 174
trf request, and invalid characters . . . . 172
user’s macro tutorial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
trf request, causing
user’s tutorial for macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
implicit linebreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
trin request, and asciify . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 using symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
troff mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 utf-8, output encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
troff output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
truncated vertical space
register (.trunc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
TTY, conditional output for . . . . . . . . . . 136 V
tutorial for macro users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
type size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 v unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
type size registers (.s, .ps) . . . . . . . . . . . 128 valid numeric expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
type sizes, changing (ps, \s) . . . . . . . . . . 128 value, incrementing without
type sizes, fractional . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 186 changing the register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
variables in environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
version number, major, register (.x) . . . 78
U version number, minor, register (.y) . . . 78
u unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 vertical line drawing (\L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
uf request, and font styles . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 vertical line spacing register (.v). . . . . . 129
ul glyph, and cflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 vertical line spacing, changing (vs) . . . 129
ul request, and font translations . . . . . . 110 vertical line spacing, effective value . . . 129
Ultrix-specific man macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 vertical motion (\v) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
unary operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 vertical page location, marking (mk). . . 146
unbreakable space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 vertical page location, returning
undefined identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 to marked (rt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
undefined request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 vertical position in diversion
underline font (uf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 register (.d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
underlining (ul) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
vertical position trap enable
underlining, continuous (cu) . . . . . . . . . . 124
register (.vpt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
underscore glyph (\[ru]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
unformatting diversions (asciify) . . . . 165 vertical position traps,
unformatting horizontal space . . . . . . . . 134 enabling (vpt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Unicode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 117 vertical position, current (nl) . . . . . . . . . 108
unit, c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 vertical resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
unit, f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 vertical resolution register (.V). . . . . . . . . 77
unit, f, and colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 vertical space unit (v) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
unit, i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 vertical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
unit, m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
unit, M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
unit, n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
unit, p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
unit, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
unit, s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 130
unit, u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
unit, v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
W writem request, and copy-in mode . . . . 174

warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 writing macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
warnings, level (warn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 writing to file (write, writec) . . . . . . . . 174
what is groff? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
while request, and font translations . . 110
Y
while request, and the ‘!’ operator . . . . 64 year, current, register (year, yr) . . . . . . . 78
while request, confusing with br. . . . . . 140
while request, operators to use with . . 136
whitespace characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Z
width escape (\w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 z unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62, 130
width, of last glyph (.w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 zero width space character (\&) . . . 68, 125,
word space size register (.ss) . . . . . . . . . . 82 151
write request, and copy-in mode . . . . . 174 zero-width printing (\z, \Z) . . . . . . . . . . 150
writec request, and copy-in mode . . . . 174 zoom factor of a font (fzoom) . . . . . . . . . 110

Groff

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Groff

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groff

The GNU implementation of troff

3 Tutorial for Macro Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.1.3 Macros to set fonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.18 Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

6.8 gsoelim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

7 Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

8 File formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

A Copying This Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

B Request Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

C Escape Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

D Operator Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

E Register Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

F Macro Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

G String Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

H Glyph Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

I Font File Keyword Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

J Program and File Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

K Concept Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

1.1 What Is groff?

(1969), Doug McIlroy rewrote an extended and simplified version of roff in

James Clark began work on a GNU implementation of ditroff in

1.3 groff Capabilities

• output line numbering

1.4 Macro Packages

1.6 Output Devices

has postprocessors for PostScript devices, character terminals, X Windows

gtroff [ -abcivzCERU ] [ -dcs ] [ -ffam ] [ -Fdir ]

page 14). This option is passed to all pre- and postprocessors

dvi For TEX DVI format.

2.3 Macro Directories

2.4 Font Directories

2.5 Paper Size

groff -Tps -dpaper=a4l -P-pa4 -P-l -ms foo.ms > foo.ps

2.6 Invocation Examples

3 Tutorial for Macro Users

‘.ce N’ (where N is the number of lines to center), followed by the N lines.

3.2 Common Features

3.2.2 Sections and Chapters

3.2.3 Headers and Footers

3.2.4 Page Layout

3.2.6 Footnotes and Annotations

Footnotes are printed at the bottom of the current page.

3.2.7 Table of Contents

3.2.9 Paper Formats

3.2.10 Multiple Columns

3.2.11 Font and Size Changes

3.2.12 Predefined Strings

3.2.13 Preprocessor Support

3.2.14 Configuration and Customization

otherwise. For nroff, this value should always be an integer

default value (10 pt roman if no -rS option is given on the command

.IP [designator [nnn]] [Macro]

.HP [nnn] [Macro]

.RS [nnn] [Macro]

.RE [nnn] [Macro]

4.1.3 Macros to set fonts

.SM [text] [Macro]

.SB [text] [Macro]