See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/313778910

Effects of pretreatments and air drying temperatures on the carotenoid

composition and antioxidant capacity of dried gac peel

Article  in  Journal of Food Processing and Preservation · February 2017

DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.13226

CITATIONS READS

10 160

5 authors, including:

Chuyen Hoang Paul Daniel Roach

HCMC University of Technology and Education The University of Newcastle, Australia
18 PUBLICATIONS   368 CITATIONS    170 PUBLICATIONS   4,577 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

John B Golding Sophie E. Parks

New South Wales Department of Primary Industries New South Wales Department of Primary Industries
189 PUBLICATIONS   3,520 CITATIONS    43 PUBLICATIONS   987 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Edible films and coatings for improving postharvest quality of horticulture produce. View project

nteraction of gaseous signalling molecules ethylene, nitric oxide and hydrogen sulphide, on postharvest metabolism of banana fruit and the leafy vegetable, pak choy.
View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Chuyen Hoang on 27 December 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Received: 26 May 2016 | Revised: 2 September 2016 | Accepted: 10 September 2016

DOI 10.1111/jfpp.13226

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effects of pretreatments and air drying temperatures on the

carotenoid composition and antioxidant capacity of dried
gac peel

Hoang V. Chuyen1,2 | Paul D. Roach1 | John B. Golding1,3 | Sophie E. Parks1,3 |

Minh H. Nguyen1,4

1
Department of Food and Agricultural
Products Processing and Preservation,
Abstract
School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Gac fruit contains a high level of carotenoids in the seed membrane (aril), pulp, and peel. However,
University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, NSW only the aril is commercially processed and the peel is currently discarded. This study investigated
2258, Australia
different pretreatments and drying temperatures on the colour, content of carotenoids and antiox-
2
Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Tay
idant activity of air-dried Gac peel. The results showed that pre-treatments of Gac peel prior to
Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot, Daklak,
Vietnam NSW drying and the drying temperature significantly affected the colour, carotenoid content and antiox-
3
Department of Primary Industries, idant capacity of the dried peel. Peel treated with ascorbic acid and dried at 708C retained the
Ourimbah, NSW 2258, Australia highest levels of carotenoids and ABTS antioxidant capacity. These results suggest that the pre-
4
School of Science and Health, Western treatment with ascorbic acid solution can be applied to prevent the loss of carotenoids and antiox-
Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, idant capacity caused by drying of Gac peel.
Australia
Correspondence Practical applications
Hoang van Chuyen, Department of Food Gac peel contains high levels of carotenoids but thousands tons of the peel are currently discarded
and Agricultural Products Processing and as waste of the Gac processing industry. The results of this study showed that the combination of
Preservation, School of Environmental and
the pre-treatment of Gac peel with ascorbic acid solution with air drying at 708C is an effective
Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, 10
Chittaway Rd, Ourimbah, NSW 2258, way to preserve carotenoids and antioxidant capacity of dried Gac peel, which can be utilised as a
Australia. material for extraction of carotenoids.
Email: [email protected] and
[email protected]
KEYWORDS
Funding information
antioxidant, carotenoid, drying, Gac peel, pretreatment
Australian Awards Scholarship

1 | INTRODUCTION pun, 2011). Lycopene has been shown to possess a high antioxidant
capacity and various beneficial biological functions such as cardiopro-
Gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng.) is a rich source of carote- tective, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic activities (Bhuvanes-
noids and used widely in foods, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (Ishida, wari & Nagini, 2005), while b-carotene, and lutein have been used in
Turner, Chapman, & Mckeon, 2004; Nhung, Bung, Ha, & Phong, 2010; the treatment of eye diseases (Bernstein et al., 2016; Vuong, Dueker,
Vuong, Dueker, & Murphy, 2002; Vuong, Franke, Custer, & Murphy, et al., 2002). If these carotenoids can be effectively extracted, Gac peel
2006). However, only the aril component, which contains very high lev- might become a potential source of carotenoids and add value to what
els of lycopene and b-carotene, has been used to manufacture powder, is otherwise a waste product.
oil and capsules. The peel which constitutes a significant bulk of the Gac peel is very perishable and its carotenoids, which are very vul-
fruit (up to 15% w/w) is usually discarded as waste or used as animal nerable to the environmental conditions (Boon, Mcclements, Weiss, &
feed (Chuyen, Nguyen, Roach, Golding, & Parks, 2015). In Vietnam, Decker, 2010), can be rapidly degraded if the peel is not stored prop-
tens of thousand tons of Gac fruits are processed annually, thus an esti- erly. For the long-term storage of the Gac peel, the storage of dried
mated amount of thousands tons of Gac peel is discarded each year. peel is an attractive option because it can be stored at ambient temper-
Gac peel has been found to contain a significant amount of carote- atures thus reducing the need for refrigeration, storage volume and is
noids including lycopene, b-carotene, and lutein (Kubola & Siriamorn- convenient for transportation (Tang & Yang, 2004).

J Food Process Preserv. 2017;e13226. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp V

C 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1 of 9
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13226
2 of 9 | CHUYEN ET AL.

Many drying methods have been investigated and successfully sulfonic acid) diammonium), DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl),
applied for carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables such as sun drying, air TPTZ (2,4, 6-tripyridyl-s-triazine), and iron (III) chloride were purchased
drying, vacuum drying, microwave drying, freeze drying, and combined from Sigma-Aldrich Pty Ltd. (Castle Hill, NSW, Australia). Standard
drying methods (Bechoff et al., 2010; Cui, Li, Song, & Song, 2008; lutein, lycopene and b-carotene were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich
Suvarnakuta, Devahastin, & Mujumdar, 2005). Among these drying (Castle Hill, NSW, Australia).
methods, air drying is considered the most simple and cost effective
method (Kha, Nguyen, & Roach, 2011). However, air drying has been 2.2 | Gac materials
shown to cause significant losses of carotenoids and other bioactive
Gac fruits were harvested at full commercial maturity (full orange-red
compounds in the dried materials (Lefsrud, Kopsell, Sams, Wills, &
surface) at Wootton, NSW, Australia and transported to the laborato-
Both, 2008; Ramesh, Wolf, Tevini, & Jung, 2001; Urrea et al., 2011).
ries at the Ourimbah campus of the University of Newcastle. The peel
To reduce the degradation of carotenoid during drying, pretreat-
of the Gac fruits was separated from the fruit and chopped into slices
ments of fruits and vegetables prior to the drying have been shown to
improve carotenoid retention. For example, pretreatments of Taiwan- with the dimensions of 5–10 mm 3 5–10 mm, which were then com-

ese mango with 1% sodium hydrogen sulfite solution or 1% ascorbic bined and well mixed into one lot. These peel slices, referred to as fresh

acid solution prior to air drying resulted in higher total carotenoid con- Gac peel slices, were stored in a dark cool room at 28C and then

tent after the drying process (Chen, Tai, & Chen, 2007). Similar results treated and dried within 3 days.

were also reported by Kha et al. (2011), who showed significantly

higher levels of total carotenoid content and antioxidant capacity of 2.3 | Pre-treatments of gac peel
dried Gac power that had been pre-soaked in ascorbic acid and bisul-
Gac peel slices were treated by three different methods: steam blanch-
fite solution than those of the untreated dried powder. A comparison
ing, citric acid soaking and ascorbic acid soaking based on the methods
of b-carotene degradation in unblanched carrots and carrots blanched
described by (Doymaz, 2010) and (Kha et al., 2011) with some
by hot water prior to the dehydration by a hot air drier showed an
modifications.
increase in the retention of b-carotene in the blanched dried carrots
(Koca, Burdurlu, & Karadeniz, 2007). Other studies on pre-treatment of 2.3.1 | Steam blanching
materials prior to thermal drying have also reported that different treat- Gac peel slices (200 g batch) were spread evenly in a steaming basket
ment methods could be used to improve the retention of both carote- and transferred into a steam cooker, which contained boiling water and
noids and antioxidant capacity of carotenoid-rich materials (Dien, was heated continuously to maintain the boiling of the water inside.
Minh, & Dao, 2013; Pan, Shih, Mchugh, & Hirschberg, 2008; Tai & After 3 min of steam blanching, the lid of the steam cooker was
Chen, 2000). However there have been no reports of these treatments opened; the basket was taken out and immediately cooled down in a
for the preservation of carotenoids in Gac peel. fridge at 58C for 15 min. The peel slices were then allowed to be
This study investigated the effects of three different pre- drained in a dark room at room temperature for 1 h before being dried.
treatments (steam blanching, citric acid soaking and ascorbic soaking)
and three different drying temperatures (60, 70, and 808C) on the 2.3.2 | Citric acid and ascorbic acid treatments
carotenoid content and antioxidant capacity of Gac peel dried by hot- Gac peel slices were soaked in a solution of citric acid (5 g L21) or
air oven. The colour, the total carotenoid content and the levels of the ascorbic acid (5 g L21) for 15 min at room temperature. The soaked
major carotenoids, including lutein, lycopene and b-carotene, of the peel slices were then allowed to drain by placing the slices on a holed
dried Gac peel were measured. Three antioxidant assays were also tray in the dark at room temperature for 1 h before being dried.
used as different measures of the antioxidant capacity of the dried peel
(2,20 -azino-bis(3- ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical 2.4 | Drying of gac peel
scavenging activity assay, the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging activity assay and the ferric reducing antioxidant The fresh and treated Gac peel slices were spread on drying trays at a

power (FRAP) assay). loading of 3 6 0.2 kg m22 and then dried in a hot-air oven (CDWF 24,
Labec Laboratory Equipment, Marrickville, NSW, Australia) at 60, 70,
and 808C with an air velocity of 1.0 6 0.1 m s21. The samples were
2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS
weighed each hour during the drying process until a constant weight

2.1 | Chemicals was reached.

Analytical and HPLC grade solvents: acetone, acetonitrile, dichlorome-

2.5 | Determination of moisture content and water
thane, ethanol, hexane, methanol, and acetate buffer were used for all
activity
extractions (Merck Millipore, Bayswater, Vic, Australia). Chemicals for
the treatments of Gac peel and antioxidant assays including citric acid, The moisture content of the samples was determined by drying the
ascorbic acid, trolox ((S)-(-)-6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8 tetramethylchroman-2- samples at 1058C in a CDWF 24 hot-air oven (Labec Laboratory Equip-
0
carboxylic acid, 98%), ABTS (2,2 -azino-bis(3- ethylbenzthiazoline-6- ment, Marrickville, NSW, Australia) until a constant weight was reached
CHUYEN ET AL. | 3 of 9

FIGURE 1 HPLC chromatogram of standard carotenoids (a) and carotenoids in a dried gac peel extract (b) (1: lutein; 2: lycopene; 3:
b-carotene)

as per the AOCS Ca 2c-25 method (AOCS, 1998). Water activity of the tometer (Varian Australia, Mulgrave, VIC, Australia). The total carote-
dried samples was measured at 208C 6 18C using a Pawkit water activ- noid content of the extracts was calculated based on the extinction
ity meter (Decagon Devices, Pullman, WA). coefficient of b-carotene in hexane (E1% 5 2505) (De Ritter & Purcell,
cm
1981).
2.6 | Measurement of colour
2.8.2 | Quantification of the individual carotenoids
The colour of the Gac peel samples was measured using a CR-400 The carotenoid composition of the hexane extracts from the Gac peel
Chroma Meter (Konica Minolta Sensing, Tokyo, Japan) calibrated with a samples was analysed according to the method described by Kha,
white standard tile. The results were expressed as colour values of L* Nguyen, Roac, and Stathopoulos (2013) with some modifications. The
(lightness), a* (redness and greenness), and b* (blueness and yellowness). HPLC analysis was performed with a Kinetex C18 (150 3 4.6 mm2 i.d;
5 mm) reversed phase column (Phenomenex, Lane Cove, NSW, Aus-
2.7 | Extraction of carotenoids tralia) using a 10A VP HPLC system (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped
with a UV detector. The mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile,
The carotenoids in the Gac peel samples were extracted based on the
dichloromethane and methanol (50:40:10 v/v/v) with 0.1% (v/v) BHT.
method described by Kubola and Siriamornpun (2011) with some mod-
The flow rate was 1.0 mL min21, the detection wavelength was
ifications. Each 0.2 g of dried sample was extracted with 20 ml of a
450 nm, the injection volume was 20 mL and the column temperature
mixture of hexane/acetone/ethanol (50:25:25 v/v/v) in a magnetically
was 208C. The concentrations of the individual carotenoids in the
stirred beaker at the ambient temperature. To minimise the photo-
extracts were calculated based on the retention times and the standard
degradation of the carotenoids, light was excluded from the extraction
curves of the external reference standards. Typical chromatograms of
mixture by completely covering the beaker with aluminium foil. After
the standards and a sample are shown in Figure 1.
30 min, the liquid phase was transferred to another beaker and stored
in a dark room. The extraction was then repeated three to four times
with 10-mL aliquots of the solvent mixture until the residual solid
2.9 | Determination of antioxidant activity
became colourless. The procedures for the three antioxidant assays of Gac peel samples
All the coloured liquid phases obtained from each Gac peel sample were carried out based on the methods described by Thaipong, Boon-
were combined in a beaker and saponified using 5 ml of methanolic prakob, Crosby, Cisneros-Zevallos, and Hawkins Byrne (2006) with
10% (w/v) potassium hydroxide solution in a dark room for 2 h. The some modifications.
saponified mixture was then transferred to a separatory funnel and
2.9.1 | The ABTS assay
mixed with 20 mL of deionized water to separate the upper hexane
layer containing the carotenoids. The hexane layer was collected, The ABTS stock solution (7.4 mM) and the potassium persulfate stock
washed twice with 10 mL of deionized water, dehydrated with anhy- solution (2.6 mM) were mixed with a ratio of 1:1 and left to react for
drous sodium sulfate and filtered through a 0.45 mm membrane. This 12–16 h in a dark room. The ABTS working solution was then made by
separated, dehydrated and filtered hexane layer containing the carote- diluting 1 mL of the reacted solution with 60 mL of methanol and the
noids is subsequently referred to as the hexane extract. relative amounts were adjusted if needed to obtain an absorbance of
1.1 6 0.02 U at 734 nm on a Cary 50 Bio UV–visible spectrophotome-

2.8 | Determination of carotenoid content ter (Varian Australia, Mulgrave, VIC, Australia).
A volume of 2.85 mL of the ABTS working solution and 0.15 mL
2.8.1 | Determination of the total carotenoid content of the hexane extract from the Gac peel samples or 0.15 mL of stand-
The absorbance at 450 nm of the hexane extracts from the Gac peel ard Trolox solution were transferred into a test tube and the mixture
samples was determined using a Cary 50 Bio UV-Visible spectropho- reacted for 2 h in a dark room. The absorbance of this reacted solution
4 of 9 | CHUYEN ET AL.

was then determined at 734 nm using the spectrophotometer. The

ABTS antioxidant activity of the Gac peel samples was expressed as
mmole Trolox equivalents (TE)/100 g dry weight (DW) of sample based
on the standard curve of the Trolox solutions.

2.9.2 | The DPPH assay

A working DPPH solution was prepared by diluting 1.0 mL of stock
DPPH solution (0.24 g L21) with 45 mL of methanol to obtain an
absorbance of 1.1 6 0.02 at 515 nm.
A volume of 0.15 mL of the hexane extract from the Gac peel sam-
ples or 0.15 mL of standard Trolox solution was then mixed with
2.850 mL of the DPPH working solution in a test tube and left to react
FIGURE 2 Drying curves of gac peel at 60, 70, and 808C
for 3 h in a dark room. The absorbance of this reacted solution was
then measured at 515 nm using the spectrophotometer. The DPPH
increase in drying temperature. The results presented in Figure 2 and
antioxidant activity of the Gac peel samples was expressed as mmole
Table 1 shows that the drying time for the Gac peel to reach constant
TE/100 g DW of sample based on the standard curve of Trolox
moisture content ranged from 4 to 6 h and was inversely proportional
solutions.
to the drying temperature.
The final moisture content and water activity of dried Gac peel
2.9.3 | The FRAP assay
were not significantly different among different pre-treated Gac peel
The FRAP working solution was prepared from three reagent solutions:
samples within each drying temperature (data not shown) but they
Reagent A: 300 mM acetate buffer, pH 3.6; Reagent B: 10 mM TPTZ
were significantly reduced at higher drying temperatures. The final
(2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine) in 40 mM HCl; and Reagent C: 20 mM
moisture content of Gac peel dried at 60, 70, and 808C was 6.4, 4.1,
FeCl36H2O.
and 2.3%, respectively. The final water activities of dried Gac peel
Solutions A, B and C were mixed at a ratio of 10:1:1 to obtain the
(0.40 to 0.53) suggest this peel is safe for a long-term storage
FRAP working solution and 2.85 mL of this solution was then mixed
(Jayaraman & Das-Gupta, 1995).
with 0.15 mL of the hexane extract from the Gac peel samples or
The lower final moisture contents of dried Gac peel obtained from
0.15 mL of standard Trolox solution and left to react for 30 min in a
the higher drying temperatures might be caused by the greater cell wall
dark room. The absorbance of the reacted solution was then measured
destructions which resulted in a better release of moisture inside the
at 593 nm against a reagent blank using the spectrophotometer. The
cells to the surface of Gac peel. In addition, the larger moisture gradient
FRAP antioxidant activity of the Gac peel samples was expressed as
in the peel dried at high temperature also contributed to the lower final
mmole mmole TE/100 g DW of sample based on the standard curve of
moisture content of the dried products compared to those dried at
Trolox solutions.
lower drying temperatures (Mcbean, Joslyn, & Nury, 1971).

2.10 | Statistical analysis

3.2 | Effect of the pretreatments and drying
All the pretreatments and the drying experiments were repeated inde- temperatures on colour characteristics of dried gac
pendently three times. The results were expressed as the mean peel
value 6 standard deviation. The overall statistical significance for each
The results of this study showed significant differences in colour values
experiment was determined using the analysis of variance test
of dried Gac peel among the different drying temperatures (Table 2).
(ANOVA) and the LSD post-hoc test was used for comparisons
Overall, the L* value and the b* value of the dried Gac peel samples
amongst the mean values if the ANOVA was significant. Differences
were higher than that of the fresh peel while their a* value was lower
were considered to be significant at P < 0.05.
than the fresh peel.
Several studies found lower L* values of thermally dried products
3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
compared to their fresh materials due to the darker colours that caused
by browning reactions during drying and the higher accumulation of
3.1 | Effect of drying temperature on drying time,


colour components in the dried products (Avila & Silva, 1999; Dadali,
moisture content and water activity of the dried gac €
Kiliç Apar, & Ozbek, 2007; Mohammadi, Rafiee, Emam-Djomeh, & Key-
peel
hani, 2008). However in this study and others, a decrease in the L*
Drying temperature is well known as the principal factor deciding the value of dried materials after the drying was observed, which might
final moisture content and the required duration for the drying of related to the change in light reflection of the low-moisture products
materials. In this experiment, the required drying time, moisture con- and the decomposition of dark-coloured components during the drying
tent and water activity of the dried product decreased with the (Dondee, Meeso, Soponronnarit, & Siriamornpun, 2011; Nachaisin,
CHUYEN ET AL. | 5 of 9

T A B LE 1 Effect of different drying temperatures on the drying time, moisture content, and water activity of the dried gac peel

Drying temperature (8C) Drying time (h) Moisture content (%) Water activity (Aw)
Fresh peel – 83.52 6 0.55a
0.92 6 0.03a
60 6 6.40 6 0.61b
0.53 6 0.01b
70 5 4.06 6 0.96c 0.41 6 0.01c
80 4 2.25 6 0.48d
0.40 6 0.02c

The results are expressed as mean values 6 standard deviations (n 5 12).

Different superscript letters in each column indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).

Jamradloedluk, & Niamnuy, 2016). The inverse proportion of the a* These differences may be due to the difference in colour components
value to the L* value has been found in other fruits and vegetables, of Gac fruit which are affected differently by the pretreatments.
which is related to the change in the content of the dark-red com-
pounds such as lycopene (Krokida, Tsami, & Maroulis, 1998). The 3.3 | Effect of the pretreatments and drying
increase in b* value (yellowness) of dried Gac peel in this study is con- temperatures on the total carotenoid and individual
sistent with previous studies on drying of other plant materials. The
carotenoids content of dried gac peel
higher b* value of the dried Gac peel compared to the fresh peel may
be caused by the higher accumulation of yellow xanthophylls and yel- The carotenoid content of fruits and vegetables has been found to be
low products from the oxidation of phenolic compounds in the peel reduced by the thermal processing and drying (Chen, Peng, & Chen,
(Nachaisin et al., 2016). 1995; Chong et al., 2008; Mayer-Miebach, Behsnilian, Regier, &
Predrying treatments have been reported to improve colour values Schuchmann, 2005). In this study, the carotenoid content of Gac peel
of some of carotenoid-rich materials such as dried pumpkin and paprika was also significantly decreased by the hot-air drying (Table 3). The
(Carvajal, Martínez, Martínez-Sanchez, & Alcaraz, 1997; Perez & total carotenoid content of the final dried Gac peel ranged from 95 to
Schmalko, 2009). However in this study, the pretreatments did not 136 mg/100 g DW, which translated into 35–54% of carotenoids in
show any obvious improvement in colour characteristics of the dried fresh Gac peel (208.0 mg/100 g DW) which was lost during the drying
peel compared to the untreated control (Table 2). Similar results were processes. Drying at 808C resulted in the greatest losses of carotenoids
also reported by Kha et al. (2011) on the pre-treatments of Gac aril where significantly lower levels of carotenoids were measured in the
with ascorbic acid, sodium bisulfite and blanching prior to air drying. dried peel at 808C compared to the drying at 60 and 708C. There was
no effect of the pretreatments on carotenoid content as compared to
the untreated control (Table 3), except for the ascorbic treatment at
T A B LE 2 Effect of different treatments and drying temperatures on
708C. The levels of lutein, lycopene and b-carotene were significantly
colour characteristics of dried gac peel
reduced by the air drying. Drying resulted in the loss of lutein in Gac
Temperature peel by 19–61% while losses of lycopene and b-carotene by drying
(8C) Treatment L* a* b*
were 13–53% and 38–79%, respectively. Drying at 808C caused signifi-
Fresh 44.9 6 0.8a 33.5 6 3.16a 36.3 6 5.4b
cant reductions in lycopene and b-carotene contents of dried peel
60 Untreated 52.9 6 1.9 e
33.1 6 4.7 ab
46.3 6 2.9e
compared to those of drying at 60 and 708C but it retained a similar
Blanched 47.5 6 3.2abc 34.2 6 3.0a 39.0 6 2.9bcd
level of lutein in dried peel as the drying at the lower temperatures.
Citric acid 51.0 6 2.7cde 34.0 6 2.6a 44.7 6 4.6de
The significant lower retention of total carotenoid and individual caro-
Ascorbic 52.4 6 0.5de 29.4 6 3.8abcd 32.7 6 5.0ab tenoids in Gac peel dried at 808C compared to that from the lower
acid
temperatures is in agreement with the previous studies on the
70 Untreated 47.8 6 2.8abc 31.9 6 4.4ab 36.9 6 3.8bc
carotenoid-rich materials like carrots, tomatoes, mangoes and berries
Blanched 46.8 6 1.1abc 31.6 6 4.2abc 33.8 6 4.7ab
(Demiray & Tulek, 2016; Rodríguez et al., 2014; Shi, Maguer, Kakuda,
Citric acid 45.5 6 1.1ab 29.4 6 4.9ab 32.6 6 4.0ab
Liptay, & Niekamp, 1999).
Ascorbic 46.3 6 1.9ab 23.2 6 2.5e 29.8 6 1.9a
While many studies showed that carotenoids in dried products
acid
were preserved better at lower drying temperatures (Daood, Kapitany,
80 Untreated 51.1 6 1.5cde 26.6 6 1.1cde 43.5 6 1.9de
Biacs, & Albrecht, 2006; Demiray & Tulek, 2016; Kha et al., 2011), in
Blanched 49.5 6 3.6 bcde
28.1 6 0.8 bcde
43.2 6 3.3cde
this experiment the highest content of carotenoids was found in the
Citric acid 48.3 6 1.3abcd 26.0 6 0.9de 38.4 6 0.2bcd
Gac peel dried at 708C instead of that at 608C. The lower carotenoid
Ascorbic 47.5 6 6.0abc 25.0 6 2.4de 35.4 6 5.0ab
acid levels in Gac peel dried at 608C may be caused by the longer drying
time (an additional hour to reach the constant moisture content). The
The results are expressed as mean values 6 standard deviations (n 5 3).
Different superscript letters in each column indicate significant longer exposure of carotenoids to accumulated heat resulted in a
differences (P < 0.05). higher loss of carotenoids in the dried peel. Similar results were also
6 of 9 | CHUYEN ET AL.

Effect of different treatments and drying temperatures on the lutein, lycopene, b-carotene and total carotenoid of dried gac peel
T A B LE 3
(MG/100G DW)

Temperature (8C) Treatment Lutein Lycopene b-carotene Total carotenoid

Fresh 16.8 6 3.9a 56.0 6 7.6a 119.9 6 11.3a 208.0 6 10.1a
60 Untreated 6.6 6 1.8d 35.4 6 2.1bcd 53.9 6 1.5c 128.4 6 3.7bc
Blanched 10.9 6 1.1 bcd
41.0 6 8.9 b
66.6 6 14.8 bc
134.3 6 3.0b
Citric acid 9.5 6 2.9bcd 38.7 6 7.4bc 73.8 6 7.6b 128.2 6 10.5bc
Ascorbic acid 12.1 6 2.1 abc
36.7 6 2.6 bcd
71.2 6 10.4 b
134.9 6 18.8b
70 Untreated 8.5 6 2.5cd 32.2 6 6.7cde 65.4 6 9.3bc 117.3 6 20.6c
Blanched 7.6 6 2.2 cd
39.0 6 5.6 bc
71.2 6 4.5 b
124.3 6 1.1bc
Citric acid 12.0 6 1.1abc 36.1 6 5.5bcd 69.7 6 10.3b 126.9 6 4.7bc
Ascorbic acid 13.7 6 4.6 ab
49.9 6 1.8 a
68.2 6 2.9 b
136.3 6 7.9b
80 Untreated 11.8 6 4.8bc 29.6 6 1.9de 38.1 6 1.2d 97.8 6 3.3de
Blanched 8.2 6 0.5 cd
28.9 6 1.1 de
33.1 6 5.3 d
98.7 6 7.1de
Citric acid 6.5 6 3.6d 26.4 6 2.2e 25.1 6 5.1d 95.1 6 5.1e
Ascorbic acid 10.9 6 3.7 bcd
32.4 6 1.9 cde
36.9 6 8.4 d
114.1 6 7.5cd

The results are expressed as mean values 6 standard deviations (n 5 3).

Different superscript letters in each column indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).

observed in studies by Chantaro, Devahastin, and Chiewchan (2008) Vuong, Dueker, et al., 2002), while b-carotene is the major carotenoid
and Prakash, Jha, and Datta (2004) for drying of carrots at tempera- in the peel (Table 3). In our previous study, a similar result was also
tures ranging from 50 to 808C. observed with carotenoid extracts from Gac peel, which showed very
The predrying treatments of Gac peel resulted in different levels of low and no difference in DPPH antioxidant activity between carotenoid
lutein, lycopene and b-carotene in the dried Gac peel at the different extracts from fresh Gac peel and the dried peels (Chuyen, Roach, Gold-
drying temperatures. The use of ascorbic acid showed the highest pres- ing, Parks, & Nguyen, 2016). The variation in DPPH antioxidant activity
ervation of carotenoids, especially for lutein and lycopene of the peel of carotenoids has also been reported in previous studies, which was
dried at 708C (Table 3). A preservative effect of the treatment with proposed to be due to the different sources of carotenoids and the
ascorbic acid prior to drying on carotenoids was also observed by Kha interference from the self-absorbance of the carotenoids in the results
et al. (2011) for Gac aril, who showed that pre-soaking of Gac aril in of DPPH assay (Liu et al., 2008; Mu € hm, 2011;
€ller, Frohlich, & Bo
21
ascorbic acid solution (1 g L ) resulted in a significantly higher levels
of carotenoids in the hot-air dried Gac aril powder. The similar positive Effect of different treatments and drying temperatures on
T A B LE 4
ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP antioxidant capacity of dried gac peel
effect of pre-treatment with 1% ascorbic acid solution was found for
(mMOL TE/100G DW)
the retention of b-carotene, zeaxanthin and lutein in dried mangoes
(Chen et al., 2007). The strongest effect of ascorbic acid on carotenoid Temperature
(8C) Treatment ABTS DPPH FRAP
retention in Gac peel compared to other treatments may be due to its
Fresh 22.86 6 3.60a ND 10.27 6 2.76a
high antioxidant capacity, which can protect the carotenoids from the
60 Untreated 9.57 6 1.17bcd ND 6.83 6 0.99bc
oxidation by oxygen during drying (Carvajal et al., 1997).
Blanched 10.00 6 0.28 bc
ND 6.48 6 0.78bc
Citric acid 8.00 6 0.39cdef ND 6.32 6 0.38bc
3.4 | Effect of the pre-treatments and drying Ascorbic acid 7.71 6 1.96 def
ND 6.83 6 0.69bc
temperatures on antioxidant capacity of dried gac peel 70 Untreated 9.26 6 1.07bcde ND 7.10 6 0.46bc

The effect of the pretreatments and drying temperatures on antioxi- Blanched 8.97 6 0.28 bcdef
ND 7.49 6 1.84b
dant capacity of dried Gac peel is presented in Table 4. A key observa- Citric acid 10.14 6 0.18bc ND 6.27 6 0.75bc
tion of these results is the lack of detection of any DPPH radical Ascorbic acid 10.91 6 0.70 b
ND 6.62 6 0.46bc
scavenging activity of Gac peel. However, Kha et al. (2011) and Mai, 80 Untreated 7.15 6 0.67ef ND 5.34 6 0.69c
Truong, Haut, and Debaste (2013) showed that carotenoid extracts of Blanched 7.00 6 0.25 f
ND 5.34 6 0.20c
Gac aril possessed significant DPPH antioxidant. This different result Citric acid 9.70 6 1.08bcd ND 5.98 6 1.32bc
may be due to the difference in carotenoid composition between the Ascorbic acid 9.84 6 1.16 bcd
ND 5.66 6 0.86bc
Gac peel and aril. Lycopene, which has stronger DPPH antioxidant
The results are expressed as mean values 6 standard deviations (n 5 3).
activity than b-carotene (Liu, Shi, Colina Ibarra, Kakuda, & Jun Xue, Different superscript letters in each column indicate significant differen-
2008), is the predominant carotenoid in Gac aril (Ishida et al., 2004; ces (P < 0.05).
CHUYEN ET AL. | 7 of 9

T A B LE 5The correlations between carotenoid content and antioxi- The results of drying at 60 and 708C showed no significant differ-
dant capacity of gac peel ence in ABTS antioxidant capacity of dried Gac peel between the pre-
Correlationa (R2) Total carotenoid Lutein Lycopene b-carotene drying treatments. However, the presoaking treatments with ascorbic

ABTS 0.89 0.65 0.76 0.73 acid and citric acid showed significant protective effects on ABTS anti-

FRAP 0.92 0.49 0.78 0.88

oxidant capacity of Gac peel dried at 808C, where the thermal decom-
position of carotenoids is accelerated extensively compared to the
a
Based on values obtained from different pre-treatments and processes.
temperatures below 708C (Daood et al., 2006). This result indicates
ABTS: radical scavenging capacity; FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant
power. that these treatments are effective in preventing the loss of the antiox-
idant capacity of Gac peel by drying at high temperature.
Rodriguez-Amaya, 2010). The results of this study and our previous As expected, the ABTS and FRAP antioxidant activities of dried
study (Chuyen et al., 2016) suggest that carotenoid extracts from Gac Gac peel were positively correlated with the content of its carotenoids.
peel do not process DPPH radical scavenging activity. The results in Table 5 show high correlations between the ABTS and
The results in Table 4 show that the ABTS radical scavenging FRAP antioxidant capacities with the concentration of total carotenoid
capacity of Gac peel samples (7.0–22.9 mmol TE/100 g DW) is signifi- and individual carotenoids of the peel. The highest correlation was
cantly higher than their ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) (5.3– found between total carotenoid content and the antioxidant activity
10.3 mmol TE/100 g DW). The literature on antioxidant activity of (0.89 and 0.92 for ABTS and FRAP values, respectively) while lutein
carotenoids also shows that individual carotenoids possess different content showed the lowest correlations with the antioxidant values
€ller et al.,
antioxidant capacities in different antioxidant assays (Mu (Table 5).
2011). The antioxidant capacity of a carotenoid is dependent on its These results suggest that the ABTS and FRAP antioxidant activ-
response to the reactants used in each assay (Rodriguez-Amaya, 2010). ities of the hexane extracts from Gac peel are highly dependent on the
€ller et al. (2011) showed that b-carotene did not pos-
For example, Mu total content of carotenoids in the peel. The difference in the correla-
sess any FRAP antioxidant activity but had a strong peroxyl radical tions of the individual carotenoids with the antioxidant activities shows
scavenging capacity, whilst lutein and lycopene also exhibited high per- that lutein had the lowest contribution to the activities while
oxyl radical scavenging capacities but their FRAP antioxidant activities b-carotene and lycopene had the highest contributions to FRAP and
were at low levels. In this study, Gac peel showed highest antioxidant ABTS antioxidant capacities of Gac peel, respectively.
activity on ABTS radical, following by the ferric reducing power and did
not show any DPPH radical scavenging activity. 4 | CONCLUSION
Both ABTS and FRAP antioxidant activities of dried Gac peel were
significantly lower than those of the fresh peel (Table 4). After drying, Drying temperature significantly affected the total drying time, final
Gac peel retained only 31–48% ABTS and 52–73% FRAP antioxidant moisture content, water activity and colour characteristics of dried Gac
capacity of the fresh peel. The highest ABTS antioxidant activity was peel while in general; the pretreatments did not have any effect on
observed in Gac peel dried at 708C, which had been treated with ascor- these parameters. The carotenoid composition and ABTS antioxidant
bic acid and citric acid (10.9 and 10.1 mmol TE/100 g DW, respec- capacity of the dried Gac peel were significant lower than that of the
tively), while the untreated and blanched peel dried at 808C showed fresh peel and varied widely among different pre-treatments and drying
the lowest ABTS antioxidant activity (7.1 and 7.0 mmol TE/100 g DW, temperatures. Drying at 708C for the ascorbic acid-treated Gac peel
respectively). The highest ABTS antioxidant activity of ascorbic acid- retained the highest levels of both carotenoids and antioxidant capacity
treated peel dried at 708C corresponded with its highest carotenoid while those of the untreated Gac peel dried at 808C were the lowest.
content, which showed a high correlation (R 5 0.89) with the ABTS
2 As this study was limited to drying by hot air, other drying methods
antioxidant ability of Gac peel (Table 5). combining pretreatments are recommended for the improvement of
The ABTS antioxidant activity of Gac peel was significantly carotenoid retention in the dried Gac peel. The effect of storage condi-
decreased at the high drying temperature and varied among the pre- tions of the air dried peel on the carotenoid content prior to extraction
treatments (Table 4). However, no significant effect of temperature or should also be investigated.
pre-treatment on the FRAP antioxidant activity of the dried peel was
observed. These results are in agreement with previous studies on the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
drying of carotenoid-rich materials, which indicated a negative effect of The first author (Hoang Van Chuyen) acknowledges the Australian
high drying temperature on the ABTS antioxidant capacity of the dried Awards Scholarship for financial support.
products (Chantaro et al., 2008; Daood et al., 2006). Among the pre-
treatment methods before drying, the treatments with ascorbic acid
R EF ER E N CE S
and citric acid have been reported as suitable methods for retaining the
AOCS. (1998). Official methods and recommended practices of the AOCS
antioxidant capacity of dried carrots (Robles-Sanchez, Rojas-Grau, (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.
Odriozola-Serrano, Gonzalez-Aguilar, & Martín-Belloso, 2009; Yen,

Avila, I. M. L. B., & Silva, C. L. M. (1999). Modelling kinetics of thermal degra-
Shih, & Chang, 2008). dation of colour in peach puree. Journal of Food Engineering, 39, 161–166.
8 of 9 | CHUYEN ET AL.

Bechoff, A., Westby, A., Owori, C., Menya, G., Dhuique-Mayer, C., near-infrared radiation and fluidized-bed drying. Journal of Food Engi-
Dufour, D., & Tomlins, K. (2010). Effect of drying and storage neering, 104, 6–13.
on the degradation of total carotenoids in orange-fleshed sweetpo- Doymaz, _I. (2010). Effect of citric acid and blanching pre-treatments on
tato cultivars. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 90, drying and rehydration of Amasya red apples. Food and Bioproducts
622–629. Processing, 88, 124–132.
Bernstein, P. S., Li, B., Vachali, P. P., Gorusupudi, A., Shyam, R., Henrik- Ishida, B. K., Turner, C., Chapman, M. H., & Mckeon, T. A. (2004). Fatty
sen, B. S., & Nolan, J. M. (2016). Lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-zea- acid and carotenoid composition of gac (Momordica cochinchinen-
xanthin: The basic and clinical science underlying carotenoid-based sis Spreng) fruit. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 52,
nutritional interventions against ocular disease. Progress in Retinal and 274–279.
Eye Research, 50, 34–66.
Jayaraman, K. S. & Das-Gupta, D. K. 1995. Drying of fruits and vegetables:
Bhuvaneswari, V., & Nagini, S. (2005). Lycopene: A review of its poten- Handbook of industrial drying (2nd ed) (pp. 643–690). New York:
tial as an anticancer agent. Current Medicinal Chemistry—Anticancer Marcel Dekker.
Agents, 5, 627–635.
Kha, T. C., Nguyen, M. H., & Roach, P. D. (2011). Effects of pre-
Boon, C. S., Mcclements, D. J., Weiss, J., & Decker, E. A. (2010). Factors treatments and air drying temperatures on colour and antioxidant
influencing the chemical stability of carotenoids in foods. Critical properties of gac fruit powder. International Journal of Food Engineer-
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 50, 515–532. ing, 7, 1556–3758.
Carvajal, M., Martínez, M. R., Martínez-S
anchez, F., & Alcaraz, C. F. Kha, T. C., Nguyen, M. H., Roach, P. D., & Stathopoulos, C. E. (2013).
(1997). Effect of ascorbic acid addition to peppers on paprika quality. Effects of Gac aril microwave processing conditions on oil extraction
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 75, 442–446. efficiency, and b-carotene and lycopene contents. Journal of Food
Chantaro, P., Devahastin, S., & Chiewchan, N. (2008). Production of anti- Engineering, 117, 486–491.
oxidant high dietary fiber powder from carrot peels. LWT—Food Sci- Koca, N., Burdurlu, H. S., & Karadeniz, F. (2007). Kinetics of colour changes
ence and Technology, 41, 1987–1994. in dehydrated carrots. Journal of Food Engineering, 78, 449–455.
Chen, B. H., Peng, H. Y., & Chen, H. E. (1995). Changes of carotenoids, Krokida, M. K., Tsami, E., & Maroulis, Z. B. (1998). Kinetics on color
color, and vitamin A contents during processing of carrot juice. Jour- changes during drying of some fruits and vegetables. Drying Technol-
nal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 43, 1912–1918. ogy, 16, 667–685.
Chen, J. P., Tai, C. Y., & Chen, B. H. (2007). Effects of different drying Kubola, J., & Siriamornpun, S. (2011). Phytochemicals and antioxidant
treatments on the stability of carotenoids in Taiwanese mango (Man- activity of different fruit fractions (peel, pulp, aril and seed) of Thai gac
gifera indica L.). Food Chemistry, 100, 1005–1010. (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng). Food Chemistry, 127, 1138–1145.
Chong, C. H., Law, C. L., Cloke, M., Hii, C. L., Abdullah, L. C., & Daud, W. Lefsrud, M., Kopsell, D., Sams, C., Wills, J., & Both, A. J. (2008). Dry mat-
R. W. (2008). Drying kinetics and product quality of dried Chempe- ter content and stability of carotenoids in kale and spinach during
dak. Journal of Food Engineering, 88, 522–527. drying. HortScience, 43, 1731–1736.
Chuyen, H. V., Nguyen, M. H., Roach, P. D., Golding, J. B., & Parks, S. E. Liu, D., Shi, J., Colina Ibarra, A., Kakuda, Y., & Jun Xue, S. (2008). The
(2015).Gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng.): A rich source of scavenging capacity and synergistic effects of lycopene, vitamin E,
bioactive compounds and its potential health benefits. International vitamin C, and b-carotene mixtures on the DPPH free radical. LWT—
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 50, 567–577. Food Science and Technology, 41, 1344–1349.
Chuyen, H. V., Roach, P. D., Golding, J. B., Parks, S. E., & Nguyen, M. H. Mai, H. C., Truong, V., Haut, B., & Debaste, F. (2013). Impact of limited
(2016). Effects of four different drying methods on the carotenoid drying on Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. aril carotenoids
composition and antioxidant capacity of dried Gac peel. Journal of content and antioxidant activity. Journal of Food Engineering, 118,
the Science of Food and Agriculture. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.7918 358–364.
Cui, Z. W., Li, C. Y., Song, C. F., & Song, Y. (2008). Combined Mayer-Miebach, E., Behsnilian, D., Regier, M., & Schuchmann, H. P.
microwave-vacuum and freeze drying of carrot and apple chips. Dry- (2005). Thermal processing of carrots: Lycopene stability and isomer-
ing Technology, 26, 1517–1523. isation with regard to antioxidant potential. Food Research Interna-
€
Dadali, G., Kiliç Apar, D., & Ozbek, B. (2007). Color change kinetics of tional, 38, 1103–1108.
okra undergoing microwave drying. Drying Technology, 25, 925–936. Mcbean, D. M., Joslyn, M. A., & Nury, F. S. (1971). Dehydrated fruits. In
Daood, H. G., Kapit
any, J., Biacs, P., & Albrecht, K. (2006). Drying tem- A.C. Hulma (Eds.), Biochemistry of fruits and their products (pp. 623–
perature, endogenous antioxidants and capsaicinoids affect carote- 652). London: Academic Press.
noid stability in paprika (red pepper spice). Journal of the Science of Mohammadi, A., Rafiee, S., Emam-Djomeh, Z., & Keyhani, A. (2008).
Food and Agriculture, 86, 2450–2457. Kinetic models for colour changes in kiwifruit slices during hot air
De Ritter, E., & Purcell, A. E. (1981). Carotenoid analytical methods. New drying. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4, 376–383.
York: Academic Press Inc. € hlich, K., & Bo
€ller, L., Fro
Mu €hm, V. (2011). Comparative antioxidant
Demiray, E., & Tulek, Y. (2016). Degradation kinetics of b-carotene in activities of carotenoids measured by ferric reducing antioxidant
carrot slices during convective drying. International Journal of Food power (FRAP), ABTS bleaching assay (aTEAC), DPPH assay and per-
Properties. doi: 10.1080/10942912.2016.1147460 oxyl radical scavenging assay. Food Chemistry, 129, 139–148.
Dien, L. K. L., Minh, N. P., & Dao, D. T. A. (2013). Investigation different Nachaisin, M., Jamradloedluk, J., & Niamnuy, C. (2016). Application of
pretreatment methods and ratio of carrier materials to maintain caro- combined far-infrared radiation and air convection for drying of
tenoids in gac (Momordica Cochinchinensis Spreng) powderin in drying instant germinated brown rice. Journal of Food Process Engineering,
process. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 2, 39, 306–318.
360–371. Nhung, D. T. T., Bung, P. N., Ha, N. T., & Phong, T. K. (2010). Changes in
Dondee, S., Meeso, N., Soponronnarit, S., & Siriamornpun, S. (2011). lycopene and beta carotene contents in aril and oil of gac fruit during
Reducing cracking and breakage of soybean grains under combined storage. Food Chemistry, 121, 326–331.
 CHUYEN ET AL. | 9 of 9

Pan, Z., Shih, C., Mchugh, T. H., & Hirschberg, E. (2008). Study ous treatments. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48,
of banana dehydration using sequential infrared radiation heating 5962–5968.
and freeze-drying. LWT—Food Science and Technology, 41, Tang, J., & Yang, T. (2004). Dehydrated vegetables: Principles and sys-
1944–1951. tems. In Y. H. Hui, S. Chazala, D. M. Graham, K. D. Murrell, & W. K.
Perez, N. E., & Schmalko, M. E. (2009). Convective drying of pumpkin: Nip (Eds.), Handbook of vegetable preservation and processing (pp.
Influence of pretreatment and drying temperature. Journal of Food 335–372). New York: Marcel Dekker.
Process Engineering, 32, 88–103. Thaipong, K., Boonprakob, U., Crosby, K., Cisneros-Zevallos, L., & Haw-
Prakash, S., Jha, S. K., & Datta, N. (2004). Performance evaluation of kins Byrne, D. (2006). Comparison of ABTS, DPPH, FRAP, and ORAC
blanched carrots dried by three different driers. Journal of Food Engi- assays for estimating antioxidant activity from guava fruit extracts.
neering, 62, 305–313. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19, 669–675.
Ramesh, M. N., Wolf, W., Tevini, D., & Jung, G. (2001). Influence of Urrea, D., Eim, V. S., Gonza
lez-Centeno, M. R., Minjares-Fuentes, R., Cas-
processing parameters on the drying of spice paprika. Journal of Food tell-Palou, A., Ju
arez, M. D., & Rossello

, C. (2011). Effects of air dry-
Engineering, 49, 63–72. ing temperature on antioxidant activity and carotenoids content of
Robles-S
anchez, R. M., Rojas-Grau €, M. A., Odriozola-Serrano, I., carrots (Daucus carota), European Drying Conference—EuroDrying’2011,
Gonz
alez-Aguilar, G. A., & Martín-Belloso, O. (2009). Effect of mini- Palma, Balearic Island, Spain.
mal processing on bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of Vuong, L. T., Dueker, S. R., & Murphy, S. P. (2002). Plasma beta-carotene
fresh-cut “Kent” mango (Mangifera indica L.). Postharvest Biology and and retinol concentrations of children increase after a 30-d supple-
Technology, 51, 384–390. mentation with the fruit Momordica cochinchinensis (gac). American
Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. (2010). Quantitative analysis, in vitro assessment Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75, 872–879.
of bioavailability and antioxidant activity of food carotenoids—A Vuong, L. T., Franke, A. A., Custer, L. J., & Murphy, S. P. (2006).
review. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 23, 726–740. Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. (gac) fruit carotenoids reevaluated.
Rodríguez, K., Ah-Hen, K., Vega-G
alvez, A., Lo

pez, J., Quispe-Fuentes, I., Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19, 664–668.
Lemus-Mondaca, R., & G
alvez-Ranilla, L. (2014). Changes in bioactive Yen, Y. H., Shih, C. H., & Chang, C. H. (2008). Effect of adding ascorbic
compounds and antioxidant activity during convective drying of acid and glucose on the antioxidative properties during storage of
murta (Ugni molinae T.) berries. International Journal of Food Science dried carrot. Food Chemistry, 107, 265–272.
and Technology, 49, 990–1000.
Shi, J., Maguer, M. L., Kakuda, Y., Liptay, A., & Niekamp, F. (1999). Lyco-
pene degradation and isomerization in tomato dehydration. Food How to cite this article: Chuyen HV, Roach PD, Golding JB,
Research International, 32, 15–21.
Parks SE, Nguyen MH. Effects of pretreatments and air drying
Suvarnakuta, P., Devahastin, S., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2005). Drying
temperatures on the carotenoid composition and antioxidant
kinetics and b-carotene degradation in carrot undergoing different
drying processes. Journal of Food Science, 70, s520–s526. capacity of dried gac peel. J Food Process Preserv. 2017;00:

Tai, C. Y., & Chen, B. H. (2000). Analysis and stability of carotenoids e13226. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13226
in the flowers of daylily (Hemerocallis disticha) as affected by vari-

View publication stats