TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS:

Objective: To become familiar with the major types of topographic and geologic maps and to
learn how to analyze and interpret them in the study of Earth's surface features.
Main concept: Topographic maps are scale models of portions of Earth's surface and are
fundamental tools of geologic research. Topographic maps show the configuration of Earth's
surface by means of contour lines. These maps are of fundamental importance in geology
because accurate measurements of both horizontal and vertical distances can be made from
therm.
Introduction: The study of Earth's surface features, and the processes that form them, pre-
sents a major problem of scale. Mountain ranges, plateaus, and drainage basins are all too
large to be seen from any single viewpoint, or even from a thousand different viewpoints. To
study such large features, geologists use various types of aerial photography, Landsat images,
remote sensing data, and topographic maps. Each is, in a real sense, a type of scale model,
showing various aspects of the size, shape, and spatial relationships of Earth's surface
features.
The great value of these models is that they provide a regional perspective from a vertical
view. They represent the reduction of vast amounts of data to a model, the size of a piece of
paper, that can be analyzed and easily managed. Topographic maps, aerial photographs, and
remote sensing are, therefore, basic tools for the geologist and are indispensible to the study
of landforms and their origin. Just as the microscope gives the biologist a new perspective, or
the telescope aids the astronomer, so these models help geologists to study structure and
landforms that cannot be seen from viewpoints on the surface.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Topographic maps are maps that show the configuration of Earth's surface by means of
contour lines. They are constructed to scale, so that distance, directions, areas, elevations,
slope angles and volumes can be measured with great accuracy. These maps are therefore an
indispensable tool for geologic studies and are critical to many other endeavors as well e.g.
construction, planning, transportation routing and military operations. Indeed they are of
fundamental importance to the nation’s economic development and environmental protection.
Topographic maps are accurate terrain models and as such, show infinitely more than the
location of features, distance and direction. As scale models, they contain a vast store of
information that may not be readily apparent to the casual observer. However, one needs
skills, experience, and knowledge to extract and use this information from the map.

LOCATING FEATURES ON A MAP

Latitude and Longitude. An important function of a map is to provide the means of defining
the location of a point or an area, so that a specific position can be found again at a later date,
communicated to others, or recorded for scientific, legal, or political purposes. The most
effective way to do this is using a system of grid lines (Figure 7.4). By international
agreement, Earth's surface is divided into a series of north-south and east-west grid lines. The
north-south lines are called lines of longitude or meridians. They represent segments of arc
on the equator, measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The line of zero longitude, the
prime meridian, passes through Greenwich, England. All other longitude lines are measured

1
as east or west of the prime meridian to the 180-degree line of longitude known as the
international date line.
The other dimension of the grid is latitude. Lines of latitude circle the globe parallel to the
equator, which is zero latitude. Degrees of latitude are measured north or south of the equator
up to 90 degrees latitude at either pole. The system of latitude lines also divides the globe into
two hemispheres, the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. Used together, the
exact position of any point on Earth's surface can be established. This system is called the
geographic coordinate or lat-long system.
The UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system measures location in terms of
metres from either the Greenwich or equator. This is much easier in locating points or
features on a map than the former.

FIGURE 7.4 Measurements of Latitude and Longitude

The equator forms a great circle on which angles of longitude are measured. The prime
meridian is a north-south line through Greenwich, England. Point F, in the Atlantic Ocean, if
projected to the center of Earth and back to the prime meridian, would describe angle FBA,
which is 20 degrees. All points lying on the north-south line through point F, would thus be
20 degrees west of the prime meridian. Point G, near the east coast of South America, if
projected to the center of Earth and back to the prime meridian at point A, would describe
angle GBA, which is 40 degrees. All points lying on a north-south line through point H
would be longitude 60 degrees west. Point J is 40 degrees east longitude.
Angles of latitude are measured on a great circle passing through the poles, with the equator
as a reference line. Point C in Europe, if projected to the center of Earth and back to the
equator, would describe angle CBA, which is 45 degrees. All points lying on a line that
passes through point C, parallel to the equator, would be 45 degrees north of the equator. This
includes the line passing through the northern part of the United States. Similarly, point D, in
northern Africa, if projected to Earth's center and back to the equator, would describe angle

2
DBA, which is 30 degrees. All points on a line parallel to the equator passing through point D
would be 30 degrees north latitude. Point E is 15 degrees north latitude, and point I is 15
degrees south latitude. Apart from the common UTM and lat-long coordinate systems, other
grid systems exist as highlighted below.

Land Office Grid System. Latitude and longitude lines are excellent tools for large regional
reference but are cumbersome when used to subdivide the land surface on a local scale. Most
of the United States west of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers has been surveyed and
subdivided in accordance with the U.S. Federal Rectangular Survey, or the Land Office Grid
System (Figure 7.5). With this system, subdivisions involve establishing an initial point from
which all locations of a state or region can be referenced. The latitude line for the initial point
is the base line, and the longitude line is the principal meridian. From the reference point so
designated, grid lines are surveyed at 6-mi intervals.
The north-south lines define strips of land known as ranges and are numbered 1, 2, 3, and so
forth) east and west of the principal meridian (Figure 7.5A). East-west lines establish strips of
land, known as townships, which are numbered north and south of the baseline. Each square
of the grid contains 36 mi2 and is also referred to as a township. Its location is designated by
the numbers of the township and by the tiers of ranges it contains. The blue shaded area in
Figure 7.5A would be designated Township 3 south, Range 2 west, or simply T3S, R2W.
A township is further subdivided into 36 sections. Each section is 1 mi 2 and is numbered as
shown in Figure 7.5B. The blue area in Figure 7.5B would be identified as Section 11,
Township 3 south, Range 2 west (Sec 11, T3S, R2W).
The individual sections in turn are divided into quarters and eighths (Figure 7.5C). The large
blue area in Figure 7.5C would be identified as the southeast quarter of Section 11, Township
3 south, Range 2 west (SE14, Sec 11, T3S, R2W). The smaller blue area in Figure 7.5C
would be identified as the northeast quarter of the northwest quarter of Section 11, Township
3 south, Range 2 west (NE1∕4, NW1∕4, Sec 11, T3S, R2W).

3
Figure 7.5 The land Office Grid System

SCALE
Because a topographic map is intended to be an accurate scale model of a portion of Earth's
surface, the features shown on it will differ from those on Earth in size but not in shape.
A map’s scale is the ratio between the size of an area represented on the map and the size of
the actual area on the surface.
Three expressions of scale are commonly used with topographic maps:
1) Fractional, (2) graphic, and 3) verbal.
1. The fractional scale is expressed as a simple fraction 1/62,500) or as a proportion
1:62,500). These expressions mean that one unit of distance on the map is equal to 62,500 of
the same unit on the ground.
2. A graphic scale is a line or bar divided into a number of segments that represent units of
length (feet, kilometers, or miles) on the ground. In a sense, this scale is like a ruler that can
be used for measuring distance.

4
3. A verbal scale is a simply worded statement of the relationship between map distance and
ground distance (e.g. 1 inch equals 1 mile).
The U.S. Geological Survey publishes maps on a variety of scales to meet the needs of
supplying both detail and broad coverage. (See Figures 7.6 and 7.7). The survey system of
subdividing areas for map coverage uses the universal coordinate lines of latitude and
longitude. Maps bounded by latitude and longitude are known as quadrangles. The system
provides quadrangles of different sizes and various scales, like those shown in Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.6 Relative Size of Standard U.S Geological Survey Topographic Quadrangles.

Figure 7.7 Examples of Scales of Topographic Maps

DIRECTIONS
Unless otherwise indicated, true north is toward the top of the map. Meridians and lines of
latitude serve as convenient reference lines, as they run north-south and east-west,
respectively. In establishing the direction from one point to another, it is convenient to do s~
with reference to north and south. This is done in a general way, such as saying that town X
is 6 mi northwest of town Y. In more precise work, the angle east or west of a north-south
line is measured with a protractor. For example, on a given map, Parker Mountain is N 52° W
of the town of Haines Falls, and Round-top Mountain is N 80° E of Elka Park.

5
True north and magnetic north are both illustrated near the bottom of a standard quadrangle
map, and their difference, or declination, is indicated. When using a topographic map in the
field, the magnetic compass direction must be corrected for declination to obtain true north.

DETERMINING ELEVATIONS
Elevation refers to height (in feet or meters) above sea level and is essentially synonymous
with altitude. Specific elevations, established by highly accurate surveys, are referred to as
benchmarks and are shown on topographic maps in various ways. Typical benchmark
locations are at the center of a town, on a hilltop, and at the bottom of a depression. The
benchmarks are printed in black on a map. Spot elevations, which are less accurate, are
printed in brown.
In addition, the approximate elevation of any point on the map can be determined from the
contour lines.
Each contour line connects all points of the same elevation. For points between lines,
elevations can be interpolated. For example, a point midway between the contours of 1240 ft
and 1260 ft would probably have an altitude of 1250 ft, and a point located just below the
1260-ftcontour line would probably be at an elevation close to 1258 or 1259 ft. Such
approximations are based on the assumptions (1) that the slopes have a constant gradient and
(2) that the elevation is proportional to the horizontal distance. These assumptions are not
always true, but a careful study of slope trends usually permits an accurate estimation of the
elevations between contours.
Relief is the difference in elevation between high and low points.
You can easily determine the local relief of an area by subtracting the lowest elevation from
the highest elevation.
Height and depth are measurements made relative to some local feature. For example, a
monument might be 555 ft high, relative to the ground, but have an overall elevation (at its
top) of 1555 ft, if the ground is 1000 ft above sea level.

COLORS AND SYMBOLS

If maps showed all of the natural features, as well as the marks of civilization within any
given area, they would be so cluttered as to be useless. For the sake of clarity, symbols are
used to indicate a variety of cultural features (e.g., buildings, political boundaries, roads, and
railroads). Contour lines are printed in brown. Streams, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of
water are printed in blue. On some maps, features of special importance are shown in red, and
vegetation is in green. Map symbols used by Geological Surveys worldwide appear in the
map’s key.

CONTOUR LINES
The great value of topographic maps is that they show the shape and elevation of the land
surface. This is done by means of contour lines. A contour line is an imaginary line on Earth's
surface connecting points of equal elevation. A contour line can also be described as a line
traced by the intersection of a level surface with the ground. Natural expressions of contour
lines are elevated shorelines, cultivated terraces, and patterns produced by contour plowing.
To help understand the idea of contours, consider an island in a lake and the patterns made on
it when the water level recedes (Figure 7.8). The shoreline represents the same elevation all
around the island and is thus a contour line (Figure 7.8A). Suppose that the water level of the
lake drops 10 ft and that the position of the former shoreline is marked by a gravel beach
(Figure 7.8B).
6
Now there are two contour lines-the new lake level and the old stranded beach- each
depicting accurately the shape of the island at these two elevations. If the water level should
continue to drop in increments of 10 ft, with each shoreline being marked by a beach,
additional contour lines would be formed (Figures 7.8C and 7.8D). A map of the raised
beaches is, in essence, a contour map (Figure 7.8E).
An aerial photograph of an island in the Great Salt Lake, Utah, is an excellent example of the
events just described. (Figure 7.9A). Former shorelines of high lake levels are clearly seen
around the island as natural contours. A sketch of the shorelines is a contour map (Figure
7.9B).

Figure 7.8 Elevated Shore lines as Contour lines

7
A. Aerial photograph of Fremont Island, Great Salt Lake, Utah

B. Contour Lines of Fremont Island

Characteristics of contours:
Learning to read contour maps effectively is not an easy task. Nature has few lines
reminiscent of contour lines and the visualization of a three- dimensional surface represented
only by contours requires careful study and practice. After some training, however, you
8
should be able to visualize the landscape represented by a contour map. You will obtain
more quantitative information from a contour map than from any other type of map or image.
The following basic rules will help you get started:
A. The difference in elevation between adjacent contours is constant on any given map and is
referred to as the contour interval, or CI. The most frequently used contour interval on 71∕2-
min and 15-min quadrangles is 20 ft.

B. Contour lines trend up a valley, cross the stream, and extend down the valley on the
opposite side. The lines thus form a V pattern, with the apex of the V pointing upstream.

C. Contours never cross or divide. They may appear to merge to express a vertical cliff, but in
reality they are stacked one on top of another and only appear to touch.
The spacing of contour lines reflects the gradient, or slope. Closely spaced contours represent
steep slopes. Contours spaced far apart represent gentle slopes.

9
D. Hills and knobs are shown as closed contours.

E. Closed depressions (basins without outlets) are shown by closed contours with hachures
(short lines) pointing downslope.

Fig. 7.10 (A – E) Characteristics of contour lines (above)

10
Geologic features expressed by Contours: Many geologic features have specific shapes that
are well expressed by contour patterns. Some of the more obvious are shown below.
Note that the list is not exhaustive. Please at the others from different textbooks or online.

Fig. 7.11 Geologic features expressed by Contours (above);

11
Problems:
1. Study Figure 7.4 and determine the latitude and longitude of points K, L, M, and N.
2. Identify the locations of points a, b, and c in Figure 7.5D.
3. The Menan Buttes area in southern Idaho (A) offers an excellent opportunity to study the
way in which simple topographic forms are expressed by contour lines. The following
problems will help develop your ability to visualize the landforms expressed on a topographic
map.
a. Study the volcano of the Menan Buttes. The slopes of the crater differ significantly from
one side to the other. How are steep slopes expressed by contour lines?
b. How are the more gentle slopes beyond the base of the volcano expressed by contour
lines?
c. How are the rugged slopes in the upper left part of the interior of the crater expressed by
contour lines?
d. How is the closed depression of the crater expressed by contour lines?
e. Study the floodplain area. How is a relatively flat surface expressed by contour lines?

12
Constructing a Contour Map from Established Elevations:

Contour maps were originally constructed by surveying the location and elevation of a
number of points in the field. The surveyor then sketched contour lines in the field by
extrapolating between the surveyed points. Today, maps are created and updated from
stereoscopic aerial photographs, and much information is stored, manipulated, and retrieved
by computer. This exercise of constructing your own topographic map from surveyed points
is extremely useful; it will help you to observe and understand the surface features depicted
on a topographic map.
4. Construct a contour map of the landforms shown above. Use a contour interval of 20 ft.
Suggested procedure: First, take time to study the various landforms shown in the sketch
(A). Note that the river flows through a low valley and into a bay partly enclosed by a sand
spit only 5 ft above sea level. Both sides of the valley are terraced. The hill on the right has
been eroded to form a gradual slope above a wave-cut cliff. The hill on the left is an inclined
tableland and is crossed by a few shallow valleys. A steep cliff formed on the left hill faces
the river and the sea. All of these features should be shown by the contours on your map. As
you begin, it may be advantageous to sketch lightly, with a soft pencil, a number of contour
lines in perspective directly on the sketch (A). In placing contours on the map, start near the
edge, at the lowest elevations, and work up the major streams. Pay particular attention to the
13
established elevation points, and be sure that all contour lines are in harmony with them. To
find the appropriate position of a contour line between two control points, study the picture of
the slope and estimate the map position of that slope section.

Constructing a topographic Profile or Cross-section

Topographic maps present a view of the landscape as seen from directly above, an excellent
perspective from which to examine regional relationships. This view is, however, unnatural
to us, for we are accustomed to seeing hills and valleys from a horizontal perspective. In
detailed studies of landforms, it may be desirable to construct a (profile or cross section)
through certain critical areas so that various features can be analyzed from a more natural
viewpoint. Such a profile can be constructed quickly and accurately along any straight line on
a contour map, as illustrated in (A) on the next page. The procedure is as follows:
 Lay a strip of paper along the line for which the profile is to be constructed.

 Mark on the paper the exact place where each contour, stream, and hilltop crosses the
profile line.

 Label each mark with the elevation of the contour it represents. If contour lines are
closely spaced, it is sufficient to label only the index contours.

 Prepare a vertical scale (C) on profile or graph paper by labeling horizontal lines to
correspond to the elevation of each index contour line.

 Place the paper with the labeled marks at the bottom of the profile paper and project
each contour onto the horizontal line of the same elevation.

 Connect all of the points with a smooth line.

Obviously, the appearance of the profile will vary, depending on the spacing of the horizontal
lines on the profile paper. If the vertical scale is the same as the horizontal scale, the profile
will be nearly flat. For this reason, the vertical scale is usually exaggerated to show local
relief.
5. Construct a topographic profile along line A-A' across the map in (B) on the next page.

14
15