Chapter 24

Wave Optics
 Wave Optics
•The wave nature of light is needed to explain
various phenomena.
–Interference
–Diffraction
–Polarization
•The particle nature of light was the basis for ray
(geometric) optics.

Introduction
 Interference
•Light waves interfere with each other much like
mechanical waves do.
•All interference associated with light waves
arises when the electromagnetic fields that
constitute the individual waves combine.

Section 24.1
 Conditions for Interference
•For sustained interference between two
sources of light to be observed, there are two
conditions which must be met.
–The sources must be coherent.
•The waves they emit must maintain a constant
phase with respect to each other.
–The waves must have identical wavelengths.

Section 24.1
 Producing Coherent Sources
•Light from a monochromatic source is allowed to pass
through a narrow slit.
•The light from the single slit is allowed to fall on a
screen containing two narrow slits.
•The first slit is needed to insure the light comes from a
tiny region of the source which is coherent.
•Old method

Section 24.1
Producing Coherent Sources, Cont.
•Currently, it is much more common to use a
laser as a coherent source.
•The laser produces an intense, coherent,
monochromatic beam over a width of several
millimeters.
•The laser light can be used to illuminate
multiple slits directly.

Section 24.1
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
•Thomas Young first demonstrated interference in light
waves from two sources in 1801.
•Light is incident on a screen with a narrow slit, So
•The light waves emerging from this slit arrive at a
second screen that contains two narrow, parallel slits,
S1 and S2

Section 24.2
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment, Diagram
•The narrow slits, S1 and
S2 act as sources of
waves.
•The waves emerging from
the slits originate from the
same wave front and
therefore are always in
phase.

Section 24.2
 Resulting Interference Pattern
•The light from the two slits form a visible pattern on a
screen.
•The pattern consists of a series of bright and dark
parallel bands called fringes.
•Constructive interference occurs where a bright fringe
appears.
•Destructive interference results in a dark fringe.

Section 24.2
 Fringe Pattern
•The fringe pattern formed
from a Young’s Double Slit
Experiment would look like
this.
•The bright areas represent
constructive interference.
•The dark areas represent
destructive interference.

Section 24.2
 Interference Patterns
•Constructive interference
occurs at the center point.
•The two waves travel the
same distance.
–Therefore, they arrive in
phase.

Section 24.2
 Interference Patterns, 2
•The upper wave has to travel
farther than the lower wave.
•The upper wave travels one
wavelength farther.
–Therefore, the waves arrive in
phase.
•A bright fringe occurs.

Section 24.2
 Interference Patterns, 3
•The upper wave travels one-
half of a wavelength farther
than the lower wave.
•The trough of the bottom
wave overlaps the crest of the
upper wave.
•This is destructive
interference.
–A dark fringe occurs.

Section 24.2
Geometry of Young’s Double Slit
Experiment

Section 24.2
 Interference Equations
•The path difference, δ, is
found from the small triangle.
•δ = r2 – r1 = d sin θ
–This assumes the paths are parallel.
–Not exactly parallel, but a very good
approximation since L is much
greater than d

Section 24.2
 Interference Equations, 2
•For a bright fringe, produced by constructive
interference, the path difference must be either
zero or some integral multiple of the
wavelength.
•δ = d sin θbright = m λ
–m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
–m is called the order number.
•When m = 0, it is the zeroth order maximum.
•When m = ±1, it is called the first order
maximum.
Section 24.2
 Interference Equations, 3
•When destructive interference occurs, a dark
fringe is observed.
•This needs a path difference of an odd half
wavelength.
•δ = d sin θdark = (m + ½) λ
–m = 0, ±1, ±2, …

Section 24.2
 Interference Equations, 4
•The positions of the fringes can be measured vertically
from the zeroth order maximum.
•y = L tan θ L sin θ
•Assumptions
–L >> d
–d >> λ
•Approximation
–θ is small and therefore the approximation tan θ sin θ can be
used.
•The approximation is true to three-digit precision only for angles less than
about 4°

Section 24.2
 Uses for Young’s Double Slit
Experiment
•Young’s Double Slit Experiment provides a
method for measuring wavelength of the light.
•This experiment gave the wave model of light a
great deal of credibility.
–It is inconceivable that particles of light could
cancel each other.

Section 24.2
The phase difference between two light
waves can change if the waves travel
through different materials having different
indexes of refraction
 Phase Changes Due To Reflection

•An electromagnetic wave undergoes a phase change of

180° upon reflection from a medium of higher index of
refraction than the one in which it was traveling.
–Analogous to a reflected pulse on a string

Section 24.3
 Phase Changes Due To Reflection, Cont.

•There is no phase change when the wave is reflected from a

boundary leading to a medium of lower index of refraction.
–Analogous to a pulse in a string reflecting from a free support
Section 24.3
 Lloyd’s Mirror
•An arrangement for producing
an interference pattern with a
single light source
•Waves reach point P either by
a direct path or by reflection.
•The reflected ray can be
treated as a ray from the
source S’ behind the mirror.

Section 24.3
 Interference Pattern from the Lloyd’s
Mirror
•An interference pattern is formed.
•The positions of the dark and bright fringes are
reversed relative to pattern of two real sources.
•This is because there is a 180° phase change
produced by the reflection.

Section 24.3
 Interference in Thin Films
•Interference effects are commonly observed
in thin films.
–Examples are soap bubbles and oil on water
•The interference is due to the interaction of
the waves reflected from both surfaces of the
film.

Section 24.4
 Interference in Thin Films, 2
•Facts to remember
–An electromagnetic wave traveling from a
medium of index of refraction n1 toward a
medium of index of refraction n2 undergoes a
180° phase change on reflection when n2 > n1
•There is no phase change in the reflected wave
if n2 < n1
–The wavelength of light λn in a medium with
index of refraction n is λn = λ/n where λ is the
wavelength of light in vacuum.
Section 24.4
•Ray 1 undergoes a phase change of 180° with respect
to the incident ray.
•Ray 2, which is reflected from the lower surface,
undergoes no phase change with respect to the incident
wave.
 Interference in Thin Films, 4
•Ray 2 also travels an additional distance of 2t before
the waves recombine.
•For constructive interference
–2 n t = (m + ½ ) λ m = 0, 1, 2 …
•This takes into account both the difference in optical path length for the two
rays and the 180° phase change
•For destructive interference
–2 n t = m λ m = 0, 1, 2 …

Section 24.4
 Interference in Thin Films, 5
•Two factors influence interference.
–Possible phase reversals on reflection
–Differences in travel distance
•The conditions are valid if the medium above the top
surface is the same as the medium below the bottom
surface.
•If the thin film is between two different media, one of
lower index than the film and one of higher index, the
conditions for constructive and destructive interference
are reversed.

Section 24.4
 Interference in Thin Films, Final
•Be sure to include two effects when analyzing
the interference pattern from a thin film.
–Path length
–Phase change

Section 24.4
 Newton’s Rings
•Another method for viewing interference is to
place a planoconvex lens on top of a flat glass
surface.
•The air film between the glass surfaces varies in
thickness from zero at the point of contact to some
thickness t.
•A pattern of light and dark rings is observed.
–These rings are called Newton’s Rings.
–The particle model of light could not explain the origin of the rings.
•Newton’s Rings can be used to test optical lenses.
Ray 1 undergoes a phase change of 180° on reflection
because it is reflected from a boundary leading into a medium of
higher refractive index, whereas ray 2 undergoes no phase
change because it is reflected from a medium of lower refractive
index.
 Problem Solving Strategy with Thin
Films, 1
•Identify the thin film causing the interference.
•Determine the indices of refraction in the film
and the media on either side of it.
•Determine the number of phase reversals: zero,
one or two.

Section 24.4
 Problem Solving with Thin Films, 2
•The interference is constructive if the path difference
is an integral multiple of λ and destructive if the path
difference is an odd half multiple of λ.
–The conditions are reversed if one of the waves undergoes a
phase change on reflection.
•Substitute values in the appropriate equation.
•Solve and check.

Section 24.4
Problem Solving with Thin Films, 3
Equation 1 phase 0 or 2 phase
m = 0, 1, 2, … reversal reversals

2nt = (m + ½) constructive destructive

2nt = m destructive constructive

Section 24.4
Interference in Thin Films, Example
•An example of different
indices of refraction
•A coating on a solar cell
•There are two phase
changes

Section 24.4
 CD’s and DVD’s
•Data is stored digitally.
–A series of ones and zeros read by laser light reflected from the
disk
•Strong reflections correspond to constructive
interference.
–These reflections are chosen to represent zeros.
•Weak reflections correspond to destructive
interference.
–These reflections are chosen to represent ones.

Section 24.5
 CD’s and Thin Film Interference
•A CD has multiple tracks.
–The tracks consist of a sequence of pits of
varying length formed in a reflecting information
layer.
•The pits appear as bumps to the laser beam.
–The laser beam shines on the metallic layer
through a clear plastic coating.

Section 24.5
 Reading a CD
•As the disk rotates, the laser
reflects off the sequence of
bumps and lower areas into a
photodector.
–The photodector converts the
fluctuating reflected light intensity
into an electrical string of zeros and
ones.
•The pit depth is made equal
to one-quarter of the
wavelength of the light.

Section 24.5
 Reading a CD, Cont.
•When the laser beam hits a rising or falling bump
edge, part of the beam reflects from the top of the
bump and part from the lower adjacent area.
–This ensures destructive interference and very low intensity
when the reflected beams combine at the detector.
•The bump edges are read as ones.
•The flat bump tops and intervening flat plains are read
as zeros.

Section 24.5
 DVD’s
•DVD’s use shorter wavelength lasers.
–The track separation, pit depth and minimum
pit length are all smaller.
–Therefore, the DVD can store about 30 times
more information than a CD.

Section 24.5
 Diffraction
•Huygen’s principle requires that
the waves spread out after they
pass through slits.
•This spreading out of light from
its initial line of travel is called
diffraction.
–In general, diffraction occurs when
waves pass through small openings,
around obstacles or by sharp edges.

Section 24.6
 Diffraction, 2
•A single slit placed between a distant light source and
a screen produces a diffraction pattern.
–It will have a broad, intense central band.
–The central band will be flanked by a series of narrower, less
intense secondary bands.
•Called secondary maxima
–The central band will also be flanked by a series of dark bands.
•Called minima

Section 24.6
 Diffraction, 3
•The results of the single slit
cannot be explained by
geometric optics.
–Geometric optics would say that
light rays traveling in straight lines
should cast a sharp image of the slit
on the screen.

Section 24.6
 Fraunhofer Diffraction
•Fraunhofer Diffraction occurs
when the rays leave the
diffracting object in parallel
directions.
–Screen very far from the slit
–Converging lens (shown)
•A bright fringe is seen along
the axis (θ = 0) with alternating
bright and dark fringes on each
side.

Section 24.6
 Single Slit Diffraction
•According to Huygen’s
principle, each portion of the
slit acts as a source of waves.
•The light from one portion of
the slit can interfere with light
from another portion.
•The resultant intensity on the
screen depends on the
direction θ

Section 24.7
 Single Slit Diffraction, 2
•All the waves that originate at the slit are in phase.
•Wave 1 travels farther than wave 3 by an amount
equal to the path difference (a/2) sin θ
–a is the width of the slit
•If this path difference is exactly half of a wavelength,
the two waves cancel each other and destructive
interference results.

Section 24.7
 Single Slit Diffraction, 3
•In general, destructive interference occurs for a
single slit of width a when sin θdark = mλ / a
–m = 1, 2, 3, …
•Doesn’t give any information about the
variations in intensity along the screen

Section 24.7
 Single Slit Diffraction, 4
•The general features of the
intensity distribution are
shown.
•A broad central bright fringe
is flanked by much weaker
bright fringes alternating with
dark fringes.
•The points of constructive
interference lie approximately
halfway between the dark
fringes.

Section 24.7
 Diffraction Grating
•The diffracting grating consists of many equally
spaced parallel slits.
–A typical grating contains several thousand
lines per centimeter.
•The intensity of the pattern on the screen is the
result of the combined effects of interference
and diffraction.

Section 24.8
 Diffraction Grating, Cont.
•The condition for maxima is
–d sin θbright = m λ
•m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
•The integer m is the order
number of the diffraction
pattern.
•If the incident radiation
contains several wavelengths,
each wavelength deviates
through a specific angle.

Section 24.8
 Diffraction Grating, Final
•All the wavelengths are focused
at m = 0
–This is called the zeroth order
maximum
•The first order maximum
corresponds to m = 1
•Note the sharpness of the
principle maxima and the broad
range of the dark area.
–This is in contrast to the broad,
bright fringes characteristic of the
two-slit interference pattern.

Section 24.8
 Diffraction Grating in CD Tracking
•A diffraction grating can be
used in a three-beam method
to keep the beam on a CD on
track.
•The central maximum of the
diffraction pattern is used to
read the information on the
CD.
•The two first-order maxima
are used for steering.

Section 24.8
 Polarization of Light Waves
•Each atom produces a wave
with its own orientation of
•All directions of the electric
field vector are equally
possible and lie in a plane
perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
•This is an unpolarized wave.

Section 24.8
 Polarization of Light, Cont.
•A wave is said to be linearly
polarized if the resultant
electric field vibrates in the
same direction at all times at a
particular point.
•Polarization can be obtained
from an unpolarized beam by
–Selective absorption
–Reflection
–Scattering

Section 24.8
 Polarization by Selective Absorption

•The most common technique for polarizing light

•Uses a material that transmits waves whose electric field
vectors in the plane are parallel to a certain direction and
absorbs waves whose electric field vectors are perpendicular to
that direction
Section 24.8
 Selective Absorption, Cont.
•E. H. Land discovered a material that polarizes
light through selective absorption.
–He called the material Polaroid.
–The molecules readily absorb light whose
electric field vector is parallel to their lengths
and transmit light whose electric field vector is
perpendicular to their lengths.

Section 24.8
 Selective Absorption, Final
•The intensity of the polarized beam transmitted
through the second polarizing sheet (the analyzer)
varies as
–I = Io cos2 θ
•Io is the intensity of the polarized wave incident on the analyzer.
•This is known as Malus’ Law and applies to any two polarizing materials
whose transmission axes are at an angle of θ to each other.

Section 24.8
 Polarization by Reflection
•When an unpolarized light beam is reflected from a
surface, the reflected light is
–Completely polarized
–Partially polarized
–Unpolarized
•It depends on the angle of incidence.
–If the angle is 0° or 90°, the reflected beam is unpolarized.
–For angles between this, there is some degree of polarization.
–For one particular angle, the beam is completely polarized.

Section 24.8
 Polarization by Reflection, Cont.
•The angle of incidence for
which the reflected beam is
completely polarized is
called the polarizing angle,
θp
•Brewster’s Law relates the
polarizing angle to the index
of refraction for the
material.

•θp may also be called

Brewster’s Angle.

Section 24.8
 Polarization by Scattering
•When light is incident on a system of particles,
the electrons in the medium can absorb and
reradiate part of the light.
–This process is called scattering.
•An example of scattering is the sunlight
reaching an observer on the earth becoming
polarized.

Section 24.8
 Polarization by Scattering, Cont.
•The horizontal part of the
electric field vector in the
incident wave causes the
charges to vibrate horizontally.
•The vertical part of the vector
simultaneously causes them to
vibrate vertically.
•Horizontally and vertically
polarized waves are emitted.

Section 24.8
 Optical Activity
•Certain materials display the property of optical
activity.
–A substance is optically active if it rotates the
plane of polarization of transmitted light.
–Optical activity occurs in a material because of
an asymmetry in the shape of its constituent
materials.

Section 24.8
 Liquid Crystals
•A liquid crystal is a substance with properties
intermediate between those of a crystalline solid and
those of a liquid.
–The molecules of the substance are more orderly than those of a
liquid but less than those in a pure crystalline solid.
•To create a display, the liquid crystal is placed between
two glass plates and electrical contacts are made to the
liquid crystal.
–A voltage is applied across any segment in the display and that
segment turns on.

Section 24.8
 Liquid Crystals, 2

•Rotation of a polarized light beam by a liquid crystal when the

applied voltage is zero
•Light passes through the polarizer on the right and is reflected
back to the observer, who sees the segment as being bright.
Section 24.8
 Liquid Crystals, 3

•When a voltage is applied, the liquid crystal does not rotate the
plane of polarization.
•The light is absorbed by the polarizer on the right and none is
reflected back to the observer.
•The segment is dark. Section 24.8
 Liquid Crystals, Final
•Changing the applied voltage in a precise
pattern can
–Tick off the seconds on a watch
–Display a letter on a computer display

Section 24.8