30.3 Ampère’s Law 37.

1 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

31.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction 37.2 Waves in Interference
31.2 Motional emf
31.3 Lenz’s Law 38.1 Introduction to Diffraction Patterns
31.4 Induced emf and Electric Fields 38.4 The Diffraction Grating
31.6 Eddy Currents 38.6 Polarization of Light Waves
32 Inductance
32.1 Self-Induction and Inductance
32.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field
43.2 Energy States and Spectra of Molecules
32.4 Mutual Inductance
43.3 Bonding in Solids
35.1 The Nature of Light
43.4 Free-Electron Theory of Metals
35.2 Measurements of the Speed of Light
43.5 Band Theory of Solids
35.3 The Ray Approximation in Ray Optics
43.6 Electrical Conduction in Metals,
35.4 Wave Under Reflection
Insulators, and Semiconductors
35.5 Wave Under Refraction
43.7 Semiconductor Devices
35.7 Dispersion
35.8 Total Internal Reflection
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35.8 Total Internal Reflection
37.1 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
37.2 Waves in Interference
38.1 Introduction to Diffraction Patterns
38.4 The Diffraction Grating
38.6 Polarization of Light Waves

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 35.8 Total Internal Reflection
An interesting effect called total internal reflection can occur when light is directed
from a medium having a given index of refraction toward one having a lower index of
refraction. Consider Figure 35.26a, in which a light ray travels in medium 1 and meets
the boundary between medium 1 and medium 2, where n1 is greater than n2. In the
figure, labels 1 through 5 indicate various possible directions of the ray consistent with
the wave under refraction model.
The refracted rays are bent away from the normal because n1 is greater than n2.
At some particular angle of incidence θc , called the critical angle, the refracted light
ray moves parallel to the boundary so that θ2 = 90° (Fig. 35.26b). For angles of incidence
greater than θc , the ray is entirely reflected at the boundary as shown by ray 5 in Figure
35.26a. We can use Snell’s law of refraction to find the critical angle. When θ1 = θc and
θ2 = 90° and Equation 35.8 gives;

𝑛1 sin 𝜃2 sin 90
= =
𝑛2 sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝑐
3
As the angle of incidence θ1 increases, the The angle of incidence producing an angle
angle of refraction θ2 increases until θ2 is 90o of refraction θ2 = 90o is the critical angle θc.
(ray 4). The dashed line indicates that no For angles greater than θc, all the energy
energy actually propagates in this direction. of the incident light is reflected.
Equation 35.10 can be used
only when n1 > n2. That is,
total internal reflection
occurs only when light is
directed from a medium of a
higher index of refraction θ2 = 90o

toward a medium of lower

index of refraction
Figure 35.26
(a) Rays travel from a medium of If n1 < n2, Equation 35.10
index of refraction n1 into a medium would give sin θc > 1, but
of index of refraction n2, where n1 > sine of an angle can never
n2. (b) Ray 4 is singled out. be greater than unity.4
37.1 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
Interference in light waves from two
sources was first demonstrated by
Thomas
Young in 1801. A schematic diagram
S1
of the apparatus Young used is shown
in Figure 37.1a. Plane light waves
arrive at a barrier that contains two S2
slits S1 and S2. The light from S1 and S2
produces on a viewing screen a visible
pattern of bright and dark parallel
bands called fringes.
Figure 37.1 (a) Schematic diagram of Young’s double-slit experiment. Slits S1 and S2
behave as coherent sources of light waves that produce an interference pattern on the
viewing screen. (b) A simulation of an enlargement of the center of a fringe pattern formed
on the viewing screen. 5
 When the light from S1 and that fromS2 both arrive at a point on the screen such that
constructive interference occurs at that location, a bright fringe appears. When the
light from the two slits combines destructively at any location on the screen, a dark
fringe results. In Figure 37.3a, the two waves, which leave the two slits in phase,
strike the screen at the central point Because both waves travel the same distance,
they arrive at in phase. As a result, constructive interference occurs at this location
and a bright fringe is observed.

Figure 37.3 Waves

leave the slits and
combine at various
points on screen.

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Light waves from an ordinary source such as a lightbulb undergo random phase
changes in time intervals of less than a nanosecond. Therefore, the conditions for
constructive interference, destructive interference, or some intermediate state are
maintained only for such short time intervals. Because the eye cannot follow such rapid
changes, no interference effects are observed. Such light sources are said to be
incoherent.
To observe interference of waves from two sources, following conditions must be met:
• The sources must be coherent (have a constant phase relationship); they must maintain a
constant phase with respect to each other.
• The sources should be monochromatic
(of a single wavelength or frequency); that is,
they should be of a single wavelength.
If the light traveled only in its original
direction after passing through the slits, the
waves would not overlap and no interference
pattern would be seen.
Figure 37.4 7
38.1 Introduction to Diffraction Patterns
We know that light of wavelength comparable to or larger than the width of a slit
spreads out in all forward directions upon passing through the slit. This phenomenon
is called diffraction. When light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads beyond the
narrow path defined by the slit into regions that would be in shadow if light traveled
in straight lines. Other waves, such as sound waves and water waves, also have this
property of spreading when passing through apertures or by sharp edges.

We might expect that the light passing through a small opening would simply result
in a broad region of light on a screen due to the spreading of the light as it passes
through the opening. We find something more interesting, however. A diffraction
pattern consisting of light and dark areas is observed. For example, when a narrow
slit is placed between a distant light source (or a laser beam) and a screen, the light
produces a diffraction pattern like that shown in Figure 38.1.

8
 The pattern consists of a broad, intense central band (called the central maximum)
flanked by a series of narrower, less intense additional bands (called side maxima or
secondary maxima) and a series of intervening dark bands (or minima).
Figure 38.2 shows a diffraction pattern associated with light passing by the edge of an
object. Again we see bright and dark fringes, which is indication of an interference
pattern.

Figure 38.1 The diffraction pattern Figure 38.2 Light from a source passes by
that appears on a screen when light the edge of an opaque object and continues
passes through a narrow vertical slit. on to a screen. 9
38.4 The Diffraction Grating
The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources, consists of a large
number of equally spaced parallel slits. A transmission grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between
the grooves are transparent to the light and hence act as separate slits. A reflection
grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on the surface of a reflective material.

The spaces between the grooves act as parallel sources of reflected light like the slits
in a transmission grating. Current technology can produce gratings that have very
small slit spacings. For example, a typical grating ruled with 5 000 grooves/cm has a
slit spacing d = (1/5 000) cm = 2.00 x 10-4 cm.

10
A section of a diffraction grating is illustrated in Figure 38.12. A plane wave is
incident from the left, normal to the plane of the grating. The pattern observed on
the screen far to the right of the grating is the result of the combined effects of
interference and diffraction. Each slit produces diffraction, and the diffracted beams
interfere with one another to produce the final pattern.
The waves from all slits are in phase as they leave the slits. For an arbitrary direction
θ measured from the horizontal, however, the waves must travel different path
lengths before reaching the screen. Notice in Figure 38.12 that the path difference δ
between rays from any two adjacent slits is equal to d sin θ. If this path difference
equals one wavelength or some integral multiple of a wavelength, waves from all
slits are in phase at the screen and a bright fringe is observed.
Therefore, the condition for maxima in the interference pattern at the angle θbright is;

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Figure 38.12 Side view of a diffraction grating.
The slit separation is d, and the path difference
between adjacent slits is d sin θ.
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If the incident radiation contains several wavelengths, the mth-order maximum for
each wavelength occurs at a specific angle. All wavelengths are seen at θ = 0,
corresponding to m = 0, the zeroth-order maximum.
The first-order maximum (m = 1) is observed at an angle that satisfies the
relationship sin θbright = l/d, the second-order maximum (m = 2) is observed at a
larger angle θbright, and so on. For the small values of d typical in a diffraction
grating, the angles θbright are large.

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38.6 Polarization of Light Waves
An ordinary beam of light consists of a large number of
waves emitted by the atoms of the light source. Each atom
produces a wave having some particular Orientation of the
electric field vector 𝑬, corresponding to the direction of
atomic vibration.
The direction of polarization of each individual wave is Figure 38.24 Schematic
defined to be the direction in which the electric field 𝑬 is diagram of an
vibrating. In Figure 38.24, this direction happens to lie along electromagnetic wave
the y axis. All individual electromagnetic waves traveling in propagating at velocity 𝒄
in the x direction.
the x-direction have an 𝑬 vector parallel to the yz plane, but
this vector could be at any possible angle with respect to the
y axis. Because all directions of vibration from a wave source
are possible, the resultant electromagnetic wave is a
superposition of waves vibrating in many different
directions. The result is an unpolarized light beam. 14
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