AutomotiveEngineering LectureNotes ME465 YSU 2016

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AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING_Lecture Notes
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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.30673.66401
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Automotive Engineering Y. Samim ÜNLÜSOY
PREFACE
Three courses related to Automotive Engineering are offered to senior students in

the Mechanical Engineering Department of the Middle East Technical University. The
undergraduate courses Automotive Engineering and Performance of Road Vehicles are
designed to give basic information by providing an insight into the complex dynamic structure
and behavior of motor vehicles. A balanced descriptive and analytical treatment of the subject
is pursued to equip the graduating students not only with an understanding of the basic design
principles but also with the basic engineering approach to the modeling and simulation for the
prediction and optimization of performance. These two courses provide the background for the
graduate course Vehicle Dynamics, in which the emerging technologies, as well as the basic
issues in vehicle dynamics, are examined in more detail.
A considerable number of books are available on the subject of motor vehicles. With
a few exceptions, these books are mostly related to the functioning, principles of construction,
and maintenance and/or repair of motor vehicles. As such, they are intended mainly to provide
information for the layman or the mechanic rather than engineers. These lecture notes are
compiled from the material taught by the Author in the Automotive Engineering course with
the primary goal of introducing the student to the functioning, analysis, and design of the
subsystems that ultimately decide the dynamic behavior of motor vehicles.
The organization of the text and the selection of the topics represent the Author's
view of the subject as course material and a primary reference for a senior undergraduate
Mechanical Engineering class. It is sincerely hoped that the fundamental concepts provided here
will equip the reader with a sound background in the subject of Automotive Engineering so that
he/she can follow current literature on research and development or work towards the solution
of a particular problem.
Y. Samim ÜNLÜSOY
Ankara
ii
CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE ii
CONTENTS iii
CHAPTER I PNEUMATIC TIRE

I-1. Introduction I-1
I-2. Tyre Nomenclature I-3
I-3. Types of Carcass Construction I-4
I-4. Tyre Materials I-8
I-5. Tread Pattern I-11
I-6. Aspect Ratio I-17
I-7. Ply Rating I-16
I-8. Early Tire Designations I-18
I-9 New Tire Designations I-21
I-10 Tire Manufacture I-25
Exercises I-28
CHAPTER II WHEELS
II-1. Introduction II-1
II-2. Wheel Dimensions and Basic Designation II-1
II-3 Automobile Wheels II-2
II-4. Commercial Vehicle Wheels II-6
CHAPTER III STEERING SYSTEM

III-1. Introduction III-1
III-2. Basic Types of Steering Systems III-1
III-3. Geometrically Correct Steering III-4
III-4. Determination of Steering Error III-6
III-4.1 Graphical Method III-6
III-4.2 Analytical Method III-8
III-5. Multi-axle Steering III-12
III-6. Ackerman Linkage III-15
III-7. Steering System Arrangement III-16
III-7.1 Steering Gear Requirements III-18
III-7.2 Types of Steering Gear III-19
III-8. Turning Radius III-21
Exercises III-27
iii
CHAPTER IV VEHICLE HANDLING

IV-1. Introduction IV-1
IV-2. Tire Cornering Force Characteristics IV-3
IV-3. Parameters Influencing Tire Cornering Force
Characteristics IV-8
IV-3.1 Effects of Inflation Pressure IV-8
IV-3.2 Effects of Camber Angle IV-9
IV-3.3 Effects of Tractive Effort IV-11
IV-4. Self Aligning Torque IV-13
IV-5. Plane Motions of Vehicles IV-14
IV-5.1 Tire Slip Angles IV-17
IV-5.2 Bicycle Model IV-18
IV-5.3 Handling Behaviour IV-21
Exercises IV-26
CHAPTER V VEHICLE SUSPENSIONS

V-1. Basic Functions V-1
V-2. Basic Components V-2
V-3. Suspension Geometry V-8
V-4. Types of Vehicle Suspensions V-13
V-4.1 Rigid Axle Suspensions V-14
V-4.2 Independent Wheel Suspensions V-19
V-4.3 Interconnected Suspensions V-28
V-5. Anti-Roll Bar V-30
V-6. Roll Centre’s and Roll Axis V-31
V-7. Kinematic Analysis of Suspension Systems V-35
Exercises V-47
CHAPTER VI VEHICLE RIDE

VI-1. Introduction VI-1
VI-2. Vibrational Characteristics of Vehicles VI-2
VI-3. Evaluation of Ride Quality for Motor Vehicles VI-3
VI-4 Body Bounce VI-5
VI-5 Wheel Hop VI-10
VI-6 Quarter Car Model VI-12
VI-7 Body Bounce and Pitch VI-20
Exercises VI-25
iv
CHAPTER VII VEHICLE BODY CONSTRUCTION VII-1

VII-1. Introduction VII-1
VII-2. Functions VII-1
VII-3. Basic Types VII-3
VII-4. Vehicle Loads VII-6
VII-5. Conventional Design Process VII-7
VII-5.1 Styling and Clay Prototypes VII-7
VII-5.2 Full Size Clay Model VII-11
VII-5.3 Final Drawing VII-12
VII-5.4 Production VII-12
VII-6 Recent Developments VII-13
REFERENCES R-1
v
Automotive Engineering Y. Samim Ünlüsoy
CHAPTER I
PNEUMATIC TIRE
I-1. Introduction
The transition from the early wooden and steel wheels first to solid rubber tires and
then to pneumatic tires has probably had the most significant share in the level of sophistication
reached by motor vehicles today. The development of the pneumatic tire has contributed
significantly to the improved ride comfort, directional control, and stability, as well as to the
safety and economy of the motor vehicle.
The first pneumatic tire was patented in 1845 by a Scottish engineer, R.W.
Thomson, who sought to reduce the tractive effort to pull horse carriages and the noise they
made when in motion. His tire consisted of a tube of rubberized canvas covered by a leather
case which was bolted to a wooden rim, as shown in Fig. I-l. It was again the need to reduce
the required tractive effort that led J.B. Dunlop, a Scottish veterinary surgeon, to re-invent the
pneumatic tire in 1888 for his son's tricycle. His pneumatic tire was produced by nailing a
natural rubber and cotton canvas to a wooden wheel.
Rivet
Leather
Rubberized Canvas
Wooden Rim
Bolts
Figure I-1. Thomson's pneumatic tire
I-1
The advantages of the pneumatic tire soon became evident and enjoyed popularity
in the cycle industry. Its application to motor vehicles, however, had to wait for the inventions
patented by an Englishman C.K. Welsh and 36 days later by an American W. Bartlett in 1890,
leading to detachable tires. The former invention incorporated steel wires and the latter internal
air pressure to keep the tire on the rim, as shown in Fig. I-2. Finally, in 1895, a Frenchman, E.
Michelin, produced the first practical pneumatic tire for use on motor vehicles.
Fabric
Fabric
Rim
flange
Tube
Tube
Wire
Rim
Spokes
(a) (b)
Figure I-2. Rim and bead designs of 1890, by a) C. K. Welsh, b) W. Bartlett
I-2
I-2. Tire Nomenclature
The load carried by the pneumatic tire cannot be related directly to the product of
the inflation pressure and the contact area of the tire with the road surface. The common belief
that it is the air inside the tire that carries the load, therefore, cannot be justified. It is evident
that the outer rubber structure which forms the flesh of the tire cannot support the internal air
pressure without a skeleton. This skeleton, which is called the carcass, is stressed by the air
pressure and the other imposed loads on the tire and thus has a powerful influence on the
determination of the final characteristics of the tire.
The pneumatic tire consists of three primary components. The carcass of a tire is
composed of several layers of plies which are coated by a rubber compound on both sides.
These layers maintain the internal air pressure of the tire in supporting the load. All plies are
tied into bundles of steel wire which are called bead wires. The beads are the parts that fit the
tire on the rim, preventing the tire from slipping out of the rim while the vehicle is in motion.
Tread is the fleshy wearing surface of the tire and is molded to the carcass. It is manufactured
from synthetic rubber compounds and provides resistance to abrasion and cutting, as well as a
tread pattern to grip the road.
The standard nomenclature used for pneumatic tires of motor vehicles is shown in
Fig. I-3.
Nominal Section Width (NSW)
Drainage groove
Tread
Upper side wall
Breaker belts Nominal

Rubbing Carcass plies Section
(kerbing) Height
rib Tube (NSH)
Lower side wall Bead
Bead flange Well

Valve
Bead seat Nominal Rim
Wheel rim Diameter (NRD)
Figure I-3. Tire nomenclature
I-3
I-3. Types of Carcass Construction
There are two basic types of carcass construction:
i) Cross (bias or diagonal in the USA) ply,

ii) Radial ply.
These two basic constructions are illustrated in Fig. I-4.
A third type is produced by a combination of the two basic constructions and is

named the belted bias tire. The belted bias carcass construction is illustrated in Fig. I-5.
Body plies Tread Breaker belt plies

Tread
Body plies
Sidewall
Liner
Liner Sidewall
Bead bundle
Bead bundle
Figure I-4. Construction of cross and radial ply tires
Breaker belt plies

Body plies Tread
Sidewall
Liner
Bead bundle
Figure I-5. Belted bias carcass construction
I-4
In the early versions of the pneumatic tire, the carcass consisted of rubberized cotton
canvas consisting of woven cords embedded into a matrix of rubber, as illustrated in Fig. I-6.
The chafing caused by the motion of the warp (longitudinal cords) and weft (lateral cords)
during the deformation of the tire at the road contact patch together with the generation of heat
in the natural rubber used resulted in a tire life of about 3-4000 km only.
Warp Weft
Rubber Matrix
Cords
Figure I-6 Rubberized canvas (woven fabric)
To overcome this deficiency, the first idea was to eliminate weft completely and use unwoven
fabric consisting of layers of cords (threads) kept apart from each other by rubber.
Cords
Rubber Matrix
Figure I-7 Unwoven fabric
It soon became apparent, however, that the characteristics related to ride comfort and
directional stability of the vehicle were mutually opposed and depended strongly on the
direction of the cords in the fabric layers. When the direction of the cords approached the
circumferential direction, directional stability improved, and the ride got harsher. If, on the
other hand, the cords were placed at right angles to the circumference softest ride was
obtained, but the directional stability was almost entirely lost.
I-5
Bias (crown) angle
Circumferential line
Figure I-8 Bias (or crown) angle
As a result of these experiments, cross-ply tires were introduced in the early 1920s
with a tenfold increased tire life. In this type of construction, the carcass is made up of two or
more plies (layers) of fabric that have all its cords running in one direction only. To obtain the
apparent compromise between the two extremes, layers are placed such that the cords make an
angle (bias or crown angle) of 45 degrees with the circumferential line of the tire, Fig. I-8. The
adjacent layers are placed at opposite bias. The bias angle was later reduced to about 40 degrees.
In racing car tires, bias angles down to 25 degrees are encountered.
The idea of dividing the tasks of providing a soft ride and reasonable directional
control and stability between the two parts of the carcass led to the development of the radial-
ply tire. In this construction, the cords in the plies run from bead to bead across the
circumferential line resulting in a very flexible sidewall. A very soft ride is thus assured.
Directional stability and control are provided by a number (a minimum of two) of belts called
breakers running round the circumference beneath the tread. The cords of the belts are slightly
diagonal with bias angles of about 20 degrees. The zone beneath the tread is firmly restricted
by the belts, and the lateral stiffness is increased. The overall result is reduced distortion as the
tire passes through the contact area with the road surface. There is less friction between the
cords of the plies, and less heat is generated.
The first example of the radial-ply tire as described above was the Michelin X
introduced in 1948. Since then, the radial-ply tire has been accepted as the standard tire in the
automobile industry. This is natural in view of the radial's many advantages. In addition to a
longer life, it offers better cornering ability and directional stability together with lower rolling
resistance to give improved fuel consumption and performance.
I-6
In the USA, in spite of its advantages, the adoption of radial-ply tires took some
time because of the considerable expense involved in switching production from the cross to
radial-ply tires. American tire manufacturers chose for a transition period to use their existing
equipment to produce bias-belted tires. Bias-belted carcass construction consists basically of
biased plies as in cross-ply tires and layers of belts beneath the tread as in radial tires and as
such incorporates some features of both. Bias belted tires have not been accepted outside the
USA to any extent.
I-7
I-4. Tire Materials
Natural rubber (NR), in its original state, is not a consistent engineering material.
The means of imparting the desired properties of strength and elasticity to NR was accidentally
discovered by C. Goodyear in 1839. This process involved heating NR mixed with sulfur and
is called vulcanization. For many years after this discovery, tires were produced entirely of NR.
It was shown in 1826 that the composition of NR could be expressed by the formula (C5H8)n,
and in 1860 isoprene, C5H8, was isolated. Soon after, several synthetic rubber-like materials
were produced from isoprene. Today, many synthetic rubber materials suitable for use in rubber
compounds are available, and tires are manufactured almost entirely from various blends of
synthetic rubbers.
Figure I-9 Isoprene
I-4.1 Tread and Sidewall Materials
The rubber compound to be used in the tread must meet a number of requirements.
It must provide a high frictional coefficient on the road surface. An adequate grip is expected
on all kinds of road surfaces, cold, hot, wet, or covered with snow or ice. Tread rubber must
have excellent abrasion resistance as well as resistance to tearing and cutting. It must provide
acceptable behavior against cracking and oxygen and ozone attack. The ability to bond to
carcass material effectively is still another requirement. Similar requirements are to be met by
sidewall rubber, with the emphasis being on the cracking, abrasion, and bonding characteristics.
It is evident that to meet such a diverse list of requirements, a compound of various synthetic
rubbers together with other additives is necessary.
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is the most common synthetic material used in

such compounds. It owes its popularity to the fact that it has excellent resistance to abrasion
and a high degree of energy absorption (hysteresis), resulting in a less springy tire to provide a
softer ride with good grip, particularly on wet road surfaces. Increasing the oil content of SBR
results in oil extended SBR (OESBR), with even more improved wet grip. In addition, it is
made from readily available materials and makes a firm bond with carcass materials. Its
I-8
weaknesses are few. Tear resistance and propagation of cuts and resistance to cracking in case
of large deflections which are inferior with respect to NR are among these few.
Another very useful synthetic rubber is polybutadiene (BR or sometimes PB)

which is very hard to wear and less sensitive to changes in temperature than other rubbers. Its
resistance to cutting and tear propagation is also exceptionally high. However, too much of it
will make tires scream on dry roads and slip on wet roads. It is usually added to SBR, to NR,
or both in small quantities, causing a significant improvement in wear resistance with a slight
decrease in wet grip because of its high resilience.
The synthetic, which is the nearest thing to natural rubber, is polyisoprene (PI). PI
is mixed in small quantities with SBR or NR to provide better abrasion resistance due to its
excellent wearing properties and extremely low sensitivity to heat. It is particularly suited for
use in truck tires that run at relatively high temperatures.
I-4.2 Inner Lining Materials
The most crucial requirement in the case of inner tubes and the lining of tubeless
tires is that of low permeability to gases. The synthetic rubber which meets this requirement
best is the butyl rubber (IIR) which also has very high hysteresis and traction characteristics. It
cannot be used as a tread material because it blends neither with NR and nor with SBR.
I-4.3 Carcass Materials
In carcass construction, the best material for impregnating and coating the fabrics
is still natural rubber. In the early tires, cotton cords were used in the plies. The later use of
plies made up of rayon, polyester, nylon, glass fiber, and more recently, aramids embedded in
rubber has resulted in increased life as well as the load-carrying capacity of tires.
1-4.4 Breaker Cord Materials
The usual cord materials for the breaker belts of the radial-ply tires are rayon and
fine steel wire. Steel belted radials (SBR) offer better cornering ability and directional control,
lower rolling resistance improved fuel consumption and performance for the vehicle - and
longer life at the expense of inferior ride comfort and quietness in addition to a 10 percent
higher cost compared with textile belted radials (TBR). Recently nylon and glass fiber have
been used for breaker cords. The former is stronger, more elastic, and more flexible than rayon
and is preferred for applications involving high speeds and heavy loads. It tends, however, to
lose its flexibility when cold. The latter is very strong and elastic but requires special techniques
in production.
I-9
I-4.5 Additives
In addition to the main ingredients above, there are other additives used in rubber
compounds. The most important of these are the following.
i/ Vulcanizing agents to impart strength and elasticity, basically sulfur.

ii/ Activators and accelerators to modify the chemical action before or during
vulcanization.
iii/ Fillers to provide cheap bulk to save expensive rubber. Carbon black is the best
filler that provides extra strength and resistance to wear and, as such, can be considered as a
reinforcing agent as well. Carbon black gives the tires their characteristic black color. Recently,
in the so-called “energy tires”, some of the carbon black in the compound is replaced by silica.
This reduces the rolling resistance and improves traction on wet or snowy road surfaces, while
life and ride are unaffected.
iv/ Plastisizers (extenders) and softeners to reduce time and temperatures involved
in processing. Oils of petroleum origin are used as extenders, and they provide the additional
benefit of the better road holding at the expense of rapid tire wear.
v/ Antioxidants and antiozonants to preserve the consistency of rubber in time.
I - 10
I-5. Tread Pattern
The primary function of the tread pattern is to improve the tire grip, particularly on
road surfaces covered with water, snow, slush, mud, or ice. In performing its function, the tread
pattern must meet the requirements on tread wear, noise generated, and other characteristics
peculiar to the particular conditions and applications.
A completely smooth tire would give the greatest possible area of contact between
the tire tread and the road surface, and consequently, the best possible grip, provided that the
road surface is clean and dry. It will also have the longest working life because of reduced
loading on the unit area of rubber. Such a tire would have hardly any grip, however, in the
presence of even a slight amount of water on the road surface. The water forms, in this case, a
lubricating film between the tire and the road surface, causing a loss of steering control and
braking ability. If the amount of water is appreciable, it builds up in front of and beneath the
tire forming a wedge as illustrated in Fig. I-9. The tire will then be lifted off the road and slide
on the water with no directional control. This phenomenon is called aquaplaning (or
hydroplaning).
Water
Road Surface
Figure I-9. Aqua(hydro)planing
To help the tire to grip the road surface in the presence of water, a tread pattern
consisting of longitudinal primary and secondary drainage grooves (channels), lateral drainage
grooves, and micro slits like knife cuts, which are called sipes, must be provided. If there is
only a thin film of water on the road, the tread pattern breaks through the film and grips the
road surface. In the case of larger amounts of water on the road, the same function is performed
in three stages.
I - 11
i/ The tread pattern pushes the water aside and pumps it backward and sideways
through the drainage grooves.
ii/ The remaining thin film of water is broken by the tread pattern, and the small
amount of water left on the surface is absorbed by the sipes, which act like a sponge.
iii/ The tread pattern contacts the now dry road surface to develop the maximum
possible grip.
It should be clear that as vehicle speed increases, there will be less time for the tread
pattern to perform its function, and the grip provided will decrease. Aquaplaning is a possibility
even with new tires of good tread design if there is plenty of water on the road and the vehicle
speed is high enough.
In improving the grip of the tire, the mere frictional transmission of loads involved
in acceleration, braking, and cornering is not sufficient, and some kind of mechanical grip must
be provided. This requirement is met by a tread pattern having well-defined and sharp edges.
When these biting edges are parallel to the circumference of the tire, good steering and
cornering characteristics are obtained. Good traction and braking, on the other hand, are
obtained with biting edges perpendicular to the circumference. Since traction, braking, and
steering are all critical to most motor vehicles, the obvious compromise is to position these
edges diagonally in a zig-zag pattern as illustrated in Fig. I-10.
Figure I-10. Tread pattern
I - 12
Basic types of tread patterns and their properties and applications are summarized
below.
Rib Shape: This tread pattern is characterized by multiple

circumferential grooves. Advantages include lower rolling resistance plus
good directional stability, and steering control. Rib-type patterns are
suitable for sustained high speeds because of their low levels of heat
generation. They have, however, poor braking and acceleration grip on wet
roads, and their use is confined to paved road surfaces and steered axles of trucks and buses.
Lug shape: These patterns are identified by their groove

arrangements perpendicular to the circumference of the tire. The main
advantage of lug patterns is their excellent braking and traction
characteristics. Lug patterns are not suitable for high-speed driving due to
their high rolling resistance and noise generation. They are mainly used for
dirt roads, rear wheels of buses and agricultural tractors, industrial vehicles, and dump trucks.
Rib-Lug shape: This is a combination of rib and lug designs.

The main features are a rib in the center providing directional control and
shoulder lugs giving good braking and traction characteristics. They find
applications in tires for both paved and dirt roads and are usually used in
both front and rear wheels of trucks and buses.
Block-shape: These consist of independent blocks created by

intersecting circumferential and lateral grooves. Block patterns provide
good steering control and stability on snow-covered and wet roads as well
as good water dispersal properties in the wet. However, because the tread
blocks are smaller, tire wear tends to be fast. They are suitable for winter
or all-season passenger car tires.
Asymmetric pattern: In this pattern, the design is different on

either side of the tire. Asymmetric tires have been designed to optimize the
opposing requirements of dry grip and water dispersal. They are suitable for
high-speed cornering due to the greater contact area (low void ratio), which
helps reduce tread wear on the outside of the tire. On the inside, the void
ratio is higher to give a better wet grip. Asymmetric tires must be positioned the right way
around as marked. They are implemented on high-performance vehicle tires.
I - 13
Directional pattern: These are tread patterns characterized by

lateral grooves on both sides of the tire which point in the same direction.
The advantages of directional tread patterns are good driving force and
braking performance. In particular directional patterns provide good water
dispersal, meaning stability on wet roads. Directional tires must be mounted
in the direction of the tread pattern. They are used on passenger car tires for high-speed use.
I-5.1 Void Ratio
The ratio of rubber-free (void) area to total area on the footprint of a tire is known
as the void ratio.
Void area = Total footprint area – Rubber (touching road) area
The void ratio strongly affects the grip and wear characteristics of a tire. If the void
ratio is large, then the wet grip is improved at the expense of tire wear and dry road grip and
handling. The smaller the void ratio is, the better would be the tire wear and dry road grip, but
now the wet grip will be degraded.
I-5.3 Seasonal Variations
Different tread patterns have been developed to suit various applications. For
example, winter tires have wide and deep grooves on the tread to break away and clear loose
upper surfaces of snow, slush, mud, and stones. This makes it possible for the tire to get a good
grip on the firmer surface beneath. The tread pattern must then be able to clean itself; otherwise,
its effectiveness will be reduced. The large rubber blocks of these tires, however, wear out
rapidly through overheating if used on dry roads at high speeds. Several examples for various
different applications are shown in Fig. I-11.
I-5.2 Noise Generation
There are three sources of tire noise generation. The first is related to friction
between tread rubber and road surface and is influenced by the type of rubber compound used.
The second is due to the distortion and vibration of the carcass as the tire rolls over irregular
road surfaces. The periodic contact between the tread blocks and the road surface is the third
source. If the tread pattern repeats itself accurately, this will result in noise with a dominant
frequency and its harmonics, depending on vehicle speed. To avoid this very disturbing type of
noise, it is usual to introduce intentional irregularities in tread patterns such as slightly varying
block sizes or groove patterns.
I - 14
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Figure I-11 Tires with various different tread pattern designs.

a. Rib type: Circumferential grooves for silent operation and better directional
control,
b. Lug type: Tread for high traction performance, especially in off-road operation,
c. Block type: Circumferential grooves with teeth for handling and high traction
performance,
d. Block type: For better traction and braking, especially on mud and snow,
e. Block type: Snow and mud tire.
I - 15
I-6. Aspect Ratio
One of the most critical dimensions of a tire is the aspect ratio

section height
 = aspect ratio =
section width (I-1)
which is usually expressed as a percentage. The relevant terminology is given in Fig. I-12.
Nominal Section Width (NSW)
Nominal
Section
Height
(NSH)
Nominal Rim
Diameter (NRD)
Figure I-12. Tire-rim terminology
Because the pneumatic tire evolved from a simple circular-section tube, the 100
percent ratio remained standard for several decades. It was found, however, that a tire behaved
better when mounted on a wider rim - which increased the actual section width. A new
European standard became established for the so-called low-pressure (super-balloon) tires with
a ratio of about 95 percent. These tires were increasingly popular because the lower aspect ratio
proved to give a better high-speed performance, better load carrying capacity, better wear, and
higher cornering power.
The aspect ratio could not be reduced further because the shorter sidewalls and
excellent vertical stiffness of the lower profile gave a harsher ride. Thus only as vehicle
suspension systems became more sophisticated and vibration insulation more universal, further
steps could be taken to lower the ratio without reducing the level of comfort below what was
acceptable.
In time this was achieved with an 88 percent aspect ratio which became known as
the medium-low profile and which was not superseded until the advent of the first fabric-
breaker radial-ply tires. These needed a low aspect ratio if they were to exploit all their
potential, and so a new European standard of 83 % was evolved, being referred to as low profile.
I - 16
In the United States, the industry ignored radial-ply tires, and the 83 percent ratio
never really caught on. Concentration there was on the development of bias-ply designs with
an ultra-low profile with an aspect ratio of 78 percent.
Since 1966 the Americans pioneered a 70 percent profile for bias-ply tires and
called them the Wide Ovals. In Europe, 70 percent aspect ratio was first applied to radial-ply
tires, and the preferred term for these tires is 70 series.
More recently, profiles have come down even further. Tires down to 45 percent
aspect ratio are quite common in the USA and Europe as radials. The trend towards decreasing
aspect ratios is likely to continue in the future, and tires of 25 percent aspect ratio are being
used in racing.
The reason for the trend to lower aspect ratios is that they offer the possibilities of
improvement in most performance parameters except ride comfort, which is decreased. All
these changes, whether improvements such as greater load-carrying capacity or otherwise (e.g.,
ride comfort), are derived from the generally greater vertical and lateral stiffness of the low
profile of the tire.
There are other reasons for adopting low profile tires that bear no relationship to
the performance of a tire at all:
- One of the most persuasive factors influencing the American car manufacturers
was that it enabled them to fit larger diameter wheel rims to cars of the existing design, thus
making room for larger or better-ventilated brakes.
- Further, stylists would insist on wide low-profile tires, and their views just cannot
be ignored.
I-7. Ply rating
A tire's strength and load-carrying capacity were at one time indicated by the
number of plies, a four-ply rating (marked 4PR), meaning that the tire carcass was made with
four layers. Although ply rating is still used to indicate the load-carrying capacity, the stronger
materials used today mean that fewer plies are needed. Thus, today, ply rating is an index of
strength that does not necessarily represent the number of plies in the tire. A tire marked with
a four-ply rating, for example, may only have two plies in the casing. Private cars are fitted
with 4PR tires, light vans and estate cars that are usually used fully laden should be fitted with
6PR tires, and commercial vehicles are fitted with 10, 12, or 14 PR tires.
I - 17
I-8. Early Tire Designations
Tire markings on the sidewall

indicate the tire size and, in some cases, the
maximum speed rating as well as the load
capacity. These apply to a fitted, properly
inflated tire carrying its rated load. There have
been various tire markings in the history of
pneumatic tires, as explained below. The relevant dimensions are as illustrated in Fig. I.9.
(i) International Tire Designation :

This designation is commonly used for cross-ply tires. A typical example is :
5.60 - 15
where 5.60 is the nominal section width in inches, and
15 is the nominal rim diameter in inches.
(ii) Millimeter-inch Designation:

This designation is now obsolete. A typical example is :
165 - 15
where 165 is the nominal section width in mm, and
(iii) Early Radial Tire Designation

This designation is still used even though it has become outdated. A typical example
is :
165 SR 13
where 165 is the nominal section width in mm,
S is the speed rating that indicates that this particular tire can be used up to 180
[kph]. Other alternative letters are H and V, which indicate allowable speeds up to 210 and
above 210 [kph], respectively,
R indicates that the tire is a radial-ply tire, and
(iv) P-Metric Designation (ISO):

This is a passenger tire designation system originated by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) and had been considered, until recently, to become the international
passenger car tire standard. A typical example is given in Figure I-13.
I - 18
P 205 / 75 R 14
P = passenger
T = temporary
NOMINAL
SECTION ASPECT CONSTRUCTION NOMINAL RIM
WIDTH [mm] RATIO*100
INDICATOR DIAMETER (")
.
. . R = radial 13
. 70 B = bias belted 14
175 75 D = diagonal 15
185 80 (bias)
195 .
205 .
.
.
Figure I-13 P-metric size designation nomenclature
As illustrated in Figure I-13 :
- P is for the passenger (T is for temporary) - optional,

- 205 is the nominal section width in mm. Nominal section widths are permitted in
10 mm increments with endings in "5", e.g. ....., 175, 185, 195, 205 .....,
- 75 is the aspect ratio with endings in "0" or "5", e.g. ....., 70, 75, 80, .....,
- R is the construction indicator: R-radial, B-bias belted, D-diagonal, and
- 14 is the nominal rim diameter in inches (for the time being, due to the current
worldwide availability of rims. New rim designs that are incompatible with current rims will
have nominal rim diameters designated in millimeters).
I - 19
I-9. New Tire Designations
I-9.1 Designation for Automobile Tires :
Recently, a new designation that is based on the earlier P-metric designation has
been introduced. In this designation, a two-digit number varying from 50 to 110 and a capital
letter indicating the load capacity and the speed rating, respectively, are added, as illustrated in
Fig. I-14.
205 / 75 R 14 80 S Speed Rating [kph]

(See Table II-2)
NSW [mm]
. NRD ["]
.  (x100) Load Rating [kgf]
165 . 13 (See Table II-3)
175 80 14
R for radial 15
185 75 D for diagonal
. 70 B for bias belted
.
Figure I-14. New designation for automobile tires
The speed and load ratings indicated by the two-digit number and the capital letter
added at the end of the designation are given in Table I-1 and I-2, respectively.
Table I-1. Speed ratings for automobile tires.
Letter Speed rating [kph]

L 120
M 130
N 140
P 150
Q 160
R 170
S 180
T 190
U 200
H 210
V 240
W 270
Y 300
Z >240
I - 21
Table I-2. Load ratings for automobile tires.
Designation Load Rating Designation Load Rating

[kgf] [kgf]
50 190 80 450
51 195 81 462
52 200 82 475
.53 206 83 487
54 212 84 500
55 218 85 515
56 224 86 530
57 230 87 545
58 236 88 560
59 242 89 580
60 250 90 600
61 257 91 615
62 265 92 630
63 272 93 650
64 280 94 670
65 290 95 690
66 300 96 710
67 307 97 730
68. 315 98 750
69 325 99 775
70 335 100 800
71 345 101 825
72 355 102 850
73 365 103 875
74 375 104 900
75 387 105 925
76 400 106 950
77 412 107 975
78 425 108 1000
79 437 109 1030
110 1060
I - 22
I-9.2 Designation for Commercial Vehicle Tires :
Designation for commercial vehicle tires consists of the basic tire dimensions and
construction indicator together with the load and speed ratings. A typical example is
11 R 22.5 145/142 L
where
11 is the nominal section width in inches,
R is the construction indicator - R for radial,
22.5 is the nominal rim diameter in inches,
145/142 is the load rating, the first number for a single wheel and the second number
for a tandem wheel (the actual load capacities are given in Table I-4.),
L is the speed rating according to Table I-3.
Some new commercial vehicle tires may have a designation including the aspect
ratio and/or nominal section width specified in [mm] just as in the case of automobile tires.
Table I-3. Speed ratings for commercial vehicle tires.
Letter Speed rating [kph]

E 70
F 80
G 90
J 100
K 110
L 120
M 130
N 140
I - 23
Table I-4. Load ratings for commercial vehicle tires.
Load Load
Load
Designation Rating Designation Rating Designation Rating [kgf]
[kgf] [kgf]
110 1060 142 2650 174 6700
111 1090 143 2725 175 6900
112 1120 144 2800 176 7100
113 1150 145 2900 177 7300
114 1180 146 3000 178 7500
115 1215 147 3075 179 7750
116 1250 148 3150 180 8000
117 1285 149 3250 181 8250
118 1320 150 3350 182 8500
119 1360 151 3450 183 8750
120 1400 152 3550 184 9000
121 1450 153 3660 185 9250
122 1500 154 3750 186 9500
123 1550 155 3875 187 9750
124 1600 156 4000 188 10000
125 1650 157 4125 189 10300
126 1700 158 4250 190 10600
127 1750 159 4375 191 10900
128 1800 160 4500 192 11200
129 1850 161 4625 193 11500
130 1900 162 4750 194 11800
131 1950 163 4875 195 12150
132 2000 164 5000 196 12500
133 2060 165 5150 197 12850
134 2120 166 5300 298 13200
135 2180 167 5450 299 13600
136 2240 168 5600 200 14000
137 2300 169 5800 201 14500
138 2360 170 6000 202 15000
139 2430 171 6150 203 15500
140 2500 172 6300 204 16000
141 2575 173 6500
I - 24
I-10. Tire Manufacture

The first process in the manufacture of tires is to masticate (to reduce to a pulp by
crushing or kneading) and compound raw rubber (natural and/or synthetic), carbon black, and
chemicals in a banbury (an internal mixer) to obtain a perfectly uniform compound. Sulfur and
other chemicals are added to the compound and heated in another mixer. This blend is called
the "masterbatch," and its make-up is carefully constructed according to the desired
performance parameters of the tire. A continuous strip is then formed using dual mills which
undergoes laboratory tests after cooling. The strips of the compound are used to:
i) coat textiles such as rayon, nylon, and polyester for the carcass plies and coat
steel cords for the breaker plies on both sides,
ii) coat bead wires,
iii) construct tread and sidewalls.
In shaping the tread and sidewall, the tread extruder forces hot pliable rubber
through a die which provides the correct shape, the compound is then cooled in a water tank,
and the tread and sidewalls are cut into lengths for different tire sizes.
Meanwhile, specially woven nylon or rayon fabric is dipped into a bath of latex-
based adhesive and then dried to remove excess moisture. It is then fed between rollers where
a hot sticky rubber compound coats each cord.
After passing through the rollers, the fabric is tested and then cut into measured
strips. Each strip is cut to the exact width and angle for the sizes and types of tires to be made.
The bead wire - that's what grips the wheel rim to form an air-tight seal between wheel and tire
- is made of strands of high tensile steel wires drawn together and coated with rubber. The wire
is given its circular shape by a wheel that winds onto itself the exact amount of wire required.
Tire building is traditionally a two-stage process. Although modern tire factories
now use a certain number of single-stage building machines, the two-stage building is still
widely used, particularly for the more standard sizes. In the first stage, the inner liner, the body
plies, and the sidewalls are placed on a building drum. The beads are then positioned, the ply
edges are turned around the bead core and the sidewalls are simultaneously moved into position.
In the second tire building stage, the tire is shaped by inflation with two belts, a cap ply and the
tread being added. At the end of this stage, the tire is now known as a "green tire".
I - 25
Automotive Engineering Y. Samim Ünlüso y
Figure I-15 Tire Manufacture
I - 26
The final process is tire molding. Here two types of presses are used :
- the bag molding,
- the diaphragm molding.
In the bag-molding method, an airbag to form the inside of the tire is fitted into the
built-up tire, which is then placed in the mold. Steam for heating the mold and hot water for
inflating the airbag is then released and the tire is shaped to the pattern of the mold.
For the diaphragm process, an automatic mold that has a built-in diaphragm (the
equivalent of the airbag) is used. A built-up tire is fitted over the diaphragm and is shaped
during the press closing sequence. Each tire is then trimmed (excess rubber is removed from
the cured tire). After visual inspection and tests, it is stamped "OK".
The process of tire manufacture is illustrated in Fig. I-15.
I - 27
Green Tire
Figure I-15 Processes in the manufacture of tires.
I - 28
Exercises
I-1) Sketch the tread patterns for two tires - provide all the designation written on the tires.
Compare the two with respect to :
i/ shape, size, and height of blocks,
ii/ number, depth, and width of circumferential and side drainage grooves,
iii/ relative proportion of side to circumferential drainage grooves,
iv/ number and size of sipes,
v/ any other visible characteristics.
Try to assess the relative performances of the two tires.
I-2) Associate each group of functions with one of the components of a pneumatic tire.
Function Groups
a) Transmit torque
Connection to the rim
Air Sealing
Fix the casing
c) Carcass Protection
Bead Protection
Ageing Protection
Fatigue Components
e) Handle Pressure 1) TREAD
Handle Torque 2) BEAD WIRES
Fatigue 3) SIDE WALLS
Impermeability 4) BREAKER BELTS
Suspension of wheel 5) CARCASS
b) Dimensional Stability
Handle Longitudinal Stress
Handle Cornering Forces
Tread Stabilization
d) Grip
Mileage
Carcass Protection
Low Noise
Aquaplaning
I - 29
I-3) Associate each of the following specified characteristics with one of the tire types listed.
Characteristics
1. Designed for wet and dry weather driving but not for use on snow or ice as they do not
provide the degree of traction offered by snow and all-season tires.
2. Provide maximum traction in snowy and icy conditions. The tread is designed for
maximum grip in those conditions, and the tire is also constructed out of special
material that remains pliable in cold weather. The tradeoff for this increased traction
generally includes less handling ability on dry pavement, increased noise levels, and
more rapid tread wear.
3. Provide a good balance for drivers looking for increased traction in rain or snow, as
well as the handling, ride, and treadwear benefits offered by summer tires.
4. Offer a degree of handling, grip, and cornering ability superior to that of other tires.
To provide a higher degree of performance, the tires must be able to withstand
significantly higher temperatures. Consumers are typically willing to accommodate
some tradeoffs in treadwear and ride comfort to attain this high degree of performance.
5. Developed over the past few years in order to provide the all-season capability for
enthusiasts, which feature performance enhancement as well as good traction on snow
and ice.
List of Tire Types

a. All-Season Tires
b. Snow Tires
c. All-Season Performance Tires
d. Summer Tires (also called Highway Tires)
e. Performance Tires
I - 30
I-4) What may be the possible advantages of the tubeless tires over tubed ones ?
I-5) Consider the tread pattern design of the tire shown.
i) What can you say about the surface for which it is designed ? Check the best
answer.
Hard , rocky , muddy , icy , sandy , wet .
ii) Check design priority.
Good directional control , Good traction ,Good directional control and traction 
I-6) Consider the tires shown below. Looking at the tread pattern, compare the two with
respect to directional control, traction and braking, and wet weather performance.
I - 31
I-7) Tread patterns with rib designs (design elements principally oriented in the
circumferential direction) have good lateral traction and uniform wear characteristics. They
find almost exclusive use in tires designed for use on steering axles and on trailers where slow
and uniform wear characteristics are even more appreciated.
On drive axles, traction is of primary importance, and fast wear is induced by slip due to
traction. Then cross-lug design (design elements oriented in the lateral direction) offers the best
performance. When even greater lateral and longitudinal traction requirements are required,
tread pattern designs with tread elements in both lateral and circumferential directions have
been designed.
In view of the information given above, associate each description with one of the 3 tires and
explain your reasoning.
1) Tire designed for fitment to steering axles of trucks for specific winter use.
2) Tire designed for fitment to driven axles of high-powered vehicles. Improved water
drainage and excellent grip
3) Tire designed for single fitment on towed axles of trailers and semitrailers. Provides
excellent transversal grip and braking characteristics.
a) b) c)
I-8) Compare textile and steel-belted radials with respect to the characteristics listed below.
Explain the source of superiority for each case. (For example, steel-belted radials are better
w.r.t. directional stability, since steel corded breaker belts result in higher lateral stiffness and
thus higher cornering power.)
a) Ride comfort
b) Cost
c) Performance
d) Noise
e) Life
I-9) Find out about the sidewall markings of automobile tires and identify the information
marked and numbered on the tire below.
I - 32
I - 33
CHAPTER II
WHEELS
II-1. Introduction
A wheel is that rotating part of a suspension system that supports the tire. It consists
of two main elements :
i / The rim is the supporting frame for the tire.

ii / The disc provides the connection between the rim and the wheel hub.
These two elements may be integral or are joined together either permanently by
welding or by bolts and nuts (i.e., detachable). Wheels can be classified according to the type
of service as follows :
i/ Automobile wheels.
ii / Wheels for commercial vehicles.
iii / Agricultural tractor wheels.
iv / Motorcycle, bicycle, and moto-scooter wheels.
v/ Industrial and fork-lift truck wheels.
vi / Wheels for earth-moving machinery.
Only the first two types, i.e., the automobile wheels and wheels for commercial
vehicles, will be examined here.
II-2. Wheel Dimensions / Basic Designation
A wheel is designated by two major dimensions; width and diameter of its rim, both
given in inches. A typical designation is, therefore, may be of the form
5.50 x 13
The cross sign, x, separating the two dimensions, indicates that the rim has a single-piece
construction as in automobile and agricultural tractor wheels. Commercial vehicle wheels, on
the other hand, may have rims consisting of two or more detachable pieces for ease of tire
mounting and removal. These wheels are identified by using a dash “-“ instead of the cross in
the designation, i.e.
5.50 - 16
II - 1
II-3. Automobile Wheels
The automobile wheel has a single-piece rim spot welded to the disc. The
nomenclature for a typical automobile wheel is given in Fig. II-1. The central part of the rim
has a large peripheral depression which is called a "well" or "drop center" to facilitate mounting
and removal of the tire. The flats on both sides of the drop center provide the bead seats and
the two flanges retain the tire on the rim under the action of lateral tire forces.
The cross-section of the rim is usually asymmetrical, with the drop center displaced
towards the outside of the wheel to allow more space for the brake assembly inside the wheel.
The distance between the rim centerline and the mounting face of the disc is called the "offset".
There are some symmetrical rims as well, however, and they are distinguished from
asymmetrical rims by the addition of a suffix S at the end of the designation, i.e.
5.50 x 13 - S
Rim Width
Flange
Well
(Drop
Center)
Offset Rim
Diameter
DISC
RIM
Figure II-1. A typical automobile wheel.
II - 2
Sizes and tolerances of rims have been standardized, and inch units are used
internationally. Rim widths vary from 4 inches to 9 inches in half-inch increments, the most
commonly used sizes being in the range of 4.0 to 5.5 inches. Rim diameters vary from 12 to 19
inches, the most commonly used sizes being 13 to 15 inches.
There are several rim flange shapes with different heights, widths, and curvatures.
They have been standardized into six basic shapes, designated by letters B, J, JJ, JK, K, and L,
as illustrated in Fig. II-2 below.
L
K
JK
JJ
J
B
o
5
Figure II-2. Rim flange shapes.
The flange shape is indicated in the wheel designation by the shape symbol placed
after the rim width.
5.50 JJ x 13
To improve the seating of the tire beads and ensure a tight fit, the surfaces on both sides of the
well are slightly tapered. The standard slope towards the well is 5 degrees for automobile
wheels. The seats may be flat or have a small obstruction called a "hump" at the well side. If
the hump has a flat top, then it is called a "flat hump". These special bead seat contours keep
the tire beads from being forced off the seats and fall into the well while cornering. Thus the
accidental loss of air in tubeless tires is prevented. In addition, if the tire blows out, it won't
leave the rim, improving safety and stability. If the seat is flat with no hump, then the bead seat
is called "special ledge". The shapes of the hump, flat hump, and special ledge contours are
given in Fig. II-3.
II - 3
Plain Hump
o
5
o
5
Flat Hump Special Ledge

o o
5 5
Figure II-3. Bead seat contours.
A rim may have any of these bead seat contours on any side of the well and is named
according to the particular combination. Table II-2 gives a list of the combinations most
commonly used and their corresponding symbols for use in wheel designations.
Table II-2. Bead seat contour combinations.
Designation Bead Seat Contour Symbol

Outside Inside
Hump Hump Normal H
Double hump Hump Hump H2
Flat hump Flat hump Normal FH
Double flat hump Flat hump Flat hump FH2
Combination hump Flat hump Hump CH
Special ledge Special ledge Normal SL
II - 4
Special bead seat contours are indicated by adding the appropriate symbol to the
end of the basic rim designation, for example
5.50 JJ x 13 H2 - S
If there is no bead seat contour indication, then the bead seats are plain (5o slope towards the
well).
The disc shape has not been standardized to any extend and is determined according
to:
i/ the type (disc or drum) and the size of the brakes

ii / the shape of the hub
iii / the number of wheel studs
iv / the method of mounting the hub cap
v/ the geometry of the steering system, etc.
Therefore the shape of the disc varies widely from one vehicle to another.
Construction-wise, the wheels are either made from rolled sheet steel strips welded to pressed
steel plate discs or cast from a light magnesium-aluminum alloy and machined. Wire wheels
have also been used for a long time.
Cast Wheel Steel Wheel Wire Wheel
II - 5
II-4. Wheels for Commercial Vehicles
Since commercial vehicle tires have a very rigid body construction, the rim drop
center is either very shallow or non-existent. This is because the well cannot provide ease of
mounting and removal for the tire, and the rim is made up of two or more pieces. A typical
commercial vehicle wheel and the nomenclature used are given in Fig. II-4.
Rim Width Flange
Rim
Disc
Rim
Diameter
Offset
Figure II-4. A typical commercial vehicle wheel.
The principal commercial vehicle rim profiles are illustrated in Fig. II-5. The wide
base 5o tapered rim is the most widely used type. The flat base rim, on the other hand, has
minimal use. Semi-drop center rims are mainly used on light commercial vehicle wheels. The
wide base 15o tapered rim has a single-piece construction and is suitable for use with tubeless
tires. The highly tapered bead seats ensure maximum tightness and security. The drop center
enables ease of mounting and removal of the tire as in automobile wheels.
II - 6
o
5o 5 5
o
5
o
Wide base 5 o tapered rim Semi-drop center rim
o o
15 15
o
Flat base rim Wide base 15 tapered rim
Figure II-5. Rim profiles for commercial vehicle wheels.
In wheels consisting of more than one piece, one of the rim flanges is removable,
and it consists of one or two rings that are pushed in between the tire and the rim base. The
pieces are held together by mechanical interlocking and tire pressure. In light commercial
vehicles, a two-piece rim composed of a rim base and a combination ring is used. The
combination ring is split to make fitting and removal possible functions as the bead seat as well
as the flange. Three types of multi-piece rims are illustrated in Fig. II-6.
combination side ring side ring

ring
lock ring lock ring
rim base
rim base rim base
Rims for light Semi-drop Wide base rims

commercial center rims
vehicles
Figure II-6. Multi-piece rims.
The commonly used diameters for commercial vehicle wheels are 15, 17, 18, 20,
22, and 24 inches.
II - 7
CHAPTER III
STEERING SYSTEM
III-1. Introduction
All vehicles operating on a non-fixed path require some kind of a steering system
for directional control. Railway vehicles that operate on tracks have fixed paths and therefore
do not require steering.
Directional control includes a change of direction as well as the maintenance of the

required path under the influence of external forces.
III-2. Basic Types of Steering Systems
The following basic steering systems have been used for various vehicles depending
on the requirements of the particular application:
1) Differential (Skid) steering system
The introduction of a velocity differential across the two sides of a vehicle results
in a change of direction. The faster running side covers a greater distance in a given time, thus
turning the vehicle toward the slower running track, Figure III-1. It is also possible to make a
point turn. This system is mainly used in tracked (track laying) vehicles and on some particular
purpose (such as small loaders and combat vehicles) tired vehicles.
V
2
V
1
Figure III-1 Differential (skid) steering
III - 1
2) Articulated body steering
For this type of steering, the vehicle body is articulated (hinged) at the mid-section
about a vertical axis, Fig. III-2. The front half of the vehicle can thus be rotated with respect to
the rear half. The wheels are fixed on the body. As a result of articulation, the direction of the
front wheels changes with respect to the rear wheels, thus steering the vehicle.
Figure III-2 Articulated body steering
This system is used in some type of wheeled off-the-road vehicles in which

conventional pivoting of the steering wheels with respect to the body is not possible and/or
desirable. For example, a loader with large diameter tires would require an extremely wide
track at the front of the front wheels are to be pivoted with respect to the body.
3) Fifth wheel steering
This is the familiar system used in horse carriages. The front wheels are fixed on
the solid front axle and are always perpendicular to it. The axle is pivoted on the vehicle body
at its midpoint through a vertical axis. Thus, the axle is free to swivel in a horizontal plane, and
hence the name "fifth wheel" is given, Fig. III-3.
Figure III-3 Fifth wheel steering
III - 2
This type of steering system requires a lot of space and a heavy axle and therefore
is unsuitable for motor vehicles. It does, however, find applications in some trailer and
semitrailer designs.
4) Fixed pivot steering system
In this system, the steering wheels are pivoted about a vertical axis which is fixed
with respect to the body, as illustrated in Fig. III-4. The wheels are interconnected by the
steering linkage which controls their relative motion. The steering wheels maintain a prescribed
angular relationship with each other for the reasons explained in the following section.

C D 
G G
1 2

1

2
Figure III-4 Fixed pivot steering geometry.
It must be noted that the descriptions of the steering conditions described so far are
applicable in low-speed applications. At high speeds, deformation of the tires results in slip
angles which alter the position of the instantaneous center(s) of rotation.
III - 3
III-3. Geometrically Correct Steering
It is desirable, during cornering, to have all the wheels going through a purely
rotational motion without side-slipping, thus turning about a common instant center. This is
called pure rolling. If this condition is not satisfied, the wheels will work against each other,
producing increased wear on the tires, increased effort in the steering wheel, and additional
drag which increases fuel consumption and decreases traction. Pure rolling can only be
achieved by maintaining a particular angular relationship between the front wheels such that
when the steering wheels are deflected from the straight-ahead position, the extensions of their
axes of rotation intersect on the extension of the rear axle, Fig. III-5. Therefore, in Fig. III-4,
the distance between the points G1 and G2 can be interpreted as a measure of the deviation from
the pure rolling condition.
Geometrically correct steering implies that the condition for pure rolling is satisfied.
From Fig. III-5, it is seen that in such a case, the inside wheel must be turned towards the center
G through a greater angle than that of the outside wheel.
A B
a
b

C D 
G
Figure III-5. Geometrically correct steering
The required angular relationship can be obtained as follows:

CG
cot  = (III-1)
AC
DG
cot  = (III-2)
BD
b = CG - DG
a = AC = BD
III - 4
CG DG CG - DG b
cot  - cot  = - = =
AC BD a a
b (III-3)
 cot   cot 
a
Knowing the relation between the inner and outer wheel steering angles, in terms
of the vehicle parameters, to obtain pure rolling, one can now define a steering error for a given
steering linkage as :
   cor   act (III-4)
for a specified  where  cor is the angle obtained from eqn. (III-3) and  act is the actual angle
provided by the linkage.
The requirement for pure rolling of the wheels is fully satisfied by the articulated
body and the fifth wheel steering systems. For practical linkages of reasonable complexity and
cost, this relation can only be approximately satisfied over a specific range of steering by the
fixed pivot steering systems. However, practical limitations have made the fixed pivot steering
universal on high-speed vehicles.
The steering wheels are usually the front wheels due to stability reasons. If rear
wheels are used for steering, the vehicle will have better maneuverability at low-speed
conditions but at high speeds, an unstable situation will arise. Therefore rear-wheel steering is
used only on some low-speed vehicles operating within constrained area conditions such as
fork-lift trucks and some earthmoving and agricultural machinery.
It is possible to achieve better low-speed maneuverability by four-wheel steering

(4WS) while satisfying the geometrically correct steering condition, as illustrated in Figure III-
6. By steering wheels at the rear in addition to those on the front, a smaller turning radius can
be obtained, see Example III-2. Recent applications, however, have not been successful
because of certain adverse effects on high-speed behavior.
Front Rear
Figure III-6. Four-wheel steering
III - 5
III-4. Determination of Steering Error
There is no general analytical solution for the determination of the optimum

geometry for the Ackerman linkage, and both graphical and analytical solutions are commonly
used.
III-4.1 Graphical Method
As Fig. III-5 implies, the graphical method looks inconvenient, particularly for
small wheel deflections; the instant center of rotation lies at a point rather far away from the
main part of the drawing. To overcome this difficulty, the following procedure is suggested.
As shown in Fig. III-7:
i) From the steering pivots A and C, draw lines perpendicular to the rear axle,
intersecting it at points E and F.
ii) Draw line GE from the midpoint of the front axle.
iii) Then, the lines drawn from the steering pivots A and C to any point on line GE
will result in the steering angles  and satisfying geometrically correct steering.
A I G C
 
H
a
Rear Axle
E b F
Figure III-7. Graphical Analysis.
III - 6
The proof is as follows:

AI AG-IG
cot  = =
IH IH
CI CG+IG AG+IG
cot  = = =
IH IH IH
and
2IG 2AG b
cot  - cot  = = =
IH AE a
In the design of a steering linkage, this graphical method can be utilized in the
following manner.
A steering linkage geometry (dimensions and angles) is assumed, and the

deflections of the outer wheel for several known angles of the inner wheel deflection are found
graphically. These values are plotted as in Fig. III-8 and the points of intersection are
determined. By connecting these points, one obtains the so-called "error curve". The deviation
from the geometrically correct steering can, then, be seen as the deviation of the error curve
from the true steering line.
A G C
1
2 1
2
3 3
Geometrically
Correct
Steering
Line
Error Curve
Figure III-8. Error curve.
Depending on the particular application, the maximum error can be adjusted by

changing linkage geometry.
III - 7
III-4.2 Analytical Method
An analytical method that allows the determination of the rotation angle of the outer
wheel for a given inner wheel angle, provided that the steering linkage geometry is known, has
also been developed.
Two different cases have to be considered:

i) Tie rod in front of the axle (leading-link),
ii) Tie rod behind the axle (trailing-link).
A B
  
ln Z 
 
  ln

D
M C
b
Figure III-9 Steering linkage geometry.
In Fig. III-9, the track arms are behind the axle, i.e., the second case is illustrated.

 
2
Using the cosine theorem for the triangle ABD, one can calculate Z.
Z  l2n  b 2  2ln b cos  (III-5)
Knowing Z and calculating the value of M from the relation
M  b  2ln sin 
the angles  and  can also be determined.
 b 2  Z2  l2 
  cos 1  n  (III-6)
 2bZ 
 
III - 8
 Z2  l2  M 2 
  cos 1  n  (III-7)
 2Zl 
 n 
From Fig. III-9, the angle  can be expressed in terms of the known angles.

Thus, the output angle  can be obtained in terms of the input angle .
π
θ =β+γ- (III-8)
2
Note that the force transmission angle
  M 2  Z 2  l2 
         cos 1  n  (III-9)
2  2MZ 
 
should be less than about 160o for proper operation of the linkage for the whole range of 
values.
One can derive similar equations for the other case, i.e., where the tie rod is in front
of the beam axle.
The general requirement from a steering linkage is that up to  = 30o, the difference
between the actual value of  resulting from a proposed linkage and the geometrically correct
value satisfying eqn. (III-3) is as small as possible. A practical limit is specified as:
| act - corr |  0.5o (III-10)
The above limiting value is kept quite tight since possible variations resulting from
deflections of components, unaccounted clearances, wear, etc., may result in a larger steering
error in operation. In some instances, the designer may relax the requirement such that the
above relation is satisfied at least up to  = 20o.
III - 9
Example III-1
For the trailing Ackerman linkage specified by:
 = 20o
ln = 180 mm
b = 1080 mm
a = 2400 mm
Prepare a table including the actual and theoretically correct steering angles, the steering
error, and the force transmission angle for input steering angles in the range from 10 to 30o.
Comment on the design.
Solution :
Let us determine first the  value for geometrically correct steering from eqn. (III-3) for the
input steering angle of 10o at the wheel.
   
 1   1 
cor  tan 1    tan 1    9.28o
b
  1   1080 1 
 a tan    2400  
   tan10o 

      90  20  10  60o
2
Z  l2n  b2  2ln b cos   180 2  1080 2  2 180 1080  cos  60 

 1002[mm]
 2 2 2 
1  1080   1002   180 
1
 b 2  Z2  l2 
  cos  n   cos   8.95o

 2bZ 
  2 1080 1002  
 
M  b  2ln sin   1080  2 180  sin  20   956.87[mm]
 2 2 2 
1  1002   180    957 
1
 Z2  l2  M 2 
  cos  n   cos   70.37o

 2Zln 
  2 1002 180  
 
      8.95  70.37  79.32o

act       79.32  20  90  9.32o
2
III - 10
Steering error = act - cor = 9.32 - 9.28 = 0.04o
  M 2  Z2  l2 
        cos 1  n 
2  2MZ 
 
 2 2 2 
1   957   1002   180    121o
 90  20  10  8.95  cos
 2  957 1002  
 
The results of subsequent calculations are summarized in the table below. The variation of the
steering error is plotted in the figure. Note that the force transmission angle should be less than
about 160o for proper operation of the linkage for the whole range of  values.
According to the table and the plot, the proposed design cannot satisfy the requirement set in
eqn. (III-10) even though it satisfies the condition related to the force transmission angle.
 Force
Error
[o] [o] θact  
o i o 
[o [o] Z [mm] [o] θcor
  [o ]
Transmission
Angle [o]
]
10 60 1002 8.95 70.37 79.32 9.32 9.28 0.04 121
15 55 988 8.58 74.91 83.49 13.49 13.45 0.05 127
20 50 974. 8.14 79.21 87.34 17.34 17.37 -0.02 133
25 45 961 7.61 83.24 90.86 20.86 21.08 -0.22 138
30 40 949 7.00 87.02 94.02 24.02 24.62 -0.60 144
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-0.1
Steering Error [o]
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
Steering angle [o]
III - 11
III-5. Multi-axle Steering
There are many vehicles that have more than two axles. Here the term "axle" may
refer to a real beam axle or a set of independent suspensions. As a general rule, for an "n-axle"
vehicle, wheels on at least "n-1" axles should be steered to satisfy geometrically correct
steering. Steering all wheels on all the axles is usually preferred only if better maneuverability,
i.e., a smaller turning radius, beyond that of steering wheels on "n-1" axles is required, as it
involves more complexity at extra cost. An approximation to geometrically correct steering
may be obtained by steering wheels on "n-2" axles, but whether this approximation is close
enough to be acceptable requires a careful evaluation of the steering errors introduced.
For vehicles with three or more axles, common in heavy commercial vehicles such
as trucks, it is possible to obtain a number of configurations that will provide geometrically
correct steering. All-wheel steering (AWS) is usually reserved for vehicles where
maneuverability requirements are strict, and thus, extra cost and complexity may be justified.
Mining vehicles and heavy military vehicles are examples. An example of a six-wheeled AWS
vehicle is given in Figure III-10.
Front Rear
Figure III-10. All-wheel steering for a three-axle vehicle
Simpler solutions satisfying the condition of geometrically correct steering can be

obtained by steering wheels on two axles only, as illustrated in Figures III-11 (a) and (b).
Front Rear
Front Rear
(a) (b)
Figure III-11. Simpler geometrically correct steering configurations
III - 12
Note that if there is a fixed (non-steered) axle on a vehicle, the turning center is on
the extension of this axle. If there is no fixed axle, then the turning center is located elsewhere,
depending on the limiting steering angles of the steering axles.
In commercial vehicles such as conventional trucks, the design of the steering

system is usually based on the closest possible approximation of the true rolling condition. In
the case of double rear axle configuration common in heavy trucks, the usual (low cost)
approach is to design the rear axles as close to each other as possible and then replace them
with a single imaginary axle located at the midline between the two as illustrated in Figure III-
12. It is evident that in this case, pure rolling cannot be satisfied; nevertheless, a close
approximation can still be achieved. It is possible to evaluate the steering system for a four-
axled vehicle in the same manner. Figure III-13 (a) and (b) illustrate two configurations; the
first one has the potential to provide an acceptable approximation, while the second
configuration will be unacceptable due to large steering errors involved.
A word of caution: The discussion so far assumes low speeds so that the slip angles
of the tires are negligible.
Front Rear
Imaginary axle
Figure III-12. Approximate configuration for three-axle vehicles
Front Rear
Front Rear
Imaginary
Imaginary axle axle
(a) (b)
Figure III-13. Possibly (a) acceptable, (b) unacceptable designs for a four-axle vehicle
III - 13
Example III-2
Consider the four-wheel steering (4WS) vehicle illustrated in the figure (all dimensions are in
mm). Wheel locks for the inner wheels on the front and rear axles are limited to a maximum of
32o and 6o, respectively.
4895
a) Estimate the minimum possible track turning 2780
radius. You can neglect scrub radii.

1565 1565
b) Estimate the track turning radius for the
front rear
conventional front-wheel steering (FWS) with
the same maximum front-wheel steering angle and comment on the results.
Solution:
2780
a) h  x f tan 58o  x r tan 84 o xf xr
 tan 58 
x f  x r  1   x f  2780
 tan84 
32o 6o
2780
xf   2379.7  mm 58o H 84o
tan 58
1 R
tan84 h
h  x f tan 58o  2379.7 tan 58o  3808.3[mm]
H  h  1565  3808.3  1565  5373.3[mm]
R 2  x f2  H 2  R  2379.72  5373.32  5877 mm
b) h  a tan   2780 tan 58o  4449[mm] 2780

a
H  h  1565  4449  1565  6014[mm]
1565
32o
R 2  a 2  H 2 R  27802  60142  6626 mm
58o R
It is observed that with the introduction of a H
h
steering angle of 6 degrees to the rear wheels,
the track turning radius can be reduced by over
10%.
III - 14
III-6. Ackerman Linkage
Long before the advent of the car, in 1818, the German inventor Rudolf Ackerman
patented a device based on the principle of geometrically correct steering. It was, however,
Lankensperberger, a carriage maker in Munich, who first devised it in 1817.
Ackerman Linkage is basically a four-bar linkage. As the track rod is shorter than
the axle assembly, it moves the right wheel through a larger angle than the left in a right turn,
and vice versa when the car is turning left, Fig. III-14.
Axle Beam 
 Stub Axle
Steering
Arm
Tie Rod
Figure III-14. Ackerman linkage
The tie rod can be placed behind or in front of the axle beam. Provided that track
arms are suitably inclined to each other, a similar action in both cases can be obtained.
Ackerman linkage gives true rolling of the wheels in only three positions of the stub
axles. One is when the wheels are parallel and the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, and the
other positions are when the vehicle is turning either to the right or to the left, and the inner
track arm has been turned through a certain angle depending on the design. In any other
position, the axes of the front wheels do not intersect on the axis of the back wheels and a
certain amount of lateral slip must occur between some of the wheels and the ground. Except
when turning in a circle of a very small radius, the error is small.
In practice, the correct geometric relationship does not have to be satisfied precisely
because pure rolling of the wheels during cornering can never be achieved. Tires must always
run at a slip angle during cornering and their motion always include sliding along with rolling.
As a result, modern car designers do not heave to follow geometrically correct steering strictly.
The Ackerman Linkage is almost universal even though there are several linkages
that give perfect steering at all locks. This is because these systems are all somewhat
complicated and they have not proved satisfactory in practice.
III - 15
III-7. Steering System Arrangement
The basic steering system consists of the parts:
i) The steering wheel rests on top of the steering column. Steering input is fed into
the system through the steering wheel.
ii) The steering gear multiplies the steering effort applied to the steering wheel by
the driver. Also, the turning motion of the steering wheel is converted into a linear movement
at one end of the Pitman arm.
iii) The steering linkage transmits motion from the steering gear to the wheels and
at the same time adjusts the relative positions of the wheels.
Fig. III-15 illustrates the arrangement of the conventional steering system for a
beam axle front suspension. The links are connected to each other by ball joints.
Steering
gear
Drag link Spindle

(stub axle)
Pitman arm
Beam axle
Steering
arm
Tie rod
Figure III-15. The basic steering system for a rigid axle.
For vehicles with independent front suspension, this layout is not acceptable. Due
to the independent motion of the wheels, their relative position and hence their distance varies
during suspension motion. The fixed length of the tie rod would lead to excessive "bump steer
- unwanted steering input created when one wheel travels up or down," and therefore, it is
replaced by a multi-piece tie rod linkage, as shown in Fig. III-16.
III - 16
Slave
(idler) arm Steering
Pitman arm arm
Tie rod
Wishbone
Figure III-16. Multi-piece tie rod linkages.
III - 17
III-7.1 Steering Gear Requirements
The main objective of the steering gear is to multiply the steering effort impressed
on the steering wheel by the driver. It is desirable that driving take a minimum of physical
effort. The gear should also be irreversible to a certain extent such that the inputs through the
road wheels will not be transmitted to the driver completely. A small amount of reversibility is
desired in order to provide a sensory indication - road feel - of the behavior of the vehicle. This
is necessary so that the right amount of correction can be applied to the steering wheel before
the external disturbances deflect the vehicle from its course. This requirement can be met by
mechanisms that are more efficient in one direction of motion transmission than in the other.
Requirements as to the steering gear ratio are also conflicting. For high-speed
driving, a low reduction ratio is preferred for a quick response from the road wheels. For city
driving and parking, when steering feels much stiffer, a high ratio is desirable.
As can be seen, the steering gear requirements are quite contradictory, and a good
steering gear ratio represents a balanced combination of compromises depending on the
particular application. For passenger cars, the steering gear ratio varies between a low value of
14 for sporty or high-performance vehicles and a high value of 20 for smaller vehicles. The
corresponding range of gear ratios for commercial vehicles is 20-36. Consequently, the
research is focused on finding a steering system with variable steering gear. Such a steering
gear would provide a high gear ratio at low speeds for easy parking and a low gear ratio for
quick response at high speeds.
III - 18
III-7.2 Types of Steering Gear
There are two basic types of steering gear in use in recent motor vehicles:
1) Rack and pinion
With this design, a toothed rack is moved by a small pinion at the lower end of the
steering shaft. When the steering wheel is turned, the rack moves from side to side and causes
the stub axles - the two short shafts on which the front wheels are mounted - to swivel.
Rack and pinion steering gear is the simpler of the two types and also provides the
most positive road feel. Because of these characteristics, it is widely employed in passenger
cars and racing cars.
Rack and pinion steering gear illustrated in Fig. III-17 can only provide a constant
steering gear ratio.
Figure III-17. Rack and pinion steering gear
III - 19
2) Cam or Worm and Peg, Nut, or Sector
Variations of this kind of steering gear are commonly used in commercial vehicles.
Cam and peg, worm and nut, and worm and sector designs are illustrated in Fig. III-18.
a) Cam and Peg b) Worm and Nut
c) Worm and Sector

Figure III-18. Various steering gears for commercial vehicles.
III - 20
III-8 Turning Radius
The formal definition of track turning radius is as follows:
"The turning radius of an automotive vehicle is the radius of the arc described by
the center of the track made by the outside front wheel of the vehicle when making its shortest
turn".
e
A B

RT
d c
a
b
C D  
G
t
r
Figure III-19. Turning radius.
This radius depends on the wheelbase a, the distance b between the steering pivot
axes, the maximum angle  through which the inside front wheel can be turned from the
straight-ahead position, and the scrub radius, e. In Fig. III.19,  and  are the inside and outside
wheel locks, respectively. The front and rear tracks are denoted by tf and tr. Noting that
t f = b + 2e (III-11)
one can write

1/2
d =  b2 + c2 - 2bc cos 180 -  
cos 180 -  = -cos
1/2
d =  b2 + c2 + 2bc cos
III - 21
Substituting the value of c (c = a / sin ), one obtains:

1/2
 2  a  2 2ab 
d = b +   + 
  sin  tan 
By definition the turning radius is equal to:
RT = d + e
1/2
 2  a  2 2ab 
d = b +   +  e (III-12)
  sin  tan 
The above equation shows that a smaller turning radius can be obtained if
i) a is smaller, or
ii)  is larger.
In practice, however,  is limited by constructional requirements. At full lock and

bump, the inside wheel must well clear the body, and of course, there must be sufficient foot
room. In front-wheel drive vehicles, there must be additional space for snow chains. Further,
aerodynamic drag increases. Therefore, the inner wheel lock is limited.
The outer wheel lock, which is smaller, is usually not subject to such severe
limitations. Therefore it is possible to increase , thereby decreasing the turning radius at the
expense of increasing steering error. In this case, the cornering force capacity of the outer tire
will be higher. One can express track turning radius in terms of the outer wheel lock
corresponding to geometrically correct steering, i.e., corr.
a
RT= +e (III-13)
s in  co rr
All the relations derived so far assume geometrically correct steering. In real
applications, it is not possible to achieve pure rolling and hence a correction must be included.
Empirically, a 1o increase in steering error reduces track turning radius by 0.05 [m]. The
Therefore, modifying eq. (III-13):
a
RT  + e - 0.05 () (III-14)
sin  corr
It should be noted that correct units should be used for the parameters in eqn. (III-14).
III - 22
From drivers' point of view, turning diameter between curbs is more important and
can be expressed as, Fig. III-20:
DK = 2RT + SW (III-15)
where SW is the tire section width.
R
K
Pavement Pavement
Road Surface
R SW/2
T
D
K
Figure III-20. Turning diameter between curbs
Turning diameter, Dw, wall to wall is even more important. It is defined as the
diameter of the circle that the outermost point of the vehicle describes in turning, Fig. III-21.
RW
Figure III-21 Turning diameter between walls
Table III-1 lists the turning circle diameter and the inner and outer wheel lock values
for some vehicle models.
III - 23
Table III-1 Turning circle diameters for some automobiles
Turning circle diameter [m]

Vehicle Model Left lock/Right lock
Alfa Romeo 159 2.4 20V 2006 11.8/11.8
Audi S6 i A4 2.0 TFSI 2004 11.1/11.3
Audi S6 2006 12.0/12.1
BMW 320D 2005 11.2/11.1
BMW 730D 2005 12.52/12.56
BMW X3 2006 11.9/11.8
BMW ZM Coupe 2006 10.5/10.4
Chrysler 300S AWD 2005 11.9/12.3
Citroen C3 Pluriel 1.4 2003 11.5/11.5
Daihatsu Terios 2006 9.8/9.8
Dacia Logan 2006 11.0/11.2
Fiat Croma 2.2 16V 2005 10.9/11.0
Fiat Panda 1.2 8V 2003 9.9/9.8
Ford Focus CC 2.0 TDCi 2006 11.1/11.5
Ford Mondeo 1.8 Sci 2003 11.4/11.3
Hyundai Santa Fe GLS 2.4 16V 4WD 2001 12.20/11.98
Jaguar XKR 2006 11.1/11.2
Kia Sportage 2.0 CRDi 2006 11.8/11.4
Lamborghini Gallardo Spyder 2006 13.5/13.4
Mazda 3 Sport 1.6 2003 11.0/10.9
Mazda 5 1.8 MZR 2005 11.3/11.3
Mercedes-Benz B150 2006 12.1/12.0
Mercedes-Benz ML350 2005 12.0/11.8
Nissan Micra C+C 1.6 2006 10.8/10.8
Opel Corsa 2006 10.6/10.5
Opel Astra Twintop 1.8 Ecotec 2006 11.2/11.3
Peugeot 407 Coupe Sport V6 210 2005 12.4/12.2
Porsche 911 Carrera Cabriolet 2005 11.0/11.00
Renault Clio 1.5 DCI 2005 11.4/11.4
Rolls-Royce Phantom 2006 13.8/13.5
Suzuki Swift 1.3 2005 10.5/10.3
Toyota Avensis 2.2 D-Cat 2005 11.2/11.9
Volkswagen New Beetle Cabriolet 2.0 2003 11.03/11.43
Volkswagen Touareg R5 TDI 2003 12.10/12.0
III - 24
Table III-2 Turning circle diameter data for some light and heavy commercial vehicles
Turning circle diameter [m]

Vehicle Left Lock Right Lock
Renault Trafic 1.9dCi 80 RK 11.4
Iveco Daily 35S12 11.2
IvecoTurbocity 100 double deck 15.6 15.8
Mercedes 811RD Coach 15.49 12.47
Mitsubishi Canter RK 14.2
Mitsubishi L200 4x4 pickup RK 13.25 13.85
RW 13.45 14.05
Citroen C25D 4x4 Van RK 11.94 12.59
RW 11.73 12.38
Fiat Ducato 1.4 ton Van RK 12.04 12.70
RW 11.62 12.28
Table III-3 Turning circle diameters and inner and outer wheel locks for some older models
Turning circle Inner wheel Outer wheel

Vehicle diameter [m] lock [o] lock [o]
RW RK
BMW 2002 10.4 9.6 42 34
VW 1300 11.0 10.5 34 28
VW 1600 11.1 10.3 30 27
Porsche 917 11.8 29 25
Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow 11.6 41 33.5
Ford Cortina 1300 9.14 41.9 37.9
Renault 4L 11.6 39 31.8
Ford Capri 9.75 41.6 39.1
Range Rover 33 29
Audi 100LS 10.5 39 34.16
Mercedes 250 10.85 10.0 43 35
III - 25
Example III-3
Determine the turning circle diameter for the vehicle with the specifications given below.
Wheelbase = 2.527 [m]

Track (front) = 1.321 [m]
e = 0.015 [m]
  = 38o, act = 36o 20'
Solution :
t = b + 2e
b = t - 2e
= 1.321 - 2(0.015)
= 1.291 [m]
1/2
  2.527  2  2.527 1.291 
2
R T  1.291  
2
    0.015
  sin 38  tan 38 
RT = 5.2 [m], DT = 10.4 [m]
Note that this result is valid only for geometrically correct steering. Thus one must check if
geometrically correct steering is satisfied.
b 1.291 o
cot  = + cot  = + cot 38 = 1.791
a 2.527
29.2o
It is clear that a nonzero steering error exists. Thus the previous results must be modified
according to the existing steering error.
 = 36o 20' - 29o 12' = 7o 08'

2.527
RT = + 0.015 - 0.05 (7.13) = 4.84 [m]
sin 29.2
DT = 2RT = 2x4.84 = 9.7 [m]
III - 26
Exercises
III-1) The front wheels of an average passenger car have a total rotation (lock to lock) of about
70o. For unassisted steering, the number of turns of the steering wheel from lock to lock varies
from 3 to 4 turns. What is the range of steering gear ratios for the average passenger car?
III-2) Illustrate by a sketch and clearly indicate

a) Front and rear tracks, and
b) Wheelbase
for
i) Passenger cars,
ii) Trucks with one front and two rear axles,
- single wheels on all axles, and
- tandem wheels on rear axles.
III-3) Show by an illustration that the true rolling condition (geometrically correct steering)
can be obtained for a four-wheel steered passenger car in the two special configurations
(exaggerated) illustrated below.
III-4) Illustrate and explain, for the three-axle vehicle in the figure, whether the true rolling
condition (geometrically correct steering) can be obtained for the cases :
a) Front-wheel steering only, for the case of the single front axle and double rear axles.
b) Steering with the wheels on the first two front axles, for the case of two axles in front
and a single rear axle.
c) Steering with the wheels on the first and last axles,
d) All-wheel steering.
III - 27
III-5) Consider the cases of

a) Truck (2 axles) and trailer(2 axles), and (first figure below)
b) Tractor (2 axles) and semitrailer (single axle) (second figure below)
and illustrate geometrically

a) the steering error for front wheel steering of the truck and tractor, and
b) how one can obtain pure rolling (show all possible steering configurations to obtain
pure rolling).
III-6) Use your engineering sense and make your choice of steered axles for the 8 wheel vehicle
in the figure. Explain your reasoning and illustrate the resulting steering error (if there is any).
III-7) Indicate the best possible steering configurations for the vehicle with four axles, as
illustrated in the figure. Order the possible configurations in the order of closeness to
geometrically correct steering and in each possible configuration mark the axles as ST: Steered,
NS: Non-Steered. Also, indicate (check) if the configuration satisfies geometrically correct
steering (GCS) exactly.
Configuration
Axle 1 Axle 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 … … … … … …
2 … … … … … …
Axle 2 3 … … … … … …
Axle 3 4 … … … … … …
Axle 4 GCS?      
III-8) Illustrate, graphically, the practical (approximate) solution with respect to geometrically
correct steering for a vehicle having three axles. Then calculate the outer wheel angle
III - 28
corresponding to an inner wheel angle of 20o for this case. You can neglect the scrub radius for
a first approximation. All dimensions are in [mm].
4500 1320
Ans.: 17.6o
2036
1800
III-9) In a self-steering axle, the wheels are steered by the action of the lateral tire forces. The
wheels are restrained by springs and dampers which may be preloaded. A self-steering axle is
usually used on the rear axles of heavy trucks. A typical example is shown in the figure.
In order to achieve 32-ton load carrying capacity without exceeding the load limit per axle on
roads, you are going to modify a truck by adding a third rear axle to the existing two, as
illustrated. Comment on (with illustrations) the steering strategy for the third (additional) axle.
Clearly indicate your choice, stating the advantages and disadvantages involved in each choice.
i) Steer it ? Draw the sketch showing the possible design strategy !
ii) Let it freely determine the wheel steering angles (self-steering).
iii) Fix it rigidly so that it is not steered at all!
III - 29
III-10) For the trailing Ackerman linkage specified by:
ln b
 = 25o  0.0797  0.5
b a
a) Plot the actual and theoretically correct steering angle curves.
b) Plot steering error versus input steering angle variation.
c) Plot force transmission angle versus input steering angle variation.
Is this design acceptable ? Explain.
III-11) For the trailing Ackerman linkage specified by:
 = 21o a = 2500 mm b = 1600 mm ln = 200 mm
vary the input steering angle, , in the range 0 to 35o degrees by 1o increments.
a) Plot
i) the actual and theoretically correct steering angle curves,

ii) Plot steering error, and
iii) Plot force transmission angle
versus input steering angle variation. Is this design acceptable ? Explain.
b) If the vehicle is modified by increasing the wheelbase by 10 %, what would be

the effect on the steering ? Show by calculation.
III-12) Determine the sensitivities of the track turning diameter to changes in the parameters a,
b, e, ,  , and .
III-13) For the vehicle specified below,
a) What should be the outside wheel lock to obtain geometrically correct steering ?
b) Calculate the track turning diameter for geometrically correct steering.
c) Calculate the outside wheel lock to reduce the turning diameter by 120 [mm].
Wheelbase [mm] 2480 Inside wheel lock [o] 36o

Overall length/width [mm] 4042/1625 Scrub radius [mm] 50
Track (f/r) [mm] 1330/1300
III - 30
III-14) For the vehicle specified below, calculate the
i) outer wheel lock, and

ii) track turning circle radius
for geometrically correct steering (i.e., pure rolling).
Wheelbase : 3600 mm
Front track : 1600 mm
Scrub radius : 70 mm
Inner wheel lock : 39o
Ans. : 6980 [mm]
III-15) For the vehicle specified below, the turning circle radius is found to be 4.46 m. Estimate
the steering error.
Wheelbase : 2450 mm
Ans. : 3.3o
III-16) Does the vehicle specified below satisfy the condition for geometrically correct steering
(i.e., pure rolling) ?
Wheelbase : 2370 mm
Track (f/r) : 1273/1278 mm
Inner wheel lock : 39o18’
Outer wheel lock : 33o
Ans. : No !
III-17) Calculate the turning circle radius for the vehicle specified below.
Wheelbase : 2440 mm
Outer wheel lock : 32o
Ans. : 4964 [mm]
III - 31
III-18) Calculate the turning circle diameter for two passenger cars with the specifications
given below.
Car A Car B
Wheelbase [mm] 2420 2490
Track (front) [mm] 1330 1372
Track (rear) [mm] 1300 1315
Overall length [mm] 4042 4264
Overall width [mm] 1625 1642
Inside wheel lock [o] 35o 50' ± 1o 30' 35o ± 1o 30'
Outside wheel lock [o] 28o 30' 31o
Scrub radius [mm] 55 56
Tires 195/60 R 15 205/65 R 15
III - 32
CHAPTER IV
VEHICLE HANDLING
IV.1. Introduction
Vehicle handling is that area of vehicle dynamics that is related to the motion of a
vehicle under the action of directional commands and/or environmental inputs.
As can be seen in Fig. IV-1, a vehicle system consists of two main parts; the driver
and the vehicle. From the point of view of the driver, handling quality is his/her subjective
impression of the response of the vehicle to directional commands or inputs.
Road Surface
Environment
Steering wheel Position
Accelerator pedal Velocity

Driver VEHICLE
Brake Pedal Acceleration
Feedback
Feedback
Figure IV-1. Block diagram for the man-vehicle system
The driver is the more complex part of the system. The available mathematical
models of the driver can only represent specific idealized response behavior patterns. It has not
yet been possible to incorporate in a mathematical model such subjective phenomena as
experience or physical and emotional condition of the driver. Considering the effects of age,
sex, alcohol, and drugs, more research in the psychology and response patterns of drivers is
necessary to be able to simulate the driver adequately.
IV - 1
It is possible, on the other hand, to model the vehicle mathematically and study its
behavior to simulated inputs. The input variables for such a mathematical model will be the
steering and throttle positions and the brake force, which are the driver outputs, the vehicle
load distribution, and the environmental inputs including the road disturbances and
aerodynamic forces such as cross-winds. The vehicle response is then predicted from the model
in terms of variables such as slip angles, forward velocity, yaw velocity, lateral acceleration,
etc.
In the following sections, the driver part of the vehicle system, as well as the road
disturbances, will be left out to simplify the analysis. The part of the system that will be taken
into consideration reduces, therefore, to that shown in Fig. IV-2.
Road Surface
Environment
Steering wheel Position
Accelerator pedal Velocity

Driver VEHICLE
Brake Pedal Acceleration
Feedback
Feedback
Figure IV-2. Block diagram for the vehicle system
IV - 2
IV.2. Tire Cornering Force Characteristics
The motion of a vehicle under the driver control and aerodynamic inputs depends
mainly on the forces applied through the tire-road contact. The study of vehicle handling,
therefore, requires a thorough understanding of the force and moment characteristics of rolling
tires.
The dynamic behavior of the tire, however, is so complex and nonlinear that no
adequate mathematical model has so far been obtained. Experimental methods have been,
therefore, used extensively in the study of tire behavior.
If a moving vehicle is steered away from the straight-ahead position because of its
inertia, it will still tend to go straight on. The steered wheels, on the other hand, will try to
move in a direction dictated by the steering angle. Therefore, there will always be a difference
between the direction of motion of the vehicle and the direction to which the wheels are turned.
In such a case, the tread in the contact patch, which is the part of the tire in contact
with the road surface, is forced by friction to move in the direction of motion of the vehicle.
The other parts of the tire, however, will move in the plane of the wheel. The tread in the
contact patch will, therefore, deflect laterally, and this deflection will gradually increase from
front to rear of the contact patch. A force at right angles to the plane of the tire is thus produced.
This force which is called the cornering force (or lateral force), is proportional to the lateral
deflection of the tread in the contact patch and therefore will increase toward the back of the
contact patch where it reaches the value of the friction force and the tread breaks loose
gradually resuming its initial undisturbed position, Fig. IV-3.
The angle between the direction of motion and the plane of the wheel is called the
slip angle. As previously explained, the tread distortion and, therefore, the lateral force
increases gradually from front to rear of the contact patch and then drops sharply to zero. The
line of action of the lateral force is thus behind the center of the tire contact patch (or the
intersection of the wheel plane and the projection on the road plane of the wheel axis of
rotation). The distance between the line of action of the lateral force and the projection of the
wheel axis of rotation on the road is called the pneumatic trail. The lateral force thus exerts a
moment about the center point of the contact patch tending to reduce the slip angle and thus
turn the wheel towards the straight-ahead position, Fig. IV-4. This moment is called the self-
aligning torque. It will be felt at the steering wheel providing feedback.
IV - 3
Figure IV-3. Tire/road interaction

Direction Direction
of motion of motion
 
Fc
Fc
Self
aligning
torque
Figure IV-4. Self-aligning torque
The cornering behavior of a tire depends on many factors. The three main
parameters, however, are the magnitude of the cornering force and of the vertical tire load, and
the slip angle. There are three ways of displaying the cornering characteristics of a tire in
common use:
i) Cornering force as a function of slip angle vertical tire loading appearing as a

parameter.
IV - 4
ii) Cornering force as a function of vertical tire load slip angle appearing as a
parameter.
iii) Carpet plot.
The second case is now obsolete and very rarely used. Fig. IV-5 (a) and (b) illustrate
the first and second cases. Fig. IV-6, on the other hand, provides the same information on a
carpet plot.
(a)
(b)
Figure IV-5. Cornering force characteristics
IV - 5
Figure IV-6. Carpet plot of tire cornering force characteristics
It is observed that at small slip angles (below about 4o), the cornering force is
approximately a linear function of the slip angle. This linear relationship can be described by
a constant of proportionality relating cornering force to slip angle. This constant is defined as
the derivative of the cornering force with respect to slip angle evaluated at zero slip angle and
is called the cornering stiffness.
F c F c
Cs = | =0 
  (IV-1)
F c = Cs .  (IV-2)
Eqn. (IV-2) represents the linear tire model and is commonly used in vehicle
dynamics studies. Fig. IV-7 illustrates the geometrical interpretation of cornering stiffness.
Figure IV-7. Cornering stiffness
IV - 6
It is possible to define cornering stiffness at a certain slip angle. A tangent to the

cornering force curve for a specified wheel load at a slip angle is drawn, and the slope of this
line is then used as the cornering stiffness to be used around this particular operating point.
A convenient sign convention for the slip angles for a steady-state right-hand turn
requires the use of
- a negative slip angle, if the plane of the wheel is reached by a clockwise rotation
from the direction of motion, and
- a positive slip angle if the plane of the wheel is reached by a counterclockwise

rotation from the direction of motion as illustrated in Fig. IV-8.
For a steady-state right-hand turn, the cornering force will be directed towards the
center of curvature. Therefore the cornering force will have the signs shown in Fig. IV-8. The
sign conventions for the slip angle and the cornering force indicate that a negative slip angle is
associated with a positive cornering force and vice versa. Thus, from eqn. IV-2, one can
conclude that the cornering stiffness is by definition a negative quantity. Thus even if a positive
value is specified, it should be used with a minus sign in the equations to be introduced in the
following sections.
Direction Direction
of motion of motion
 
+Fc -Fc
Self Aligning Torque
Figure IV-8. Sign convention for a steady-state right-hand turn
IV - 7
IV.3. Parameters Influencing Tire Cornering Characteristics
The cornering behavior of tires is influenced by various parameters and the

cornering characteristics in Figs. IV.5 and 6 must be modified to take their effects into
consideration. Here, the variation of basic tire cornering characteristics with varying tire
inflation pressure, camber angle, and with the application of tractive or braking forces will be
examined.
IV.3.1. Effects of Inflation Pressure
In the usual working range of tire pressures, increasing pressure improves the
cornering force by increasing the lateral stiffness of the tire. This improvement, however,
diminishes at higher pressures because of the reduction in the size of the contact patch, Fig.
IV-9.
Figure IV-9. Effect of inflation pressure on cornering force characteristics
In Fig. IV-9, it is clear that the effect of the increasing inflation pressure in
increasing the cornering force is more emphasized at high slip angles. For example, at a slip
angle of 12o, there is a substantial improvement in cornering force at all-wheel loads when the
inflation pressure is increased from 110 kPa to 140 kPa. When the tire inflation pressure is
increased from 140 to 170 kPa, however, the resulting improvement in cornering force is
somewhat smaller. On the other hand, the corresponding improvements in cornering force are
smaller for a slip angle of 4o, and it seems that the improvement is not affected by the increasing
levels of inflation pressure.
IV - 8
IV.3.2. Effects of Camber Angle
The deviation of the central plane of a tire from the vertical plane is known as
camber, and the angle between the two planes is called the camber angle. The angle is positive
when the tire leans away from the vehicle body and negative when it leans towards the vehicle
body at the top, Fig. IV-10.
 
Outer wheel of a vehicle

in steady right hand turn
Fca Fc Fc Fca Centre of curvature

X
Figure IV-10. Camber angle
In Sect. IV-2., the plane of the wheel was assumed to be always vertical; hence the
tire cornering characteristics presented in this section are valid for zero camber. In practice,
however, vehicles frequently have their wheel planes at some angle to the vertical.
The camber angle given to the wheels during assembly is called static camber.
Dynamic camber, on the other hand, may result from the roll motion of the body during
cornering or from wheel movement.
When the camber angle is positive, cornering force is reduced compared to that of
a vertical tire, whereas a negative camber angle results in increased cornering force, in general.
The camber force (or thrust) can be explained by the fact that a cambered wheel tends to move
like a rolling cone and thus tries to pull the vehicle to one side, as illustrated in Fig IV-11. It
should be noted that the effect of camber is different for the inner and outer wheels while the
vehicle is going around a curve. The overall effect on the cornering forces acting on the front
or rear wheels, however, will be towards reduction of the total cornering force because of the
nonlinear tire cornering force versus tire load characteristics.
IV - 9
+ +
Fca Fc Fca Fc
Center of curvature
- -
Fc
Fca Fca
Fc
Center of curvature
Figure IV-11a. Cornering force and camber thrust
The maximum cornering force is not significantly altered by the presence of

camber, Fig. IV-11b.
Figure IV-11b. Effects of camber angle on tire cornering force characteristics
IV - 10
IV.3.3. Effects of Tractive Effort
The cornering force developed at any fixed slip angle is reduced by the application
of tractive or braking force. This basically follows from:
2 2
FT+ FC   W (IV-3)
where
FT = tractive or braking force,
FC = cornering force,
 = available coefficient of adhesion,
W = vertical tire load.
Therefore tractive effort reduces the local friction available in the lateral direction.
The same argument applies to the case of braking. Fig. IV-12 illustrates the reduction in tire
cornering force with increasing brake force.
Figure IV-12. Effects of tractive effort on tire cornering force characteristics
An approximate method of determining the lateral force available during the

presence of tractive and braking effort is possible if it is assumed that the tire may reach its
limiting force condition in any direction, but that the maximum force may not exceed a given
value in either the lateral or fore and aft direction as shown in Fig. IV-13(a). The so-called
friction circle concept is based on the condition that the limiting force is the same for cornering
and braking forces. In the development of some tires, however, traction or braking effort is
IV - 11
emphasized. Thus, the force limit is different for traction and braking. In this case, the friction
ellipse takes the place of the friction circle, Fig. IV-13(b).
Fc max
F
c F
c
W
F F F
T T Tmax
Braking Traction
(= W )
Braking Traction
(a) (b)
Figure IV-13. Friction circle and friction ellipse.
IV - 12
IV.4. Self-Aligning Torque(SAT)
The variation of self-aligning torque, which gives the feel of steering, may be given
as a function of slip angle. It is, however, more meaningful to plot SAT against cornering force.
This is because slip angle is merely something that the driver can deduce but cannot sense,
whereas the cornering force is determined by the radius of the turn (which is beyond the driver's
control) and the speed of the vehicle which is what the driver controls. Fig. IV-14, therefore,
gives a much truer measure of the difference in steering produced by various tires.
Figure IV-14. Variation of self-aligning torque
The application of tractive effort increases SAT, whereas the application of a

braking force on the tire has the reverse effect. SAT increases initially with increasing slip
angle, but after a certain slip angle, it starts decreasing with increasing slip angles. In the
extreme cases of slip angles around 15o, SAT may even become negative.
There are other factors that affect SAT. One of these is the load on the tire; the
greater the load, the greater is the deflection of the tire, and correspondingly the length of the
contact patch is greater. From this, it follows that the amount of pneumatic trail will be
increased, and hence the SAT will also rise. The converse is also true; increasing the inflation
pressure for a given load will reduce the pneumatic trail by the same means and thus diminish
the self-aligning torque.
IV - 13
IV.5. Plane Motions of Vehicles
The full range of lateral acceleration, aL, to which a vehicle is subjected under
various conditions, can be divided into two phases.
i) In the first phase, the vehicle is subjected up to 0.3 g lateral acceleration1 during
everyday straight-ahead driving; the side loading being caused by crosswinds, incorrectly
banked road, variations of road surface, and fast curves.
In this range of lateral accelerations, vehicle roll is usually not significant, and
hence the flexibility of suspension can be neglected. A simplified vehicle model, taking into
account of plane motion of the vehicle only, is then sufficient to describe basic handling
behavior in terms of main vehicle parameters such as weight distribution, tire specification, tire
pressures, and tire camber angles. With a given vehicle design, changes to ground stability
during the first phase can only be made by alterations to these main parameters. In the earlier
design stages of a new model, when suspension data are not yet available, such information
will be extremely valuable.
ii) The second phase, from 0.3 g upwards, involves average to hard cornering and
maneuvers usually producing visible roll. In this phase, changes to spring rates, roll axis, and
the addition of auxiliary roll stiffening devices affecting the distribution of roll stiffness are
effective.
The handling of the vehicle must, therefore, be checked using a three degree of
freedom (yaw, side slip, and roll) model as soon as the suspension data are available. Such an
analysis normally requires a mathematical model of the vehicle including the suspension
system and the solution can be performed on a computer.
A simple four-wheel vehicle model moving on a smooth level road surface is shown
in Fig. IV-15. OXYZ is the inertial reference frame fixed to the road. The moving reference
frame C is attached to the center of gravity of the vehicle. The use of the body-fixed
reference frame at the center of gravity with the axes corresponding to the principal axes of
inertia allows the use of
- Fixed rotational inertia properties, and

- Zero products of inertia
together with
1
* International standard ISO-TR 8726, Road vehicles - Transient open-loop response test
method with pseudo-random steering input. 1988
IV - 14
- No inertial coupling between translational and rotational coordinates
resulting in the simplest set of governing equations.
O x X

r
 C

y
v  u

Y 
Figure IV-15. Plane motions of the vehicle
The variables describing the motion of the vehicle may be restricted to the three variables u, v,
and r representing the longitudinal, lateral, and yaw motions of the vehicle. It is evident that
the trajectory of the vehicle can be plotted if the location of the center of gravity and the
direction of the vehicle's longitudinal axis, i.e., x, y, and  are known at any instant.
̇ =r ẏ = vcosusin ẋ = ucos-vsin (IV-4)
The vehicle has a mass m and a moment of inertia J about the vertical axis through
its center of gravity. A number of assumptions are made in obtaining a four-wheel vehicle
model illustrated in Fig. IV-16.
L
b a
F x 22
F y 12 Fx 12
F y 22 r
t
m, J u 
v
F x 21
F y111 F x1 1
F y 21
IV - 15
Figure IV-16. Four wheel vehicle model
1) External forces are assumed to act from the ground to the four tires in their
contact centers, disregarding the self-aligning torques.
2) Fixed steering control with equal steering angles  of the left and right front
wheels is assumed.
3) Wheels are supposed to remain in a vertical position, i.e., no camber.
4) Suspension is assumed to be very stiff so that roll and pitch motions are
disregarded.
5) The effects of tractive force on tire side force characteristics are neglected.
6) Moreover, if the height of the center of gravity is assumed to be small with
respect to the track of the vehicle, one can assume that load transfer from inside wheels to
outside wheels during cornering, and the corresponding change in tire side force characteristics
are negligible.
IV - 16
IV.5.1. Tire Slip Angles
The individual tire slip angles for the four-wheel vehicle model are illustrated in
Fig.IV-17. The steering angle is not included for clarity. The expressions for each individual
tire are as follows.
v  ar v  ar
tan 11  tan 12 
t t
ur f ur f
2 2
(IV-5)
v  br v  br
tan 21  tan 22 
t t
ur r ur r
2 2
For small slip angles, tan  may be replaced by . Since the magnitude of r is much smaller
than that of u, the second term in the denominator of each expression can be neglected. Thus,
the slip angles on the right and left-hand tires become identical. It is then sufficient to specify
a single slip angle each for the front and rear tires.
v + ar v - br
f  r  (IV-6)
u u
v+ar
Figure IV-17 Slip angles
IV - 17
IV.5.2. Bicycle Model
The representation of a slip angle for the front and rear axles, f and r, allows the
combination of tire side forces for each axle, i.e.,
2Fy11 = 2Fy12 = Fyf front axle side force

2Fy21 = 2Fy22 = Fyr rear axle side force
The vehicle model considered may now be reduced to a two-wheel model illustrated
in Fig.IV-18. It should be obvious that the direction of motion can be taken arbitrarily as long
as the sign convention for the slip angles is correctly applied.
b a
Fxr u u u
v-br Fxf v+ar
r 
r dom
v - f
dom F
Fyr yf
Figure IV-18 Bicycle model
The equations of motion can be written as :
m  u  vr   Fxf cos   Fxr  Fyf sin 

m  v  ur   Fyf cos   Fyr  Fxf sin  (IV-7)
Jr  aFyf cos   bFyr  aFxf sin 
These equations, for small steer angles of the steered wheels,will simplify to:
m(u  vr)  Fxf  Fxr
m(v  ur)  Fyf  Fyr (IV-8)
Jr  aFyf  bFyr
In the first equation, the term vr on the left-hand side is a product of two variables
of small magnitude and hence can be neglected. Then this equation is uncoupled from the other
two equations and can be used to study the acceleration performance of the vehicle in straight
motion along the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. The remaining two equations involve the
yawing and side slip motions of the vehicle and will be examined in detail. The forward speed
IV - 18
of the vehicle will be kept as a constant parameter, U, and the degrees of freedom of the vehicle
model is now two.
The maximum side force of tires running on dry roads may be attained at slip angles
of 10 to 12 degrees, whereas for normal driving, slip angles do not exceed, say, 4 degrees.
Therefore, a restriction of vehicle motions to small slip angles is justified.
If Cf and Cr are the cornering stiffnesses for the front and rear axles, respectively,
for small slip angles
Fyf = Cf f
Fyr = Cr r
and the two equations of motion related to vehicle handling can be written in the form:
m(v  Ur)  C f  f  C r  r
Jr  aC f  f  bC r  r
It should be noted that cornering stiffness is by definition negative, i.e., Cf < 0 and
Cr < 0 .
The slip angles f and r can be written from Fig. IV-18. as
v + ar
f = 
U
(IV-9)
v - br
r =
U
Inserting the above values into the equations of motion:

. v r
m ( v + Ur) = (C f + C r ) + (aC f  bC r )  Cf  (IV-10)
U U
v r
Jr = (aC f - bC r ) + (a 2 C f  b 2 C r )  aC f  (IV-11)
U U
The above equations can be put into the general matrix state equation form
x ( t )  A x ( t )  Bu ( t )

as follows :
IV - 19
 Cf  Cr aC f  bC r   Cf 
.  mU  U  
v - m 
v mU
. =     +  aC  (IV-12)
 r   aC f  bC r a C f  b2Cr 
2
r  - f 
 JU JU   J 
Here we will assume that a steady angle of steer, , is applied and held. In a steady-
state turn, the yawing and slip accelerations become zero and the yawing velocity is the rate of
turning, i.e.,
. .
r = v = 0
So the steady-state equations become
1  Cf  Cr (aC f  bC r ) - mU 2  v 1

    = C f   (IV-13)
U aC f  bC r a 2 C f  b 2 C r  r  a 
Further, denoting steering wheel angle by sw = Gand eliminating v from the
two equations, one can obtain the yaw velocity gain
r 1 ULC f C r 
=   (IV-14)
 sw ss 2 2
G  (aC f  bC r ) mU  L C f C r 
where G is the steering gear ratio.
Multiplying eqn. (IV.14) by U, lateral acceleration gain is obtained.
U2 / R 1 U2 LC f C r 
=   (IV-15)
 sw ss G  (aC f  bCr ) mU2  L2C f C r 
If the yaw velocity and lateral acceleration gains are referred to as wheel steering
angle , then G is taken to be unity.
It is sometimes convenient to write the yaw velocity gain expression in a compact

form.
r U
=
δ ss A + BU 2
The expressions for A and B in terms of vehicle and tire parameters can be deduced by
comparison to eqn. (IV-14).
IV - 20
IV.5.3. Handling Behavior
A plot of yaw velocity gain versus vehicle speed for three classes of vehicles is
shown in Fig. IV-19 (a). The neutral steer vehicle has yaw velocity gain in direct proportion to
its speed. The oversteer vehicle has yaw velocity gain greater than in proportion to the speed
and reaches an infinite value, indicating fixed control instability at the particular speed called
the critical speed. The understeer vehicle reaches a maximum gain at the characteristic speed,
and this value is one-half that of the neutral steer vehicle.
(a) (b)
Figure IV-19. Vehicle handling behavior
A similar plot is shown in Fig. IV-19 (b) for the lateral acceleration gain. It is
interesting to note that the understeer vehicle tends toward a constant control sensitivity at
speeds well above the characteristic speed. In other words, the vehicle would respond to a
particular input of steer angle with nearly the same steady-state lateral acceleration regardless
of vehicle speed as long as it is sufficiently high. The relation for lateral acceleration can be
rewritten in the form
For a neutral steer vehicle
aCf = bCr (IV-16)
hence
IV - 21
neutral
r steer U
 =
L
(IV-17)
 w ss
and
neutral
2
U
(U /R) /  sw 
2 steer
= (IV-18)
ss
L
A critical speed is defined for an oversteer vehicle as that forward speed at which
the yaw velocity and lateral acceleration gains both go to infinity, i.e., the vehicle is stable at
speeds of forward motion less than the critical speed and is unstable at speeds higher than the
critical speed.
To find an expression for the critical speed, one can equate the denominator of eqn.
(IV.15) to zero to obtain
2 2
U cr (aC f - bC r) m + L C f C r = 0
2
2 - L Cf Cr
U cr =
(aC f - bC r) m (IV-19)
For Ucr to be real, one must have (note that cornering stiffness values are by
definition negative, i.e. Cf < 0 and Cr < 0)
(aCf - bCr) < 0

or
|aCf| > |bCr| (IV-20)
Thus the elementary vehicle with a fixed steering angle will be stable under all
conditions of forward speed, provided that
|bCr| > |aCf| (IV-21)
which, in effect, suggests that the practical vehicle with the same tires on all wheels should
have the center of gravity located forward of the wheelbase midpoint - for identical inflation
pressure and camber characteristics.
Ineq. (IV-21) can be satisfied by choosing tires so that Cr is sufficiently greater

than Cf . Since the values of Cr and Cf depend on vertical tire loads, increasing with the
increase of load, the effect of reducing b and increasing a will also give the required increase
IV - 22
of Cr and reduction of Cf . The final adjustment would have to be made by adjusting the
inflation pressures of the front and rear tires or by using different types of tires.
A characteristic speed can be defined for an understeer vehicle as that forward

speed at which the yaw velocity and lateral acceleration gains are one-half the corresponding
gains of a neutral steer vehicle. Alternatively, characteristic speed corresponds to the maximum
yaw velocity response of an understeer vehicle.
To find an expression for the characteristic speed, one can equate the right-hand
side of eqn. (IV-15) to half the yaw velocity gain for a neutral steer vehicle as given by eqn.
(IV-18).
U ch L C f C r U ch
=
2 2 2L
U chm (aC f - bC r) + L C f C r
2
2 L Cf Cr
U ch = (IV-22)
(aC f - bC r) m
The similarity of the expressions for Ucr2 and Uch2 is obvious. It should be pointed
out that whereas eqn. (IV-19) is used when |aCf| > |bCr| , eqn. (IV-22) is useful only for the
case of an understeer vehicle, i.e., one with |bCr| > |aCf|.
The handling behavior of a vehicle can also be interpreted in terms of the relative
magnitudes of the front and rear axle slip angles. This is shown in Figure IV-20, where the
effects of a side force on a vehicle with zero steering input are illustrated.
It is observed that for an understeer vehicle, the resulting front slip angle is larger
than the actual slip angle, and thus, the generated centrifugal force tends to cancel the effect of
the side force. For an oversteer vehicle on the other hand, the centrifugal force tends to add to
the side force as now the rear slip angle is larger than the front slip angle. Thus
 f   r  0  understeering vehicle
 f   r  0  neutral steer vehicle
 f   r  0  oversteering vehicle
The effect of any changes in the vehicle specifications on the handling behavior can
be judged by examining the changes induced in the front and rear slip angles. Any change
increasing the front slip angle will thus introduce some understeering tendency to the original
handling behavior, whereas increasing the rear slip angle will add an oversteering tendency.
IV - 23
f  V
VF f F
Vehicle
Path Vehicle
Side  > r Path
force f
Understeer  = r
Side f
r VR force Neutral
r VR Steer
Centrifugal
force
 VF
f
Centrifugal
force
Vehicle
Path
Side force
r
 < r VR
f
Oversteer
Figure IV-20. Vehicle handling behavior
IV - 24
Example IV-1
Consider a 22-ton truck with three axles as illustrated in the figure (all dimensions are in [mm]).
There is a single set of tires on the front axle. Tandem wheels are used on the intermediate and
rear axles. The cornering stiffnesses of tires are given below.
Front : Csf = 2.00 [kN/o/tire]
2420
2200
Intermediate : Csi = 1.25 [kN/o/tire]
Rear : Csr = 1.50 [kN/o/tire]
3340
3900 1350
Use a suitable model to estimate the handling behavior of the truck at the low lateral
acceleration range and calculate the corresponding critical or characteristic speed.
Let us combine the intermediate and rear axles into a single equivalent axle with total cornering
stiffnesses  Csf and use a simple bicycle model with total cornering stiffnesses  Csf and
 Csr at the front and rear axles.
 N   180o   N 
 Csf  2  2000   4000  o     229183 
   rad   rad 
 N   180o   N 
 Csr  4 1250  1500  11000  o     630254 

   rad    rad 
Since the cornering stiffnesses of the tires on the actual intermediate and rear axles are different,
the location "b" of the equivalent axle will be different from the midpoint between these two
axles. One approximation would be:
4(1.25)  4(1.5)  b  4(1.25)  3900  3340   4(1.5)  3900  3340  1350   b  1296.4[mm]
2420
2200
3340
b=4636.4
Note that negative values for cornering stiffnesses must be used in the calculations.
a  Csf  b  Csr  3.340  229183  1.2964  630254   51590  Nm 
Obviously, the truck will be understeering. The characteristic speed is:
U ch 
L2  Csf  Csr

 3.34  1.296 2  229183 630254  m
 52.3    188  kph 
 a  Csf  b Csr  m 51590  22000  s
IV - 25
Exercises
IV-1) Estimate the cornering stiffness for the tire with a cornering force characteristic as
given in the figure. Then calculate the cornering force at a slip angle of 2.7o.
IV-2) Using the cornering force characteristics shown in Fig. IV-5 and tabulated below,
estimate the cornering stiffnesses in [N/deg] of a truck tire at wheel loads of 0.0, 14.5, 28.5,
38.5, and 52.5 [kN].
Wheel load [kN]

[o]  14.5 28.5  
Fc [kN]
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1.0 1.8 3.1 3.8 4.0
2 2.1 3.5 6.5 7.6 9.0
3 3.5 5.4 10.0 11.6 13.5
4 4.5 7.2 12.4 15.5 17.6
5 5.3 8.8 15.0 18.6 21.9
6 6.2 10.3 16.8 21.4 25.2
7 6.8 11.2 18.1 23.6 27.5
8 7.0 12.0 19.5 25.2 30.0
9 7.4 12.7 20.4 26.1 31.2
10 7.7 13.1 21.0 26.9 32.1
IV-3) Estimate the cornering stiffness of the truck tire around a slip angle of 8o at wheel loads
of 52.5, 38.5, 28.5, 14.5, 9.0 [kN] using the cornering force characteristics given in exercise
IV-2. Plot cornering stiffness versus wheel load curve for the specified slip angle.
IV-4) Estimate the cornering stiffness of the truck tire around slip angles of 1 - 8o at a wheel
load of 38.5 [kN] using the cornering force characteristics given in exercise IV-2. Plot
cornering stiffness versus slip angle curve for the specified wheel load.
IV - 26
IV-5) Using the tire characteristics given below, estimate

a) the cornering force at a wheel load of 5.3 kN and a slip angle of 4o.
b) the slip angle to generate a cornering force of 1.1 kN at a wheel load of 7.2 kN.
IV-6) The equations of motion of the bicycle model of the plane motions of a motor vehicle
were obtained in terms of the velocities u, v, and r of the reference frame Cattached to the
center of gravity of the vehicle. Determine the expressions to specify the position and direction
of the vehicle with respect to a fixed set of axes OXYZ, i.e., x(u, v, r), y(u, v, r), and (u, v, r).
IV-7) Consider the simple bicycle model of a vehicle. The longitudinal, lateral (side slip),
and angular velocities at the vehicle center of gravity are specified as u, v, and r. Write down
an expression for the vehicle sideslip angle,  which is defined as the angle between the
longitudinal axis of the vehicle and the direction of motion at the center of gravity.
IV-8) The motion of a vehicle is described by the forward velocity, u = 60 kph, the side slip
velocity, v = 0.8 m/s, of its center of gravity, and the yaw velocity, r = 0.18 rad/s, about the
center of gravity. The position of the center of gravity is denoted by the distances from the front
and rear axles, a = 1.18 m and b = 1.05 m, respectively. The vehicle has equal front and rear
tracks, t = 1.32 m. Calculate the slip angles of the right and left front tires if the front wheels
are given a steering angle of =1.5o.
Ans.: fr=2.0o, fl=1.95o
v
IV-9) Obtain the expression for the sideslip velocity gain ss for the plane motion vehicle

model and plot versus forward speed, in the range from 0 to 150 kph with 5 kph increments,
using the vehicle specified in Exercise IV-10.
IV - 27
IV-10) For the vehicle specified below, estimate the forward speeds at which the vehicle will
a) tip over the outer wheels,

b) slide out of the curve under the action of the centrifugal force
c) start an uncontrollable rotation about the center of gravity for even an
infinitesimally small steering action
while going around a circular path of 120 m radius. The coefficient of adhesion between the
tires and the road is specified as 0.86.
Vehicle Specifications:
Mass : 1280 kg
Load distribution (f/r) : 52/48 %
Wheelbase : 2510 mm
Track : 1224 mm
Height of center of gravity : 512 mm
Cornering stiffness (f/r) : 84.2/61.4 kN/rad
Ans.: a) 135 kph, b) 115 kph. c) 124 kph
IV-11) Consider a passenger vehicle with a mass of 1320 [kg]. The height of the center of
gravity of the vehicle is 550 [mm], and the front and rear tracks are both 1400 [mm].The
distance between the center of gravity and the front axle is 0.45 times the wheelbase. Tire
cornering force characteristics at zero camber are identical and are tabulated below. Calculate
the steady-state front and rear wheel slip angles at a lateral acceleration of 0.25 [g]. Neglect the
effects of traction, camber, etc., and interpolate or extrapolate if and when necessary.
Slip Angle [o]

Tyre Load [N] 1 2 3 4
1000 430 670 810 900
2000 525 1000 1400 1650
3000 675 1275 1775 2250
4000 750 1500 2050 2670
5000 780 1625 2325 3000
6000 800 1650 2425 3100
7000 790 1640 2450 3120
IV - 28
IV-12) Using the bicycle model,
a) Show analytically that the peak of the yaw velocity gain for an understeer vehicle
is obtained at characteristic speed and obtain the expression for the peak value.
b) Derive the limiting value of the lateral acceleration response of an understeer

vehicle as the forward speed approaches infinity.
IV-13) For the vehicle illustrated in the figure,
a) Derive expressions for the loads on the inner and outer tires. The vehicle is going
around a curve with a forward speed u, and the radius of curvature is R. Find the
expression for the load transfer from inner to outer tires in terms of the lateral
acceleration.
b) Plot load transfer from inner to outer tires for lateral accelerations, from 0 to 0.3
[g] with 0.025 [g] increments, using vehicle parameters :
m = 1120 [kg], h = 0.48 [m], t = 1.56 [m], a = 1.20 [m], b=1.30 [m].
c) Calculate the total cornering forces developed by the inner and outer tires at a
lateral acceleration of 0.25 [g]. All the tires are identical with cornering force
characteristics as given in the table below, and the center of gravity of the vehicle
is at the midpoint between the front and rear axles. Assume a constant steering
angle of 3o, and a forward velocity of 60 kph, a lateral (side slip) velocity of 1
m/s, and a yaw velocity of 0.37 rad/s.
W h
center of
Fci Fco curvature
x
t/2 t/2
Wo t Wi
Wv [N] [o] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2000 380 800 1120 1360 1500 1570 1580 1590 1600
Fc
3000 450 860 1280 1560 1710 1860 2040 2200 2300
[N]
4000 480 910 1300 1640 1920 2190 2420 2610 2800
IV - 29
IV-14) Calculate the radius of curvature of the trajectory of a vehicle with a forward speed of
120 kph and a steady-state yaw velocity of 0.27 rad/s.
Ans.: 123 [m]
IV-15) For the vehicle below, plot the variations of
a) yaw velocity gain [rad/s/rad], and

b) lateral acceleration gain [g/rad]
with respect to steering wheel angle versus forward speed in the range of 0 to 150 kph.
Mass: 20105 kN.

Wheelbase: 3.2 m
Load distribution (f/r): % 53.5/46.5
Cornering stiffness of each front tire: 39.0 kN/rad
Cornering stiffness of each rear tire: 38.0 kN/rad
IV-16) A large saloon car has a mass of 2040 kg. The wheelbase is 2.95 m, and the front axle
carries 54.0 % of the static load. Determine the steady-state handling behavior (whether
understeer, oversteer, or neutral steer; characteristic or critical speed as appropriate) of the
vehicles equipped with tires specified below.
a) All cross-ply tires with

Cornering stiffness of each front tire : 38.9 kN/rad
Cornering stiffness of each rear tire : 38.2 kN/rad
b) Front tires replaced with radial ply tires, each having a cornering stiffness of 47.8
kN/rad.
Ans. : a) Understeer, 143 [kph], b) Oversteer, 361 [kph]
IV-17) Consider the truck in Example IV-1.
a) Check the handling behavior if the equivalent rear axle is assumed to be at the
midpoint between the intermediate and rear axles.
b) Calculate the relevant characteristic or critical speed in this case.
c) Comment on the handling behavior of the truck? Do you think it is satisfactory?
IV - 30
IV-18) The yaw velocity gain expression for a bicycle model of a car is given below. Obtain
the steady-state yaw velocity and lateral acceleration gains for a neutral steer vehicle.
r 1 uL C f C r
 ss =
G
 sw 2 2
(aC f - bC r) mu + L C f C r
IV-19) The yaw velocity gain expression (with respect to the steering angle  in [rad] of the
front wheels) of a car is given as a function of forward speed U in [m/s], below.
r U

 2.48  0.00124 U 2
a) What can you say about the handling behavior of the vehicle? Determine the
critical or characteristic speed, whichever is appropriate, of the car.
b) Calculate the maximum yaw velocity gain of the car.
c) Calculate the lateral acceleration of the car at a forward speed of 60 kph for a
steering angle of 3o of the front wheels.
Ans. : a) Understeer, 161 [kph], b) 9.0 [rad/rad/s], c) 5.15 [m/s2]
IV-20) Consider a car with specifications as follows :

Mass : 1400 kg, L=2.45 m,
Cf = 75000 N/rad, Cr = 100000 N/rad, G=17.
(a) Calculate the lateral acceleration gain for a forward speed of 60 kph if the load
distribution (f/r) is specified as 42/58 %
(b) Calculate the load distribution (front and rear axle loads in %) to result in a neutral
steer vehicle.
IV-21) The yaw velocity gain expression (with respect to the steering angle  in [rad] of the
front wheels) of a car is given as a function of forward speed U in [m/s], in terms of constant
parameters A and B, below.
r U

 A  BU2
a) Write down the conditions on the values of A and B for the vehicle to have
oversteer, understeer, and neutral steer characteristics.
b) Write down the expression, in terms of A and B, for the critical and characteristic
speeds of the vehicle.
IV - 31
c) If A = 2.42 and B = - 0.0019 for r in [ (i.e., m, s, rad,…), calculate the lateral

acceleration gain of the car in [(m/s2)/o] at a forward speed of 60 kph and
determine the critical or characteristic speed of the car in [kph].
IV-22) Consider a vehicle with a mass of 1280 kg and front and rear axle cornering
stiffnesses of 75000 and 96000 N/rad. Assume two different cases, where the mass of
the vehicle is distributed such that the position of the center of gravity is specified as
:
Case 1 : a = 1.12 m, b = 1.43 m
Case 2 : a = 1.43 m, b = 1.12 m.
Calculate the steady-state radius of curvature of the trajectory and the lateral acceleration of the
vehicle at a forward speed of 90 kph, for a steering angle of 1.2o of the front tires, under the
two cases specified. Explain the differences between the two cases.
IV-23) Explain the effects on the handling characteristics of an automobile, with zero camber
angles at the front and at the rear and all tires identical at the rated inflation pressures, of
a) increasing front tire inflation pressure,

b) giving positive camber angles to rear tires,
c) applying braking effort in a greater proportion to front tires than the rear tires,
d) including the effects of load transfer from inside to outside tires,
IV-24) The characteristic speeds of the two cars are determined to be 125 and 189 kph,
respectively. Which has heavier understeering ? Explain or illustrate.
IV - 32
CHAPTER V
VEHICLE SUSPENSIONS
V-1. Basic Functions
The suspension system basically consists of all the elements that provide the
connection between the wheels and the vehicle body and is designed to meet the following main
requirements:
i) Ride comfort: Insulates the vehicle and its occupants from road shocks and against
transmission of vibration from the road surface, which results in road noise within the passenger
compartment, and thus provides a comfortable ride.
ii) Road Holding: Keeps the wheels in contact with the road surface at all times for
better traction, braking, and directional control and stability.
iii) Handling: Provides suitable handling characteristics by locating the wheels,

regulating their motions, and allowing easy steering of the wheels.
It is evident that a suspension system must be able to withstand the loads acting on
it. These forces may be in the longitudinal direction such as acceleration and braking forces, in
the lateral direction such as cornering forces, and in the vertical direction. Further, driving and
braking torques should also be considered.
A well-designed suspension system is expected to give a balanced compromise

solution for the above-mentioned aspects of performance which require conflicting
specifications. Thus, different designers and manufacturers place emphasis on one or another
aspect, which usually reflects the particular road conditions and driving habits applicable in the
target country. For example, in the case of generally straight but rough road surfaces good ride
is always the first in the list of preferences. The case of mountainous areas requires an emphasis
on handling quality, and finally, on straight roads with good surfaces accent is on straight-line
stability.
V-1
V-2. Basic Components
V-2.1 Spring
The first requirement from the suspension system requires an elastic resistance to
absorb the road shocks. This primary function is fulfilled by the suspension springs. Various
different types of springs have been used in vehicle suspensions. Among these are :
i) Leaf springs,
ii) Helical coil springs,
iii) Torsion bar springs,
iv) Air springs, and
v) Rubber springs.
(a) Leaf spring
(b) Torsion bar spring
(c) Air spring
Figure V-1. Automotive suspension springs
V-2
V-2.2 Damper1
If the energy absorbed by the suspension springs is not dissipated, the vehicle will
continue to oscillate up and down. A damper, which converts mechanical energy into heat
energy, is thus necessary. It should be noted that in spite of the commonly used name "shock
absorber", dampers do not absorb shocks.
The structure of single and double cylinder dampers commonly used in road
vehicles is illustrated in Figure V-2.
Atmospheric Valves
Atmospheric Piston
Piston
Hydraulic Inner
Cylinder Fluid cylinder
Hydraulic
Piston Outer Fluid
rod cylinder
(a) (b)
Figure V-2. Damper design, (a) single-cylinder, (b) double-cylinder
The essential data used in the application of dampers is the force-piston speed
characteristic, usually approximated by straight lines, from which an estimation for a linear
damping coefficient can be obtained. In vehicle suspension applications, the speed of the wheel
in the upward direction (as in going over a bump) is roughly twice that in the case of downward
direction (rebound). To equalize the force applied on the vehicle body, the suspension dampers
are designed to produce asymmetric characteristics illustrated in Figure V-3.2
Force
Bump
Rebound Piston Speed
Figure V-3. Damper force-piston speed characteristic
1
Balkan, T., Ünlüsoy, Y. S., “Servohidrolik Amortisör Dinamometresinin Dinamik Modeli ve Simülasyonu”, II.
Hidrolik ve Pnömatik Kongresi ve Sergisi Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 442-451, İzmir, Kasım 2001.
2
Milliken, W. F. ve Milliken, D. L., “Race Car Vehicle Dynamics”, SAE International, 1995.
V-3
The Force-piston speed characteristic of a damper is obtained experimentally. In

these tests, one end of the damper is fixed on a rigid frame through a force transducer. An
actuator is then used to excite the other end at a fixed stroke and a series of speeds. During tests,
force and piston displacement data are collected.
Testing machines for measuring damper characteristics are classified into three
groups: mechanical, servo-hydraulic, and electromagnetic. Mechanical setups are commonly
used because of their simplicity. They can not, however, provide the flexibility and performance
of the more complex and expensive servo-hydraulic and electromagnetic counterparts.
In mechanical testing machines, a Scotch Yoke mechanism is used to give the free
end of the damper a fixed amplitude, variable frequency sinusoidal displacement, as illustrated
in Figure V-4 (a). The amplitude and/or the frequency can be changed by adjusting the
mechanism and/or the speed of the drive motor using a variable frequency drive. Tests
performed at various motor speeds will result in the families of closed force-piston
displacement curves. Piston speed corresponding to each motor speed can be calculated and
associated with the particular force-piston displacement curve obtained at that speed.
A typical servo-hydraulic test machine is illustrated in Figure V-4 (b).
Force
transducer
Damper
Force
transducer
Damper
Servovalve
Harmonic
motion
mechanism
Electric Linear
motor Hydraulic
actuator
power pack
(a) (b)
Figure V-4. Damper testing machines, (a) Mechanical, (b) Servohydraulic
V-4
Typical damper characteristic curves obtained through tests for fixed piston speed
at varying strokes and fixed piston stroke at varying piston speeds are illustrated in Figure V-5
(a) and (b).
(a) (b)
Figure V-5. Damper characteristics; (a) force-piston displacement, (b) force-piston speed
V-5
Example V-1
Consider a damper test using a mechanical damper testing machine. Estimate the
damping coefficients of the test damper in bump and in rebound, considering the experimental
damping force versus piston displacement characteristics given in the figure on the left below.
The rotational speed of the drive motor during the test is 51 [rpm], corresponding to the
outermost characteristic in the figure.
Solution:
It is evident from the figure that the stroke of the hydraulic actuator of the test
system, S0, is 0.08 [m]. Since the position of the piston is given by S = S0sin(t, the speed of
the piston is given by V = S0cos(t, where t is time. Thus the maximum piston speed is
obtained as:
 rev   2rad   min  m

Vmax  S0  51      0.08  m   0.427  
 min   rev   60s  s
The maximum damper forces corresponding to the maximum piston speeds can be read from
the experimental characteristics approximately as 0.22 [N] for bump and 0.43 [N] for rebound.
Thus the linear damping coefficients in bump and rebound can be estimated as 515 and 1007
[N/m/s] from the slopes of the damping force versus piston speed lines.
V-6
V-2.3 Other Components
To reduce vibrations and the resulting road-noise, rubber mounts and bushes are
used at all points of connection between the suspension and the vehicle body, Fig. V-6. Further
mechanical members (arms and rods) which will locate the road wheels and stabilizing
members (such as anti-roll bars) to modify suspension behavior are other components of a
suspension system.
Figure V-6. Rubber bushing
Some vehicles have their suspension systems indirectly connected to the body
through sub-frame assemblies which enable simplified line assembly, adjustment, and repair
work and which provide better vibration isolation resulting in less road noise, Figure V-7.
Sub-Frame
Rubber body
Mounts
Figure V-7. Subframe
V-7
V-3. Suspension Geometry
For good steering control and for minimum tire and parts wear, the front wheels
must be aligned. The factors that define suspension geometry include camber, caster, steering
axis inclination, scrub radius, toe-in, and toe-out.
Camber Angle
Camber is the angle between the central plane of symmetry of the wheel and the
vertical plane at the center of the contact patch, as illustrated in Figure V-8.
 
Figure V-8. Camber angle
Camber angle is said to be positive when the wheels are further apart at the top than
at the bottom.
The purpose of the camber angle is to align the wheel load with the point of contact
of the tire on the road surface. In heavy trucks, a slight amount of positive camber is machined
into the axles to compensate for the deflection of the axle beam under load.
The effort to steer a vehicle with the camber arrangement shown in Figure V-9(a)
would be less than that necessary with the arrangement shown in Figure V-9(b). Another
important reason for camber is that a greater portion of the load is supported closer to the inner
end of the wheel spindle; consequently, the arrangement in Figure V-9(a) results in a smaller
bending moment in the wheel spindle than the case of Figure V-9(b).
It should be noted that camber is a tire wearing angle, i.e., incorrect camber will
result in premature tire wear. Excessive camber creates a diameter variation across the tire
contact patch. The smallest diameter slips and slides to equal speed of the largest diameter,
resulting in undue wear on one side of the tire. Excessive camber causes damages to the kingpin
and its bushes as well as wheel bearings.
V-8
e e
W W
(a) (b)
Figure V-9. Effect of camber angle
In the past, considerable positive camber was used to decrease cornering power at
the front axle to reduce oversteer tendency (or impart understeer tendency). In modern
passenger cars, the camber angles have been reduced to below 1o (Typically 0o to 0.25o for
independent suspensions and 0.75o to 1.25o for beam axles). It must be noted that when a wheel
is steered, its camber angle will change, and this change will be controlled by front suspension
geometry. It is possible, therefore, to design the desired camber change characteristics by a
proper choice of front suspension geometric parameters. Negative front wheel camber, for
example, is used in some recent sports cars to improve cornering ability.
Caster Angle
The caster angle is the angle between the pivot pin (in a solid axle) or the spindle
support (in an independent suspension) and the vertical to the road surface in side view, as
illustrated in Figure V-10 for the case of positive caster. Positive caster results in a caster offset
in front of the contact patch center. Note that caster is not a tire-wearing angle.
The purpose of caster is to keep the front wheels of an automobile in a straight-

ahead position. Caster will also assist in returning the wheels to a straight-ahead position. This
effect is obtained through an additional torque around the center of the tire contact patch when
the wheel is steered, as illustrated in Figure V-11.
Negative caster results in poor directional control unless the accompanying steering
axis inclination is adequately chosen. Note, however, that a negative caster is usually used for
the rear wheel steered vehicles.
V-9
Offset
Figure V-10. Caster angle
The amount of caster, depending on the weight of the vehicle, varies between 3 to
6 degrees. For easier steering, a slight caster angle is required.
Caster results in negative camber of the outside wheel during cornering and thus
increases cornering force and oversteer tendency.
T e T
Point of Point of T
load offset contact
Figure V-11. Caster action
V-10
Steering axis inclination
Steering axis inclination is the angle in degrees that the axis of the steering knuckles
is tilted towards the vehicle from the vertical, as viewed from the front of the vehicle, shown in
Figure V-12. It is fixed during the assembly of the suspension system and is non-adjustable. In
some vehicles, a negative offset is used to improve stability during tire blowout on one wheel.


Offset Offset Negative

Offset
Figure V-12. Steering axis inclination
The purpose of the steering axis inclination is the same as that of the camber. In
addition, it causes the front end of the vehicle to rise as the wheel is turned. Therefore, a self-
aligning torque is produced resulting in better directional stability.
Another effect of the steering axis inclination is to produce positive camber at the
outside wheel during cornering. This property can be used for increasing understeer
characteristics.
Steering axis inclination is usually about 3 to 7 degrees for passenger cars, the
higher values being used for lighter vehicles. For trucks, it is reduced down to zero degrees.
Toe-in and Toe-out
When the distance between the wheels on the same axle is smaller (as measured at
axle height) at the front, the difference is called toe-in. Similarly, if the distance between the
wheels on the same axle is smaller at the rear, the difference is called toe-out.
Toe-out is usually produced during straight-ahead driving due to the elasticity and
clearances of the steering linkage, worn parts, etc. and during cornering - the inner and outer
wheels are steered at different angles. Further, because of the presence of camber angle, the
V-11
axis of the wheel, when extended, will intersect the road at some point. The wheel tends to
rotate like a cone about this point. Hence, there is a natural tendency for the tires on the same
axle to slip away from each other, Figure V-13. Toe-out will cause tire wear and, in addition,
may cause the vehicle to wander as the tires hit road bumps.
Figure V-13. Toe-out due to camber
The toe-in is, therefore, given to the wheels to cancel the effects of toe-out. Toe-in creates a
natural slip angle, i.e., an angle between the wheel plane and the direction of motion. Thus it
provides a lateral force to resist side loads from the road surface. Further, it is useful in
eliminating the flutter of the steering wheel known as "shimmy". Too much of toe-in, however,
results in excessive tire wear and high rolling resistance.
front front
 A
 
B  
B
Toe-in = B - A (B > A) Toe-out = -  (A > B)
 
  

Figure V-14. Toe-in and toe-out
It should be noted that toe-in is specified by the distance between the wheels on the
same axle (as measured at axle height) at the front and at the back. Toe-out, on the other hand,
is specified by the angle difference between the right and left wheels as illustrated in Figure V-
14.
V-12
V-4. Types of Vehicle Suspensions
Vehicle suspensions may be classified into two broad groups:
i) Rigid axle suspensions,

ii) Independent wheel suspensions.
Each group may further be classified as front or rear suspensions.
In assessing the design of an existing or proposed suspension, it would be good

practice to examine carefully the components providing the location of the wheel by restraining
its motion in the three directions, namely the vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directions.
In evaluating the quality of a suspension system and its suitability for a particular
vehicle, it is customary to examine Wheel
Camber Body roll travel
a) camber angle, and variation
b) track variation
with
a) wheel travel, and
b) body roll
Track variation
in detail, together with a number of other factors. Variation of camber angle will affect the
handling behavior of the vehicle and thus should be in accordance with the handling
requirements. Track variation, on the other hand, is undesirable as it will degrade both
directional control and stability and ride comfort.
Further considerations with respect to ride comfort require the minimization of unsprung mass.
In vehicle dynamics terminology, the mass of the vehicle, which is supported by the suspension
springs, is called the sprung mass, and the part below the suspension springs is called the
unsprung mass, Figure V-15.
Sprung Mass
Unsprung Mass
Figure V-15. Camber and track variation with body roll and wheel travel
V-13
V-4.1 Rigid (Beam) Axle Suspensions
In the rigid axle arrangement, the left and right wheels are connected by a rigid axle
such that the movement of one wheel will affect the other.
There are two basic types of rigid axles:
i) Dead axle : consists of a solid rigid beam and is used for the front suspension of
RWD or the rear suspension of FWD vehicles, Figure V-16 (a). Therefore, the wheels on dead
axles are not driven. Practically all heavy commercial vehicles are equipped with dead beam
axles at the front.
ii) Live axle : is used for the driven wheels, and therefore carries the differential, in
the basic design, Figure V-16 (b). Hence, it is mainly used for the rear suspensions in RWD
vehicles. It should be noted that 4WD vehicles are equipped with live axles both at the front
and rear.
(a)
(b)
Figure V-16. (a) Dead axle, (b) Live axle

V-14
In both types of rigid axles, the rise of one wheel, i.e. suspension travel, causes both
wheels to have a camber change. Further, a change in the track will accompany camber change
as illustrated in Figure V-17. The camber change due to body roll, on the other hand, is zero
with rigid axles.
Figure V-17 Rigid axle - camber variation with suspension travel
Dead Axle Suspensions
This type of suspension is basically used at the front of commercial vehicles. The
simplest type consists of a rigid beam axle and leaf springs which locate the axle vertically,
longitudinally, and laterally similar to those of the live axle shown in Figure V-16 (b).
In its basic form, dead axle suspension is also used as the rear suspension for FWD
cars. However, since the leaf springs have to locate the axle in three directions, the location is
not precise. Particularly, when coil springs are used instead of leaf springs, the axle has to be
located in the longitudinal and lateral direction by other means. Most common configurations
use longitudinal arms and either an A-bracket, lateral arms, or a Panhard rod for the lateral
location as illustrated in Figure V-18(a), (b), and (c). Panhard rod may be arranged either
transversely or diagonally, and for proper operation must be as long as possible.
V-15
a) Longitudinal arms and

A-bracket
b) Longitudinal and diagonal arms
c) Longitudinal arms and Panhard rod
d) Watt's linkage
Figure V-18. Longitudinal and lateral location of the rigid axle
V-16
Figure V-19. Twist (torsion) beam rear suspensions
Another dead axle configuration, illustrated in Figure V-19, has recently become
popular and consists of longitudinal arms rigidly connected to the axle. Unequal deflections of
the wheels are obtained by the torsion of the axle. At one extreme, if the axle is between the
wheels, a rigid axle suspension will be obtained. At the other extreme, if the axle is closer to
the body, an almost independent suspension will result, Figure V-20. In most designs, the axle
is placed at some intermediate position between the wheels and the body. For the lateral
location, a Panhard rod is usually added to the system. This system represents an intermediate
step between dependent and independent suspensions.
Rigid
Independent rear
rear Semi-rigid suspension
suspension rear
suspension
Figure V-20. Twist (torsion) beam rear suspension – rigid to independent
V-17
Live Rear Axles
The wheels on a live axle are driven. Thus it houses shafts that drive the wheels,
while the wheels on the dead axles rotate freely.
The connections between a live axle and the body must be capable of dealing with four separate
actions, namely:
i) weight of the body,

ii) torque reaction,
iii) driving or braking forces,
iv) lateral forces.
The torque reaction and the driving forces are the extra loads introduced in the case
of live axles and which do not act on the dead axles.
A live axle carrying the differential and the drive shafts results in an excessively
large unsprung mass and, therefore, is common in commercial vehicles. In cars, they are used
only when low cost is the top priority. One way of using a dead axle for the driven wheels to
reduce unsprung mass is to use the de Dion axle. Here, the differential is mounted on the chassis
and not on the axle, as illustrated in Figure V-21.
Figure V-21. De Dion axle
V-18
V-4.2 Independent Wheel Suspensions
In independent suspensions, the configuration is such that the movement of one

wheel has no direct effect on the other wheels. The types of independent suspensions for front
and rear wheels will be examined separately.
Front Wheel Suspensions
Today two types of independent suspension systems have superseded all other
types, namely the MacPherson strut and the double-wishbone type of front suspension systems.
The MacPherson strut, shown and illustrated in Figures V-22 and 23, is very popular
because it is mechanically simple, requires very little lateral space, its unsprung mass is small,
and its up-and-down motion causes very little camber change. The location of the wheel is
controlled in the vertical direction by the strut, which consists of a damper and a coil spring
mounted coaxially. The strut is either integral with or rigidly connected to the wheel hub. The
lateral motion of the wheel is restrained by the track control arm which is connected to the
wheel hub by a spherical joint at one end and pivoted to the body at the other end. The
longitudinal location of the wheel can be controlled by a number of different configurations.
One alternative is to have a wishbone-shaped track control arm connecting to the body at two
points. Another choice is the use of an independent bar positioned at an angle to the track
control arm. Recent designs employ the anti-roll bar for the same purpose as can be seen in Fig.
V-23.
Figure V-22 MacPherson strut suspension – illustration
V-19
Track control arm
Diagonal arm Anti-roll bar
Figure V-23. MacPherson strut suspension-variations
MacPherson strut type of suspension has some disadvantages. It requires

considerable space in the vertical direction which conflicts with the trend of lower vehicle lines.
Further, lateral loads on the strut increase damper friction resulting in reduced ride comfort, as
illustrated in Fig. V-24. The second disadvantage can be overcome by
a) adjusting the geometry of the strut, wheel, and the track arm, Fig. V-24, or
b) inclining the spring axis relative to the damper axis, V-25 (a).
As illustrated in Figure V-24, the inclination of the strut should be such that its axis,
the effective axis of the track control arm, and the line of action of the wheel load intersect at a
single point. This eliminates the bending moment on the strut, reducing the sliding friction
between the piston and the cylinder of the damper. This requirement, however, introduces
severe limits on the design possibilities for better performance.
R R
P P
R Q
S W R W
T
S
Q T
P P
W W
Figure V-24 Force diagrams for MacPherson strut suspension designs
V-20
The most recent application is the use of the so-called side force spring. A side
force spring creates a side force when deformed due to its curved centerline (S-shaped median
line in unloaded condition), or varying diameter and/or pitch, Figure V-25. This side force acts
to cancel the lateral force on the damper.
Figure V-25 Inclined and side force spring
V-21
The double wishbone suspension, shown and illustrated in Figure V-26, can have
specific variations. The coil spring and the damper need not be coaxial and they may be placed
on either the lower or upper wishbone. Further, the wishbones may or may not be equal or
parallel.
Damper
Coil
spring
Upper
wishbone
Lower Diagonal arm

wishbone Steering linkage
Steering linkage
Lower
wishbone
Diagonal arm
Anti-roll bar
Figure V-26. Double wishbone suspensions - illustration
V-22
If the wishbones are parallel and equal in length, Figure V-27 (a), the camber
change will equal the body roll angle. Thus the outer wheel assumes positive camber during
cornering, which reduces the cornering power, i.e., built-in understeer tendency. The wheel also
moves over bumps without any camber change, but the track will change affecting linear
stability by introducing lateral forces and impairing ride comfort as well. Because of these
disadvantages, the equal-parallel wishbone suspension is not used in modern vehicles.
The double wishbone suspension can be improved by shortening the upper

wishbone, in which case constant track can be obtained introducing, however, a camber change,
Figure V-27 (b). In addition, camber change due to body roll during cornering is reduced.
A further refinement is the non-parallel, unequal-length wishbone suspension

system illustrated in Figure V-27 (c). It is then possible, by proper design, to keep the outside
wheel virtually upright irrespective of the body roll and a relatively constant track can be
maintained at least for a limited range of suspension motion.
a) Parallel and equal, b) Parallel and unequal, c) Nonparallel and unequal
Figure V-27. Double wishbone suspension designs
V-23
The third type of independent suspension, sometimes used in small commercial

vehicles, shown in Figure V-28 (a) and illustrated in Figure V-28 (b), is called the swing axle
suspension. The wheel and its half-axle form a rigid assembly pivoted near the middle of the
car.
Damper Spring
Swing axle
Longitudinal arm
Swing axle
(a)
(b)
Figure V-28. Swing axle suspension - illustration
It is clear that with this kind of suspension, wheel travel results in considerable
camber change due to a relatively short swing radius. Track variation during suspension travel
and body roll is also excessive.
In addition, upon hard cornering, the swing axle tends to lift the vehicle such that
the outer wheel which is generating the higher cornering force is "tuck under" the body. Thus
the vehicle body is “jacked up”, and the rollover resistance of the vehicle is reduced. When
coupled with the effects of excessive camber change, inconsistent cornering performance
results. Therefore, the swing axle is used in low-cost, low-performance vehicles. The so-called
"jacking" effect is illustrated in Figure V-29.
V-24
Figure V-29. Jacking effect
Recently, multi-link suspensions are used on high-performance vehicles. They

closely resemble the double wishbone suspension. On the double wishbone design, the upper
and lower wishbones are attached to the wheel hub by spherical joints on the steering (kingpin)
axis. The five-link suspension, for example, has four separate links corresponding to the two
wishbones and the tie rod becomes the fifth link, Figure V-30. It does not have a physically
defined steering axis; the steering axis is a virtual, instantaneous, and movable one.
Additional
tie rod
Figure V-30. Five-link suspensions
V-25
Rear Wheel Suspensions
Most common independent rear wheel suspensions are:
i) Trailing arm,
ii) Semi-trailing arm,
iii) Double wishbone or MacPherson strut suspensions.
In trailing arm suspension, illustrated in Figure V-31, each wheel is connected to

an arm pivoted at two points to the vehicle body. The spring and damper are mounted between
the arm and the body. The arm pivots are at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle,
resulting in an axis of rotation parallel to the lateral axis of the vehicle. Thus the wheel can go
over bumps without any camber or toe change due to suspension travel. The differential is
mounted on the body. Compared with the rigid beam axle, the unsprung mass is much less in
trailing arm suspensions.
Figure V-31. Trailing arm suspension
The trailing arm suspension is excellent with respect to directional stability and
comfort because of smaller toe and camber variation. It is less favorable, however, if cornering
behavior and the limits of cornering are considered. The reason for this is the high compliance
to lateral force resulting in sharply increasing toe at high lateral forces.
V-26
Semi-trailing arm suspension differs from trailing arm design in that the axes of
rotation of the left and right arms do not coincide as they are not perpendicular to the
longitudinal vehicle axis, Figure V-32. With the semi-trailing suspension, the compliance to
lateral force is reduced, improving the cornering behavior. The camber angle and toe changes
introduced by the intersecting axes of rotation can be used to further control cornering behavior.
Examples of semi-trailing arm suspensions are given in Figure V-33.
Figure V-32. Trailing arm and semi-trailing arm suspension systems
Figure V-33. The semi-trailing arm suspension system
V-27
V-4.3 Interconnected Suspensions
As a car is driven along a road, the body can move in a number of ways on its
suspension:
i) on corners, it rolls,
ii) if all the wheels strike bumps simultaneously, it bounces,
iii) if the front wheels strike a bump first and the rear wheels hit that bump later, it
will pitch - first, the front, and then the rear of the body will rise.
In addition, one wheel alone can hit a bump, in which case, one side of the car
pitches, and the vehicle will bounce, pitch and roll. The suspension system must be designed to
keep the vehicle under control under all these conditions to provide the passenger with a
comfortable ride.
With a conventional system, it has been found that to minimize car pitching, the
rear suspension frequency must be slightly higher than the front suspension frequency.
Hydropneumatic suspensions, illustrated in Figure V-34, may be used to reduce

pitching oscillations by providing simultaneous front and rear wheel deflections. This is
achieved by connecting front and rear suspension units, as shown in Figure V-35. Thus when
the front or rear wheels go over a bump, the other end of the vehicle is raised preventing pitching
of the body as illustrated in Figure V-36. It is evident that a similar connection between the
right and left wheels can be used to control the roll motion of the vehicle.
Gas chamber
Orifice
Piston Fluid chamber
Figure V-34. Hydropneumatic suspension
V-28
Figure V-35. Interconnected suspension
Figure V-36. Interconnected suspension going over bumps
V-29
V-5. Anti-Roll Bar
The anti-roll bar connects one side of a suspension with the other and acts in torsion.
It is mounted across the vehicle with ends attached to the unsprung mass on each side. It is
attached to the body such that it can rotate in rubber bushings, Figure V-37. An anti-roll bar
can be fitted to the front suspension, rear suspension, or both. The suspension may be a rigid
axle or independent type.
The function of the anti-roll bar is to reduce the roll motion of the vehicle body.
During equal vertical wheel travel, the anti-roll bar simply rotates about the bushings at the
body attachment points without twisting. Thus the anti-roll bar has no effect on the body bounce
motion, front end lift during acceleration or dive during deceleration. If a wheel encounters a
bump or hole on one side only, then the bar is subjected to torsion, and resistance to body roll
is obtained. If the anti-roll bar is too stiff, then it may act like a beam axle reducing ride comfort.
During cornering, the vehicle body leans outwards under the action of centrifugal
force. Thus the inner suspension spring extends while the outer suspension spring is
compressed. The bar will be subjected to torsion and it will reduce the body roll, at the same
time minimizing the camber changes of the tires due to body roll. Therefore the main effect of
the anti-roll bar is the increased roll stiffness. The distribution of this increase in roll stiffness
between the front and rear suspensions, in turn, will modify the handling behavior of the
vehicle, i.e., the understeer, oversteer, or neutral steer tendency.
The addition of an anti-roll bar to a front or rear suspension originally without one
or replacement of the existing one with a stiffer one will increase the slip angle of the tires
through redistribution of the load transfer from inside to outside wheels in favor of the front
wheels. Thus, an additional anti-roll bar at the front will introduce an understeering tendency,
and if added at the back, an oversteering tendency will be obtained.
Figure V-37. Anti-roll bar
V-30
V-6. Roll Centers and Roll Axis
The roll center is defined as the point in the lateral plane of the front or rear
suspension about which the sprung mass of the vehicle rolls under the action of a side force,
for example, the centrifugal force during cornering. For a vehicle, there are two roll centers,
one for the front suspension and one for the rear suspension. These two roll centers define a
roll axis which is then the axis of rotation of the sprung mass under the action of a side force,
as illustrated in Figure V-38.
L
a b
h
an + bm n
m L
Figure V-38. Roll centers and the roll axis
The roll moment, which causes the vehicle to roll about the roll axis, is given by
the product of the centrifugal force and the distance of the center of gravity to the roll axis.
Therefore, it is theoretically possible to eliminate roll by locating the center of gravity on the
roll axis which requires the roll centers to be high. Usually, the roll angle and the load transfer
during cornering will be reduced with high roll centers. An additional benefit of eliminating
roll is that the associated camber change of the wheels is also eliminated.
High roll centers have certain disadvantages as well. They result in considerable
lateral wheel displacements during bump and rebound with track variations during operation.
Low roll centers, on the other hand, reduce lateral wheel displacements at the cost of higher roll
angles and larger load transfers during cornering.
The actual heights of the roll centers are, therefore, decided to give the best
compromise between the roll angle and lateral wheel deflections. In practice, a certain amount
of roll is desirable as it gives the driver an indication of how hard he/she is cornering. In
practice, the rear roll center is designed to be slightly higher than the front. This introduces a
larger load transfer at the front resulting in an understeering tendency.
V-31
For racing cars, the maximum permissible roll angles are specified as 3 to 4o at a
lateral acceleration of 0.75 g. For passenger cars, permissible roll angles are of the same
magnitude but attained at lower values of lateral acceleration. For example, in the development
of Austin Allegro, the primary overriding design parameter was that the roll angle at a lateral
acceleration of 0.5 g should be no more than 3 1/2 o. The current trend in passenger car
suspension engineering is to use fairly low roll centers together with anti-roll bars to reduce
roll.
The roll centers are determined by the relative positions of the suspension linkages.
It must be kept in mind that, as a result of suspension deflection during the roll, the positions
of the roll centers are also variable. The basic assumption in the roll axis approach is that the
roll center locations do not change. In spite of this rather severe assumption, the approach still
gives an insight into the dynamic behavior of vehicles.
The graphical determination of the roll center for some commonly used independent
suspensions is illustrated in Figures V-39 to V-42. In each case, the vehicle is assumed to be
symmetrical with respect to the longitudinal plane and thus, the roll center is always on the
vehicle centerline of a lateral section.
A
. 1
2 P
M
3
B
O
Figure V-39. Determination of roll center for MacPherson strut suspension
A

P 
 B
Figure V-40. Determination of roll center for double wishbone suspension
V-32
M
P
Figure V-41. Determination of roll center for swing axle suspension
Rear view
P 4
2
B 5 M
O
3 2
1
P
1
Top view
Figure V-42. Determination of roll center for semi-trailing arm suspension
V-33
V-7. Kinematic Analysis of Suspension Systems
Vehicle suspension systems are, in general, three-dimensional mechanisms. In the

design of suspensions, 5 of the 6 degrees of freedom of a non steering wheel must be
constrained. The wheel should have the freedom to move up and down relative to the vehicle's
body. A steered wheel will have a second degree of freedom for steering. Thus, using a
kinematical model, linear and nonlinear position analyses may be used to obtain critical
geometrical factors such as camber, caster, kingpin inclination, track, and toe changes which
can be examined for a given configuration of suspension deflection or body roll. It is evident
that such a model would be invaluable in the design and comparison of various alternatives.
Commonly used suspension components and the number of degrees of freedom

constrained by each link are illustrated in Figure V-433.
1 dof
2 dofs
3 dofs
- Each l nk type constra ns the nd cated number 4 dofs

of freedoms.
- A total of 5 degrees of freedom must be
constra ned.
- The number of comb nat ons s l m ted:
2+2+1, 5x1, 4+1, etc.
5 dofs
Figure V-43. Commonly used links and the corresponding number of constrained dofs
Construction of the commonly used independent suspensions as combinations of

various components is illustrated in Figs. V-44-46.
3
Gerrard, B., “A New Suspension Architecture For Small Cars”. Presented at Open
Technology Forum, Vehicle Dynamics Expo, 2005.
V-34
2+2+1
Figure V-44. McPherson strut suspension
2+2+1
Figure V-45. Double Wishbone suspension
5x1
Figure V-46. Multilink suspension
V-35
A typical example for a MacPherson strut suspension is given in Figure V-474. In

the model, the links identified as 2, 3, 4, and 5 are the track control arm, strut, tie rod, and rack,
respectively. Links 2, 4, 5 and the upper and lower portions of the strut are treated as rigid.
Joints at B, C, D, and E are spherical. Joints at O2 and A are revolute. The rack and its case and
the upper and lower parts of the strut are sliding pairs.
The model has two degrees of freedom :
1) Wheel displacement involving the relative motion of the upper and lower parts
of the strut and the rotation of the track control arm about the axis O2A.
2) Steering involving the motion of the rack relative to its case, the accompanying
motion of the tie rod, and the rotation of the strut about the axis BC.
It is also noted that the tie rod can rotate about the axis DE, but this degree of
freedom does not affect the global motion and thus is considered redundant.
Using the data in Table V-1, the camber, caster, kingpin inclination, track, and toe
changes with the vertical deflection of the spindle, i.e., point G, have been calculated using both
linear and nonlinear position analyses. The results are given in Figs. V-48-50.
Table V-1 Suspension system dimensions

Point x[mm] y[mm] z[mm]
O2 0 0 0
A 540 -10 -20
B 450 -330 -40
C 460 -180 470
D 560 -300 60
E 570 60 90
G 452 -410 20
H 452 -320 20
4
Cronin, D. L., "MacPherson Strut Kinematics", Mechanism and Machine Theory, v16 (1981), n6, pp.631-644.
V-36
Figure V-47. McPherson strut suspension and its 3-dimensional model
V-37
Figure V-48. Camber and caster angle change with wheel travel
V-38
Figure V-49 Track and toe change with wheel travel
V-39
Figure V-50. Kingpin angle change with wheel travel
The three-dimensional model is somewhat difficult to analyze and in some cases, a

two-dimensional model may be sufficient to give the required characteristics. Two-dimensional
models for the MacPherson strut, double wishbone, and swing axle type of suspensions are
shown in Figure. V-43.
V-40
3 1 3 1
2 2 0
4 4
Body bounce Body roll
0 0
5 5
MacPherson strut
3 1 3 1
0
4 2 4 2 0
Body bounce Body roll

0 5 0 5
Double wishbone
0 1 1
2 2 0
0 Body bounce 0 Body roll

3 3
Swing axle
Figure V-51. Two-dimensional models
V-41
Example V-2
Draw a kinematic model, providing roll freedom to the vehicle body, of the
swing axle suspension illustrated in the figure. Determine the degree of freedom of the
linkage, the number of independent loops, and the number of variables involved. Then
write the loop closure equation(s), clearly indicating the input and output variables. Plot
the relation of the input and output variables to body roll angle, wheel camber, and track
changes.
d A
C
a
t/2
Solution
A possible linkage for the swing axle suspension is given in the figure. It is clear
that the variation of camber angle is given by
  13
and track change corresponds to

t
t  S 4 
2
where t is the initial track.
The degree of freedom of the linkage can be calculated from the fundamental
criterion (Kutzbach Criterion)
j
F  b( n  1)   ( b  f i )
i 1
V-42
where F = degrees of freedom of the linkage

b = number of maximum degree of freedom of a link
b = 6 for a 3-D linkage
b = 3 for a 2-D linkage
n = number of links
fi = number of degree of freedom of jth joint
j = number of joints in the linkage.
y

 x
Vehicle Body 2
O
B A

 m
3
 1 (ground)
4
S4 D
C
For the problem in hand, b = 3, n = 4, j = 4 (3 revolute, 1 sliding)

F = 3 (4 - 1) - 4 (3 - 1) = 1
The number of independent loops, L, and the number of variables, p, are calculated as
L=j-n+1=4-4+1=1
p = 2L + F = 2(1) + 1 = 3
The input is taken as the roll angle of the body, 12, and the output variables will
be the angular displacement of link3, 13, related to wheel camber angle and the linear
position of slider 4, S4, related to track change.
The loop closure equation can be written as
   
OA  AC  OD  DC
or
OA e j12  ACe j13   jm  S4
V-43
and using the relation
e j  cos   j sin 
one gets
OA cos 12  jOA sin 12  AC cos 13  jAC sin 13   jm  S4
This vector equation can be written as two scalar equations
OA sin 12  AC sin 13  m

OA cos 12  AC cos 13  S4
in the two unknowns S4 and 13,
It should be noted that an exact analytical solution to these two simultaneous

nonlinear equations can be obtained. From the first equation
 m  OA sin 12
sin 13 
AC
and from the second equation :
S4  OA cos 12  AC cos 13
Repeating the solution for a range of values of 12, plots of camber angle and
track change versus body roll angle can be drawn.
For the following set of data, in [mm], the variation of track and camber angle
are plotted for a body roll angle range from –20 to +20o.
O = [0, 0]
A = [-200, -85]
B = [-850, -80]
C = [-840, -357]
D = [0, -357]
V-44
Body Roll Angle [deg]
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25

0
Track change [mm]
-10
-20
-30
-40
Body Roll Angle [deg]

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
10
Camber Change [deg]
-5
-10
V-45
Exercises
V-1) Find an example of each of the suspension types listed below. On a print, photocopy,
or drawing of each type of suspension, indicate the components providing for the location of
the wheel in the vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directions.
i) An independent front wheel suspension,
ii) An independent rear wheel suspension other than Macpherson strut and double
wishbone types,
iii) A beam axle (live or dead, front or rear).
The reference(s) from which the examples are taken should be fully specified.
V-2) Illustrate the graphical determination of the roll centers for

a) Parallel and equal double wishbones,
b) Parallel and unequal double wishbones.
V-3) Consider the suspension system shown in the figure.

a) Identify the type of the suspension system.
b) Write the names of all the major components indicated on the figure.
c) Which components provide vertical, lateral, and longitudinal locations of the
wheels ?
5
4
1
2
V-46
V-4) Consider the knuckle-strut suspension system designed for a medium-size FEFWD
saloon car, shown in the figure.
a) Is this an independent suspension system ? Explain shortly.
b) Is this suspension system designed for use in front or rear ? Explain shortly.
c) Why is the axis of the spring tilted with respect to the strut axis ?
V-5) Examine the suspension system given in the figure. Identify the type of the suspension
system. Name all the major components indicated on the figure and mark the components that
provide the vertical, lateral, and longitudinal locations of the wheels.
4 6
1 2 5
V-47
V-6) For the double wishbone suspension illustrated in the figure. Draw the force polygons,
including
a) the wheel load W, upper wishbone load FA (two force member), and lower
wishbone load FB (three force member) in the force balance, and
b) the cornering force Fc, upper wishbone load FA (two force member), and lower
wishbone load FB (three force member).
Calculate the magnitude of the spring force, Fs, and the wishbone loads in each case separately.
c) Calculate the magnitude of the spring force, Fs, and the wishbone loads by
superimposing the forces found in the two cases above.
Hint : For static equilibrium:
i) The wheel load acting at point O and the wishbone loads acting at points A and
B should intersect at a single point.
ii) The spring load and the lower wishbone loads acting at points B and C should
intersect at a single point.
y
All dimensions
a are in [mm]
A
A [97, 436]
D B [95, 213]
C [495, 258]
D [351, 418]
Coil
a [285, 455]
Spring
b [278, 108]
Fc = 2600 N
C
W = 4000 N
B
O b
Fc x
W
Ans.: a) Fs=2804 [N], FA=1610 [N], FB=4205 [N]
V-48
V-7) Calculate the roll center height for the McPherson strut suspension given in the figure.
y
A
A'
x B
O
A (0.40, 0.75), A' (0.47, 0.40), B (0.45, 0.20), C (0.15, 0.25), O (0.65, 0.00)
Ans. : 0.171 [m]
V-8) Calculate the roll center height for the McPherson strut suspension given in the figure.
y
O (0,0)
A (270,130) C
B (600,110)
C (450, 600)
D (680,0)
G (680, 150)
H (590, 150)
H G
A
All dimensions
are in mm. B
x
O D
V-9) Calculate the roll center height for the double wishbone suspension given in the figure.
A A [97, 436]
B [95, 213]
D C [495, 258]
D [351, 418]
E [0, 290]
E O [0,0]
t = 1280
C All
B
dimensions
x are in [mm]
O
V-49
V-10) Consider the kinematic model for a swing axle suspension, illustrated in the figure.
a) Calculate the degree of freedom and the number of independent loops.
b) List all the variables and specified parameters and write down the loop closure
equation(s).
c) Plot the camber angle and track variation versus body roll for a range of body
roll angles from -15o to +15o with 1o increments.
x M
1
M(0,0),
2 A(200, 88),
B(839, 90),
A y C(825, 363).
B 3
All dimensions
are in mm.
4 C
1
V-11) For the suspension system specified in the figure,
a) Suggest a two-dimensional kinematic model considering body roll only. Show
all the relevant dimensions.
b) Determine the degree of freedom, the number of variables, and the number of
independent loops. List all variables and identify the input and output variables.
c) Write down (do not solve) the loop closure equation(s).
d) Plot the changes of camber and track for the suspension specified in the figure
for a range of body roll angles between -20o to +20o with 1o increments.
y O O(0,0),
C A(270, 130),
B(600, 10),
C(450, 600),
D(680, 0),
H G G(680, 150),
A H(590, 150).
B
All dimensions are in
O D
x mm.
V-50
V-12) For the suspension system specified in the figure,

a) Suggest a two-dimensional kinematic model considering body roll only. Show
all the relevant dimensions.
b) Determine the degree of freedom, the number of variables, and the number of
c) Write down (do not solve) the loop closure equation(s).
d) Plot the changes of camber and track for the suspension specified in the figure
for a range of body roll angles between -20o to +20o with 1o increments.
y
A(97, 436),
A
B(95, 213),
D
C(495, 258),
D(351, 418),
E E(0, 290),
O(0, 0).
C
Track=1356
B All dimensions are in

O mm.
x
V-51
V-13) Consider the kinematic model for a double wishbone suspension shown in the figure
in its original position. The suspension mechanism is basically a four-bar linkage with the
spindle and the tire assumed to be rigid extensions.
a) Determine the degree of freedom, the number of variables, and the number of
b) Write down the loop closure equation(s).
c) Given the position of the lower control arm (LCA), 14 = 180o, solve the
equations for 12 and 43.
d) Calculate the camber angle  and the x and y positions of the tire contact patch
center P.
A [351, 418]
y B [495, 258]
x D
 C [95, 213]
 D [97, 436], P [0,0]
CE = 80, FP = 350
EF = 32,  = 100o
C All dimensions are in [mm]
Tire
12
A
2
D
 1
F 3
.
E
 BA
43
14
C
4
P B
Hint : Assume that you have two nonlinear algebraic equations of the form
A cos   B cos   C cos   D cos 
A sin   Bsin   C sin   Dsin 
where  is known,  is specified, and  and  are to be solved. You can then leave the terms
involving one of the unknown on the left, square both sides of the equations, and sum the two
equations side by side.
B cos   C cos   D cos   A cos 
Bsin   C sin   D sin   A sin 
B2 cos 2    C cos   D cos   A cos  
2
B2 sin 2    Csin   D sin   A sin  

2
V-52
  2 2
B2 cos 2   sin 2    C cos   D cos   A cos     G sin   H sin   E sin  
Thus one of the unknowns, , is eliminated. Now you can define
 1 u2 2u
u  tan   , cos   , sin  
2 1 u2 1 u2
Insert in the equations, and you get a fourth-order equation in terms of u.
au 4  bu 3  cu 2  du  e  0
Solve the quadratic for u and then obtain the unknown angle from
 
  2 tan 1 u   2 tan 1 u   
V-14) Determine the roll center height for the semi-trailing arm suspension with relevant
dimensions listed below.
ax = 160 mm
ay = 384 mm
az = 400 mm
tr = 1310 mm
 = 12o
 = 3o
Ans.: 93 [mm]
Rear view

P 4
2
B 5 M
O
ax  
3 az 2
1
P
1
Top view
V-53
CHAPTER VI
VEHICLE RIDE
VI-1. Introduction
Vehicle ride refers to the vibrations of a vehicle that adversely affect the passengers
and/or the load. The vibrational activity of a vehicle may be excited by a variety of sources.
Excitation may arise from the unbalance of the engine, torsional fluctuations in the engine
output, tires, etc. Irregular road surface profile, however, is almost exclusively considered to
be the primary excitation in ride comfort studies.
In general, the vehicle has six degrees of freedom, three linear motions, and three
rotations in space if considered as a rigid body. The nomenclature used in automotive
engineering literature for these degrees of freedom is illustrated in Fig. VI-1. The relative
emphasis on each degree of freedom in various subsections of vehicle dynamics is given in
Table VI-1.
y
Bounce
Yaw
Roll
x
Pitch Fore and aft
z Side slip
Figure VI-1. Vehicle as a rigid body and the associated nomenclature.
Table VI-1. Emphasis on freedoms in vehicle dynamics subjects

Freedom Subject
Bounce Ride
Side slip Handling
Fore and aft Performance
Yaw Handling
Pitch Ride
Roll Handling, Ride
VI-1
In reality, the motor vehicle is a system of bodies and thus can have a large number
of degrees of freedom. For this reason, analysis of vehicle ride can be very complex, and
simplifying assumptions must be made to be able to obtain results.
It is usually convenient to separate the ride movements from the handling responses
and performance estimates. The justification for this separation is simply that road irregularities
mainly cause the car body to pitch, bounce, and roll, and although it can be seen from the more
precise suspension analyses that these body displacements give rise to steering inputs, these are
usually second-order effects such as roll steer. On the other hand, the steering inputs do not
cause large pitch and bounce motions.
VI-2. Vibrational Characteristics of Vehicle Systems
Most of the ride studies consider the frequency range from 0.5 to 25 [Hz], even
though in some studies, the frequency range may be extended to about 50 [Hz]. Major resonant
frequencies of common motor vehicles, i.e., passenger vehicles, light and heavy commercial
vehicles, in this range are given in Table VI-2.
Table VI-2. Resonant frequencies in the ride range for motor vehicles.
Frequency Range [Hz] Source
0.5 to 2.5 Motion of the sprung mass on suspension system approximated

by pitching and bouncing modes.
2 4 Man on seat
3 5 Motion of sprung and unsprung masses, suspension locked by

friction, on the tires. Pitch and bounce frequencies are increased
by about twice-called "Boulevarde jerk".
7 16 Motion of the unsprung mass on the combined tire and spring

elasticity. Called "wheel hop". Also includes "tramp" of beam
axles where wheels on each side move out of phase.
7 18 Motion of engine mass on rubber engine mounts.
13 40 Body beam and torsion modes.
VI-2
VI-3. Evaluation of Ride Quality for Motor Vehicles
Although a large number of criteria to evaluate ride quality for vehicles traveling
on roads have been proposed, the use of ISO 2631 “Guide for the Evaluation of Human
Exposure to Whole-Body Vibration” by the International Standards Organization has been
commonly accepted. It is based mainly on existing data regarding human exposure to sinusoidal
vibrations and thus is directed towards the evaluation of sinusoidal and periodic vibrations. ISO
2631 specifies comfort boundaries for acceleration described by the rms values calculated in
specified 1/3 octave bands for a number of central frequency values. The vibrations in motor
vehicles are random, however, and thus the standard has also been converted to a form usable
for data presented in the form of power spectral density of the random vehicle vibrations.
The so-called reduced comfort boundaries are given for 1, 16, and 25 minutes as
well as 1, 2.5, 4, and 8 hours exposure and represent the limiting values of acceleration in the
frequency range from 1 to 80 Hz. These reduced comfort boundaries are plotted in Fig. VI-2
(a) and (b) for vertical and lateral vibrations, respectively. The values at corner frequencies for
1 and 8-hour exposures are listed in Table VI-3.
10
Vertical Vibrations
Acceleration [m/s2] rms
1 min
1
16 mins
25 mins
1 hr
2.5 hrs
4 hrs
8 hrs
0.1
1 10 100
Frequency [Hz]
Figure VI-2 (a) ISO reduced comfort boundaries for vertical vibrations
VI-3
100
Lateral
Vibrations
Acceleration [m/s2] rms 10
1
1 min
16 mins
25 mins
0.1 1 hr
2.5 hrs
4 hrs
8 hrs
0.01
1 10 100
Frequency [Hz]
Figure VI-2 (b) ISO reduced comfort boundaries for lateral vibrations
Table VI-3 ISO reduced comfort boundaries for vertical and lateral vibrations
ISO-boundaries for Vertical Vibrations

Frequency a [m/s2] a [g]
[Hz] 1 hr 8 hrs 1 hr 8 hrs
1 0.749 0.200 7.64E-02 2.04E-02
4 0.375 0.100 3.82E-02 1.02E-02
8 0.375 0.100 3.82E-02 1.02E-02
80 3.746 1.000 3.82E-01 1.02E-01
ISO-boundaries for Lateral Vibrations

Frequency a [m/s2] a [g]
[Hz] 1 hr 8 hrs 1 hr 8 hrs
1 0.270 0.071 2.75E-02 7.24E-03
2 0.270 0.071 2.75E-02 7.24E-03
80 10.64 2.857 1.085 2.91E-01
The ISO reduced comfort boundaries may be superimposed on a plot of the

acceleration of the vehicle body versus frequency, Fig. VI-3. Ride quality will be acceptable if
the acceleration curve falls below the selected reduced comfort boundary throughout the
frequency range of interest. If the acceleration rises above the selected reduced comfort
boundary anywhere within the frequency range of interest, this will indicate inadequate ride
quality.
VI-4
VI-4. Body Bounce

Body bounce is the up and down (vertical) motion of the sprung mass on the
suspension spring. The sprung mass is represented as an ideal point mass and the suspension
system consists of a linear spring and a viscous damper in parallel as shown in Fig. VI-3. The
unsprung mass and the tire elasticity are not considered. This model can be used to estimate
the body bounce frequency of the vehicle when the sprung mass and suspension spring stiffness
values are available.
y
Sprung
mass M
Suspension
k c
s
Unsprung
mass
Figure VI-3. Body bounce model.
The bounce frequency of the body is given by the expression

bb ks
n = (VI-1)
M
It has been known for many years that the lower the frequency of vibration of the
car body on its suspension springs, the greater the comfort. Improved ride has always appeared
high on the list of priorities, and the selection of a proposed suspension frequency is the first
step in suspension design. However, the selection of soft springs to improve ride comfort
results in higher roll angles and degraded handling. Thus, a usual order of priorities is to
determine the ride comfort first and then to control roll and tune the handling by the use of
anti-roll bars. The introduction of anti-roll bars has removed the need to supply extra
suspension stiffness to control roll angle by the main springs, and lower bounce frequencies
are possible with vehicles equipped with anti-roll bars.
In modern medium size to large cars, the body bounce frequency has generally
settled at about 70 c/min [≈1.2 Hz]. Further lowering is prevented by the need to limit the static
deflection (wheel travel) that should be accommodated when the vehicle payload varies from
minimum to maximum. The problem is worse in vehicles that have a large ratio of sprung laden
weight/sprung unladen weight, i.e., in cars that are small for their payloads. For this reason,
small cars seem to become limited at around 90 c/min [1.5 Hz] unladen. The cross country (off-
road) vehicles have frequencies around 120 c/min [2.0 Hz] unladen.
VI-5
Example VI-1
Determine the frequency and damping ratio of the bounce motion of a vehicle
having a sprung mass of 1200 kg. The vehicle is equipped with all independent
suspensions, each having springs of 16 kN/m stiffness and linear dampers each with a
damping coefficient of 1000 N/m/s.
N  m 
4 *16000    kg 
4k s  m   s2 rad   cycle 
  7.30 
kT
bb
n     
M M 1200  kg   N   s   2 rad 
 
 
 cyc 
 1.2   1.2  Hz
 s 
Ns
4 *1000  
cT 4c m
  
2 kTM 2 M  bb
n  
 
N N
2 4 *16000   1200 kg  
m  m 
 kg 2 
 s 
 0.228  23 %
Exercise VI-1
Estimate the undamped natural frequencies and damping ratios for the unladen and laden
conditions of a compact car specified below.
Sprung mass (unladen/laden) : 820/ 1280 kg

Total spring stiffness : 62 kN/m
Total damping coefficient : 4.3 kN/m/s
Ans. : 1.38 / 1.11 Hz, 30.2 / 24.1 %
VI-6
Example VI-2
A car is driven on a specially profiled road surface which is characterized by a

sinusoidal shape of 2.5 cm amplitude with 0.3 complete cycles for each meter.
a) What is the excitation frequency for a car travelling at 60 kph on this road?
b) Can the driver drive the vehicle on this road continuously at 60 kph for 1 hr
according to the relevant ISO 2631 reduced comfort boundary? Use the single degree
of freedom vehicle model shown in the figure.
y
1300 [kg]
Amplitude [m]
3850 [N/m/s]
80 [kN/m]
Time [s]
a) The excitation frequency is calculated from the wave number n and the
vehicle speed.
 cyc   km   1000m  h   cyc 

f  nV  0.3   60       5   5  Hz 
 m   h   km  3600s   s 
Thus the road profile input is represented in the form z  A sin(t) where A=0.025 [m]
and =2f=10 [rad/s].
b) The equation of motion for the vehicle model is given as
  cy  ky  cz  kz
my
Dividing all terms by m, and using the definitions of the undamped natural
frequency (i.e. the body bounce frequency) and the damping ratio as
k c
2n  
m 2mn
VI-7
the equation of motion can be written in the standard form

y  2n y  2n y  2n z  2n z
Since the forced motion of the body mass will be again according to a harmonic
function with the same frequency as the excitation but with a different amplitude,
assume a steady state solution in the form
y  Ye jt
y  jYe jt
y  2 Ye jt

Since e jt  cos t  jsin t , using the imaginary part of Ze jt for Z sin  t ,
the input displacement is given by
z  Ze jt
z  jZe jt
Substituting the expressions for the input and response variables and their
derivatives into the equation of motion, one obtains :
 
 2  2  j  2   Y  2  j  2   Z
 n n 
  n n 

Dividing all terms by 2n and denoting the frequency ratio by   ,
n
1   2  e j1
2
Y 1  j  2 
 
Z
 2

1    j  2 
1  2 
2
  2  e j2
2
2
Y 1   2 
 e  j
1  2 
Z 2 2
  2 
where the magnitude of the amplitude ratio is given by
VI-8
2
Y 1   2 

1  2 
Z 2 2
  2 
2n
and the phase is given by   2  1 with tan 1  2n and tan 2  .
1  2
Using the given data
N
80000  
k m  rad 
n    7.85 
m  N.s 2   s 
1300  kg   
 kg.m 
 
 Ns 
3850  
c c m
    0.189
2mn k 80000  rad   N.s 
2m 2 1300   kg   
m 1300  s   kg.m 
The amplitude of the body displacement for a frequency ratio of

 10
   4.00 and an excitation amplitude of 0.025 [m] is:
n 7.85
2
1   2  1  2.286
Y  Z  0.025   0.12  0.025  0.003m 
1  2  227.3
2 2
  2 
It should be noted that the amplitude of vibrations of the vehicle body is

considerably reduced when compared with the road profile amplitude. However, the
ride comfort is based on acceleration rather than amplitude of vibration. Thus we are
interested in the root mean square (rms) value of the body acceleration,
2
y rms   0.707  
 y   0.707  2 Y   0.707 10   0.003  2.1  m / s2 
 
If this value is compared with the 1 hour ISO reduced comfort boundary for
vertical vibrations given on Table VI-3, it is clear that the acceleration level exceeds the
allowed value.
VI-9
VI-5. Wheel Hop (Wheel Bounce)
In this mode the wheel-hub assembly (unsprung mass) bounces on the tire and the
suspension spring, and the motion is damped by the shock absorber. The wheel hop frequency
is usually well separated from body bounce, pitch, and roll frequencies which are considerably
lower. A model to obtain the approximate wheel hop frequency is shown in Fig. VI-4.
Sprung
mass
Suspension ks c
Unsprung y
m
mass
Tire kt
Figure VI-4. Wheel hop model
The wheel hop frequency can thus be approximated using the expression
wh ks + kt
n =
m (VI-2)
It is noted that
M kt
=  10
m ks
thus
wh
n
 10
bb
n
for vehicles with independent suspensions.
The conventional shock absorber has to damp the sprung mass on its springs and
the unsprung mass on the tires. However with independent suspensions, by coincidence, the
ratio (sprung mass/unsprung mass) is quite close to the ratio (wheelbounce
frequency/suspension frequency) so that practically the same damping ratio can be obtained for
both modes.
VI-10
c c
 bb = bb
,  wh = wh
2M  n 2m  n
bb bb M
 bb 2M  n M n m
=
wh
=
m wh
=
wh
 1.0
 wh 2m  n n n
bb
n
or
 bb   wh
The ideal solution is, of course, to use the shock absorbers to damp the sprung mass
on the suspension springs, and to utilize another means of damping such as the harmonic
dampers used on Citroen 2 CV for wheel hop in the past.
Example VI-3
Determine the frequency and damping ratio of the wheel hop motion of the
vehicle specified in the previous example. The unsprung mass for each suspension is 36
kg and the tire stiffness is 150 kN/m.
N  m 
(16000  150000)    kg 
ks  k t  m   s2   67.9  rad   cycle   10.8 Hz 
 nwh    s   2 rad 
m 36 kg   N   
 
 
N s
1000 
 
c

c
  m 
2 ( k s  kt ) m 2 m  n
wh
 
 
N  N 
2 (16000  150000)   36  kg   
m m
 kg 2 
 s 
 0.205  20.5  % 
VI-11
VI-6. Quarter Car Model - Body Bounce and Wheel Hop
In many ride studies, a model involving both the body bounce and wheel hop modes is
required. The so called 'Quarter car model' shown in Fig. VI-5 is the best known vehicle ride
model with two degrees of freedom. It usually represents one suspension together with its share
of the sprung mass. Despite its simplicity, it covers most of the fundamental features of real
vehicle ride dynamics and leads to a basic understanding of the capabilities and limitations of
suspension performance.
y
Sprung 2
mass M
Suspension k c
s
Unsprung y
m 1
mass
Tire k
t
y
0
Figure VI-5. Quarter car model
It is possible to find the approximate body bounce and wheel hop frequencies using
eqns. VI-1 and 2. As these frequencies are well separated, the results are normally quite close
to exact values. The model can be used to study the motion of a vehicle on an irregular road
surface which is represented by the input y0.
The equations of motion for this system can be obtained by applying Newton’s
second law to the sprung and unsprung masses.
Mg
y2 y1
M m
mg
Figure VI-6. Forces acting on the sprung and unsprung masses
VI-12
Here, the displacements of the masses are written with respect to the undeformed
lengths of the suspension and tire springs. The equations of motion for this system are then
obtained as:
 2  c  y 1  y 2   k s  y1  y 2   Mg
My (VI-3)
1  k t  y0  y1   c  y 1  y 2   k s  y1  y 2   mg
my (VI-4)
It is clear that the static deflections due to the sprung and unsprung masses are given
by
Mg  M  m  g
y2  
ks kt
M  m g
y1 
kt
The equations of motion can also be written with respect to the static deflection
positions of the masses in matrix form
M y  Cy   K y  f  (VI-5)

where
f   
 y1  kt 
y     y0
y 2  0
m0 k s + k t -k s
M = c -c K =
0M C = -k s ks
-c c
To determine the undamped natural frequencies of the system, consider the

equations for undamped free motion.
M y  K y  0 (VI-6)
If a solution of the form
y  Ye it (VI-7)
is assumed, then
-  M  ω2 +  K    Y = 0 (VI-8)
 
VI-13
For a nontrivial solution to this equation, one must have:

2
det  - M  =0 (VI-9)
or
k s + k t - m k s
=0
k s k s - M
(VI-10)
The characteristic equation is then obtained as:

2
mM  k s m  k s + k t M  + k s k t = 0
Dividing all terms by "mM", the roots of the resulting quadratic equation
k k + kt  kk
λ2 -  s + s  λ+ s t =0 (VI-11)
M m  mM
will give the exact undamped natural frequencies.
 2 
2 1  k s ks + k t  ks ks + k t  kk 
λ1,2 = ω1,2 =  +   +  -4 s t  (VI-12)
2 M m M m  mM 

One can write the characteristic equation in terms of the approximate (uncoupled) undamped
natural frequencies given by eqns. (VI-1) and (VI-2).
   k 
λ 2 - ω2bb + ω2wh λ + ω2bb  ω2wh - s  = 0
 m
(VI-13)
It is clear that if
ks
  2wh or k t  k s (VI-14)
m
then
   
λ 2 - ω2bb + ω2wh λ + ω 2bbω 2wh   - ω 2bb  - ω2wh = 0
and the body bounce and wheel hop motions are decoupled from each other. In such a case, the
roots of the characteristic equation will be the same as the body bounce and wheel hop
frequencies obtained from eqns. (VI-1) and (VI-2).
VI-14
Transfer Functions of the Quarter Car Model
The transfer functions of sprung mass acceleration (indicates ride comfort), suspension
travel (important for suspension packaging), and tire deflection (related to road holding) for
road profile velocity input can be established as
s 2 Y2 (s) sk t A
H sma (i)   (VI-15)
sY0 (s) BC  A 2
Y2 (s)  Y1 (s) k (A  B)
 t
Hst (i) 
sY0 (s) 
s BC  A 2  (VI-16)
Y (s)  Y0 (s) (k t - C)B + A 2

H td (i)  1
sY0 (s)


s BC  A 2  (VI-17)
where
s = - i
A  c ss  k s (VI-18)
B  Ms2  css  k s (VI-19)
C  ms2  css  k s  k t (VI-20)
Logarithmic plot of the body (sprung mass) acceleration transfer function for the
nominal vehicle parameters listed below are given in Figs. VI-7 (a). In Figures 7 (b) to (e),
effects of changing these parameters on the sprung mass acceleration transfer function are
illustrated. The logarithmic plots of the suspension travel and tire deflection transfer functions
are presented in Figures 8 and 9, respectively.
M : sprung mass = 320 kg

m : unsprung mass = 46 kg
ks : suspension spring stiffness = 15 kN/m
cs : damper damping coefficient = 980 N/m/s
kt : tyre stiffness = 145 kN/m
VI-15
TF Magnitude [dB]
Figure VI-7. (a) Sprung mass acceleration transfer function – nominal parameter values
M=200
TF Magnitude [dB]
M=500
Figure VI-7. (b) Sprung mass acceleration transfer function – M=50 [kg]
VI-16
TF Magnitude [dB]
ks =18 [kN/m]
ks =10 [kN/m]
Figure VI-7. (c) Sprung mass acceleration transfer function – ks=2 [kN/m]
c=600 [kN/m/s]
c=1000 [kN/m/s]
TF Magnitude [dB]
c=1000
c=600 [kN/m/s]
Figure VI-7. (d) Sprung mass acceleration transfer function – c=100 [N/m/s]
VI-17
m=30
TF Magnitude [dB]
m=50 [kg]
Figure VI-7. (e) Sprung mass acceleration transfer function – m=5 [kg]
kt=180 [kN/m]
TF Magnitude [dB]
kt=100
Figure VI-7. (f) Sprung mass acceleration transfer function – kt=20 [kN/m]
VI-18
TF Magnitude [dB]
Figure VI-8. Suspension travel transfer function – nominal parameter values

TF Magnitude [dB]
Figure VI-9. Tire deflection transfer function – nominal parameter values
VI-19
VI-7. Half Car Model - Body Bounce and Pitch
Considering a vehicle with bounce and pitch freedom it is apparent that these two
modes are close but the wheel resonance frequencies are well separated so that it is reasonable
to consider pitch and bounce separately from wheel movements. A two degrees of freedom
model is thus necessary to examine the pitch motion of the body in addition to the body bounce.
Such a model is shown in Figure VI-10.
L
y

a b
ksf m, Ip ksr
cf cr
Figure VI-10. Body bounce and pitch model.
The vehicle has a mass m, and ksf and ksr are the total vertical stiffnesses of the
front and rear suspensions. Denoting by cf and cr the effective damping constants of the front
and rear dampers, the model represents the bounce, y, and pitch, , modes of the vehicle. Let
Ip be the moment of inertia of the vehicle in pitch mode. The equations of motion are
  
  ksf  a  y   ksr  b  y   cf a  y  cr b  y
my  (VI-21)
  
I p  aksf  a  y   bksr  b  y   acf a  y  bcr  b  y  (VI-22)
Neglecting damping, the characteristic equation is found as:
ms2  ksf  ksr Ips2  a 2ksf  b2ksr    aksf  bksr   0

or
  
mI ps4  I  ksf  ksr   m a 2ksf  b2ksr s2  L2ksf ksr  0 (VI-23)
Substitute
t = s2
  
mI p t 2  I p  ksf  ksr   m a 2ksf  b2ksr t  L2ksf ksr  0
VI-20
t1,2 

 I p  ksf  ksr   m a 2 ksf  b2 k sr 
2mI p
  
2
I p  ksf  ksr   m a 2ksf  b2 ksr  4mI p L2ksf ksr
 (VI-24)
2mI p
If one takes
aksf = bksr (VI-25)
then the bounce and pitch modes of the body are uncoupled (a moment applied at the center of
gravity will result in a rotation about the center of gravity with no bounce and a force applied
at the center of gravity in the vertical direction will result in only bounce with no rotation) and
the natural frequencies are found from
ms2  ksf  ksr Ips2  a 2ksf  b2ksr   0

as
k sf + k sr
y = (VI-26)
m
for the bounce and
a 2 k sf  b 2 k sr (VI-27)
 
Ip
for the pitch mode.
Front and Rear Suspension Frequencies
Let us now assume that the mass of the vehicle is replaced by two unequal parts,
mf and mr, the former concentrated at the front axle vertical plane and latter concentrated at the
rear axle vertical plane as illustrated in Fig. VI-11.
L
a b
mf mr
m
Lateral axis
Figure VI-11. Concentrated masses at front and rear
VI-21
In this case the sprung mass of the vehicle is shared between the front and rear
suspensions according to the position of the sprung mass center of gravity. Thus
b a
mf  m and mr  m
L L
In this case, the front and rear suspension bounce frequencies will be given by:
ksf k sr
ω yf = and ω yr = (VI-28)
mf mr
The pitch moment of inertia of the vehicle can be written as:
b  a 
I p  a 2 m f  b2 m r  a 2  m   b2  m   mab (VI-29)
L  L 
The pitch frequency from eqn. (6.27) then can be written in the form:
a 2 k sf  b2 k sr a  aksf   b  bksr 
  
Ip mab
If aksf=bksr:
 
 a  b  ksf 
Lk sf

ksf
 yf
mb mb mf
(VI-30)
 
 a  b  ksr 
Lksr

k sr
 yr
ma mm mr
Thus, the front and rear suspension bounce frequencies, and the pitch frequency
become all equal.
It is usual to write the moment of inertia in terms of the radius of gyration:
Ip = mk2 (VI-31)
Therefore an approximate relation between the radius of gyration and the center of gravity
position is obtained.
k2 = ab (VI-31)
VI-22
The ratio k2/ab is an indication of how far an actual vehicle departs from equal pitch
and bounce frequencies. A typical value of k2/ab is 0.9 indicating pitch frequencies slightly
higher than bounce frequencies. The almost pure pitch mode will have a higher frequency than
the almost pure bounce mode. The smaller k2/ab is, the higher will be the pitch frequency.
The effect of pitching vibrations is particularly undesirable since pitch introduces

fore-and-aft (lateral) motion of the passengers to which they are more sensitive. As seen from
Figures VI-2 (a) and (b), the sensitivity of driver and the passengers to lateral vibrations may
be more critical than that for vertical vibrations, particularly in the frequency range from 1 to
2 Hz.
A practical way of to reduce pitching of the body quickly as the car goes over a
bump on the road is to make the natural frequency of the rear suspension higher than the natural
frequency of the front suspension. Then after a few cycles the two suspensions will move in
phase resulting in bounce of the body only, as illustrated in Fig. VI-12.
Figure VI-12. Control of pitching motion of the vehicle
VI-23
Example VI-4
Consider the vehicle with specifications listed below.
a) Can you tell which of the body bounce and pitch frequencies will be higher?
b) Is the use of the uncoupled (pure) frequencies justified?
c) Determine the pure bounce and pitch frequencies.
M = 1240 kg, Ip = 1820 kg.m2,

a = 1.37 m, b = 1.14 m,
ksf = 35 kN/m, ksr = 42 kN/m.
a) Check the value of k2/ab.
Ip
1820
2
k 1240
 M   0.94
ab ab 1.37 1.14 
Since k2/ab<1, the pitch frequency is going to be higher than the body bounce frequency.
b) Check if aksf=bksr.
aksf  1.37  35000   47950  N 

bksr  1.14  42000   47880  N 
aksf  bksr
Since aksf  bksr, the pure body bounce and pitch frequencies are expected to be almost
the same as the exact values (1.25 and 1.29 [Hz], respectively).
35000  42000  N 
k sf  k sr  m   7.9  rad   1.25 Hz
c)  y    s 
m 1240 kg
N
2 21.37 2 35000  1.14 2 42000  
a k sf  b k sr  m   kg.m 
 
Ip

1820 kg.m 2
   
 N.s 2 
 rad 
  8.1    1.3 Hz
 s 
VI-24
Exercises
VI-1) Estimate the body bounce and wheel hop frequencies (in [Hz]) for the vehicle
represented by the quarter car model given in the figure. Would it be possible to use a
suspension spring of 2 [kN/m] stiffness for the vehicle modelled in the previous question to
improve ride comfort? If no, explain why not.
y
2
320 [kg]
14 [kN/m] 800 [N/m/s]
y
38 [kg] 1
150 [kN/m]
y
0
Ans.: 1.05 [Hz], 10.46 [Hz]
VI-2) A car is driven on a specially profiled road surface which is characterized by a

sinusoidal shape with 0.3 complete cycles for each meter. If the driver is required to drive the
vehicle on this road for at least one hour at a steady speed of 30 kph, what should be the
maximum amplitude of the road surface profile?
y
1300 [kg]
3850 [N/m/s]
80 [kN/m]
Hint : Use the 1 hour reduced comfort boundary of ISO 2631 to determine the allowable rms
acceleration of the body.
Ans.: 0.0053 [m]
VI-25
VI-3) Estimate the body bounce and wheel hop frequencies, in Hz, and the damping ratios
together with the static deflections of the sprung and unsprung masses for the vehicle with the
following quarter car model parameters :
M = 286 kg, m = 35 kg, ks = 15700 N/m, c = 860 N/m, kt = 145000 N/m
Ans.: 1.18 [Hz], 10.78 [Hz], 20.3 [%], 18.1 [%], 200 [mm], 22 [mm]
VI-4) The target parameters are determined for the

front suspension of a medium size car as follows. y
2
316 [kg]
Body bounce frequency : 1.17 – 1.22 [Hz]
Wheel hop frequency : 12.2 – 12.4 [Hz]
Propose a set of proper values for the suspension y

1
27 [kg]
spring stiffness. Use the vehicle represented by the
quarter car model given in the figure.
146 [kN/m]
y
Ans.: 17077≤ ks [N/m] ≤17895 0
VI-5) The target parameters are determined for the front suspension of a medium size car as
follows.
Body bounce frequency : 1.10 – 1.20 [Hz]

Wheel hop frequency : 10.5 – 11.0 [Hz]
Damping ratio (Body bounce/wheel hop) : (0.23<<0.27)/(>0.21)
a) Propose a set proper values for the suspension

y
2 spring stiffness.
282 [kg]
b) Choose a spring stiffness of 15 kN/m and

ks [kN/m] c [N/m/s] determine the range of damping coefficient to be
y provided by the damper.
1
32 [kg]
Use the vehicle represented by the quarter car
136 [kN/m] model given in the figure.
y
0
Ans. : 13471<ks<16031 [N/m],
946<c<1111 [N/m/s]
VI-26
Automotive Engineering II Y. Samim ÜNLÜSOY
VI-6) Consider three vehicles with specified parameters as given below
Vehicle M [kg] m [kg] ks [kN/m] cs [N/m/s] kt [kN/m]

I 1850 265 67.3 5600 526
II 1090 135 56.1 3800 552
III 1370 180 96.2 4800 590
For each one of the three vehicles :
a) Estimate the body bounce frequencies.

b) Estimate the wheel hop frequencies.
c) Calculate the damping ratios for the body bounce mode.
d) Calculate the damping ratios for the wheel hop mode.
Which one of the three vehicles would have the best ride confort ? Discuss.
VI-7) Consider the body bounce and pitch model a b

of a vehicle. 
M=1280 [kg], Ip=2340 [kgm2], kf=29 [kN/m], kf cf M, kr

I cr
kr=32 [kN/m], a=1.27 [m], b=1.31 [m], cf=1820 y
[N/m/s], cr=2150 [N/m/s].
a) Determine which one of the bounce and pitch frequencies will be higher than the other
without actually calculating the frequencies.
b) Write the characteristic equation and solve for the roots to determine the bounce and
pitch frequencies.
c) Consider only the bounce motion and try to calculate a rough estimate of the body
bounce frequency.
d) Assume that k2/ab ≈ 1 and estimate the front and rear suspension frequencies.
VI - 27
CHAPTER VII
VEHICLE BODY CONSTRUCTION
VII-1. Introduction
Early vehicle body construction evolved from the modification of the existing horse
carriage structures to carry the engine and the power train. The requirements introduced by the
increased weight and shocks due to higher speed and engine power, however, resulted in
entirely different body structures in time.
VII-2. Functions
The basic factors to be considered in the design of vehicle body structures can be
listed as following :
i) Esthetic appearance : A vehicle has to look attractive to the potential customer,

otherwise it will have limited chance of being sold in large quantities. Particularly, passenger
cars are bought with primary emphasis on their appearance, sometimes even before the
technical specifications.
ii) Adequate shelter from the environment : The body should protect the
passengers and/or load from the environmental effects such as wind, rain, snow, cold, etc. It
should also resist the same elements itself so that rusting and corrosion can be prevented.
iii) Aerodynamic shape : Aerodynamic shape will affect the performance and
handling of the vehicle. However, a compromise has to be reached between the requirements
of low drag coefficient and proper passenger space.
iv) Structural strength and rigidity : The body should be strong enough to handle
forces such as the weights of the engine, passengers, and load carried as well as forces due to
the motion of the vehicle. It should also protect the passengers from minor impacts during
accidents. These all have to be achieved with a body structure that is not too heavy. If the body
is not stiff enough, the it may collapse on the occupants and thus cannot protect them. However,
making the body too rigid is not a solution to protect the passenger in a collision, as the body
will absorb very little of the impact energy, transmitting more on the passengers. It seems that
the best solution is to seat-belt the passengers inside a relatively rigid box, and to provide at
each end of the box weaker extensions which will absorb energy by deforming progressively,
Figure VII-1.
VII - 1
Figure VII-1. Safety boxes
It should be remembered that the body forms the base on which the suspension
system is mounted. Therefore, a flexible body structure will adversely affect suspension
performance particularly with respect to handling.
Beam stiffness : The body can be visualized as a beam supported at each end by
the wheels. If it does not have sufficient bending rigidity, it will sag in the middle; thus doors
will be difficult to close or they will jam when loaded, Figure VII-2. If a body structure does
not have sufficient bending stiffness, it is not likely to have sufficient torsional stiffness either.
Torsional stiffness : The body must be sufficiently stiff with respect to torsional
loads which tend to twist the body. Otherwise, the handling quality of the vehicle suffers and
squeaks and rattles will develop.
(a) (b)
Figure VII-2. Body in (a) bending, and (b)torsion
VII - 2
VII-3. Basic Types
The first development in vehicle body structures was the development of separate
chassis and body structures. This construction still dominates the heavy commercial vehicles.
Four basic chassis types can be identified.
i) Ladder Frame is used in trucks because of the extremely small vertical space
requirements, Figure VII-3. It is, however, not the best solution with respect to rigidity in
bending and torsion.
ii) Backbone type of chassis structure is used for sports cars. It provides better
torsional rigidity and compensates for the lack of rigidity of the body which is usually
reinforced plastic, but is heavy and costly. Further it occupies too much space, Fig. VII-4.
iii) X-form chassis is a combination of the ladder and backbone types and provides
a low cost compromise solution, Fig. VII-5. It provides a strong base, allowing ease of repair
to body damage as well as body restyling without extensive redesigning.
iv) Space frame chassis is the best solution, Figure VII-6. It provides a very rigid
and light structure and used commonly for buses and racing cars.
Figure VII-3. Ladder frame chassis
VII - 3
Figure VII-4. Backbone type of chassis structure
Figure VII-5. X-form chassis structure

VII - 4
Figure VII-6. Space frame chassis
In the separate chassis and body structures, the chassis is designed to meet the
stiffness and strength requirements and the contribution of the body is neglected. The
developments in the reduction of weight through optimization of vehicle body structures led to
a new design called the semi-integral body where the contribution of the body to the overall
stiffness is substantial. Further development resulted in the integral (monocoque) body where
there is no separate chassis and the load are carried by the members of the body structure, Figure
VII-7.
Figure VII-7. Fully integral body structure
VII - 5
VII-4. Vehicle Loads
Vehicle loads to be considered in the strength and deformation analysis of the

structural design of a vehicle body are acquired through experience with earlier designs. If the
designer/analyst does not have such data available, then tests and/or simulations may be used.
It is important to determine the loads that will be applied to the vehicle body structure which
may result in failure during service, or may cause fatigue failure with an inadequate life span.
It is usual to start the analyses with loads representing the worst cases that may be encountered.
A body structure that can resist the worst load cases is assumed to have sufficient fatigue
strength. Of course, as the design process develops, fatigue analyses of the critical components
will have to be carried out. Further, it is to be remembered that a body structure designed for
the worst case loadings are likely to be overdesigned.
The principal loads to be considered in the initial design stages are as follows:
- Bending Loads,
- Torsion Loads,
- Longitudinal Loads,
- Lateral Loads.
It is customary to apply these loads in various combinations representing load cases

and account for the dynamic loading on the structure by applying a dynamic load factor, most
often in terms of a gravitational acceleration ratio.
Dynamic Load = Static Load * Dynamic Load Factor
Commonly used Dynamic Load Factors are given in Table VII-1.
Table VII-1 Dynamic Load Factors for Load Cases
Load Case Dynamic Load Factor [g]

Bending Loads 3
Torsion Loads 1.3
Longitudinal Loads 1
Lateral Loads 1
VII - 6
VII-5. Conventional Design Process
The conventional procedure followed in the design of a new car body starts with
the determination of the main vehicle characteristics such as power, top speed, number of
passengers, general shape (sedan, coupe, etc.), production rate, etc. by the general management.
The conventional design process basically consisted of the following steps.
1. Artistic 2D sketches capture the concept - styling.
2. Clay prototypes are built to interpret the sketches.
3. A 3D CAD representation is developed by digitizing the full size clay prototypes

and transforming this information into extensive mathematical formulas.
4. Milling instructions are generated from the 3D CAD model.
VII-5.1 Styling and clay prototypes
A large number of drawings showing the views of the proposed body styles are then
prepared by the stylists, Figures VII-8 to 13. The management selects a number, say 10, of
these, Figure VII-14. Small scale (1/8 to 1/10) clay mockups are also prepared for management
to choose.
Figure VII-8. Stylist at work
VII - 7
Figure VII-9. Stylist at work
Figure VII-10. Styling trials
VII - 8

VII - 9
Figure VII-14. Selection of body styles
Then, only the outside is drawn fullscale by measuring a few dimensions from the mockup,
Figure VII-15. More details than mockup are then drawn subject to stylists approval.
Figure VII-15. Preliminary drawing
VII - 10
VII-5.2 Full size clay model
Full size clay models (exterior and interior) are made using plywood, flax and
plaster, Figures VII-16 to 18. They are sculptured, scraped, and polished then judged by top
management, sales, and stylists. They may not conform to preliminary drawings.
(a)
(b)
Figure VII-16. Full size model
VII - 11
Figure VII-17. Full size models
Figure VII-18. Complete front interior model
VII-5.3 Final drawing
Shape of clay model is translated into 3D CAD model with full inside and outside
panels. Every piece of equipment such as hinges, locks, windscreen, seats, dashboard, etc. and
surfaces on which gearbox, engine, suspension, etc. are to be mounted must be included.
VII-5.4 Production
Production starts with the instructions generated from the 3D CAD model
developed and finalized.
VII - 12
VII-6 Recent Developments
The weakest point of the conventional method described is the amount of time that
is required to start the production of a new model. Obviously reducing the delay would prove
a great advantage in a highly competitive industry.
Recently, the stylists have turned to CAD tools for the styling work; hand sketches
have practically disappeared. The abilities of these tools to allow examination of the design
from all sides, to apply any color under different light sources at any angle and direction have
facilitated the production of proposed body styles in a much shorter time and variety, Figure
II-19 and 20.
Figure VII-19. Stylists at work
Figure VII-19. Computer Assisted Styling (CAS)
VII - 13
A major recent development has been the removal of the clay model from the
design process. As a result of the developments in the CAD software, it is possible to decrease
the design cycle span significantly with reduced costs. Furthermore, creativity could flourish
in this environment, leading to a greater variety in designs. As a result, practically all
automakers have adopted CAD design tools, which in turn have minimized the importance of
the clay prototype. Most companies, however, still produce a clay model just for the final
approval before production begins.
Elimination of the clay model necessitates tools to analyze the 3D CAD model.
These tools are needed to simulate the methods applied to the clay model. One of such analysis
tools is the use of reflection lines. Figures VII-20 and 21 illustrate the application of reflection
lines. Many automakers employ reflection lines as a quality assurance tool, just before the car
leaves the factory. Sets of parallel, long and thin light bulbs are set up in an otherwise dark
room. The reflections of the light bulbs in the car are observed by technicians walking around
the car. In a door panel, for example, the reflection lines should appear as smooth curves on the
car. An unexpected ripple most likely means a dent in the door. This same technique was also
applied to the clay model, which was painted in order to be reflective.
Figure VII-20. Use of reflection lines
VII - 14
Figure VII-21. Use of reflection lines
VII - 15
References
[1] Setright, L. J. K., Automobile Tires, Chapman and Hall, London, 1972.
[2] Jacobson, M. A. I., Know About Your Tires, Automobile Association, London, 1971.
[3] Shearer, G. R., The Rolling Wheel - The Development of the Pneumatic Tire, Proc. Instn.
Mech. Engnrs., v191, 11/77, 1977.
[4] Wheels/rims for Pneumatic Tyres - Nomenclature, designation and marking, ISO/DIS
3911.
[5] Wolfe, W. A., "Analytical Design of an Ackermann Steering Linkage", Transactions of

the ASME, Journal of Engineering for Industry, February, 1959, pp. 10-14.
[6] Zarak, C. E. and Towsend, M. A., "Optimal Design of Rack-and-Pinion Steering

Linkages", ASME paper 82-DET-10.
[7] Miller, G., Reed, R., and Wheeler, "Optimum Ackerman for Improved Steering Axle Tire
Wear on Trucks", ASME paper 912693.
[8] Nordeen, D. L. and Cortese, A. D., "Force and moment characteristics of rolling tyres",
SAE Trans. v72 (1964), pp. 325-336.
[9] Hartley, J., "Suspension-waiting for a Revolution", Autocar, w/e 8 October, 1977, pp. 58-
62.
[10] Lee, D. M. A., Pascoe, D. M., and ElMaraghy, W. H., “An Analysis of the multi-link
independent suspension system”, Int. J. of Vehicle Design, v14 (1993), n1, pp.44-58.
[11] Horntrich, H., "Rear Suspension Design with FWD Vehicles", SAE Trans. v (1982), pp.
1595-1610, SAE paper 810421.
[12] Bastow, D., "Aspects of Car Rear Suspension", Proceedings Instn. Mech. Engnrs., v 190
(1976), pp. 611-626.
[13] Cronin, D. L., "MacPherson Strut Kinematics", Mechanism and Machine Theory, v16
(1981), n6, pp.631-644.
[14] M. L. Felzien and D. L. Cronin, “Comment on MacPherson Strut Kinematics”,

Mechanism and Machine Theory, v18 (1983), n1, pp.91-93.
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[15] M. L. Felzien and D. L. Cronin, “Steering Error Optimization of the MacPherson Strut
Automotive Front Suspension”, Mechanism and Machine Theory, v20 (1985), n1, pp.17-
26.
[16] Dizioğlu, B. and Eghtesad, M., "Ein Allgemeines Kinematisches Verfahren zur
Ermittlung der Eigenfrequentz bei Radaufhangungen", Automobil-Industrie, v1 (1975),
pp.23-29.
[17] Simanaitis, D., "Anti-roll Bars", Road and Track, August 1981, pp. 56-62.
[18] Gard, J. R., "Advanced Suspension Design and Chassis Tuning", The SAE-Australasia,
Sept-Dec 1977, pp.170-185.
[19] Barak, P., "Magic Numbers in Design of Suspensions for Passenger Cars", SAE SP-878,
Car Suspensions and Vehicle Dynamics, 1991, pp. 53-88.
[20] “An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design”, Edited by J. H. Smith, Butterworth-

Heinemann, 2002.
[21] Bastow, D., Car Suspension and Handling, 2nd edition, Pentech Press, London, 1988.
[22] Campbell, C., Automobile Suspensions, Chapman and Hall, London, 1981.
[23] Gillespie, T. D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive Engineers,

Inc., 1992.
[24] Wong, J. Y., Theory of Ground Vehicles, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2001.
[25] Ellis, J. R., Vehicle Dynamics, Business Books Limited, London, 1969.
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AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING_Lecture Notes

Presentation · July 2021

FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF PNEUMATIC TIRES, TÜBİTAK MİSAG-86 View project

Helical Spring Dynamics View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Three courses related to Automotive Engineering are offered to senior students in

CHAPTER I PNEUMATIC TIRE

CHAPTER III STEERING SYSTEM

CHAPTER IV VEHICLE HANDLING

CHAPTER V VEHICLE SUSPENSIONS

CHAPTER VI VEHICLE RIDE

CHAPTER VII VEHICLE BODY CONSTRUCTION VII-1

Figure I-1. Thomson's pneumatic tire

Figure I-2. Rim and bead designs of 1890, by a) C. K. Welsh, b) W. Bartlett

I-2. Tire Nomenclature

Breaker belts Nominal

Lower side wall Bead

Bead flange Well

Figure I-3. Tire nomenclature

I-3. Types of Carcass Construction

There are two basic types of carcass construction:

i) Cross (bias or diagonal in the USA) ply,

These two basic constructions are illustrated in Fig. I-4.

A third type is produced by a combination of the two basic constructions and is

Body plies Tread Breaker belt plies

Figure I-4. Construction of cross and radial ply tires

Breaker belt plies

Figure I-5. Belted bias carcass construction

Figure I-6 Rubberized canvas (woven fabric)

Figure I-7 Unwoven fabric

Bias (crown) angle

Figure I-8 Bias (or crown) angle

I-4. Tire Materials

Figure I-9 Isoprene

I-4.1 Tread and Sidewall Materials

Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is the most common synthetic material used in

Another very useful synthetic rubber is polybutadiene (BR or sometimes PB)

I-4.2 Inner Lining Materials

I-4.3 Carcass Materials

1-4.4 Breaker Cord Materials

i/ Vulcanizing agents to impart strength and elasticity, basically sulfur.

I-5. Tread Pattern

Figure I-9. Aqua(hydro)planing

Figure I-10. Tread pattern

Rib Shape: This tread pattern is characterized by multiple

Lug shape: These patterns are identified by their groove

Rib-Lug shape: This is a combination of rib and lug designs.

Block-shape: These consist of independent blocks created by

Asymmetric pattern: In this pattern, the design is different on

Directional pattern: These are tread patterns characterized by

I-5.1 Void Ratio

Void area = Total footprint area – Rubber (touching road) area

I-5.3 Seasonal Variations

I-5.2 Noise Generation

Figure I-11 Tires with various different tread pattern designs.

I-6. Aspect Ratio

One of the most critical dimensions of a tire is the aspect ratio

Nominal Section Width (NSW)

Figure I-12. Tire-rim terminology