Iso 15686-1

INTERNATIONAL ISO
STANDARD 15686-1
First edition
2000-09-01
Buildings and constructed assets —

Service life planning —
Part 1:
General principles
Bâtiments et biens immobiliers construits — Prévision de la durée de vie —
Partie 1: Principes généraux
Reference number
ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
© ISO 2000
ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
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ii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Contents Page
Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................v
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................vi
1 Scope ..............................................................................................................................................................1
2 Normative references ....................................................................................................................................1
3 Terms and definitions ...................................................................................................................................1
3.1 Service life and performance........................................................................................................................2
3.2 Degradation and exposure ...........................................................................................................................2
3.3 Performance ...................................................................................................................................................3
3.4 Parts of buildings...........................................................................................................................................4
3.5 Maintenance activities...................................................................................................................................5
3.6 Acts and actors ..............................................................................................................................................5
3.7 Other terms.....................................................................................................................................................6
4 Abbreviated terms .........................................................................................................................................6
5 Process of service life planning...................................................................................................................6
5.1 General............................................................................................................................................................6
5.2 Forecasting.....................................................................................................................................................7
6 Service life planning: Steps in the design process....................................................................................8
6.1 The brief..........................................................................................................................................................8
6.2 Conceptual and initial design.......................................................................................................................9
6.3 Detailed design ..............................................................................................................................................9
6.4 Specification.................................................................................................................................................10
6.5 Environmental characterization .................................................................................................................11
6.6 Initial cost estimates ...................................................................................................................................11
6.7 Maintenance plan.........................................................................................................................................11
6.8 Performance requirements and acceptability...........................................................................................12
7 Service life forecasting ...............................................................................................................................15
7.1 Introduction to forecasting .........................................................................................................................15
7.2 Issues that can affect forecasting..............................................................................................................17
7.3 Types of data used for forecasting ............................................................................................................18
8 Service life prediction based on exposure and performance evaluation ..............................................19
8.1 Use of predictions based on exposure and performance evaluation ....................................................19
8.2 Steps in the prediction process .................................................................................................................20
9 Factor method for estimating service life .................................................................................................22
9.1 Outline of the factor method.......................................................................................................................22
9.2 Use of the factor method ............................................................................................................................23
9.3 Reference service life..................................................................................................................................24
9.4 Modifying factors .........................................................................................................................................25
9.5 Assessment of components and assemblies...........................................................................................26
10 Financial and environmental costs over time...........................................................................................28
10.1 General..........................................................................................................................................................28
10.2 Life cycle assessment (LCA) ......................................................................................................................28
10.3 Life cycle costing (LCC)..............................................................................................................................28
11 Obsolescence, flexibility and reuse...........................................................................................................29
11.1 Obsolescence...............................................................................................................................................29
11.2 Types of obsolescence ...............................................................................................................................29
11.3 Minimizing obsolescence ...........................................................................................................................30
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ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
11.4 Future use of the building...........................................................................................................................30

11.5 Demolition and reuse ..................................................................................................................................30
Annex A (informative) Typical financial costs of buildings over time (in UK and USA) ....................................31
Annex B (informative) Examples of critical property assessment of alternative specifications ......................32
Annex C (informative) Agents affecting the service life of building materials and components .....................33
Annex D (informative) Examples of requirements .................................................................................................34
Annex E (informative) Method for estimating service life of components using factors to represent
agents............................................................................................................................................................35
Annex F (informative) Worked examples of factorial estimates...........................................................................36
Bibliography ..............................................................................................................................................................39
Alphabetical index of terms .....................................................................................................................................41
iv © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies (ISO
member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO technical
committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has
the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and non-governmental, in
liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 3.
Draft International Standards adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting.
Publication as an International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this part of ISO 15686 may be the subject of
patent rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
International Standard ISO 15686-1 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 59, Building construction,
Subcommittee SC 14, Design life.
ISO 15686 consists of the following parts, under the general title Buildings and constructed assets — Service life
planning:
¾ Part 1: General principles
¾ Part 2: Service life prediction procedures
¾ Part 3: Performance audits and reviews
¾ Part 4: Data requirements
¾ Part 5: Life cycle costing
Annexes A to F of this part of ISO 15686 are for information only.
© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved v

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Introduction
Service life planning is a design process which seeks to ensure, as far as possible, that the service life of a building
will equal or exceed its design life, while taking into account (and preferably optimizing) the life cycle costs of the
building. This part of ISO 15686 provides a methodology for forecasting the service life and estimating the timing of
necessary maintenance and replacement of components. It thereby provides a means of comparing different
building options. It also allows for checking that performance is not unacceptably reduced to meet budgetary
constraints during design development.
This part of ISO 15686 is intended primarily for:
¾ building owners and users;
¾ design, construction and facilities management teams;
¾ manufacturers who provide data on long-term performance of products;
¾ maintainers of buildings;
¾ valuers of buildings;
¾ insurers of buildings;
¾ technical auditors of buildings;
¾ those who develop or draft product standards.
It includes an introduction to predictions of long-term performance based on exposure and performance evaluation
and estimates based on applying factors to adjust a reference service life, but it does not deal in detail with
forecasts based on demonstrated performance or modelling of performance. However, judgements based on either
of these techniques may provide important inputs to a factored estimate of service life.
A major impetus for production of this part of ISO 15686 has been concern over industry’s need to forecast and
control the cost of building ownership, because a high proportion of the life cycle costs of a building may be set by
the time the building is complete. Where there is a large stock of older buildings, more than half of all construction
expenditure is spent on maintenance and refurbishment (see annex A for details of typical maintenance costs in the
UK and USA). For countries currently developing their building stock, the risk is that a similar pattern will occur if
long-term performance is not taken into account at the outset.
Service life planning aims to reduce the costs of building ownership. An assessment of how long each part of the
building will last, helps to decide the appropriate specification and detailing. When the service life of the building
and its parts are estimated, maintenance planning and value engineering techniques can be applied. Reliability and
flexibility of use can be increased and the likelihood of obsolescence reduced.
Five parts to this International Standard are planned, and work on drafting these has commenced. They will provide
comprehensive guidance on the forecasting and assurance of the service life of building components and
assemblies. Figure 1 shows how each part of ISO 15686 relates to the other parts, and to associated topics and
other International Standards.
vi © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Figure 1 — Inputs and influences on service life planning of buildings
This part of ISO 15686 deals with the general principles, issues and data needed to forecast service lives, and
gives a method of estimating the service life of components or assemblies for use in specific building projects. It
can be used as a stand-alone document.
Part 2 of ISO 15686 describes a generic methodology for testing the performance over time of components and
assemblies to provide a service life prediction. Wherever possible the reference service life used in producing an
estimated service life should be derived from service life predictions as described in ISO 15686-2. Some guidance
may also be given on values to assign to factors. It is anticipated that materials specialists and test houses who
need to interpret or design performance tests will be the major users of ISO 15686-2.
Part 3 of ISO 15686 will describe the approach and procedure to be applied to prebriefing, briefing design,
construction and, where required, the life care management and disposal of buildings and constructed assets to
provide a reasonable assurance that the measures necessary to achieve performance over time will be
implemented.
Part 4 of ISO 15686 will describe the range of data requirements that will allow the service life to be determined.
Part 5 of ISO 15686 will provide guidance on assessment of the life cycle costs of a building.
Additional parts are being considered.
Figure 2 shows the main topics covered in this part of ISO 15686, and where they are covered. Issues briefly
introduced here, such as the calculation of costs over time (see clause 10), and quality control and reliability of
estimates and forecasts (in clause 6), will be developed in later parts of ISO 15686. In the long term it is expected
that a consistent application of service life planning will encourage the gathering of useful data and allow the
development of computer-integrated knowledge systems for building design and maintenance.
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ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Figure 2 — Overview of this part of ISO 15686
Although not dealt with in any detail in this part of ISO 15686, the issues of performance of buildings and safety are
clearly linked. When assessing future performance, priority should be given to ensuring performance at all times
continues to meet national building legislative requirements for safety. It should also be noted that many local
building codes already require inaccessible components or assemblies to remain functional throughout the service
life of the building. In the European Community, the Construction Products Directive includes a requirement that the
"essential requirements" of construction products should be retained for an “economically reasonable working life”,
if necessary by maintenance.
Service life planning can be applied to both new and existing buildings. However, in existing buildings the
assessment of components and detailing will apply principally to the residual service life of items that are already
installed. The selection of components and detailing will only apply to repairs and new work.
The informative annexes to this part of ISO 15686 are intended to provide supplementary information and to
illustrate the use of methods described in the normative clauses. The range of climatic conditions and building
techniques throughout the world requires that separate factors for service life planning are developed for specific
circumstances. It may be necessary to have factors that apply regionally within countries and to modify these
figures to take account of locality and micro-climate.
NOTE The factor method of forecasting service life is an empirical means of methodically estimating the effect on service
life of variables, using the information available. It therefore is not as precise or objective as a prediction based on scientific
observations of performance over time, but it will frequently be the only means of taking all relevant factors into account within
the project timescale. National development will highlight any difficulties with applying this methodology, which is innovative, and
it will be reviewed in future versions of this International Standard.
viii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
The approach to service life planning adopted in this International Standard is based on the work of CIB and
RILEM, and on practical studies in many countries, in particular standards published in the UK, Japan, Canada and
the USA.
© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved ix

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Buildings and constructed assets — Service life planning —

Part 1:
General principles
1 Scope
This part of ISO 15686 describes the principles and procedures that apply to design when planning the service life
of buildings and constructed assets. It is important that the design stage includes systematic consideration of local
conditions to ensure, with a high degree of probability, that the service life will be no less than the design life.
This part of ISO 15686 is applicable to both new constructions and the refurbishment of existing structures.
However, additional considerations may apply to existing buildings.
NOTE 1 In historic buildings even new work may be ruled by the need to preserve authenticity and certain options may not
be available or advisable. They are therefore excluded from specific consideration within this part of ISO 15686.
NOTE 2 The skill and expertise of the person or organization undertaking the service life planning will be crucial to the
reliability of the planning. Ideally a team of people who have the necessary skills in service life forecasting, design, construction
and maintenance management will be represented within the project team. Familiarity with in-use conditions and construction
conditions for the type of project will be of great assistance in determining typical conditions. Familiarity with the area will assist
in identifying environmental factors which may not occur to strangers to the area. It is particularly important to consider local
agents. These may include agents of degradation (e.g. emissions from a local power station).
NOTE 3 Wherever the term “buildings” is used in the text it should be read as “buildings and constructed assets”.
Constructed assets covers everything that is constructed or results from construction operations.
2 Normative reference
The following normative document contains provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of
this part of ISO 15686. For dated references, subsequent amendments to, or revisions of, any of these publications
do not apply. However, parties to agreements based on this part of ISO 15686 are encouraged to investigate the
possibility of applying the most recent edition of the normative document indicated below. For undated references,
the latest edition of the normative document referred to applies. Members of ISO and IEC maintain registers of
currently valid International Standards.
ISO 6707-1:1989, Building and civil engineering — Vocabulary — Part 1: General terms.
3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this part of ISO 15686, the terms and definitions given in ISO 6707-1 (some of which are
repeated below for convenience) and the following apply. The following list is ordered by concepts, for the
assistance of users of this part of ISO 15686. An alphabetical index of terms is included.
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ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
3.1 Service life and performance
3.1.1
service life
period of time after installation during which a building or its parts meets or exceeds the performance requirements
3.1.2
reference service life
service life that a building or parts of a building would expect (or is predicted to have) in a certain set (reference set)
of in-use conditions
3.1.3
estimated service life
service life that a building or parts of a building would be expected to have in a set of specific in-use conditions,
calculated by adjusting the reference in-use conditions in terms of materials, design, environment, use and
maintenance
3.1.4
design life
intended service life (deprecated)
expected service life (deprecated)
service life intended by the designer
EXAMPLE As stated by the designer to the client to support specification decisions.
3.1.5
predicted service life
service life predicted from recorded performance over time
EXAMPLE As found in service life models or ageing tests.
3.1.6
forecast service life
service life based on either predicted service life or estimated service life
3.1.7
service life planning
service life design (deprecated)
preparation of the brief and design for the building and its parts to achieve the desired design life, for example in
order to reduce the costs of building ownership and facilitate maintenance and refurbishment
3.1.8
residual service life
service life remaining at a certain moment of consideration
3.2 Degradation and exposure
3.2.1
ageing test
combination of ageing exposure and performance evaluation used to assess changes in critical properties for the
purpose of service life prediction
3.2.2
(degradation) agent
whatever acts on a building or its parts to adversely affect its performance
EXAMPLES Person, water, load, heat.
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ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
3.2.3
degradation mechanism
chemical, mechanical or physical path of reaction that leads to adverse changes in a critical property of a building
product
3.2.4
degradation
deterioration (deprecated)
changes over time in the composition, microstructure and properties of a component or material which reduce its
performance
3.2.5
durability
capability of a building or its parts to perform its required function over a specified period of time under the influence
of the agents anticipated in service
NOTE Durability is not an inherent property of a material or component, although the term is sometimes erroneously used
as such.
3.2.6
exposure in experimental buildings
long-term exposure of items in special buildings where the conditions may be monitored and in some cases
controlled
3.2.7
field exposure
long-term exposure of items at special locations with known environmental conditions (agents)
3.2.8
long term in-situ exposure
long-term exposure of items deliberately incorporated in buildings
3.2.9
short-term in-use exposure
short-term exposure in which the intensities of agents are at levels expected in service
3.2.10
ageing
degradation due to long-term influence of agents related to use
3.3 Performance
3.3.1
failure
loss of the ability of a building or its parts to perform a specified function
3.3.2
performance evaluation
evaluation of critical properties on the basis of measurement and inspection
3.3.3
performance
performance in use
qualitative level of a critical property at any point of time considered
3.3.4
performance requirement
performance criterion
minimum acceptable level of a critical property

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
3.3.5
performance characteristic
property that is expected to be associated with a material quantity, being a measure of an initial property or a
magnitude of that quantity
3.3.6
performance over time
description of how a critical property varies with time
3.3.7
property
inherent or acquired attribute of an item
3.3.8
property measurement test
test to determine the value of a property
3.3.9
critical property
essential property (deprecated)
property of a building or a building part that has an acceptable value if its required function is to be fulfilled
3.3.10
condition
level of critical properties of a building or its parts, determining its ability to perform
3.3.11
defect
fault, or deviation from the intended level of performance of a building or its parts
3.3.12
obsolescence
loss of ability of an item to perform satisfactorily due to changes in performance requirements
3.4 Parts of buildings
3.4.1
building
construction works that has the provision of shelter for its occupants or contents as one of its main purposes and is
usually enclosed and designed to stand permanently in one place
3.4.2
(building) product
Item manufactured or processed for incorporation in construction works
3.4.3
(building) assembly
set of components used together
3.4.4
(building) component
product manufactured as a distinct unit to serve a specific function or functions
[ISO 6707-1]
3.4.5
(building) material
substance that can be used to form products or construction works
[ISO 6707-1]

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
3.4.6
(building) sub-component
manufactured product forming part of a component
3.5 Maintenance activities
3.5.1
repair
return of a building or its parts to an acceptable condition by the renewal, replacement or mending of worn,
damaged or degraded parts
NOTE Based on definition given in ISO 6707-1 but “degraded” used rather than “decayed”.
3.5.2
maintenance
combination of all technical and associated administrative actions during the service life to retain a building or its
parts in a state in which it can perform its required functions
3.5.3
refurbishment
rehabilitation (deprecated)
renovation (deprecated)
modification and improvements to an existing building or its parts to bring it up to an acceptable condition
3.5.4
restoration
actions to bring an item to its original appearance or state
3.6 Acts and actors
3.6.1
brief
working document which specifies at any point in time the relevant needs and aims of a construction project,
resources to be provided by the client, the details of the project and any appropriate design requirements within
which all subsequent briefing (when needed) and designing can take place
3.6.2
client
person or organization that requires a building to be provided, altered or extended and is responsible for initiating
and approving the brief
3.6.3
constructor
contractor (deprecated)
person or organization that undertakes construction work
3.6.4
designer
person or organization responsible for stating the form and specification of a building or parts of a building
3.6.5
manufacturer
person or organization that manufactures buildings or parts of buildings
3.6.6
supplier
person or organization that supplies buildings or parts of buildings. The supplier may also be the manufacturer

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
3.6.7
user
person, organization or animal for which a building is designed (including building owner, manager and occupants)
3.7 Other terms
3.7.1
environment
natural, man-made or induced external and internal conditions that may influence performance and use of a
building and its parts
3.7.2
environmental condition
state of a characteristic of the environment
3.7.3
incompatibility
detrimental chemical and/or physical interactions between materials and/or components which lead to premature
degradation
3.7.4
factor method
modification of reference service life by factors to take account of the specific in use conditions
3.7.5
life cycle cost
total cost of a building or its parts throughout its life, including the costs of planning, design, acquisition, operations,
maintenance and disposal, less any residual value
4 Abbreviated terms
DL design life
DLB design life of a building
DLC design life of a component (or assembly)
ESLB estimated service life of a building
ESLC estimated service life of a component (or assembly)
PSLC predicted service life of a component (or assembly)
RSLB reference service life of a building
RSLC reference service life of a component (or assembly)
5 Process of service life planning
5.1 General
This clause gives an overview of the issues which should be considered in planning to help ensure the service life
of the building.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
5.2 Forecasting
The objective of service life planning is to assure, as far as possible, that the estimated service life of the building or
component will be at least as long as its design life (i.e. ESLB or ESLC will equal or exceed DLB or DLC). As the
length of service life cannot be known precisely in advance, the objective becomes to make an appropriately
reliable forecast of the service life using available data. The purpose for most clients will be to ensure that the most
advantageous combination of capital, maintenance and operational costs is achieved over the life of the building.
The output of service life planning will be a series of predicted service lives of components, and a projection of
maintenance and replacement needs and timings.
Achieving this may, of course, require maintenance during the service life of the building and/or the component.
Estimation of the service life at the design stage allows consideration of the specific site. It will assist planning of
future maintenance operations, selection of the optimum specification and design, and avoidance of waste.
The process of service life planning can be applied to both existing buildings and new constructions. For existing
buildings and components, many of the choices have been predetermined, and the building is already some way
through its service life, and therefore planning the service life will focus on assessing the residual service life of
components and optimizing programming and costs of replacements. This part of ISO 15686 therefore focuses on
planning the service life of new buildings and components.
Service life planning involves consideration of the likely performance of the building over the whole of its life under
the environmental conditions applicable to it, from conception through to operation and maintenance. Future
repairs, removal, reuse, dismantling and disposal should be considered at the design stage. For very long design
lives (e.g. for important state buildings), ease of maintenance is likely to determine the service life. If the service life
of an essential component is less than the design life of the building, it should be replaceable or maintainable.
Service life planning should be integrated into the building design process. Figure 3 indicates how service life
forecasting fits into a typical design process. Depending on the contractual arrangements, the person responsible
for each task may vary. However, the contractual arrangements should reflect the tasks to be carried out, and
responsibility at each stage should be given to an appropriate party. Figure 3 provides a model which can be
adapted as necessary to meet the needs of particular contractual arrangements.
Figure 3 demonstrates that service life planning may involve iterative assessments of design to identify which
aspects adequately meet the performance and maintenance requirements, while also having acceptable costs. It
also emphasizes the importance of commencing testing of purpose-made components early so that initial results
can be compared with requirements in the brief.
The final stage of the process involves communicating the results of service life planning to parties who will occupy
and maintain the building. They need to be aware of assumptions made about the in-use environment and
anticipated maintenance to achieve the estimated service lives.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
NOTE Numbers refer to clauses within this part of ISO 15686.
Figure 3 — Process of service life forecasting related to design stage
6 Service life planning: Steps in the design process
6.1 The brief
Decisions critical to the service life are taken at the earliest stages of design. The design stage should include full
consideration of local conditions, thus ensuring, with a high degree of probability, that the service life will be no less
than the design life.
At this stage the fundamental objectives to be met in planning the service life should be established. These include
the following:
¾ the design life of the building and the functional performance required from the building components over its
design life;
¾ measurable functional performance criteria and unacceptable functional performance that may require
replacements of components;
¾ which building components or assemblies need to be repairable/maintainable/replaceable within the design life
of the building.
Typically these decisions should be made by the owner and designer at an early stage in the briefing process.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
NOTE The client should ideally provide well-defined and comprehensive requirements for the building in the brief.
However, there may be occasions where ambiguities, deficiencies or conflicts in the brief require clarification. These might
include requirements for minimal maintenance or whole-life costs that could be misinterpreted or lead to unacceptable initial
costs.
6.2 Conceptual and initial design
While making initial design choices, professional judgement and expertise will be required to check the following.
¾ Whether the design life of the building is achievable within the project constraints (e.g. budget, time,
performance, maintenance requirements and site-specific issues).
¾ Whether the design meets the performance requirements defined in the brief by the client (e.g. for non-
replaceable components).
¾ Whether allowance has been made for replacement, maintenance and/or upgrading to avoid undue disruption
to the use of the building. Note that many local building codes require inaccessible components to have a
service life at least as long as the design life of the building.
As a result of these checks, it may be necessary to review the brief, or to modify initial designs.
6.3 Detailed design
Detailed design includes selection of materials and components. Since it is rare for components to be designed as
prototypes for a specific building, choices may be limited by the availability of component design and materials. At
this stage there will frequently be an iterative process of proposing a component, checking its predicted
performance against the brief, and amending selections if required.
NOTE Communication between component suppliers and the designer will help to identify which agents will be relevant
and whether the component is suitable. Component suppliers should receive as much information about the intended end-use
as possible. Ideally the assessments described in 6.5 and 6.8 should be provided to them (perhaps in summary form).
As part of service life planning, components should be assessed for compliance with performance requirements.
Performance will deteriorate at a rate depending on
¾ the environment, including the reactions at interfaces between materials and/or components,
¾ the design of the building, the component and installation detailing,
¾ the materials,
¾ the skill and quality of sitework,
¾ maintenance, and
¾ usage.
Responsibility for interface design should be clearly identified as it is critical to performance. The design of the rest
of the building determines the environment of each component considered, and neighbouring materials are part of
the environment (see ISO 6241 for further details). However, specific references have been made to interfaces
through this part of ISO 15686 as they are frequently not taken into account in data used for assessing component
performance.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
6.4 Specification
6.4.1 General
Specification may be considered to be part of detailed design, but is dealt with here separately. It includes selecting
appropriate component specifications and installation details, and may extend into selecting the optimum
specifications, using techniques such as value engineering or life cycle costing. The specification should include
measurable/auditable performance criteria. (This will be dealt with in greater detail in ISO 15686-3.) Subclauses
6.4.2 to 6.4.4 describe some of the most important issues for service life planning.
NOTE Specification concerns many issues other than the service life of the building and its components.
6.4.2 Installation detailing
The installation detailing and interfacial environment can be adjusted by design to offer protection against agents of
degradation and/or avoidance of their effects.
NOTE Strategies may include provision of overhanging projections, site-applied coatings or layers, removal of aggressive
agents in the ground, isolation layers, ventilation, etc.
6.4.3 Material and component selection
Materials and components vary in their reaction to agents of degradation and therefore some materials may be
unsuitable even on an initial inspection. It is not necessary to go through all possible options to demonstrate this.
Test data from the manufacturer and others should be used to identify suitable materials, but may not be available
for all relevant agents (as described in 7.2.2). Component designs may also alleviate effects of agents (e.g. by
incorporating sacrificial/protective layers) or may aggravate them (e.g. by permitting contact between incompatible
materials).
EXAMPLE Macroenvironment level consideration of a project may indicate that the most aggressive local agent is the salt
spray in a marine environment. Readily available test data may indicate that lightly galvanized mild steel is unsuitable without
detailed consideration of the specification. Specification therefore proceeds with that option ruled out, but includes the possibility
of a plastic-coated steel. Choosing a suitable metal or non-metallic alternative may, however, require more detailed research or
testing that takes account of other local agents.
Manufacturers generally have quite detailed knowledge of the performance characteristics of the products they
supply. However, without detailed knowledge of the performance requirements (described in 6.8) and agents which
characterize the local environment (see 7.2.2), they may not be able to input reliable data for forecasting service
lives. The results of the discussions and analysis of the local environment and client requirements should be
communicated to them. The maintenance requirements of the selected components should also be checked for
compliance with the brief.
It is important for designers to achieve an acceptable balance between the use of familiar materials and
components, whose performance is known through test data and/or experience, and innovative ones which may
achieve better performance than traditional specifications but may lack service life data.
6.4.4 Site work
If local conditions, environment during construction, materials, skills and levels of workmanship do not achieve the
manufacturer’s recommendations or codes’ workmanship standards, the effect on the service life should be
considered. It may be possible to reduce the risks of workmanship defects or limit use of unreliable materials.
A margin of error should be allowed whenever less than perfect conditions can be anticipated. It may be difficult on
site to achieve the specified conditions needed for construction (e.g. for the moving of materials, construction of
fine tolerance or application of coatings and sealants). The problems may be avoided by shifting fabrication from
site to factory or use of familiar components, more tolerant of different installation conditions.
NOTE No matter how good the design is, if unauthorized alterations and/or substitutions occur on site some or all of the
benefits of the service life planning may be lost.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
6.5 Environmental characterization
The environment within and around each building is unique. Environmental characterization can be at a general
level or in detail, depending on its criticality and the data available. The purpose of characterizing the environment
is to identify which agents are relevant and their likely effects. The average intensity/concentration/level of
degradation agents, and frequency of cycling between states (e.g. cycling from wet to dry, through freezing points,
maximum and minimum daily temperatures, frequency of exposure to salt spray, etc.) is relevant to the dose of the
agent, and forms part of the characterization of the environment. Note that in some cases stable extreme
conditions cause less deterioration than frequent cycling between states. This is typical for freeze-thaw conditions.
Annex C contains a list of environmental agents which may cause degradation. More detailed guidance is included
in ISO 15686-2.
This assessment should only need to be done once for each project. However, several locations may need to be
considered separately if they have different microenvironments. Identifying these areas will depend on which
agents are relevant to each. This list given below is not intended to be complete but to indicate the type of locations
which may need separate consideration. For many buildings one external assessment and two internal
assessments (for dry and wet areas) may be all that is required. Examples include the following:
a) specific locations: the exposed building envelope will be more exposed than semi-sheltered internal locations;
the microenvironment all over a building will vary and on very high buildings there may also be meso-
environmental variations (e.g. increased water and pollutant exposure, and on high buildings, wind, on the
elevation exposed to prevailing wind-driven rains);
b) components in ground contact: ground-water or soil agents;
c) communal internal areas, refuse collection points, etc : locations subject to heavy use
d) locations subject to unusual agents, such as blood, oil, phenols, chlorides, milk, acids or any local particularly
aggressive agents; these may be due to local industrial processes (e.g. degradation agents from reactions
producing nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide);
e) locations subject to condensation, such as sub-floor voids, window reveals and roof voids;
f) locations subject to wetting, such as kitchens, bathrooms, pools (e.g. through rain, cleaning, condensation and
splashing);
g) locations subject to aggressive maintenance: de-icing, bleaches and graffiti removal;
h) locations with differing uses, such as operating theatres, hospital wards and corridors;
i) locations where maintenance will be unlikely, such as high level, inaccessible and confined areas.
6.6 Initial cost estimates
Design should reflect the constraints of the budget for the overall project. To meet the brief, adjustment of either the
budget or the service life requirements may be necessary. Where a specification is adjusted to meet cost
constraints, the maintenance implications should also be considered.
NOTE The most obvious way to reduce initial costs (by altering to a lower specification component) may increase
maintenance requirements over the life of the building, which may be unacceptable to the client. Clause 10 indicates some of
the relevant considerations if costs over the life of the building are to be taken into account, but this subject will be dealt with in
detail in ISO 15686-5.
6.7 Maintenance plan
Maintenance is defined very broadly for this part of ISO 15686 to include both cyclical maintenance (such as
regular redecoration), reactive condition-based maintenance (repairs of defective performance) and major
refurbishment. Planning the service life of the building will naturally lead to production of a schedule of planned

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
dates for replacements of components, and this can be extended if required to indicate likely dates for major
refurbishment and replacement of subsidiary parts of assemblies (such as door and window hardware, seals and
glazing to windows, flashings to roofs, etc.). Part of planning the service life is to consider the appropriate service
life for each component with its sub-components. This allows rationalization of maintenance activities and costs.
This subject will be dealt with in ISO 15686-5.
The estimated service lives and maintenance/replacements of components should be communicated to the owner,
user or client. This will help maintainers by indicating future operations and cyclical maintenance which were
anticipated at the design stage. It should also alert them to agents (e.g. cleaning agents) which were not
anticipated by the designer. It may also be extended to provide cost plans for maintenance. However, not all
maintenance can be foreseen and planned, and some provision should therefore be made for unforeseen costs.
Maintenance activities which can be reasonably anticipated, and which should be taken into account in planning
the service life of the building, include the following:
a) change of interior finishes (including both decorative finishes and, for example, retiling during works to kitchens
and bathrooms);
b) removal/change of partitioning (particularly in offices);
c) change of roof weatherproofing (the likelihood of this will vary with the design life of the building and the type of
covering);
d) replacement and change of electrical, plumbing or other service installations (this is highly probable for most
types of building);
e) alterations to below-ground drainage (relatively rare; normally occurs following extensions or change of use);
f) partial removal or replacement of load-bearing elements (normally during refurbishment or replanning).
Assumptions made in service life planning should be recorded for future reference. Forecasts of service lives may
be invalidated by changes or activities which take place during the service life of the building.
Local building codes may also require the designer to consider future maintenance requirements and safety.
6.8 Performance requirements and acceptability
6.8.1 Permanent, replaceable or maintainable construction
Buildings and their components and assemblies should be identified as being either replaceable or permanent.
Building components will often need replacement or maintenance during the service life of the whole building. It
may be uneconomic, or impossible or not functionally desirable to require all components to retain acceptable
performance without maintenance for a typical building with a design life of many years.
NOTE 1 The most likely exceptions are structural components or assemblies (such as foundations, frames or embedded
fixings) which are so disruptive to maintain or replace that their failure may trigger replacement of the building. The feasibility of
safely demolishing the building or component and disposing of waste may also be relevant.
NOTE 2 For temporary buildings it is generally desirable to match the design lives of components to that of the whole
building. Ease of disassembly will aid recycling or reuse.
NOTE 3 Buildings with very long design lives may need continual repair and replacement to achieve their design lives. Thus,
ease of disassembly and reassembly to retain the existing building fabric may be a design objective, together with the facility of
repair without causing damage.
Table 1 gives suggested minimum design lives of components for particular design lives of buildings, based on
their accessibility for maintenance. It is included to give a starting point for discussions about appropriate design
lives, but should not inhibit choice of design lives for appropriate economic reasons (e.g. to match replacement

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
cycles to the design life of the building, or where components with the suggested durability might be excessively
costly or unavailable, such as rainscreen overcladding with a design life of over 25 years).
Table 1 — Suggested minimum design lives for components (DLC)
Components where
Inaccessible or replacement is
Design life of Major replaceable
structural expensive or difficult Building services
building components
components (incl. below ground
drainage)
Unlimited Unlimited 100 40 25

150 150 100 40 25
100 100 100 40 25
60 60 60 40 25
25 25 25 25 25
15 15 15 15 15
10 10 10 10 10
NOTE 1 Easy to replace components may have design lives of 3 or 6 years.
NOTE 2 An unlimited design life should very rarely be used, as it significantly reduces design options.
6.8.2 Performance limited by degradation
For service life planning, the service life of a building is limited by the degradation of its non-replaceable
components. Degradation in itself does not necessarily require component replacement, unless it results in
unacceptable performance and repair is not economically justifiable. The service life of a building may also be
limited by degradation of replaceable or maintainable components or assemblies when such maintenance or
replacement results in major costs, safety issues or disruption in use.
Service life planning is concerned with foreseeable risks, and this inevitably limits forecasting of obsolescence or
replacement for reasons other than unacceptable performance. Maintenance (including replacement of sub-
components and replanning) is the major strategy to counter degradation. Defective performance may also occur
as a result of unforeseeable events or processes. Consideration of the consequences of foreseeable mechanisms
of degradation should minimize unforeseen replacements (which are often caused by inadequate visualization of
future demands on the building).
6.8.3 Acceptability
Performance requirements are set by the client as part of the design brief. Some may be imposed by local building
codes or regulations. The building or a component may require replacement or repair if these requirements are no
longer met.
Early in the design process it is important to identify the minimal acceptable levels of critical properties of important
components. These properties determine the aspects of performance which may trigger replacement of a
component if the component ceases to meet the acceptable levels (due to its failure to perform an essential
function). Defective performance may end the component’s service life (unless economic maintenance or repair
can restore performance). The rest of the process of service life planning consists of estimating how long it will take
for a component to reach the level of unacceptable performance. It is also desirable to facilitate possible
(anticipated) future changes.
It is important to recognize that not all reductions of properties affect critical aspects of performance. The
performance of many components does not affect the acceptability of the building. However, which failures are
relevant may be determined largely by the operational activities within the building.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
EXAMPLE If computers are used within the building, temporary high levels of condensation may be catastrophic.
It is desirable for the owner to identify components whose performance is critical, and/or highlight potential failures
which may not be obvious causes for the building to become unacceptable (e.g. uneven colour loss on cladding).
Unacceptable performance may require maintenance (e.g. cleaning, partial replacement of sub-components,
repair) or replacement of the component. Replacement may also be necessary where maintenance is very costly or
where repair is impossible (e.g. due to unavailability of spare parts).
EXAMPLE A window may need replacement if it ceases to do any of the following:

¾ remain safe and secure;
¾ open and close;
¾ be transparent;
¾ prevent water leaking around the frame;
¾ retain acceptable appearance;
¾ provide adequate insulation against heat losses.
NOTE Replacements may also take place due to obsolescence or to change of use of the building.
Service life planning can only address foreseeable changes.
A worked example showing typical performance requirements for a roof to domestic accommodation, and an
assessment of the ability of alternatives to satisfy the requirements is given in annex B.
6.8.4 Consequences of failure
The consequences of failure may include hazards to health and safety, and it is frequently useful to categorize
failures by their consequences. This allows prioritization of avoidance of component failures to be taken into
account in evaluating their service lives on the basis of avoiding unacceptable risks to health and safety or other
considerations critical to building owners or users. Table 2 (modified from BS 7543) indicates a suggested
hierarchy of consequences, but certain consequences may be considered more important in particular
circumstances (e.g. interruption of access to a building to customers of a retail shop).
Where the consequences of failure are judged to be critical, it may be necessary to allow for a particularly long
design life of the component, or enhance inspection and maintenance regimes, to reduce the risk of failure
occurring within the design life of the building. This may be particularly relevant in situations where, for example,
escape of a dangerous substance may occur or large numbers of people may be injured if the component fails to
maintain its critical properties. Ideally this allowance should be made on the basis of stochastic approach.
Table 2 — Suggested hierarchy of safety consequences
Category Consequence Example

1 Danger to life Sudden collapse of structure
2 Risk of injury Loose stair tread
3 Danger to health Serious damp penetration
4 Costly repair Extensive scaffolding required
5 Costly because repeated Window hardware replacement
6 Interruption of building use Heating failure
7 Security compromised Broken door latch
8 No exceptional problems Replacement of light fixtures

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
6.8.5 Functional acceptability
This includes (but is not limited to) acceptable performance requirements in areas related to health, safety, utility or
property protection. Examples are given in annex D.
6.8.6 Economic acceptability
Normally, replacements justified on economic grounds indicate that better performance is available from new
components or because maintenance or repair is unacceptably costly. Examples of replacements for economic
reasons are included in annex B.
7 Service life forecasting
7.1 Introduction to forecasting
7.1.1 Objective of forecasting
The objective of forecasting the service life of a building or a component is to establish whether it can be expected
to exceed the required design life with adequate reliability. Forecasts of service life should
¾ reduce uncertainty,
¾ seek to use available data of known quality,
¾ take account of variability and
¾ be used to guide rather than dictate.
A forecast service life is referred to as the ‘predicted service life’ if it is based on the procedures outlined in clause 8
(and described in more detail in ISO 15686-2) which usually involve tests. If the predicted service life or another
source of information is used to provide a reference service life, it can be adjusted to reflect local, project-specific
factors using the factor method described in clause 9. It is then referred to as the “estimated service life”. Other
methods of obtaining a forecast value of service life are likely to become available, and the source of the reference
service life should be clearly identified. When practicable, a forecast based on appropriate, complete test data (i.e.
where all the factor values are 1) should be used in preference to less accurate sources.
A forecast should, wherever possible, be reliable clear and cautious. However, data at present are rarely available
or comprehensive enough to indicate reliably the degradation of even very similar buildings or components, since in
practice there are many variables which affect service life. A method that establishes a forecast of service life is
therefore needed to make use of all available data (and to identify missing data). This is given in clause 9. Where
data required for forecasting are incomplete, the forecast should be cautious and the reasons for caution noted. It
may subsequently be possible to update the forecast. The forecast service life should always be justified in a
written report.
7.1.2 Precision and reliability of forecasting
Due to the number of variables involved and the inherent variability of buildings, environments, site workmanship
and future maintenance, it is rarely possible to forecast the service life as precisely and reliably as one would
prefer. Depending on the data available and the necessary assumptions, the reliability of the forecasting will vary. It
is therefore necessary to decide whether or how the uncertainty in the forecast service life should be taken into
account in service life planning.
Generally, a lower level of reliability will be acceptable for maintainable components than for those which are
intended to function without maintenance for the service life of the building. An 80 % confidence limit may be
acceptable for maintainable components, while non-maintainable inaccessible components may need higher levels.
Forecasts and estimates of service lives of permanent components or assemblies should therefore exceed the
design life of the building by a margin to allow for errors.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
NOTE As more sophisticated methods of forecasting are developed all the time, and as databases of performance and the
factors which affect it are improved, so reliability will improve.
7.1.3 Use of data for forecasts
All buildings and their environments and use are unique, and therefore incomplete data will inevitably affect both
the accuracy and reliability of forecasts.
It should be recognized that more extensive extrapolation (e.g. from short-term exposure data) entails more
assumptions and therefore the forecast becomes less reliable.
Buildings, materials and components which are innovative pose a particular problem since forecasting is invariably
based on interpretation of the known performance of dissimilar applications or on accelerated exposure alone.
There may be a bias in favour of tried and trusted solutions for this reason, and it is important to recognize that
innovative solutions may offer superior performance or overcome long-standing problems.
However, even where data are incomplete or there is little experience of use of the item, it should be possible to
indicate a minimum period during which it is anticipated that a building or component can remain in service on the
basis of stated assumptions about future events. This should be indicated in years from the date of completion of
the building.
NOTE 1 Vague descriptions such as "very durable" should be avoided.
NOTE 2 The science of service life planning is relatively new, and therefore factors affecting the lives of even traditional
components are not fully understood, or researched. It is therefore necessary generally to extrapolate from known data, which
introduces assumptions about future performance and conditions.
NOTE 3 Data on performance at interfaces between adjacent components or materials are often omitted from testing, and
yet it is known that degradation or defects such as water ingress generally commences at junctions between two or more
materials and/or components. It is therefore important to try to forecast not only the material or component performance but also
the effect of interfaces on the performance of the larger system.
7.1.4 Taking account of variability and reliability
Variable performance and service lives can be anticipated within any group of similar items. Opinion varies on
whether a statistically normal distribution can be anticipated within a similar group of buildings or components.
Assessment of accelerated exposure tests should include correlation between in-situ performance and laboratory
results to allow prediction of future performance.
Study of failures of moving parts (termed tribology) is relatively advanced, and is generally reported as a mean time
to failure. This implies that roughly equal numbers of components will fail before and after the given period of
years/cycles. However, a more cautious statement of predicted or estimated service lives may be preferred, since a
50 % failure rate is likely to be much too high.
NOTE 1 High variability in performance is particularly common in construction because of the number of variables. The
prevailing opinion appears to be that service lives follow a Weibull distribution, possibly modified to take account of premature
failures. It is rarely possible to indicate where on the range of anticipated results a particular building or component within a very
similar homogeneous group will come. Where the group is less homogeneous (e.g. all windows rather than all windows of one
specification) it should be possible to indicate whether a specification falls within the higher or lower range.
NOTE 2 Under similar conditions components (e.g. bearings, moving parts and light bulbs) are known to all fail within a fairly
short period of the first few failures. For this type of component there is relatively little "spread" of failures, and replacement or
maintenance may be planned to follow closely on these initial failures. Some reliable data are available on performance of
building services components where the primary indicator of failure is known to be the number of cycles or iterations of a
particular action (e.g. lighting cycles of a lamp).
NOTE 3 There will also be some defects which occur within a very short time of occupation which may be termed "premature
defects'. These do not necessarily indicate wide scale failure, but should be rectified.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
7.1.5 Use of forecasts
Forecasts of service life should be viewed as indicative and decisions should be guided, but not dictated, by the
results. However, service life planning is necessary if the best-informed decisions are to be made in maintenance
planning, cost planning and value engineering.
NOTE For a building in service, maintenance plans may need to be modified based on the inspected condition. Updating
the plan as more knowledge becomes available should be carried out.
7.2 Issues that can affect forecasting
7.2.1 Relevant issues
Whatever method of forecasting is selected, certain issues will be relevant. This subclause discusses the following
critical issues:
¾ agents that cause degradation;
¾ effects of dose and intensity variations;
¾ effects of agents in combination.
7.2.2 Agents relevant to degradation
Annex C comprises a list of the agents of degradation which characterize the environment of the building and its
components. This annex should be used to guide the broad environmental characterization described in 6.5.
Agents of degradation cause degradation of various types, which reduce the performance of the building or
component over time. Agents are classified in ISO 6241. Agents fall within the following general categories:
¾ mechanical;
¾ electromagnetic;
¾ thermal;
¾ chemical;
¾ biological.
NOTE 1 For service life planning the relevant agents cause degradation. ISO 6241 classifies agents according to their
nature. Sudden failures caused by structural overloading or fire are not included within this standard but gradual loss of fire
resistance or structural strength following for example fungal attack or wear are included.
Different components will be exposed to different agents (e.g. those on the building envelope and those in ground
contact). All relevant agents should be identified, both internal and external, including agents which will be relevant
after the building is occupied.
To determine whether an agent is relevant, it is necessary to determine whether it will initiate one of the possible
degradation mechanisms of the material or component.
NOTE 2 ISO 9223 may be used to evaluate the corrosivity of atmospheres for metals and alloys under known conditions of
time of wetness, pollution by sulfur dioxide and/or airborne salinity. In the same way ISO 12944-2 deals with the classification of
environments related to corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems (for exposure to the atmosphere,
immersion in water or buried in soil).
NOTE 3 General guides to materials and components will assist in identifying relevant agents (e.g. acids for metals) but may
not highlight agents relevant to interfaces or abutments (e.g. thermal movements of plastics fixed to masonry or loss of
plasticizers following contact between certain plastics and bituminous materials). Experience indicates that rapid degradation
often occurs at interfaces (e.g. between dissimilar metals).

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
7.2.3 Effects of dose and intensity variations
Once relevant agents have been identified, it is necessary to determine the dose of the agent over a reference
period of time (usually a year), and in some cases the attained magnitude or rate of maximum and minimum values
(e.g. minimum temperatures for a material which becomes brittle in cold conditions. This evaluation may be done at
a very general level or in detail. For many components it may only be necessary to determine that the exposure to
the maximum intensity will be occasional or regular.
Knowing the anticipated intensity of agents relevant to the building or component will assist in interpretation of test
data. It is important to recognize that tests should be relevant to the environment under consideration (e.g. intensity
of UV exposure should reflect the anticipated in-use conditions).
Satisfactory performance in for example extreme temperatures may not indicate satisfactory performance in
climates with regular cycling from dry to wet, hot to cool, or through freezing points.
7.2.4 Effects of agents in combination
Agents in the built environment very rarely act alone, but rather work together and/or synergistically. The service
life forecast should ideally take into account the actions of all agents concurrently, but the data for this may not be
available. Therefore it may be necessary to consider only the most relevant agents and assess their effect both
separately and in combination, before adjusting the results to allow for degradation caused by other agents (e.g.
normal wear and tear).
7.3 Types of data used for forecasting
7.3.1 Relevant data
The availability of data for forecasting will vary, but the following types of data are relevant:
¾ measurement of performance over time;
¾ comparisons;
¾ experience (feedback from practice);
¾ expert estimations.
Data can be gathered by observing and measuring performance under long- or short-term tests, including empirical
observations of similar buildings or components in the built environment. The assessment entails comparing the
data gathered to that for the buildings or components under assessment.
NOTE Useful data on exposure are included within the EOTA document [19].
7.3.2 Data recorded over time
Data within this category include historic records (e.g. of weather, and gaseous and particulate pollutants in the
locality), results of laboratory or exposure tests (e.g. of the performance of a material under a particular test
regime), characteristic data on materials and observations of in situ performance (e.g. maintenance records or
condition surveys).
The relevance and reliability of the records should be assessed. The objective is to determine whether the data are
indicative of the likely future performance of the building or component under assessment. The adequacy of
reporting is critical.
NOTE Anecdotal evidence of performance is less reliable than scientific evidence, but may be all that is available. Partial
reporting of data also occurs where commercial interests are involved (e.g. a supplier describes successful exposure results but
suppresses negative results). However, the situation should improve as databases grow and criteria are established for the
scope and quality of data to be supplied by manufacturers. The situation could improve further with the establishment of

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
computer-integrated knowledge systems and standards governing interpretation of exposure data concerning performance over
time.
Whatever the origin of the performance records, the objective is to identify the rate of degradation which occurs and
how long it will take before performance falls below acceptable levels. The rate of degradation should correlate with
the severity of exposure in the environment.
7.3.3 Comparison between exposure data and other evidence
An essential part of the data interpretation is judgement of comparability. Comparisons between different
exposures, between rates of change in similar materials and between different environments are complicated.
Ideally, expert interpretation should be sought but generally it is possible to interpret whether exposure to agents,
relative intensity and frequency of cycling are greater or less than anticipated for the proposed building.
Caution should be used by the non-expert, particularly in interpretation (e.g. whether all relevant agents and
mechanisms have been tested).
NOTE One problem with observations in-situ is that agents (e.g. weather conditions) may not be reported or be typical and
therefore results may not reflect comparable conditions.
8 Service life prediction based on exposure and performance evaluation
8.1 Use of predictions based on exposure and performance evaluation
This clause describes, in outline, a systematic approach to selecting, obtaining and using service life prediction
data to forecast the service life of a specific material, component or assembly. More detailed guidance on testing is
included in ISO 15686-2. This is to assist the designer to commission or interpret testing carried out by experts.
Interpretation of such results by non-experts should be avoided if possible.
The service life prediction applies to a defined set of conditions. Provided the conditions are known, relevant and
complete, at least for the most important agents in comparison to those expected for the specific object to be
designed (which is rarely the case), a service life prediction derived from exposure and performance evaluation
may be used without further modification. Otherwise a modification will be required, which can be accomplished by
the factored method (described in clause 9) or by other more sophisticated methods if available. Note that service
life predictions generally do not take all the aspects included in the factor method into account (e.g. use and
maintenance). However, a service life prediction based on exposure tests will normally provide the reference
service life for a factored estimate. The most reliable available method, with the best data and certainty should be
used.
For service life planning by a designer, it is normally necessary to interpret exposure data to give an estimate of
service life based on factors. Service life prediction data rarely exist to cover all the unique applicable agents and
conditions (including the effects of the total local environment, levels of workmanship realistically achievable on
site, and effects of maintenance, use, etc.). Service life prediction data may therefore be viewed normally as an
input to forecasts of performance rather than a final judgement.
NOTE Design of exposure and evaluation of performance data requires specialist expertise. Tests are normally
commissioned by manufacturers or as part of research or feasibility projects. They typically need to be commissioned well in
advance of detailed design and specification for a project, since even accelerated exposure is time-consuming. Therefore, for
most designers, research into possible specifications is limited to data which already exists when design commences. While this
usually describes reactions to single agents or to dissimilar environments to the project under consideration, it will nevertheless
help in identifying relevant degradation mechanisms.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
8.2 Steps in the prediction process
8.2.1 General approach
NOTE 1 The prediction process involves analysis of the problem under study and the gathering of relevant information and
knowledge, as well as the use of tests and the comparison and interpretation of exposure and evaluation data. The general
approach is summarized in Figure 4 (taken from ISO 15686-2).
NOTE 2 The subjects below are dealt with in detail in ISO 15686-2, which should be used as the appropriate and up-to-date
guidance on this topic.
The design of exposure and evaluation are undertaken by specialists.
Figure 4 — Systematic methodology for service life planning of building components

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
8.2.2 Defining the problem
The first step is to analyse the problem, identify all the relevant factors and obtain the relevant information and
knowledge. The actions required can be summarized as follows:
a) specify what functional performance is expected to be provided by the item under study irrespective of the
building context (e.g. safety, durability, convenience, economy);
b) identify the building context that will apply (e.g. climate, conditions created by occupancy, the principles on
which the building is operated, the design consequences of the built form such as exposure, interfaces, etc.);
the type and range of agents of degradation must be identified;
c) identify the performance requirements for the item under study (e.g. strength, insulation, appearance);
d) select the performance criteria;
e) characterize the component or material in terms of chemical composition, structure and relevant requirement
values (e.g. thermal transmission).
8.2.3 Preparation
The second step is to consider how degradation will take place under the particular conditions identified. This
should involve identification of the following:
a) the agents which will cause degradation, classified as mechanical, electromagnetic, thermal, chemical or
biological agents (see annex C); an attempt should be made to quantify the intensity, concentration, level,
frequency and or maximum and minimum values of agents such as temperature, exposure to UV light or
presence of pollutants;
b) the possible degradation mechanisms by which degradation agents could induce changes in the properties of
the item under consideration (e.g. chemical reactions, shrinking, swelling);
c) the measurable effects of degradation;
d) the methods by which compliance with the criteria can be determined.
Using these identified agents and mechanisms, a test can be tentatively proposed in which degradation is induced
by the same factors and mechanisms, thus allowing the effects identified to be assessed.
8.2.4 Pretesting
Pretests are a way of checking that the testing proposed will be likely to produce reliable results. They can point the
way to adjustments and improvements in test procedures. Pretesting involves exposing the item to more extreme
or more rapid action by degradation agents to provide a better understanding of the effects of varying doses and
intensities and combinations of agents.
8.2.5 Exposure and evaluation
The testing of degradation may be by observing and measuring
¾ long-term degradation under in-use conditions and
¾ degradation under exposure conditions designed to accelerate the degradation effects of agents causing
degradation.
Normally the two test methods are used in combination. The long-term, in-use observations serve to check the
realism of the effects resulting from the accelerated exposure and will also normally identify actions relevant to
adjacent materials.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
The ways to generate data on long-term ageing under in-use conditions are as follows.
a) By field exposure: it is essential to record conditions during the test as well as the effect of those conditions, as
the results will be specific to one location and one period, neither of which may be typical or relevant. As the
results will be specific to one location and one period, recording will facilitate extrapolation to other locations.
b) By inspection of buildings: the usefulness of data from inspection may be limited by the difficulty of obtaining
data on the history of the building, on the performance of the item being considered, and the difficulty of
describing the environmental conditions and in-use conditions.
c) By experimental buildings: buildings designed to expose specific materials and components can provide
information on performance of large-scale assemblies and, when part of a large-scale programme, can provide
data on reliability.
d) By in-use exposure: items can be exposed to use in a building that has not been specifically designed for
experiment. This approach is necessary where degradation is directly related to user action and behaviour.
The aim of this method should be to create a situation that is as controlled as possible.
NOTE Test methods in the past have not always adequately considered the synergistic influence of current atmospheric
pollutants, or may not reflect changing atmospheric conditions (e.g. greater exposure to UV).
Short-term exposure is carried out over a time period considerably shorter than the anticipated service life.
Typically this is a fairly rapid way to obtain data for an assessment or prediction of the service life of a new product.
A short-term test may include operating at higher intensities of one or several agents (accelerated exposure) or
only be based on a shortened exposure period but with controlled exposure conditions. In cases where property
changes leading to degradation can be detected at an early stage, the exposure may not need be designed to use
more intense or more frequent degradation factors. It may involve similar agent intensities and frequencies to those
in a field exposure but involve only those agents for which data is required (e.g. exposure to high temperature or
humidity).
Accelerated tests involve the exposure of items to more intense or more frequently applied agents than are
encountered in real situation (e.g. more intense cold, more frequent freeze/thaw cycles). They can provide a
relatively rapid means of assessing the long-term change of properties. Accelerated exposure is usually designed
from information obtained in pretests but should have lesser general intensity of degradation factors to reduce the
likelihood of degradation being caused by mechanisms not encountered in real situations. Such tests are normally
designed by experienced material scientists or materials engineers.
8.2.6 Assessing the data from exposure
If well-documented and applicable data are available from long-term exposure, the results should be compared with
results from short-term exposure. Inconsistencies should be used to increase understanding. If there is little or no
correlation between the results, the data should be re-examined and the design of the accelerated or short-term
tests may need to be altered (or the field test may be misleading).
8.2.7 Interpretation and reporting
An essential part of data interpretation is judgement by experts. The significance of comparisons between different
tests of rates of change in similar materials and components and between different environments must be
assessed by an expert before a prediction of service life can be made. The report should be in a form which
includes explicit statements of the assumptions made and the qualifications of the expert.
9 Factor method for estimating service life
9.1 Outline of the factor method
This method allows an estimate of the service life to be made for a particular component or assembly in specific
conditions. It is based on a reference service life (normally the expected service life in a well-defined set of in-use

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
conditions that apply to that type of component or assembly) and a series of modifying factors that relate to the
specific conditions of the case.
EXAMPLE If the reference service life of a window is 20 years, a modifying factor of 0,8 might be used to estimate the
window’s service life in an exposed position. The estimated service life would then be 20 ´ 0,8 = 16 years. But if a particularly
rigorous inspection and maintenance regime were to be applied to ensure that minor defects did not develop into more serious
problems, then a further modifying factor of 1,4 might be applied. The estimated service life would then be 16 ´ 1,4 = 22,4
years.
Note that factors of less than 1 reduce the estimated service life and factors of more than 1 increase it.
The reliability of the reference service life figure is critical, as it will affect the estimate proportionally.
This method uses modifying factors for each of the following:
¾ factor A: quality of components
¾ factor B: design level
¾ factor C: work execution level
¾ factor D: indoor environment
¾ factor E: outdoor environment
¾ factor F: in-use conditions
¾ factor G: maintenance level.
Any one (or any combination) of these variables can affect the service life. The factor method can therefore be
expressed as a formula:
ESLC = RSLC ´ factor A ´ factor B ´ factor C ´ factor D x factor E ´ factor F ´ factor G
Annex E summarizes the factors and what is included within each.
9.2 Use of the factor method
The factor method is a way of bringing together consideration of each of the variables that is likely to affect service
life. It can be used to make a systematic assessment even when reference conditions do not fully match the
anticipated conditions of use. Its use can bring together the experience of designers, observations, intentions of
managers, and manufacturers’ assurances, as well as data from test houses.
Not all components will need forecasts based on a factored estimate, and the project team and the building owner
should agree which components are to be assessed on the basis of their criticality to use and cost of the building.
The factor method does not provide an assurance of a service life: it merely gives an empirical estimate based on
what information is available. It is different from a fully developed prediction of service life (as described in
clause 8), which will ideally provide the reference service life for a factored estimate. The distinction between
estimated and predicted service life should be made when a forecast of service life is given. The information taken
into account should also be recorded, so that it is clear whether the estimate is particularly robust or not.
Certain parties involved in building projects may be concerned about liability for forecasting future performance. For
the avoidance of doubt, the recommendations of this part of ISO 15686 are not intended to implement contractual
liabilities and the expectation is that “best efforts” will be applied, but that forecasts cannot be expected to always
be either accurate or precise.
It may be desirable to consider the consequences of failure when estimating service lives using the factor method.
It may be used as a guide both to those components which should be included in estimates (it may not be

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
necessary to estimate every component’s service life) and in deciding those where failure would be most critical.
The method itself does not indicate the seriousness of failures, but interpretation of results may suggest
components which are too “risky” to be used without either enhancing the specification or providing for regular
condition monitoring. For these it may be necessary to be extra cautious, either by critically reviewing (and
possibly changing) the design life (the “target”) or typically by being particularly rigorous in assessing the value of
factors.
The factor method can be applied to both components and assemblies. When applied to assemblies it is necessary
to consider the interfaces (e.g. joints) between components as well as the components themselves. For example,
different external environment and maintenance factors may apply to a whole assembly that relies on sealants to
weatherproof the joints between factory made cladding units than those which would apply to each of the individual
cladding units.
NOTE Annex F shows how the method may be used to assess alternative specifications, using typical UK conditions.
9.3 Reference service life
The starting point of the factor method is the reference service life. It is a documented period in years that the
component or assembly can be expected to last in a reference case under certain well-defined service conditions. It
may be based on the following:
a) data provided by a manufacturer, a test house or an assessment regime (for innovative components it will
normally be based on the manufacturer’s or supplier’s exposure results); this may be a single figure or a
distribution of typical performance;
b) previous experience or observation of similar construction or materials or in similar conditions;
c) Boards of Agreement in the EC state assessments of durability in their certificates or reports of national
product evaluation services;
d) some books which are available and which include typical service lives;
e) building codes which may give typical service lives for components.
Wherever possible it should be as reliable and as detailed as possible, and thus preferably based on a service life
prediction, as outlined in clause 8 and fully described in ISO 15686-2 The reference case from which the reference
service life is taken should be as similar as possible to the specific case in terms of service conditions. The factors
are applied to represent deviation from the assumed conditions in the reference service life. Thus the values of
factors will be as close to unity as possible, thereby minimizing the uncertainty inherent in the factor method.
When the reference service life is provided by a manufacturer or other organization, it may be necessary to
establish what conditions it is based on (e.g. if figures for a steel bath are based on domestic use they may not
apply under more intensive use in an institution). Those who provide guidance on the reference service life of a
category or class of component or of a type of construction should say in what conditions the figures apply.
Factors already included in the reference service life (e.g. variability of material in a laboratory test, or effects of
poor maintenance where the reference service life is obtained from observation of in-situ performance) should not
be taken into account again in the factors. Similarly, it is important to know whether the reference service life is
pessimistic (e.g. based on time to first failure) or optimistic (e.g. based on mean time to failure). The estimated
service lives which result from the application of factors will be affected.
NOTE Reference service lives are not defined in this part of ISO 15686. It is anticipated that national and international
guidance will be developed through collaboration between owners, suppliers, materials specialists and constructors. This will
permit typical performance and assumed conditions to be provided, with guidance on the assumptions made, which is
necessary for applying modifying factors. ISO 15686-4, which will deal with data formats, should be of assistance.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
9.4 Modifying factors
9.4.1 Choice of values
The choice of values to use as modifying factors may also be based on previous experience. If the conditions
prevailing in a specific case have led to early failure or to an extended service life, similar conditions elsewhere
may be used as the basis for applying a modifying factor.
EXAMPLE The service life of carpet in an entrance hall may have been found to be 25 % less than the carpet in general
circulation areas. This observation would justify an operating characteristic factor of 0,75.
9.4.2 Assessing the overall contribution of individual factors
A combination of small modifying factors can have a significant effect overall. It is therefore essential to keep the
overall picture in view when applying a series of these factors. The advantage of the factor method is that it allows
everything that is likely to contribute to variations in service life to be examined at the same time and the relative
importance of each to be considered and documented. This is especially important when degradation is affected by
a combination of factors (e.g. poor workmanship and exposure to driving rain). Separately these factors may have
little impact on the service life but taken together they are likely to lead to failures. Where two or more agents acting
together have a negative or enhancing effect disproportional to either on their own, this should be considered in
particular
EXAMPLE 1 Embrittlement of plastic rainwater drainage pipes due to UV degradation and likelihood of impacts during
maintenance access may both lead to breakages, while both sheltering overhanging elements and painted protective coatings
reduce this risk.
It is important not to “double-count” negative or enhancing factors under more than one heading. This can give an
unduly cautious estimated service life.
EXAMPLE 2 If it is considered unlikely that site mixes of concrete will match the specification, this should be allowed for
under either the materials factor or the workmanship factor, but not both.
NOTE In the Japanese guide [20] which was one of the originating works for this part of ISO 15686, several factors were
“built-up” using known issues which each had a value which related to their known significance.
9.4.3 Data from which factors can be derived
Modifying factors will often be based on known actions of the environment on specific materials (e.g. increased
corrosion in salt atmospheres), or on known effects of poor workmanship and maintenance. Manufacturers should
be asked for details of agents that are likely to reduce or extend service life. Wherever possible the information
should be given in a way that allows a figure to be selected as a modifying factor.
EXAMPLE The service life of a smoke alarm can be increased from 5 to 7 years by regular vacuum cleaning (which can
be expressed as a modifying factor of 1,4 when a strict maintenance routine is operated).
Each factor represents the deviation from the assumed conditions when the reference service life was established.
9.4.4 Factor A: Quality of components
This factor represents the component as supplied to site. It is a measure of the quality of the design of the
component itself.
EXAMPLE The specific softwood species, together with timber preservation, jointing and applied coatings for a softwood
window where the reference value was for any softwood window.
9.4.5 Factor B: Design level
This factor reflects the component’s installation in the building and is based on whether the design of the building
provides the installed component(s) with above-average shelter and protection from agents or confronts them

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
EXAMPLES An overhanging roof can provide extra protection to the wall below; a reflective coating can prevent cladding
exposed to sunlight reaching a critically high temperature.
9.4.6 Factor C: Work execution level
This factor represents the level of skill and control likely in sitework. It is based on whether the sitework is likely to
be in accordance with manufacturers' recommendations and tightly controlled. The assessment should be based
on the likelihood of achieving the designed level of workmanship, including issues such as storage, protection
during installation, ease of installation, number of trades required for each activity, site applied coatings, etc.
9.4.7 Factor D: Indoor environment
This factor indicates the environmental assessment (described in 6.5), the exposure to agents of degradation and
their severity. The general use of the building should be taken into account within this factor, together with relevant
local aspects (e.g. locations subject to wetting, such as kitchens and bathrooms). Once again it is the deviation
from assumed conditions in input data that is measured by the factor.
NOTE 1 The EOTA document [19] contains tables of both internal and external environments, together with degradation
agents to be taken into account for various materials.
NOTE 2 Internal and external environment are separated and for most components only one would apply, but certain
components (e.g. those embedded in the building envelope) may be subject to degradation from both internal and external
agents.
9.4.8 Factor E: Outdoor environment
A meso- or local-level designation may be adequate (e.g. coastal, polluted) for this factor. But for detailed design
the microenvironment should be taken into account (e.g. southern elevation, wind suction or uplift at high-level,
salt-spray zone). A combination of the agents can have a critical effect (e.g. a combination of wetting and freezing).
Note also that components may be exposed both to external weathering and below-ground water.
9.4.9 Factor F: In-use conditions
This factor reflects the effect of use of the building. The specific use of the space where the component is installed
or the assembly constructed is likely to be relevant (e.g. communal areas will be subject to greater wear and tear).
External locations may also be relevant (e.g. delivery areas subject to mechanical impacts by vehicles). Again, the
deviation from assumed conditions is measured.
9.4.10 Factor G: Maintenance level
Even though the forecast is made on the basis of a planned level of maintenance, the likelihood of that being
achieved for the type of building under consideration should be included (e.g. certain components may be
inaccessible or require special equipment for access). The expertise of cleaning should also be taken into account,
as this may introduce agents not normally found (e.g. alkalis).
9.5 Assessment of components and assemblies
Table 3 shows the steps involved in planning the service life of components. The method relies on judgement and
experience in the selection of values for reference service life and for each of the modifying factors. It also requires
a critical examination of the overall result to ensure that a combination of values has not produced an unrealistic
service life estimate, or life cycle cost.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Table 3 — Recommended steps to be taken in service life planning
Stage Action Typical responsibility

(in UK)
Briefing/initial design (6.1, 6.2) Agree which International Standard will be followed Designer/client
Identify DLB.(Table 1)
Identify permanent components (where DLC = DLB)
Identify critical performance requirements for major
components (6.8)
COST CHECK
Initial design/detail design (6.2, Characterize environment (6.5). Designer
6.3)
Commence detailed design, and specification
COST CHECK
Service life forecasting Identify DLCs and RSLCs of major components Designer/supplier/test
(clause 7) and assessment of designer
Check data availability, relevance and completeness
test data availability and needs
(clause 8) Check: which factors have been taken into account in RSLC?
Check: do tests need to be commissioned (and timescale for
results)?
Should DLCs be adjusted for anticipated refurbishments?
COST CHECK
Estimating service lives Decide which components will have service life planned Designer/supplier
(clause 9)
Identify DLCs and RSLCs for those components
Check data availability
Check: should DLCs be adjusted for anticipated
refurbishments?
Identify the modifying factors and values (clause 9)
Multiply RSLC by factors to give ESLC
Check: is ESLC > DLC?
Check: does ESLC seem reasonable?
If not, review design, installation detailing and site control or
review DLC or review values for factors.
Iterate until ESLC > DLC
Check: has adequate caution been taken in evaluating ESLC
for components
which could cause danger if they fail during service?
COST CHECK
Detailing site work (6.4.2) Ensure written instructions to constructor match assumptions Designer/constructor
in estimates
Check: Do site storage and installation on-site match
assumptions in estimates?
Review estimates where specification is changed/installation
detailing is changed during construction period
COST CHECK
Maintenance planning (6.7) Provide details of estimated service lives and assumptions Designer/client/user
made about maintenance standards and frequency
Provide archive report in a suitable format

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
10 Financial and environmental costs over time
10.1 General
A major incentive for planning the service life of the building and components is to enable planning of the cost of
ownership. Estimating the future cost of running and maintaining the building gives clients advance notice of the
cost of ownership, and allows them to reduce the financial risk of commissioning, purchasing or retaining a building,
thereby assisting their business planning process.
Some examples of costs of building ownership are given in annex A.
In addition to the financial costs, buildings and their components are evaluated for their environmental costs. A
balance needs to be set between production of building materials which may be environmentally damaging and the
utility and durability of the buildings which are made from them. Reuse or recycling of materials, choice of less-
damaging options and reuse of buildings are all options to consider.
NOTE 1 Historic costs are important to monitor, compare and validate predicted costs, but may not be accurate because of
the pace of the introduction of new products and developing technologies.
NOTE 2 Very durable materials may cause problems in disposal since they are, by definition, resistant to the effects of
normal weathering which cause degradation. However, they may be suitable for recycling.
10.2 Life cycle assessment (LCA)
Life cycle assessment (LCA) should not be confused with life cycle costing (LCC). It is a broader concept which
entails identifying the “cradle to grave” resources consumed and/or effects on the environment throughout the
service life of a product, such as a building (see ISO 14040). It is commonly used in considering sustainability of
development but there are overlaps with life cycle costing. Each requires an assessment of what will happen over a
prolonged period, and each may “count” replacements as relevant “costs” in provision of the building. There is
therefore a complementary preference for components or materials with lower whole-life “costs” and reduced
replacement or maintenance requirements. Both may also take into account the residual value when a material or
component is reused or recycled. However, the optimum economic option may not have the least environmental
cost.
10.3 Life cycle costing (LCC)
Life cycle costing (also known as whole-life or through-life costing) is a technique which enables comparative cost
assessments to be made over a specified period of time, taking into account all relevant economic factors both in
terms of initial capital costs and future operational costs. Being able to compare the future costs of alternatives
allows selection of the most economic overall design and helps planning and control of the cost of ownership. This
subject will be covered in more detail in ISO 15686-5. Some essential features include the following.
a) Only designs and/or components which meet the design life, functional and performance requirements should
be considered as alternatives.
b) Alternatives which meet the performance requirements but which have lower life cycle costs should be
preferred.
c) LCC should be undertaken on the entire estimated service life of the whole building and its components and
assemblies, or on a less-foreseeable service life.
d) All relevant economic factors, including opportunity costs (i.e. cost of choosing this investment rather than
another), should be included within the analysis.
e) Initial costs include costs directly related to the whole building and its components and assemblies, including
design, construction and installation, fees and charges.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
f) Future costs include all operating (e.g. energy and cleaning), maintenance, inspection, replacement and
demolition or removal costs.
g) Maintenance costs include costs of replacement, repair, refurbishment, disassembly and re-assembly. Planned
cyclical maintenance and day-to-day maintenance as well as improvements and alterations should be
included. An allowance should be made for unplanned remedial maintenance, based wherever possible on
recorded historic costs and experience. Depending on the use of the building, costs associated with
unavailability or provision of a replacement during maintenance work may also be required.
h) Timing of future costs should be taken into account in LCC [e.g. by discounting future costs to present day
(PV) values].
i) Evaluation of alternative specifications may entail value engineering (VE) techniques.
NOTE Future parts of ISO 15686 may deal with life cycle costing and maintenance planning or profiling in more detail.
11 Obsolescence, flexibility and reuse
11.1 Obsolescence
Replacement due to defective performance should be distinguished from obsolescence. Obsolescence is due to
inability to satisfy changing requirements. Reliable data for forecasting of obsolescence are rarely available.
Estimation of the time to obsolescence should be based on the designer’s and client’s experience and if possible
documented feedback from practice.
Obsolescence inevitably entails waste, since the building or parts which are still functional will be replaced. A
secondary objective of service life planning is to reduce the likelihood of obsolescence and/or to maximize the
reuse value of the obsolete building or components.
NOTE It may be desirable to consider components on the basis of the likelihood of their becoming obsolete within the
design life of the building. Where this is considered highly probable, owners may wish to “build in” provisions for obsolescence,
i.e. to allow for easy replacement in conjunction with other planned maintenance activities. The importance of service life
planning is not reduced, but then becomes a matter of ensuring that performance remains acceptable for the reduced design life
of the component.
11.2 Types of obsolescence
Obsolescence may be functional, technological, or economic. Replacements may also be made for reasons of
changing fashion or tastes, but there is often an economic reason underlying such replacements (e.g. lettability of
the building). Table 4 gives some examples of each type.
Table 4 — Types of obsolescence and examples
Type of obsolescence Typical occurrence Examples
Functional Function no longer required Obsolete industrial process, unnecessary

facility, partitioning removed during remodelling
of offices
Technological Better performance available from modern Change from vitreous clay to stainless-steel
alternatives/changing pattern of building use sinks, change to open-plan layout in factories to
allow installation of new plant, renewal of
insulation for enhanced thermal performance
Economic Fully functional but less efficient/more Replacement of sectional boilers with
expensive than alternatives condensing boilers

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
11.3 Minimizing obsolescence
Economic obsolescence occurs because maintenance has become unreasonably costly or disruptive, and when
acceptable (cheaper) alternatives to maintenance are available. Maintenance (including replacements of
components) should be anticipated at the design stage.
Items to be considered in particular are those where access costs are high (e.g. where scaffolding is required) or
where normal use of the building has to be suspended (e.g. replacement of a factory floor).
Refurbishment and upgrading are the major strategies to counter obsolescence.
The most efficient designs will be flexible, and allow for some changes in future requirements. The risk of
obsolescence will be reduced by designs which permit internal replanning, extensions, changes in service systems
or changing partitioning of the building, but at a cost.
This may be particularly relevant to offices, and the building frame or structure should be considered in particular.
Strategies include allowing different floors to be let separately, and generous supply of building services and
sanitary facilities and fire escape routes.
11.4 Future use of the building
A building is generally a very durable capital asset, and the initial client may only have a limited foreseeable use for
it. Service life planning can allow for future sale or reuse by subsequent owners, thereby increasing the residual
value of the building. Extending the service life of the building and reducing component maintenance and
replacements also contributes to achieving sustainable development and preservation of scarce resources.
11.5 Demolition and reuse
Demolition of the building should be taken into account even at the design stage, in order to reduce waste and
facilitate reuse of materials or components if it is appropriate at the end of the service life of the building. This may
also be a requirement of local building codes covering safety of building work.
NOTE 1 Matching the component service lives to that of the building reduces the waste at demolition. This is particularly
important for temporary buildings.
NOTE 2 The ability to separate the components leaving uncontaminated materials is essential to recycling.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Annex A
(informative)
Typical financial costs of buildings over time (in UK and USA)
In developed economies, approximately 50 % of spending on construction is accounted for by maintenance

(including refurbishment), and maintenance costs per annum may amount to 3 % of the initial capital cost of the
building. Various governments (including the UK and the USA) have recently set targets for reducing the need for
expensive maintenance through increasing durability and flexibility and reducing operating costs (including energy
costs).
The following figures were taken from reports by Building Maintenance Information for the UK and from an
overview of the US construction industry by the Civil Engineering Research Foundation.
Nearly 50 % of all construction output in the UK is spent on repair and maintenance (BMI Report 244, 1995,
Table 9). Total spending on building maintenance in the UK has increased by 66 % in the last 10 years (BMI
Report 253, 1996). It now represents over 5 % of Gross Domestic Product, or £36 000 million (BMI Report 254,
1996).
An average of 22 % of occupancy costs in the UK are spent on building maintenance, including decoration, fabric
and services (BMI Report 234, 1994, Table 1).
In the USA about 13 % of Gross Domestic Product (as at 1996) is spent on construction, and about 40 % or $342
billion of that is on maintenance and refurbishment. A 50 % reduction in operation, maintenance and energy costs
and a 50 % increase in durability and flexibility have been set as industry targets
In the UK, annual maintenance of a building costs an average of about 2 % of its initial capital cost (BMI Report
244, 1995). Refurbishment costs between 54 % (banks) and 82 % (flats) of the initial capital cost (BMI Report 252,
1996, Table 1).
Some building types (e.g. shops and offices) are refurbished every 10 years or so.
Once improvements are taken into account, work to existing buildings may cost 5 % of the capital value of the
national building stock every year.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Annex B
(informative)
Examples of critical property assessment of alternative specifications
Table B.1 indicates that each qualitative performance requirement can be met by several options, but by analysing
the specification options in this way several can be excluded without detailed consideration. A checklist of criteria
can reduce the potentially competing alternative specifications to a manageable number, which can then be
compared through a service life estimation or life cycle costing exercise. When none of the alternatives match the
preferred criteria exactly, or several do, weighting of criteria may prevent unnecessary work being undertaken on
life cycle costing assessments. A weighted evaluation technique requires the decision-maker to allocate an order of
ranking to the criteria identified.
Table B.1 — Examples of critical property assessment of alternative specifications
Pitched roof Flat roof

Glazed Profiled Profiled Profiled Clay Natural Fibre Copper Built up Mastic
Critical property roof steel fibre plastic tiles slates cement sheet felt asphalt
panels sheeting cement sheeting slates
sheeting
Fire resistance YES YES YES NO YES YES YES YES YES YES
Low capital cost NO YES YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES
Low cleaning NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES
Low cost of NO YES YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES
replacement
Low cost maintenance YES NO YES NO YES YES YES YES YES YES
Low reflectivity NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
Appearance NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES
Simple construction NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
Weather protection YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
Wear resistance YES NO YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Annex C
(informative)
Agents affecting the service life of building materials and components
Nature Class Examples
Mechanical agents Gravity Snow loads, rainwater loads

Forces and imposed or restrained deformations Ice formation, expansion and contraction, land
slip, creep
Kinetic energy Impacts, sand storm, water hammer
Vibrations and noises Tunnelling, vibration from traffic or domestic
appliances
Electromagnetic agents Radiation Solar/UV, radioactive radiation
Electricity Electrolytic reactions, lightning
Magnetism Magnetic fields
Thermal agents Extreme levels or fast alterations of temperature Heat, frost, thermal shock, fire
Chemical agents Water and solvents Air humidity, ground water, alcohol
Oxidizing agents Oxygen, disinfectant, bleach
Reducing agents Sulfides, ammonia, agents of combustion
Acids Carbonic acid, bird droppings, vinegar
Bases Lime, hydroxides, cement
Salts Nitrates, phosphates, chlorides, plaster
Chemically neutral Limestone, fat, oil, ink
Biological agents Vegetable and microbial Bacteria, moulds, fungi, roots
Animal Rodents, termites, worms, birds.
NOTE This table is taken from ISO 6241, which has additional examples. Note that the agents are classified according to their nature. In
general, external to the building the origin of agents is the atmosphere or the ground, whereas internally the origin is either occupancy or
design and installations.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Annex D
(informative)
Examples of requirements
Table D.1 — Examples of functional critical properties
Performance requirements Examples
Safety and security Safety during fire, in-use, during maintenance response to hazards(such as
earthquakes, floods, or after lightning strike)
Legal requirements Non-conformity with codes (note that changes in building use may change
applicable codes)
Structural performance Resistance to static and imposed loads
Protective performance and weather tightness Ability of envelope to shield structural frame from environmental actions,
protection of occupants and stored goods
Comfort, hygiene and environment Control of indoor temperature, relative humidity, acoustic and visual
performance, ability to clean surfaces as required
Aesthetics Where good appearance is needed to let or sell the building, or to impress
visitors
Operation of moving parts Resistance to wear and corrosion
Table D.2 — Examples of economic critical properties
Performance requirements Examples
Unacceptable maintenance costs or disruption Regular replacement of sealed glazed units

Running costs in use Energy costs of inefficient heating systems
Non-availability of spare parts at reasonable Boiler castings which require individual tooling
cost
NOTE The guaranteed availability of spare parts may indicate the limit of service life for components which require regular replacement
parts, e.g. boilers.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Annex E
(informative)
Method for estimating service life of components using factors to represent

agents
This method uses the following equation:
ESLC = RSLC ´ factor A ´ factor B ´ factor C ´ D ´ factor E ´ factor F ´ factor G
where
ESLC is the estimated service life;
RSLC is the reference service life of the components;
factors are as given in Table E.1.
Table E.1 — Factors for degradation of materials and components
Agents Factor Relevant conditions (examples)
Agent related to the inherent A Quality of components Manufacture, storage, transport, materials,
quality characteristics protective coatings (factory-applied)
B Design level Incorporation, sheltering by rest of structure
C Work execution level Site management, level of workmanship,
climatic conditions during execution of the work
Environment D Indoor environment Aggressiveness of environment, ventilation,
condensation
E Outdoor environment Elevation of the building, microenvironment
conditions, traffic emissions, weathering factors
Operation conditions F In-use conditions Mechanical impact, category of users, wear and
tear
G Maintenance level Quality and frequency of maintenance,
accessibility for maintenance

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Annex F
(informative)
Worked examples of factorial estimates
Worked examples of two typical components are given in this annex to illustrate the format of the factoring
calculation, and to demonstrate how various factors affecting component lives can be taken into account. The
examples chosen cover a range of materials, i.e. timber and steel, and involve typical considerations which may be
necessary for many different components. The calculations show in turn how typical, poor and high quality
components would be assessed. The examples generally include typical UK environments and assumptions. The
values of factors generally are 0,8 for negative factors and 1,2 for positive ones, but this is just illustrative of
cumulative effects. Generally the standards given are the current British Standards (BS).
EXAMPLE 1: Pressed steel lintel
The example concerns a typical lintel installed into a brick/block cavity wall in a UK industrial environment. In
addition to the external environment there is the risk of degradation internally caused by condensation. Standards
of workmanship, while not in accordance with best practice recommendations, are considered typical. The
applicable features for the worked example are shown bold in Table F.1.
Estimated service life of steel lintel (ESLC):
ESLC = RSLC ´ factor A ´ factor B ´ factor C ´ factor D ´ factor E ´ factor F ´ factor G
and
RSLC: The reference service life: structural component, not accessible : value X years.
Factor A Quality of the component: as lower qualities within BS 5977: value 1.
Factor B Design level: installed in brick/block cavity wall with toe exposed and browning plaster to rear face:
value 1.
Factor C Work execution level: no repair of damaged coatings: value 1.
Factor D Indoor environment: browning plaster and risk of condensation: value 0,8.
Factor E Outdoor environment: industrial pollution: value 0,8.
Factor F: In-use conditions: appropriate use only: value 1.
Factor G: Maintenance level: none: value 1.
Thus: ESLC = X ´ 1 × 1 × 1 × 0,8 ´ 0,8 ´ 1 ´ 1 = 0,64 X years.
Thus if X = 100 years, ESLC will be 64 years. If the reference service life were 10 years, the ESLC would be
6,4 years
Comments: Nothing in the specification provides a counterbalancing positive figure to the negative external and
internal environment factor, and therefore the predicted service life falls below the design. Selection of an
enhanced specification or closer control over site repairs may be required.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Table F.1 — Detailed factors for steel lintels
Relevant conditions
To include: Poor (0,8) Assumed (1) Good (1,2)
Inherent quality A Quality of Material type and/or Not to BS 5977. Mild steel sheet, pressed Stainless steel or
characteristics components grade and welded as BS 5977. heavy duty mild steel.
Durability features Less than G275 Pre-galvanized (G275), Post-galvanized to

e.g., protection galvanizing + and coated with BS 3416 BS 729 (920 g/m2 or
system BS 5977 bitumen or 25 mm 1 420 g/m2).
paint/coating. BS 5493 HF paint or pre-
galvanized (G600).
B Design level Details of Inadequate Embedded in cavity wall Additional DPC tray
construction e.g. weatherproofing with either brick outer and/or bitumen
joints, fixings (joints not fully filled, skin or cladding over coating provided
inadequate cavity tray lightweight blocks. All during installation.
provision, no cladding joints fully filled.
over lightweight
blocks).
C Work Site work e.g. not to No repair to site No repair of damage All site damage fully
execution BS 8000, with specific alterations and/or associated with storage repaired.
level examples damage. or installation, but no site
alterations.
Environment D Indoor Special features, e.g. Browning plaster to Browning plaster to inner Sand/cement or
environment condensation inner skin with skin with no browning or metal
condensation risk. condensation risk. lathing plaster.
E Outdoor Special features, e.g. Polluted industrial or Urban, inland Rural, inland and
environment marine or polluted marine environment. environment but not unpolluted
particularly polluted. environment
Operation F In-use Special features, e.g. Not applicable. Not applicable. Not applicable
conditions conditions vandalism
G Maintenance Cyclical, including Not applicable. Not applicable. Not applicable

level quality
EXAMPLE 2: Softwood window
The example concerns a softwood window. The main factors affecting its durability are the inherent durability of the
timber and the quality of the timber treatment, together with the quality of maintenance of any coating and the
design of the window to achieve a good protective coating layer and sheltered installation. The applicable features
for the worked example are shown bold in Table F.2.
Estimated service life of softwood window:
ESLC = RSLC ´ factor A ´ factor B ´ factor C ´ factor D ´ factor E ´ factor F ´ factor G
and
RSLC The reference service life: non-structural component, accessible: value X years.
Factor A Quality of component: non-durable redwood, but fully machined before preservation with double
vacuum application of solvent based preservative: value 1,2.
Factor B Design level: good, rounded arrises, sloped sill, installed into recess: value 1,2.
Factor C Work execution level: sitework avoided, factory glazed and stained: value 1,2.
Factor D Indoor environment: non-aggressive, low risk of condensation: value 1.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Factor E Outdoor environment: sheltered from wind/rain/particulates: value 1,2.
Factor F In use conditions: occasional access by children: value 1.
Factor G Maintenance level: renewal of stain every 3 to 4 years: value 1,2.
Thus: ESLC = X ´ 1,2 ´ 1,2 ´ 1,2 ´ 1 ´ 1,2 ´ 1 ´ 1,2 = 2,5 X years.
If RSLC is 25 years, the value of the ESLC is approximately 62 years.
Comments: The high durability of the preserved timber, the design of the component, avoidance of sitework and its
installation into a recess, together with the regular maintenance, extends the estimated service life well above the
design life. There may however be the option of reducing the material specification or factory finishing and thereby
making a cost saving.
Table F.2 — Detailed factors for softwood window
Relevant conditions
To include: Poor (0,8) Assumed (1) Good (1,2)

Factors related to A Quality of Material type and/or Non-durable Non-durable sapwood, Very durable/durable
inherent quality components grade sapwood, not joinery joinery quality to BS heartwood. Joinery
characteristics quality. EN 942. class 2+ to BS 1186.
Durability features, Mixed species or non- Mixed species pressure Permeable species
e.g. protection system permeable sapwoods impregnated with organic double vacuum
impregnated to solvent to appropriate pressure
permeable schedule, schedule. Some impregnated. No
or dipped/immersed planing/cutting after planing/cutting after
only. preservation. preservation.
B Design level Details of External exposed Horizontal surfaces Horizontal surfaces

construction, e.g. horizontal surfaces weathered, arrises weathered. Installed
joints, fixings not weathered and/or rounded. into recess.
arrises not rounded.
C Work Site work, e.g. not to Any site alterations. No site alterations, site Sitework avoided,
execution BS 8000 Site glazed/stained/ glazed/painted. Normal factory glazed and
level painted with little control over quality. painted to specified
control over quality. quality.
Environment D Indoor Special features, e.g. High risk of Occasional risk of Low risk of
environment condensation. condensation. condensation, no condensation,
aggressive internal building rarely
agents. occupied.
E Outdoor Special features, e.g. Regular cycling Occasional cycling Sheltered from
environment marine or polluted between dry and between dry and damp. exposure to
damp. High risk of rain/particulates.
particulates.
Operation F In-use Special features, e.g. Regular access by Occasional access by No access by
conditions conditions vandalism children to locality. children but low risk of children.
impact damage, etc.
G Maintenance Cyclical, including Infrequent renewal of Stained or painted every Paint or stain
level quality paints/stains and/or 3 to 6 years. renewed every 3 to 6
low control of years. High control.
application/
preparation. Low
build stains.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Bibliography
[1] ISO 6240:1980, Performance standards in building — Contents and presentation.
[2] ISO 6241:1984, Performance standards in building — Principles for their preparation and factors to be
considered.
[3] ISO 7162:1992, Performance standards in building — Contents and format of standards for evaluation of
performance.
[4] ISO 9223:1992, Corrosion of metals and alloys — Corrosivity of atmospheres — Classification.
[5] ISO 9699:1994, Performance standards in building — Checklist for briefing — Contents of brief for building
design.
[6] ISO 12944-2:1998, Paints and varnishes — Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint
systems — Part 2: Classification of environments.
[7] ISO 14040:1997, Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Principles and framework.
[8] ISO 15686-2:—1), Buildings and constructed assets — Service life planning — Part 2: Service life prediction
procedures.
1)
[9] ISO 15686-3:— , Buildings and constructed assets — Service life planning — Part 3: Performance audits
and reviews.
1)
[10] ISO 15686-4:— , Buildings and constructed assets — Service life planning — Part 4: Data requirements.
1)
[11] ISO 15686-5:— , Buildings and constructed assets — Service life planning — Part 5: Life cycle costing.
[12] BS 729, Specification for hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel articles (British Standard Institution).
[13] BS 3416, Specification for bituman-based coatings for cold application, suitable for use in contact with
potable water (British Standards Institution).
[14] BS 5493, Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structures against corrosion (British
Standards Institution).
[15] BS 5977, Lintels (British Standards Institution).
[16] BS 7543:1992, Guide to durability of buildings and building elements, products and components (British
Standards Institution).
[17] BS 8000, Workmanship on building sites (British Standards Institution).
[18] BS ENT 42, Timber in joinery. General classifications of timber quality (British Standards Institution).
[19] EOTA document, “Assessment of working lives of products”.
[20] Architectural Institute of Japan, The English Edition of Principal Guide for Service Life Planning of
Buildings — 1993.
1) To be published.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
[21] RILEM Technical Recommendation 64, Systematic Methodology for Service Life Prediction of Building
Materials and Components.2)
[22] HAAGENRUD, S.E. Environmental Characterisation including Equipment for Monitoring.

CIB W80/RILEM 140-PSL, SubGroup 2 Report, 1997, NILU, Keller, NILU OR 27/97.
[23] CSA S478-1995, Guideline on durability in buildings (Canadian Standards Authority).
[24] ASTME 632-82 (reapproved 1996), Standard Practice for Developing Accelerated Tests to Aid Prediction of
Service Life of Building Components and Materials.
2) Also available as: MASTERS, L.W. and BRANDT, E. Systematic methodology for service life prediction of building materials
and components, Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, 22 (131), 1989, pp. 385-92.

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
Alphabetical index of terms
A E P
Ageing 3.2.10 Environment 3.7.1 Performance evaluation 3.3.2

Ageing test 3.2.1 Environmental condition 3.7.2 Performance (in use) 3.3.3
Estimated service life 3.1.3 Performance requirement 3.3.4
ESLB 4 Performance criterion 3.3.4
ESLC 4 Performance characteristic 3.3.5
B Exposure in experimental Performance over time 3.3.6
buildings 3.2.6 Predicted service life 3.1.5
Brief 3.6.1 Property 3.3.7
Building 3.4.1 Property measurement test 3.3.8
(Building) assembly 3.4.3 F PSLC 4.6
(Building) component 3.4.4
(Building) material 3.4.5 Factor method 3.7.4
(Building) product 3.4.2 Failure 3.3.1 R
(Building) sub-component 3.4.6 Field exposure 3.2.7
Forecast service life 3.1.6 Reference service life 3.1.2
Refurbishment 3.5.3
Repair 3.5.1
C I Residual service life 3.1.8
Restoration 3.5.4
Client 3.6.2
Incompatibility 3.7.3 RSLB 4
Condition 3.3.10
RSLC 4
Constructor 3.6.3
Critical property 3.3.9
L
S
Life cycle cost 3.7.5
D Long term in situ exposure 3.2.8 Service life 3.1.1
Service life planning 3.1.7
Defect 3.3.11 Short term in-use exposure 3.2.9
Degradation 3.2.4 M Supplier 3.6.6
(Degradation) agent 3.2.2
Degradation mechanism 3.2.3 Manufacturer 3.6.5
Designer 3.6.4 Maintenance 3.5.2 U
Design life 3.1.4
Durability 3.2.5 User 3.6.7
DL 4 O
DLB 4
DLC 4 Obsolescence 3.3.12

ISO 15686-1:2000(E)
ICS 91.040.01
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INTERNATIONAL ISO

Buildings and constructed assets —

ii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved iii

11.4 Future use of the building...........................................................................................................................30

iv © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

¾ Part 1: General principles

¾ Part 2: Service life prediction procedures

¾ Part 3: Performance audits and reviews

¾ Part 4: Data requirements

¾ Part 5: Life cycle costing

Annexes A to F of this part of ISO 15686 are for information only.

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved v

This part of ISO 15686 is intended primarily for:

¾ building owners and users;

¾ design, construction and facilities management teams;

¾ manufacturers who provide data on long-term performance of products;

¾ technical auditors of buildings;

¾ those who develop or draft product standards.

vi © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

Figure 1 — Inputs and influences on service life planning of buildings

Additional parts are being considered.

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved vii

Figure 2 — Overview of this part of ISO 15686

viii © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved ix

Buildings and constructed assets — Service life planning —

3 Terms and definitions

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved 1

3.1 Service life and performance

EXAMPLE As stated by the designer to the client to support specification decisions.

EXAMPLE As found in service life models or ageing tests.

3.2 Degradation and exposure

EXAMPLES Person, water, load, heat.

2 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved 3

3.4 Parts of buildings

4 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

3.5 Maintenance activities

3.6 Acts and actors

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved 5

3.7 Other terms

DLC design life of a component (or assembly)

ESLB estimated service life of a building

ESLC estimated service life of a component (or assembly)

PSLC predicted service life of a component (or assembly)

RSLB reference service life of a building

RSLC reference service life of a component (or assembly)

5 Process of service life planning

6 © ISO 2000 – All rights reserved

© ISO 2000 – All rights reserved 7

NOTE Numbers refer to clauses within this part of ISO 15686.

Figure 3 — Process of service life forecasting related to design stage

6 Service life planning: Steps in the design process

6.1 The brief