INSTITUT FÜR ELEKTRISCHE MASCHINEN

RHEINISCH-WESTFÄLISCHE TECHNISCHE HOCHSCHULE AACHEN

Lab Electrical Power Engineering I

Test 2: Operating behaviour of the DC machine

1 Objective of the experiment 2

2 Experiment preparation 2
2.1 Principle of DC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.2 Principle of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.3 Voltage and torque equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.4 Wiring types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Separately excited DC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 No-load characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Self excitation of the shunt DC machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.3 Operating behaviour and control of rotational speed . . . . . . . 7
2.2.4 Application field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Series-wound machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.1 Equations and operating behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.2 Speed control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Universal motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.1 Torque and transforming voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.2 Construction and application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Experiment realisation 13
3.1 Safety requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Objective of each test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Measuring of the no-load characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Universal motor at AC voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4.1 Experimental set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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July 9, 2003
 3.4.2 Load characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5 Universal motor at DC voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.1 Experimental set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.2 Load characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.6 DC shunt motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3.6.1 Experimental set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3.6.2 Load characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

1 Objective of the experiment

In the past the majority of DC machines was used in closed-loop controlled drives, due
to the fact that the control has a simple structure. With the development of power
semiconductors AC machines are mainly used for closed-loop controlled drives, be-
cause the cost of maintenance is significantly lower due to the absence of a commuta-
tor. There are still several applications of DC machines such as high-precision drives
and cheap household appliances.
DC machines allow easy investigation and description of the typical behaviour of an
electrical machine. The main focus of the test is to become familiar with the be-
haviour of DC machines through a series of experiments and to gain a fundamental
understanding of electrical machines.

2 Experiment preparation

2.1 Principle of DC machine

2.1.1 Construction

A DC machine can operate as a motor or as a generator. This kind of machine is

usually realized as an internal rotor/external- pole machine. The ring-coat-shaped
housing of the machine is also used as a magnetic yoke for the magnetic field through
the armature and poles (Fig. 1).
The excitation winding (field winding) is located directly on the main poles of the
stator. A current that flows in this winding generates the main field. Since the machine
is operated with DC current,the magnetic field in the stator is constant and so all iron
parts of the stator can be made of massive material. Nevertheless the main poles and
the commutating poles are often laminated because of easier manufacture. Modern DC
machines, used in closed-loop controlled drives, with a fast change in armature current
and main field consist of one completely laminated magnetic circuit. A massive iron
construction would strongly influence the dynamics and the efficiency of the machine
due to the appearance of eddy currents.
The rotating part of the machine holds on its shaft the armature with the commutator.
Since the alternating flux flows through the armature, iron parts must be built from
laminated, mutually insulated and slotted magnetic steel sheets. The coils of the ar-
mature winding are placed in the slots, their ends are connected to the commutator
segments. The current is fed into the commutator by carbon brushes. As the rotor
revolves, conductors revolve with it. The brushes contact the commutator segments

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

Figure 1: Schematic cross-section of a two-pole machine

in sequence. This results in a constant direction of the armature field due to the com-
mutation. The magnetic flux of the armature is ideally vertical to the direction of the
main field. Due to this configuration there is no induced voltage at the turn connected
to brushes. (Fig. 2). This area is called the neutral zone.
When the load of the machine increases, the armature field is no more neglectible
and causes a shift of the neutral zone because of the superposition of main field and
armature field: The main field is distorted and (because of the effects of saturation)
weakened. This interference between the main field and the armature cross field,
which causes a loss of torque, can be reduced using a compensating winding in the
stator of the DC machine. The conductors of this compensating winding are arranged
in axial slots of the main pole (Fig 1). The compensating winding is connected in series
to the armature, so that the total magnetic flux under one pole with compensating
conductors and armature conductors create no magnetic field transverse to the main
pole.
The shift of the neutral zone also causes brush fire because commutation doesn’t take
place in the neutral zone anymore: the windings carry an induced voltage greater than
zero when short-circuited by the commutator. This results in faster deterioration of the
commutator.
Large machines are therefore equipped with additional commutating poles. Their coils
are connected in series to the armature winding. The commutating poles generate a
counter field in the area of the short-circuited armature conductor in such a way that
voltages induced by this field compensate the ones resulting from the commutation of

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

Figure 2: Armature as a coil Figure 3: Armature unwinding

the armature currents, so that a commutating free of sparks is achieved.

2.1.2 Principle of operation

The main field in the air gap, created by the field winding, produces togehter with the
current in the armature winding a force on these conducturs according to the relation
F~ = I ·~l× B
~ , where F~ is the force vector, ~l is the vector in the direction of the length of
armature conductors, I is the current and B ~ is the vector of the air gap induction. The
force effecting the circumference of the armature produces the torque of the machine.
A change in direction of the torque and the rotation sense can be achieved by changing
either the direction of the field current or the direction of the armature current: if the
direction of the field current and the current are changed both at the same time, the
direction of the torque remains unchanged.

2.1.3 Voltage and torque equations

When the main poles are excited and the machine rotates, a voltage is induced in
the armature. This voltage increases with the excitation or the speed of the rotation
(∼ Φ,flux of each pole; ∼ n). This results in the first equation of the DC machine:

Ui = k 1 · Φ · n (1)

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

The constant k1 depends on the geometric design of the machine. The terminal voltage
is obtained considering the entire ohmic voltage drop in the armature circuit:

U = Ui + Rtot · I = k1 · Φ · n + Rtot · I (2)

A positive sign is defined for motor operation and a negative sign for generator oper-
ation. A DC machine can operate as a motor or as a generator, where for the motor
operation Ui < U while for the generator operation Ui > U . The rotational speed n is:

U − Rtot · I
n= (3)
k1 · Φ

There are different possibilities for controlling the rotational speed:

• At a constant voltage and a constant current, the rotational speed is changed

if the magnetic flux is changed. The rotational speed is higher with a smaller
magnetic flux (field weakening).
• At a constant flux and a constant current, the rotational speed can be varied
with the voltage U (changing of the rotation speed by variation of the armature
voltage).
• With constant voltage, constant current and constant flux, the rotational speed
is altered when the resistance Rtot is changed by adding a series resistor to the
armature circuit. This possibility, however, is not economically useful and rarely
used due to the losses on the series resistance.

When acceleration the machine as a motor from standstill, it is important to consider

that there is no induced voltage at n = 0. The resulting machine current at startup is

U
I= (4)
Rtot

This current is way to high and would destroy the windings. Therefore Rtot has to be
increased using a series resistance during the starting process of the machine.
The internal power of the machine is obtained by multiplying Ui ( 1 ) and the armature
current I:

Pi = U i · I = k 1 · Φ · n · I (5)

This internal power differs from the consumed electrical power due to the copper
losses. The torque on the shaft is:
Pi k1
Mi = = ·Φ·I (6)
2πn 2π

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

2.1.4 Wiring types

The dynamic behaviour of the DC machine is mainly determined by the type of the
connection between the excitation winding and the armature winding including the
commutation and compensation winding:

1. Separately excited DC machine: excitation and armature winding supplied at

separate voltages

2. Shunt DC machine: excitation and armature winding are connected in parallel

(i.e. fed by the same source)

3. Series-wound machine: the excitation and the armature winding connected in

series; if the stator is laminated, series-wound machines can operate at AC cur-
rent

4. Compound machine: This is a combination of 2 and 3 (both shunt and series

winding are available)

5. In special cases shunt-, series-, and separate excitation can be combined.

2.2 Separately excited DC machine

2.2.1 No-load characteristic

Given that the machine is excited separately and rotated mechanically at no-load con-
ditions, the armature current is zero and therfore there is no voltage drop on the
armature resistance, so that the induced voltage can be measured at the terminals
(Ui = U0 ).
The curve U0 = f(If ), obtained at a constant rotational speed, is called the no-load
characteristic (see Fig. 4). If the iron has a remenant induction due to previous mag-
netizations, a small voltage is induced even without any excitation current. Apart from
this remanent voltage, the induced voltage is practically proportional to the excitation
current except for the range with high excitation currents, where the iron is saturated
and the relation between the excitation current and the voltage is no longer linear.

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

2.2.2 Self excitation of the shunt DC machine

The remanent voltage enables operation of the DC machine as a generator, with no

additional voltage source. When the machine is connected in shunt connection, i.e.
the excitation circuit with a field weakening resistor Rf v shunt to the armature circuit,
and mechanically driven to a certain rotational speed, a small current flows through
the excitation winding, on the account of the remanent voltage. If the winding is
connected in such a way that this current amplifies the residual effect, the voltage for
the excitation circuit can be generated on its own. This is called self excitation wiring.
The opposite case where the current caused by the remanent induction weakens the
field is called ”suicidal wiring”.
The value of the induced voltage can be adjusted by a field weakening resistor Rf v
and determined at the intersection point of the resistance line (Rf + Rf v ) · If with
the no-load characteristic. (Fig. 4). If Rf v and consequently the angle ρ in Fig. 4
are increased, a smaller voltage is obtained until the critical value of the angle is
exceeded. At the angle ρcritical there is no definite intersection point between the no-
load characteristic and the resistance line, so that the resulting terminal voltage is
strongly load dependent; at no-load conditions the upper and under load the lower
mutual point of the graphs are the points of operation.

Figure 4: Self excitation of a shunt generator

2.2.3 Operating behaviour and control of rotational speed

DC machines with separate excitation are similar to those with shunt excitation consid-
ering the torque vs. rotation speed characteristics. The main flux resp. the excitation
current are load-independent. The equation for the rotational speed n, obtained from
the voltage equations for the DC machine, explains the behaviour of the rotational
speed and possibilities of speed control (compare general introduction):

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

U − Rtot · I U 2πRtot
n= ⇐⇒ n= − · Mi (7)
k1 · Φ k1 · Φ (k1 · Φ)2

The rotational speed of the machine under no-load conditions I = 0 and with a certain
excitating current, is defined as a single-value n0 . It decreases linearly with an increase
in mechanical load I ≥ 0 . At speed values above n0 (speed at no-load conditions) the
machine operates as a generator. Since I · R  U , the rotation speed does not change
a lot with the load; it is the characteristic of a shunt machine, that the rotational speed
has a small drop with increasing load. (Abb 5).

φ φ
>
N

UN,φN,Rv = 0
>
U UN
Rv > 0

M
Figure 5: Rotational speed control

There are three methods for adjusting the machine speed:

1. Varying the flux, i.e. the excitation current (concerning the saturation in the
excitation circuit, only a weakening of the flux is possible) ⇒ the regulation
of the rotational speed at a constant armature voltage is possible only to speed
values above the rated rotational speed, i.e. beyond the rotational speed at maxi-
mum flux resp. maximum permitted excitating current. Limit: mechanical stress
(centrifugal force) and commutation (brush fire, sparking)
2. Reducing the armature voltage U ⇒ Rightarrow The regulation of the rota-
tional speed is possible only to speeds below the rated rotation speed, to avoid
possible fire on the brushes at higher voltages; (voltage switching, e.g. from 220
V to 110 V or supply at DC motor controller, Leonard set).
3. Increasing Rtot with an additional series resistance Rv (starter) in the armature
circuit. This possibility is rarely used due to the additional losses and strong load
dependency of the speed.

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

2.2.4 Application field

The DC machine is used as a motor when there is a demand for a continuos regulation
of rotational speed. Although there is a disadvantage due to the fact that brushes are
not without friction, it requires considerably less cost for the supply equipment, which
makes the DC machines sometimes more economical than three-phase drives.
The Application areas of a DC machine are electric rolling mill drives, conveyor drives
or machine tools. In the last application,the machine is excited with permanent mag-
nets instead of using electrical excitation in order to reduce the size of construction
and losses in the excitation circuit.
The DC generator is used as a Leonard generator, as an excitation machine for syn-
chronous generators or as permanent excited tachometer generator.

2.3 Series-wound machine

2.3.1 Equations and operating behaviour

The excitation winding and the armature circuit are connected in series according to
Fig. 6. The resistances Rv resp. Rp are used for start-up resp. field weakening.

Rv RA

IA

U RF Ui n

IF

Ip
Rp

Figure 6: Series-wound machine

Commutating poles and the compensating winding, which exist in larger machines,
are not shown. If present, they are connected in series to the armature circuit.

The voltage equation of the machine is:

U = k · Φ · n + R g · IA (8)

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

with
Rf · Rp
Rg = R A + R v + R K + R W + (9)
Rf + R p

Rg is the total resistance in the circuit. It consists of an armature resistance, a series re-
sistance, the resistance of the compensating winding and commutating pole windings
and the resistance of the excitation circuit.
For a magnetically linear i.e. unsaturated machine, the air gap flux is proportional to
the excitation current:

Φ ∼ If ⇒ kΦ = L0h If (10)

The proportionality factor L0h has the dimension of an inductance. The exact derivation
is given in lectures.
For the machine without field weakening (Rp → ∞) we have:

If = I A ⇒ kΦ = L0h IA (11)

From this the torque is obtained:

1 1 0 2
M= kΦIA = L I (12)
2π 2π h A
The equation for the rotational speed is:

U Rg
n= − (13)
L0h IA L0h
or:

U Rg
n= p − 0 (14)
2πLh M
0 Lh

In Fig. 7 the response rotational speed vs torque is plotted for different resistances Rg
.
As the diagram shows,the machine has two characteristic properties:
1. A high no-load rotational speed which is restricted only by friction. That is why
the machine must not be completely unloaded.
2. A high starting torque and a "soft" rotational speed-torque characteristic.

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

Figure 7: Rotation speed - torque characteristic

Because of the rotational speed / torque characteristic, the series machine is mainly
used as a traction drive in DC railways and electric vehicles and as a starter motor in
automobile industry.

2.3.2 Speed control

Possibilities of rotational speed control are:

1. Changing the voltage U : This is possible with a controllable rectifier, a DC

motor controller or through a series-parallel-connection of two machines in one
vehicle.
2. Adding a variable resistance Rv to the armature circuit: Since large losses will
be produced, the series resistance is in practice only applied for the limitation of
the starting current and not for rotational speed control.
3. Field weakening: This is achieved by adding a shunt resistor to the field wind-
ing.

Without special measures, the DC series wound machine can not operate as a genera-
tor. Special devices are needed in order to allow for feeding into a network at constant
voltage. If the terminals of the machine are connected to a resistance, the machine
can operate as a braking generator.

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

2.4 Universal motor

2.4.1 Torque and transforming voltage

In contrast to the separately-excited and the shunt machine, the series-wound machine
is suitable for the operation at AC voltage. Since the field direction is changed simulta-
neously with the armature current, the machine always develops a torque in the same
direction. The series connection of the armature and the excitation winding assures
that there is no phase shift between both torque forming values.
√
If the machine is fed with an AC current i = 2I sin ωt, the torque has one constant
part and one part that pulsates at double supply frequency (Fig. 8):

m(t)

2
L h’ I

dn = m(t) t
dt 2 πΘ
Figure 8: Torque curve at AC current supply

When the moment of inertias of armature and drive are large enough, the torque
oscillation has no effect on the rotational speed. The rotational speed-torque-response
is in that case the same as the rotation speed-torque characteristic of the series-wound
machine fed with DC current. Since the flux in the machine changes in time (ϕ =
Φ sin ωt), an additional voltage known as the transforming voltage is induced in the
armature besides the rotatory voltage.
This voltage increases the voltage between the segments of the commutator and com-
plicates the commutation of the current in the part of the armature winding which is
short-circuited by brushes (Fig. 9).

2.4.2 Construction and application

Since the excitation winding and the armature of a series-wound machine are con-
nected in series, a high armature current flows through the field winding. This is the
reason why series-wound machines have a smaller number of turns and a large con-
ductor cross section. For the operation at AC current, the stator is built from separate,
mutually isolated steel sheets in order to decrease eddy-current losses. Such motors
are suitable for operation at DC or AC current and can be used as an universal motor.

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

φ(t)

Figure 9: Formation of transformating voltage

Smaller machines of this type are used in large quantities as high-speed drives for
household- and handicraft machines.
Larger machines (up to 1500 kW), particulary used as drive motors in electrical rail-
ways (16 2/3 Hz in Federal Republic of Germany), have additional commutating poles
and a compensation winding. The stator is laminated as shown in Fig. 10

Figure 10: Stator sheet of a large series-wound machine

3 Experiment realisation

In the following experiments the DC machine will operate coupled with an pendulum
induction machine. Depending on the operating point, the pendulum machine can
operate as load or driving machine. The corresponding control unit of the pendulum

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

machine can drive the machine either speed- or torque controlled. The torque is mea-
sured by the elongation of strain gauges between the base frame and the twistable
stator of the pendulum machine.
For the excitation of the DC machine a separate, controllable voltage source is avail-
able.

3.1 Safety requirements

Experiments will be performed at mains voltage. Every change in wiring must be done
under no-voltage conditions. For the switching of DC voltages special precautions have
to be taken. Please ask the supervisor.
Rotating machine parts may harm you! Therefore: Pay attention to clothes or long
hair.
Inform yourself about the location of the closest emergency-switch. Equipment that
is not used in the actual test should be put aside. Take care of a clearly arranged
experimental setup.

3.2 Objective of each test

The theoretically presented types of machines are now practically investigated. The
operating behaviour of the shunt machine will be investigated; the no-load character-
istic will be taken with the help of the separately excited DC machine due to the ease
of adjusting the excitation. The operating behaviour of the series wound machine will
be examined at AC and DC voltage.

3.3 Measuring of the no-load characteristic

You have two DC machines available; the universal motor and the shunt motor. The
no-load characteristic of one of these two motors should be determined. Which mo-
tor must be used considering given instruments and the voltage supply? Record the
no-load characteristic of the chosen motor. Be careful not to overload it. Draw the
characteristic.

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

3.4 Universal motor at AC voltage

3.4.1 Experimental set-up

Start up the experimental equipment consisting of an universal motor at AC voltage

system (220V) and the pendulum machine. Think about how the machines should be
connected and which components you may possibly need in addition.

3.4.2 Load characteristics

Record the load characteristic of the universal motor. Think about the speed range in
which these values are reasonable and measurable without overloading the machine.
Measure the values.
Torque M
Speed n
Current I
Power factor cos ϕ
Absorbed power P1
Delivered power P2
Efficiency η

Draw the curves depending on the torque.

3.5 Universal motor at DC voltage

3.5.1 Experimental set-up

Now the universal motor should operate at the DC network(220V) together with the
pendulum machine. First think how to connect the machines and which components
you may possibly need in addition. Start up the machine set.

3.5.2 Load characteristics

According to the experiment 3.4.2, the load characteristics of the universal motor
should be taken at the DC network. Determine the speed range in which these values
are reasonable and measurable and find out the values according to experiment 3.4.2:
Draw these curves depending on the torque.

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Operating behaviour of the DC machine PE1 T 2

3.6 DC shunt motor

3.6.1 Experimental set-up

In this experiment the load characteristic of the DC shunt motor should be deter-
mined. Start up the machine set consisting of the pendulum machine and the shunt
motor. Proceed as in 3.4.1. Connect the shunt machine with the commutating and
compensation windings.

3.6.2 Load characteristics

The following values must be recorded for the load characteristics of the shunt motor:
Torque M
Speed n
Armature current IA
Excitating current IF
Absorbed power P1
Delivered power P2
Efficiency η

Draw the curves depending on the torque.

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 INSTITUT FÜR ELEKTRISCHE MASCHINEN
RHEINISCH-WESTFÄLISCHE TECHNISCHE HOCHSCHULE AACHEN

Worksheet
No-load characteristic

Remark: Ui1 = Ui at n = 1500/min−1 and Ui2 = Ui at n = 3000/min−1

IF /A 0 0,5 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0
Ui1 /V
Ui2 /V

Ui [V]

I F[A]
 INSTITUT FÜR ELEKTRISCHE MASCHINEN
RHEINISCH-WESTFÄLISCHE TECHNISCHE HOCHSCHULE AACHEN

Worksheet
Universal motor (AC)

M/Nm 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0

n/min−1
I/A
cos ϕ
P1 /W
P2 /W
η

n [min −1]
I[A]
P2 [W]
cos ϕ

M [Nm]
 INSTITUT FÜR ELEKTRISCHE MASCHINEN
RHEINISCH-WESTFÄLISCHE TECHNISCHE HOCHSCHULE AACHEN

Worksheet
Universal motor (DC)

M/Nm 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5

n/min−1
I/A
P1 /W
P2 /W
η

n [min −1]
I[A]
P2 [W]
η

M [Nm]
 INSTITUT FÜR ELEKTRISCHE MASCHINEN
RHEINISCH-WESTFÄLISCHE TECHNISCHE HOCHSCHULE AACHEN

Worksheet
DC shunt motor

M/Nm 0 1 2 3 4 5
n/min−1
IA /A
IE /A
Iges /A
P1 /W
P2 /W
η

n [min −1]
IA [A]
P2 [W]
η

M [Nm]