ANGELIKA BELEN T.

PAREDES

DMET 2-1

CHAPTER 3: AC MACHINERY FUNDAMENTALS

QUESTIONS

3-1. What is the principal difference between a synchronous machine and an induction machine?

Synchronous machine are motors and generators whose magnetic current is supplied by a
separate dc power source, while induction machines are motor and generators whose field
current is supplied by a magnetic induction into their field windings.

3- 2. Why does switching the current flows in any two phases reverse the direction of rotation of
a stator's magnetic field?

Because of the current flows is directly proportional to the magnetic field acting upon the
windings.

3-3. What is the relationship between electrical frequency and magnetic field speed for an ac
machine?

These magnetic poles complete one mechanical rotation around the stator surface for
each electrical cycle of the applied current. Therefore, the mechanical speed of rotation of the
magnetic field in revolutions per second is equal to the electric frequency in hertz.

ƒse = ƒsm

ꙍse = ꙍsm

3-4. What is the equation for the induced torque in an ac machine?

Tind = 2rilBsinƟ
CHAPTER 4: SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

QUESTIONS

4-1. Why is the frequency of a synchronous generator locked into its rate of shaft rotation?

Rotor of synchronous generator was made by permanent magnet, so the poles on rotor
and the RMF attract each other causing the rotor to be locked magnetically to the shaft.

4-2. Why does an alternator's voltage drop sharply when it is loaded down with a lagging load?

Because of putting more load. Loaded down with a lagging load means putting a load
right after the other load.

4-3. Why does an alternator's voltage rise when it is loaded down with a leading load?

Leading load is a capacitive load meaning the system was being tested by putting a load
but not to the real load. This is just to test the power supply of the system.

4-4. Sketch the phasor diagrams and magnetic field relationships for a synchronous generator
operating at (a) unity power factor, (b) lagging power factor, (c) leading power factor.

a.) Unity power factor

 b.) Lagging power factor

c.) Leading power factor

4-5. Explain just how the synchronous impedance and armature resistance can be determined in a
synchronous generator.

To get synchronous impedance, you should get the internal generated voltage EA from
the OCC at the field current and get the short-cicuit current flow Iasc at that field current from
the SCC.

4-6. Why must a 60-Hz generator be derated if it is to be operated at 50 Hz? How much derating
must be done?

A 60 Hz generator will produce less than the voltage produced by 50 Hz. It can work but
the voltage by 60 Hz generator will be derating factor of 5/6.
4-7. Would you expect a 400-Hz generator to be larger or smaller than a 60-Hz generator of the
same power and voltage rating? Why?

Base on the formula it is smaller. The higher the frequency the lesser the flux meaning
the voltage produced by the higher frequency will be small.

4-8. What conditions are necessary for paralleling two synchronous generators?

It is necessary to consider the frequency and voltage of the generator. Two or more
generators should have the same voltage and frequency.

4-9. Why must the oncoming generator on a power system be paralleled at a higher frequency
than that of the running system?

The oncoming generator frequency should be adjusted to be slightly higher that the
frequency of the running system to ensure that the generator comes on line supplying power
instead of consuming it.

4-10. What is an infinite bus? What constraints does it impose on a generator paralleled with it?

An infinite bus is a power system so large that its voltage and frequency do not vary
regardless of how much real and reactive power is drawn from or supplied to it. In order to have
a constant voltage, current should consider, power must be constant when current is changed.

4-11. How can the real power sharing between two generators be controlled without affecting the
system's frequency? How can the reactive power sharing between two generators be controlled
without affecting the system's terminal voltage?

To adjust the real power sharing between generators without changing system’s
frequency simultaneously increase the governor set points on one generator while decreasing the
governor set points on the other. Whereas, to adjust the reactive power sharing between
generators without changing terminal voltage, simultaneously increase the field current on one
generator while decreasing the field current on the other.
4-12. How can the system frequency of a large power system be adjusted without affecting the
power sharing among the system's generators?

Frequency in generators can be controlled by decreasing or increasing the governor set

point of the other generator.

4-13. How can the concepts of Section 4.9 be expanded to calculate the system frequency and
power sharing among three or more generators operating in parallel?

When three or more generators of similar size are operating in parallel, a change in the
governor set points of one of them changes both the system frequency and the power sharing
between them. It would normally be desired to adjust only one of these quantities at a time.

4-14. Why is overheating such a serious matter for a generator?

Because overheating will affect the insulating properties of the winding materials. The
winding insulation will soften, melt, or catch fire, a flash over will occur which will destroy the
copper or aluminium windings. Slip rings, brushes can unsolder themselves when subjected to
excess heat and arcing.

4-15. Explain in detail the concept behind capability curves.

Give the maximum active- and reactive-power loadings that can be supplied without
exceeding the KVA rating (armature heating limit) or the field heating limit.

4-16. What are short-time ratings? Why are they important in regular generator operation?

Short time ratings are ratings for very short periods which can exceed the maximum
capacity of the generator without stalling the prime mover or tripping the overload. Example the
starting of an electric motor.
CHAPTER 5: SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

QUESTIONS

5- 1. What is the difference between a synchronous motor and a synchronous generator?

Synchronous motor converts electrical energy into a mechanical energy and speed is
constant while synchronous generator converts mechanical energy into an electrical energy and
is working at a variable speed.

5-2. What is the speed regulation of a synchronous motor?

Zero since it is working at a constant speed.

5-3. When would a synchronous motor be used even though its constant-speed characteristic was
not needed?

Some synchronous motors used to be sold specifically for power-factor correction. These
machines had shafts that did not even come through the frame of the motor-no load could be
connected to them even if one wanted to do so.

5-4. Why can't a synchronous motor start by itself?

Because of the inertia that the rotor has, it cannot actively follow the magnetic field of the
stator.

5-5. What techniques are available to start a synchronous motor?

Three basic approaches can be used to safely start a synchronous motor:

1. Reduce the speed of the stator magnetic field to a low enough value that the rotor can
accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the magnetic field’s rotation. This
can be done by reducing the frequency of the applied electric power.
2. Use an external prime mover to accelerate the synchronous motor up to synchronous
speed go through the paralleling procedure and bring the machine on the line as a
generator. Then, turning off or disconnecting the prime mover will make the synchronous
machine a motor.
 3. Use damper windings or amortisseur windings. The function of damper windings and
their use in motor starting will be explained below.

5-6. What are amortisseur windings? Why is the torque produced by them unidirectional at
starting, while the torque produced by the main field winding alternates direction?

Amortisseur windings are special bars laid into notches carved in the face of a
synchronous motor’s rotor and the shorted out on each by a large shorting ring. Notice that
sometimes the torque is counter clockwise and sometimes it is essentially zero, but it is always
unidirectional. Since there is anet torque in a single direction, the motor’s rotor speed up. This is
entirely different from starting a synchronous motor with its normal field current, since in that
case torque is first clockwise and the counter clockwise, averaging out to zero. In this case,
torque is always in the same direction, so there is a nonzero average torque.

5-7. What is a synchronous capacitor? Why would one be used?

A synchronous capacitor is a synchronous motor running without load. It is used to

improve the power and voltage of an ac system.

5-8. Explain, using phasor diagrams, what happens to a synchronous motor as its field ( current
is varied. Derive a synchronous motor V curve from the phasor diagram.

Construction of V-Curves

The V-curves of a synchronous motor show how armature current varies with its field
current when motor input is kept constant. These are obtained by plotting ac armature current
against dc field current while motor input is kept constant and are so called because of their
shape (Fig ). There is a family of such curves, each corresponding to a definite power intake.
5-9. Is a synchronous motor's field circuit in more danger of overheating when it is operating at a
leading or at a lagging power factor? Explain, llsing phasol' diagrams.

As with all conductors, when current is increased, the heating losses increase by the
square of the current Ploss=RI². Likewise, the field winding of a synchronous motor will
experience greater heating when the field current is high. This occurs when the motor is
overexcited and the power factor is leading as shown in the single-phase equivalent phasor
sketches below:

where, Vt is the terminal voltage of the motor, Ia is the armature current, Em is the back-emf
voltage of the armature, Xm is the synchronous reactance, θ is the power factor angle, δ is the
power angle and j=√−1 is the complex number operator. When the motor exciter increases the
field voltage Vf, the field current If will increase producing more lines of magnetic flux in the
air-gap between the rotor and the armature winding. This increases the back-emf Em of the
motor. When the motor is overexcited, this magnitude is greater than the terminal voltage: |Em|>|
Vt|. When the field voltage is decreased, the field current will decrease and produce fewer lines
of flux and this reduces the back-emf voltage.

When the motor is underexcited, this magnitude is less than the terminal voltage: |Em|<|
Vt|. Thus, the greatest rotor heating will occur when the field current is the highest and this
occurs in the leading power factor, overexcited, region.

Thus, the greatest rotor heating will occur when the field current is the highest and this
occurs in the leading power factor, overexcited, region.

5- 10. A synchronous motor is operating at a fixed real load, and its field current is increased. If
the armature current falls, was the motor initially operating at a lagging or a leading power
factor?

It is operating lagging load.

5- 11. Why must the voltage applied to a synchronous motor be derated for operation at
frequencies lower than the rated value?

This is to reduce the speed of the stator magnetic field to a low enough value that the
rotor can accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the magnetic field’s rotation.
CHAPTER 6: INDUCTION MOTORS

QUESTIONS

6-1. What are slip and slip speed in an induction motor?

The slip in an induction motor is the difference between the main flux speed and their
rotor speed. The symbol S represents the slip. It is expressed by the percentage of synchronous
Ns−N
speed. Mathematically, it is written as %S= x 100 % The value of slip at full load varies
N
from 6% in case of small motor and 2% in the large motor.

The induction motor never runs at synchronous speed. The speed of the rotor is always
less than that of the synchronous speed. If the speed of the rotor is equal to the synchronous
speed, no relative motion occurs between the stationary rotor conductors and the main field.

The no EMF induces in the rotor and zero current generates on the rotor conductors. The
electromagnetic torque is also not induced. Thus, the speed of the rotor is always kept slightly
less than the synchronous speed. The speed at which the induction motor work is known as the
slip speed.

6-2. How does an induction motor develop torque?

Induction motor is usually 3 multi-phase motor. Consider a 3 phase motor is supplied by

3 phase AC. Due to arrangement of the stator coils and 3 phase supply applied to them, resultant
magnetic field inside the motor is a vector constantly rotating with fixed rpm which depends on
frequency of AC and no. of poles.

On the rotor of the motor, there are conducting rods insulated from each other along the
length, but are connected together at the ends. Consider motor is just switched ON, and rotor is
not moving but magnetic field is rotating at fixed rpm.

This rotating magnetic field is cut by the rotor rods, hence EMF is induced in them. This
emf produce current along the length of the rods and this current produces its own magnetic
field. This field interact with rotating magnetic field produced by coils to develop torque.
Remember rotor cannot achieve rpm equal to rotating magnetic field. Because if it does so,
magnetic rotor rods will not be able to cut rotating magnetic field and no torque will be
generated.
6-3. Why is it impossible for an induction motor to operate at synchronous speed?

Torque is produced because the rotating magnetic field, set up by the stator windings, cut
and induce voltages into the rotor bars. The fields set up by the resulting rotor-bar currents then
interact with the rotating field, causing the rotor to turn. If the rotor turns at the same speed as the
rotating field, then its bars will not be cut by the field, there will be no induced voltages, no bar
currents, and the torque will disappear.

6- 4. Sketch and explain the shape of a typical induction motor torque-speed characteristic curve.

Plot of induction motor torque vs speed from zero to synchronous speed. This curve is
called the torque-speed characteristic curve. We can derive an equation from the equivalent
circuit that allows the calculation of the torque for a given value of slip.

6- 5. What equivalent circuit element has the most direct control over the speed at which the
pullout torque occurs?

Equivalent circuit parameter which has a most direct control over the speed at which pull
out torque occur is the “rotor resistance ( )”.
6-6. What is a deep-bar cage rotor? Why is it used? What NEMA design class(es) can be built
with it?

The basic concept is a current flowing through the upper part of a deep rotor bar. Since
current flowing in that area is tightly coupled to the stator, the leakage inductance is small for
this region. Also, current flowing deeper in the bar. Its leakage inductance is higher.

Since all parts of the rotor bar are in parallel electrically, the bar essentially represents a
series of parallel electric circuits, the upper ones having a smaller inductance and the lower ones
having a larger inductance. At low slip the rotor's frequency is very small, and the reactance of
all the parallel paths through the bar are small compared to their resistances.

The impedances of all parts of the bar are approximately equal, so current flows through
all parts of the bar equally. The resulting large crosssectional area makes the rotor resistance
quite small, resulting in good efficiency at low slips. At high slip (starting conditions), the
reactance is large compared to the resistances in the (rotor bars, so all the current is forced to
flow in the low-reactance part of the bar near the stator. Since the effective cross section is
lower, the rotor resistance is higher than before. With a high rotor resistance at starting
conditions, the starting torque is relatively higher, and the starting current is relatively lower. The
slip ring induction motor can be used for driving the high inertia loads which demand high
starting torque.

6-7. What is a double-cage cage rotor? Why is it used? What NEMA design class(es) can be built
with it?

A double-cage is consisting of a large, low-resistance set of bars buried deeply in the

rotor and a small, high resistance set of bars set at the rotor surface. It is like the deep-bar rotor,
except that the difference between lowslip and high-slip operation is even more exaggerated. At
starting conditions, only the small bar is effective, and the rotor resistance is quite high.

This high resistance results in a large starting torque. However, at normal operating
speeds, both bars are effective, and the resistance is almost as low as in a deep-bar rotor. Double-
cage rotors of this sort are used to produce NEMA class B and class C characteristics. Possible
torque- speed characteristics for a rotor of this design are designated design class B and design
class C.

Double-cage rotors have the disadvantage that they are more expensive than the other
types of cage rotors, but they are cheaper than wound-rotor designs. They allow some of the best
features possible with wound-rotor motors (high starting torque with a low stm1ing current and
good efficiency at normal operating conditions) at a lower cost and without the need of
maintaining slip rings and brushes. The slip ring construction is used for large size motors. The
starting torque and the starting periods is also large.

6-8. Describe the characteristics and uses of wound-rotor induction motors and of each NEMA
design class of cage motors.

Have small bars placed near the surface of the rotor. The rotor resistance is relatively
high. Since the bars are located near the stator, the rotor leakage reactance is still small. A cage
motor with this type of rotor construction is called NEMA design class D. This motor is very
much like a wound-rotor induction motor with extra resistance inserted into the rotor. Because of
the large rotor resistance, this motor has a pullout torque occurring at a high slip, and its starting
torque is quite high.

6-9. Why is the efficiency of an induction motor (wound-rotor or cage) so poor at high slips?

The reactance are large compared to the resistances in the rotor bars, so all the current is
forced to flow in the low-reactance part of the bar near the stator.

6-10. Name and describe four means of controlling the speed of induction motors.

Speed Control by Changing the Rotor Resistance

Change the operating speed of the motor. However, inserting extra resistances into the
rotor circuit of an induction motor seriously reduces the efficiency of the machine.

Speed Control by Changing the Line Frequency

Possible to adjust the speed of tile motor either above or below base speed. A properly
designed variable-frequency induction motor drive can be very flexible. It can control the speed
of an induction motor over a range from as little as 5 percent of base speed up to about twice
base speed. However, it is important to maintain certain voltage and torque limits on the motor as
the frequency is varied, to ensure safe operation.

Speed Control by Pole Changing

When the motor is reconnected from two-pole to four-pole operation, the resulting
maximum torque of the induction motor can be the same as before (constant-torque connection),
half of its previous value (used for fans, square-law-torque connection), or twice its previous
value (constant output-power connection), depending on how the stator windings are rearranged.
Speed Control by Changing the Line Voltage

If a load has a torque-speed characteristic then the speed of the motor may be controlled
over a limited range by varying the line voltage. This method of speed control is sometimes used
on small motors driving fans. The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the
square of the applied voltage.

6- 11. Why is it necessary to reduce the voltage applied to an induction motor as electrical
frequency is reduced?

The reason the frequency is reduced is normally to reduce the ‘speed’ of the motor.
Slower ‘speed’ means less work is being done. Means less power is needed. The lower voltage
means less power in -which is what is need as the motor is doing less work. If we kept the input
power the same, losses would have to increase as reducing the ‘speed’ means less useful work is
done.

The above is the ‘high level’ reason, there are many other reasons like keeping the
magnetic parts of the motor at similar flux densities. Many drive-motor systems have a constant
volts/hertz ratio as an operating parameter.

6-12. Why is terminal voltage speed control limited in operating range?

Because the voltage applied to the motor should not exceed the rated value, the range of
this region is normally limited to the speed at which the terminal voltage of the DC motor
reaches the rated value. This speed may be different from the rated speed depending on the
operating conditions.

6-13. What are starting code factors? What do they say about the starting current of an induction
motor?

The code letter sets limits on the amount of current the motor can draw at starting
conditions. These limits are expressed in terms of the starting apparent power of the motor as a
function of its horsepower rating. To estimate the rotor Current at starting conditions, all cage
motors now have a starting code letter on their nameplates.

6- 14. How does a resistive starter circuit for an induction motor work?
 The resistors reduce the starting current. After the motor comes up to a minimum speed,
the resistors are shorted out so full power line power is applied to the motor. The device which
starts the motor with the resistors and then shorts them out after the motor is up to minimum
speed is called a resistive starter

6- 15. What information is learned in a locked-rotor test.?

Used to determine the total motor circuit resistance.

6-16. What information is learned in a no-load test?

Measures the rotational losses of the motor and provides information about its
magnetization current.

6- 17. What actions are taken to improve the efficiency of modern high-efficiency induction
motors?

Decreasing the input power and decreasing the output power.

6-18. What controls the terminal voltage of an induction generator operating alone?

An induction machine to function as an isolated generator, independent of any power

system, if capacitors are available to supply the reactive power required by the generator and by
any attached loads.

6-19. For what applications are induction generators typically used?

Induction Generator construction is based on the very common squirrel-cage induction

motor type machine as they are cheap, reliable, and readily available in a wide range of electrical
sizes from fractional horse power machines to multi-megawatt capacities making them ideal for
use in both domestic and commercial renewable energy wind power applications.

6- 20. How can a wound-rotor induction motor be used as a frequency changer?

 Slip ring induction motor driven with any slip speed, the induction generator will act as a
frequency changer merely by varying the rotor speed and rotor direction.

Example

If a machine is supplied with 50hz frequency to the stator it produces rotating magnetic
field (RMF) with synchronous speed of 1500rpm.If the machine is driven in the direction of the
RMF less than synchronous speed, the rotor frequency is less than 50hz.

Nr<Ns

sF<50hz

If the machine rotor is driven with synchronous speed , the slip is zero & rotor frequency
is zero.

At standstill condition ,50hz and rotor is driven opposite to the RMF with synchronous
speed .

s=(Ns+Nr) /Ns

Nr=Ns

s=2

Rotor frequency is sF= 2*50=100hz

From the above example we can say that induction motor will acts as a frequency
changer by varying the rotor speed and rotor direction.

6- 21. How do different voltage-frequency patterns affect the torque-speed characteristics of an

induction motor?

A frequency higher than the rated frequency usually improves the power factor but
decreases locked-rotor torque and increases the speed and friction and windage loss. At a
frequency lower than the rated frequency, the speed is decreased, locked-rotor torque is
increased, and power factor is decreased.

6- 22. Describe the major features of the solid-state induction motor drive featured in Section
6.10.

The output from this drive is a three-phase set of voltages whose frequency can be varied
from 0 up to 120 Hz and whose voltage can be varied from 0 V up to the rated voltage of the
motor. Drive is very flexible: input power can be either single-phase or three-phase, either 50 or
60 Hz, and anywhere from 208 to 230 V.

6-23. Two 480-V, IOO-hp induction motors are manufactured. One is designed for 50-Hz
operation, and one is designed for 60-Hz operation, but they are otherwise similar. Which of
these machines is larger?

One is designed for 50 Hz

6-24. An induction motor is running at the rated conditions. If the shaft load is now increased.
how do the following quantities change?

(a) Mechanical speed

Increases

(b) Slip

Increases

(c) Rotor induced voltage

Reduces

(d) Rotor current

Increases

(e) Rotor frequency

Increases

(f) PRCL

Increases

(g) Synchronous speed

Increases
CHAPTER 9: SINGLE-PHASE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE MOTORS

QUESTIONS

9- 1. What changes are necessary in a seties dc motor to adapt it for operation from an ac power
source?

By replacing the commutator with slip rings and feed AC directly to the armature.

9- 2. Why is the torque-speed characteristic of a universal motor on an ac source different from

the torque-speed characteristic of the same motor on a dc source?

The motor is slower for a given armature current and induced torque on alternating
current that it would be on direct current. In addition, the peak voltage of an ac system is square
root of 2 times its ms value, so magnetic saturation could occur near the peak current in the
machine. This saturation could significantly lower the ms flux of the motor for a given current
level, tending to reduce the machine’s induced torque. Recall that a decrease in flux increase the
speed of a dc machine, so this effect may partially offset the speed decrease caused by the first
effect.

9- 3. Why is a single-phase induction motor unable to start itself without special auxiliary
windings?

The working principle of an ac machine is primarily "one field following another field". In
the case of a multiphase induction motor, there will be a virtual rotating magnetic field. But
considering the case of a single phase induction motor, it's only a pulsating field that is produced
and not a rotating one. This can also be explained on the basis of 'DOUBLE FIELD
REVOLVING THEORY', which goes as follows: Current through a conductor produces a flux.
This flux can be resolved into 2 components, each one rotating in the opposite directions at the
same speed (slip).

As a result, the net flux is zero, the induced current in the rotor conductors is zero, resulting
in zero torque. So, a single phase induction motor is not self-starting. The various ways to start a
single phase induction motor are:

1. Split Phase
2. Capacitor start
3. Capacitor start/Capacitor Run
4. Shaded Pole
 In these methods, a phase shift is created between the running winding and the auxiliary
winding, which serves as an initiative to start the motor.

9-4. How is induced torque developed in a single-phase induction motor (a) according to the
double revolving-field theory and (b) according to the cross-field theory?

Double-revolving field theory

The principle of operation of single-phase induction motor can also be explained by

double revolving field theory.

The single-phase supply given to the single-phase winding will produce pulsating field in
the air gap. However, any pulsating field can be resolved into two components, equal in
magnitude but oppositely rotating, as shown:

Cross-field theory

The principle of operation of a single-phase induction motor can be explained from the
cross-field theory. As soon as the rotor begins to turn, a speed emf E is induced in the rotor
conductors, as they cut the stator flux Fs. This voltage increases as the rotor speed increases. It
causes current IR to flow in the rotor bars facing the stator poles as shown:
9-5. How does an auxiliary winding provide a starting torque for single-phase induction motors?

Auxiliary winding creates the rotating magnetic field in this type of motor by changing
the relationship of the current in relation to the voltage. Auxiliary winding is connected to the ac
mains via a capacitor in order to generate a two phase supply, which can generate RMF when the
coils are spatially placed at 90° with respect to main winding. This RMF is responsible for the
operation of single phase induction motors. Adding the capacitor makes the motor self starting.

9-6. How is the current phase shift accomplished in the auxiliary winding of a splitphase
induction motor?

The current in the auxiliary windings always peaks before the current in the main
winding. The magnetic field from the auxiliary winding always peaks before the magnetic field
from the main winding.

9- 7. How is the current phase shift accomplished in the auxiliary winding of a capacitorstalt
induction motor?

The capacitor start motor has a cage rotor and has two windings on the stator. They are
known as the main winding and the auxiliary or the starting winding. The two windings are
placed 90 degrees apart. A capacitor CS is connected in series with the starting winding. A
centrifugal switch SC is also connected in the circuit.
9-8. How does the starting torque of a permanent split-capacitor motor compare to that of a
capacitor-start motor of the same size?

Since the capacitor must be sized to balance the currents in the main and auxiliary
windings at normal-Load conditions. Permanent split-capacitor motors have a lower starting
torque than capacitor- start motors.

9- 9. How can the direction of rotation of a split-phase or capacitor-start induction motor be

reversed?

A split phase induction motor has two sets of coils and a centrifugal start switch. The
start winding is in series with the start switch. The start winding provides a rotating magnetic
field in one direction enabling the motor to start. The motor can be reversed by reversing the
connections of either the start winding or the run winding but not both.

9- 10. How is starting torque produced in a shaded-pole motor?

Under the influence of this flux small starting torque is produced. As soon as this torque
starts to revolve the rotor, additional torque is produced for running because of the single phase
induction motor action. The shaded pole motor accelerates to a speed slightly below synchronous
speed and runs as single phase motor.

9- 11. How does a reluctance motor start?

The starting torque depends upon the rotor position. When the stator is connected to a
single phase supply, the motor starts as a single phase induction motor. The value of the starting
torque varies between 300 to 400 % of its full load torque. As motor attains speed nearly of
synchronous speed the auxiliary winding is disconnected and the rotor continues to rotate at the
synchronous speed.

9-12. How can a reluctance motor run at synchronous speed?

The working of synchronous reluctance motor, when a bit of attractive material is

situated in an attractive field, a power follows up on the material having a tendency to bring it
into the forsake bit of the field. The power has a tendency to adjust the example of the material
such that the hesitance of the attractive way that goes through the material will be least.
 At the point when supply is given to the stator winding, the rotating attractive field will
apply reluctance torque on the unsymmetrical rotor having a tendency to adjust the striking shaft
hub of the rotor with the hub of the spinning attractive field, in light of the fact that in this
position, the reluctance of the attractive way would be least. In the event that the hesitance torque
is adequate to begin the engine and its heap, the rotor will maneuver into venture with the
rotating field and keep on running at the speed of the spinning field. All things considered the
engine begins as an acceptance engine and after it has achieved its greatest speed as an
enlistment engine, the reluctance torque maneuvers its rotor into venture with the rotating field,
engine now keeps running as synchronous motor by ideals of its saliency.

9- 13. What mechanisms produce the starting torque in a hysteresis motor?

The Torque in a Hysteresis Motor is produced due to hysteresis and eddy current induced
in the rotor by the action of the rotating flux of the stator windings. A synchronous motor with a
uniform air gap and without DC excitation. It operates both in single and three phase supply.

9-14. What mechanism produces the synchronous torque in a hysteresis motor?

The stator of the hysteresis motor produces a rotating magnetic field and is almost similar
to the stator of the induction motor. Thus, the stator of the motor is connected either to single
supply or to the three phase supply. The three phase motor produces more uniform rotating field
as compared to that of the single phase supply. The stator winding of the single-phase hysteresis
motor is made of permanent split capacitor type or shaded pole type. The capacitor is used with
an auxiliary winding in order to produce a uniform field.

9-15. Explain the operation of a stepper motor.

Operation of Stepper Motor

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is
applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple toothed
electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external control circuit, for example, a microcontroller.

To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the
gear’s teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet’s teeth. The point when the gear’s teeth
are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet.
So when the next electromagnet is turned ON and the first is turned OFF, the gear rotates slightly
to align with the next one and from there the process is repeated.
 Each of those slight rotations is called a step, with an integer number of steps making a
full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise. Stepper motor doesn’t rotate
continuously, they rotate in steps. There are 4 coils with a 90o angle between each other fixed on
the stator. The stepper motor connections are determined by the way the coils are interconnected.
In a stepper motor, the coils are not connected. The motor has a 90o rotation step with the coils
being energized in a cyclic order, determining the shaft rotation direction. The working of this
motor is shown by operating the switch. The coils are activated in series in 1-sec intervals. The
shaft rotates 90o each time the next coil is activated. Its low-speed torque will vary directly with
current.

9-16. What is the difference between a permanent-magnet type of stepper motor and a
reluctance-type stepper motor?

Permanent magnet types have a permanent magnet rotor that is axially magnetized,
meaning it has alternating north and south poles parallel to the rotor shaft. These motors are also
referred to as “can stack” or “tin can” motors because their stators consist of two coils contained
in soft iron housings with teeth on the inside that interact with the rotor. While, variable
reluctance stepper motors have the simplest design of the three types, with a soft iron, non-
magnetic, toothed rotor and a wound, electromagnetic stator. Because the rotor is not
magnetized, there’s no attraction between the rotor and stator when the windings aren’t
energized, so variable reluctance motors don’t produce detent torque.

9-17. What is the optimal spacing between phases for a reluctance-type stepper motor? Why?

Stepper motor coils are wound within a laminated stator, except for can stack
construction. There may be as few as two winding phases or as many as five.

These phases are frequently split into pairs. Thus, a 4-pole stepper motor may have two
phases composed of in-line pairs of poles spaced 90° apart. There may also be multiple pole
pairs per phase. For example, a 12-pole stepper has 6-pairs of poles, three pairs per phase.

Since stepper motors do not necessarily rotate continuously, there is no horsepower

rating. If they do rotate continuously, they do not even approach a sub-fractional horsepower
rated capability. They are truly small low power devices compared to other motors.

They have torque ratings to a thousand in-oz (inch-ounces) or ten N-m (newton-meters)
for a 4 kg size unit. A small “dime” size stepper has a torque of a hundredth of a newton-meter
or a few inch-ounces. Most steppers are a few inches in diameter with a fraction of an n-m or a
few in-oz torque.
 The torque available is a function of motor speed, load inertia, load torque, and drive
electronics as illustrated on the speed vs torque curve below. An energized, holding stepper has a
relatively high holding torque rating. There is less torque available for a running motor,
decreasing to zero at some high speed.

This speed is frequently not attainable due to the mechanical resonance of the motor load
combination.

9-18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of brushless de motors compared [0 ordinary
brush de motors?

Disadvantages of brushed dc motors

 Although brushed motors are inexpensive, reliable and have a high torque or inertia ratio,
they also come with a number of disadvantages. These components wear out over time
producing dust. This type of motor requires regular maintenance to clean or replace the
brushes. They also have low heat dissipation capacity due to rotor limitations, high rotor
inertia, low maximum speed, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) due to arcing on the
brushes.
 The operating principle of brushless motors is the same as motors with brushes
(switching control using the internal shaft position feedback) but their overall design is
different. The design of the brushless units reduces internal resistance and helps dissipate
the heat generated in the stator coils. The efficiency is thus better since the heat of the
coils can dissipate more efficiently thanks to the much larger stationary motor casing.
 Unlike the brushed motor, the permanent magnet on the brushless unit is mounted on the
rotor. The stator is grooved rolled steel and contains the windings of the coil. On the
other hand, the brushed units require few or no external components and therefore work
well under restrictive conditions.

Advantages of brushed dc motors

 Brushless motor technology not only improves the power of your cordless power tools
but also extends their working life. With these motors, you will have virtually no
maintenance worries.
 The advantages of brushless technology are numerous. The absence of brushes eliminates
problems associated with overheating and breakdowns. The service life of the brushless
motor is therefore related only to the bearings. The brushless motor is more compact and
two to three times lighter than brushed units. This improves portability in addition to
reducing vibration and noise.
 Electronic commutations allow precise positioning. The motor achieves speeds of up to
50,000 rpm with optimally balanced rotors. The electronic module provides more
 flexibility with a wider range of variation and especially the maintenance of torque from
the start.
 Without friction between the rotor and the stator, the efficiency improves significantly.
Heat and friction are reduced while the energy of the battery is optimized. This increases
the power and autonomy by up to 25 percent with conventional batteries. According to
manufacturers, the latest generations of Li-Ion batteries provide up to 50 or even 60
percent of increased autonomy.
 The absence of friction allows the motor to operate without producing sparks even during
intensive applications. The brushless technology does not have a contact zone, which
considerably reduces wearing and maintenance. This offers several advantages: the motor
is more energy-efficient, prevents overheating, eliminates the need to replace the brushes
and users enjoy a longer battery life – you will find that the best cordless drill operates on
a brushless motor.