Mret 101

Foundation of Energy
Engineering
ASM Ibrahim
Institute of Energy
Course Syllabus:
1.Laws of Thermodynamics: 1st and 2nd law and its
application, Entropy, Irreversibility, Refrigerators, Air
Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
2.Heat Transfer: Conduction, convection, Radiation
3.Heat Engines: Working principle and classification of Internal
Combustion Engine, Two stroke and four stroke cycle (Diesel
and petrol engine)
4.Basic Power generation Cycles: Carnot and Rankine Cycle
5.Thermionic conversion and Magneto hydrodynamic
Generator
6.Fluid Mechanics: Stress-Strain, Viscosity, Bernoulli's
Equation
Laws of Thermodynamics
2018 2a Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of
work, heat, and energy on a system
• Thermodynamics is only concerned with
macroscopic (large-scale) changes and
observations
Thermodynamic equilibrium is an axiomatic concept of thermodynamics. It is an
internal state of a single thermodynamic system, or a relation between several
thermodynamic systems connected by more or less permeable or impermeable
walls. In thermodynamic equilibrium there are no net macroscopic flows of
matter or of energy, either within a system or between systems.
Getting Started
• All of thermodynamics can be expressed in
terms of four quantities
– Temperature (T)
– Internal Energy (U)
– Entropy (S)
– Heat (Q)
• These quantities will be defined as we
progress through the lesson
Defined by change in a system, a thermodynamic process is a
passage of a thermodynamic system from an initial to a final
state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
Classical vs Statistical
• Classical thermodynamics concerns the
relationships between bulk properties of
matter. Nothing is examined at the atomic or
molecular level.
• Statistical thermodynamics seeks to explain
those bulk properties in terms of constituent
atoms. The statistical part treats the
aggregation of atoms, not the behavior of any
individual atom
Introduction
According to British scientist C. P. Snow, the
three laws of thermodynamics can be
(humorously) summarized as
1. You can’t win
2. You can’t even break even
3. You can’t get out of the game
You can’t win (1st law)
• The first law of thermodynamics is an
extension of the law of conservation of energy
• The change in internal energy of a system is
equal to the heat added to the system minus
the work done by the system
ΔU = Q - W
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2016 3a
Slide courtesy of NASA

Process Terminology
• Adiabatic – no heat transferred
• Isothermal – constant temperature
• Isobaric – constant pressure
• Isochoric – constant volume
Adiabatic Process
• An adiabatic process transfers no heat
– therefore Q = 0
• ΔU = Q – W
• When a system expands adiabatically, W is
positive (the system does work) so ΔU is
negative.
• When a system compresses adiabatically, W is
negative (work is done on the system) so ΔU is
positive.
Isothermal Process
• An isothermal process is a constant
temperature process. Any heat flow into or
out of the system must be slow enough to
maintain thermal equilibrium
• For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
• Therefore, Q = W
– Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as
work (W)
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Isobaric Process
• An isobaric process is a constant pressure
process. ΔU, W, and Q are generally non-zero,
but calculating the work done by an ideal gas
is straightforward
W = P·ΔV
• Water boiling in a saucepan is an example of
an isobar process
Isochoric Process
• An isochoric process is a constant volume
process. When the volume of a system doesn’t
change, it will do no work on its surroundings.
W=0
ΔU = Q
• Heating gas in a closed container is an
isochoric process
Heat Capacity
• The amount of heat required to raise a certain
mass of a material by a certain temperature is
called heat capacity
Q = mcxΔT
• The constant cx is called the specific heat of
substance x, (SI units of J/kg·K)
Heat Capacity of Ideal Gas
• CV = heat capacity at constant volume
CV = 3/2 R
• CP = heat capacity at constant pressure
CP = 5/2 R
• For constant volume
Q = nCVΔT = ΔU
• The universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol·K

You can’t break even (2nd Law)
• Think about what it means to not “break
even”. Every effort you put forth, no matter
how efficient you are, will have a tiny bit of
waste.
• The 2nd Law can also be stated that heat flows
spontaneously from a hot object to a cold
object (spontaneously means without the assistance of external work)
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2016 3a

Concerning the 2nd Law
• The second law of thermodynamics introduces
the notion of entropy (S), a measure of system
disorder (messiness)
• U is the quantity of a system’s energy, S is the
quality of a system’s energy.
• Another C.P. Snow expression:
– not knowing the 2nd law of thermodynamics is the cultural equivalent
to never having read Shakespeare
Implications of the 2nd Law
• Time marches on
– If you watch a movie, how do you know that you
are seeing events in the order they occurred?
– If I drop a raw egg on the floor, it becomes
extremely “disordered” (greater Entropy) – playing
the movie in reverse would show pieces coming
together to form a whole egg (decreasing Entropy)
– highly unlikely!
Direction of a Process
• The 2nd Law helps determine the preferred
direction of a process
• A reversible process is one which can change
state and then return to the original state
• This is an idealized condition – all real
processes are irreversible
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Heat Engine
• A device which transforms heat into work is
called a heat engine
• This happens in a cyclic process
• Heat engines require a hot reservoir to supply
energy (QH) and a cold reservoir to take in the
excess energy (QC)
– QH is defined as positive, QC is negative
The Carnot Cycle
Image from Keta - Wikipedia

Carnot explained
• Curve A (1 → 2): Isothermal expansion at TH
– Work done by the gas
• Curve B (2 → 3): Adiabatic expansion
– Work done by the gas
• Curve C (3 → 4): Isothermal compression at TC
– Work done on the gas
• Curve D (4 → 1): Adiabatic compression
– Work done on the gas
Area under PV curve
• The area under the PV curve represents the
quantity of work done in a cycle
• When the curve goes right to left, the work is
negative
• The area enclosed by the four curves
represents the net work done by the engine in
one cycle
Engine Efficiency
• The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is
e = 1 + QC/QH
• The “engine” statement of the 2nd Law:
– it is impossible for any system to have an
efficiency of 100% (e = 1) [Kelvin’s statement]
• Another statement of the 2nd Law:
– It is impossible for any process to have as its sole
result the transfer of heat from a cooler object to
a warmer object [Clausius’s statement]
Practical Uses
• Automobile engines, refrigerators, and air
conditioners all work on the principles laid out
by the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
• Ever wonder why you can’t cool your kitchen
in the hot summer by leaving the refrigerator
door open?
– Feel the air coming off the back - you heat the air
outside to cool the air inside
– See, you can’t break even!
You can’t get out (3rd Law)
• No system can reach absolute zero
• This is one reason we use the Kelvin
temperature scale. Not only is the internal
energy proportional to temperature, but you
never have to worry about dividing by zero in
an equation!
• There is no formula associated with the 3rd
Law of Thermodynamics
Implications of 3rd Law
• MIT researchers achieved 450 picokelvin in
2003 (less than ½ of one billionth!)
• Molecules near these temperatures have been
called the fifth state of matter: Bose-Einstein
Condensates
– Awesome things like super-fluidity and super-
conductivity happen at these temperatures
– Exciting frontier of research
The Zeroth Law
• If objects A and B are each in thermal
equilibrium with object C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other
• Allows us to define temperature relative to an
established standard
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy exists in many forms, such as mechanical energy, heat, light,

chemical energy, and electrical energy. Energy is the ability to bring
about change or to do work. Thermodynamics is the study
of energy.
Surroundings The system can exchange mass and energy

through the boundary with the environment.
An example of “closed system” - no mass flow- is
System the gas confined in a cylinder. The boundary –in
this case real wall- is made by the cylinder and the
piston walls.
The boundary of the system

is arbitrarily chosen
First Law of Thermodynamics → Conservation of Energy:

Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or
destroyed. The total amount of energy and matter in the Universe remains constant,
merely changing from one form to another.
The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is always

conserved, it cannot be created or destroyed. In essence, energy can be
converted from one form into another.
The energy balance of a system –as a consequence of FLT- is a powerful tool to

analyze the exchanges of energy between the system and its environment.
We need to define the concept of internal energy of the system, Eint as an

energy stored in the system.
Warning: It is not correct to say that a system has a large amount of heat or a
great amount of work
The First Law of Thermodynamics. Heat, Work and Internal Energy
Joule’s Experiment and the First Law of Thermodynamics.
Equivalence between work and heat
1 calorie = 4.184 Joules
Work is done on water. The energy is transferred to
the water – i. e. the system- . The energy transferred
appears as an increase in temperature.
We can replace the insulating walls by conducting
walls. We can transfer heat through the walls to the
system to produce the same increase in temperature.
The increase in temperature of the system is a
Schematic diagram for Joule´s consequence of an increase in Internal Energy.
experiment. Insulating walls are Internal energy is a state function of the system
necessary to prevent heat transfer
from the enclosed water to the The sum of the heat transferred into
surroundings.
the system and the work done on the
As the weights fall at constant speed, system equals the change in the
they turn a paddle wheel, which does
internal energy of the system
work on water.
If friction in mechanism is negligible,
the work done by the paddle wheel on
Eint = Qin + Won
the water equals the change of
potential energy of the weights.
Another method of
doing work.
Electrical work is
done on the
system by the
generator, which
is driven by the
falling weight.
The First Law of Thermodynamics. Application to a particular case:
A gas confined in a cylinder with a movable piston
The state of the gas will be
described by the Ideal Gas Law.
PV = n R T
How does the confined gas

exchange energy (heat and
work) with the surroundings?.
What is the value of the internal How can we calculate the

energy for the gas in the cylinder? energy –heat and/or work-
transferred, added or
First Law
Eint = Qin + Won subtracted, to the system?
dEint = Qin + Won

“Quasi static processes”: a type of process where the gas moves through a
series of equilibrium states. Then, we can apply the Ideal Gas Law. In practice, if
we move the piston slowly, it will be possible to approximate quasi-static processes
fairly well.
The First Law of Thermodynamics. Application to a particular case: A gas
confined in a cylinder with a movable piston
Internal Energy for an Ideal Gas.

It only depends on the temperature of
the gas, and not on its volume nor its
pressure
What is the value of the internal Experiment: Free expansion.

energy for the gas in the cylinder? For a gas at low density – an ideal gas-, a
free expansion does not change the
temperature of the gas.
If heat is added at constant volume, no work

is done, so the heat added equals to the
increase in thermal energy
Eint = Qin
Qin = CV T
and
dEint = CV dT = n cV dT
Internal Energy is a state function, i.e. it is not dependent on the
process, it only depends of the initial and final temperature
Heat transferred to a system
If heat is added at constant
pressure the heat energy
transferred will be used to
expand the substance and to
increase the internal energy.
QP = CP T
QP = CP dT
If the substance expands, it
does work on its surroundings.
Applying the First Law of Thermodynamics

If heat is added at constant
volume, no work is done, so dEint = QP + Won = CP dT − PdV
the heat added equals the PdV = (CP − CV ) dT
increase in thermal energy
Qin ,V = CV dT = n cV dT as d ( PV ) = PdV + dP V and P = const  dP= 0
CP − CV = n R
Qin ,V = CV T = n cV T
The expansion is usually negligible for solids
and liquids, so for them CP ~ CV.
Heat transferred to a system. A summary
Heat energy can be added to (or lost from) the system. The value of the heat
energy transferred depends on the process.
Typical processes are
- At constant volume QV = CV T ; QV = CV dT
- At constant pressure QP = CP T ; QP = CP dT
For the case of ideal gas CP − CV = n R Relationship of Mayer
Ideal Gas
From the Kinetic theory,

3
for monoatomic gases CV = n R Cp=5/2 nR
2
5
for biatomic gases CV = n R Cp = 7/2 nR
2
For solids and liquids, as the expansion at constant pressure is usually
negligible CP ~ CV.
Adiabatic: A process in which no heat flows into or out of a system is
called an adiabatic process. Such a process can occur when the system is
extremely well insulated or when the process happens very quickly.
Work done on the system, Won , is the energy transferred as work to the system.
When this energy is added to the system its value will be positive.
The work done on the gas in an

expansion is
Won gas = −  P dV
V2
V1
Won gas = −Wby gas
P- V diagrams
Constant pressure
2018 2a
V2
Won gas = − P dV = P(V1 − V2 )
V1
If 5 L of an ideal gas at a pressure of 2 atm is cooled

so that it contracts at constant pressure until its
volume is 3 L what is the work done on the gas?
[405.2 J]
The First Law of Thermodynamics. P-V diagrams
P- V diagrams
Conecting an initial state and a final state Isothermal

by three paths
V2
Constant pressure Won gas = − P dV = P(V1 − V2 )
V1
V2
Constant Volume Won gas = − P dV = 0
V1
V2 n RT V2
Constant Temperature Won gas = −  dV = −n R T ln
V1 V V1
A biatomic ideal gas undergoes a cycle starting at
point A (2 atm, 1L). Process from A to B is an
expansion at constant pressure until the volume is 2.5
L, after which, it is cooled at constant volume until its
pressure is 1 atm. It is then compressed at constant
pressure until the volume is again 1L, after which it is
heated at constant volume until it is back to its original
state. Find (a) the work, heat and change of internal
energy in each process (b) the total work done on the
gas and the total heat added to it during the cycle.
A system consisting of 0.32 mol of a monoatomic ideal gas

Need to be solved occupies a volume of 2.2 L, at a pressure of 2.4 atm.
The system is carried through a cycle consisting:
1. The gas is heated at constant pressure until its volume
is 4.4L.
2. The gas is cooled at constant volume until the pressure
decreases to 1.2 atm
3. The gas undergoes an isothermal compression back to
its initial point.
(a) What is the temperature at points A, B and C
(b) Find W, Q and ΔEint for each process and for the entire
cycle
The First Law of Thermodynamics. Processes. P-V Diagrams
Adiabatic Processes. No heat flows into or out of the system

The First Law of Thermodynamics. Processes. P-V Diagrams
Adiabatic Processes. No heat flows into or out of the system

Qin = 0 Adiabatic process
then Eint = Won,adiabatic = n cV T
The equation of curve describing the adiabatic

process is
 CP
P V = const ;  = adiabatic coefficien t
CV
T V  −1 = const
T  P1− = const
We can use the ideal gas to rewrite
A quantity of air is compressed adiabatically the work done on the gas in an
and quasi-statically from an initial pressure of adiabatic process in the form
1 atm and a volume of 4 L at temperature of
Pf V f − Pi Vi
20ºC to half its original volume. Find (a) the
Won gas,adiab =
final pressure, (b) the final temperature and (c)
the work done on the gas.
 −1
cP = 29.19 J/(mol•K); cV = 20.85 J/(mol•K).
M=28.84 g
The First Law of Thermodynamics. Cyclic Processes. P-V Diagrams
Two moles of an ideal monoatomic gas have an initial pressure P1 = 2 atm and an initial
volume V1 = 2 L. The gas is taken through the following quasi-static cycle:
A.- It is expanded isothermally until it has a volume V2 = 4 L.
B.- It is then heated at constant volume until it has a pressure P3= 2 atm
C.- It is then cooled at constant pressure until it is back to its initial state.
(a) Show this cycle on a PV diagram. (b) Calculate the heat added and the work done by
the gas during each part of the cycle. (c) Find the temperatures T1, T2, T3
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At point D in the figure the pressure and

temperature of 2 mol of an ideal monoatomic gas
are 2 atm and 360 K. The volume of the gas at point
B on the PV diagram is three times that at point D
and its pressure is twice that at point C. Paths AB
and DC represent isothermal processes. The gas is
carried through a complete cycle along the path
DABCD. Determine the total work done by the gas
and the heat supplied to the gas along each portion
of the cycle
Spontaneous Processes
• Spontaneous processes are
those that can proceed
without any outside
intervention.
• The gas in vessel B will
spontaneously effuse into
vessel A, but once the gas is
in both vessels, it will not
spontaneously
Processes that are

spontaneous in one
direction are
nonspontaneous in
the reverse direction.
• Processes that are spontaneous at one temperature
may be nonspontaneous at other temperatures.
• Above 0C it is spontaneous for ice to melt.
• Below 0C the reverse process is spontaneous.
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Reversible Processes
In a reversible process the
system changes in such a
way that the system and
surroundings can be put
back in their original
states by exactly reversing
the process.
Changes are infinitesimally

small in a reversible
process.
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Irreversible Processes
• Irreversible processes cannot be undone by

exactly reversing the change to the system.
• All Spontaneous processes are irreversible.
• All Real processes are irreversible.
Temperature, Heat, Work
Heat Engines
Introduction
• In mechanics we deal with quantities such as
mass, position, velocity, acceleration, energy,
momentum, etc.
• Question: What happens to the energy of a
ball when we drop it on the floor?
• Answer: It goes into heat energy.
• Question: What is heat energy?
The answer is a bit longer.
• In Thermodynamics we deal with quantities
which describe our system, usually (but not
always) a gas.
• Volume, Temperature, Pressure, Heat Energy,
Work.
• We all know about Volume.
• Pressure:
Force
Pressure =
Area
Example: Balloons, Bed of Nails, Magdeburg hemispheres
The Magdeburg hemispheres are a pair of large copper hemispheres,

with mating rims. They were used to demonstrate the power
of atmospheric pressure. When the rims were sealed with grease and
the air was pumped out, the sphere contained a vacuum and could not
be pulled apart by teams of horses.
The Magdeburg hemispheres were designed by a
German scientist and mayor of Magdeburg, in 1656 to
demonstrate the air pump that he had invented, and
the concept of atmospheric pressure. The first artificial
vacuum had been produced a few years earlier
by Evangelista Torricelli, and had inspired Magdeburg to
design the world's first vacuum pump, which consisted
of a piston and cylinder with one-way flap valves. The
hemispheres became popular in physics lectures as an
illustration of the strength of air pressure, and are still
used in education
Example
• 120 lb woman putting all her weight on 2in2
of heals.
• Pressure = 120 lb/2in2 = 60 lb/in2.
• Is that a lot?
• Comparison: 1 atm = 14.7 lb/in2. Thus of
heals is approximately 4 atm.
• This is the pressure you would feel at a depth
of approximately 133 ft of water.
Temperature and Heat
• Everyone has a qualitative understanding of
temperature, but it is not very exact.
• Question: Why can you put your hand in a
400 F oven and not get instantly burned, but
if you touch the metal rack, you do?
• Answer: Even though the air and the rack are
at the same temperature, they have very
different energy contents.
Construction of a Temperature Scale
• Choose fixed point temperatures that are easy to
reconstruct in any lab, e.g. freezing point of water,
boiling point of water, or anything else you can think
of.
• Fahrenheit: Original idea:
0F Freezing point of Salt/ice
100F Body Temperature
Using this ice melts at 32F and water boils at 212F
(Not overly convenient) Note: 180F between boiling
an freezing.
• Celsius (Centigrade) Scale:
0C Ice Melts
100C Water Boils
Note a change of 1C = a change of 1.8F.
Conversion between Fahrenheit and
Celsius
If we know Celsius and want Fahrenheit

9
F = C + 32
5
If we know Fahrenheit and want Celsius
C = (F − 32 )
5
9
Absolute or Kelvin Scale
• The lowest possible temperature on the
Celsius Scale is -273C.
• The Kelvin Scale just takes this value and calls
it 0K, or absolute zero.
• Note: the “size” of 1K is the same as 1C.
• To convert from C to K just add 273.
K=C+273
When do you use which scale.
• Never use Fahrenheit, except for the weather.
• You can always use Kelvin and you must use
Kelvin when doing absolute temperature
measurements.
• You can use either Kelvin or Celsius when
measuring differences in temperature.
Heat
• Heat is the random
motion of the particles in
the gas, i.e. a “degraded”
from of kinetic energy.
• The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles (atoms/molecules) are moving, i.e.
more Kinetic Energy.
• We will take heat to mean the thermal energy
in a body OR the thermal energy transferred
into/out of a body
Specific Heat
• Observational Fact: It is easy to change the temperature of
some things (e.g. air) and hard to change the temperature of
others (e.g. water)
• The amount of heat (Q) added into a body of mass m to change
its temperature an amount T is given by
Q=m C T
• C is called the specific heat and depends on the

material and the units used.
• Note: since we are looking at changes in temperature,
either Kelvin or Celsius will do.
Units of Heat
• Heat is a form of energy so we can always use
Joules.
• More common in thermodynamics is the
calorie: By definition 1 calorie is the amount
of heat required to change the temperature of
1 gram of water 1C.
• 1 Cal = 1 food calorie = 1000 cal.
• The English unit of heat is the Btu (British
Thermal Unit.) It is the amount of heat
required to change the temperature of 1 lb of
water 1F.
• Conversions:
1 cal =4.186 J
1Btu = 252 cal
Units of Specific Heat
Q  cal   J 
C= =  o  =  o 
mT  g C   kg C 
Note that by definition, the specific

heat of water is 1 cal/gC.
Material J/kgC cal/gC
Water 4186 1
Ice 2090 0.50
Steam 2010 0.48
Silver 234 0.056
Aluminum 900 0.215
Copper 387 0.0924
Gold 129 0.0308
Iron 448 0.107
Lead 128 0.0305
Brass 380 0.092
Glass 837 0.200
Wood 1700 0.41
Ethyl Alcohol 2400 0.58
Beryllium 1830 0.436
Water has a specific heat of 1 cal/gmK and iron has a
specific heat of 0.107 cal/gmK. If we add the same
amount of heat to equal masses of iron and water,
which will have the larger change in temperature?
1. The iron.
2. They will have equal
changes since the same
amount of heat is added
to each.
3. The Water.
4. None of the above.
Example Calculation
• Compare the amount of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 kg of water and 1 kg of
iron 20 C?
Q = mCT
For Water
Q = ( 1000 g)(1cal / g C )(20 C ) = 20,000cal
o o
For Iron
Q = ( 1000 g)(0.107 cal / g C )(20 C ) = 2140 cal
o o
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Heat Transfer Mechanisms

1. Conduction: (solids--mostly) Heat transfer
without mass transfer.
2. Convection: (liquids/gas) Heat transfer with
mass transfer.
3. Radiation: Takes place even in a vacuum.
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Conduction
 Thermal  Contact  Temperatur e 

 Conductivity  Area  Difference 
 Rate of  =    
 Heat Flow 
  (Thickness )
Q A
= T
t d
Example
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Convection
• Typically very
complicated.
• Very efficient way to
transfer energy.
• Vortex formation is very
common feature.
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Convection Examples
• Ocean Currents
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• Plate tectonics
2015 1d Radiation
• Everything that has a temperature

radiates energy.
• Method that energy from sun reaches the
earth.
Q
P = = eAT = (const )T
4 4
t
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• Note: if we double the temperature, the

power radiated goes up by 24 =16.
• If we triple the temperature, the radiated
power goes up by 34=81.
• A lot more about radiation when we get to
light.
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The Second Law of
Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a statement about

which processes occur and which do not. There are many
ways to state the second law; here is one:
Heat can flow spontaneously from a hot object to a cold

object; it will not flow spontaneously from a cold object
to a hot object.
Heat Engines
It is easy to produce thermal energy using work, but how

does one produce work using thermal energy?
This is a heat engine;
mechanical energy can
be obtained from thermal
energy only when heat
can flow from a higher
temperature to a lower
temperature.
Heat Engines
We will discuss only engines that run in a repeating

cycle; the change in internal energy over a cycle is zero,
as the system returns to its initial state.
The high temperature reservoir transfers an amount of
heat QH to the engine, where part of it is transformed
into work W and the rest, QL, is exhausted to the lower
temperature reservoir. Note that all three of these
quantities are positive.
Heat Engines
A steam engine is one

type of heat engine.
Heat Engines
The internal combustion engine is a type of heat engine

as well.
Heat Engines
Why does a heat engine need a temperature difference?

Otherwise the work done on the system in one part of the
cycle will be equal to the work done by the system in
another part, and the net work will be zero.
Heat Engines
The efficiency of the heat engine is the ratio of the work

done to the heat input:
Using conservation of energy to eliminate W, we find:

Heat Engines
2018 1b
The Carnot engine was created to examine the efficiency of a

heat engine. It is idealized, as it has no friction. Each leg of
its cycle is reversible.
The Carnot cycle consists of:
• Isothermal expansion
• Adiabatic expansion
• Isothermal compression
• Adiabatic compression
An example is on the next slide.
Heat Engines
Heat Engines
Prove that efficiency of a reversible engine is always higher
than that of a irreversible engine.
Carnots Theorem
For an ideal reversible engine, the efficiency can be
written in terms of the temperature:
From this we see that 100% efficiency can be achieved

only if the cold reservoir is at absolute zero, which is
impossible.
Real engines have some frictional losses; the best achieve
60-80% of the Carnot value of efficiency.
WORKING PRINCIPLES OF ENGINES
• A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical

energy. The combustion of fuel such as coal, petrol, diesel generates heat.
This heat is supplied to a working substance at high temperature. By the
expansion of this substance in suitable machines, heat energy is converted
into useful work.
• Heat engines can be further divided into two types: (i) External combustion
and (ii) Internal combustion.
• In a steam engine the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine and
the steam thus formed is used to run the engine. Thus, it is known as external
combustion engine.
• In the case of internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place
inside the engine cylinder itself.
Classification of IC Engine
• Spark Ignition (Carburetor Type) IC Engine: In

this engine liquid fuel is atomized, vaporized and
mixed with air in correct proportion before being taken
to the engine cylinder through the intake manifolds.
The ignition of the mixture is caused by an electric
spark and is known as spark ignition.
• Compression Ignition (Diesel Type) IC Engine: In
this only the liquid fuel is injected in the cylinder
under high pressure.
COMPARISON OF CI AND SI ENGINES
2016 4b
• The CI engine has the following advantages over the SI engine.
• 1. Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than that of the SI engine. This
is because in case of the failure of the battery, ignition or carburetor system,
the SI engine cannot operate, whereas the CI engine, with a separate fuel
injector for each cylinder, has less risk of failure.
• 2. The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is uniform as each of them has a
separate injector, whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel mixture is
not uniform, owing to the design of the single carburetor and the intake
manifold.
• 3. Since the servicing period of the fuel injection system of CI engine is
longer, its maintenance cost is less than that of the SI engine.
COMPARISON OF CI AND SI ENGINES
2016 4b
• 4. The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine;
therefore, the heat loss to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than that
of the SI engine. Consequently, the cooling system of the CI engine can be
of smaller dimensions.
• 5. The torque characteristics of the CI engine are more uniform which
results in better top gear performance.
• 6. The CI engine can be switched over from part load to full load soon after
starting from cold, whereas the SI engine requires warming up.
• 7. The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper than the fuel (petrol) for SI
engine.
• 8. The fire risk in the CI engine is minimized due to the absence of the
ignition system.
• 9. On part load, the specific fuel consumption of the CI engine is low.
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF IC
ENGINE:
Cross Section of Diesel Engine

IC ENGINE
• Cylinder: The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting

portion of the engine power unit. Its major function is to provide space in
which the piston can operate to draw in the fuel mixture or air (depending
upon spark ignition or compression ignition), compress it, allow it to expand
and thus generate power. The cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast
iron. In some cases, to give greater strength and wear resistance with less
weight, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are added to the cast iron
• Piston: The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to
transmit power to the crankshaft as a result of the pressure and energy
generated by the combustion of the fuel. The piston is closed at one end and
open on the other end to permit direct attachment of the connecting rod and
its free action.
IC ENGINE
• Piston Rings: These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to
retain bearing qualities and elasticity indefinitely. The primary function of
the piston rings is to retain compression and at the same time reduce the
cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a minimum, thus reducing
friction losses and excessive wear. The other important functions of piston
rings are the control of the lubricating oil, cylinder lubrication, and
transmission of heat away from the piston and from the cylinder walls.
• Piston Pin: The connecting rod is connected to the piston through the piston
pin. It is made of case hardened alloy steel with precision finish. There are
three different methods to connect the piston to the connecting rod.
• Connecting Rod: This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft.
The end connecting the piston is known as small end and the other end is
known as big end. The big end has two halves of a bearing bolted together.
The connecting rod is made of drop forged steel and the section is of the I-
beam type.
IC ENGINE
• Crankshaft: This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and
converts the linear motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the
flywheel. The journals of the crankshaft are supported on main bearings,
housed in the crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel bolted to the
crankshaft help in the smooth running of the engine.
• Engine Bearings: The crankshaft and camshaft are supported on anti-
friction bearings. These bearings must be capable of with standing high
speed, heavy load and high temperatures. Normally, cadmium, silver or
copper lead is coated on a steel back to give the above characteristics.
IC ENGINE
• Valves: To allow the air to enter into the cylinder or the exhaust, gases to
escape from the cylinder, valves are provided, known as inlet and exhaust
valves respectively. The valves are mounted either on the cylinder head or on
the cylinder block.
• Camshaft: The valves are operated by the action of the camshaft, which has
separate cams for the inlet, and exhaust valves. The cam lifts the valve
against the pressure of the spring and as soon as it changes position the
spring closes the valve. The cam gets drive through either the gear or
sprocket and chain system from the crankshaft. It rotates at half the speed of
the camshaft.
• Flywheel : This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to
maintain uniform engine speed by carrying the crankshaft through the
intervals when it is not receiving power from a piston. The size of the
flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the type and size of the
engine. It also helps in balancing rotating masses.
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE
2017 3b
FOUR-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE
2017 3b
Working Principles
• In four-stroke cycle engines there are four strokes completing two

revolutions of the crankshaft. These are respectively, the suction,
compression, power and exhaust strokes. In the figure, the piston is shown
descending on its suction stroke. Only pure air is drawn into the cylinder
during this stroke through the inlet valve, whereas, the exhaust valve is
closed. These valves can be operated by the cam, push rod and rocker arm.
The next stroke is the compression stroke in which the piston moves up with
both the valves remaining closed. The air, which has been drawn into the
cylinder during the suction stroke, is progressively compressed as the piston
ascends. The compression ratio usually varies from 14:1 to 22:1.
Working Principles
• The pressure at the end of the compression stroke ranges from 30 to 45

kg/cm2 . As the air is progressively compressed in the cylinder, its
temperature increases, until when near the end of the compression stroke, it
becomes sufficiently high (650-800 °C) to instantly ignite any fuel that is
injected into the cylinder. When the piston is near the top of its compression
stroke, a liquid hydrocarbon fuel, such as diesel oil, is sprayed into the
combustion chamber under high pressure (140-160 kg/cm2 ), higher than
that existing in the cylinder itself. This fuel then ignites, being burnt with the
oxygen of the highly compressed air.
Working Principles
• During the fuel injection period, the piston reaches the end of its
compression stroke and commences to return on its third consecutive stroke,
viz., power stroke. During this stroke the hot products of combustion
consisting chiefly of carbon dioxide, together with the nitrogen left from the
compressed air expand, thus forcing the piston downward. This is only the
working stroke of the cylinder. During the power stroke the pressure falls
from its maximum combustion value (47-55 kg/cm2 ), which is usually
higher than the greater value of the compression pressure (45 kg/cm2 ), to
about 3.5-5 kg/cm2 near the end of the stroke. The exhaust valve then opens,
usually a little earlier than when the piston reaches its lowest point of travel.
The exhaust gases are swept out on the following upward stroke of the
piston. The exhaust valve remains open throughout the whole stroke and
closes at the top of the stroke. The reciprocating motion of the piston is
converted into the rotary motion of the crankshaft by means of a connecting
rod and crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates in the main bearings, which are
set in the crankcase. The flywheel is fitted on the crankshaft in order to
smoothen out the uneven torque that is generated in the reciprocating engine
FOUR-STROKE SPARK IGNITION
ENGINE
Working Principle
• In this gasoline is mixed with air, broken up into a mist and

partially vaporized in a carburetor. The mixture is then sucked
into the cylinder. There it is compressed by the upward
movement of the piston and is ignited by an electric spark.
When the mixture is burned, the resulting heat causes the gases
to expand. The expanding gases exert a pressure on the piston
(power stroke). The exhaust gases escape in the next upward
movement of the piston. The strokes are similar to those
discussed under four-stroke diesel engines. The compression
ratio varies from 4:1 to 8:1 and the air-fuel mixture from 10:1 to
20:1.
TWO-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE:
TWO-STROKE CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE
• The cycle of the four-stroke of the piston (the suction, compression, power
and exhaust strokes) is completed only in two strokes in the case of a two-
stroke engine. The air is drawn into the crankcase due to the suction created
by the upward stroke of the piston.
• On the down stroke of the piston it is compressed in the crankcase, The
compression pressure is usually very low, being just sufficient to enable the
air to flow into the cylinder through the transfer port when the piston reaches
near the bottom of its down stroke. The air thus flows into the cylinder,
where the piston compresses it as it ascends, till the piston is nearly at the
top of its stroke. The compression pressure is increased sufficiently high to
raise the temperature of the air above the self-ignition point of the fuel used.
The fuel is injected into the cylinder head just before the completion of the
compression stroke and only for a short period. The burnt gases expand
during the next downward stroke of the piston. These gases escape into the
exhaust pipe to the atmosphere through the piston uncovering the exhaust
port
TWO-STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE
TWO-STROKE CYCLE PETROL ENGINE
• The two-cycle carburetor type engine makes use of an airtight crankcase for
partially compressing the air-fuel mixture. As the piston travels down, the
mixture previously drawn into the crankcase is partially compressed. As the
piston nears the bottom of the stroke, it uncovers the exhaust and intake
ports. The exhaust flows out, reducing the pressure in the cylinder. When the
pressure in the combustion chamber is lower than the pressure in the
crankcase through the port openings to the combustion chamber, the
incoming mixture is deflected upward by a baffle on the piston. As the piston
moves up, it compresses the mixture above and draws into the crankcase
below a new air-fuel mixture
Comparison of two stroke and four stroke
Engine
2017 3c
• Advantages: 2016 4a
• 1) The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution
of the crankshaft. Hence theoretically the power developed for the same
engine speed and cylinder volume is twice that of the four-stroke cycle
engine, which gives only one working stroke for every two revolutions of
the crankshaft. However, in practice, because of poor scavenging, only 50-
60% extra power is developed.
• 2) Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the
turning moment on the crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke
engine requires a lighter flywheel.
• 3) The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports
is much simpler and their maintenance easier than that of the valve
mechanism.
• 4) The power required to overcome frictional resistance of the suction and
exhaust strokes is saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.
Engine
• 5) Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve
mechanism, the mechanical efficiency is higher.
• 6) The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.
• 7) For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and requires
less space than a four-stroke cycle engine. This makes it more suitable for
use in small machines and motorcycles.
• 8) A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed
especially when the crankcase compression is used.
• 9) Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.
• 10) A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve less
type.
Engine
2017 3c 2016 4a
• Disadvantages:
• 1. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the
dilution of the charges takes place which results in poor thermal efficiency.
• 2. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication
system and normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as
effective as the lubrication of a four-stroke engine. Therefore, the parts of the
two-stroke engine are subjected to greater wear and tear.
• 3. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to
the exhaust. Hence, the fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively
higher.
• 4. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive
heat produced. At the same time the running of the engine is not very smooth
at light loads.
Engine
• 5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat

generated.
• 6. Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual
compression starts only after both the inlet and exhaust ports have been
closed. Hence, the compression ratio of this engine is lower than that of a
four-stroke engine of the same dimensions. As the efficiency of an engine is
directly proportional to its compression ratio, the efficiency of a two-stroke
cycle engine is lower than that of a four-stroke cycle engine of the same size.
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat
Pumps
These appliances can be thought of as heat engines

operating in reverse.
By doing work, heat is
extracted from the cold
reservoir and exhausted
to the hot reservoir.
Pumps
Pumps
Refrigerator performance is measured by the coefficient

of performance (COP):
Substituting:
Pumps
A heat pump can heat a house in the winter:

Refrigeration Cycle
2018 3b
2017 2b 2016 3b
• A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take

place in the refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and
rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. Heat
naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to
cool a space by pumping heat from a lower
temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat
sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and energy
required to achieve and maintain a lower temperature
in the cooled space.
Refrigeration Cycle
2018 3b
2017 2b
2016 3b
2018 3b Refrigeration Cycle
2017 2b 2016 3b
• The refrigeration cycle uses a fluid, called a refrigerant, to move heat from
one place to another. The key to understanding how it works is recognizing
that at the same pressure, the refrigerant boils at a much lower temperature
than water. For example, the refrigerant commonly used in home
refrigerators boils between 5 and 10°C as compared to water's boiling point
of 100°C. We'll begin with the cool, liquid refrigerant entering the indoor
coil, operating as the evaporator during cooling. As its name implies,
refrigerant in the evaporator "evaporates." Upon entering the evaporator, the
liquid refrigerant's temperature is between 5 and 10°C and without changing
its temperature, it absorbs heat as it changes state from a liquid to a vapor.
The heat comes from the warm, moist room air blown across the evaporator
coil. As it passes over the cool coil, it gives up some of its heat and moisture
may condense from it. The cooler, drier room air is re-circulated by a blower
into the space to be cooled.
2018 3b Refrigeration Cycle
2017 2b 2016 3b
• The vapor refrigerant now moves into the compressor, which is basically a
pump that raises the pressure so it will move through the system. Once it
passes through the compressor, the refrigerant is said to be on the "high" side
of the system. Like anything that is put under pressure, the increased
pressure from the compressor causes the temperature of the refrigerant to
rise. As it leaves the compressor, the refrigerant is a hot vapor, roughly 50 to
60°C. It now flows into the refrigerant-to-water heat exchanger, operating as
the condenser during cooling. Again, as the name suggests, the refrigerant
condenses here. As it condenses, it gives up heat to the loop, which is
circulated by a pump.
Refrigeration Cycle
Entropy
• Entropy (S) is a term coined by Rudolph Clausius

in the 19th century.
• Clausius was convinced of the significance of the
ratio of heat delivered and the temperature at which
it is delivered,
q
T
Entropy
2018 4a
2016 2b
• Entropy can be thought of as a measure of the

randomness of a system.
• It is related to the various modes of motion in
molecules.
Entropy
• Like total energy, E, and enthalpy, H, entropy is a

state function.
• Therefore,
S = Sfinal − Sinitial
Entropy
• For a process occurring at constant temperature (an

isothermal process):
qrev = the heat that is transferred when the

process is carried out reversibly at a constant
temperature.
T = temperature in Kelvin.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics: The entropy of

the universe does not change for reversible
processes and increases for spontaneous processes.
Reversible (ideal):
Irreversible (real, spontaneous):

“You can’t break even”
Reversible (ideal):

The entropy of the universe increases (real, spontaneous

processes).
But, entropy can decrease for individual systems.
Reversible (ideal):

Entropy on the Molecular Scale
• Ludwig Boltzmann described the concept of

entropy on the molecular level.
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules in a sample.
• Molecules exhibit several types of motion:
– Translational: Movement of the entire molecule from one
place to another.
– Vibrational: Periodic motion of atoms within a molecule.
– Rotational: Rotation of the molecule on about an axis or
rotation about  bonds.
• Boltzmann envisioned the motions of a sample of
molecules at a particular instant in time.
– This would be akin to taking a snapshot of all the molecules.
• He referred to this sampling as a microstate of the
thermodynamic system.
• Each thermodynamic state has a specific number of
microstates, W, associated with it.
• Entropy is
S = k lnW
where k is the Boltzmann constant, 1.38  10−23 J/K.
2018 4c 2016 2b
Implications:
• more particles
-> more states -> more entropy
• higher T
-> more energy states -> more entropy
• less structure (gas vs solid)
-> more states -> more entropy
2018 4c
• The number of microstates and, therefore, the

entropy tends to increase with increases in
– Temperature.
– Volume (gases).
– The number of independently moving molecules.
Entropy and Physical States
• Entropy increases with

the freedom of motion of
molecules.
• Therefore,
S(g) > S(l) > S(s)
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of a pure crystalline
substance at absolute zero is 0.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of a pure crystalline
substance at absolute zero is 0.
Enthalpy, entropy, and free energy
What does ‘Spontaneous’ Mean in
Chemistry?
• A spontaneous change is a change in a system that

proceeds without a net input of energy from an outside
source.
– Needs some activation energy to get started
– It may be a fast reaction, or slow reaction
– Once it is started, it takes place without any continuous
outside influence such as heating, cooling, stirring, etc..
• Spontaneous does not mean instantaneous or super
fast!☺
What types of reactions can be ‘spontaneous’?
• Exothermic reactions can be spontaneous. These

reactions have a lower energy
state than reactants☺
– Negative enthalpy change
• However, Endothermic reactions can
also be spontaneous! These reactions will have a
higher energy state than the reactants. ☺
– Positive enthalpy change
• Enthalpy is represented by ΔH
Entropy also affects the spontaneity of a
reaction☺
• Entropy is a measure of the disorder, or molecular

randomness, of a system.
• It is natural for things to become more disordered. If you
throw a deck of cards on the floor, they are going to be
randomly out of place. It will take effort to sort them and
put them into increasing order of the deck.
• Entropy is represented by ΔS
• Entropy increases when ‘randomness’ increases. For
example- solids are more ordered, and gases are more
random. Therefore, gases have an increase in entropy
compared to solids!☺
Predicting Entropy change of a system….
Lets Practice!
• Freezing of water- Decrease in entropy
• Dissolving salt in water- Increase in entropy
because it increases the disorder!☺
• Evaporating rubbing alcohol- Increase in entropy
because it is turning into a gas and becoming more
disordered!☺
• CO2 + CaO → CaCO3 – Decrease in entropy. As a
general rule, the side of the equation with more
moles of gas has more entropy. Also, when the total
number of moles decrease, entropy typically
decreases as well!☺
• 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2- Increase in entropy.
There are more moles in the product as well as a
gas produced! Both signs of an increase in
entropy!☺
Free Energy
• Free Energy is represented by ΔG
• A reaction, at a constant temperature and
pressure, is spontaneous in the direction that
gives a negative change in fee energy (-ΔG)
• Temperature, enthalpy, and entropy all have an
effect on the spontaneity of a chemical reaction.
• Equation to calculate these values...
– ΔG = ΔH – (T x ΔS)
– The units for temperature used in the equation
should ALWAYS be in Kelvin!
Great reference Table to determine if a
reaction is sponaneous!
Lets Practice!
• The melting of ice has an enthalpy value of ΔH =

+333 kJ/kg. What is true about the spontaneity of this
process?
– A. Spontaneous at all temperatures
– B. Spontaneous at low temperatures
– C. Spontaneous at high temperatures
– D. Not spontaneous at any temperature
Answer
• C- Spontaneous at high temperatures
–The melting of ice has a positive entropy
change (melting from a solid to a liquid
is always a positive entropy change) and
a positive enthalpy change (ΔH = +333
kJ/kg). For this combination of entropy
and enthalpy, the reaction will be
spontaneous (-ΔG) at high temperatures.
Practice
• The combustion of ethane gas has a negative enthalpy

change and a positive entropy change.
Answer
• A- Spontaneous at all temperatures
–A negative enthalpy change and a
positive entropy change are both
“preferred” by nature, so this process is
spontaneous at any temperature.
Practice
• The process of freezing methane (CH4 (l) → CH4 (s))

has a negative enthalpy change (ΔH = -58.4 kJ/kg).
Answer
• B- Spontaneous at low temperatures.
– The freezing of methane has a
negative entropy change (freezing
from a liquid to a solid is always a
negative entropy change) and a
negative enthalpy change (ΔH = -58.4
kJ/kg). For this combination of
entropy and enthalpy, the reaction
will be spontaneous (-ΔG) at low
temperatures.
2018 4a
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is a property of a thermodynamic system. The enthalpy of a
system is equal to the system's internal energy plus the product of its
pressure and volume. For processes at constant pressure, the heat
absorbed or released equals the change in enthalpy.
According to the FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Q = ΔU + W
Differentiating the above equation ,
dq = du + pdv.
(Considering the displacement work, dw = pdv= constant pressure* change in
volume)
Q- heat transferred in to a system.
ΔU- change in internal energy
W- Work done by the system.
Enthalpy (H) is given by , H = U + PV
Differentiating the above equation ,
dh = du + pdv + vdp ( Considering the Constant pressure , vdp = 0 )
dh = du + pdv.
And hence dh = dq
Irreversible Processes and Entropy:
Entropy : 2018 4a
If an irreversible process occurs in a closed system, the entropy S
of the system always increases; it never decreases.
Here Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from the system

during the (reversible) process, and T is the temperature of the
system in kelvins.
Entropy change of an irreversible
process can be found with a
reversible one connecting the
initial and final states.
free expansion an isothermal process

Change in Entropy: Entropy is a State Function
Suppose that an ideal gas is taken through a reversible process, with the gas in an
equilibrium state at the end of each step.
For each small step, the energy transferred as heat to or from the gas is dQ, the work done
by the gas is dW, and the change in internal energy is dEint.
We have:
Since the process is reversible, dW = p dV and dEint = nCV dT.
Therefore,
Using ideal gas law, we obtain:
Integrating,
Finally,
The change in entropy S between the initial and final states of an ideal gas
depends only on properties of the initial and final states; S does not depend on
how the gas changes between the two states.
Example, Change of Entropy:
Example, Change of Entropy, Free Expansion of Gas:
Suppose 1.0 mol of nitrogen gas is confined to the left
side of the container of Fig. 20-1a. You open the
stopcock, and the volume of the gas doubles. What is
the entropy change of the gas for this irreversible
process? Treat the gas as ideal.
Calculations: From Table 19-4, the energy Q added as
heat to the gas as it expands isothermally at temperature
T from an initial volume Vi to a final volume Vf is
Here n is the number of moles of gas present. The entropy change for this reversible
process in which the temperature is held constant is
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
If a process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the

system increases for irreversible processes and remains
constant for reversible processes. It never decreases.
Here the greater-than sign applies to irreversible processes

and the equals sign to reversible processes. This relation
applies only to closed systems.
The reversible processes as dictated in a P-V diagram,

however, can have any signs of entropy change since they
describe only part of a closed system, which includes the
environment.
Entropy in the Real World: Engine Efficiency
An engine (or a refrigerator) is a system of some

substance to undergo a cycle between two thermal
reservoirs of high and low temperatures.
Entropy in the Real World: Perfect Engines
2017 2a 2016 2c
To have a ‘prefect’ engine, i.e., all the
absorbed heat transferred to work, we require
QL=0. With the engine entropy change being
zero, and the environment entropy change
being |Q |
DSenv = - H
<0
TH
the total entropy change for such an engine to

work will be negative, violating the 2nd law.
The 2nd law of thermodynamics can be stated as:
No perfect engine!
(The Kelvin-Planck statement)

Entropy in the Real World: Perfect Refrigerators
2018 3c
The entropy change for the cold reservoir is -|Q|/TL, and that for the
warm reservoir is +|Q|/TH. Thus, the net entropy change for the entire
system is:
TH >TL, and the right side of this equation is negative and thus the net
change in entropy per cycle for the closed system refrigerator reservoirs
is also negative. This violates the second law of thermodynamics, and
therefore a perfect refrigerator does not exist.
The 2nd law of thermodynamics can be stated as:
No perfect refrigerators!
(The Clausius statement)

Entropy in the Real World: Engine Efficiency
Not only there are no perfect engines and refrigerators,

but also their efficiency has an upper limit!
Carnot’s theorem: 2017 1b

(1)All reversible engines have the same efficiency.
(2) No engines have an efficiency higher than that of a
reversible engine.
# Ideal engines
= Reversible engines
# A Carnot engine is
an ideal engine
undergoing a Carnot
cycle.
Entropy in the Real World: Carnot Engine
Heat: The reverse of a Carnot engine is an

ideal refrigerator, also called a Carnot
refrigerator, whose efficiency, the
Entropy Changes: coefficient of performance is
Efficiency:
The Efficiencies of Real Engines Fig. 20-16 (a) Engine X drives a
Carnot refrigerator. (b) If, as claimed,
engine X is more efficient than a
Carnot engine, then the combination
shown in (a) is equivalent to the
perfect refrigerator shown here. This
violates the second law of
thermodynamics, so we conclude that
engine X cannot be more efficient than
a Carnot engine.
Suppose there is an engine X, which has an efficiency eX that is greater than eC, the Carnot efficiency.
When the engine X is coupled to a Carnot refrigerator, the work it requires per cycle may be made equal
to that provided by engine X. Thus, no (external) work is performed on or by the combination engine
+refrigerator, which we take as our system.
We have the assumption , where the primed notation refers to the engine X.
Therefore, which finally leads to : >0

This shows that the net effect of engine X and the Carnot refrigerator working in combination is to transfer
energy Q as heat from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir without the requirement
of work. This is a perfect refrigerator, whose existence is a violation of the second law of thermodynamics.
Carnot’s theorem is proved!

Example, Carnot Engine:
Example, Impossible Engine:
Unavailability of Energy; Heat
Death
Another consequence of the second law:
In any natural process, some energy becomes
unavailable to do useful work.
If we look at the universe as a whole, it seems inevitable that, as
more and more energy is converted to unavailable forms, the
ability to do work anywhere will gradually vanish. This is called
the heat death of the universe.
Thermal Pollution, Global
Warming, and Energy Resources
The heat output of any heat
engine, QL, is referred to as
thermal pollution, as it must
be absorbed by the
environment.
The generation of electricity often involves a form of heat engine,
whether it is powered by biomass (a) or solar power (b). Cooling
towers (c) are a feature of many power plants.
Air pollution is emitted by power plants, industries, and
consumers. In addition, most forms of combustion result in a
buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere, contributing to global
warming. This can be minimized through careful choices of fuels
and processes.
The thermal pollution, however, is a consequence of the second
law, and is unavoidable; it can be reduced only by reducing the
amount of energy we use.
Basic Principles of Electricity
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
Longest
Wavelength Electrical Stimulating Currents Lowest
Frequency
Commercial Radio and Television
Shortwave Diathermy
Microwave Diathermy
Infrared
LASER {
Visible Light
Ultraviolet
Shortest Ionizing Radiation Highest
Wavelength Frequency
2018 4c 2017 4a
2018 4c 2017 4a
2018 4c 2017 4a
VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER
CYCLES
Summary
• The Carnot vapor cycle
• Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapor power cycles
– Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle
• Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized
ones
• How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine
cycle?
– Lowering the condenser pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
– Superheating the steam to high temperatures (Increases
Thigh,avg)
– Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• The ideal reheat Rankine cycle
• The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
– Open feedwater heaters
– Closed feedwater heaters
• Second-law analysis of vapor power cycles
• Cogeneration
• Combined gas–vapor power cycles
200
Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for
which the working fluid remains a gas throughout the
entire cycle.
• Analyze vapor power cycles in which the working fluid
is alternately vaporized and condensed.
• Analyze power generation coupled with process
heating called cogeneration.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor
power cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapor power
cycles.
• Analyze power cycles that consist of two separate
cycles known as combined cycles and binary cycles.
201
Critical Point of Water T-S Diagram
2018 5a
Critical and Triple Point of Water PT diagram
2018 5a
Triple point: a point(particular temperature and pressure) where solid liquid and
gaseous phase of a particular compound are in equilibrium.
Critical point: a point(particular temperature and pressure) above which a gas

cannot be liquefied.
In water, the critical point occurs at around 647 K(374 °C or
705 °F) and 22.064 MPa (3200 psia or 218 atm).
In the vicinity of the critical point, the physical properties of the

liquid and the vapor change dramatically, with both phases
becoming ever more similar. For instance, liquid water under
normal conditions is nearly incompressible, has a low thermal
expansion coefficient, has a high dielectric constant, and is an
excellent solvent for electrolytes. Near the critical point, all these
properties change into the exact opposite: water becomes
compressible, expandable, a poor dielectric, a bad solvent for
electrolytes, and prefers to mix with nonpolar gases and organic
molecules.
Above the critical point there exists a state of matter that is

continuously connected with (can be transformed without
phase transition into) both the liquid and the gaseous state. It
is called supercritical fluid.
THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE 2017 4b 2015 3a
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature limits
but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to extremely high
pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.
1-2 isothermal heat

addition in a boiler
2-3 isentropic expansion
in a turbine
3-4 isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser
4-1 isentropic
compression in a
compressor
T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.

205
Practically, it is very difficult to add or reject heat to or
from the working fluid at constant temperature. But, it is
comparatively easy to add or reject heat to or from the
working fluid at constant pressure. Therefore, Carnot
cycle is not used as an idealized cycle for steam power
plants. However, ideal cycle for steam power plant is
Rankine cycle in which heat addition and rejection takes
place at constant pressure process.
The Rankine cycle is a model that is used to predict the

performance of steam turbine systems. The Rankine cycle
is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that
converts heat into mechanical work. The heat is supplied
externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as
the working fluid. It is named after William John
Macquorn Rankine
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser.
The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power
plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities.
The simple ideal Rankine cycle. 207

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
Steady-flow energy equation
The specific enthalpy of a uniform system is defined

as h = H/m where m is the mass of the system. The SI unit for
specific enthalpy is joule per kilogram.
208
The thermal efficiency can be interpreted as the ratio of the area
enclosed by the cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under the heat-
addition process.
The efficiency of power plants in the U.S. is often expressed in terms of

heat rate, which is the amount of heat supplied, in Btu’s, to generate 1
kWh of electricity.
DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER CYCLES
FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a result of
irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources of
irreversibilities. Isentropic efficiencies
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle. (b) The
effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
210
HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE
CYCLE? 2015 3b 2017 4c
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at
low pressures, the condensers of steam power
plants usually operate well below the
atmospheric pressure. There is a lower limit to
this pressure depending on the temperature of
the cooling medium
Side effect: Lowering the condenser pressure
increases the moisture content of the steam at
the final stages of the turbine.
The effect of lowering the
condenser pressure on the ideal
Rankine cycle.
211
2015 3b 2017 4c
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases
Thigh,avg)
Both the net work and heat input increase
as a result of superheating the steam to a
higher temperature. The overall effect is
an increase in thermal efficiency since the
average temperature at which heat is
added increases.
Superheating to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable.
The temperature is limited by
metallurgical considerations. Presently the
The effect of superheating the highest steam temperature allowed at the
steam to higher temperatures on turbine inlet is about 620°C.
the ideal Rankine cycle.
212
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg) 2017 4c
For a fixed turbine inlet temperature, Today many modern steam power
the cycle shifts to the left and the plants operate at supercritical
moisture content of steam at the pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and have
turbine exit increases. This side effect thermal efficiencies of about 40% for
can be corrected by reheating the fossil-fuel plants and 34% for nuclear
steam. plants.
2015 3b
The effect of increasing the boiler

A supercritical Rankine cycle.
pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle. 213
THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without
facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle.
214
The single reheat in a modern power plant
improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5% by
increasing the average temperature at which
heat is transferred to the steam.
The average temperature during the reheat
process can be increased by increasing the
number of expansion and reheat stages. As
the number of stages is increased, the
expansion and reheat processes approach an
isothermal process at the maximum
temperature. The use of more than two
reheat stages is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the second
reheat is about half of that which results
from a single reheat.
The reheat temperatures are very close or The average temperature at which
equal to the turbine inlet temperature. heat is transferred during reheating
increases as the number of reheat
The optimum reheat pressure is about one- stages is increased.
fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.
215
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
Heat is transferred to the working fluid during
process 2-2 at a relatively low temperature.
This lowers the average heat-addition
temperature and thus the cycle efficiency.
In steam power plants, steam is extracted
from the turbine at various points. This steam,
which could have produced more work by
expanding further in the turbine, is used to
heat the feed water instead. The device
where the feed water is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a feed
water heater (FWH).
A feedwater heater is basically a heat
The first part of the heat-addition exchanger where heat is transferred from the
process in the boiler takes place at steam to the feedwater either by mixing the
relatively low temperatures. two fluid streams (open feedwater heaters) or
without mixing them (closed feedwater
heaters).
216
Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater
heater is basically a mixing chamber, where
the steam extracted from the turbine mixes
with the feedwater exiting the pump.
Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.

217
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted
steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams now can
be at different pressures, since they do not mix.
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.

218
The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing network, and
thus they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater heaters is less effective
since the two streams are not allowed to be in direct contact. However, closed feedwater
heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater since the extracted steam and the
feedwater can be at different pressures.
Open feedwater
A steam power plant with one open heaters are simple
and three closed feedwater heaters. and inexpensive and
have good heat
transfer
characteristics. For
each heater,
however, a pump is
required to handle
the feedwater.
Most steam power

plants use a
combination of open
and closed
feedwater heaters.
219
2017 5b
COGENERATION
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat.
Process heat in these industries is usually supplied by steam at 5 to 7 atm and
150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to the steam by burning coal, oil,
natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.
Industries that use large amounts of

process heat also consume a large
amount of electric power.
It makes sense to use the already-
existing work potential to produce
power instead of letting it go to
waste.
The result is a plant that produces
electricity while meeting the process-
heat requirements of certain
industrial processes (cogeneration
plant)
A simple process-heating plant.
Cogeneration: The production of more than one useful form of energy (such as
process heat and electric power) from the same energy source.
220
Utilization
factor
• The utilization factor of the

ideal steam-turbine
cogeneration plant is
100%.
• Actual cogeneration plants
have utilization factors as
high as 80%.
• Some recent cogeneration
plants have even higher
utilization factors.
An ideal cogeneration plant.
221
At times of high demand for process heat, all the
steam is routed to the process-heating units and
none to the condenser (m7= 0). The waste heat is
zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the
boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-
reducing valve to the extraction pressure P6 and is
directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all the
steam leaving the boiler passes through the PRV
(m5= m4). No power is produced in this mode.
When there is no demand for process heat, all the
steam passes through the turbine and the
condenser (m5=m6=0), and the cogeneration plant
operates as an ordinary steam power plant.
A cogeneration plant with

adjustable loads.
222
COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES 2017 5a
• The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants.
• A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle,
which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the combined cycle.
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping
a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than
either of the cycles executed individually.
• It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as
a steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–steam cycle.
• Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–
steam cycle economically very attractive.
• The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost
greatly. Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined cycles, and
many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being converted to
combined-cycle power plants.
• Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.
223
2017 5a
Combined gas–steam power plant.

224
Combined gas–steam power plant.

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Foundation of Energy

Slide courtesy of NASA

• The universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol·K

Slide courtesy of NASA

Image from Keta - Wikipedia

Energy exists in many forms, such as mechanical energy, heat, light,

Surroundings The system can exchange mass and energy

The boundary of the system

First Law of Thermodynamics → Conservation of Energy:

The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is always

The energy balance of a system –as a consequence of FLT- is a powerful tool to

We need to define the concept of internal energy of the system, Eint as an

How does the confined gas

What is the value of the internal How can we calculate the

dEint = Qin + Won

Internal Energy for an Ideal Gas.

What is the value of the internal Experiment: Free expansion.

If heat is added at constant volume, no work

Applying the First Law of Thermodynamics

From the Kinetic theory,

The work done on the gas in an

If 5 L of an ideal gas at a pressure of 2 atm is cooled

Conecting an initial state and a final state Isothermal

A system consisting of 0.32 mol of a monoatomic ideal gas

Adiabatic Processes. No heat flows into or out of the system

Adiabatic Processes. No heat flows into or out of the system

The equation of curve describing the adiabatic

At point D in the figure the pressure and

Processes that are

Changes are infinitesimally

• Irreversible processes cannot be undone by

Example: Balloons, Bed of Nails, Magdeburg hemispheres

The Magdeburg hemispheres are a pair of large copper hemispheres,

If we know Celsius and want Fahrenheit

• C is called the specific heat and depends on the

Note that by definition, the specific

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

 Thermal  Contact  Temperatur e 

• Everything that has a temperature

• Note: if we double the temperature, the

The second law of thermodynamics is a statement about

Heat can flow spontaneously from a hot object to a cold

It is easy to produce thermal energy using work, but how

We will discuss only engines that run in a repeating

A steam engine is one

The internal combustion engine is a type of heat engine

Why does a heat engine need a temperature difference?

The efficiency of the heat engine is the ratio of the work

Using conservation of energy to eliminate W, we find:

The Carnot engine was created to examine the efficiency of a

From this we see that 100% efficiency can be achieved

• A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical

• Spark Ignition (Carburetor Type) IC Engine: In

Cross Section of Diesel Engine

• Cylinder: The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting

• In four-stroke cycle engines there are four strokes completing two

• The pressure at the end of the compression stroke ranges from 30 to 45

• In this gasoline is mixed with air, broken up into a mist and

• 5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat