Topic: dog

The dog or domestic dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a

domesticated descendant of the wolf which is characterized by an upturning tail.
The dog is derived from an ancient, extinct wolf, and the modern wolf is the dog's
nearest living relative. The dog was the first species to be domesticated, by
hunter–gatherers over 15,000 years ago, before the development of agriculture.Due
to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of
domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that
would be inadequate for other canids. Over the millennia, dogs became uniquely
adapted to human behavior, and the human-canine bond has been a topic of frequent
study.The dog has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors,
sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Dog breeds vary widely in shape,
size, and color. They perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding,
pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship,
therapy, and aiding disabled people. This influence on human society has given them
the sobriquet of "man's best friend".

Taxonomy
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema
Naturae, the two-word naming of species (binomial nomenclature). Canis is the Latin
word meaning "dog", and under this genus, he listed the domestic dog, the wolf, and
the golden jackal. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris and, on the
next page, classified the grey wolf as Canis lupus. Linnaeus considered the dog to
be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail (cauda
recurvata), which is not found in any other canid.In 1999, a study of mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA) indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from the grey wolf,
with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog breeds having developed at a time when
human communities were more isolated from each other. In the third edition of
Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher
Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus its wild subspecies and proposed two
additional subspecies, which formed the domestic dog clade: familiaris, as named by
Linneaus in 1758 and, dingo named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included hallstromi
(the New Guinea singing dog) as another name (junior synonym) for the dingo.
Wozencraft referred to the mtDNA study as one of the guides informing his decision.
Mammalogists have noted the inclusion of familiaris and dingo together under the
"domestic dog" clade with some debating it.In 2019, a workshop hosted by the
IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and
the New Guinea singing dog to be feral Canis familiaris and therefore did not
assess them for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Evolution
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event occurred 65 million years ago and brought
an end to the dinosaurs and the appearance of the first carnivorans. The name
carnivoran is given to a member of the order Carnivora. Carnivorans possess a
common arrangement of teeth called carnassials, in which the first lower molar and
the last upper premolar possess blade-like enamel crowns that act similar to a pair
of shears for cutting meat. This dental arrangement has been modified by adaptation
over the past 60 million years for diets composed of meat, for crushing vegetation,
or for the loss of the carnassial function altogether as in seals, sea lions, and
walruses. Today, not all carnivorans are carnivores, such as the insect-eating
Aardwolf.The carnivoran ancestors of the dog-like caniforms and the cat-like
feliforms began their separate evolutionary paths just after the end of the
dinosaurs. The first members of the dog family Canidae appeared 40 million years
ago, of which only its subfamily the Caninae survives today in the form of the
wolf-like and fox-like canines. Within the Caninae, the first members of genus
Canis appeared six million years ago, the ancestors of modern domestic dogs,
wolves, coyotes, and golden jackals.

Domestication
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were
discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and
morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf. The dog was dated
to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three
having been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt
blocks. The dog had died of canine distemper. Earlier remains dating back to 30,000
years ago have been described as Paleolithic dogs but their status as dogs or
wolves remains debated because considerable morphological diversity existed among
wolves during the Late Pleistocene.This timing indicates that the dog was the first
species to be domesticated in the time of hunter–gatherers, which predates
agriculture. DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common
ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population which was distinct
from the modern wolf lineage. Most dogs form a sister group to the remains of a
Late Pleistocene wolf found in the Kessleroch cave near Thayngen in the canton of
Schaffhausen, Switzerland, which dates to 14,500 years ago. The most recent common
ancestor of both is estimated to be from 32,100 years ago. This indicates that an
extinct Late Pleistocene wolf may have been the ancestor of the dog, with the
modern wolf being the dog's nearest living relative.The dog is a classic example of
a domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway into domestication. The
questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated have taxed geneticists and
archaeologists for decades. Genetic studies suggest a domestication process
commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either
Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia. In 2021, a literature review of the
current evidence infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago
by ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and
westward across Eurasia.

Breeds
Dogs are the most variable mammal on earth with around 450 globally recognized dog
breeds. In the Victorian era, directed human selection developed the modern dog
breeds, which resulted in a vast range of phenotypes. Most breeds were derived from
small numbers of founders within the last 200 years, and since then dogs have
undergone rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern breeds due to
artificial selection imposed by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions vary
significantly between breeds, with dogs displaying more phenotypic diversity than
can be found within the entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct
traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype,
fur type and colour. Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, and
hunting, retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include
hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression, which demonstrates the functional
and behavioral diversity of dogs. As a result, today dogs are the most abundant
carnivore species and are dispersed around the world. The most striking example of
this dispersal is that of the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the
Victorian era.

Biology
Anatomy
Skeleton
All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical skeletal
structure with the exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is
significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types. The dog’s skeleton
is well adapted for running; the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for
powerful back muscles to connect to, the long ribs provide plenty of room for the
heart and lungs, and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton allowing great
flexibility.Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since
domestication has seen the dog’s skeleton greatly enhanced in size for larger types
as mastiffs and miniaturised for smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been
selectively utilised for some types where short legs are advantageous such as
dachshunds and corgis. Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but
some with naturally short tails have as few as three.The dog's skull has identical
components regardless of breed type, but there is significant divergence in terms
of skull shape between types. The three basic skull shapes are the elongated
dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or
mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified
by mastiff type skulls.

Senses
A dog's senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and sensitivity to
Earth's magnetic field. Another study has suggested that dogs can see Earth's
magnetic field.

Coat
The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being familiar with dogs
(as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard
hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an
occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.
Premature graying can occur in dogs from as early as one year of age; this is
associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise, and fear of
unfamiliar people or animals.

Tail
There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle,
curled, or corkscrew. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's
tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be crucial in getting along
with others. In some hunting dogs the tail is traditionally docked to avoid
injuries.

Health
Some breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as elbow and hip
dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees.
Two severe medical conditions significantly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting
unspayed females of all breeds and ages, and Gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat),
which affects larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute
conditions and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as
fleas, ticks, mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms, which is a
roundworm species that lives in the hearts of dogs.

Several human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including
chocolate solids, causing theobromine poisoning, onions and garlic, causing
thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning, grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts,
and xylitol. The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous to dogs. Signs of
ingestion can include copious vomiting (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea.
Some other symptoms are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or
death.Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans,
including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and
arthritis.

Lifespan
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most, the median
longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are
still alive) ranges from 10 to 13 years. The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs,
taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred
dogs when all breeds are averaged. For dogs in England, increased body weight has
been found to be negatively correlated with longevity (i.e., the heavier the dog,
the shorter its lifespan), and mixed-breed dogs live on average 1.2 years longer
than purebred dogs.

Reproduction
In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both
males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for
some large breeds, and is the time at which female dogs will have their first
estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during
which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will
become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to copulation. Because the ova
survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can
sire the same litter.Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after
ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus and after
seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable.Dogs bear their litters roughly
58 to 68 days after fertilization, with an average of 63 days, although the length
of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies.

Neutering
Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removing the male's
testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, to eliminate the ability to procreate
and reduce sex drive. Because of dogs' overpopulation in some countries, many
animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be
neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be
euthanized.According to the Humane Society of the United States, three to four
million dogs and cats are euthanized each year. Many more are confined to cages in
shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or
castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.Neutering reduces problems caused by
hypersexuality, especially in male dogs. Spayed female dogs are less likely to
develop cancers affecting the mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive
organs. However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female
dogs and prostate cancer in males and osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate
ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.

Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g.,
between half and full siblings). Inbreeding depression is considered to be due
mainly to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations. Outcrossing
between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the
beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.In a study of
seven dog breeds (the Bernese Mountain Dog, Basset Hound, Cairn Terrier, Brittany,
German Shepherd Dog, Leonberger, and West Highland White Terrier), it was found
that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival. Another analysis of data on
42,855 Dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter
size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating
inbreeding depression. In a study of Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before
reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed
by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in
inbreeding.

Behavior
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the
domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and external stimuli. As the
oldest domesticated species, dogs' minds inevitably have been shaped by millennia
of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs
have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans more than any
other species and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors. Behavioral
scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in
domestic dogs. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine
relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great apes, but rather
parallel to children's social-cognitive skills.Unlike other domestic species
selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their
behaviors. In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between
wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of
natural evolution and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog
domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis
pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response
(i.e., selection for tameness) and emotional processing. Dogs generally show
reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves. Some of these genes have been
associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both
the initial domestication and later in breed formation. Traits of high sociability
and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to Williams-
Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem-
solving ability.

Intelligence
Dog intelligence is the dog's ability to perceive information and retain it as
knowledge for applying to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can
learn by inference and have advanced memory skills. A study with Rico, a Border
Collie, showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the
names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items
immediately and four weeks after the initial exposure. A study of another Border
Collie, Chaser, documented his learning and memory capabilities. He had learned the
names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs can read and
react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing and human
voice commands.

One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are no more
exceptional than those of other animals, such as horses, chimpanzees, or cats. One
limited study of 18 household dogs found that they lacked spatial memory, and were
more focussed on the "what" of a task rather than the "where".Dogs demonstrate a
theory of mind by engaging in deception. An experimental study showed compelling
evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-
solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original
problem-solving abilities once they joined up with humans. Another study revealed
that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with
an unsolvable version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized
wolves do not.

Communication
Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages
from humans and translate the information that dogs are transmitting.: 
xii 
Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization,
body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication
(scents, pheromones, and taste). Humans communicate to dogs by using vocalization,
hand signals, and body posture.

Ecology
Population
The dog is probably the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human
environment.

In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million and 987
million. About 20% of dogs live as pets in developed countries. In the developing
world, dogs are more commonly feral or communally owned, with pet dogs uncommon.
Most of these dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by
humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by
strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%). Little is known about
these dogs, or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, strays, or are in
shelters because the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused
on pet dogs living in human homes.
Competitors and predators
Although dogs are the most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial carnivores,
feral and free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other large carnivores is
limited by their strong association with humans. For example, a review of the
studies in dogs' competitive effects on sympatric carnivores did not mention any
research on competition between dogs and wolves. Although wolves are known to kill
dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly
persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups.Wolves kill dogs
wherever they are found together. In some instances, wolves have displayed an
uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs to the
extent that they have to be beaten off or killed. Although the numbers of dogs
killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages
and farmyards to take dogs and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for
more liberal wolf hunting regulations.Coyotes and big cats have also been known to
attack dogs. In particular, leopards are known to have a preference for dogs and
have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter what their size. Siberian
tigers in the Amur river region have killed dogs in the middle of villages. This
indicates that the dogs were targeted. Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as
competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in
the same way. Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their range.

Diet
Dogs have been described as omnivores. Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural
societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes involved in starch digestion
that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet. Similar to
humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as
having a high starch diet. However, more like cats and less like other omnivores,
dogs can only produce bile acid with taurine and they cannot produce vitamin D,
which they obtain from animal flesh. Also, more like cats, dogs require arginine to
maintain its nitrogen balance. These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway
between carnivores and omnivores.

Range
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog is nearly universal among
human societies. Notable exceptions once included:

The Aboriginal Tasmanians, who were separated from Australia before the arrival of
dingos on that continent

The Andamanese peoples, who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the land
bridge to Myanmar

The Fuegians, who instead domesticated the Fuegian dog, a different canid species

Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs, or where
dogs died out after original settlement, notably the Mariana Islands, Palau and
most of the Caroline Islands with exceptions such as Fais Island and Nukuoro, the
Marshall Islands, the Gilbert Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Tonga, Marquesas,
Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa Iti in French Polynesia, Easter Island, the
Chatham Islands and Pitcairn Island (settled by the Bounty mutineers, who killed
off their dogs to escape discovery by passing ships).Dogs were introduced to
Antarctica as sled dogs, but were later outlawed by international agreement due to
the possible risk of spreading infections.

Roles with humans

Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf
ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with a complex body language. These
sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their
trainability, playfulness and ability to fit into human households and social
situations. These attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has
enabled them to become one of the most successful animals today.The dogs' value to
early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world
cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling
loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship and aiding
disabled individuals. This influence on human society has given them the nickname
"man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also
a source of meat.

Pets
It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the
developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon."The
most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs" and
the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history. Pet
dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased.
In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be
today(the expression "in the doghouse" - recorded since 1932 - to describe
exclusion from the group implies a distance between the doghouse and the home) and
were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking
companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's role, such as
the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.
People and their dogs have become increasingly integrated and implicated in each
other's lives to the point where pet dogs actively shape how a family and home are
experienced.There have been two significant trends occurring within the second half
of the 20th century in pet dogs' changing status. The first has been
"commodification", shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and
behavior. The second has been the broadening of the family's concept and the home
to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.A vast range of
commodity forms aims to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion. The list of
goods, services, and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture,
furniture and housing to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog
cafes, spas, parks and beaches and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries. Dog
training books, classes, and television programs proliferated as the process of
commodifying the pet dog continued.The majority of contemporary dog owners describe
their pet as part of the family, although some ambivalence about the relationship
is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog-human family as a pack.
Some dog trainers, such as on the television program Dog Whisperer, have promoted a
dominance model of dog-human relationships. However, it has been disputed that
"trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions. Pet dogs
play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog-
human families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the
dog, or talking through the dog; to mediate their interactions with each
other.Increasingly, human family-members engage in activities centered on the dog's
perceived needs and interests, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as
dog dancing and dog yoga.According to statistics published by the American Pet
Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010,
an estimated 77.5 million people in the United States have pet dogs. The same
source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which
67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not
seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal
an equal number of male and female pet dogs. Although several programs promote pet
adoption, less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from shelters.A study using
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to compare humans and dogs showed that dogs have
the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This
gives dogs the ability to recognize human emotional sounds, making them friendly
social pets to humans.

Workers
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in many roles. In addition to dogs' role as
companion animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock (collies, sheepdogs),
hunting (hounds, pointers) and rodent control (terriers). Other types of working
dogs include search and rescue dogs, detection dogs trained to detect illicit drugs
or chemical weapons; guard dogs; dogs who assist fishermen with the use of nets;
and dogs that pull loads. In 1957, the dog Laika became the first animal to be
launched into Earth orbit, aboard the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the
flight.Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs,
hearing dogs, mobility assistance dogs and psychiatric service dogs, assist
individuals with disabilities. Some dogs owned by people with epilepsy have been
shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure,
sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety,
medication, or medical care.

Athletes and models

People often enter their dogs in competitions, such as breed-conformation shows or
sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions. In conformation shows,
also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed
evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type
as described in the breed standard. As the breed standard only deals with the dog's
externally observable qualities (such as appearance, movement and temperament),
separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging
in conformation shows.

Food
Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China Vietnam
and the Philippines, which dates back to antiquity. Based on limited data, it is
estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year. In
China, debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat. Following the
Sui and Tang dynasties of the first millennium, however, people living on northern
China's plains began to eschew eating dogs, which is likely due to Buddhism and
Islam's spread, two religions that forbade the consumption of certain animals,
including the dog. As members of the upper classes shunned dog meat, it gradually
became a social taboo to eat it, even though the general population continued to
consume it for centuries afterward. Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of
Switzerland. Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also
consumed dog meat in their history. Dog fat is also reportedly believed to be
beneficial for the lungs in some parts of Poland and Central Asia. Proponents of
eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs
is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals'
meat.In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the Nureongi, differs from
those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes.The most popular
Korean dog dish is called bosintang, a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat
during the summer months. Followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good
health by balancing one's gi, or the body's vital energy. A 19th-century version of
bosintang explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and
chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the
dishes are still prevalent in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as
widely consumed as beef, pork and chicken.

Health risks
In 2018, the WHO reported that 59,000 people died globally from rabies, with 59.6%
in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most
important vector. Significant dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally
each year. Children in mid-to-late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by
dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the head and neck. They are more likely to
need medical treatment and have the highest death rate. Sharp claws with powerful
muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious
infections.In the U.S., cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each
year. It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K.
hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement
in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents
involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.Toxocara canis (dog
roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about
10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14%
of the U.S. population is infected. Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage
and decreased vision. Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous
larva migrans in humans.

Health benefits
Dogs suffer from the same common disorders as humans; these include cancer,
diabetes, heart disease and neurologic disorders. Their pathology is similar to
humans, as is their response to treatment and their outcomes. Researchers are
identifying the genes associated with dog diseases similar to human disorders, but
lack mouse models to find cures for both dogs and humans. The genes involved in
canine obsessive-compulsive disorders led to the detection of four genes in humans'
related pathways.The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's
companionship can enhance human physical health and psychological well-being.
Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological
well-being have been criticized for being poorly controlled. It found that "the
health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but
not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies
have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical
health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less
likely to be on medication than non-guardians.A 2005 paper states "recent research
has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a
reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner
services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community
dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less
absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets." In one
study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health
problems during the first month following pet acquisition. This effect was
sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study.People with pet dogs
took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without
pets. The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on
human health and behavior and that for guardians of dogs, these effects are
relatively long-term. Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased
coronary artery disease survival. Human guardians are significantly less likely to
die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own
dogs. The association between dog ownership and adult physical activity levels has
been reviewed by several authors.The health benefits of dogs can result from
contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example,
when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral
and psychological indicators of anxiety. Other health benefits are gained from
exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies
and autoimmune diseases according to the hygiene hypothesis. The benefits of
contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs cannot only provide
companionship and social support themselves but also act as facilitators of social
interactions between humans. One study indicated that wheelchair users experience
more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than
when they are not. In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more
likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.Using dogs
and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when
animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with
mental disorders. Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-
assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and
laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease. One study demonstrated that
children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program
with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and
skill objectives and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those
not in an animal-assisted program.

Cultural importance
Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity,
faithfulness, alertness, and love. In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian
period until the Neo-Babylonian, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of
healing and medicine, and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of
seated dogs to her. In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used
as emblems of magical protection. In China, Korea and Japan, dogs are viewed as
kind protectors.In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs. Stories of
dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European
mythologies and may originate from Proto-Indo-European religion. In Greek
mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog who guards the gates
of Hades. Dogs are also associated with the Greek goddess Hecate. In Norse
mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim. In Persian
mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge. In Welsh mythology, Annwn
is guarded by Cŵn Annwn. In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two
watchdogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka.In
Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness. Within the Roman Catholic denomination
specifically, the iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the hallow's
mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly after
that. As such, the Dominican Order (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis) means "dog
of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis). In
Christian folklore, a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard
Christian churches and their churchyards from sacrilege. Jewish law does not
prohibit keeping dogs and other pets. Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and
other animals that they own) before themselves and make arrangements for feeding
them before obtaining them. The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools
of thought viewing it as unclean, although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this
view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely
attributed to the Prophet." Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi jurists permit the
trade of and keeping of dogs as pets.

Terminology
Dog – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.

Bitch – any female member of the species (or subspecies).

Puppy or pup – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.

Sire – the male parent of a litter.

Dam – the female parent of a litter.

Litter – all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping.

Whelping – the act of a bitch giving birth.

Whelps – puppies still dependent upon their dam.

See also
References
Bibliography
Coppinger, Raymond; Schneider, Richard (1995). "Evolution of working dogs". In
Serpell, James (ed.). The domestic dog: its evolution, behaviour, and interactions
with people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42537-7.

HarperCollins (2021). "Collins Dictionary". HarperCollins Publishers L.L.C.

Cunliffe, Juliette (2004). The encyclopedia of dog breeds. Bath: Paragon Books.
ISBN 978-0-7525-8018-0.

Fogle, Bruce (2009). The encyclopedia of the dog. New York: DK Publishing. ISBN
978-0-7566-6004-8.

Jones, Arthur F.; Hamilton, Ferelith (1971). The world encyclopedia of dogs. New
York: Galahad Books. ISBN 978-0-88365-302-9.

Miklósi, Adám (2007). Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition. Oxford University
Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295852.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-929585-2.

Wang, Xiaoming; Tedford, Richard H. (2008). Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and
Evolutionary History. Columbia University Press, New York. pp. 1–232. ISBN 978-0-
231-13529-0. OCLC 502410693.

Smith, Bradley, ed. (2015). The Dingo Debate: Origins, Behaviour and Conservation.
CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Australia. ISBN 978-1-4863-0030-3.

Boitani, Luigi; Mech, L. David (2003). Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 482. ISBN 978-0-226-51696-7. OCLC
904338888.

External links
Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography for Canis lupus familiaris

Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) – World Canine Organisation

Dogs in the Ancient World, an article on the history of dogs

View the dog genome Archived 13 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine on Ensembl