Activity #12

Phylum Platyhelminthes: Flatworms

Objectives:

1. To discuss the life cycle of the flatworms in each class.

2. To compare and differentiate the classes of flatworms.

Materials:

Microscope pencil eraser activity sheet

Prepared slides:

Planaria

Taenia solium (Scolex) Fasciola hepatica

Taenia saginata (scolex) Schistosoma japonicum (cercaria)

Taenia solium (glottids) Schistosoma japonicum(redia)

Hymenolepis diminuta (glottid) Fasciola gigantica

Preserved Specimen:

Tapeworm

Procedure:

1. Observe the prepared slides under the microscope using the LPO objectives.

2. Classify the specimen according to its class.

3. Draw and label the parts.

4. Make a table to compare and differentiate the specimen,

Drawings

A. Planaria Class: Turbellaria

B. Taenia solium (scolex) Class: Cestoda

 C. Taenia saginata (scolex) Class: Cestoda

D. Taenia solium (glottids) Class: Cestoda

E. Hymenolepis diminuta (glottid) Class: Cestoda

F. Fasciola hepatica (adult) Class: Trematoda

 G. Fasciola gigantica (adult) Class: Trematoda

H. Schistosoma japonicum (cercaria) Class: Trematoda

 I. Schistosoma japonicum (redia) Class: Trematoda

J. Schistosoma japonicum (adult male & female) Class: Trematoda

A. Make a table to compare the Classes of Phylum Platyhelminthes.

 According to Harley and Miller (2007), there are four classes under Phylum
Platyhelminthes and these include class Turbellaria, Trematoda, Cestoda and Monogenea.
These classes consist of flatworms which have more than 34,000 animal species. In addition,
Nuepane (2021) defined the Phylum Platyhelminthes as a triploblastic organization, has
bilateral symmetry and acoelomate flatworms that has organ grade without anus, respiratory
system or skeletal system and circulatory system, but they possess excretory system and
mesenchyme that fills the space between their various organs of the body.

Class Turbellaria Trematoda Cestoda Monogenea

Mostly free living All are All parasitic with Mostly

but some are parasitic, either no digestive tract. ectoparasites on
Type
ectocommensal endoparasitic vertebrates,
and or usually on fishes,
endocommensal ectoparasitic. turtles, frogs,
or parasitic called copepods and
terrestrial marine. squid.

Body is Body is Body is divided They have a

unsegmented and unsegmented into many flattened body
Body
covered with and segmented and are
ciliated cellular dorsoventrally (proglottids) but dorsoventrally
or syncytial flattened leaf- rarely undivided, flattened. Their
epidermis which like. it is also morphological
contains mucus- elongated, flat, structure exhibits
secreting cells and ribbon-like. bilateral
and rod-shaped symmetry.
body

Most Both sexual They have a great They are

reproduction is and asexual reproductive monogenetic
Reproductive
sexual or asexual reproduction. potential flukes
cycle
 and by
regeneration.

Their life cycle is Has a Life cycle is Only one life

simple. complicated complicated as cycle form in one
Life cycle
life cycle and usually it involves host
development is 2 or more hosts.
direct in
ectoparasites
and indirect in
endoparasites
with alternation
of hosts.

Are mostly Mostly Has mature Are

hermaphroditic. hermaphrodites segments of hermaphroditic
Reproductive
(monoecious). proglottids and is
organ
monoecious with
male and female
organs.

Excretory Consists of a Consists of a Consists of

system protonephridial protonephridial protonephridia
Not Found
excretory system excretory with typical
and flame cells. system and terminal flame
flame cells.

Known More than 3,000 More than About 3,500 About 1,100
species species 10,000 species species species.

B. Life Cycle of Each class

Turbellaria Life Cycle

- Since they are hermaphrodites each animal possesses both male and female organs.
When turbellarians mate, they inseminate one another. Some turbellarian species lay
eggs that are encased in a round capsule. They are also known for their ability of
regeneration whenever they are cut into pieces, which is why some species reproduce
by splitting their body to make two clones.

Trematoda Life Cycle

- They are one of the species having the most complicated life cycles in the animal
kingdom since it is indirect or complex which means they need more than one host
species to complete the life cycle. All trematoda species sexually and asexually
reproduce and a minimum of two hosts; the first intermediate host and definitive host.
- The asexual reproduction occurs in the intermediate host and the sexual reproduction
resutls in egg production which occurs in the definitive host. In their life cycle, it
consists of three larva stages that involve trematode life cycles, these are the
miracidium, sporocyst and cercaria. Some taxa may also produce redia or encysted
metacercariae. All these life stages can be found in the intermediate host except for the
miracidium.

Sporocyst Redia Cercariae Metacercariae

1. Begins when 1. They have a 1. It is 1. It is an

the first rudimentary asexually encysted larval
intermediate digestive produced by stage which
host infects system which sporocyst or occurs in
 and the consist of rediae. many digenean
miracidium mouth, 2. They are life cycles.
enters the muscular free- 2. They infect the
host which pharynx and swimming, definitive host
then becomes short gut. sperm-like and its
the primary 2. This larval creatures that infection is
sporocyst. stage may be penetrate the always
2. The primary different next host. trophic.
sporocyst from the 3. The definitive
gives rice to sporocyst host then
a second based on the consumes the
generation by presence of metacercariae
asexual structures. in an infected
reproduction; 3. It can be intermediate
the second active, host.
generation aggressive 4. Metacercariae
may be and feeds on can develop in
daughter host tissue. both
sporocyst or 4. Not all invertebrates
rediae. trematodes or vertebrates.
3. Embryos possess a
within the redia stage,
daughter some only
sporocyst produce
may produce sporocyst.
another
generation of
sporocyst,
rediae or
cercariae.

Cestoda Life Cycle

 - Their life cycle consists of three stages; eggs, larvae and adults. The adults inhabit the
intestines of the definitive host and many adult tapeworms infect the humans.
- The eggs which are laid by the adult tapeworms are excreted with feces into the
environment and ingested by the intermediate host which usually is a different species.
These eggs will then hatch into a larva which will develop as it enters the circulation
and encyst in the musculature or other organs.
- When the intermediate host is eaten raw or uncooked, the parasite will be released from
the ingested cyst in the intestines and will develop into an adult tapeworm in the
definitive host which then again restart its life cycle.
- In some cestode species, the definitive host may also serve as an intermediate host if the
eggs rather than the tissue is ingested, the eggs will develop into larvae and will enter
the circulation and encyst in various tissues.

Monogenea Life Cycle

- Monogeneans are strictly host specific and only have a single life cycle, they also have
a direct life cycle which means that no intermediate host is required for the parasite to
reproduce. Since they are hermaphroditic it means that they have both female and male
reproductive systems. Also, self-fertilization is rare.
- As they lay their eggs into the water in which it is a free-swimming larva, it will hatch
and must infect a host to complete their life cycle.

REFERENCES

Canvas. (n.d). Lab 1 overview - part 1: Flatworms and the trematode life cycle.
https://canvas.uw.edu/courses/1398244/pages/lab-1-overview-part-1-flatworms-and-
the-trematode-life-cycle
Harley, J. P., & Miller, S. A. (2007). Zoology. McGraw-Hill publishing House.
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072988894/student_view0/

Microscope Master. (n.d). Class monogenea - an overview.

https://www.microscopemaster.com/class-monogenea.html#gallery[pagegallery]/0/

Missouri Department of Conservation. (n.d). Turbellarians (planarians; free-Living

flatworms). https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/turbellarians-planarians-
free-living-flatworms

Nuepane, L. (2021, July 8). Phylum platyhelminthes- characteristics, classification, examples.

Microbenotes. https://microbenotes.com/phylum-platyhelminthes-flatworms/

Pearson, R. D. (2020, March). Overview of tapeworm infections.

https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/cestodes-tapeworms/
overview-of-tapeworm-infections

Reed, P., Francis-Floyd, R., Klinger, R. E., & Petty, D. (2012, December 17). Monogenean
parasites of fish. The Fish Site. https://thefishsite.com/articles/monogenean-parasites-
of-fish

Activity: Phylum Rotifera

Objectives:

1. Identify the diagnostic character of a Rotiferan

2. Draw and label the parts of a Rotiferan from each class.

Procedure:

1. Search on the internet for a representative of Rotifers belonging from each class.

2. Draw and label the parts.

Drawings:

Seison Class: Seisonids

Rotaria Class: Bdelloidea

 Conochilus Class: Monogononta

Table. Make a table of comparison comparing the classes of Rotifers.

Classes of Seisonidea Bdelloidea Monogononta

Rotifers
 This class is The morphological Rotifer in this class
distinct in that the distinctions amongst comprises both free-
Characteristics
men and females the Bdelloidea are the swimming and
are the same size, only thing that sessile (no
which is unusual distinguishes them. movement) forms.
among Rotifers. The bdelloidea is This type has a
They have a long distinguished by its narrower corona and
body with a parthenogenetic usually only one
reduced corona reproduction and gonad, thus the term
and are considered capacity to live in monogononta. Males
to be near adverse environments are usually smaller
descendants of such as dry weather. than females, and
early Rotifer They can enter a state both produce
species. The of hibernation to periodically.
muscular complex protect themselves at Although rare, some
of Seisonidea is any stage in their females have the
identical to that of growth. Because of potential to
other Rotifers, and their unique asexual reproduce through
it consists of history, which parthenogenesis.
longitudinal extends back over 25
muscles and million years
striated rectus according to fossil
muscles. data, they are
sometimes referred to
as the Rotifers'
"ancient asexuals."
 Habitat Marine rotifers that Brackish and Freshwater and
live on the gills of even marine Coastal Marine
crustaceans — environments Ecosystems
Nebalia and some
isopods.

Reproductive Sexual Asexual Asexual (amictic)

Cycle Reproduction Reproduction and Sexual
(parthenogenesis) (mictic)
Reproduction

Body Large and Cylindrical body The body of

elongate body monogonont
with reduced rotifers typically
corona consists of three
main regions:
head, trunk and
foot. Although
these regions may
be marked or
subdivided by
transverse folds in
the body wall,
giving the
appearance of
joints, no true
segmentation is
present.
 Known Species Only 2 species About 590 species About 1,400
species

Example Specie Seison Adineta, Conochilus,

Philodina, Rotaria Collotheca,
Notommata

REFERENCES

Harley and Miller (2007). McGraw-Hill Publishing House. 2007. online website:
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072988894/student_view0/ Retrieved date
June 10, 2011

Mark Welch, D. B. (2020). Monogononta. AccessScience. Retireved from:

https://doi.org/10.1036/1097-8542.433100

Microscope Clarity (2021). Rotifers: Structure, Characteristics, and Classification. Retireved

from: https://microscopeclarity.com/rotifers/

Segers, Hendrik. (2004). Rotifera: Monogononta. Freshwater Invertebrates of the Malaysian

Region. 112-126. Retireved from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284097665_Rotifera_Monogononta

Visualizing Microbial Seascapes (n.d.). Bdelloidea Rotifer (Philodina). Retireved

from:https://sites.evergreen.edu/vms/bdelloidea-rotifer-philodina-jg/

Zoology Notes (2016). Phylum Rotifera: Features and Classification: Zooplanktons. Retireved
from: https://www.notesonzoology.com/phylum-rotifera/phylum-rotifera-features-
and-classification-zooplanktons/1742
 Activity #13

Phylum Mollusca

Objectives:

1. To classify specimen according to its class.

2. To compare and contrast the classes under phylum Mollusca.

3. To discuss the life cycle of each class.

Materials

Pencil eraser activity sheet

Preserved Specimen:

Sea slug Chiton cowrie pecten (scallop) squid

octopus

Procedure:

1. Classify the specimens according to class before drawing.

2. Draw and label the parts.

3. Make a table to differentiate and compare the classes of Phylum Mollusca.

Drawing:

A. sea slug Class: Gastropoda

B. Chiton Class: Polyplacophora

C. Cowrie Class: Gastropoda

D. Pecten (scallops) Class: Bivalvia

E. Squid Class: Cephalopoda

 F. Octopus Class: Cephalopoda

Answer to Question:

1. What are the advanced characteristics of Phylum Mollusca when compared to other phyla?
 The advanced characteristics of Phylum Mollusca when compared to other phyla are,
they have a head-foot that is a muscular structure usually used for locomotion and sensory
perception. The visceral mass that contains organs of digestion, circulation, reproduction, and
excretion. And the mantle is a sheet of tissue that enfolds the rest of the body and secretes the
shell. In addition, they have evolved an open circulatory system with a heart, a tubular
excretory system, and a respiratory system.

2. What are the similarities of Phylum Mollusca between the Phylum Annelida?

The Phylum Mollusca and Phylum Annelida share similarities, phylum mollusca
contains members that are lophotrochozoan that have evolutionary ties with phylum annelida.
Also, both phylum are coelomate animals meaning they possess a coelom which is a cavity that
separates the ectoderm from the endoderm. They both have a complete process of digestion and
contain a brain. In their gas exchange, it happens through their gills, and both phylums have
excretory systems. Both phylum possess sensory organs in order for them to detect light.

Table of Comparison. Make a table to compare the 8 classes of Mollusca.

 The phylum Mollusca has 8 classes namely the class Caudofoveata, Solenogastres,
Polyplacophora, Monoplacophora, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, Bivalvia and Scaphopoda. The
table below shows a comparison of the 8 classes.

Class of Shell Foot Body form Habitat Examples Species

Mollusca

Wormlike
molluscs
Members Bilaterally Deep-
with a
of this symmetrical water
Caudofoveata cylindrical, Chaetoderma Approximately
class lacks cylindrical
shell-less 150 species.
foot body
body and
scale-like,
calcareous
spicules

Lacks shell Lacks Bilaterally Marine Approximatel

but body is foot but symmetrical and y 250 species
Solenogastres Neomenia
covered has ventral body that surface
with (pedal) may be dwellers
calcareous groove for slender or on coral
spicules ciliary short and other
activity substrates

Shell Large foot Elongate, Marine, on Chiton About 600

consisting on the dorsoventral rocky Cryptochiton existing
Polyplacophora
of eight ventral ly flattened intertidal stelleri species
dorsal plates side substrates
Monoplacophora Mollusc Foot broad Bilaterally Marine Neopilina Approximately
having a and flat symmetrical 25 species
single
arched shell

Snails

Shell is Has a Slugs More than

usually torsion 35,000 species.
Asymmetric Marine, Conchs
coiled when perpendicu
al body plan freshwater,
Gastropoda present; its lar on the Sea hares
terrestrial
shell may be center of
planospiral the foot Sea butterflies

or which is
Nerita,
conispiral. modified
OrthaliculuHeli
for
x
crawling

Foot May be Octopus

modified elongated
Cephalopoda Shell is Squid Approximately
into a and has an
reduced or 550 species
circle of indicative Marine
absent
tentacles body plan
and a Loligo Sepia

siphon Nautilus
 clams mussels
scallops
Body is
compressed Other families
Body Marine
and of shells
enclosed in and
Bivalvia wedge- enclosed by Approximately
a shell freshwater Anodonta,
shaped a shell in 30,000 species
consisting Mytilus, Venus
foot two hinged
of two
parts
valves

Body Foot is Bilaterally More than

enclosed in modified symmetrical
Marine “Boat feet” 300 species.
a tubular into having an

Scaphopoda shell that is tentacles elongated Dentalium

open at both called shell
ends captaculae Antalis vulgaris

that are
used to
catch their
prey.

Common Cycle of Phylum Mollusca:

Like many invertebrates, the mollusk life cycle includes one or more juvenile or larval
stages that are very different from the adult form of the animal. Both mollusks and annelids
develop through a larval stage called a trochophore larva. Some mollusks, particularly
gastropods, also have a second larval stage that is not present in any other phylum, called
veliger. Mollusks reproduce sexually, and most species have separate sexes. Sexual
reproduction is achieved by the formation and fusion of gametes: sperm and eggs. Some
species are hermaphrodites meaning that individuals are capable of forming both sperm and
eggs. Fertilization can be either internal or external depending on the class and species. Internal
fertilization takes place when the male transfers sperm into the body of the female through
mating. During external fertilization, the female lays eggs, and they are fertilized by the male
sperm outside of the female’s body.

REFERENCES

Biology LibreTexts (2021). Phylum Mollusca. Retrieved from:

https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/13721

Campbell, A. & Fautin, D. G. (2001). Polyplacophora. Animal Diversity Web.

https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Polyplacophora/#:~:text=Polyplacophorans
%20include%20about%20600%20extant%20species.

CK (n.d.). 15.21 Mollusk Nervous System and Reproduction - Advanced. Retrieved from:
https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-advanced-concepts/section/15.21/

CK-12. (2016). 18.2 Mollusks and annelids. Retrieved from: https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-

12-biology/section/18.2/

De Kluijver, M. J., Ingalsuo, S.S., & De Bruyne, R.H. Mollusca of the northsea. Marine
Species. http://speciesidentification.org/species.php?
species_group=mollusca&menuentry=inleiding&id=4&tab=foto

Encyclopedia. (n.d). Scaphopoda. Retrieved from:

https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/s/scaphopoda.html

LibreTexts. (2021, March 06). Classification of phylum Mollusca.

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/28%3A_Invertebrates/
28.3%3A_Superphylum_Lophotrochozoa/28.3F
%3A_Classification_of_Phylum_Mollusca#:~:text=Members%20of%20class
%20Polyplacophora%20are,plates%20on%20the%20dorsal%20side.&text=Their
%20key%20characteristic%20is%20the,that%20is%20modified%20for
%20crawling.
 Salvini-Plawen, L. (2021, March 16). Mollusk. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/animal/mollusk

Sao Mai, D. (2014). SHELLFISH (MOLLUSCS AND CRUSTACEA) | Characteristics of the

Groups. Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/
monoplacophora

Voss, G. L., & Roper, C. F. E. (2020, February 13). Cephalopod. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/animal/cephalopod

Activity #14

Phylum Annelida

Objectives:

1. To group and classify the specimen according to its class.

2. To determine the advance characteristics of Phylum Annelida.

3. To compare and differentiate the classes under Phylum Annelida.

4. To discuss the life cycle of respective class of Phylum Annelida.

Materials

pencil activity sheet eraser

Prepared Specimen:

leech Earthworm peanut worm

Procedure:

1. Identify the class of each preserved specimen.

2. Draw and label the parts.

3. Compare and contrast the two specimens.

Drawing

A. leech Class: Sedentaria (Hirudinea)

\
B. Earthworm Class: Sedentaria (Clitellata)

C. Peanutworm Class: Sipunculas

Answer to Question:

1. Discuss the life cycle of earthworms and leeches.

Life Cycle of Earthworm

The life cycle of an earthworm occurs with the formation of two earthworms. They are
hermaphrodites, indicating they both have male and female sexual organs. When two sexually
mature earthworms engage, they mate by approaching each other and transmitting sperm
through their clitellum (which is the whitish part of the earthworm). The sperm is stored in
sacs, and earthworms concentrate on building cocoons that will enclose fertilized eggs.

They will ultimately transfer their eggs into cocoons and fertilize the eggs with sperm
obtained from the other earthworm. They will continue to produce cocoons and eggs until they
run out of sperm. They will then release the cocoons in the land. The cocoons will emerge in
two to three weeks, releasing one to five baby earthworms. These cocoons can remain inactive
for lengthy periods of time until the circumstances are ideal. When these worms are young,
they are approximately an inch to a half-inch long, white, and translucent.

Life Cycle of Leeches

All leeches are sexually prolific and monoecious. None of them can reproduce or
regenerate asexually. They have a single pair of ovaries and a variety of testes ranging from
four to numerous. Leeches have three body segments in their clitellum. The clitellum is only
present in the spring, when most leeches reproduce. Sperm transmission and egg deposition are
often carried out in the same manner as stated for earthworms. A penis aids in the transmission
of sperm between individuals. A few leeches transmit sperm by injecting a spermatophore from
one leech into the integument of another, a process known as hypodermic impregnation. Short
ducts link special tissues within the integument to the ovaries. Cocoons are deposited in the soil
or are attached to underwater objects. There are no larval stages, and the offspring are mature
by the following spring

2. What are the advanced characters of Phylum Annelida which could not be found in other
phyla?

The most distinctive feature of many annelids is the presence of lateral extensions
called parapodia (Gr. para, beside + podion, little foot). They have a centralized and developed
circulatory and nervous system, and they have tiny hairs called setae, and a well-developed
coelom.

Characteristics of the phylum Annelida:

1. Body metameric, bilaterally symmetrical, and worm-like

2. Spiral cleavage, trochophore larvae (when larvae are present), and

schizocoelous coelom formation

3. Paired, epidermal setae (chaetae)

4. Closed circulatory system

5. Dorsal suprapharyngeal ganglia and ventral nerve cord(s) with ganglia

6. Metanephridia (usually) or protonephridia

REFERENCES

BrightHub Education (2011). The Life Cycle of an Earthworm: Reproduction & Importance.
Retrieved from:
https://www.brighthubeducation.com/science-homework-help/116047-the-life-cycle-
of-an-earthworm/

Harley and Miller (2007). McGraw-Hill Publishing House. 2007. online website:
 http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072988894/student_view0/ Retrieved date
June 10, 2011

Activity #15

Phylum Nematoda

Objectives:

1. To compare and contrast the classes under phylum Nematoda.

 2. To discuss the life cycle of each class and the advancement of Phylum Nematoda.

Materials:

Microscope pencil activity sheet eraser

Prepared Slides:

Ascaris lumbricoides (ova and adult)

Acanthocephala (adult)

Procedure:

1. View the prepared slides under the microscope using the LPO adult and HPO for ova stage.

2. Draw and label the parts.

3. Discuss the advancement of Phylum Nematoda when compared to other phyla.

Drawing:

A. Ascaris lumbricoides (ova) Class: Chromarodea

LPO HPO
 B. Ascaris lumbricoides Stage :Second Stage Larvae

LPO HPO

Discussion:

Roundworms are members of the phylum Nematoda (from the Greek root word nema
meaning thread). Scientists have identified over 25,000 nematode species. It is widespread in
practically every habitat. Nematodes are prevalent in marine and freshwater sediments, where
they prey on crabs and snails. Like flatworms, roundworms can be free-living or parasitic.
Heartworms afflict canines, and hookworms and pinworms infect children. Many plant-
parasitic nematodes can destroy crops.

Some nematodes are cryptobiotic, able to hibernate for decades until environmental
conditions are appropriate. Nematodes, like flatworms, have bilateral symmetry. Their name
comes from their spherical body cross-section. Unlike flatworms, nematodes have a complete
digestive system. A full digestive system has a mouth, a lengthy tube with specific sections,
and an anus. More complicated species have complete digestive systems, which have numerous
advantages to flatworm digestion. An animal's digestive system is complete when it can
consume while digesting. The digestive system can specialize to digest food in stages. The
meal is broken down into molecules and absorbed by the tube's cells. Peristalsis occurs when
the muscles around the tube contract, squeezing and pushing the food. Indigestible wastes exit
the anus.

Nematodes, unlike flatworms, are slimy and protected by a cuticle. The epidermis, or
outermost cellular tissue, secretes a waxy cuticle. This coating prevents gas exchange across
the skin as in flatworms. In nematodes, gas exchange and waste excretion occur by diffusion
across the gut wall. The coelom is a gap between the digestive tract and the body wall of
worms. Pseudocoelomates are nematodes. They have longitudinal muscles that run the length
of their bodies and circular muscles that form a circle around their bodies. Nematodes do not
have two bands of muscles like other worms. They can only move by contracting the lengthy
muscles on either side of their bodies and wiggling forward. The nervous system of worms
comprises of nerves that link to anterior ganglia. Free-living nematodes can sense light through
ocelli, and most have sophisticated chemosensory abilities. Most nematodes are dioecious,
meaning they have individuals of both sexes. Their chemosensory skills come in handy when
they use pheromones to find mates.

Characteristics of the phylum Nematoda include:

1. They are free-living organisms.

 2. They reproduce sexually. They produce amoeboid sperm cells.
3. They have a nervous system.
4. They are parasites of both plants and animals.
5. They have cuticles that moult periodically.
6. Triploblastic, bilateral, vermiform (resembling a worm in shape; long and slender),
unsegmented, pseudocoelomate
7. Body round in cross-section and covered by a layered collagenous cuticle; molting
usually accompanies growth in juveniles
8. Complete digestive tract; mouth usually surrounded by lips bearing sense organs
9. Most with a unique excretory system composed of one or two renette cells or a set of
collecting tubules
10. The body wall has only longitudinal muscles

Life Cycle:

The life cycle of a nematode is divided into three stages: eggs, larvae, and adults. Adult
worms infect definitive hosts (animals in which the worm develops sexually), whereas larval
stages might be free-living or parasitize intermediate hosts or invertebrate vectors.

Adult female nematodes lay eggs in their feces, which are then transmitted onto the
pasture. The eggs hatch, resulting in the first larval stage (L1), which subsequently goes
through many (typically four) metamorphoses (moults) to become L2, L3, and L4 (immature
adults). The immature adult is released during the final moult and grows into an adult worm.
Adults, either male or female, mate, and the female lays eggs, completing the cycle. L1 and L2
are typically found in the feces, feasting on bacteria. L3 does not feed and rely on its energy
stores to survive. They move across the meadow in water films. The L3 is the infective stage
that the host animal must swallow in order for the life cycle to continue. Later moults take
place within the host.

Some nematode species that infect horses, ruminants, and alpacas, most notably small
strongyles (horses), Ostertagia spp. (cattle), Haemonchus contortus (sheep, goats, alpacas), and
Trichostrongylus axei (sheep, goats, alpacas) (and there have also been reports for Teladorsagia
circumcincta ( The causes causing this are unknown, however, hypobiosis is thought to be a
survival mechanism in which egg-laying is postponed until after winter, avoiding unfavorable
weather conditions for the eggs and early-stage larvae on the pasture. This can cause a high
number of larvae to emerge from the hypobiotic condition at once. This is evident in Type II
ostertagiosis, which primarily affects beef cattle under the age of two. Type II ostertagiosis
differs from Type I ostertagiosis, which is caused by recent infection with no delay in growth to
the adult stage and is most commonly found in dairy calves during their first grazing season.

Males are smaller than females in most nematodes. The long, coiled gonads are free in
the pseudocoelom. The female reproductive system has two ovaries. Each ovary has an oviduct
with a seminal receptacle at the proximal end. The oviducts mature into tubular uteri, and the
two uteri combine to form a vagina with a genital pore. A single testis connects to a vas
deferens, which develops into a seminal vesicle. Cloaca and seminal vesicle. Males frequently
have a bursa, a posterior flap of tissue. The bursa helps the male transmit sperm to the female
vaginal pore. After fertilization, the pseudocoelom transports each fertilized egg to the
gonopore (genital pore). Depending on the species, some nematodes produce only a few
hundred eggs per day, while others produce hundreds of thousands. Some nematodes lay eggs
(ovoviviparity). Temperature and humidity affect egg development and hatching. When a
parasite hatches, it produces a larva (also called a juvenile by certain parasitologists). The larva
(juvenile) molts four times, but in some species, the first molt occurs before the eggs hatch.

REFERENCES

Harley and Miller (2007). McGraw-Hill Publishing House. 2007. online website:
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072988894/student_view0/ Retrieved date
June 10, 2011

Carolina (n,d) Ascaris lumbricoides Eggs, w.m. Microscope Slide. Retrieved from:
https://www.carolina.com/animal-microscope-slides/ascaris-lumbricoides-eggs-
wm-microscope-slide/306948.pr

Alamy (n,d) Toxocara canis second-stage larvae hatch from eggs in the microscope. Retrieved
from:https://www.alamy.com/toxocara-canis-second-stage-larvae-hatch-from-eggs-
in-microscope-toxocariasis-also-known-as-roundworm-infection-causes-disease-in-
humans-image178534529.html

Exploring our fluid earth (n,d) Worms: Phyla Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, and Annelid.
Retrieved from: https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/
 Activity #16

Phylum Arthropoda I: Subphylum Chelicerata

Objectives:

1. To identify and differentiate the classes under Subphylum Chelicerata.

2. To discuss the relationship of classes in Subphylum Chelicerata.

Materials:

Dissecting or Compound microscope Pencil eraser activity sheet

Preserved specimens:

Mites Ticks Lice Spiders

Procedure:

1. Identify the classes of each specimen in subphylum Chelicerata. Draw and label the parts.

2. Construct a table to compare and construct the classes subphylum Chelicerata

Drawing:

A. Mites Class: Arachnida

B. Ticks Class: Arachnida

C. Lice Class: Arachnida

D. Spiders Class: Arachnida

Table of Comparison: Make a table to compare the classes under Subphylum Chelicerata.

Classes of Merostomata Arachnida Pycnogonida

Subphylum
Chelicerata

● Scavengers/ ● Arachnids are Pycnogonids are

predators (on sand- dioecious. almost exclusively
Characteristics
dwelling creatures) ● Most arachnids are free-living, errant
● Aquatic chelicerates carnivores marine invertebrates,
with five or six pairs ● The circulatory found from the poles
of abdominal system of arachnids, to the tropics and
appendages like that of most from the littoral zone
modified as gills. arthropods, is an to the deepest sea.
● Twelve segmented open system in They range in size
abdomen is which a dorsal from littoral and
subdivided into a contractile vessel interstitial species
seven segmented (usually called the with leg spans of a
meso- soma and a dorsal aorta or few mm up to the
five “heart”) pumps large, deep-sea
● segmented blood into tissue colossendeids, with
metasoma. spaces of the leg spans up to 750
● A prominent spike hemocoel. mm. Some species
like caudal spine or ● Predator arachnids are parasitic
telson is present at use poison or silk in
● Pycnogonids are
the end of the body. prey capture.
dioecious.
● Compound eyes ● Respiratory organs
● Opisthosoma is
fairly developed. are either book
much reduced.
lungs or trachea.
● No special organs
● The epicuticle is
for gas exchange
waterproof due to an
and excretion are
external wax layer.
present.
● Excretion by
 malpighian tubules,
coxal glands and
nephrocytes.
● Eyes are usually
simple. Compound
eyes when present
are degenerated.

Habitat Live in shallow Aquatic and Terrestrial Ocean floor

marine waters along Environments
the Atlantic coast of
North America.

Food Nutrition Merostomatans feed Feed on insects and Frequently feed

on worms, molluscs, other small on cnidarian
and other small invertebrates. polyps and
invertebrates in ectoprocts / Feed
shallow ocean on nutrients of
sediments. / Feed on other soft-bodied
clams, tiny plantlike marine
organisms, scrape invertebrates.
algae, and marine
worms.

Type Marine Animals Marine Animals Marine Animals

Fertilization External Fertilization Internal Fertilization External
Fertilization

Body Their body form has The body of an They have

remained virtually arachnid has a variety extremely reduced
unchanged for more of sensory structures. bodies in which the
than 200 million abdomen has
Prosoma consists of a
years. Body is almost disappeared,
pair of chelicerae, a
divisible into while the legs are
pair of pedipalps and
prosoma, mesosoma long and clawed.
four pairs of legs.
and metasoma. The head has a long
proboscis with a
terminal mouth and
a single four-part
eye on a central
stalked tubercle.
The body is
contained in and
supported by a non-
calcareous
exoskeleton.

A pair of palps, a
pair of ovigerous
legs and usually
four pairs of
walking legs are
present.
Subclasses/Order Xiphosura are the Araneae, Scorpionida, None
horseshoe crabs, and Opiliones, Acarina,
the Eurypterida are Amblypygi (whip-
the giant water spiders), the Shizomida
scorpions (schizomids), the
Palpigradi
(palpigrades),
Pseudoscorpiones

Known Species Four or Five species More than 80,000 About 1300
of horseshoe crabs species species

Example Specie Horseshoe Spiders, scorpions, Sea Spiders

crabs/Limulus whip scorpions, ticks,
polyphemus mites,
pseudoscorpions, and
harvestme

Answer to Question:
1. What are the common characteristics of Subphylum Chelicerata?

They have a segmented body, segmented limbs, and an exoskeleton, which is a thick
chitinous cuticle. A cephalothorax and an abdomen are the two body parts of chelicerates. They
have six pairs of appendages but no antennae. The chelicerae are the most anterior appendages,
which are usually transformed into pincers or fangs. The pedipalps, the next pair, are also
frequently altered. Walking is typically done using the back four pairs of appendages.
Chelicerata are typically found in terrestrial habitats all over the world.

Summary of the Major Characteristics of Subphylum Chelicerata:

● Two main body segments

● Have four pairs of legs
● Have pedipalps, but lack antennae
● Have Chelicerae that are used to hold food
● With an exception of a few, a majority of organisms in this subphylum are terrestrial

2. Explain why excretory and respiratory systems of ancestral arachnids probably preadapted
these organisms for terrestrial habitats?

Arachnids’ exoskeleton is somewhat preadapted for terrestrial environments. These

adaptations included the formation of efficient excretory structures, internal surfaces for gas
exchange, appendages, and increased wax deposition in the cuticle to improve the chances of
survival in their environment. Blind-ending diverticula of the digestive tract form at the
confluence of the midgut and hindgut in arachnids evolved to arid conditions. These tubules,
known as Malpighian tubules, collect waste from the blood and discharge them into the
digestive tract. Excretory wastes are then eliminated in conjunction with digesting wastes.
Moreover, uric acid is arachnids' main excretory product, which is beneficial to terrestrial
animals since it is produced as a semisolid with negligible water loss. Because arachnids have
limited exposed respiratory surfaces, gas exchange occurs with little water loss.
1. Define the following terms:

a. Metamerism - Metamerism is also known as segmentation which refers to permitting the

specialization of regions of the body for specific functions.

b. Tagmatization - It refers to a specialized portion that is responsible for eating, sensory

perception, movement, and visceral processes.

c. Metamorphosis - A profound variation structure and physiology occurs when an immature

stage, typically referred to as a larva, matures into an adult.

d. Chelicerae - It is frequently pincerlike or chelate, and is most commonly employed in

feeding. They can also be used as hollow fangs or for a variety of other applications.

e. Book gills - The remaining five pairs of appendages are book gills. The name is derived from
the resemblance of these platelike gills to the pages of a closed book. Gases are exchanged
between the blood and water as blood circulates through the book gills.

f. Opisthosoma - A structure that contains digestive, reproductive, excretory, and respiratory

organs.
REFERENCES

Bamber, R.N.; El Nagar, A.; Arango, C.P. (Eds) (2021). Pycnobase: World Pycnogonida
Database. Accessed at http://www.marinespecies.org/pycnobase on 2021-10-19.
doi:10.14284/360

Encyclopedia.com (2021). Pycnogonida (Sea Spiders). Retrieved from:

https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/pycnogonida-sea-spiders

Harley and Miller (2007). McGraw-Hill Publishing House. 2007. online website:
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072988894/student_view0/ Retrieved date
June 10, 2011

Langevin, R. (n.d.). Class Merostomata (horseshoe crabs). Retrieved from:

http://jupiter.plymouth.edu/~lts/invertebrates/Primer/text/meristomata.html

Lumen (n.d.). Subphylums of Arthropoda. Biology for Majors II. Retrieved from:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/subphylums-of-arthropoda/

Klappenbach, L (2019). Chelicerates Group: Key Characteristics, Species, and Classifications.

Retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/chelicerates-arthropods-129497

MicroscopeMaster (n.d.). Arthropods - Phylum Arthropoda - Examples,

Characteristics/Class. Retrieved from:
https://www.microscopemaster.com/arthropods.html
Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Chelicerata (n.d.). Key to Australian Freshwater and
Terrestrial Invertebrates. Retrieved from:
https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/TFI/start%20key/key/Starting%20key/
Media/HTML/Arthropoda%20Chelicerata.html
Surendranath College (n.d.). Phylum Arthropoda: Features and Classification. Retrieved from:
http://www.surendranathcollege.org/new/upload/MANISH_KANTI_BISWASGene
ral%20characteristics%20and%20Classification%20of%20Arthropoda2020-03-
27classification%20Arthropods.pdf