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INCLUDES: THE STANDARD

FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT
ANSI/PMI 99-001-2017
A Guide to the
or
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
(PMBOK ® GUIDE )
Sixth Edition
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Project Management Institute, publisher.
Title: A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide) / Project Management Institute.
Other titles: PMBOK guide
Description: Sixth edition. | Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 2017. | Series: PMBOK guide | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017032505 (print) | LCCN 2017035597 (ebook) | ISBN 9781628253900 (ePUP) |
ISBN 9781628253917 (kindle) | ISBN 9781628253924 ( Web PDF) | ISBN 9781628251845 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Project management. | BISAC: BUSINESS & ECONOMICS / Project Management.
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�
�
TABLE O F CONTENTS
PART 1.
A GUIDE TO THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE (PMBOK® Guide)
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Overview and Purpose of this Guide ................................................................................ 1
1.1.1 The Standard for Project Management ............................................................... 2
1.1.2 Common Vocabulary ............................................................................................ 3
1.1.3 Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct ........................................................... 3
1.2 Foundational Elements ..................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Projects ................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.2 The Importance of Project Management ........................................................... 10
1.2.3 Relationship of Project, Program, Portfolio,
and Operations Management............................................................................. 11
1.2.4 Components of the Guide................................................................................... 17
1.2.5 Tailoring .............................................................................................................. 28
1.2.6 Project Management Business Documents ...................................................... 29
2. THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH PROJECTS OPERATE................................................................ 37
2.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 37
�
2.2 Enterprise Environmental Factors.................................................................................. 38

�
2.2.1 EEFs Internal to the Organization ...................................................................... 38

2.2.2 EEFs External to the Organization ..................................................................... 39
I
2.3 Organizational Process Assets ...................................................................................... 39
2.3.1 Processes, Policies, and Procedures ................................................................. 40
2.3.2 Organizational Knowledge Repositories ........................................................... 41
2.4 Organizational Systems ................................................................................................. 42
2.4.1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 42
2.4.2 Organizational Governance Frameworks .......................................................... 43
2.4.3 Management Elements ...................................................................................... 44
2.4.4 Organizational Structure Types ......................................................................... 45
3. THE ROLE OF THE PROJECT MANAGER.................................................................................... 51
3.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 51
3.2 Definition of a Project Manager ..................................................................................... 52
3.3 The Project Manager’s Sphere of Influence .................................................................. 52
3.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 52
3.3.2 The Project.......................................................................................................... 53
3.3.3 The Organization ................................................................................................ 54
3.3.4 The Industry ....................................................................................................... 55
3.3.5 Professional Discipline ...................................................................................... 56
3.3.6 Across Disciplines .............................................................................................. 56
3.4 Project Manager Competences ...................................................................................... 56
3.4.1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 56
3.4.2 Technical Project Management Skills ............................................................... 58
3.4.3 Strategic and Business Management Skills ..................................................... 58
3.4.4 Leadership Skills ................................................................................................ 60
3.4.5 Comparison of Leadership and Management ................................................... 64
3.5 Performing Integration ................................................................................................... 66
3.5.1 Performing Integration at the Process Level..................................................... 67
3.5.2 Integration at the Cognitive Level...................................................................... 67
3.5.3 Integration at the Context Level ........................................................................ 67
3.5.4 Integration and Complexity................................................................................ 68
Table of Contents
II
4. PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT ................................................................................... 69
4.1 Develop Project Charter ................................................................................................. 75
4.1.1 Develop Project Charter: Inputs ......................................................................... 77
4.1.2 Develop Project Charter: Tools and Techniques ................................................ 79
4.1.3 Develop Project Charter: Outputs ...................................................................... 81
4.2 Develop Project Management Plan ................................................................................ 82
4.2.1 Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs ....................................................... 83
4.2.2 Develop Project Management Plan: Tools and Techniques .............................. 85
4.2.3 Develop Project Management Plan: Outputs..................................................... 86
4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work ................................................................................... 90
4.3.1 Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs .......................................................... 92
4.3.2 Direct and Manage Project Work: Tools and Techniques ................................. 94
4.3.3 Direct and Manage Project Work: Outputs ........................................................ 95
4.4 Manage Project Knowledge ........................................................................................... 98
4.4.1 Manage Project Knowledge: Inputs ................................................................. 100
4.4.2 Manage Project Knowledge: Tools and Techniques ........................................ 102
4.4.3 Manage Project Knowledge: Outputs .............................................................. 104
4.5 Monitor and Control Project Work ............................................................................... 105
4.5.1 Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs ....................................................... 107
4.5.2 Monitor and Control Project Work: Tools and Techniques .............................. 110
4.5.3 Monitor and Control Project Work: Outputs .................................................... 112
4.6 Perform Integrated Change Control ............................................................................. 113
4.6.1 Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs .................................................... 116
4.6.2 Perform Integrated Change Control: Tools and Techniques ........................... 118
4.6.3 Perform Integrated Change Control: Outputs .................................................. 120
4.7 Close Project or Phase ................................................................................................. 121
4.7.1 Close Project or Phase: Inputs ......................................................................... 124
4.7.2 Close Project or Phase: Tools and Techniques ................................................ 126
4.7.3 Close Project or Phase: Outputs ...................................................................... 127
III
5. PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................ 129
5.1 Plan Scope Management.............................................................................................. 134
5.1.1 Plan Scope Management: Inputs ..................................................................... 135
5.1.2 Plan Scope Management: Tools and Techniques ............................................ 136
5.1.3 Plan Scope Management: Outputs .................................................................. 137
5.2 Collect Requirements ................................................................................................... 138
5.2.1 Collect Requirements: Inputs .......................................................................... 140
5.2.2 Collect Requirements: Tools and Techniques ................................................. 142
5.2.3 Collect Requirements: Outputs ........................................................................ 147
5.3 Define Scope ................................................................................................................. 150
5.3.1 Define Scope: Inputs ........................................................................................ 152
5.3.2 Define Scope: Tools and Techniques ............................................................... 153
5.3.3 Define Scope: Outputs...................................................................................... 154
5.4 Create WBS ................................................................................................................... 156
5.4.1 Create WBS: Inputs .......................................................................................... 157
5.4.2 Create WBS: Tools and Techniques ................................................................. 158
5.4.3 Create WBS: Outputs ........................................................................................ 161
5.5 Validate Scope .............................................................................................................. 163
5.5.1 Validate Scope: Inputs ..................................................................................... 165
5.5.2 Validate Scope: Tools and Techniques ............................................................ 166
5.5.3 Validate Scope: Outputs ................................................................................... 166
5.6 Control Scope ............................................................................................................... 167
5.6.1 Control Scope: Inputs ....................................................................................... 169
5.6.2 Control Scope: Tools and Techniques .............................................................. 170
5.6.3 Control Scope: Outputs .................................................................................... 170
6. PROJECT SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT...................................................................................... 173
6.1 Plan Schedule Management ........................................................................................ 179
6.1.1 Plan Schedule Management: Inputs ................................................................ 180
6.1.2 Plan Schedule Management: Tools and Techniques ....................................... 181
6.1.3 Plan Schedule Management: Outputs ............................................................. 181
6.2 Define Activities............................................................................................................ 183
6.2.1 Define Activities: Inputs ................................................................................... 184
Table of Contents
IV
6.2.2 Define Activities: Tools and Techniques .......................................................... 184
6.2.3 Define Activities: Outputs ................................................................................ 185
6.3 Sequence Activities ...................................................................................................... 187
6.3.1 Sequence Activities: Inputs ............................................................................. 188
6.3.2 Sequence Activities: Tools and Techniques .................................................... 189
6.3.3 Sequence Activities: Outputs ........................................................................... 194
6.4 Estimate Activity Durations.......................................................................................... 195
6.4.1 Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs ................................................................. 198
6.4.2 Estimate Activity Durations: Tools and Techniques ........................................ 200
6.4.3 Estimate Activity Durations: Outputs .............................................................. 203
6.5 Develop Schedule ......................................................................................................... 205
6.5.1 Develop Schedule: Inputs ................................................................................ 207
6.5.2 Develop Schedule: Tools and Techniques ....................................................... 209
6.5.3 Develop Schedule: Outputs .............................................................................. 217
6.6 Control Schedule .......................................................................................................... 222
6.6.1 Control Schedule: Inputs.................................................................................. 224
6.6.2 Control Schedule: Tools and Techniques ......................................................... 226
6.6.3 Control Schedule: Outputs ............................................................................... 228
7. PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................. 231
7.1 Plan Cost Management ................................................................................................ 235
7.1.1 Plan Cost Management: Inputs........................................................................ 236
7.1.2 Plan Cost Management: Tools and Techniques............................................... 237
7.1.3 Plan Cost Management: Outputs ..................................................................... 238
7.2 Estimate Costs .............................................................................................................. 240
7.2.1 Estimate Costs: Inputs ..................................................................................... 241
7.2.2 Estimate Costs: Tools and Techniques ............................................................ 243
7.2.3 Estimate Costs: Outputs ................................................................................... 246
7.3 Determine Budget ......................................................................................................... 248
7.3.1 Determine Budget: Inputs ................................................................................ 250
7.3.2 Determine Budget: Tools and Techniques ....................................................... 252
7.3.3 Determine Budget: Outputs.............................................................................. 254
V
7.4 Control Costs ................................................................................................................ 257
7.4.1 Control Costs: Inputs ........................................................................................ 259
7.4.2 Control Costs: Tools and Techniques ............................................................... 260
7.4.3 Control Costs: Outputs ..................................................................................... 268
8. PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................... 271
8.1 Plan Quality Management ............................................................................................ 277
8.1.1 Plan Quality Management: Inputs ................................................................... 279
8.1.2 Plan Quality Management: Tools and Techniques .......................................... 281
8.1.3 Plan Quality Management: Outputs ................................................................. 286
8.2 Manage Quality ............................................................................................................. 288
8.2.1 Manage Quality: Inputs .................................................................................... 290
8.2.2 Manage Quality: Tools and Techniques ........................................................... 292
8.2.3 Manage Quality: Outputs.................................................................................. 296
8.3 Control Quality .............................................................................................................. 298
8.3.1 Control Quality: Inputs ..................................................................................... 300
8.3.2 Control Quality: Tools and Techniques ............................................................ 302
8.3.3 Control Quality: Outputs ................................................................................... 305
9. PROJECT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................... 307
9.1 Plan Resource Management ........................................................................................ 312
9.1.1 Plan Resource Management: Inputs................................................................ 314
9.1.2 Plan Resource Management: Tools and Techniques....................................... 315
9.1.3 Plan Resource Management: Outputs ............................................................. 318
9.2 Estimate Activity Resources ........................................................................................ 320
9.2.1 Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs ................................................................ 322
9.2.2 Estimate Activity Resources: Tools and Techniques ....................................... 324
9.2.3 Estimate Activity Resources: Outputs ............................................................. 325
9.3 Acquire Resources ....................................................................................................... 328
9.3.1 Acquire Resources: Inputs ............................................................................... 330
9.3.2 Acquire Resources: Tools and Techniques ...................................................... 332
9.3.3 Acquire Resources: Outputs ............................................................................ 333
Table of Contents
VI
9.4 Develop Team................................................................................................................ 336
9.4.1 Develop Team: Inputs ....................................................................................... 339
9.4.2 Develop Team: Tools and Techniques .............................................................. 340
9.4.3 Develop Team: Outputs .................................................................................... 343
9.5 Manage Team................................................................................................................ 345
9.5.1 Manage Team: Inputs ....................................................................................... 347
9.5.2 Manage Team: Tools and Techniques .............................................................. 348
9.5.3 Manage Team: Outputs .................................................................................... 350
9.6 Control Resources ........................................................................................................ 352
9.6.1 Control Resources: Inputs................................................................................ 354
9.6.2 Control Resources: Tools and Techniques....................................................... 356
9.6.3 Control Resources: Outputs ............................................................................. 357
10. PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT ...................................................................... 359
10.1 Plan Communications Management .......................................................................... 366
10.1.1 Plan Communications Management: Inputs ................................................. 368
10.1.2 Plan Communications Management: Tools and Techniques ........................ 369
10.1.3 Plan Communications Management: Outputs............................................... 377
10.2 Manage Communications .......................................................................................... 379
10.2.1 Manage Communications: Inputs .................................................................. 381
10.2.2 Manage Communications: Tools and Techniques ......................................... 383
10.2.3 Manage Communications: Outputs ............................................................... 387
10.3 Monitor Communications ........................................................................................... 388
10.3.1 Monitor Communications: Inputs .................................................................. 390
10.3.2 Monitor Communications: Tools and Techniques ......................................... 391
10.3.3 Monitor Communications: Outputs ................................................................ 392
11. PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................. 395
11.1 Plan Risk Management .............................................................................................. 401
11.1.1 Plan Risk Management: Inputs ...................................................................... 402
11.1.2 Plan Risk Management: Tools and Techniques ............................................. 404
11.1.3 Plan Risk Management: Outputs ................................................................... 405
VII
11.2 Identify Risks .............................................................................................................. 409
11.2.1 Identify Risks: Inputs ..................................................................................... 411
11.2.2 Identify Risks: Tools and Techniques ............................................................ 414
11.2.3 Identify Risks: Outputs ................................................................................... 417
11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis ............................................................................. 419
11.3.1 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs ..................................................... 421
11.3.2 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Tools and Techniques ............................ 422
11.3.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Outputs .................................................. 427
11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis ........................................................................... 428
11.4.1 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs .................................................. 430
11.4.2 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Tools and Techniques ......................... 431
11.4.3 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Outputs ................................................ 436
11.5 Plan Risk Responses .................................................................................................. 437
11.5.1 Plan Risk Responses: Inputs ......................................................................... 439
11.5.2 Plan Risk Responses: Tools and Techniques ................................................ 441
11.5.3 Plan Risk Responses: Outputs ....................................................................... 447
11.6 Implement Risk Responses ........................................................................................ 449
11.6.1 Implement Risk Responses: Inputs ............................................................... 450
11.6.2 Implement Risk Responses: Tools and Techniques ...................................... 451
11.6.3 Implement Risk Responses: Outputs............................................................. 451
11.7 Monitor Risks.............................................................................................................. 453
11.7.1 Monitor Risks: Inputs ..................................................................................... 455
11.7.2 Monitor Risks: Tools and Techniques ............................................................ 456
11.7.3 Monitor Risks: Outputs .................................................................................. 457
12. PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT ............................................................................ 459
12.1 Plan Procurement Management ................................................................................ 466
12.1.1 Plan Procurement Management: Inputs........................................................ 468
12.1.2 Plan Procurement Management: Tools and Techniques ............................... 472
12.1.3 Plan Procurement Management: Outputs ..................................................... 475
VIII Table of Contents

12.2 Conduct Procurements ............................................................................................... 482
12.2.1 Conduct Procurements: Inputs ...................................................................... 484
12.2.2 Conduct Procurements: Tools and Techniques ............................................. 487
12.2.3 Conduct Procurements: Outputs.................................................................... 488
12.3 Control Procurements ................................................................................................ 492
12.3.1 Control Procurements: Inputs ........................................................................ 495
12.3.2 Control Procurements: Tools and Techniques ............................................... 497
12.3.3 Control Procurements: Outputs ..................................................................... 499
13. PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT ............................................................................. 503
13.1 Identify Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 507
13.1.1 Identify Stakeholders: Inputs......................................................................... 509
13.1.2 Identify Stakeholders: Tools and Techniques................................................ 511
13.1.3 Identify Stakeholders: Outputs ...................................................................... 514
13.2 Plan Stakeholder Engagement ................................................................................... 516
13.2.1 Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs .......................................................... 518
13.2.2 Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Tools and Techniques ................................. 520
13.2.3 Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Outputs........................................................ 522
13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement ............................................................................. 523
13.3.1 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs .................................................... 525
13.3.2 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Tools and Techniques ........................... 526
13.3.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Outputs.................................................. 528
13.4 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement ............................................................................. 530
13.4.1 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs..................................................... 532
13.4.2 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Tools and Techniques............................ 533
13.4.3 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Outputs .................................................. 535
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 537
IX
PART 2.
THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 541

1.1 Projects and Project Management............................................................................... 542
1.2 Relationships Among Portfolios, Programs, and Projects .......................................... 543
1.3 Linking Organizational Governance and Project Governance .................................... 545
1.4 Project Success and Benefits Management ................................................................ 546
1.5 The Project Life Cycle ................................................................................................... 547
1.6 Project Stakeholders .................................................................................................... 550
1.7 Role of the Project Manager......................................................................................... 552
1.8 Project Management Knowledge Areas ...................................................................... 553
1.9 Project Management Process Groups ......................................................................... 554
1.10 Enterprise Environmental Factors and Organizational Process Assets ................... 557
1.11 Tailoring the Project Artifacts .................................................................................... 558
2. INITIATING PROCESS GROUP ................................................................................................. 561
2.1 Develop Project Charter ............................................................................................... 563
2.2 Identify Stakeholders ................................................................................................... 563
2.2.1 Project Management Plan Components .......................................................... 564
2.2.2 Project Documents Examples .......................................................................... 564
2.2.3 Project Management Plan Updates ................................................................. 564
2.2.4 Project Documents Updates ............................................................................ 564
3. PLANNING PROCESS GROUP .................................................................................................. 565
3.1 Develop Project Management Plan .............................................................................. 567
3.2 Plan Scope Management.............................................................................................. 567
3.3 Collect Requirements ................................................................................................... 568
Table of Contents
X
3.4 Define Scope ................................................................................................................. 569
3.5 Create WBS ................................................................................................................... 570
3.6 Plan Schedule Management ........................................................................................ 571
3.7 Define Activities............................................................................................................ 572
3.8 Sequence Activities ...................................................................................................... 573
3.9 Estimate Activity Durations.......................................................................................... 574
3.10 Develop Schedule ....................................................................................................... 575
3.10.1 Project Management Plan Components ........................................................ 575
3.10.2 Project Documents Examples ........................................................................ 576
3.10.3 Project Management Plan Updates ............................................................... 576
3.10.4 Project Documents Updates .......................................................................... 576
3.11 Plan Cost Management .............................................................................................. 577
XI
3.12 Estimate Costs ............................................................................................................ 577
3.13 Determine Budget ....................................................................................................... 578
3.14 Plan Quality Management .......................................................................................... 580
3.15 Plan Resource Management ...................................................................................... 581
3.15.2 Project Documents ......................................................................................... 582
3.16 Estimate Activity Resources ...................................................................................... 582
3.17 Plan Communications Management .......................................................................... 584
3.18 Plan Risk Management .............................................................................................. 585
XII Table of Contents

3.19 Identify Risks .............................................................................................................. 586
3.20 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis ............................................................................. 588
3.21 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis ........................................................................... 589
3.22 Plan Risk Responses .................................................................................................. 590
3.23 Plan Procurement Management ................................................................................ 592
3.24 Plan Stakeholder Engagement ................................................................................... 594
4. EXECUTING PROCESS GROUP ................................................................................................ 595
4.1 Direct and Manage Project Work ................................................................................. 597
XIII
4.2 Manage Project Knowledge ......................................................................................... 598
4.2.2 Project Documents ........................................................................................... 599
4.3 Manage Quality ............................................................................................................. 599
4.4 Acquire Resources ....................................................................................................... 601
4.5 Develop Team................................................................................................................ 602
4.6 Manage Team................................................................................................................ 604
4.7 Manage Communications ............................................................................................ 605
4.7.2 Project Documents Example ............................................................................ 606
XIV Table of Contents

4.8 Implement Risk Responses .......................................................................................... 607
4.9 Conduct Procurements ................................................................................................. 608
4.10 Manage Stakeholder Engagement ............................................................................. 610
5. MONITORING AND CONTROLLING PROCESS GROUP ............................................................ 613
5.1 Monitor and Control Project Work ............................................................................... 615
5.2 Perform Integrated Change Control ............................................................................. 616
5.3 Validate Scope .............................................................................................................. 618
XV
5.4 Control Scope ............................................................................................................... 619
5.5 Control Schedule .......................................................................................................... 621
5.6 Control Costs ................................................................................................................ 622
5.7 Control Quality .............................................................................................................. 624
5.8 Control Resources ........................................................................................................ 625
5.9 Monitor Communications ............................................................................................. 627
XVI Table of Contents

5.10 Monitor Risks.............................................................................................................. 628
5.11 Control Procurements ................................................................................................ 629
5.12 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement ............................................................................. 631
6. CLOSING PROCESS GROUP..................................................................................................... 633
6.1 Close Project or Phase ................................................................................................. 634
XVII
PART 3.
APPENDICES, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX
APPENDIX X1
SIXTH EDITION CHANGES .......................................................................................................... 639
APPENDIX X2
CONTRIBUTORS AND REVIEWERS OF THE PMBOK® GUIDE—SIXTH EDITION.......................... 651
APPENDIX X3
AGILE, ITERATIVE, ADAPTIVE, AND HYBRID PROJECT ENVIRONMENTS .................................. 665
APPENDIX X4
SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS FOR KNOWLEDGE AREAS......................................................... 673
APPENDIX X5
SUMMARY OF TAILORING CONSIDERATIONS FOR KNOWLEDGE AREAS .................................. 679
APPENDIX X6
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES .......................................................................................................... 685
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................. 695
XVIII Table of Contents

LI ST OF TAB LES AND FIG U RES
PART 1.
A GUIDE TO THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE (PMBOK® Guide)
Figure 1-1. Organizational State Transition via a Project ..................................................... 6

Figure 1-2. Project Initiation Context..................................................................................... 8
Figure 1-3. Portfolio, Programs, Projects, and Operations.................................................. 12
Figure 1-4. Organizational Project Management ................................................................ 17
Figure 1-5. Interrelationship of PMBOK® Guide Key Components in Projects ................... 18
Figure 1-6. Example Process: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs............................ 22
Figure 1-7. Project Data, Information, and Report Flow ..................................................... 27
Figure 1-8. Interrelationship of Needs Assessment and Critical Business/
Project Documents ............................................................................................ 30
Figure 2-1. Project Influences .............................................................................................. 37
Figure 3-1. Example of Project Manager’s Sphere of Influence ......................................... 53
Figure 3-2. The PMI Talent Triangle® ................................................................................... 57
Figure 4-1. Project Integration Management Overview ...................................................... 71
�
Figure 4-2. Develop Project Charter: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................. 75
�
Figure 4-3. Develop Project Charter: Data Flow Diagram ................................................... 76

Figure 4-4. Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs........................................................................................................ 82
XIX
Figure 4-5. Develop Project Management Plan: Data Flow Diagram ................................. 82
Figure 4-6. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs........................................................................................................ 90
Figure 4-7. Direct and Manage Project Work: Data Flow Diagram..................................... 91
Figure 4-8. Manage Project Knowledge: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs........... 98
Figure 4-9. Manage Project Knowledge: Data Flow Diagram ............................................. 99
Figure 4-10. Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs...................................................................................................... 105
Figure 4-11. Monitor and Control Project Work: Data Flow Diagram ................................. 106
Figure 4-12. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs...................................................................................................... 113
Figure 4-13. Perform Integrated Change Control: Data Flow Diagram .............................. 114
Figure 4-14. Close Project or Phase: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ................. 121
Figure 4-15. Close Project or Phase: Data Flow Diagram ................................................... 122
Figure 5-1. Project Scope Management Overview ............................................................ 130
Figure 5-2. Plan Scope Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............. 134
Figure 5-3. Plan Scope Management: Data Flow Diagram ............................................... 134
Figure 5-4. Collect Requirements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs .................. 138
Figure 5-5. Collect Requirements: Data Flow Diagram ..................................................... 139
Figure 5-6. Context Diagram .............................................................................................. 146
Figure 5-7. Example of a Requirements Traceability Matrix ............................................ 149
Figure 5-8. Define Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ................................ 150
Figure 5-9. Define Scope: Data Flow Diagram .................................................................. 151
Figure 5-10. Create WBS: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs .................................. 156
Figure 5-11. Create WBS: Data Flow Diagram ..................................................................... 156
Figure 5-12. Sample WBS Decomposed Down Through Work Packages........................... 158
Figure 5-13. Sample WBS Organized by Phase ................................................................... 159
XX List of Tables and Figures

Figure 5-14. Sample WBS with Major Deliverables............................................................. 160
Figure 5-15. Validate Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................. 163
Figure 5-16. Validate Scope: Data Flow Diagram................................................................ 164
Figure 5-17. Control Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................... 167
Figure 5-18. Control Scope: Data Flow Diagram ................................................................. 168
Figure 6-1. Project Schedule Management Overview ....................................................... 174
Figure 6-2. Scheduling Overview ....................................................................................... 176
Figure 6-3. Plan Schedule Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ........ 179
Figure 6-4. Plan Schedule Management: Data Flow Diagram .......................................... 179
Figure 6-5. Define Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ........................... 183
Figure 6-6. Define Activities: Data Flow Diagram ............................................................. 183
Figure 6-7. Sequence Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ..................... 187
Figure 6-8. Sequence Activities: Data Flow Diagram........................................................ 187
Figure 6-9. Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) Relationship Types ...................... 190
Figure 6-10. Examples of Lead and Lag .............................................................................. 192
Figure 6-11. Project Schedule Network Diagram ................................................................ 193
Figure 6-12. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ......... 195
Figure 6-13. Estimate Activity Durations: Data Flow Diagram ........................................... 196
Figure 6-14. Develop Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ........................ 205
Figure 6-15. Develop Schedule: Data Flow Diagram ........................................................... 206
Figure 6-16. Example of Critical Path Method..................................................................... 211
Figure 6-17. Resource Leveling ........................................................................................... 212
Figure 6-18. Example Probability Distribution of a Target Milestone................................. 214
Figure 6-19. Schedule Compression Comparison ............................................................... 215
Figure 6-20. Relationship Between Product Vision, Release Planning,
and Iteration Planning ..................................................................................... 216
XXI
Figure 6-21. Project Schedule Presentations—Examples .................................................. 219
Figure 6-22. Control Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs.......................... 222
Figure 6-23. Control Schedule: Data Flow Diagram ............................................................ 223
Figure 6-24. Iteration Burndown Chart ................................................................................ 226
Figure 7-1. Project Cost Management Overview ............................................................... 232
Figure 7-2. Plan Cost Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................ 235
Figure 7-3. Plan Cost Management: Data Flow Diagram .................................................. 235
Figure 7-4. Estimate Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................. 240
Figure 7-5. Estimate Costs: Data Flow Diagram ............................................................... 240
Figure 7-6. Determine Budget: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ........................ 248
Figure 7-7. Determine Budget: Data Flow Diagram .......................................................... 249
Figure 7-8. Project Budget Components............................................................................ 255
Figure 7-9. Cost Baseline, Expenditures, and Funding Requirements ............................. 255
Figure 7-10. Control Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................................ 257
Figure 7-11. Control Costs: Data Flow Diagram .................................................................. 258
Figure 7-12. Earned Value, Planned Value, and Actual Costs ............................................. 264
Figure 7-13. To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI) .......................................................... 268
Figure 8-1. Project Quality Management Overview........................................................... 272
Figure 8-2. Major Project Quality Management Process Interrelations ........................... 273
Figure 8-3. Plan Quality Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ........... 277
Figure 8-4. Plan Quality Management: Data Flow Diagram .............................................. 278
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Figure 8-5. Cost of Quality.................................................................................................. 283

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Figure 8-6. The SIPOC Model.............................................................................................. 285

Figure 8-7. Manage Quality: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................ 288
Figure 8-8. Manage Quality: Data Flow Diagram .............................................................. 289
Figure 8-9. Cause-and-Effect Diagram.............................................................................. 294
XXII List of Tables and Figures

Figure 8-10. Control Quality: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................. 298
Figure 8-11. Control Quality: Data Flow Diagram................................................................ 299
Figure 8-12. Check Sheets ................................................................................................... 302
Figure 9-1. Project Resource Management Overview....................................................... 308
Figure 9-2. Plan Resource Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ....... 312
Figure 9-3. Plan Resource Management: Data Flow Diagram .......................................... 313
Figure 9-4. Sample RACI Chart .......................................................................................... 317
Figure 9-5. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs........ 321
Figure 9-6. Estimate Activity Resources: Data Flow Diagram .......................................... 321
Figure 9-7. Sample Resource Breakdown Structure......................................................... 327
Figure 9-8. Acquire Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ....................... 328
Figure 9-9. Acquire Resources: Data Flow Diagram ......................................................... 329
Figure 9-10. Develop Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................... 336
Figure 9-11. Develop Team: Data Flow Diagram ................................................................. 337
Figure 9-12. Manage Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................... 345
Figure 9-13. Manage Team: Data Flow Diagram ................................................................. 346
Figure 9-14. Control Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs........................ 352
Figure 9-15. Control Resources: Data Flow Diagram .......................................................... 353
Figure 10-1. Project Communications Overview ................................................................. 360
Figure 10-2. Plan Communications Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs...................................................................................................... 366
Figure 10-3. Plan Communications Management: Data Flow Diagram ............................. 367
Figure 10-4. Communication Model for Cross-Cultural Communication ........................... 373
Figure 10-5. Manage Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............ 379
Figure 10-6. Manage Communications: Data Flow Diagram .............................................. 380
Figure 10-7. Monitor Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............ 388
XXIII
Figure 10-8. Monitor Communications: Data Flow Diagram .............................................. 389
Figure 11-1. Project Risk Management Overview ............................................................... 396
Figure 11-2. Plan Risk Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................ 401
Figure 11-3. Plan Risk Management: Data Flow Diagram .................................................. 402
Figure 11-4. Extract from Sample Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS) ................................. 406
Figure 11-5. Example Probability and Impact Matrix with Scoring Scheme ..................... 408
Figure 11-6. Identify Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................... 409
Figure 11-7. Identify Risks: Data Flow Diagram ................................................................. 410
Figure 11-8. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs...................................................................................................... 419
Figure 11-9. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Data Flow Diagram ................................. 420
Figure 11-10. Example Bubble Chart Showing Detectability, Proximity,
and Impact Value ............................................................................................. 426
Figure 11-11. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs...................................................................................................... 428
Figure 11-12. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Data Flow Diagram ............................... 429
Figure 11-13. Example S-Curve from Quantitative Cost Risk Analysis ................................ 433
Figure 11-14. Example Tornado Diagram .............................................................................. 434
Figure 11-15. Example Decision Tree .................................................................................... 435
Figure 11-16. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ................... 437
Figure 11-17. Plan Risk Responses: Data Flow Diagram...................................................... 438
Figure 11-18. Implement Risk Responses: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ......... 449
Figure 11-19. Implement Risk Responses: Data Flow Diagram ........................................... 449
Figure 11-20. Monitor Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ............................... 453
Figure 11-21. Monitor Risks: Data Flow Diagram ................................................................. 454
Figure 12-1. Project Procurement Management Overview ................................................. 460
XXIV List of Tables and Figures

Figure 12-2. Plan Procurement Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs .... 466
Figure 12-3. Plan Procurement Management: Data Flow Diagram .................................... 467
Figure 12-4. Conduct Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs ................ 482
Figure 12-5. Conduct Procurements: Data Flow Diagram .................................................. 483
Figure 12-6. Control Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs .................. 492
Figure 12-7. Control Procurements: Data Flow Diagram .................................................... 493
Figure 13-1. Project Stakeholder Management Overview .................................................. 504
Figure 13-2. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs................... 507
Figure 13-3. Identify Stakeholders: Data Flow Diagram ..................................................... 508
Figure 13-4. Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs .... 516
Figure 13-5. Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram ...................................... 517
Figure 13-6. Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix ............................................... 522
Figure 13-7. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs...................................................................................................... 523
Figure 13-8. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram ................................ 524
Figure 13-9. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques,
and Outputs...................................................................................................... 530
Figure 13-10. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram ................................. 531
Table 1-1. Examples of Factors that Lead to the Creation of a Project .............................. 9
Table 1-2. Comparative Overview of Portfolios, Programs, and Projects ......................... 13
Table 1-3. Description of PMBOK® Guide Key Components .............................................. 18
Table 1-4. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping .............. 25
Table 1-5. Project Business Documents ............................................................................ 29
Table 2-1. Influences of Organizational Structures on Projects ....................................... 47
Table 3-1. Team Management and Team Leadership Compared ...................................... 64
XXV
Table 4-1. Project Management Plan and Project Documents.......................................... 89
Table 5-1. Elements of the Project Charter and Project Scope Statement ..................... 155
Table 7-1. Earned Value Calculations Summary Table .................................................... 267
Table 11-1. Example of Definitions for Probability and Impacts ...................................... 407
Table 12-1. Comparison of Procurement Documentation ................................................. 481
PART 2.
The Standard For Project Management
Figure 1-1. Example of Portfolio, Program, and Project Management Interfaces ........... 544
Figure 1-2. Generic Depiction of a Project Life Cycle........................................................ 548
Figure 1-3. Impact of Variables Over Time ........................................................................ 549
Figure 1-4. Examples of Project Stakeholders .................................................................. 551
Figure 1-5. Example of Process Group Interactions Within a Project or Phase ............... 555
Figure 2-1. Project Boundaries .......................................................................................... 562
Figure 2-2. Initiating Process Group .................................................................................. 562
Figure 2-3. Develop Project Charter: Inputs and Outputs ................................................. 563
Figure 2-4. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs and Outputs ..................................................... 563
Figure 3-1. Planning Process Group .................................................................................. 566
Figure 3-2. Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs and Outputs ............................... 567
Figure 3-3. Plan Scope Management: Inputs and Outputs ............................................... 567
Figure 3-4. Collect Requirements: Inputs and Outputs ..................................................... 568
Figure 3-5. Define Scope: Inputs and Outputs .................................................................. 569
Figure 3-6. Create WBS: Inputs and Outputs ..................................................................... 570
Figure 3-7. Plan Schedule Management: Inputs and Outputs .......................................... 571
Figure 3-8. Define Activities: Inputs and Outputs ............................................................. 572
XXVI List of Tables and Figures

Figure 3-9. Sequence Activities: Inputs and Outputs........................................................ 573
Figure 3-10. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs and Outputs ........................................... 574
Figure 3-11. Develop Schedule: Inputs and Outputs ........................................................... 575
Figure 3-12. Plan Cost Management: Inputs and Outputs .................................................. 577
Figure 3-13. Estimate Costs: Inputs and Outputs................................................................ 577
Figure 3-14. Determine Budget: Inputs and Outputs .......................................................... 579
Figure 3-15. Plan Quality Management: Inputs and Outputs .............................................. 580
Figure 3-16. Plan Resource Management: Inputs and Outputs .......................................... 581
Figure 3-17. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs and Outputs .......................................... 583
Figure 3-18. Plan Communications Management: Inputs and Outputs ............................. 584
Figure 3-19. Plan Risk Management: Inputs and Outputs .................................................. 585
Figure 3-20. Identify Risks: Inputs and Outputs.................................................................. 586
Figure 3-21. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs ................................. 588
Figure 3-22. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs ............................... 589
Figure 3-23. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs and Outputs ...................................................... 590
Figure 3-24. Plan Procurement Management: Inputs and Outputs .................................... 592
Figure 3-25. Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs ...................................... 594
Figure 4-1. Executing Process Group ................................................................................ 596
Figure 4-2. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs and Outputs ................................... 597
Figure 4-3. Manage Project Knowledge: Inputs and Outputs ........................................... 598
Figure 4-4. Manage Quality: Inputs and Outputs .............................................................. 599
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Figure 4-5. Acquire Resources: Inputs and Outputs ......................................................... 601

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Figure 4-6. Develop Team: Inputs and Outputs ................................................................. 602

Figure 4-7. Manage Team: Inputs and Outputs ................................................................. 604
Figure 4-8. Manage Communications: Inputs and Outputs .............................................. 605
Figure 4-9. Implement Risk Responses: Inputs and Outputs ........................................... 607
XXVII
Figure 4-10. Conduct Procurements: Inputs and Outputs .................................................. 608
Figure 4-11. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs ................................ 610
Figure 5-1. Monitoring and Controlling Process Group .................................................... 614
Figure 5-2. Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs and Outputs ................................. 615
Figure 5-3. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs and Outputs............................... 616
Figure 5-4. Validate Scope: Inputs and Outputs ................................................................ 618
Figure 5-5. Control Scope: Inputs and Outputs ................................................................. 619
Figure 5-6. Control Schedule: Inputs and Outputs ............................................................ 621
Figure 5-7. Control Costs: Inputs and Outputs .................................................................. 622
Figure 5-8. Control Quality: Inputs and Outputs ................................................................ 624
Figure 5-9. Control Resources: Inputs and Outputs .......................................................... 625
Figure 5-10. Monitor Communications: Inputs and Outputs .............................................. 627
Figure 5-11. Monitor Risks: Inputs and Outputs ................................................................. 628
Figure 5-12. Control Procurements: Inputs and Outputs .................................................... 630
Figure 5-13. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs ................................. 631
Figure 6-1. Closing Process Group .................................................................................... 633
Figure 6-2. Close Project or Phase: Inputs and Outputs ................................................... 634
Table 1-1. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping ............ 556
Table 1-2. Project Management Plan and Project Documents........................................ 559
XXVIII List of Tables and Figures

PART 3.
APPENDICES, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX
Figure X3-1. The Continuum of Project Life Cycles ............................................................. 666

Figure X3-2. Level of Effort for Process Groups across Iteration Cycles ........................... 667
Figure X3-3. Relationship of Process Groups in Continuous Phases ................................. 668
Table X1-1. Section 4 Changes ........................................................................................... 645

Table X1-5. Section 10 Changes ......................................................................................... 648
Table X6-1. Categorization and Index of Tools and Techniques ........................................ 686
XXIX
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XXX
Part 1
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A Guide to the
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Body of Knowledge
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(PMBOK ® GUIDE )
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The information contained in this part is not an American National Standard (ANS) and has not
been processed in accordance with ANSI’s requirements for an ANS. As such, the information in
this part may contain material that has not been subjected to public review or a consensus process.
In addition, it does not contain requirements necessary for conformance to an ANS standard.
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1
IN TRODU CTION
1.1 OVERVIEW AND PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE

Project management is not new. It has been in use for hundreds of years. Examples of project outcomes include:
Pyramids of Giza,
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Olympic games,
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Great Wall of China,

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Taj Mahal,
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Publication of a children’s book,

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Panama Canal,
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Development of commercial jet airplanes,

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Polio vaccine,
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Human beings landing on the moon,

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Commercial software applications,

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Portable devices to use the global positioning system (GPS), and

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Placement of the International Space Station into Earth’s orbit.

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The outcomes of these projects were the result of leaders and managers applying project management practices,
principles, processes, tools, and techniques to their work. The managers of these projects used a set of key skills and
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applied knowledge to satisfy their customers and other people involved in and affected by the project. By the mid-20th
century, project managers began the work of seeking recognition for project management as a profession. One aspect
of this work involved obtaining agreement on the content of the body of knowledge (BOK) called project management.
This BOK became known as the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). The Project Management Institute
(PMI) produced a baseline of charts and glossaries for the PMBOK. Project managers soon realized that no single book
could contain the entire PMBOK. Therefore, PMI developed and published A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide).
PMI defines the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK) as a term that describes the knowledge within the
profession of project management. The project management body of knowledge includes proven traditional practices
that are widely applied as well as innovative practices that are emerging in the profession.
1
The body of knowledge (BOK) includes both published and unpublished materials. This body of knowledge is
constantly evolving. This PMBOK® Guide identifies a subset of the project management body of knowledge that is
generally recognized as good practice.
Generally recognized means the knowledge and practices described are applicable to most projects most of the
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time, and there is consensus about their value and usefulness.
Good practice means there is general agreement that the application of the knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques
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to project management processes can enhance the chance of success over many projects in delivering the
expected business values and results.
The project manager works with the project team and other stakeholders to determine and use the appropriate
generally recognized good practices for each project. Determining the appropriate combination of processes, inputs,
tools, techniques, outputs and life cycle phases to manage a project is referred to as “tailoring” the application of the
knowledge described in this guide.
This PMBOK® Guide is different from a methodology. A methodology is a system of practices, techniques,
procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline. This PMBOK® Guide is a foundation upon which
organizations can build methodologies, policies, procedures, rules, tools and techniques, and life cycle phases
needed to practice project management.
1.1.1 THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT

This guide is based on The Standard for Project Management [1]. A standard is a document established by an authority,
custom, or general consent as a model or example. As an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard, The
Standard for Project Management was developed using a process based on the concepts of consensus, openness, due
process, and balance. The Standard for Project Management is a foundational reference for PMI’s project management
professional development programs and the practice of project management. Because project management needs to
be tailored to fit the needs of the project, the standard and the guide are both based on descriptive practices, rather
than prescriptive practices. Therefore, the standard identifies the processes that are considered good practices on most
projects, most of the time. The standard also identifies the inputs and outputs that are usually associated with those
processes. The standard does not require that any particular process or practice be performed. The Standard for Project
Management is included as Part II of A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide).
The PMBOK® Guide provides more detail about key concepts, emerging trends, considerations for tailoring the project
management processes, and information on how tools and techniques are applied to projects. Project managers may
use one or more methodologies to implement the project management processes outlined in the standard.
Part 1 - Guide
2
The scope of this guide is limited to the discipline of project management, rather than the full spectrum of portfolios,
programs, and projects. Portfolios and programs will be addressed only to the degree they interact with projects. PMI
publishes two other standards that address the management of portfolios and programs:
The Standard for Portfolio Management [2], and
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The Standard for Program Management [3].

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1.1.2 COMMON VOCABULARY

A common vocabulary is an essential element of a professional discipline. The PMI Lexicon of Project Management
Terms [4] provides the foundational professional vocabulary that can be consistently used by organizations, portfolio,
program, and project managers and other project stakeholders. The Lexicon will continue to evolve over time. The
glossary to this guide includes the vocabulary in the Lexicon along with additional definitions. There may be other
industry-specific terms used in projects that are defined by that industry’s literature.
1.1.3 CODE OF ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT

PMI publishes the Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct [5] to instill confidence in the project management
profession and to help an individual in making wise decisions, particularly when faced with difficult situations where the
individual may be asked to compromise his or her integrity or values. The values that the global project management
community defined as most important were responsibility, respect, fairness, and honesty. The Code of Ethics and
Professional Conduct affirms these four values as its foundation.
The Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct includes both aspirational standards and mandatory standards. The
aspirational standards describe the conduct that practitioners, who are also PMI members, certification holders, or
volunteers, strive to uphold. Although adherence to the aspirational standards is not easily measured, conduct in
accordance with these is an expectation for those who consider themselves to be professionals—it is not optional. The
mandatory standards establish firm requirements and, in some cases, limit or prohibit practitioner behavior. Practitioners
who are also PMI members, certification holders, or volunteers and who do not conduct themselves in accordance with
these standards will be subject to disciplinary procedures before PMI’s Ethics Review Committee.
3
1.2 FOUNDATIONAL ELEMENTS
This section describes foundational elements necessary for working in and understanding the discipline of project
management.
1.2.1 PROJECTS
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.
Unique product, service, or result. Projects are undertaken to fulfill objectives by producing deliverables.
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An objective is defined as an outcome toward which work is to be directed, a strategic position to be attained,
a purpose to be achieved, a result to be obtained, a product to be produced, or a service to be performed.
A deliverable is defined as any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is
required to be produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables may be tangible or intangible.
Fulfillment of project objectives may produce one or more of the following deliverables:
nuA unique product that can be either a component of another item, an enhancement or correction to an item,
or a new end item in itself (e.g., the correction of a defect in an end item);
nuA unique service or a capability to perform a service (e.g., a business function that supports production
or distribution);
nuA unique result, such as an outcome or document (e.g., a research project that develops knowledge that can
be used to determine whether a trend exists or a new process will benefit society); and
nuA unique combination of one or more products, services, or results (e.g., a software application, its associated
documentation, and help desk services).
Repetitive elements may be present in some project deliverables and activities. This repetition does not change
the fundamental and unique characteristics of the project work. For example, office buildings can be constructed
with the same or similar materials and by the same or different teams. However, each building project remains
unique in key characteristics (e.g., location, design, environment, situation, people involved).
Projects are undertaken at all organizational levels. A project can involve a single individual or a group. A project
can involve a single organizational unit or multiple organizational units from multiple organizations.
Part 1 - Guide
4
Examples of projects include but are not limited to:
nuDeveloping a new pharmaceutical compound for market,
nuExpanding a tour guide service,
nuMerging two organizations,
nuImproving a business process within an organization,
nuAcquiring and installing a new computer hardware system for use in an organization,
nuExploring for oil in a region,
nuModifying a computer software program used in an organization,
nuConducting research to develop a new manufacturing process, and
nuConstructing a building.
Temporary endeavor. The temporary nature of projects indicates that a project has a definite beginning and end.
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Temporary does not necessarily mean a project has a short duration. The end of the project is reached when one
or more of the following is true:
nuThe project’s objectives have been achieved;
nuThe objectives will not or cannot be met;
nuFunding is exhausted or no longer available for allocation to the project;
nuThe need for the project no longer exists (e.g., the customer no longer wants the project completed, a change
in strategy or priority ends the project, the organizational management provides direction to end the project);
nuThe human or physical resources are no longer available; or
nuThe project is terminated for legal cause or convenience.
Projects are temporary, but their deliverables may exist beyond the end of the project. Projects may produce
deliverables of a social, economic, material, or environmental nature. For example, a project to build a national
monument will create a deliverable expected to last for centuries.
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5
Projects drive change. Projects drive change in organizations. From a business perspective, a project is aimed
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at moving an organization from one state to another state in order to achieve a specific objective (see Figure 1-1).
Before the project begins, the organization is commonly referred to as being in the current state. The desired
result of the change driven by the project is described as the future state.
For some projects, this may involve creating a transition state where multiple steps are made along a continuum
to achieve the future state. The successful completion of a project results in the organization moving to the
future state and achieving the specific objective. For more information on project management and change, see
Managing Change in Organizations: A Practice Guide [6].
Organization
Business
Value
Future State
t
jec
Pro
Current State Project Activities
• Activity A
• Activity B
• Activity C
• Etc.
Time
Figure 1-1. Organizational State Transition via a Project
Part 1 - Guide
6
Projects enable business value creation. PMI defines business value as the net quantifiable benefit derived
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from a business endeavor. The benefit may be tangible, intangible, or both. In business analysis, business value is
considered the return, in the form of elements such as time, money, goods, or intangibles in return for something
exchanged (see Business Analysis for Practitioners: A Practice Guide, p. 185 [7]).
Business value in projects refers to the benefit that the results of a specific project provide to its stakeholders.
The benefit from projects may be tangible, intangible, or both.
Examples of tangible elements include:
nuMonetary assets,
nuStockholder equity,
nuUtility,
nuFixtures,
nuTools, and
nuMarket share.
Examples of intangible elements include:

nuGoodwill,
nuBrand recognition,
nuPublic benefit,
nuTrademarks,
nuStrategic alignment, and
nuReputation.
Project Initiation Context. Organizational leaders initiate projects in response to factors acting upon their
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organizations. There are four fundamental categories for these factors, which illustrate the context of a project
(see Figure 1-2):
nuMeet regulatory, legal, or social requirements;
nuSatisfy stakeholder requests or needs;
nuImplement or change business or technological strategies; and
nuCreate, improve, or fix products, processes, or services.
7
Meet Regulatory, Satisfy Stakeholder
Legal, or Social Requests or Needs
Requirements
Project
Create, Improve, Implement or

or Fix Products, Change Business
Processes, or or Technological
Services Strategies
Figure 1-2. Project Initiation Context
These factors influence an organization’s ongoing operations and business strategies. Leaders respond to these
factors in order to keep the organization viable. Projects provide the means for organizations to successfully make the
changes necessary to deal with these factors. These factors ultimately should link to the strategic objectives of the
organization and the business value of each project.
Table 1-1 illustrates how example factors could align with one or more of the fundamental factor categories.
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Table 1-1. Examples of Factors that Lead to the Creation of a Project
Create, Improve, or Fix Products,
Implement or Change Business

or Technological Strategies
Meet Regulatory, Legal, or
Processes, or Services
Social Requirements
Satisfy Stakeholder
Requests or Needs
Specific Factor Examples of Specific Factors
New technology An electronics firm authorizes a new project to develop a faster, cheaper, and
smaller laptop based on advances in computer memory and electronics X X
technology
Competitive forces Lower pricing on products by a competitor results in the need to lower
X
production costs to remain competitive
Material issues A municipal bridge developed cracks in some support members resulting in a
X X
project to fix the problems
Political changes A newly elected official instigating project funding changes to a current project X
Market demand A car company authorizes a project to build more fuel-efficient cars in response
X X X
to gasoline shortages
Economic changes An economic downturn results in a change in the priorities for a current project X
Customer request An electric utility authorizes a project to build a substation to serve a new
industrial park X X
Stakeholder demands A stakeholder requires that a new output be produced by the organization X
Legal requirement A chemical manufacturer authorizes a project to establish guidelines for the X
proper handling of a new toxic material
Business process An organization implements a project resulting from a Lean Six Sigma value
X
improvements stream mapping exercise
Strategic opportunity A training company authorizes a project to create a new course to increase its
X X
or business need revenues
Social need A nongovernmental organization in a developing country authorizes a project to
provide potable water systems, latrines, and sanitation education to X
communities suffering from high rates of infectious diseases
Environmental A public company authorizes a project to create a new service for electric car
considerations sharing to reduce pollution X X
�
�
9
1.2.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the
project requirements. Project management is accomplished through the appropriate application and integration of the
project management processes identified for the project. Project management enables organizations to execute projects
effectively and efficiently.
Effective project management helps individuals, groups, and public and private organizations to:
Meet business objectives;
uu
Satisfy stakeholder expectations;

uu
Be more predictable;
uu
Increase chances of success;

uu
Deliver the right products at the right time;

uu
Resolve problems and issues;

uu
Respond to risks in a timely manner;

uu
Optimize the use of organizational resources;

uu
Identify, recover, or terminate failing projects;

uu
Manage constraints (e.g., scope, quality, schedule, costs, resources);

uu
Balance the influence of constraints on the project (e.g., increased scope may increase cost or schedule); and
uu
Manage change in a better manner.

uu
Poorly managed projects or the absence of project management may result in:
Missed deadlines,
uu
Cost overruns,
uu
Poor quality,
uu
Rework,
uu
�
Uncontrolled expansion of the project,

uu
�
Loss of reputation for the organization,

uu
Unsatisfied stakeholders, and

uu
Failure in achieving the objectives for which the project was undertaken.
uu
Projects are a key way to create value and benefits in organizations. In today’s business environment, organizational
leaders need to be able to manage with tighter budgets, shorter timelines, scarcity of resources, and rapidly changing
technology. The business environment is dynamic with an accelerating rate of change. To remain competitive in the
world economy, companies are embracing project management to consistently deliver business value.
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Effective and efficient project management should be considered a strategic competency within organizations. It enables
organizations to:
Tie project results to business goals,
uu
Compete more effectively in their markets,

uu
Sustain the organization, and

uu
Respond to the impact of business environment changes on projects by appropriately adjusting project
uu
management plans (see Section 4.2).
1.2.3 RELATIONSHIP OF PROJECT, PROGRAM, PORTFOLIO, AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
1.2.3.1 OVERVIEW
Using project management processes, tools, and techniques puts in place a sound foundation for organizations to
achieve their goals and objectives. A project may be managed in three separate scenarios: as a stand-alone project
(outside of a portfolio or program), within a program, or within a portfolio. Project managers interact with portfolio and
program managers when a project is within a program or portfolio. For example, multiple projects may be needed to
accomplish a set of goals and objectives for an organization. In those situations, projects may be grouped together into
a program. A program is defined as a group of related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities managed in
a coordinated manner to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually. Programs are not large projects.
A very large project may be referred to as a megaproject. As a guideline, megaprojects cost US$1billion or more, affect
1 million or more people, and run for years.
Some organizations may employ the use of a project portfolio to effectively manage multiple programs and projects
that are underway at any given time. A portfolio is defined as projects, programs, subsidiary portfolios, and operations
managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives. Figure 1-3 illustrates an example of how portfolios, programs,
projects, and operations are related in a specific situation.
Program management and portfolio management differ from project management in their life cycles, activities,
objectives, focus, and benefits. However, portfolios, programs, projects, and operations often engage with the same
stakeholders and may need to use the same resources (see Figure 1-3), which may result in a conflict in the organization.
�
This type of a situation increases the need for coordination within the organization through the use of portfolio, program,
�
and project management to achieve a workable balance in the organization.
11
Figure 1-3 illustrates a sample portfolio structure indicating relationships between the programs, projects, shared
resources, and stakeholders. The portfolio components are grouped together in order to facilitate the effective governance
and management of the work that helps to achieve organizational strategies and priorities. Organizational and portfolio
planning impact the components by means of prioritization based on risk, funding, and other considerations. The
portfolio view allows organizations to see how the strategic goals are reflected in the portfolio. This portfolio view
also enables the implementation and coordination of appropriate portfolio, program, and project governance. This
coordinated governance allows authorized allocation of human, financial, and physical resources based on expected
performance and benefits.
Organizational Strategy
Sample Portfolio
Program Program Portfolio

A B A
Program Program
B1 C
Project Project Project Project Project Project Project Project Project Operations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Shared Resources and Stakeholders
Figure 1-3. Portfolio, Programs, Projects, and Operations
Looking at project, program, and portfolio management from an organizational perspective:

Program and project management focus on doing programs and projects the “right” way; and
uu
Portfolio management focuses on doing the “right” programs and projects.

uu
Table 1-2 gives a comparative overview of portfolios, programs, and projects.
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Table 1-2. Comparative Overview of Portfolios, Programs, and Projects
Organizational Project Management
Projects Programs Portfolios

Definition A project is a temporary endeavor A program is a group of related A portfolio is a collection of projects,
undertaken to create a unique projects, subsidiary programs, and programs, subsidiary portfolios, and
product, service, or result. program activities that are managed operations managed as a group to
in a coordinated manner to obtain achieve strategic objectives.
benefits not available from managing
them individually.
Scope Projects have defined objectives. Programs have a scope that Portfolios have an organizational
Scope is progressively elaborated encompasses the scopes of its scope that changes with the strategic
throughout the project life cycle. program components. Programs objectives of the organization.
produce benefits to an organization by
ensuring that the outputs and
outcomes of program components are
delivered in a coordinated and
complementary manner.
Change Project managers expect change and Programs are managed in a manner Portfolio managers continuously
implement processes to keep change that accepts and adapts to change as monitor changes in the broader
managed and controlled. necessary to optimize the delivery of internal and external environments.
benefits as the program’s components
deliver outcomes and/or outputs.
Planning Project managers progressively Programs are managed using Portfolio managers create and
elaborate high-level information into high-level plans that track the maintain necessary processes and
detailed plans throughout the project interdependencies and progress of communication relative to the
life cycle. program components. Program plans aggregate portfolio.
are also used to guide planning at the
component level.
Management Project managers manage the project Programs are managed by program Portfolio managers may manage or
team to meet the project objectives. managers who ensure that program coordinate portfolio management
benefits are delivered as expected, by staff, or program and project staff that
coordinating the activities of a may have reporting responsibilities
program’s components. into the aggregate portfolio.
Monitoring Project managers monitor and control Program managers monitor the Portfolio managers monitor strategic
the work of producing the products, progress of program components to changes and aggregate resource
services, or results that the project ensure the overall goals, schedules, allocation, performance results, and
was undertaken to produce. budget, and benefits of the program risk of the portfolio.
will be met.
Success Success is measured by product and A program’s success is measured by Success is measured in terms of the
project quality, timeliness, budget the program’s ability to deliver its aggregate investment performance
compliance, and degree of customer intended benefits to an organization, and benefit realization of the portfolio.
satisfaction. and by the program’s efficiency and
effectiveness in delivering those
�
benefits.
�
13
1.2.3.2 PROGRAM MANAGEMENT
Program management is defined as the application of knowledge, skills, and principles to a program to achieve the
program objectives and to obtain benefits and control not available by managing program components individually.
A program component refers to projects and other programs within a program. Project management focuses on
interdependencies within a project to determine the optimal approach for managing the project. Program management
focuses on the interdependencies between projects and between projects and the program level to determine the
optimal approach for managing them. Actions related to these program and project-level interdependencies may include:
Aligning with the organizational or strategic direction that affects program and project goals and objectives;
uu
Allocating the program scope into program components;

uu
Managing interdependencies among the components of the program to best serve the program;
uu
Managing program risks that may impact multiple projects in the program;
uu
Resolving constraints and conflicts that affect multiple projects within the program;
uu
Resolving issues between component projects and the program level;

uu
Managing change requests within a shared governance framework;

uu
Allocating budgets across multiple projects within the program; and

uu
Assuring benefits realization from the program and component projects.

uu
An example of a program is a new communications satellite system with projects for the design and construction of
the satellite and the ground stations, the launch of the satellite, and the integration of the system.
For more information on program management, see The Standard for Program Management [3].
�
�
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1.2.3.3 PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
A portfolio is defined as projects, programs, subsidiary portfolios, and operations managed as a group to achieve
strategic objectives.
Portfolio management is defined as the centralized management of one or more portfolios to achieve strategic
objectives. The programs or projects of the portfolio may not necessarily be interdependent or directly related.
The aim of portfolio management is to:
Guide organizational investment decisions.
uu
Select the optimal mix of programs and projects to meet strategic objectives.
uu
Provide decision-making transparency.

uu
Prioritize team and physical resource allocation.

uu
Increase the likelihood of realizing the desired return on investment.

uu
Centralize the management of the aggregate risk profile of all components.

uu
Portfolio management also confirms that the portfolio is consistent with and aligned with organizational strategies.
Maximizing the value of the portfolio requires careful examination of the components that comprise the portfolio.
Components are prioritized so that those contributing the most to the organization’s strategic objectives have the
required financial, team, and physical resources.
For example, an infrastructure organization that has the strategic objective of maximizing the return on its investments
may put together a portfolio that includes a mix of projects in oil and gas, power, water, roads, rail, and airports. From
this mix, the organization may choose to manage related projects as one portfolio. All of the power projects may be
grouped together as a power portfolio. Similarly, all of the water projects may be grouped together as a water portfolio.
However, when the organization has projects in designing and constructing a power plant and then operates the power
plant to generate energy, those related projects can be grouped in one program. Thus, the power program and similar
water program become integral components of the portfolio of the infrastructure organization.
For more information on portfolio management, see The Standard for Portfolio Management [2].
�
�
15
1.2.3.4 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Operations management is an area that is outside the scope of formal project management as described in this guide.
Operations management is concerned with the ongoing production of goods and/or services. It ensures that business
operations continue efficiently by using the optimal resources needed to meet customer demands. It is concerned with
managing processes that transform inputs (e.g., materials, components, energy, and labor) into outputs (e.g., products,
goods, and/or services).
1.2.3.5 OPERATIONS AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Changes in business or organizational operations may be the focus of a project—especially when there are substantial
changes to business operations as a result of a new product or service delivery. Ongoing operations are outside of the
scope of a project; however, there are intersecting points where the two areas cross.
Projects can intersect with operations at various points during the product life cycle, such as;
When developing a new product, upgrading a product, or expanding outputs;
uu
While improving operations or the product development process;

uu
At the end of the product life cycle; and

uu
At each closeout phase.

uu
At each point, deliverables and knowledge are transferred between the project and operations for implementation of
the delivered work. This implementation occurs through a transfer of project resources or knowledge to operations or
through a transfer of operational resources to the project.
1.2.3.6 ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT (OPM) AND STRATEGIES
Portfolios, programs, and projects are aligned with or driven by organizational strategies and differ in the way each
contributes to the achievement of strategic goals:
Portfolio management aligns portfolios with organizational strategies by selecting the right programs or projects,
uu
prioritizing the work, and providing the needed resources.
Program management harmonizes its program components and controls interdependencies in order to realize
uu
specified benefits.
Project management enables the achievement of organizational goals and objectives.
uu
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Within portfolios or programs, projects are a means of achieving organizational goals and objectives. This is often
accomplished in the context of a strategic plan that is the primary factor guiding investments in projects. Alignment
with the organization’s strategic business goals can be achieved through the systematic management of portfolios,
programs, and projects through the application of organizational project management (OPM). OPM is defined as a
framework in which portfolio, program, and project management are integrated with organizational enablers in order to
achieve strategic objectives.
The purpose of OPM is to ensure that the organization undertakes the right projects and allocates critical resources
appropriately. OPM also helps to ensure that all levels in the organization understand the strategic vision, the initiatives
that support the vision, the objectives, and the deliverables. Figure 1-4 shows the organizational environment where
strategy, portfolio, programs, projects, and operations interact.
For more information on OPM, refer to Implementing Organizational Project Management: A Practice Guide [8].
Organizational Environment
Portfolio Review and Adjustments
Programs
Portfolio: and Projects: Operations:
Strategy Value Business Value
Results
Decisions Delivery Realization
Business Impact Analysis
Value Performance Analysis

�
Figure 1-4. Organizational Project Management

�
1.2.4 COMPONENTS OF THE GUIDE

Projects comprise several key components that, when effectively managed, result in their successful completion.
This guide identifies and explains these components. The various components interrelate to one another during the
management of a project.
The key components are described briefly in Table 1-3. These components are more fully explained in the sections
that follow the table.
17
Table 1-3. Description of PMBOK® Guide Key Components
PMBOK ® Guide Key Component Brief Description
Project life cycle (Section 1.2.4.1) The series of phases that a project passes through from its start to its completion.
Project phase (Section 1.2.4.2) A collection of logically related project activities that culminates in the completion of
one or more deliverables.
Phase gate (Section 1.2.4.3) A review at the end of a phase in which a decision is made to continue to the next
phase, to continue with modification, or to end a program or project.
Project management processes A systematic series of activities directed toward causing an end result where one or
(Section 1.2.4.4) more inputs will be acted upon to create one or more outputs.
Project Management Process Group A logical grouping of project management inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs.
(Section 1.2.4.5) The Project Management Process Groups include Initiating, Planning, Executing,
Monitoring and Controlling, and Closing. Project Management Process Groups are not
project phases.
Project Management Knowledge Area An identified area of project management defined by its knowledge requirements and
(Section 1.2.4.6) described in terms of its component processes, practices, inputs, outputs, tools, and
techniques.
Project Life Cycle
Starting Organizing Carrying Out Ending the

the Project and Preparing the Work Project
Process Groups
Monitoring
Initiating Planning Executing and Closing
Processes Processes Processes Controlling Processes
Processes
10 Knowledge Areas
KEY: Phase Project Potential Timeline

Gate Phase Use
Figure 1-5. Interrelationship of PMBOK® Guide Key Components in Projects
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1.2.4.1 PROJECT AND DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLES
A project life cycle is the series of phases that a project passes through from its start to its completion. It provides
the basic framework for managing the project. This basic framework applies regardless of the specific project work
involved. The phases may be sequential, iterative, or overlapping. All projects can be mapped to the generic life cycle
shown in Figure 1-5.
Project life cycles can be predictive or adaptive. Within a project life cycle, there are generally one or more phases
that are associated with the development of the product, service, or result. These are called a development life cycle.
Development life cycles can be predictive, iterative, incremental, adaptive, or a hybrid model:
In a predictive life cycle, the project scope, time, and cost are determined in the early phases of the life cycle. Any
uu
changes to the scope are carefully managed. Predictive life cycles may also be referred to as waterfall life cycles.
In an iterative life cycle, the project scope is generally determined early in the project life cycle, but time
uu
and cost estimates are routinely modified as the project team’s understanding of the product increases.
Iterations develop the product through a series of repeated cycles, while increments successively add to the
functionality of the product.
In an incremental life cycle, the deliverable is produced through a series of iterations that successively add
uu
functionality within a predetermined time frame. The deliverable contains the necessary and sufficient capability
to be considered complete only after the final iteration.
Adaptive life cycles are agile, iterative, or incremental. The detailed scope is defined and approved before the start
uu
of an iteration. Adaptive life cycles are also referred to as agile or change-driven life cycles. See Appendix X3.
A hybrid life cycle is a combination of a predictive and an adaptive life cycle. Those elements of the project that
uu
are well known or have fixed requirements follow a predictive development life cycle, and those elements that
are still evolving follow an adaptive development life cycle.
It is up to the project management team to determine the best life cycle for each project. The project life cycle
needs to be flexible enough to deal with the variety of factors included in the project. Life cycle flexibility may be
accomplished by:
Identifying the process or processes needed to be performed in each phase,
uu
Performing the process or processes identified in the appropriate phase,

uu
Adjusting the various attributes of a phase (e.g., name, duration, exit criteria, and entrance criteria).
uu
Project life cycles are independent of product life cycles, which may be produced by a project. A product life cycle
is the series of phases that represent the evolution of a product, from concept through delivery, growth, maturity, and
to retirement.
19
1.2.4.2 PROJECT PHASE
A project phase is a collection of logically related project activities that culminates in the completion of one or more
deliverables. The phases in a life cycle can be described by a variety of attributes. Attributes may be measurable and
unique to a specific phase. Attributes may include but are not limited to:
Name (e.g., Phase A, Phase B, Phase 1, Phase 2, proposal phase),
uu
Number (e.g., three phases in the project, five phases in the project),
uu
Duration (e.g., 1 week, 1 month, 1 quarter),

uu
Resource requirements (e.g., people, buildings, equipment),

uu
Entrance criteria for a project to move into that phase (e.g., specified approvals documented, specified documents
uu
completed), and
Exit criteria for a project to complete a phase (e.g., documented approvals, completed documents, completed
uu
deliverables).
Projects may be separated into distinct phases or subcomponents. These phases or subcomponents are generally
given names that indicate the type of work done in that phase. Examples of phase names include but are not limited to:
Concept development,
uu
Feasibility study,
uu
Customer requirements,
uu
Solution development,
uu
Design,
uu
Prototype,
uu
Build,
uu
Test,
uu
Transition,
uu
Commissioning,
uu
Milestone review, and

uu
Lessons learned.
uu
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The project phases may be established based on various factors including, but not limited to:
Management needs;
uu
Nature of the project;

uu
Unique characteristics of the organization, industry, or technology;

uu
Project elements including, but not limited to, technology, engineering, business, process, or legal; and
uu
Decision points (e.g., funding, project go/no-go, and milestone review).

uu
Using multiple phases may provide better insight to managing the project. It also provides an opportunity to assess
the project performance and take necessary corrective or preventive actions in subsequent phases. A key component
used with project phases is the phase review (see Section 1.2.4.3).
1.2.4.3 PHASE GATE
A phase gate, is held at the end of a phase. The project’s performance and progress are compared to project and
business documents including but not limited to:
Project business case (see Section 1.2.6.1),
uu
Project charter (see Section 4.1),

uu
Project management plan (see Section 4.2), and

uu
Benefits management plan (see Section 1.2.6.2).

uu
A decision (e.g., go/no-go decision) is made as a result of this comparison to:

Continue to the next phase,
uu
Continue to the next phase with modification,

uu
End the project,

uu
Remain in the phase, or

uu
Repeat the phase or elements of it.

uu
Depending on the organization, industry, or type of work, phase gates may be referred to by other terms such as,
phase review, stage gate, kill point, and phase entrance or phase exit. Organizations may use these reviews to examine
other pertinent items which are beyond the scope of this guide, such as product-related documents or models.
21
1.2.4.4 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES
The project life cycle is managed by executing a series of project management activities known as project
management processes. Every project management process produces one or more outputs from one or more inputs by
using appropriate project management tools and techniques. The output can be a deliverable or an outcome. Outcomes
are an end result of a process. Project management processes apply globally across industries.
Project management processes are logically linked by the outputs they produce. Processes may contain overlapping
activities that occur throughout the project. The output of one process generally results in either:
An input to another process, or
uu
A deliverable of the project or project phase.

uu
Figure 1-6 shows an example of how inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs relate to each other within a process,
and with other processes.
Inputs Tools & Techniques Outputs
.1 Input H .1 Technique A .1 Project Output A

.2 Input J .2 Tool C .2 Project Output B
Figure 1-6. Example Process: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
The number of process iterations and interactions between processes varies based on the needs of the project.
Processes generally fall into one of three categories:
Processes used once or at predefined points in the project. The processes Develop Project Charter and Close
uu
Project or Phase are examples.
Processes that are performed periodically as needed. The process Acquire Resources is performed as
uu
resources are needed. The process Conduct Procurements is performed prior to needing the procured item.
Processes that are performed continuously throughout the project. The process Define Activities may
uu
occur throughout the project life cycle, especially if the project uses rolling wave planning or an adaptive
development approach. Many of the monitoring and control processes are ongoing from the start of the
project, until it is closed out.
Project management is accomplished through the appropriate application and integration of logically grouped project
management processes. While there are different ways of grouping processes, the PMBOK® Guide groups processes
into five categories called Process Groups.
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1.2.4.5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESS GROUPS
A Project Management Process Group is a logical grouping of project management processes to achieve specific
project objectives. Process Groups are independent of project phases. Project management processes are grouped into
the following five Project Management Process Groups:
Initiating Process Group. Those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an existing
uu
project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase.
Planning Process Group. Those processes required to establish the scope of the project, refine the objectives,
uu
and define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken to achieve.
Executing Process Group. Those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project management
uu
plan to satisfy the project requirements.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group. Those processes required to track, review, and regulate the
uu
progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required; and
initiate the corresponding changes.
Closing Process Group. Those processes performed to formally complete or close the project, phase, or contract.
uu
Process flow diagrams are used throughout this guide. The project management processes are linked by
specific inputs and outputs where the result or outcome of one process may become the input to another process
that is not necessarily in the same Process Group. Note that Process Groups are not the same as project phases
(see Section 1.2.4.2).
1.2.4.6 PROJECT MANAGEMENT KNOWLEDGE AREAS
In addition to Process Groups, processes are also categorized by Knowledge Areas. A Knowledge Area is an identified
area of project management defined by its knowledge requirements and described in terms of its component processes,
practices, inputs, outputs, tools, and techniques.
Although the Knowledge Areas are interrelated, they are defined separately from the project management perspective.
The ten Knowledge Areas identified in this guide are used in most projects most of the time. The ten Knowledge Areas
described in this guide are:
�
Project Integration Management. Includes the processes and activities to identify, define, combine, unify,
uu
and coordinate the various processes and project management activities within the Project Management
�
Process Groups.
Project Scope Management. Includes the processes required to ensure the project includes all the work
uu
required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully.
23
Project Schedule Management. Includes the processes required to manage the timely completion of the project.
uu
Project Cost Management. Includes the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting, financing,
uu
funding, managing, and controlling costs so the project can be completed within the approved budget.
Project Quality Management. Includes the processes for incorporating the organization’s quality policy
uu
regarding planning, managing, and controlling project and product quality requirements, in order to meet
stakeholders’ expectations.
Project Resource Management. Includes the processes to identify, acquire, and manage the resources needed
uu
for the successful completion of the project.
Project Communications Management. Includes the processes required to ensure timely and appropriate
uu
planning, collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, control, monitoring, and ultimate
disposition of project information.
Project Risk Management. Includes the processes of conducting risk management planning, identification,
uu
analysis, response planning, response implementation, and monitoring risk on a project.
Project Procurement Management. Includes the processes necessary to purchase or acquire products,
uu
services, or results needed from outside the project team.
Project Stakeholder Management. Includes the processes required to identify the people, groups, or
uu
organizations that could impact or be impacted by the project, to analyze stakeholder expectations and their
impact on the project, and to develop appropriate management strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders
in project decisions and execution.
The needs of a specific project may require one or more additional Knowledge Areas, for example, construction may
require financial management or safety and health management. Table 1-4 maps the Project Management Process
Groups and Knowledge Areas. Sections 4 through 13 provide more detail about each Knowledge Area. This table is an
overview of the basic processes described in Sections 4 through 13.
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Table 1-4. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping
Project Management Process Groups
Knowledge Initiating Planning Executing Monitoring Closing

Areas Process Process Process and Controlling Process
Group Group Group Process Group Group
4. Project 4.1 Develop 4.2 Develop Project 4.3 Direct and 4.5 Monitor and 4.7 Close Project
Integration Project Charter Management Plan Manage Project Control Project or Phase
Management Work Work
4.4 Manage Project 4.6 Perform
Knowledge Integrated Change
Control
5. Project Scope 5.1 Plan Scope 5.5 Validate Scope

Management Management 5.6 Control Scope
5.2 Collect
Requirements
5.3 Define Scope
5.4 Create WBS
6. Project Schedule 6.1 Plan Schedule 6.6 Control

Management Management Schedule
6.2 Define
Activities
6.3 Sequence
Activities
6.4 Estimate
Activity Durations
6.5 Develop
Schedule
7. Project Cost 7.1 Plan Cost 7.4 Control Costs

Management Management
7.2 Estimate Costs
7.3 Determine
Budget
8. Project 8.1 Plan Quality 8.2 Manage Quality 8.3 Control Quality
Quality Management
Management
9. Project 9.1 Plan Resource 9.3 Acquire 9.6 Control
Resource Management Resources Resources
Management 9.2 Estimate 9.4 Develop Team
Activity Resources 9.5 Manage Team
10. Project 10.1 Plan 10.2 Manage 10.3 Monitor

Communications Communications Communications Communications
11. Project Risk 11.1 Plan Risk 11.6 Implement 11.7 Monitor Risks
�
Management Management Risk Responses

11.2 Identify Risks
11.3 Perform
�
Qualitative Risk
Analysis
11.4 Perform
Quantitative Risk
Analysis
11.5 Plan Risk
Responses
12. Project 12.1 Plan 12.2 Conduct 12.3 Control

Procurement Procurement Procurements Procurements
13. Project 13.1 Identify 13.2 Plan 13.3 Manage 13.4 Monitor
Stakeholder Stakeholders Stakeholder Stakeholder Stakeholder
Management Engagement Engagement Engagement
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1.2.4.7 PROJECT MANAGEMENT DATA AND INFORMATION
Throughout the life cycle of a project, a significant amount of data is collected, analyzed, and transformed. Project
data are collected as a result of various processes and are shared within the project team. The collected data
are analyzed in context, aggregated, and transformed to become project information during various processes.
Information is communicated verbally or stored and distributed in various formats as reports. See Section 4.3 for
more detail on this topic.
Project data are regularly collected and analyzed throughout the project life cycle. The following definitions identify
key terminology regarding project data and information:
Work performance data. The raw observations and measurements identified during activities performed to
uu
carry out the project work. Examples include reported percent of work physically completed, quality and technical
performance measures, start and finish dates of schedule activities, number of change requests, number of
defects, actual costs, actual durations, etc. Project data are usually recorded in a Project Management Information
System (PMIS) (see Section 4.3.2.2) and in project documents.
Work performance information. The performance data collected from various controlling processes, analyzed
uu
in context and integrated based on relationships across areas. Examples of performance information are status
of deliverables, implementation status for change requests, and forecast estimates to complete.
Work performance reports. The physical or electronic representation of work performance information
uu
compiled in project documents, which is intended to generate decisions or raise issues, actions, or
awareness. Examples include status reports, memos, justifications, information notes, electronic dashboards,
recommendations, and updates.
Figure 1-7 shows the flow of project information across the various processes used in managing the project.
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Executing
Processes
• Work performance data
Controling
Processes
• Project management plan • Work performance information

and project documents updates
Overall
Project Control
• Work performance reports
Project Change Various Project Project

Control • Approved
Processes Communications
change
requests
• Project team members
• Project stakeholders
Figure 1-7. Project Data, Information, and Report Flow

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1.2.5 TAILORING
Usually, project managers apply a project management methodology to their work. A methodology is a system of
practices, techniques, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline. This definition makes it clear that
this guide itself is not a methodology.
This guide and The Standard for Project Management [1] are recommended references for tailoring, because these
standard documents identify the subset of the project management body of knowledge that is generally recognized as
good practice. “Good practice” does not mean that the knowledge described should always be applied uniformly to all
projects. Specific methodology recommendations are outside the scope of this guide.
Project management methodologies may be:
Developed by experts within the organization,
uu
Purchased from vendors,

uu
Obtained from professional associations, or

uu
Acquired from government agencies.

uu
The appropriate project management processes, inputs, tools, techniques, outputs, and life cycle phases should be
selected to manage a project. This selection activity is known as tailoring project management to the project. The project
manager collaborates with the project team, sponsor, organizational management, or some combination thereof, in the
tailoring. In some cases, the organization may require specific project management methodologies be used.
Tailoring is necessary because each project is unique; not every process, tool, technique, input, or output identified
in the PMBOK® Guide is required on every project. Tailoring should address the competing constraints of scope,
schedule, cost, resources, quality, and risk. The importance of each constraint is different for each project, and the
project manager tailors the approach for managing these constraints based on the project environment, organizational
culture, stakeholder needs, and other variables.
In tailoring project management, the project manager should also consider the varying levels of governance that may
be required and within which the project will operate, as well as considering the culture of the organization. In addition,
consideration of whether the customer of the project is internal or external to the organization may affect project
management tailoring decisions.
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Sound project management methodologies take into account the unique nature of projects and allow tailoring,
to some extent, by the project manager. However, the tailoring that is included in the methodology may still require
�
additional tailoring for a given project.
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1.2.6 PROJECT MANAGEMENT BUSINESS DOCUMENTS
The project manager needs to ensure that the project management approach captures the intent of business
documents. These documents are defined in Table 1-5. These two documents are interdependent and iteratively
developed and maintained throughout the life cycle of the project.
Table 1-5. Project Business Documents
Project Business Documents Definition
Project business case A documented economic feasibility study used to establish the validity of the benefits
of a selected component lacking sufficient definition and that is used as a basis for
the authorization of further project management activities.
Project benefits management plan The documented explanation defining the processes for creating, maximizing, and
sustaining the benefits provided by a project.
The project sponsor is generally accountable for the development and maintenance of the project business case
document. The project manager is responsible for providing recommendations and oversight to keep the project
business case, project management plan, project charter, and project benefits management plan success measures in
alignment with one another and with the goals and objectives of the organization.
Project managers should appropriately tailor the noted project management documents for their projects. In some
organizations, the business case and benefits management plan are maintained at the program level. Project managers
should work with the appropriate program managers to ensure the project management documents are aligned with
the program documents. Figure 1-8 illustrates the interrelationship of these critical project management business
documents and the needs assessment. Figure 1-8 shows an approximation of the life cycle of these various documents
against the project life cycle.
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Project Life Cycle
Pre-Project Starting Organizing Carrying Out Completing

Work the Project and Preparing the Work the Project
Timeline
Needs
Assessment
Phase
Business Gate
Case
Project
Charter
Benefits Project
Plan Plan
Generic Phases
Figure 1-8. Interrelationship of Needs Assessment and Critical Business/Project Documents
1.2.6.1 PROJECT BUSINESS CASE
The project business case is a documented economic feasibility study used to establish the validity of the benefits
of a selected component lacking sufficient definition and that is used as a basis for the authorization of further project
management activities. The business case lists the objectives and reasons for project initiation. It helps measure the
project success at the end of the project against the project objectives. The business case is a project business document
that is used throughout the project life cycle. The business case may be used before the project initiation and may result
in a go/no-go decision for the project.
A needs assessment often precedes the business case. The needs assessment involves understanding business
goals and objectives, issues, and opportunities and recommending proposals to address them. The results of the needs
assessment may be summarized in the business case document.
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The process of defining the business need, analyzing the situation, making recommendations, and defining evaluation
criteria is applicable to any organization’s projects. A business case may include but is not limited to documenting
the following:
Business needs:
uu
nuDetermination of what is prompting the need for action;

nuSituational statement documenting the business problem or opportunity to be addressed including the value
to be delivered to the organization;
nuIdentification of stakeholders affected; and
nuIdentification of the scope.
Analysis of the situation:

uu
nuIdentification of organizational strategies, goals, and objectives;

nuIdentification of root cause(s) of the problem or main contributors of an opportunity;
nuGap analysis of capabilities needed for the project versus existing capabilities of the organization;
nuIdentification of known risks;
nuIdentification of critical success factors;
nuIdentification of decision criteria by which the various courses of action may be assessed;
Examples of criteria categories used for analysis of a situation are:

muRequired. This is a criterion that is “required” to be fulfilled to address the problem or opportunity.
muDesired. This is a criterion that is “desired” to be fulfilled to address the problem or opportunity.
muOptional.This is a criterion that is not essential. Fulfillment of this criterion may become a differentiator
between alternative courses of action.
nuIdentification of a set of options to be considered for addressing the business problem or opportunity. Options
are alternative courses of action that may be taken by the organization. Options may also be described as
business scenarios. For example, a business case could present the following three options:
muDo nothing. This is also referred to as the “business as usual” option. Selection of this option results in the
project not being authorized.
muDo the minimum work possible to address the problem or opportunity. The minimum may be established
by identifying the set of documented criteria that are key in addressing the problem or opportunity.
muDo more than the minimum work possible to address the problem or opportunity. This option meets the
minimum set of criteria and some or all of the other documented criteria. There may be more than one of
these options documented in the business case.
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Recommendation:
uu
nuA statement of the recommended option to pursue in the project;

nuItems to include in the statement may include but are not limited to:
muAnalysis results for the potential option;
muConstraints, assumptions, risks, and dependencies for the potential options;
and
muSuccess measures (see Section 1.2.6.4).
nuAn implementation approach that may include but is not limited to:
muMilestones,
muDependencies, and
muRoles and responsibilities.

Evaluation:
uu
nuStatement describing the plan for measuring benefits the project will deliver. This should include any ongoing
operational aspects of the recommended option beyond initial implementation.
The business case document provides the basis to measure success and progress throughout the project life cycle
by comparing the results with the objectives and the identified success criteria. See Business Analysis for Practitioners:
A Practice Guide [7].
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1.2.6.2 PROJECT BENEFITS MANAGEMENT PLAN
The project benefits management plan is the document that describes how and when the benefits of the project
will be delivered, and describes the mechanisms that should be in place to measure those benefits. A project benefit
is defined as an outcome of actions, behaviors, products, services, or results that provide value to the sponsoring
organization as well as to the project’s intended beneficiaries. Development of the benefits management plan begins
early in the project life cycle with the definition of the target benefits to be realized. The benefits management plan
describes key elements of the benefits and may include but is not limited to documenting the following:
Target benefits (e.g., the expected tangible and intangible value to be gained by the implementation of the
uu
project; financial value is expressed as net present value);
Strategic alignment (e.g., how well the project benefits align to the business strategies of the organization);
uu
Timeframe for realizing benefits (e.g., benefits by phase, short-term, long-term, and ongoing);
uu
Benefits owner (e.g., the accountable person to monitor, record, and report realized benefits throughout the
uu
timeframe established in the plan);
Metrics (e.g., the measures to be used to show benefits realized, direct measures, and indirect measures);
uu
Assumptions (e.g., factors expected to be in place or to be in evidence); and

uu
Risks (e.g., risks for realization of benefits).

uu
Developing the benefits management plan makes use of the data and information documented in the business case
and needs assessment. For example, the cost-benefit analyses recorded in the documents illustrate the estimate of
costs compared to the value of the benefits realized by the project. The benefits management plan and the project
management plan include a description of how the business value resulting from the project becomes part of the
organization’s ongoing operations, including the metrics to be used. The metrics provide verification of the business
value and validation of the project’s success.
Development and maintenance of the project benefits management plan is an iterative activity. This document
complements the business case, project charter, and project management plan. The project manager works with the
sponsor to ensure that the project charter, project management plan, and the benefits management plan remain in
alignment throughout the life cycle of the project. See Business Analysis for Practitioners: A Practice Guide [7], The
Standard for Program Management [3], and The Standard for Portfolio Management [2].
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1.2.6.3 PROJECT CHARTER AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
The project charter is defined as a document issued by the project sponsor that formally authorizes the existence
of a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
The project management plan is defined as the document that describes how the project will be executed, monitored,
and controlled.
See Section 4 on Project Integration Management for more information on the project charter and the project
management plan.
1.2.6.4 PROJECT SUCCESS MEASURES
One of the most common challenges in project management is determining whether or not a project is successful.
Traditionally, the project management metrics of time, cost, scope, and quality have been the most important factors
in defining the success of a project. More recently, practitioners and scholars have determined that project success
should also be measured with consideration toward achievement of the project objectives.
Project stakeholders may have different ideas as to what the successful completion of a project will look like and
which factors are the most important. It is critical to clearly document the project objectives and to select objectives that
are measurable. Three questions that the key stakeholders and the project manager should answer are:
What does success look like for this project?
uu
How will success be measured?

uu
What factors may impact success?

uu
The answer to these questions should be documented and agreed upon by the key stakeholders and the
project manager.
Project success may include additional criteria linked to the organizational strategy and to the delivery of business
results. These project objectives may include but are not limited to:
Completing the project benefits management plan;
uu
Meeting the agreed-upon financial measures documented in the business case. These financial measures may
uu
include but are not limited to:
nuNet present value (NPV),
nuReturn on investment (ROI),
nuInternal rate of return (IRR),
nuPayback period (PBP), and
nuBenefit-cost ratio (BCR).
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Meeting business case nonfinancial objectives;
uu
Completing movement of an organization from its current state to the desired future state;
uu
Fulfilling contract terms and conditions;

uu
Meeting organizational strategy, goals, and objectives;

uu
Achieving stakeholder satisfaction;

uu
Acceptable customer/end-user adoption;

uu
Integration of deliverables into the organization’s operating environment;

uu
Achieving agreed-upon quality of delivery;

uu
Meeting governance criteria; and

uu
Achieving other agreed-upon success measures or criteria (e.g., process throughput).

uu
The project team needs to be able to assess the project situation, balance the demands, and maintain proactive
communication with stakeholders in order to deliver a successful project.
When the business alignment for a project is constant, the chance for project success greatly increases because the
project remains aligned with the strategic direction of the organization.
It is possible for a project to be successful from a scope/schedule/budget viewpoint, and to be unsuccessful from a
business viewpoint. This can occur when there is a change in the business needs or the market environment before the
project is completed.
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2
THE EN V IRO NMENT I N WHI C H P ROJEC TS OP ERATE
2.1 OVERVIEW
Projects exist and operate in environments that may have an influence on them. These influences can have a favorable
or unfavorable impact on the project. Two major categories of influences are enterprise environmental factors (EEFs) and
organizational process assets (OPAs).
EEFs originate from the environment outside of the project and often outside of the enterprise. EEFs may have an
impact at the organizational, portfolio, program, or project level. See Section 2.2 for additional information on EEFs.
OPAs are internal to the organization. These may arise from the organization itself, a portfolio, a program, another
project, or a combination of these. Figure 2-1 shows the breakdown of project influences into EEFs and OPAs. See
Section 2.3 for additional information on OPAs.
Influences
EEFs Internal
OPAs
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Processes, Corporate
External Internal Policies, and Knowledge
Procedures Base
Figure 2-1. Project Influences
In addition to EEFs and OPAs, organizational systems play a significant role in the life cycle of the project. System
factors that impact the power, influence, interests, competencies, and political capabilities of the people to act within the
organizational system are discussed further in the section on organizational systems (see Section 2.4).
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2.2 ENTERPRISE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Enterprise environmental factors (EEFs) refer to conditions, not under the control of the project team, that influence,
constrain, or direct the project. These conditions can be internal and/or external to the organization. EEFs are
considered as inputs to many project management processes, specifically for most planning processes. These factors
may enhance or constrain project management options. In addition, these factors may have a positive or negative
influence on the outcome.
EEFs vary widely in type or nature. These factors need to be considered if the project is to be effective. EEFs include
but are not limited to the factors described in Sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2.
2.2.1 EEFS INTERNAL TO THE ORGANIZATION

The following EEFs are internal to the organization:
Organizational culture, structure, and governance. Examples include vision, mission, values, beliefs, cultural
uu
norms, leadership style, hierarchy and authority relationships, organizational style, ethics, and code of conduct.
Geographic distribution of facilities and resources. Examples include factory locations, virtual teams, shared
uu
systems, and cloud computing.
Infrastructure. Examples include existing facilities, equipment, organizational telecommunications channels,
uu
information technology hardware, availability, and capacity.
Information technology software. Examples include scheduling software tools, configuration management
uu
systems, web interfaces to other online automated systems, and work authorization systems.
Resource availability. Examples include contracting and purchasing constraints, approved providers and
uu
subcontractors, and collaboration agreements.
Employee capability. Examples include existing human resources expertise, skills, competencies, and
uu
specialized knowledge.
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2.2.2 EEFS EXTERNAL TO THE ORGANIZATION
The following EEFs are external to the organization.
Marketplace conditions. Examples include competitors, market share brand recognition, and trademarks.
uu
Social and cultural influences and issues. Examples include political climate, codes of conduct, ethics,
uu
and perceptions.
Legal restrictions. Examples include country or local laws and regulations related to security, data protection,
uu
business conduct, employment, and procurement.
Commercial databases. Examples include benchmarking results, standardized cost estimating data, industry
uu
risk study information, and risk databases.
Academic research. Examples include industry studies, publications, and benchmarking results.
uu
Government or industry standards. Examples include regulatory agency regulations and standards related to
uu
products, production, environment, quality, and workmanship.
Financial considerations. Examples include currency exchange rates, interest rates, inflation rates, tariffs, and
uu
geographic location.
Physical environmental elements. Examples include working conditions, weather, and constraints.
uu
2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS ASSETS

Organizational process assets (OPAs) are the plans, processes, policies, procedures, and knowledge bases specific to
and used by the performing organization. These assets influence the management of the project.
OPAs include any artifact, practice, or knowledge from any or all of the performing organizations involved in the
project that can be used to execute or govern the project. The OPAs also include the organization’s lessons learned from
previous projects and historical information. OPAs may include completed schedules, risk data, and earned value data.
OPAs are inputs to many project management processes. Since OPAs are internal to the organization, the project team
members may be able to update and add to the organizational process assets as necessary throughout the project. They
may be grouped into two categories:
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Processes, policies, and procedures; and

uu
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Organizational knowledge bases.

uu
39
Generally, the assets in the first category are not updated as part of the project work. Processes, policies, and
procedures are usually established by the project management office (PMO) or another function outside of the project.
These can be updated only by following the appropriate organizational policies associated with updating processes,
policies, or procedures. Some organizations encourage the team to tailor templates, life cycles, and checklists for the
project. In these instances, the project management team should tailor those assets to meet the needs of the project.
The assets in the second category are updated throughout the project with project information. For example,
information on financial performance, lessons learned, performance metrics and issues, and defects are continually
updated throughout the project.
2.3.1 PROCESSES, POLICIES, AND PROCEDURES

The organization’s processes and procedures for conducting project work include but are not limited to:
Initiating and Planning:
uu
nuGuidelines and criteria for tailoring the organization’s set of standard processes and procedures to satisfy the
specific needs of the project;
nuSpecific organizational standards such as policies (e.g., human resources policies, health and safety policies,
security and confidentiality policies, quality policies, procurement policies, and environmental policies);
nuProduct and project life cycles, and methods and procedures (e.g., project management methods,
estimation metrics, process audits, improvement targets, checklists, and standardized process definitions
for use in the organization);
nuTemplates (e.g., project management plans, project documents, project registers, report formats, contract
templates, risk categories, risk statement templates, probability and impact definitions, probability and
impact matrices, and stakeholder register templates); and
nuPreapproved supplier lists and various types of contractual agreements (e.g., fixed-price, cost-reimbursable,
and time and material contracts).
Executing, Monitoring, and Controlling:
uu
nuChange control procedures, including the steps by which performing organization standards, policies, plans, and
procedures or any project documents will be modified, and how any changes will be approved and validated;
nuTraceability matrices;
nuFinancial controls procedures (e.g., time reporting, required expenditure and disbursement reviews,
accounting codes, and standard contract provisions);
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nuIssue and defect management procedures (e.g., defining issue and defect controls, identifying and resolving
issues and defects, and tracking action items);
nuResource availability control and assignment management;
nuOrganizational communication requirements (e.g., specific communication technology available, authorized
communication media, record retention policies, videoconferencing, collaborative tools, and security
requirements);
nuProcedures for prioritizing, approving, and issuing work authorizations;
nuTemplates (e.g., risk register, issue log, and change log);
nuStandardized guidelines, work instructions, proposal evaluation criteria, and performance measurement
criteria; and
nuProduct, service, or result verification and validation procedures.
Closing. Project closure guidelines or requirements (e.g., final project audits, project evaluations, deliverable
uu
acceptance, contract closure, resource reassignment, and knowledge transfer to production and/or operations).
2.3.2 ORGANIZATIONAL KNOWLEDGE REPOSITORIES

The organizational knowledge repositories for storing and retrieving information include but are not limited to:
Configuration management knowledge repositories containing the versions of software and hardware components and
uu
baselines of all performing organization standards, policies, procedures, and any project documents;
Financial data repositories containing information such as labor hours, incurred costs, budgets, and any project
uu
cost overruns;
Historical information and lessons learned knowledge repositories (e.g., project records and documents, all project
uu
closure information and documentation, information regarding both the results of previous project selection decisions
and previous project performance information, and information from risk management activities);
Issue and defect management data repositories containing issue and defect status, control information, issue and
uu
defect resolution, and action item results;
Data repositories for metrics used to collect and make available measurement data on processes and
uu
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products; and
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Project files from previous projects (e.g., scope, cost, schedule, and performance measurement baselines, project
uu
calendars, project schedule network diagrams, risk registers, risk reports, and stakeholder registers).
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2.4 ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS
2.4.1 OVERVIEW
Projects operate within the constraints imposed by the organization through their structure and governance framework.
To operate effectively and efficiently, the project manager needs to understand where responsibility, accountability, and
authority reside within the organization. This understanding will help the project manager effectively use his or her
power, influence, competence, leadership, and political capabilities to successfully complete the project.
The interaction of multiple factors within an individual organization creates a unique system that impacts the project
operating in that system. The resulting organizational system determines the power, influence, interests, competence,
and political capabilities of the people who are able to act within the system. The system factors include but are not
limited to:
Management elements,
uu
Governance frameworks, and

uu
Organizational structure types.

uu
The complete information and explanation of the organizational system factors and how the combination of
these factors impacts a project are beyond the scope of this guide. There are disciplines with associated literature,
methodologies, and practices that address these factors in more depth than is possible within this guide. This section
provides an overview of these factors and their interrelationship.
This overview begins by discussing systems in general. A system is a collection of various components that together
can produce results not obtainable by the individual components alone. A component is an identifiable element within
the project or organization that provides a particular function or group of related functions. The interaction of the various
system components creates the organizational culture and capabilities. There are several principles regarding systems:
Systems are dynamic,
uu
Systems can be optimized,

uu
System components can be optimized,

uu
Systems and their components cannot be optimized at the same time, and
uu
Systems are nonlinear in responsiveness (a change in the input does not produce a predictable change in
uu
the output).
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Multiple changes may occur within the system and between the system and its environment. When these changes
take place, adaptive behavior occurs within the components that in turn add to the system’s dynamics. The system’s
dynamics are defined by the interaction between the components based on the relationships and dependencies that
exist between the components.
Systems are typically the responsibility of an organization’s management. The organization’s management examines
the optimization trade-offs between the components and the system in order to take the appropriate action to achieve
the best outcomes for the organization. The results of this examination will impact the project under consideration.
Therefore, it is important that the project manager take these results into account when determining how to fulfill the
project’s objectives. In addition, the project manager should take into account the organization’s governance framework.
2.4.2 ORGANIZATIONAL GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORKS

Recent PMI research reveals that governance refers to organizational or structural arrangements at all levels of
an organization designed to determine and influence the behavior of the organization’s members [9]. This research
suggests that the concept of governance is multidimensional and:
Includes consideration of people, roles, structures, and policies; and
uu
Requires providing direction and oversight through data and feedback.

uu
2.4.2.1 GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK
Governance is the framework within which authority is exercised in organizations. This framework includes but is not
limited to:
Rules,
uu
Policies,
uu
Procedures,
uu
Norms,
uu
Relationships,
uu
Systems, and
uu
Processes.
uu
This framework influences how:

Objectives of the organization are set and achieved,
uu
Risk is monitored and assessed, and

uu
Performance is optimized.
uu
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2.4.2.2 GOVERNANCE OF PORTFOLIOS, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS
The Governance of Portfolios, Programs, and Projects: A Practice Guide [10] describes a common governance
framework aligning organizational project management (OPM) and portfolio, program, and project management.
The practice guide describes four governance domains of alignment, risk, performance, and communications.
Each domain has the following functions: oversight, control, integration, and decision making. Each function has
governance supporting processes and activities for stand-alone projects, or projects operating within the portfolio or
program environments.
Project governance refers to the framework, functions, and processes that guide project management activities in
order to create a unique product, service, or result to meet organizational, strategic, and operational goals. There is
no one governance framework that is effective in all organizations. A governance framework should be tailored to the
organizational culture, types of projects, and the needs of the organization in order to be effective.
For more information regarding project governance, including its implementation, see Governance of Portfolios,
Programs, and Projects: A Practice Guide [10].
2.4.3 MANAGEMENT ELEMENTS

Management elements are the components that comprise the key functions or principles of general management in
the organization. The general management elements are allocated within the organization according to its governance
framework and the organizational structure type selected.
The key functions or principles of management include but are not limited to:
Division of work using specialized skills and availability to perform work;
uu
Authority given to perform work;

uu
Responsibility to perform work appropriately assigned based on such attributes as skill and experience;
uu
Discipline of action (e.g., respect for authority, people, and rules);

uu
Unity of command (e.g., only one person gives orders for any action or activity to an individual);
uu
Unity of direction (e.g., one plan and one head for a group of activities with the same objective);
uu
General goals of the organization take precedence over individual goals;

uu
Paid fairly for work performed;

uu
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Optimal use of resources;
uu
Clear communication channels;

uu
Right materials to the right person for the right job at the right time;
uu
Fair and equal treatment of people in the workplace;

uu
Clear security of work positions;

uu
Safety of people in the workplace;

uu
Open contribution to planning and execution by each person; and

uu
Optimal morale.
uu
Performance of these management elements are assigned to selected individuals within the organization. These
individuals may perform the noted functions within various organizational structures. For example, in a hierarchical
structure, there are horizontal and vertical levels within the organization. These hierarchical levels range from the line
management level through to the executive management level. The responsibility, accountability, and authority assigned
to the hierarchical level indicate how the individual may perform the noted function within that organizational structure.
2.4.4 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TYPES

Determination of the appropriate organizational structure type is a result of the study of tradeoffs between two
key variables. The variables are the organizational structure types available for use and how to optimize them for a
given organization. There is not a one-size-fits-all structure for any given organization. The final structure for a given
organization is unique due to the numerous variables to be considered. Sections 2.4.4.1 and 2.4.4.2 give examples of
some of the factors to be included when considering the two variables given. Section 2.4.4.3 discusses one organizational
structure that is prevalent in project management.
2.4.4.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TYPES
Organizational structures take many forms or types. Table 2-1 compares several types of organizational structures
and their influence on projects.
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2.4.4.2 FACTORS IN ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE SELECTION
Each organization considers numerous factors for inclusion in its organizational structure. Each factor may carry
a different level of importance in the final analysis. The combination of the factor, its value, and relative importance
provides the organization’s decision makers with the right information for inclusion in the analysis.
Factors to consider in selecting an organizational structure include but are not limited to:
Degree of alignment with organizational objectives,
uu
Specialization capabilities,
uu
Span of control, efficiency, and effectiveness,

uu
Clear path for escalation of decisions,

uu
Clear line and scope of authority,

uu
Delegation capabilities,
uu
Accountability assignment,
uu
Responsibility assignment,
uu
Adaptability of design,
uu
Simplicity of design,
uu
Efficiency of performance,
uu
Cost considerations,
uu
Physical locations (e.g., colocated, regional, and virtual), and

uu
Clear communication (e.g., policies, status of work, and organization’s vision).

uu
�
�
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Table 2-1. Influences of Organizational Structures on Projects
Project Characteristics
Organizational Work Groups Project Project Resource Who Manages Project

Structure Type Arranged by: Manager’s Manager’s Availability the Project Management
Authority Role Budget? Administrative
Staff
Organic or Simple Flexible; people Little or none Part-time; may or Little or none Owner or operator Little or none
working may not be a
side-by-side designated job role
like coordinator
Functional Job being done Little or none Part-time; may or Little or none Functional manager Part-time
(centralized) (e.g., engineering, may not be a
manufacturing) designated job role
like coordinator
Multi-divisional One of: product; Little or none Part-time; may or Little or none Functional manager Part-time
(may replicate production may not be a
functions for each processes; designated job role
division with little portfolio; program; like coordinator
centralization) geographic region;
customer type
Matrix – strong By job function, Moderate to high Full-time Moderate to high Project manager Full-time
with project designated job role
manager as a
function
Matrix – weak Job function Low Part-time; done as Low Functional manager Part-time
part of another job
and not a
designated job role
like coordinator
Matrix – balanced Job function Low to moderate Part-time; Low to moderate Mixed Part-time
embedded in the
functions as a skill
and may not be a
designated job role
like coordinator
Project-oriented Project High to almost total Full-time High to almost total Project manager Full-time
(composite, designated job role
hybrid)
Virtual Network structure Low to moderate Full-time or Low to moderate Mixed Could be full-time
with nodes at part-time or part-time
points of contact
with other people
Hybrid Mix of other types Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed

�
PMO* Mix of other types High to almost total Full-time High to almost total Project manager Full-time
designated job role
�
*PMO refers to a portfolio, program, or project management office or organization.
47
2.4.4.3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT OFFICE
A project management office (PMO) is an organizational structure that standardizes the project-related governance
processes and facilitates the sharing of resources, methodologies, tools, and techniques. The responsibilities of a PMO
can range from providing project management support functions to the direct management of one or more projects.
There are several types of PMOs in organizations. Each type varies in the degree of control and influence it has on
projects within the organization, such as:
Supportive. Supportive PMOs provide a consultative role to projects by supplying templates, best practices,
uu
training, access to information, and lessons learned from other projects. This type of PMO serves as a project
repository. The degree of control provided by the PMO is low.
Controlling. Controlling PMOs provide support and require compliance through various means. The degree of
uu
control provided by the PMO is moderate. Compliance may involve:
nuAdoption of project management frameworks or methodologies;
nuUse of specific templates, forms, and tools; and
nuConformance to governance frameworks.
Directive. Directive PMOs take control of the projects by directly managing the projects. Project managers are
uu
assigned by and report to the PMO. The degree of control provided by the PMO is high.
The project management office may have organization-wide responsibility. It may play a role in supporting strategic
alignment and delivering organizational value. The PMO integrates data and information from organizational strategic
projects and evaluates how higher-level strategic objectives are being fulfilled. The PMO is the natural liaison between the
organization’s portfolios, programs, projects, and the organizational measurement systems (e.g., balanced scorecard).
The projects supported or administered by the PMO may not be related other than by being managed together. The
specific form, function, and structure of a PMO are dependent upon the needs of the organization that it supports.
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A PMO may have the authority to act as an integral stakeholder and a key decision maker throughout the life of each
project in order to keep it aligned with the business objectives. The PMO may:
Make recommendations,
uu
Lead knowledge transfer,

uu
Terminate projects, and

uu
Take other actions, as required.

uu
A primary function of a PMO is to support project managers in a variety of ways, which may include but are not
limited to:
Managing shared resources across all projects administered by the PMO;
uu
Identifying and developing project management methodology, best practices, and standards;
uu
Coaching, mentoring, training, and oversight;

uu
Monitoring compliance with project management standards, policies, procedures, and templates by means of
uu
project audits;
Developing and managing project policies, procedures, templates, and other shared documentation (organizational
uu
process assets); and
Coordinating communication across projects.
uu
�
�
49
�
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3
THE ROL E OF THE PR OJ EC T M ANAGER
3.1 OVERVIEW
The project manager plays a critical role in the leadership of a project team in order to achieve the project’s
objectives. This role is clearly visible throughout the project. Many project managers become involved in a project from
its initiation through closing. However, in some organizations, a project manager may be involved in evaluation and
analysis activities prior to project initiation. These activities may include consulting with executive and business unit
leaders on ideas for advancing strategic objectives, improving organizational performance, or meeting customer needs.
In some organizational settings, the project manager may also be called upon to manage or assist in business analysis,
business case development, and aspects of portfolio management for a project. A project manager may also be involved
in follow-on activities related to realizing business benefits from the project. The role of a project manager may vary
from organization to organization. Ultimately, the project management role is tailored to fit the organization in the same
way that the project management processes are tailored to fit the project.
A simple analogy may help in understanding the roles of a project manager for a large project by comparing them to
the roles of a conductor for a large orchestra:
Membership and roles. A large project and an orchestra each comprise many members, each playing a
uu
different role. A large orchestra may have more than 100 musicians who are led by a conductor. These musicians
may play 25 different kinds of instruments placed into major sections, such as strings, woodwinds, brass, and
percussion. Similarly, a large project may have more than 100 project members led by a project manager. Team
members may fulfill many different roles, such as design, manufacturing, and facilities management. Like the
major sections of the orchestra, they represent multiple business units or groups within an organization. The
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musicians and the project members make up each leader’s team.

�
Responsibility for team. The project manager and conductor are both responsible for what their teams
uu
produce—the project outcome or the orchestra concert, respectively. The two leaders need to take a holistic
view of their team’s products in order to plan, coordinate, and complete them. The two leaders begin by reviewing
the vision, mission, and objectives of their respective organizations to ensure alignment with their products.
The two leaders establish their interpretation of the vision, mission, and objectives involved in successfully
completing their products. The leaders use their interpretation to communicate and motivate their teams toward
the successful completion of their objectives.
51
Knowledge and skills:
uu
nuThe conductor is not expected to be able to play every instrument in the orchestra, but should possess
musical knowledge, understanding, and experience. The conductor provides the orchestra with leadership,
planning, and coordination through communications. The conductor provides written communication in the
form of musical scores and practice schedules. The conductor also communicates in real time with the team
by using a baton and other body movements.
nuThe project manager is not expected to perform every role on the project, but should possess project
management knowledge, technical knowledge, understanding, and experience. The project manager provides
the project team with leadership, planning, and coordination through communications. The project manager
provides written communications (e.g., documented plans and schedules) and communicates in real time
with the team using meetings and verbal or nonverbal cues.
The remainder of this section covers the key aspects of the role of the project manager. While there are thousands
of books and articles available on the subject, this section is not intended to cover the entire spectrum of information
available. Rather, it is designed to present an overview that will provide the practitioner with a basic understanding of
the subject in preparation for a more concentrated study on the various aspects discussed.
3.2 DEFINITION OF A PROJECT MANAGER

The role of a project manager is distinct from that of a functional manager or operations manager. Typically, the
functional manager focuses on providing management oversight for a functional or business unit. Operations managers
are responsible for ensuring that business operations are efficient. The project manager is the person assigned by the
performing organization to lead the team that is responsible for achieving the project objectives.
3.3 THE PROJECT MANAGER’S SPHERE OF INFLUENCE
3.3.1 OVERVIEW
Project managers fulfill numerous roles within their sphere of influence. These roles reflect the project manager’s
capabilities and are representative of the value and contributions of the project management profession. This section
highlights the roles of the project manager in the various spheres of influence shown in Figure 3-1.
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Stakeholders
Suppliers
Customers
End Users
Sponsors
Governing Bodies
Steering Committees
PMOs
Project Team
PPP Managers
Resource Managers
Project
Manager
Figure 3-1. Example of Project Manager’s Sphere of Influence
3.3.2 THE PROJECT

The project manager leads the project team to meet the project’s objectives and stakeholders’ expectations. The
project manager works to balance the competing constraints on the project with the resources available.
�
The project manager also performs communication roles between the project sponsor, team members, and other
�
stakeholders. This includes providing direction and presenting the vision of success for the project. The project manager
uses soft skills (e.g., interpersonal skills and the ability to manage people) to balance the conflicting and competing
goals of the project stakeholders in order to achieve consensus. In this context, consensus means that the relevant
stakeholders support the project decisions and actions even when there is not 100% agreement.
Research shows that successful project managers consistently and effectively use certain essential skills. Research
reveals that the top 2% of project managers as designated by their bosses and team members distinguish themselves
by demonstrating superior relationship and communication skills while displaying a positive attitude [12].
53
The ability to communicate with stakeholders, including the team and sponsors applies across multiple aspects of
the project including, but not limited to, the following:
Developing finely tuned skills using multiple methods (e.g., verbal, written, and nonverbal);
uu
Creating, maintaining, and adhering to communications plans and schedules;

uu
Communicating predictably and consistently;

uu
Seeking to understand the project stakeholders’ communication needs (communication may be the only
uu
deliverable that some stakeholders received until the project’s end product or service is completed);
Making communications concise, clear, complete, simple, relevant, and tailored;
uu
Including important positive and negative news;

uu
Incorporating feedback channels; and

uu
Relationship skills involving the development of extensive networks of people throughout the project manager’s
uu
spheres of influence. These networks include formal networks such as organizational reporting structures.
However, the informal networks that project managers develop, maintain, and nurture are more important.
Informal networks include the use of established relationships with individuals such as subject matter experts
and influential leaders. Use of these formal and informal networks allows the project manager to engage multiple
people in solving problems and navigating the bureaucracies encountered in a project.
3.3.3 THE ORGANIZATION

The project manager proactively interacts with other project managers. Other independent projects or projects that
are part of the same program may impact a project due to but not limited to the following:
Demands on the same resources,
uu
Priorities of funding,
uu
Receipt or distribution of deliverables, and

uu
Alignment of project goals and objectives with those of the organization.

uu
Interacting with other project managers helps to create a positive influence for fulfilling the various needs of the
project. These needs may be in the form of human, technical, or financial resources and deliverables required by the
team for project completion. The project manager seeks ways to develop relationships that assist the team in achieving
the goals and objectives of the project.
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In addition, the project manager maintains a strong advocacy role within the organization. The project manager
proactively interacts with managers within the organization during the course of the project. The project manager also
works with the project sponsor to address internal political and strategic issues that may impact the team or the viability
or quality of the project.
The project manager may work toward increasing the project management competency and capability within the
organization as a whole and is involved in both tacit and explicit knowledge transfer or integration initiatives (see
Section 4.4 on Manage Project Knowledge). The project manager also works to:
Demonstrate the value of project management,
uu
Increase acceptance of project management in the organization, and

uu
Advance the efficacy of the PMO when one exists in the organization.
uu
Depending on the organizational structure, a project manager may report to a functional manager. In other cases,
a project manager may be one of several project managers who report to a PMO or a portfolio or program manager
who is ultimately responsible for one or more organization-wide projects. The project manager works closely with all
relevant managers to achieve the project objectives and to ensure the project management plan aligns with the portfolio
or program plan. The project manager also works closely and in collaboration with other roles, such as organizational
managers, subject matter experts, and those involved with business analysis. In some situations, the project manager
may be an external consultant placed in a temporary management role.
3.3.4 THE INDUSTRY

The project manager stays informed about current industry trends. The project manager takes this information and
sees how it may impact or apply to the current projects. These trends include but are not limited to:
Product and technology development;
uu
New and changing market niches;

uu
Standards (e.g., project management, quality management, information security management);

uu
Technical support tools;

uu
Economic forces that impact the immediate project;

uu
Influences affecting the project management discipline; and

uu
Process improvement and sustainability strategies.

uu
55
3.3.5 PROFESSIONAL DISCIPLINE
Continuing knowledge transfer and integration is very important for the project manager. This professional
development is ongoing in the project management profession and in other areas where the project manager maintains
subject matter expertise. This knowledge transfer and integration includes but is not limited to:
Contribution of knowledge and expertise to others within the profession at the local, national, and global levels
uu
(e.g., communities of practice, international organizations); and
Participation in training, continuing education, and development:
uu
nuIn the project management profession (e.g., universities, PMI);

nuIn a related profession (e.g., systems engineering, configuration management); and
nuIn other professions (e.g., information technology, aerospace).
3.3.6 ACROSS DISCIPLINES

A professional project manager may choose to orient and educate other professionals regarding the value of a
project management approach to the organization. The project manager may serve as an informal ambassador by
educating the organization as to the advantages of project management with regard to timeliness, quality, innovation,
and resource management.
3.4 PROJECT MANAGER COMPETENCES
3.4.1 OVERVIEW
Recent PMI studies applied the Project Manager Competency Development (PMCD) Framework to the skills needed
by project managers through the use of The PMI Talent Triangle® shown in Figure 3-2. The talent triangle focuses on
three key skill sets:
Technical project management. The knowledge, skills, and behaviors related to specific domains of project,
uu
program, and portfolio management. The technical aspects of performing one’s role.
Leadership. The knowledge, skills, and behaviors needed to guide, motivate, and direct a team, to help an
uu
organization achieve its business goals.
Strategic and business management. The knowledge of and expertise in the industry and organization that
uu
enhanced performance and better delivers business outcomes.
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The PMI Talent Triangle®
me ct
ge oje
nt
na l Pr
Ma nica
Lea
h
Tec
de
rsh
ip
Strategic and
Business Management
©Project Management Institute. All rights reserved.
TM
Figure 3-2. The PMI Talent Triangle®
While technical project management skills are core to program and project management, PMI research indicates that
they are not enough in today’s increasingly complicated and competitive global marketplace. Organizations are seeking
added skills in leadership and business intelligence. Members of various organizations state their belief that these
competencies can support longer-range strategic objectives that contribute to the bottom line. To be the most effective,
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project managers need to have a balance of these three skill sets.

�
57
3.4.2 TECHNICAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Technical project management skills are defined as the skills to effectively apply project management knowledge
to deliver the desired outcomes for programs or projects. There are numerous technical project management skills.
The Knowledge Areas in this guide describe many of these necessary project management skills. Project managers
frequently rely on expert judgment to perform well. Being aware of personal expertise and where to find others with the
needed expertise are important for success as a project manager.
According to research. the top project managers consistently demonstrated several key skills including, but not
limited to, the ability to:
Focus on the critical technical project management elements for each project they manage. This focus is as
uu
simple as having the right artifacts readily available. At the top of the list were the following:
nuCritical success factors for the project,
nuSchedule,
nuSelected financial reports, and
nuIssue log.
Tailor both traditional and agile tools, techniques, and methods for each project.
uu
Make time to plan thoroughly and prioritize diligently.

uu
Manage project elements, including, but not limited to, schedule, cost, resources, and risks.
uu
3.4.3 STRATEGIC AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Strategic and business management skills involve the ability to see the high-level overview of the organization and
effectively negotiate and implement decisions and actions that support strategic alignment and innovation. This ability
may include a working knowledge of other functions such as finance, marketing, and operations. Strategic and business
management skills may also include developing and applying pertinent product and industry expertise. This business
knowledge is also known as domain knowledge. Project managers should be knowledgeable enough about the business
to be able to:
Explain to others the essential business aspects of a project;
uu
Work with the project sponsor, team, and subject matter experts to develop an appropriate project delivery
uu
strategy; and
Implement that strategy in a way that maximizes the business value of the project.
uu
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In order to make the best decisions regarding the successful delivery of their projects, project managers should seek
out and consider the expertise of the operational managers who run the business in their organization. These managers
should know the work performed in their organization and how project plans will affect that work. The more the project
manager is able to know about the project’s subject matter, the better. At a minimum, the project manager should be
knowledgeable enough to explain to others the following aspects of the organization:
Strategy;
uu
Mission;
uu
Goals and objectives;

uu
Products and services;

uu
Operations (e.g., location, type, technology);

uu
The market and the market condition, such as customers, state of the market (i.e., growing or shrinking), and
uu
time-to-market factors, etc.; and
Competition (e.g., what, who, position in the market place).
uu
The project manager should apply the following knowledge and information about the organization to the project to
ensure alignment:
Strategy,
uu
Mission,
uu
Goals and objectives,

uu
Priority,
uu
Tactics, and
uu
Products or services (e.g., deliverables).

uu
�
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59
Strategic and business skills help the project manager to determine which business factors should be considered for
their project. The project manager determines how these business and strategic factors could affect the project while
understanding the interrelationship between the project and the organization. These factors include but are not limited to:
Risks and issues,
uu
Financial implications,
uu
Cost versus benefits analysis (e.g., net present value, return on investment), including the various options
uu
considered,
Business value,
uu
Benefits realization expectations and strategies, and

uu
Scope, budget, schedule, and quality.

uu
Through the application of this business knowledge, a project manager has the ability to make the appropriate
decisions and recommendations for a project. As conditions change, the project manager should be continuously
working with the project sponsor to keep the business and the project strategies aligned.
3.4.4 LEADERSHIP SKILLS

Leadership skills involve the ability to guide, motivate, and direct a team. These skills may include demonstrating
essential capabilities such as negotiation, resilience, communication, problem solving, critical thinking, and interpersonal
skills. Projects are becoming increasingly more complicated with more and more businesses executing their strategy
through projects. Project management is more than just working with numbers, templates, charts, graphs, and computing
systems. A common denominator in all projects is people. People can be counted, but they are not numbers.
3.4.4.1 DEALING WITH PEOPLE
A large part of the project manager’s role involves dealing with people. The project manager should study people’s
behaviors and motivations. The project manager should strive to be a good leader, because leadership is crucial to the
success of projects in organizations. A project manager applies leadership skills and qualities when working with all
project stakeholders, including the project team, the steering team, and project sponsors.
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3.4.4.2 QUALITIES AND SKILLS OF A LEADER
Research shows that the qualities and skills of a leader include but are not limited to:
Being a visionary (e.g., help to describe the products, goals, and objectives of the project; able to dream and
uu
translate those dreams for others);
Being optimistic and positive;
uu
Being collaborative;
uu
Managing relationships and conflict by:

uu
nuBuilding trust;
nuSatisfying concerns;
nuSeeking consensus;
nuBalancing competing and opposing goals;
nuApplying persuasion, negotiation, compromise, and conflict resolution skills;
nuDeveloping and nurturing personal and professional networks;
nuTaking a long-term view that relationships are just as important as the project; and
nuContinuously developing and applying political acumen.
Communicating by:
uu
nuSpending sufficient time communicating (research shows that top project managers spend about 90% of
their time on a project in communicating);
nuManaging expectations;
nuAccepting feedback graciously;
nuGiving feedback constructively; and
nuAsking and listening.
Being respectful (helping others retain their autonomy), courteous, friendly, kind, honest, trustworthy, loyal,
uu
and ethical;
Exhibiting integrity and being culturally sensitive, courageous, a problem solver, and decisive;
uu
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Giving credit to others where due;

uu
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Being a life-long learner who is results- and action-oriented;

uu
61
Focusing on the important things, including:
uu
nuContinuously prioritizing work by reviewing and adjusting as necessary;

nuFinding and using a prioritization method that works for them and the project;
nuDifferentiating high-level strategic priorities, especially those related to critical success factors for the project;
nuMaintaining vigilance on primary project constraints;
nuRemaining flexible on tactical priorities; and
nuBeing able to sift through massive amounts of information to obtain the most important information.
Having a holistic and systemic view of the project, taking into account internal and external factors equally;
uu
Being able to apply critical thinking (e.g., application of analytical methods to reach decisions) and identify him
uu
or herself as a change agent.
Being able to build effective teams, be service-oriented, and have fun and share humor effectively with
uu
team members.
3.4.4.3 POLITICS, POWER, AND GETTING THINGS DONE
Leadership and management are ultimately about being able to get things done. The skills and qualities noted help
the project manager to achieve the project goals and objectives. At the root of many of these skills and qualities is the
ability to deal with politics. Politics involves influence, negotiation, autonomy, and power.
Politics and its associated elements are not “good” or “bad,” “positive” or “negative” alone. The better the project
manager understands how the organization works, the more likely he or she will be successful. The project manager
observes and collects data about the project and organizational landscapes. The data then needs to be reviewed in the
context of the project, the people involved, the organization, and the environment as a whole. This review yields the
information and knowledge necessary for the project manager to plan and implement the most appropriate action. The
project manager’s action is a result of selecting the right kind of power to influence and negotiate with others. Exercise
of power also carries with it the responsibility of being sensitive to and respectful of other people. The effective action of
the project manager maintains the autonomy of those involved. The project manager’s action results in the right people
performing the activities necessary to fulfill the project’s objectives.
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Power can originate with traits exhibited by the individual or the organization. Power is often supported by other
people’s perception of the leader. It is essential for project managers to be aware of their relationships with other people.
Relationships enable project managers to get things done on the project. There are numerous forms of power at the
disposal of project managers. Power and its use can be complex given its nature and the various factors at play in a
project. Various forms of power include but are not limited to:
Positional (sometimes called formal, authoritative, legitimate) (e.g., formal position granted in the organization
uu
or team);
Informational (e.g., control of gathering or distribution);
uu
Referent (e.g., respect or admiration others hold for the individual, credibility gained);
uu
Situational (e.g., gained due to unique situation such as a specific crisis);

uu
Personal or charismatic (e.g., charm, attraction);

uu
Relational (e.g., participates in networking, connections, and alliances);

uu
Expert (e.g., skill, information possessed; experience, training, education, certification);

uu
Reward-oriented (e.g., ability to give praise, monetary or other desired items);

uu
Punitive or coercive (e.g., ability to invoke discipline or negative consequences);

uu
Ingratiating (e.g., application of flattery or other common ground to win favor or cooperation);
uu
Pressure-based (e.g., limit freedom of choice or movement for the purpose of gaining compliance to desired action);
uu
Guilt-based (e.g., imposition of obligation or sense of duty);

uu
Persuasive (e.g., ability to provide arguments that move people to a desired course of action); and
uu
Avoiding (e.g., refusing to participate).

uu
Top project managers are proactive and intentional when it comes to power. These project managers will work to
acquire the power and authority they need within the boundaries of organizational policies, protocols, and procedures
rather than wait for it to be granted.
�
�
63
3.4.5 COMPARISON OF LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
The words leadership and management are often used interchangeably. However, they are not synonymous. The
word management is more closely associated with directing another person to get from one point to another using a
known set of expected behaviors. In contrast, leadership involves working with others through discussion or debate in
order to guide them from one point to another.
The method that a project manager chooses to employ reveals a distinct difference in behavior, self-perception, and
project role. Table 3-1 compares management and leadership on several important levels.
Project managers need to employ both leadership and management in order to be successful. The skill is in finding
the right balance for each situation. The way in which management and leadership are employed often shows up in the
project manager’s leadership style.
Table 3-1. Team Management and Team Leadership Compared
Management Leadership
Direct using positional power Guide, influence, and collaborate using relational power
Maintain Develop
Administrate Innovate
Focus on systems and structure Focus on relationships with people
Rely on control Inspire trust
Focus on near-term goals Focus on long-range vision
Ask how and when Ask what and why
Focus on bottom line Focus on the horizon
Accept status quo Challenge status quo
Do things right Do the right things
Focus on operational issues and problem solving Focus on vision, alignment, motivation, and inspiration
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3.4.5.1 LEADERSHIP STYLES
Project managers may lead their teams in many ways. The style a project manager selects may be a personal
preference, or the result of the combination of multiple factors associated with the project. The style a project manager
uses may change over time based on the factors in play. Major factors to consider include but are not limited to:
Leader characteristics (e.g., attitudes, moods, needs, values, ethics);
uu
Team member characteristics (e.g., attitudes, moods, needs, values, ethics);

uu
Organizational characteristics (e.g., its purpose, structure, and type of work performed); and
uu
Environmental characteristics (e.g., social situation, economic state, and political elements).
uu
Research describes numerous leadership styles that a project manager can adopt. Some of the most common
examples of these styles include but are not limited to:
Laissez-faire (e.g., allowing the team to make their own decisions and establish their own goals, also referred to
uu
as taking a hands-off style);
Transactional (e.g., focus on goals, feedback, and accomplishment to determine rewards; management
uu
by exception);
Servant leader (e.g., demonstrates commitment to serve and put other people first; focuses on other people’s
uu
growth, learning, development, autonomy, and well-being; concentrates on relationships, community and
collaboration; leadership is secondary and emerges after service);
Transformational (e.g., empowering followers through idealized attributes and behaviors, inspirational motivation,
uu
encouragement for innovation and creativity, and individual consideration);
Charismatic (e.g., able to inspire; is high-energy, enthusiastic, self-confident; holds strong convictions); and
uu
Interactional (e.g., a combination of transactional, transformational, and charismatic).

uu
�
�
65
3.4.5.2 PERSONALITY
Personality refers to the individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality
characteristics or traits include but are not limited to:
Authentic (e.g., accepts others for what and who they are, show open concern);
uu
Courteous (e.g., ability to apply appropriate behavior and etiquette);

uu
Creative (e.g., ability to think abstractly, to see things differently, to innovate);

uu
Cultural (e.g., measure of sensitivity to other cultures including values, norms, and beliefs);
uu
Emotional (e.g., ability to perceive emotions and the information they present and to manage them; measure of
uu
interpersonal skills);
Intellectual (e.g., measure of human intelligence over multiple aptitudes);
uu
Managerial (e.g., measure of management practice and potential);

uu
Political (e.g., measure of political intelligence and making things happen);

uu
Service-oriented (e.g., evidence of willingness to serve other people);

uu
Social (e.g., ability to understand and manage people); and

uu
Systemic (e.g., drive to understand and build systems).

uu
An effective project manager will have some level of ability with each of these characteristics in order to be successful.
Each project, organization, and situation requires that the project manager emphasize different aspects of personality.
3.5 PERFORMING INTEGRATION

The role of the project manager is twofold when performing integration on the project:
Project managers play a key role in working with the project sponsor to understand the strategic objectives and
uu
ensure the alignment of the project objectives and results with those of the portfolio, program, and business
areas. In this way, project managers contribute to the integration and execution of the strategy.
Project managers are responsible for guiding the team to work together to focus on what is really essential at the
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project level. This is achieved through the integration of processes, knowledge, and people.
Integration is a critical skill for project managers. Integration is covered more in depth in the Project Integration
Management Knowledge Area of this guide. Sections 3.5.1 through 3.5.4 focus on integration that takes place at
three different levels: the process, cognitive, and context levels. Section 3.5.4 concludes by addressing complexity
and integration.
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3.5.1 PERFORMING INTEGRATION AT THE PROCESS LEVEL
Project management may be seen as a set of processes and activities that are undertaken to achieve the project
objectives. Some of these processes may take place once (e.g., the initial creation of the project charter), but many others
overlap and occur several times throughout the project. One example of this process overlap and multiple occurrences
is a change in a requirement that impacts scope, schedule, or budget and requires a change request. Several project
management processes such as the Control Scope process and the Perform Integrated Change Control process may
involve a change request. The Perform Integrated Change Control process occurs throughout the project for integrating
change requests.
Although there is no stated definition on how to integrate the project processes, it is clear that a project has a small
chance of meeting its objective when the project manager fails to integrate the project processes where they interact.
3.5.2 INTEGRATION AT THE COGNITIVE LEVEL

There are many different ways to manage a project, and the method selected typically depends on the specific
characteristics of the project including its size, how complicated the project or organization may be, and the culture of
the performing organization. It is clear that the personal skills and abilities of the project manager are closely related to
the way in which the project is managed.
The project manager should strive to become proficient in all of the Project Management Knowledge Areas. In concert
with proficiency in these Knowledge Areas, the project manager applies experience, insight, leadership, and technical
and business management skills to the project. Finally, it is through the project manager’s ability to integrate the
processes in these Knowledge Areas that makes it possible to achieve the desired project results.
3.5.3 INTEGRATION AT THE CONTEXT LEVEL

There have been many changes in the context in which business and projects take place today compared to a
few decades ago. New technologies have been introduced. Social networks, multicultural aspects, virtual teams, and
new values are part of the new reality of projects. An example is knowledge and people integration in the context of
a large cross-functional project implementation involving multiple organizations. The project manager considers the
implications of this context in communications planning and knowledge management for guiding the project team.
Project managers need to be cognizant of the project context and these new aspects when managing the
integration. Then project managers can decide how to best use these new elements of the environment in their
projects to achieve success.
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3.5.4 INTEGRATION AND COMPLEXITY
Some projects may be referred to as complex and considered difficult to manage. In simple terms, complex and
complicated are concepts often used to describe what is considered to be intricate or complicated.
Complexity within projects is a result of the organization’s system behavior, human behavior, and the uncertainty at
work in the organization or its environment. In Navigating Complexity: A Practice Guide [13], these three dimensions of
complexity are defined as:
System behavior. The interdependencies of components and systems.
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Human behavior. The interplay between diverse individuals and groups.

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Ambiguity. Uncertainty of emerging issues and lack of understanding or confusion.

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Complexity itself is a perception of an individual based on personal experience, observation, and skill. Rather than
being complex, a project is more accurately described as containing complexity. Portfolios, programs, and projects may
contain elements of complexity.
When approaching the integration of a project, the project manager should consider elements that are both inside and
outside of the project. The project manager should examine the characteristics or properties of the project. Complexity
as a characteristic or property of a project is typically defined as:
Containing multiple parts,
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Possessing a number of connections between the parts,

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Exhibiting dynamic interactions between the parts, and

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Exhibiting behavior produced as a result of those interactions that cannot be explained as the simple sum of the
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parts (e.g., emergent behavior).
Examining these various items that appear to make the project complex should help the project manager identify key
areas when planning, managing, and controlling the project to ensure integration.
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4
PROJE CT INTEG RA TIO N M ANAGEM ENT
Project Integration Management includes the processes and activities to identify, define, combine, unify, and
coordinate the various processes and project management activities within the Project Management Process Groups. In
the project management context, integration includes characteristics of unification, consolidation, communication, and
interrelationship. These actions should be applied from the start of the project through completion. Project Integration
Management includes making choices about:
Resource allocation,
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Balancing competing demands,

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Examining any alternative approaches,

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Tailoring the processes to meet the project objectives, and

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Managing the interdependencies among the Project Management Knowledge Areas.

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The Project Integration Management processes are:
4.1 Develop Project Charter—The process of developing a document that formally authorizes the existence of
a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
4.2 Develop Project Management Plan—The process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all plan components
and consolidating them into an integrated project management plan.
4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work—The process of leading and performing the work defined in the project
management plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives.
4.4 Manage Project Knowledge—The process of using existing knowledge and creating new knowledge to achieve
the project’s objectives and contribute to organizational learning.
4.5 Monitor and Control Project Work—The process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting overall progress to meet
the performance objectives defined in the project management plan.
4.6 Perform Integrated Change Control—The process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes and
managing changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents, and the project management
plan; and communicating the decisions.
4.7 Close Project or Phase—The process of finalizing all activities for the project, phase, or contract.
Figure 4-1 provides an overview of the Project Integration Management processes. The Project Integration
Management processes are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in practice, they overlap
and interact in ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.
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Project Integration
Management Overview
4.1 Develop 4.2 Develop Project 4.3 Direct and Manage 4.4 Manage
Project Charter Management Plan Project Work Project Knowledge
.1 Inputs .1 Inputs .1 Inputs .1 Inputs
.1 Business documents .1 Project charter .1 Project management plan .1 Project management plan
.2 Agreements .2 Outputs from other .2 Project documents .2 Project documents
.3 Enterprise environmental processes .3 Approved change requests .3 Deliverables
factors .3 Enterprise environmental .4 Enterprise environmental .4 Enterprise environmental
.4 Organizational process factors factors factors
assets .4 Organizational process .5 Organizational process .5 Organizational process
assets assets assets
.2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment .2 Tools & Techniques .2 Tools & Techniques .2 Tools & Techniques
.2 Data gathering .1 Expert judgment .1 Expert judgment .1 Expert judgment
.3 Interpersonal and team .2 Data gathering .2 Project management .2 Knowledge management
skills .3 Interpersonal and team information system .3 Information management
.4 Meetings skills .3 Meetings .4 Interpersonal and team
.4 Meetings skills
.3 Outputs .3 Outputs
.1 Project charter .3 Outputs .1 Deliverables .3 Outputs
.2 Assumption log .1 Project management plan .2 Work performance data .1 Lessons learned register
.3 Issue log .2 Project management plan
.4 Change requests updates
.5 Project management plan .3 Organizational process
4.5 Monitor and 4.6 Perform Integrated updates assets updates
Control Project Work Change Control .6 Project documents updates
.7 Organizational process
.1 Inputs .1 Inputs assets updates
.1 Project management plan .1 Project management plan
.2 Project documents .2 Project documents
.3 Work performance .3 Work performance reports
information .4 Change requests 4.7 Close Project
.4 Agreements .5 Enterprise environmental or Phase
.5 Enterprise environmental factors
factors .6 Organizational process .1 Inputs
.6 Organizational process assets .1 Project charter
assets .2 Project management plan
.3 Project documents
.2 Tools & Techniques .1 Expert judgment
.4 Accepted deliverables
.1 Expert judgment .2 Change control tools
.5 Business documents
.2 Data analysis .3 Data analysis
.6 Agreements
.3 Decision making .4 Decision making
.7 Procurement
.4 Meetings .5 Meetings
documentation
.3 Outputs .3 Outputs .8 Organizational process
.1 Work performance reports .1 Approved change requests assets
.2 Change requests .2 Project management plan
.3 Project management plan updates
.1 Expert judgment
updates .3 Project documents
.2 Data analysis
.4 Project documents updates updates
.3 Meetings
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.3 Outputs
.1 Project documents updates
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.2 Final product, service, or

result transition
.3 Final report
assets updates
Figure 4-1. Project Integration Management Overview
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KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT
Project Integration Management is specific to project managers. Whereas other Knowledge Areas may be managed
by specialists (e.g., cost analysis, scheduling specialists, risk management experts), the accountability of Project
Integration Management cannot be delegated or transferred. The project manager is the one who combines the results
in all the other Knowledge Areas and has the overall view of the project. The project manager is ultimately responsible
for the project as a whole.
Projects and project management are integrative by nature. For example, a cost estimate needed for a contingency
plan involves integrating the processes in the Project Cost Management, Project Schedule Management, and Project
Risk Management Knowledge Areas. When additional risks associated with various staffing alternatives are identified,
then one or more of those processes may be revisited.
The links among the processes in the Project Management Process Groups are often iterative. For example, the
Planning Process Group provides the Executing Process Group with a documented project management plan early in the
project and then updates the project management plan if changes occur as the project progresses.
Project Integration Management is about:
Ensuring that the deliverable due dates of the product, service, or result; project life cycle; and the benefits
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management plan are aligned;
Providing a project management plan to achieve the project objectives;
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Ensuring the creation and the use of the appropriate knowledge to and from the project as necessary;
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Managing the performance and changes of the activities in the project management plan;
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Making integrated decisions regarding key changes impacting the project;

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Measuring and monitoring the project’s progress and taking appropriate action to meet project objectives;
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Collecting data on the results achieved, analyzing the data to obtain information, and communicating this
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information to relevant stakeholders;
Completing all the work of the project and formally closing each phase, contract, and the project as a whole;
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and
Managing phase transitions when necessary.
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The more complex the project and the more varied the expectations of the stakeholders, the more a sophisticated
approach to integration is needed.
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TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT
The Project Integration Management Knowledge Area requires combining the results from all the other Knowledge
Areas. Evolving trends in integration processes include but are not limited to:
Use of automated tools. The volume of data and information that project managers need to integrate makes it
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necessary to use a project management information system (PMIS) and automated tools to collect, analyze, and
use information to meet project objectives and realize project benefits.
Use of visual management tools. Some project teams use visual management tools, rather than written plans
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and other documents, to capture and oversee critical project elements. Making key project elements visible to
the entire team provides a real-time overview of the project status, facilitates knowledge transfer, and empowers
team members and other stakeholders to help identify and solve issues.
Project knowledge management. The increasingly mobile and transitory work force requires a more rigorous
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process of identifying knowledge throughout the project life cycle and transferring it to the target audience so
that the knowledge is not lost.
Expanding the project manager’s responsibilities. Project managers are being called on to initiate and finalize
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the project, such as project business case development and benefits management. Historically, these activities
have been the responsibility of management and the project management office, but project managers are more
frequently collaborating with them to better meet project objectives and deliver benefits. Project managers are
also engaging in more comprehensive identification and engagement of stakeholders. This includes managing
the interfaces with various functional and operational departments and senior management personnel.
Hybrid methodologies. Some project management methodologies are evolving to incorporate successfully
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applied new practices. Examples include the use of agile and other iterative practices; business analysis
techniques for requirements management; tools for identifying complex elements in projects; and organizational
change management methods to prepare for transitioning the project outputs into the organization.
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TAILORING CONSIDERATIONS
Because each project is unique, the project manager may need to tailor the way that Project Integration Management
processes are applied. Considerations for tailoring include but are not limited to:
Project life cycle. What is an appropriate project life cycle? What phases should comprise the project life cycle?
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Development life cycle. What development life cycle and approach are appropriate for the product, service,
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or result? Is a predictive or adaptive approach appropriate? If adaptive, should the product be developed
incrementally or iteratively? Is a hybrid approach best?
Management approaches. What management processes are most effective based on the organizational culture
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and the complexity of the project?
Knowledge management. How will knowledge be managed in the project to foster a collaborative working
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environment?
Change. How will change be managed in the project?
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Governance. What control boards, committees, and other stakeholders are part of the project? What are the
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project status reporting requirements?
Lessons learned. What information should be collected throughout and at the end of the project? How will
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historical information and lessons learned be made available to future projects?
Benefits. When and how should benefits be reported: at the end of the project or at the end of each iteration
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or phase?
CONSIDERATIONS FOR AGILE/ADAPTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Iterative and agile approaches promote the engagement of team members as local domain experts in integration
management. The team members determine how plans and components should integrate.
The expectations of the project manager as noted in the Key Concepts for Integration Management do not change in
an adaptive environment, but control of the detailed product planning and delivery is delegated to the team. The project
manager’s focus is on building a collaborative decision-making environment and ensuring the team has the ability to
respond to changes. This collaborative approach can be further enhanced when team members possess a broad skill
base rather than a narrow specialization.
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4.1 DEVELOP PROJECT CHARTER
Develop Project Charter is the process of developing a document that formally authorizes the existence of a project
and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities. The key
benefits of this process are that it provides a direct link between the project and the strategic objectives of the
organization, creates a formal record of the project, and shows the organizational commitment to the project. This
process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the
process are depicted in Figure 4-2. Figure 4-3 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Develop Project Charter

.1 Business documents .1 Expert judgment .1 Project charter
• Business case .2 Data gathering .2 Assumption log
• Benefits management plan • Brainstorming
.2 Agreements • Focus groups
.3 Enterprise environmental • Interviews
factors .3 Interpersonal and team skills
.4 Organizational process assets • Conflict management
• Facilitation
• Meeting management
.4 Meetings
Figure 4-2. Develop Project Charter: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.2 4.7 5.1
Business Develop Project
Documents Close Project Plan Scope
Management or Phase Management
Plan
5.2
Collect
Requirements
Business documents
• Business case
• Benefits management plan
5.3
Define Scope
• Agreements
4.1 • Project charter
Develop Project
Charter
6.1
Plan Schedule
Management
• Enterprise environmental factors • Assumption log
• Organizational process assets
7.1
Project Plan Cost
Documents Management
8.1
Enterprise/ Plan Quality
Organization Management
9.1
Plan Resource
Management
13.2 10.1
Plan 13.1 12.1 11.1 Plan
Stakeholder Identify Plan Procurement Plan Risk Communications
Engagement Stakeholders Management Management Management
Figure 4-3. Develop Project Charter: Data Flow Diagram
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The project charter establishes a partnership between the performing and requesting organizations. In the case
of external projects, a formal contract is typically the preferred way to establish an agreement. A project charter may
still be used to establish internal agreements within an organization to ensure proper delivery under the contract. The
approved project charter formally initiates the project. A project manager is identified and assigned as early in the
project as is feasible, preferably while the project charter is being developed and always prior to the start of planning.
The project charter can be developed by the sponsor or the project manager in collaboration with the initiating entity.
This collaboration allows the project manager to have a better understanding of the project purpose, objectives, and
expected benefits. This understanding will better allow for efficient resource allocation to project activities. The project
charter provides the project manager with the authority to plan, execute, and control the project.
Projects are initiated by an entity external to the project such as a sponsor, program, or project management office
(PMO), or a portfolio governing body chairperson or authorized representative. The project initiator or sponsor should
be at a level that is appropriate to procure funding and commit resources to the project. Projects are initiated due to
internal business needs or external influences. These needs or influences often trigger the creation of a needs analysis,
feasibility study, business case, or description of the situation that the project will address. Chartering a project validates
alignment of the project to the strategy and ongoing work of the organization. A project charter is not considered to be
a contract because there is no consideration or money promised or exchanged in its creation.
4.1.1 DEVELOP PROJECT CHARTER: INPUTS
4.1.1.1 BUSINESS DOCUMENTS
The business case (described in Section 1.2.6.1) and the benefits management plan (described in Section 1.2.6.2)
are sources of information about the project´s objectives and how the project will contribute to the business goals.
Although the business documents are developed prior to the project, they are reviewed periodically.
Business case. The approved business case, or similar, is the business document most commonly used to
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create the project charter. The business case describes the necessary information from a business standpoint to
determine whether the expected outcomes of the project justify the required investment. It is commonly used for
decision making by managers or executives above the project level. Typically, the business need and the cost-
benefit analysis are contained in the business case to justify and establish boundaries for the project. For more
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information on the business case, see Section 1.2.6.1. The business case is created as a result of one or more
of the following:
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nuMarket demand (e.g., an automobile manufacturer authorizing a project to build more fuel-efficient cars in
response to gasoline shortages),
nuOrganizational need (e.g., due to high overhead costs, a company may combine staff functions and streamline
processes to reduce costs),
nuCustomer request (e.g., an electric utility authorizing a project to build a new substation to serve a new
industrial park),
nuTechnological advance (e.g., an airline authorizing a new project to develop electronic tickets instead of paper
tickets based on technological advances),
nuLegal requirement (e.g., a paint manufacturer authorizing a project to establish guidelines for handling
toxic materials),
nuEcological impacts (e.g., a company authorizing a project to lessen its environmental impact), or
nuSocial need (e.g., a nongovernmental organization in a developing country authorizing a project to
provide potable water systems, latrines, and sanitation education to communities suffering from high
rates of cholera).
The project charter incorporates the appropriate information for the project from the business documents. The project
manager does not update or modify the business documents since they are not project documents; however, the project
manager may make recommendations.
4.1.1.2 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Agreements are used to define initial intentions for a project. Agreements may take
the form of contracts, memorandums of understanding (MOUs), service level agreements (SLA), letters of agreement,
letters of intent, verbal agreements, email, or other written agreements. Typically, a contract is used when a project is
being performed for an external customer.
4.1.1.3 ENTERPRISE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Develop Project Charter process include but are not
limited to:
Government or industry standards (e.g., product standards, quality standards, safety standards, and workmanship
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standards),
Legal and regulatory requirements and/or constraints,
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Marketplace conditions,
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Organizational culture and political climate,

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Organizational governance framework (a structured way to provide control, direction, and coordination through
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people, policies, and processes to meet organizational strategic and operational goals), and
Stakeholders’ expectations and risk thresholds.
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4.1.1.4 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS ASSETS
The organizational process assets that can influence the Develop Project Charter process include but are not
limited to:
Organizational standard policies, processes, and procedures;
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Portfolio, program, and project governance framework (governance functions and processes to provide guidance
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and decision making);
Monitoring and reporting methods;
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Templates (e.g., project charter template); and

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Historical information and lessons learned repository (e.g., project records and documents, information about the
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results of previous project selection decisions, and information about previous project performance).
4.1.2 DEVELOP PROJECT CHARTER: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
4.1.2.1 EXPERT JUDGMENT
Expert judgment is defined as judgment provided based upon expertise in an application area, Knowledge Area,
discipline, industry, etc., as appropriate for the activity being performed. Such expertise may be provided by any group
or person with specialized education, knowledge, skill, experience, or training.
For this process, expertise should be considered from individuals or groups with specialized knowledge of or training
in the following topics:
Organizational strategy,
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Benefits management,
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Technical knowledge of the industry and focus area of the project,

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Duration and budget estimation, and

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Risk identification.
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4.1.2.2 DATA GATHERING
Data-gathering techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Brainstorming. This technique is used to identify a list of ideas in a short period of time. It is conducted in a
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group environment and is led by a facilitator. Brainstorming comprises two parts: idea generation and analysis.
Brainstorming can be used to gather data and solutions or ideas from stakeholders, subject matter experts, and
team members when developing the project charter.
Focus groups. Described in Section 5.2.2.2. Focus groups bring together stakeholders and subject matter
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experts to learn about the perceived project risk, success criteria, and other topics in a more conversational way
than a one-on-one interview.
Interviews. Described in Section 5.2.2.2. Interviews are used to obtain information on high-level requirements,
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assumptions or constraints, approval criteria, and other information from stakeholders by talking directly to them.
4.1.2.3 INTERPERSONAL AND TEAM SKILLS
Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Conflict management. Described in Section 9.5.2.1. Conflict management can be used to help bring
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stakeholders into alignment on the objectives, success criteria, high-level requirements, project description,
summary milestones, and other elements of the charter.
Facilitation. Facilitation is the ability to effectively guide a group event to a successful decision, solution,
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or conclusion. A facilitator ensures that there is effective participation, that participants achieve a mutual
understanding, that all contributions are considered, that conclusions or results have full buy-in according to the
decision process established for the project, and that the actions and agreements achieved are appropriately
dealt with afterward.
Meeting management. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Meeting management includes preparing the agenda,
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ensuring that a representative for each key stakeholder group is invited, and preparing and sending the follow-up
minutes and actions.
4.1.2.4 MEETINGS
For this process, meetings are held with key stakeholders to identify the project objectives, success criteria, key
deliverables, high-level requirements, summary milestones, and other summary information.
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4.1.3 DEVELOP PROJECT CHARTER: OUTPUTS
4.1.3.1 PROJECT CHARTER
The project charter is the document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence
of a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
It documents the high-level information on the project and on the product, service, or result the project is intended to
satisfy, such as:
Project purpose;
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Measurable project objectives and related success criteria;

uu
High-level requirements;
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High-level project description, boundaries, and key deliverables;

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Overall project risk;

uu
Summary milestone schedule;

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Preapproved financial resources;

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Key stakeholder list;

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Project approval requirements (i.e., what constitutes project success, who decides the project is successful, and
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who signs off on the project);
Project exit criteria (i.e., what are the conditions to be met in order to close or to cancel the project or phase);
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Assigned project manager, responsibility, and authority level; and

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Name and authority of the sponsor or other person(s) authorizing the project charter.
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At a high level, the project charter ensures a common understanding by the stakeholders of the key deliverables,
milestones, and the roles and responsibilities of everyone involved in the project.
4.1.3.2 ASSUMPTION LOG

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High-level strategic and operational assumptions and constraints are normally identified in the business case before
the project is initiated and will flow into the project charter. Lower-level activity and task assumptions are generated
�
throughout the project such as defining technical specifications, estimates, the schedule, risks, etc. The assumption log
is used to record all assumptions and constraints throughout the project life cycle.
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4.2 DEVELOP PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
Develop Project Management Plan is the process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all plan components and
consolidating them into an integrated project management plan. The key benefit of this process is the production of a
comprehensive document that defines the basis of all project work and how the work will be performed. This process is
performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are
depicted in Figure 4-4. Figure 4-5 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Develop Project Management Plan

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Project management plan
.2 Outputs from other processes .2 Data gathering
.3 Enterprise environmental • Brainstorming
factors • Checklists
.4 Organizational process assets • Focus groups
• Interviews
.3 Interpersonal and team skills
• Conflict management
• Facilitation
• Meeting management
.4 Meetings
Figure 4-4. Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
4.1
Develop Project
Charter
• Project charter
4.2 Project
Outputs from Develop Project Management
Other Processes Management
• Project • Project management plan Plan
Plan charter
• Any baseline or
component plan
Enterprise/
Organization
• Enterprise environmental factors

Figure 4-5. Develop Project Management Plan: Data Flow Diagram
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The project management plan defines how the project is executed, monitored and controlled, and closed. The project
management plan’s content varies depending on the application area and complexity of the project.
The project management plan may be either summary level or detailed. Each component plan is described to the
extent required by the specific project. The project management plan should be robust enough to respond to an ever-
changing project environment. This agility may result in more accurate information as the project progresses.
The project management plan should be baselined; that is, it is necessary to define at least the project references
for scope, time, and cost, so that the project execution can be measured and compared to those references and
performance can be managed. Before the baselines are defined, the project management plan may be updated as
many times as necessary. No formal process is required at that time. But, once it is baselined, it may only be changed
through the Perform Integrated Change Control process. Consequently, change requests will be generated and decided
upon whenever a change is requested. This results in a project management plan that is progressively elaborated by
controlled and approved updates extending through project closure.
Projects that exist in the context of a program or portfolio should develop a project management plan that is consistent
with the program or portfolio management plan. For example, if the program management plan indicates all changes
exceeding a specified cost need to be reviewed by the change control board (CCB), then this process and cost threshold
need to be defined in the project management plan.
4.2.1 DEVELOP PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project team uses the project charter as a starting point for initial project planning.
The type and amount of information in the project charter varies depending on the complexity of the project and the
information known at the time of its creation. At a minimum, the project charter should define the high-level information
about the project that will be elaborated in the various components of the project management plan.
4.2.1.2 OUTPUTS FROM OTHER PROCESSES
Outputs from many of the other processes described in Sections 5 through 13 are integrated to create the project
�
management plan. Subsidiary plans and baselines that are an output from other planning processes are inputs to this
�
process. In addition, changes to these documents may necessitate updates to the project management plan.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Develop Project Management Plan process include but
are not limited to:
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standards);
Legal and regulatory requirements and/or constraints;
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Project management body of knowledge for vertical market (e.g., construction) and/or focus area (e.g.,
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environmental, safety, risk, or agile software development);
Organizational structure, culture, management practices, and sustainability;
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people, policies, and processes to meet organizational strategic and operational goals); and
Infrastructure (e.g., existing facilities and capital equipment).
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Develop Project Management Plan process include but are
not limited to:
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Project management plan template, including:

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nuGuidelines and criteria for tailoring the organization’s set of standard processes to satisfy the specific needs
of the project, and
nuProject closure guidelines or requirements such as the product validation and acceptance criteria.
Change control procedures, including the steps by which official organizational standards, policies, plans,
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procedures, or any project documents will be modified and how any changes will be approved and validated;
Monitoring and reporting methods, risk control procedures, and communication requirements;
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Project information from previous similar projects (e.g., scope, cost, schedule and performance measurement
uu
baselines, project calendars, project schedule network diagrams, and risk registers); and
Historical information and lessons learned repository.
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4.2.2 DEVELOP PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 4.1.2.1. Expertise should be considered from individuals or groups with specialized
knowledge of or training in the following topics:
Tailoring the project management process to meet the project needs, including the dependencies and interactions
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among those processes and the essential inputs and outputs;
Developing additional components of the project management plan if needed;
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Determining the tools and techniques to be used for accomplishing those processes;
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Developing technical and management details to be included in the project management plan;
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Determining resources and skill levels needed to perform project work;

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Defining the level of configuration management to apply on the project;

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Determining which project documents will be subject to the formal change control process; and
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Prioritizing the work on the project to ensure the project resources are allocated to the appropriate work at the
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appropriate time.
Brainstorming. Described in Section 4.1.2.2. Brainstorming is frequently used when developing the project
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management plan to gather ideas and solutions about the project approach. Attendees include the project team
members although other subject matter experts (SMEs) or stakeholders may also participate.
Checklists. Described in Section 11.2.2.2. Many organizations have standardized checklists available based in
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their own experience or use checklists from the industry. A checklist may guide the project manager to develop
the plan or may help to verify that all the required information is included in the project management plan.
Focus groups. Described in Section 5.2.2.2. Focus groups bring together stakeholders to discuss the project
uu
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management approach and the integration of the different components of the project management plan.
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Interviews. Described in Section 5.2.2.2. Interviews are used to obtain specific information from stakeholders to
uu
develop the project management plan or any component plan or project document.
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The interpersonal and team skills used when developing the project management plan include:
Conflict management. Described in Section 9.5.2.1. Conflict management may be necessary to bring diverse
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stakeholders into alignment on all aspects of the project management plan.
Facilitation. Described in Section 4.1.2.3. Facilitation ensures that there is effective participation, that participants
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achieve a mutual understanding, that all contributions are considered, and that conclusions or results have full
buy-in according to the decision process established for the project.
Meeting management. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Meeting management is necessary to ensure that the
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numerous meetings that are necessary to develop, unify, and agree on the project management plan are well run.
4.2.2.4 MEETINGS
For this process, meetings are used to discuss the project approach, determine how work will be executed to
accomplish the project objectives, and establish the way the project will be monitored and controlled.
The project kick-off meeting is usually associated with the end of planning and the start of executing. Its purpose is
to communicate the objectives of the project, gain the commitment of the team for the project, and explain the roles and
responsibilities of each stakeholder. The kick-off may occur at different points in time depending on the characteristics
of the project:
For small projects, there is usually only one team that performs the planning and the execution. In this case, the
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kick-off occurs shortly after initiation, in the Planning Process Group, because the team is involved in planning.
In large projects, a project management team normally does the majority of the planning, and the remainder of the
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project team is brought on when the initial planning is complete, at the start of the development/implementation.
In this instance, the kick-off meeting takes place with processes in the Executing Process Group.
Multiphase projects will typically include a kick-off meeting at the beginning of each phase.
4.2.3 DEVELOP PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN: OUTPUTS
4.2.3.1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
The project management plan is the document that describes how the project will be executed, monitored and
controlled, and closed. It integrates and consolidates all of the subsidiary management plans and baselines, and other
information necessary to manage the project. The needs of the project determine which components of the project
management plan are needed.
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Project management plan components include but are not limited to:
Subsidiary management plans:
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nuScope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. Establishes how the scope will be defined, developed,
monitored, controlled, and validated.
nuRequirements management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.2. Establishes how the requirements will be
analyzed, documented, and managed.
nuSchedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. Establishes the criteria and the activities for
developing, monitoring, and controlling the schedule.
nuCost management plan. Described in Section 7.1.3.1. Establishes how the costs will be planned, structured,
and controlled.
nuQualitymanagement plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. Establishes how an organization´s quality policies,
methodologies, and standards will be implemented in the project.
nuResource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1 Provides guidance on how project resources should
be categorized, allocated, managed, and released.
nuCommunications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. Establishes how, when, and by whom
information about the project will be administered and disseminated.
nuRisk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Establishes how the risk management activities will
be structured and performed.
nuProcurement management plan. Described in Section 12.1.3.1. Establishes how the project team will acquire
goods and services from outside of the performing organization.
nuStakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. Establishes how stakeholders will be engaged
in project decisions and execution, according to their needs, interests, and impact.
Baselines:
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nuScope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The approved version of a scope statement, work breakdown
structure (WBS), and its associated WBS dictionary, which is used as a basis for comparison.
nuSchedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. The approved version of the schedule model that is used as
a basis for comparison to the actual results.
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nuCost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The approved version of the time-phased project budget that is
used as a basis for comparison to the actual results.
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Additional components. Most components of the project management plan are produced as outputs from other
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processes, though some are produced during this process. Those components developed as part of this process
will be dependent on the project; however, they often include but are not limited to:
nuChange management plan. Describes how the change requests throughout the project will be formally
authorized and incorporated.
nuConfiguration management plan. Describes how the information about the items of the project (and which
items) will be recorded and updated so that the product, service, or result of the project remains consistent
and/or operative.
nuPerformance measurement baseline. An integrated scope-schedule-cost plan for the project work against
which project execution is compared to measure and manage performance.
nuProject life cycle. Describes the series of phases that a project passes through from its initiation to its closure.
nuDevelopment approach. Describes the product, service, or result development approach, such as predictive,
iterative, agile, or a hybrid model.
nuManagement reviews. Identifies the points in the project when the project manager and relevant stakeholders
will review the project progress to determine if performance is as expected, or if preventive or corrective
actions are necessary.
While the project management plan is one of the primary documents used to manage the project, other project
documents are also used. These other documents are not part of the project management plan; however, they are
necessary to manage the project effectively. Table 4-1 is a representative list of the project management plan components
and project documents.
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Table 4-1. Project Management Plan and Project Documents
Project Management Plan Project Documents

1. Scope management plan 1. Activity attributes 19. Quality control measurements
2. Requirements management plan 2. Activity list 20. Quality metrics
3. Schedule management plan 3. Assumption log 21. Quality report
4. Cost management plan 4. Basis of estimates 22. Requirements documentation
5. Quality management plan 5. Change log 23. Requirements traceability matrix
6. Resource management plan 6. Cost estimates 24. Resource breakdown structure
7. Communications management plan 7. Cost forecasts 25. Resource calendars
8. Risk management plan 8. Duration estimates 26. Resource requirements
9. Procurement management plan 9. Issue log 27. Risk register
10. Stakeholder engagement plan 10. Lessons learned register 28. Risk report
11. Change management plan 11. Milestone list 29. Schedule data
12. Configuration management plan 12. Physical resource assignments 30. Schedule forecasts
13. Scope baseline 13. Project calendars 31. Stakeholder register
14. Schedule baseline 14. Project communications 32. Team charter
15. Cost baseline 15. Project schedule 33. Test and evaluation documents
16. Performance measurement baseline 16. Project schedule network diagram
17. Project life cycle description 17. Project scope statement
18. Development approach 18. Project team assignments
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4.3 DIRECT AND MANAGE PROJECT WORK
Direct and Manage Project Work is the process of leading and performing the work defined in the project management
plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it
provides overall management of the project work and deliverables, thus improving the probability of project success.
This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are
depicted in Figure 4-6. Figure 4-7 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Direct and Manage Project Work

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Deliverables
• Any component .2 Project management .2 Work performance data
.2 Project documents information system .3 Issue log
• Change log .3 Meetings .4 Change requests
• Lessons learned register .5 Project management plan
• Milestone list updates
• Project communications • Any component
• Project schedule .6 Project documents updates
• Requirements traceability • Activity list
matrix • Assumption log
• Risk register • Lessons learned register
• Risk report • Requirements
.3 Approved change requests documentation
.4 Enterprise environmental • Risk register
factors • Stakeholder register
.5 Organizational process assets .7 Organizational process assets
updates
Figure 4-6. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project 4.4
Management Manage Project
Plan • Deliverables Knowledge
Project management plan

• Any component
4.6
Perform Integrated
• Change requests
Change Control
• Deliverables
8.3
Control
• Deliverables Quality
Project
Management
Project management plan updates Plan
• Any component
4.3
Project Direct and
Documents Manage • Issue log
Project Work
Project documents
• Change log • Work performance data Project
• Lessons learned register Documents
• Milestone list Project documents updates
• Project communications • Activity list
• Project schedule • Assumption log
• Requirements traceability • Lessons learned register
matrix • Requirements documentation
• Risk register • Risk register
• Risk report • Stakeholder register
5.5. 5.6
Enterprise/
Validate Control
Organization
4.6 Scope Scope • Organizational process
Perform assets updates
Integrated
Change Control
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• Approved change requests

6.6 7.4 8.3 9.6
Control Control Control Control
�
Scehdule Costs Quality Resources
Enterprise/
Organization
13.4
10.3 11.7 12.3 Monitor
Monitor Monitor Control Stakeholder
• Enterprise environmental factors Communications Risks Procurements
• Organizational process assets Engagementt
Figure 4-7. Direct and Manage Project Work: Data Flow Diagram
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Direct and Manage Project Work involves executing the planned project activities to complete project deliverables
and accomplish established objectives. Available resources are allocated, their efficient use is managed, and changes in
project plans stemming from analyzing work performance data and information are carried out. The Direct and Manage
Project Work process is directly affected by the project application area. Deliverables are produced as outputs from
processes performed to accomplish the project work as planned and scheduled in the project management plan.
The project manager, along with the project management team, directs the performance of the planned project
activities and manages the various technical and organizational interfaces that exist in the project. Direct and Manage
Project Work also requires review of the impact of all project changes and the implementation of approved changes:
corrective action, preventive action, and/or defect repair.
During project execution, the work performance data is collected and communicated to the applicable controlling
processes for analysis. Work performance data analysis provides information about the completion status of deliverables
and other relevant details about project performance. The work performance data will also be used as an input to the
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group, and can be used as feedback into lessons learned to improve the performance
of future work packages.
4.3.1 DIRECT AND MANAGE PROJECT WORK: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Any component of the project management plan may be an input to this process.
4.3.1.2 PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
Change log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. The change log contains the status of all change requests.
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Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned are used to improve the performance
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of the project and to avoid repeating mistakes. The register helps identify where to set rules or guidelines so the
team’s actions are aligned.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The milestone list shows the scheduled dates for specific milestones.
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Project communications. Described in Section 10.2.3.1. Project communications include performance reports,
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deliverable status, and other information generated by the project.
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Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The schedule includes at least the list of work activities, their
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durations, resources, and planned start and finish dates.
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix links
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product requirements to the deliverables that satisfy them and helps to focus on the final outcomes.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides information on threats and opportunities
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that may impact project execution.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report provides information on sources of overall project risk
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along with summary information on identified individual project risks.
4.3.1.3 APPROVED CHANGE REQUESTS
Described in Section 4.6.3.1. Approved change requests are an output of the Perform Integrated Change Control
process, and include those requests reviewed and approved for implementation by the project manager or by the
change control board (CCB) when applicable. The approved change request may be a corrective action, a preventive
action, or a defect repair. Approved change requests are scheduled and implemented by the project team and can
impact any area of the project or project management plan. The approved change requests can also modify the formally
controlled project management plan components or project documents.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Direct and Manage Project Work process include but are
not limited to:
Organizational structure, culture, management practices, and sustainability;
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Infrastructure (e.g., existing facilities and capital equipment); and

uu
Stakeholder risk thresholds (e.g., allowable cost overrun percentage).

uu
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Direct and Manage Project Work process include but are
not limited to:
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Issue and defect management procedures defining issue and defect controls, issue and defect identification and
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resolution, and action item tracking;
Issue and defect management database(s) containing historical issue and defect status, issue and defect
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resolution, and action item results;
Performance measurement database used to collect and make available measurement data on processes and
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products;
Change control and risk control procedures; and
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Project information from previous projects (e.g., scope, cost, schedule, performance measurement baselines,
uu
project calendars, project schedule network diagrams, risk registers, risk reports, and lessons learned repository).
4.3.2 DIRECT AND MANAGE PROJECT WORK: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 4.1.2.1. Expertise should be considered from individuals or groups with specialized knowledge
or training in the following topics:
Technical knowledge on the industry and focus area of the project,
uu
Cost and budget management,

uu
Legal and procurement,

uu
Legislation and regulations, and

uu
Organizational governance.
uu
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4.3.2.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (PMIS)
The PMIS provides access to information technology (IT) software tools, such as scheduling software tools, work
authorization systems, configuration management systems, information collection and distribution systems, as well as
interfaces to other online automated systems such as corporate knowledge base repositories. Automated gathering and
reporting on key performance indicators (KPI) can be part of this system.
4.3.2.3 MEETINGS
Meetings are used to discuss and address pertinent topics of the project when directing and managing project work.
Attendees may include the project manager, the project team, and appropriate stakeholders involved or affected by
the topics addressed. Each attendee should have a defined role to ensure appropriate participation. Types of meetings
include but are not limited to: kick-off, technical, sprint or iteration planning, Scrum daily standups, steering group,
problem solving, progress update, and retrospective meetings.
4.3.3 DIRECT AND MANAGE PROJECT WORK: OUTPUTS
4.3.3.1 DELIVERABLES
A deliverable is any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is required to be
produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables are typically the outcomes of the project and can include
components of the project management plan.
Change control should be applied once the first version of a deliverable has been completed. The control of the multiple
versions or editions of a deliverable (e.g., documents, software, and building blocks) is supported by configuration
management tools and procedures.
4.3.3.2 WORK PERFORMANCE DATA
Work performance data are the raw observations and measurements identified during activities being performed
to carry out the project work. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of detail from which information is derived by
other processes. Data is gathered through work execution and passed to the controlling processes for further analysis.
Examples of work performance data include work completed, key performance indicators (KPIs), technical performance
measures, actual start and finish dates of schedule activities, story points completed, deliverables status, schedule
progress, number of change requests, number of defects, actual costs incurred, actual durations, etc.
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4.3.3.3 ISSUE LOG
Throughout the life cycle of a project, the project manager will normally face problems, gaps, inconsistencies, or
conflicts that occur unexpectedly and that require some action so they do not impact the project performance. The issue
log is a project document where all the issues are recorded and tracked. Data on issues may include:
Issue type,
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Who raised the issue and when,

uu
Description,
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Priority,
uu
Who is assigned to the issue,

uu
Target resolution date,

uu
Status, and
uu
Final solution.
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The issue log will help the project manager effectively track and manage issues, ensuring that they are investigated
and resolved. The issue log is created for the first time as an output of this process, although issues may happen at
any time during the project. The issue log is updated as a result of the monitoring and control activities throughout the
project’s life cycle.
4.3.3.4 CHANGE REQUESTS
A change request is a formal proposal to modify any document, deliverable, or baseline. When issues are found while
project work is being performed, change requests can be submitted, which may modify project policies or procedures,
project or product scope, project cost or budget, project schedule, or quality of the project or product results. Other
change requests cover the needed preventive or corrective actions to forestall negative impact later in the project.
Any project stakeholder may request a change. Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the
Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6). Change requests can be initiated from inside or outside the
project and they can be optional or legally/contractually mandated. Change requests may include:
Corrective action. An intentional activity that realigns the performance of the project work with the project
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management plan.
Preventive action. An intentional activity that ensures the future performance of the project work is aligned with
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the project management plan.
Defect repair. An intentional activity to modify a nonconforming product or product component.
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Updates. Changes to formally controlled project documents, plans, etc., to reflect modified or additional ideas
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or content.
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4.3.3.5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN UPDATES
Any change to the project management plan goes through the organization’s change control process via a change
request. Any component of the project management plan may require a change request as a result of this process.
4.3.3.6 PROJECT DOCUMENTS UPDATES
Project documents that may be updated as a result of carrying out this process include but are not limited to:
Activity list. Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list may be updated with additional or modified activities
uu
to be performed to complete project work.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. New assumptions and constraints may be added, and the status
uu
of existing assumptions and constraints may be updated or closed out.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Any lessons learned that will improve performance for
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current or future projects is recorded as it is learned.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. New requirements may be identified during this
uu
process. Progress on meeting requirements can also be updated.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. New risks may be identified and existing risks may be updated
uu
during this process. Risks are recorded in the risk register via risk management processes.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. Where additional information on existing or new stakeholders
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is gathered as a result of this process, it is recorded in the stakeholder register.
4.3.3.7 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS ASSETS UPDATES
Any organizational process asset can be updated as a result of this process.
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4.4 MANAGE PROJECT KNOWLEDGE
Manage Project Knowledge is the process of using existing knowledge and creating new knowledge to achieve the
project’s objectives and contribute to organizational learning. The key benefits of this process are that prior organizational
knowledge is leveraged to produce or improve the project outcomes, and knowledge created by the project is available
to support organizational operations and future projects or phases. This process is performed throughout the project.
The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 4-8. Figure 4-9 depicts the data flow
diagram for the process.
Manage Project Knowledge

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Lessons learned register
• All components .2 Knowledge management .2 Project management plan
.2 Project documents .3 Information management updates
• Lessons learned register .4 Interpersonal and team skills • Any component
• Project team assignments • Active listening .3 Organizational process assets
• Resource breakdown • Facilitation updates
structure • Leadership
• Source selection criteria • Networking
• Stakeholder register • Political awareness
.3 Deliverables
.4 Enterprise environmental
factors
.5 Organizational process assets
Figure 4-8. Manage Project Knowledge: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan
Project management
plan updates
• Any component
Project
Management
Plan
Project
Project management plan Documents
• All components • Lessons learned
register
4.4
Project Manage Enterprise/
Documents Project Organization
• Project • Organizational process
Knowledge
charter assets updates
Project documents
• Lessons learned register
• Project team assignments
• Resource breakdown structure
• Source selection criteria
• Stakeholder register
4.3
Direct and
Manage
Project Work
• Deliverables
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 4-9. Manage Project Knowledge: Data Flow Diagram

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Knowledge is commonly split into “explicit” (knowledge that can be readily codified using words, pictures, and
numbers) and “tacit” (knowledge that is personal and difficult to express, such as beliefs, insights, experience,
and “know-how”). Knowledge management is concerned with managing both tacit and explicit knowledge for two
purposes: reusing existing knowledge and creating new knowledge. The key activities that underpin both purposes are
knowledge sharing and knowledge integration (of knowledge from different domains, contextual knowledge, and project
management knowledge).
It is a common misconception that managing knowledge involves just documenting it so it can be shared. Another
common misconception is that managing knowledge involves just obtaining lessons learned at the end of the project,
in order to use it in the future projects. Only codified explicit knowledge can be shared in this way. But codified explicit
knowledge lacks context and is open to different interpretations, so even though it can easily be shared, it isn’t always
understood or applied in the right way. Tacit knowledge has context built in but is very difficult to codify. It resides in
the minds of individual experts or in social groups and situations, and is normally shared through conversations and
interactions between people.
From an organizational perspective, knowledge management is about making sure the skills, experience, and expertise
of the project team and other stakeholders are used before, during, and after the project. Because knowledge resides in
the minds of people and people cannot be forced to share what they know (or to pay attention to others’ knowledge), the
most important part of knowledge management is creating an atmosphere of trust so that people are motivated to share
their knowledge. Even the best knowledge management tools and techniques will not work if people are not motivated
to share what they know or to pay attention to what others know. In practice, knowledge is shared using a mixture of
knowledge management tools and techniques (interactions between people) and information management tools and
techniques (in which people codify part of their explicit knowledge by documenting it so it can be shared).
4.4.1 MANAGE PROJECT KNOWLEDGE: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. All components of the project management plan are inputs.
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Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register provides information on
uu
effective practices in knowledge management.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. Project team assignments provide information on the
uu
type of competencies and experience available in the project and the knowledge that may be missing.
Resource breakdown structure. Described in Section 9.2.3.3. The resource breakdown structure includes
uu
information on the composition of the team and may help to understand what knowledge is available as a group
and what knowledge is missing.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register contains details about the identified
uu
stakeholders to help understand the knowledge they may have.
produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables are typically tangible components completed to meet
the project objectives and can include components of the project management plan.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Manage Project Knowledge process include but are not
limited to:
Organizational, stakeholder, and customer culture. The existence of trusting working relationships and a
uu
no-blame culture is particularly important in managing knowledge. Other factors include the value placed on
learning and social behavioral norms.
Geographic distribution of facilities and resources. The location of team members helps determine methods
uu
for gaining and sharing knowledge.
Organizational knowledge experts. Some organizations have a team or individual that specializes in knowledge
uu
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management.
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Legal and regulatory requirements and/or constraints. These include confidentiality of project information.
uu
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Knowledge about project management is often embedded in processes and routines. The organizational process
assets that can influence the Manage Project Knowledge process include but are not limited to:
Organizational standard policies, processes, and procedures. These may include: confidentiality and access
uu
to information; security and data protection; record retention policies; use of copyrighted information; destruction
of classified information; format and maximum size of files; registry data and metadata; authorized technology
and social media; etc.
Personnel administration. These include, for example, employee development and training records, and
uu
competency frameworks that refer to knowledge-sharing behaviors.
Organizational communication requirements. Formal, rigid communication requirements are good for sharing
uu
information. Informal communication is more effective for creating new knowledge and integrating knowledge
across diverse stakeholder groups.
Formal knowledge-sharing and information-sharing procedures. These include learning reviews before,
uu
during, and after projects and project phases; for example, identifying, capturing, and sharing lessons learned
from the current project and other projects.
4.4.2 MANAGE PROJECT KNOWLEDGE: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Knowledge management,
uu
Information management,
uu
Organizational learning,
uu
Knowledge and information management tools, and

uu
Relevant information from other projects.

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4.4.2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Knowledge management tools and techniques connect people so they can work together to create new knowledge,
share tacit knowledge, and integrate the knowledge of diverse team members. The tools and techniques appropriate in
a project depend on the nature of the project, especially the degree of innovation involved, the project complexity, and
the level of diversity (including diversity of disciplines) among team members.
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Tools and techniques include but are not limited to:
Networking, including informal social interaction and online social networking. Online forums where people
uu
can ask open questions (“What does anyone know about…?”) are useful for starting knowledge-sharing
conversations with specialists;
Communities of practice (sometimes called communities of interest or just communities) and special
uu
interest groups;
Meetings, including virtual meetings where participants can interact using communications technology;
uu
Work shadowing and reverse shadowing;

uu
Discussion forums such as focus groups;

uu
Knowledge-sharing events such as seminars and conferences;

uu
Workshops, including problem-solving sessions and learning reviews designed to identify lessons learned;
uu
Storytelling;
uu
Creativity and ideas management techniques;

uu
Knowledge fairs and cafés; and

uu
Training that involves interaction between learners.

uu
All of these tools and techniques can be applied face-to-face or virtually, or both. Face-to-face interaction is usually
the most effective way to build the trusting relationships that are needed to manage knowledge. Once relationships are
established, virtual interaction can be used to maintain the relationship.
4.4.2.3 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Information management tools and techniques are used to create and connect people to information. They are
effective for sharing simple, unambiguous, codified explicit knowledge. They include but are not limited to:
Methods for codifying explicit knowledge; for example, for producing lessons to be learned entries for the lessons
uu
learned register;
Lessons learned register;
uu
Library services;
uu
Information gathering, for example, web searches and reading published articles; and
uu
Project management information system (PMIS). Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information
uu
systems often include document management systems.
Tools and techniques that connect people to information can be enhanced by adding an element of interaction, for
example, include a “contact me” function so users can get in touch with the originators of the lessons and ask for advice
specific to their project and context.
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Interaction and support also helps people find relevant information. Asking for help is generally quicker and easier
than trying to identify search terms. Search terms are often difficult to select because people may not know which
keywords or key phrases to use to access the information they need.
Knowledge and information management tools and techniques should be connected to project processes and process
owners. Communities of practice and subject matter experts (SMEs), for example, may generate insights that lead
to improved control processes; having an internal sponsor can ensure improvements are implemented. Lessons learned
register entries may be analyzed to identify common issues that can be addressed by changes to project procedures.
The interpersonal and team skills used include but are not limited to:
Active listening. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Active listening helps reduce misunderstandings and improves
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communication and knowledge sharing.
Facilitation. Described in Section 4.1.2.3. Facilitation helps effectively guide a group to a successful decision,
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solution, or conclusion.
Leadership. Described in Section 3.4.4. Leadership is used to communicate the vision and inspire the project
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team to focus on the appropriate knowledge and knowledge objectives.
Networking. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Networking allows informal connections and relations among project
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stakeholders to be established and creates the conditions to share tacit and explicit knowledge.
Political awareness. Described in Section 10.1.2.6. Political awareness helps the project manager to plan
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communications based on the project environment as well as the organization’s political environment.
4.4.3 MANAGE PROJECT KNOWLEDGE: OUTPUTS
4.4.3.1 LESSONS LEARNED REGISTER
The lessons learned register can include the category and description of the situation. The lessons learned register
may also include the impact, recommendations, and proposed actions associated with the situation. The lessons learned
register may record challenges, problems, realized risks and opportunities, or other content as appropriate.
The lessons learned register is created as an output of this process early in the project. Thereafter it is used as an
input and updated as an output in many processes throughout the project. The persons or teams involved in the work are
also involved in capturing the lessons learned. Knowledge can be documented using videos, pictures, audios, or other
suitable means that ensure the efficiency of the lessons captured.
At the end of a project or phase, the information is transferred to an organizational process asset called a lessons
learned repository.
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request. Any component of the project management plan may be updated as a result of this process.
All projects create new knowledge. Some of this knowledge is codified, embedded in deliverables, or embedded in
improvements to processes and procedures as a result of the Manage Project Knowledge process. Existing knowledge
can also be codified or embedded for the first time as a result of this process; for example, if an existing idea for a new
procedure is piloted in the project and found to be successful.
Any organizational process asset can be updated as a result of this process.
4.5 MONITOR AND CONTROL PROJECT WORK

Monitor and Control Project Work is the process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting the overall progress to meet
the performance objectives defined in the project management plan. The key benefits of this process are that it allows
stakeholders to understand the current state of the project, to recognize the actions taken to address any performance
issues, and to have visibility into the future project status with cost and schedule forecasts. This process is performed
throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 4-10. Figure
4-11 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Monitor and Control Project Work

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Work performance reports
• Any component .2 Data analysis .2 Change requests
.2 Project documents • Alternatives analysis .3 Project management plan
• Assumption log • Cost-benefit analysis updates
• Basis of estimates • Earned value analysis • Any component
• Cost forecasts • Root cause analysis .4 Project documents updates
• Issue log • Trend analysis • Cost forecasts
• Lessons learned register • Variance analysis • Issue log
• Milestone list .3 Decision making • Lessons learned register
• Quality reports .4 Meetings • Risk register
• Risk register • Schedule forecasts
• Risk report
• Schedule forecasts
.3 Work performance information
.4 Agreements
factors
Figure 4-10. Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.6
Perform
Integrated
• Change requests Change Control
Project • Work performance reports
Management
Plan
9.5
Manage
Project management plan Team
• Any component
Project 10.2
Documents Manage
• Work performance reports Communications
Project documents
• Assumption log
• Basis of estimates 11.7
• Cost forecasts
• Issue log Monitor
• Lessons learned register • Work performance reports Risks
• Milestone list
• Quality reports
• Risk register
• Risk report
• Schedule forecasts Project
Management
Project management Plan
4.5 plan updates
12.2 • Any component
Monitor and
Conduct Control
Procurements • Project
Project Work
charter
Project
• Agreements Documents
Project documents updates
• Cost forecasts
• Issue log
• Risk register
Enterprise/
Organization
• Work performance information
5.5 5.6.
Validate Control
Scope Scope
6.6 7.4 8.3 9.6

Control Control Control Control
Schedule Costs Quality Resources
13.4
10.3 11.7 12.3 Monitor
Monitor Monitor Control Stakeholder
Communications Risks Procurements Engagement
Figure 4-11. Monitor and Control Project Work: Data Flow Diagram
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Monitoring is an aspect of project management performed throughout the project. Monitoring includes collecting,
measuring, and assessing measurements and trends to effect process improvements. Continuous monitoring gives
the project management team insight into the health of the project and identifies any areas that may require special
attention. Control includes determining corrective or preventive actions or replanning and following up on action plans
to determine whether the actions taken resolved the performance issue. The Monitor and Control Project Work process
is concerned with:
Comparing actual project performance against the project management plan;
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Assessing performance periodically to determine whether any corrective or preventive actions are indicated, and
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then recommending those actions as necessary;
Checking the status of individual project risks;
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Maintaining an accurate, timely information base concerning the project’s product(s) and their associated
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documentation through project completion;
Providing information to support status reporting, progress measurement, and forecasting;
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Providing forecasts to update current cost and current schedule information;

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Monitoring implementation of approved changes as they occur;

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Providing appropriate reporting on project progress and status to program management when the project is part
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of an overall program; and
Ensuring that the project stays aligned with the business needs.
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4.5.1 MONITOR AND CONTROL PROJECT WORK: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Monitoring and controlling project work involves looking at all aspects of the project.
Any component of the project management plan may be an input for this process.
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log contains information about assumptions and
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constraints identified as affecting the project.
Basis of estimates. Described in Sections 6.4.3.2 and 7.2.3.2. Basis of estimates indicates how the various
uu
estimates were derived and can be used to make a decision on how to respond to variances.
Cost forecasts. Described in Section 7.4.3.2. Based on the project’s past performance, the cost forecasts are
uu
used to determine if the project is within defined tolerance ranges for budget and to identify any necessary
change requests.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log is used to document and monitor who is responsible for
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resolving specific issues by a target date.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register may have information on
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effective responses for variances, and corrective and preventive actions.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The milestone list shows the scheduled dates for specific milestones
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and is used to check if the planned milestones have been met.
Quality reports. Described in Section 8.2.3.1. The quality report includes quality management issues;
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recommendations for process, project, and product improvements; corrective actions recommendations
(includes rework, defect/bugs repair, 100% inspection, and more); and the summary of findings from the
Control Quality process.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides information on threats and opportunities
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that have occurred during project execution.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report provides information on the overall project risks as
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well as information on specified individual risks.
Schedule forecasts. Described in Section 6.6.3.2. Based on the project’s past performance, the schedule
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forecasts are used to determine if the project is within defined tolerance ranges for schedule and to identify any
necessary change requests.
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4.5.1.3 WORK PERFORMANCE INFORMATION
Work performance data is gathered through work execution and passed to the controlling processes. To become work
performance information, the work performance data are compared with the project management plan components,
project documents, and other project variables. This comparison indicates how the project is performing.
Specific work performance metrics for scope, schedule, budget, and quality are defined at the start of the project
as part of the project management plan. Performance data are collected during the project through the controlling
processes and compared to the plan and other variables to provide a context for work performance.
For example, work performance data on cost may include funds that have been expended. However, to be useful, that
data has to be compared to the budget, the work that was performed, the resources used to accomplish the work, and
the funding schedule. This additional information provides the context to determine if the project is on budget or if there
is a variance. It also indicates the degree of variance from the plan, and by comparing it to the variance thresholds in
the project management plan it can indicate if preventive or corrective action is required. Interpreting work performance
data and the additional information as a whole provides a context that provides a sound foundation for project decisions.
4.5.1.4 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. A procurement agreement includes terms and conditions, and may incorporate other
items that the buyer specifies regarding what the seller is to perform or provide. If the project is outsourcing part of the
work, the project manager needs to oversee the contractor’s work to make certain that all the agreements meet the
specific needs of the project while adhering to organizational procurement policies.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Monitor and Control Project Work process include but are
not limited to:
Project management information systems such as scheduling, cost, resourcing tools, performance indicators,
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databases, project records, and financials;
Infrastructure (e.g., existing facilities and equipment, organization´s telecommunications channels);
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Stakeholders’ expectations and risk thresholds; and

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Government or industry standards (e.g., regulatory agency regulations, product standards, quality standards, and
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workmanship standards).
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Monitor and Control Project Work process include but are
not limited to:
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Financial controls procedures (e.g., required expenditure and disbursement reviews, accounting codes, and
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standard contract provisions);
Monitoring and reporting methods;
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Issue management procedures defining issue controls, issue identification, and resolution and action item tracking;
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Defect management procedures defining defect controls, defect identification, and resolution and action item
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tracking; and
Organizational knowledge base, in particular process measurement and the lessons learned repository.
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4.5.2 MONITOR AND CONTROL PROJECT WORK: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Earned value analysis,
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Interpretation and contextualization of data,

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Techniques to estimate duration and costs,

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Trend analysis,
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Technical knowledge on the industry and focus area of the project,

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Risk management, and

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Contract management.
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4.5.2.2 DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis techniques that can be used include but are not limited to:
Alternatives analysis. Alternatives analysis is used to select the corrective actions or a combination of corrective
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and preventive actions to implement when a deviation occurs.
Cost-benefit analysis. Described in Section 8.1.2.3. Cost-benefit analysis helps to determine the best corrective
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action in terms of cost in case of project deviations.
Earned value analysis. Described in Section 7.4.2.2. Earned value provides an integrated perspective on scope,
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schedule, and cost performance.
Root cause analysis. Described in Section 8.2.2.2. Root cause analysis focuses on identifying the main reasons
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of a problem. It can be used to identify the reasons for a deviation and the areas the project manager should focus
on in order to achieve the objectives of the project.
Trend analysis. Trend analysis is used to forecast future performance based on past results. It looks ahead in the
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project for expected slippages and warns the project manager ahead of time that there may be problems later in
the schedule if established trends persist. This information is made available early enough in the project timeline
to give the project team time to analyze and correct any anomalies. The results of trend analysis can be used to
recommend preventive actions if necessary.
Variance analysis. Variance analysis reviews the differences (or variance) between planned and actual
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performance. This can include duration estimates, cost estimates, resources utilization, resources rates, technical
performance, and other metrics.
Variance analysis may be conducted in each Knowledge Area based on its particular variables. In Monitor and
Control Project Work, the variance analysis reviews the variances from an integrated perspective considering
cost, time, technical, and resource variances in relation to each other to get an overall view of variance on the
project. This allows for the appropriate preventive or corrective actions to be initiated.
4.5.2.3 DECISION MAKING
A decision-making technique that can be used includes but is not limited to voting. Described in Section 5.2.2.4.
Voting can include making decisions based on unanimity, majority, or plurality.
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4.5.2.4 MEETINGS
Meetings may be face-to-face, virtual, formal, or informal. They may include project team members and other project
stakeholders when appropriate. Types of meetings include but are not limited to user groups and review meetings.
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4.5.3 MONITOR AND CONTROL PROJECT WORK: OUTPUTS
4.5.3.1 WORK PERFORMANCE REPORTS
Work performance information is combined, recorded, and distributed in a physical or electronic form in order to create
awareness and generate decisions or actions. Work performance reports are the physical or electronic representation of
work performance information intended to generate decisions, actions, or awareness. They are circulated to the project
stakeholders through the communication processes as defined in the project communications management plan.
Examples of work performance reports include status reports and progress reports. Work performance reports can
contain earned value graphs and information, trend lines and forecasts, reserve burndown charts, defect histograms,
contract performance information, and risk summaries. They can be presented as dashboards, heat reports, stop light
charts, or other representations useful for creating awareness and generating decisions and actions.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. As a result of comparing planned results to actual results, change requests may
be issued to expand, adjust, or reduce project scope, product scope, or quality requirements and schedule or cost
baselines. Change requests may necessitate the collection and documentation of new requirements. Changes can
impact the project management plan, project documents, or product deliverables. Change requests are processed for
review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6). Changes may include but
are not limited to:
Corrective action. An intentional activity that realigns the performance of the project work with the project
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management plan.
Preventive action. An intentional activity that ensures the future performance of the project work is aligned with
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the project management plan.
Defect repair. An intentional activity that modifies a nonconforming product or product component.
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request. Changes identified during the Monitor and Control Project Work process may affect the overall project
management plan.
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Cost forecasts. Described in Section 7.4.3.2. Changes in cost forecasts resulting from this process are recorded
uu
using cost management processes.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. New issues raised as a result of this process are recorded in the
uu
issue log.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register is updated with effective
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responses for variances and corrective and preventive actions.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. New risks identified during this process are recorded in the risk
uu
register and managed using the risk management processes.
Schedule forecasts. Described in Section 6.6.3.2. Changes in schedule forecasts resulting from this process are
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recorded using schedule management processes.
4.6 PERFORM INTEGRATED CHANGE CONTROL

Perform Integrated Change Control is the process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes and managing
changes to deliverables, project documents, and the project management plan; and communicating the decisions.
This process reviews all requests for changes to project documents, deliverables, or the project management plan
and determines the resolution of the change requests. The key benefit of this process is that it allows for documented
changes within the project to be considered in an integrated manner while addressing overall project risk, which often
arises from changes made without consideration of the overall project objectives or plans. This process is performed
throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 4-12. Figure
4-13 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Perform Integrated Change Control

�
.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Approved change requests

�
• Change management plan .2 Change control tools .2 Project management plan

• Configuration management .3 Data analysis updates
plan • Alternatives analysis • Any component
• Scope baseline • Cost-benefit analysis .3 Project documents updates
• Schedule baseline .4 Decision making • Change log
• Cost baseline • Voting
.2 Project documents • Autocratic decision making
• Basis of estimates • Multicriteria decision
• Requirements traceability analysis
matrix .5 Meetings
• Risk report
.3 Work performance reports
.4 Change requests
factors
Figure 4-12. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project Enterprise/ 4.3
Management Organization Direct and
Plan Manage
• Approved change requests Project Work
• Enterprise
environmental
Project management plan factors
• Change management plan • Organizational
• Configuration management plan process assets 8.3
• Scope baseline Control
• Schedule baseline • Approved change requests Quality
• Cost baseline
Project 12.3
Documents Control
• Approved change requests Procurements
Project documents
• Basis of estimates·
• Requirements traceability matrix Project
• Risk report Management
Project management Plan
4.6 plan updates
4.5 • Any component
Monitor and Perform
Control Integrated
• Project
Project Work Change Control
charter
Project
• Work performance reports Documents
• Change requests Project documents updates
• Change log
• Change requests
4.3 13.4
Direct and 9.3 10.3 12.1 Monitor
Manage Acquire Monitor Plan Procurement Stakeholder
Project Work Resources Communications Management Engagement
5.5 9.4 11.5 12.2

Validate Develop Plan Risk Conduct
Scope Team Responses Procurements
5.6. 9.5 11.6 12.3

Control Manage Implement Risk Control
Scope Team Responses Procurements
6.6 9.6 11.7 13.1

Control Control Monitor Identify
Schedule Resources Risks Stakeholders
13.3
7.4. 8.2 8.3 Manage
Control Manage Control Stakeholder
Costs Quality Quality Engagement
Figure 4-13. Perform Integrated Change Control: Data Flow Diagram
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The Perform Integrated Change Control process is conducted from project start through completion and is the
ultimate responsibility of the project manager. Change requests can impact the project scope and the product scope,
as well as any project management plan component or any project document. Changes may be requested by any
stakeholder involved with the project and may occur at any time throughout the project life cycle. The applied level
of change control is dependent upon the application area, complexity of the specific project, contract requirements,
and the context and environment in which the project is performed.
Before the baselines are established, changes are not required to be formally controlled by the Perform Integrated
Change Control process. Once the project is baselined, change requests go through this process. As a general rule, each
project’s configuration management plan should define which project artifacts need to be placed under configuration
control. Any change in a configuration element should be formally controlled and will require a change request.
Although changes may be initiated verbally, they should be recorded in written form and entered into the change
management and/or configuration management system. Change requests may require information on estimated
schedule impacts and estimated cost impacts prior to approval. Whenever a change request may impact any of the
project baselines, a formal integrated change control process is always required. Every documented change request
needs to be either approved, deferred, or rejected by a responsible individual, usually the project sponsor or project
manager. The responsible individual will be identified in the project management plan or by organizational procedures.
When required, the Perform Integrated Change Control process includes a change control board (CCB), which is a
formally chartered group responsible for reviewing, evaluating, approving, deferring, or rejecting changes to the project
and for recording and communicating such decisions.
Approved change requests can require new or revised cost estimates, activity sequences, schedule dates, resource
requirements, and/or analysis of risk response alternatives. These changes can require adjustments to the project
management plan and other project documents. Customer or sponsor approval may be required for certain change
requests after CCB approval, unless they are part of the CCB.
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4.6.1 PERFORM INTEGRATED CHANGE CONTROL: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Project management plan components include but are not limited to:
Change management plan. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The change management plan provides the direction
uu
for managing the change control process and documents the roles and responsibilities of the change control
board (CCB).
Configuration management plan. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The configuration management plan describes
uu
the configurable items of the project and identifies the items that will be recorded and updated so that the
product of the project remains consistent and operable.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline provides the project and product definition.
uu
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. The schedule baseline is used to assess the impact of the
uu
changes in the project schedule.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline is used to assess the impact of the changes to
uu
the project cost.
Basis of estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.2. Basis of estimates indicate how the duration, cost, and
uu
resources estimates were derived and can be used to calculate the impact of the change in time, budget, and
resources.
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix helps
uu
assess the impact of the change on the project scope.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report presents information on sources of overall and
uu
individual project risks involved by the change requested.
Described in Section 4.5.3.1. Work performance reports of particular interest to the Perform Integrated Change Control
process include resource availability, schedule and cost data, earned value reports, and burnup or burndown charts.
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Many processes produce change requests as an output. Change requests (described in Section 4.3.3.4) may
include corrective action, preventive action, defect repairs, as well as updates to formally controlled documents or
deliverables to reflect modified or additional ideas or content. Changes may or may not impact the project baselines—
sometimes only the performance against the baseline is affected. Decisions on those changes are usually made by
the project manager.
Change requests that have an impact on the project baselines should normally include information about the cost
of implementing the change, modifications in the scheduled dates, resource requirements, and risks. These changes
should be approved by the CCB (if it exists) and by the customer or sponsor, unless they are part of the CCB. Only
approved changes should be incorporated into a revised baseline.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Perform Integrated Change Control process include but
are not limited to:
Legal restrictions, such as country or local regulations;
uu
uu
standards);
Legal and regulatory requirements and/or constraints;
uu
uu
people, policies, and processes to meet organizational strategic and operational goals); and
Contracting and purchasing constraints.
uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Perform Integrated Change Control process include but are
not limited to:
Change control procedures, including the steps by which organizational standards, policies, plans, procedures, or
uu
any project documents will be modified, and how any changes will be approved and validated;
Procedures for approving and issuing change authorizations; and
uu
Configuration management knowledge base containing the versions and baselines of all official organizational
uu
standards, policies, procedures, and any project documents.
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4.6.2 PERFORM INTEGRATED CHANGE CONTROL: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
of or training in the following topics:
Technical knowledge of the industry and focus area of the project,
uu
Legislation and regulations,

uu
Legal and procurement,

uu
Configuration management, and

uu
Risk management.
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4.6.2.2 CHANGE CONTROL TOOLS
In order to facilitate configuration and change management, manual or automated tools may be used. Configuration
control is focused on the specification of both the deliverables and the processes, while change control is focused on
identifying, documenting, and approving or rejecting changes to the project documents, deliverables, or baselines.
Tool selection should be based on the needs of the project stakeholders including organizational and environmental
considerations and/or constraints. Tools should support the following configuration management activities:
Identify configuration item. Identification and selection of a configuration item to provide the basis for which
uu
the product configuration is defined and verified, products and documents are labeled, changes are managed,
and accountability is maintained.
Record and report configuration item status. Information recording and reporting about each configuration item.
uu
Perform configuration item verification and audit. Configuration verification and configuration audits ensure
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that the composition of a project’s configuration items is correct and that corresponding changes are registered,
assessed, approved, tracked, and correctly implemented. This ensures that the functional requirements defined
in the configuration documentation are met.
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Tools should support the following change management activities as well:
Identify changes. Identifying and selecting a change item for processes or project documents.
uu
Document changes. Documenting the change into a proper change request.

uu
Decide on changes. Reviewing the changes; approving, rejecting, deferring, or making any other decision about
uu
changes to the project documents, deliverables, or baselines.
Track changes. Verifying that the changes are registered, assessed, approved, and tracked and communicating
uu
final results to stakeholders.
Tools are also used to manage the change requests and the resulting decisions. Additional considerations should be
made for communications to assist the change control board (CCB) members in their duties, as well as to distribute the
decisions to the appropriate stakeholders.
Data analysis techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Alternatives analysis. Described in Section 9.2.2.5. This technique is used to assess the requested changes and
uu
decide which are accepted, rejected, or need to be modified to be finally accepted.
Cost-benefit analysis. Described in Section 8.1.2.3. This analysis helps to determine if the requested change is
uu
worth its associated cost.
Decision-making techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Voting. Described in Section 5.2.2.4. Voting can take the form of unanimity, majority, or plurality to decide on
uu
whether to accept, defer, or reject change requests.
Autocratic decision making. In this decision-making technique, one individual takes the responsibility for
uu
making the decision for the entire group.
Multicriteria decision analysis. Described in Section 8.1.2.4. This technique uses a decision matrix to provide
uu
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a systematic analytical approach to evaluate the requested changes according to a set of predefined criteria.
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4.6.2.5 MEETINGS
Change control meetings are held with a change control board (CCB) that is responsible for meeting and reviewing
the change requests and approving, rejecting, or deferring change requests. Most changes will have some sort of impact
on time, cost, resources, or risks. Assessing the impact of the changes is an essential part of the meeting. Alternatives
to the requested changes may also be discussed and proposed. Finally, the decision is communicated to the request
owner or group.
The CCB may also review configuration management activities. The roles and responsibilities of these boards are
clearly defined and agreed upon by the appropriate stakeholders and are documented in the change management plan.
CCB decisions are documented and communicated to the stakeholders for information and follow-up actions.
4.6.3 PERFORM INTEGRATED CHANGE CONTROL: OUTPUTS
Change requests (described in Section 4.3.3.4) are processed according to the change management plan by the
project manager, CCB, or an assigned team member. As a result, changes may be approved, deferred, or rejected.
Approved change requests will be implemented through the Direct and Manage Project Work process. Deferred or
rejected change requests are communicated to the person or group requesting the change.
The disposition of all change requests are recorded in the change log as a project document update.
Any formally controlled component of the project management plan may be changed as a result of this process.
Changes to baselines are only made from the last baseline forward. Past performance is not changed. This protects the
integrity of the baselines and the historical data of past performance.
Any formally controlled project document may be changed as a result of this process. A project document that is
normally updated as a result of this process is the change log. The change log is used to document changes that occur
during a project.
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4.7 CLOSE PROJECT OR PHASE
Close Project or Phase is the process of finalizing all activities for the project, phase, or contract. The key benefits of
this process are the project or phase information is archived, the planned work is completed, and organizational team
resources are released to pursue new endeavors. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the project.
The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 4-14. Figure 4-15 depicts the data
flow diagram for the process.
Close Project or Phase

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Project documents updates
.2 Project management plan .2 Data analysis • Lessons learned register
• All components • Document analysis .2 Final product, service, or
.3 Project documents • Regression analysis result transition
• Assumption log • Trend analysis .3 Final report
• Basis of estimates • Variance analysis .4 Organizational process assets
• Change log .3 Meetings updates
• Issue log
• Milestone list
• Project communications
• Quality control
measurements
• Quality reports
• Requirements
documentation
• Risk register
• Risk report
• Business case
.6 Agreements
.7 Procurement documentation
Figure 4-14. Close Project or Phase: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop
Project Charter
• Project Charter
Project
Management
Plan
Project management plan Customer

• All components • Final product, service, or
result transition
Project
Documents
4.7 Project
Project documents Close Documents
• Assumption log
• Basis of estimates Project• Project
or • Lessons learned register
• Change log Phasecharter
• Issue log
• Milestone list
• Quality control measurements
• Quality reports
• Requirements documentation Enterprise/
• Risk register Organization
• Risk report • Final report
• Organizational process
assets updates
5.5
Validate
Scope
• Accepted deliverables
12.1
12.2 Project
Plan Enterprise/
Conduct Documents
Procurement Organization
Procurements
Management
• Procurement documentation • Agreements • Business case • Organizational process assets

Figure 4-15. Close Project or Phase: Data Flow Diagram
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When closing the project, the project manager reviews the project management plan to ensure that all project work
is completed and that the project has met its objectives. The activities necessary for the administrative closure of the
project or phase include but are not limited to:
Actions and activities necessary to satisfy completion or exit criteria for the phase or project such as:
uu
nuMaking certain that all documents and deliverables are up-to-date and that all issues are resolved;
nuConfirming the delivery and formal acceptance of deliverables by the customer;
nuEnsuring that all costs are charged to the project;
nuClosing project accounts;
nuReassigning personnel;
nuDealing with excess project material;
nuReallocating project facilities, equipment, and other resources; and
nuElaborating the final project reports as required by organizational policies.
Activities related to the completion of the contractual agreements applicable to the project or project phase
uu
such as:
nuConfirming the formal acceptance of the seller’s work,
nuFinalizing open claims,
nuUpdating records to reflect final results, and
nuArchiving such information for future use.
Activities needed to:

uu
nuCollect project or phase records,

nuAudit project success or failure,
nuManage knowledge sharing and transfer,
nuIdentify lessons learned, and
nuArchive project information for future use by the organization.
Actions and activities necessary to transfer the project’s products, services, or results to the next phase or to
uu
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production and/or operations.

Collecting any suggestions for improving or updating the policies and procedures of the organization, and sending
�
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them to the appropriate organizational unit.
Measuring stakeholder satisfaction.
uu
The Close Project or Phase process also establishes the procedures to investigate and document the reasons for
actions taken if a project is terminated before completion. In order to successfully achieve this, the project manager
needs to engage all the proper stakeholders in the process.
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4.7.1 CLOSE PROJECT OR PHASE: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter documents the project success criteria, the approval requirements,
and who will sign off on the project.
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. All components of the project management plan are an input to this process.
Project documents that may be inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log has a record of all the assumptions and
uu
constraints that guided the technical specifications, estimates, schedule, risks, etc.
Basis of estimates. Described in Sections 6.4.3.2 and 7.2.3.2. The basis of estimates is used to evaluate how
uu
the estimation of durations, cost, resources, and cost control compared to the actual results.
Change log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. The change log contains the status of all change requests throughout
uu
the project or phase.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log is used to check that there is no open issue.
uu
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.3.3.1. The lessons learned in the phase or project will be
uu
finalized before being entered into the lessons learned repository.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The milestone list shows the final dates on which the project
uu
milestones have been accomplished.
Project communications. Described in Section 10.2.3.1. Project communications include any and all
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communications that have been created throughout the project.
Quality control measurements. Described in Section 8.3.3.1. The quality control measurements document the
uu
results of Control Quality activities and demonstrate compliance with the quality requirements.
Quality reports. Described in Section 8.2.3.1. The information presented in the quality report may include all
uu
quality assurance issues managed or escalated by the team, recommendations for improvement, and the summary
of findings from the Control Quality process.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation is used to
uu
demonstrate compliance with the project scope.
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Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides information on risks that have occurred
uu
throughout the project.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report provides information on the risk status and is used to
uu
check that there are no open risks at the end of the project.
4.7.1.4 ACCEPTED DELIVERABLES
Described in Section 5.5.3.1. Accepted deliverables may include approved product specifications, delivery receipts,
and work performance documents. Partial or interim deliverables may also be included for phased or cancelled projects.
Described in Section 1.2.6. Business documents include but are not limited to:
Business case. The business case documents the business need and the cost benefit analysis that justify the
uu
project.
Benefits management plan. The benefits management plan outlines the target benefits of the project.
uu
The business case is used to determine if the expected outcomes from the economic feasibility study used to justify
the project occurred. The benefits management plan is used to measure whether the benefits of the project were
achieved as planned.
4.7.1.6 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. The requirements for formal procurement closure are usually defined in the terms
and conditions of the contract and are included in the procurement management plan. A complex project may involve
managing multiple contracts simultaneously or in sequence.
4.7.1.7 PROCUREMENT DOCUMENTATION
Described in Section 12.3.1.4. To close the contract, all procurement documentation is collected, indexed, and filed.
Information on contract schedule, scope, quality, and cost performance along with all contract change documentation,
�
payment records, and inspection results are cataloged. “As-built” plans/drawing or “as-developed” documents, manuals,
troubleshooting, and other technical documentation should also be considered as part of the procurement documents
�
when closing a project. This information can be used for lessons learned information and as a basis for evaluating
contractors for future contracts.
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Close Project or Phase process include but are not limited to:
Project or phase closure guidelines or requirements (e.g., lessons learned, final project audits, project evaluations,
uu
product validations, acceptance criteria, contract closure, resource reassignment, team performance appraisals,
and knowledge transfer).
Configuration management knowledge base containing the versions and baselines of all official organizational
uu
standards, policies, procedures, and any project documents.
4.7.2 CLOSE PROJECT OR PHASE: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Management control,
uu
Audit,
uu
Legal and procurement, and

uu
Legislation and regulations.

uu
Data analysis techniques that can be used in project closeout include but are not limited to:
Document analysis. Described in Section 5.2.2.3. Assessing available documentation will allow identifying
uu
lessons learned and knowledge sharing for future projects and organizational assets improvement.
Regression analysis. This technique analyzes the interrelationships between different project variables that
uu
contributed to the project outcomes to improve performance on future projects.
Trend analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Trend analysis can be used to validate the models used in the
uu
organization and to implement adjustments for future projects.
Variance analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Variance analysis can be used to improve the metrics of the
uu
organization by comparing what was initially planned and the end result.
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4.7.2.3 MEETINGS
Meetings are used to confirm that the deliverables have been accepted, to validate that the exit criteria have been
met, to formalize the completion of the contracts, to evaluate the satisfaction of the stakeholders, to gather lessons
learned, to transfer knowledge and information from the project, and to celebrate success. Attendees may include
project team members and other stakeholders involved in or affected by the project. Meetings may be face-to-face,
virtual, formal, or informal. Types of meetings include but are not limited to close-out reporting meetings, customer
wrap-up meetings, lessons learned meetings, and celebration meetings.
4.7.3 CLOSE PROJECT OR PHASE: OUTPUTS
All project documents may be updated and marked as final versions as a result of project closure. Of particular
interest is the lessons learned register, which is finalized to include final information on phase or project closure.
The final lessons learned register may include information on benefits management, accuracy of the business
case, project and development life cycles, risk and issue management, stakeholder engagement, and other project
management processes.
4.7.3.2 FINAL PRODUCT, SERVICE, OR RESULT TRANSITION
A product, service, or result, once delivered by the project, may be handed over to a different group or organization
that will operate, maintain, and support it throughout its life cycle.
This output refers to this transition of the final product, service, or result that the project was authorized to produce
(or in the case of phase closure, the intermediate product, service, or result of that phase) from one team to another.
4.7.3.3 FINAL REPORT
The final report provides a summary of the project performance. It can include information such as:
Summary level description of the project or phase.
uu
�
Scope objectives, the criteria used to evaluate the scope, and evidence that the completion criteria were met.
uu
�
Quality objectives, the criteria used to evaluate the project and product quality, the verification and actual
uu
milestone delivery dates, and reasons for variances.
Cost objectives, including the acceptable cost range, actual costs, and reasons for any variances.
uu
Summary of the validation information for the final product, service, or result.
uu
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Schedule objectives including whether results achieved the benefits that the project was undertaken to address.
uu
If the benefits are not met at the close of the project, indicate the degree to which they were achieved and
estimate for future benefits realization.
Summary of how the final product, service, or result achieved the business needs identified in the business plan.
uu
If the business needs are not met at the close of the project, indicate the degree to which they were achieved and
estimate for when the business needs will be met in the future.
Summary of any risks or issues encountered on the project and how they were addressed.
uu
4.7.3.4 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS ASSET UPDATES
Organizational process assets that are updated include but are not limited to:
Project documents. Documentation resulting from the project’s activities; for example, project management
uu
plan; scope, cost, schedule, and project calendars; and change management documentation.
Operational and support documents. Documents required for an organization to maintain, operate, and support
uu
the product or service delivered by the project. These may be new documents or updates to existing documents.
Project or phase closure documents. Project or phase closure documents, consisting of formal documentation
uu
that indicates completion of the project or phase and the transfer of the completed project or phase deliverables
to others, such as an operations group or to the next phase. During project closure, the project manager reviews
prior phase documentation, customer acceptance documentation from the Validate Scope process (Section 5.5),
and the agreement (if applicable) to ensure that all project requirements are completed prior to finalizing the
closure of the project. If the project was terminated prior to completion, the formal documentation indicates
why the project was terminated and formalizes the procedures for the transfer of the finished and unfinished
deliverables of the cancelled project to others.
Lessons learned repository. Lessons learned and knowledge gained throughout the project are transferred to
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the lessons learned repository for use by future projects.
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5
PROJE CT SCO PE MANA GEM ENT
Project Scope Management includes the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required,
and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Managing the project scope is primarily concerned with
defining and controlling what is and is not included in the project.
The Project Scope Management processes are:
5.1 Plan Scope Management—The process of creating a scope management plan that documents how the project
and product scope will be defined, validated, and controlled.
5.2 Collect Requirements—The process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs and
requirements to meet project objectives.
5.3 Define Scope—The process of developing a detailed description of the project and product.
5.4 Create WBS—The process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller, more manageable
components.
5.5 Validate Scope—The process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables.
5.6 Control Scope—The process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing changes
to the scope baseline.
Figure 5-1 provides an overview of the Project Scope Management processes. The Project Scope Management
processes are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in practice, they overlap and interact in
ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.
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Project Scope Management
Overview
5.1 Plan Scope 5.2 Collect

5.3 Define Scope
Management Requirements
.1 Inputs .1 Inputs .1 Inputs

.1 Project charter .1 Project charter .1 Project charter
.2 Project management plan .2 Project management plan .2 Project management plan
.3 Enterprise environmental .3 Project documents .3 Project documents
factors .4 Business documents .4 Enterprise environmental
.4 Organizational process assets .5 Agreements factors
.6 Enterprise environmental .5 Organizational process assets
factors
.1 Expert judgment .2 Tools & Techniques
.2 Data analysis .1 Expert judgment
.3 Meetings .2 Tools & Techniques .2 Data analysis
.1 Expert judgment .3 Decision making
.3 Outputs
.2 Data gathering .4 Interpersonal and team skills
.1 Scope management plan
.3 Data analysis .5 Product analysis
.2 Requirements management
.4 Decision making
plan .3 Outputs
.5 Data representation
.1 Project scope statement
.7 Context diagram
.8 Prototypes
5.4 Create WBS
.3 Outputs
.1 Requirements documentation 5.6 Control Scope
.1 Inputs .2 Requirements traceability
.1 Project management plan matrix
.2 Project documents .1 Inputs
.3 Enterprise environmental .1 Project management plan
factors .2 Project documents
.4 Organizational process assets .3 Work performance data
5.5 Validate Scope .4 Organizational process assets
.2 Decomposition .1 Inputs .1 Data analysis
.1 Project management plan
.3 Outputs .2 Project documents .3 Outputs
.1 Scope baseline .3 Verified deliverables .1 Work performance information
.2 Project documents updates .4 Work performance data .2 Change requests
.2 Tools & Techniques updates
.1 Inspection .4 Project documents updates
.2 Decision making
.3 Outputs
.3 Change requests
Figure 5-1. Project Scope Management Overview
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KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT
In the project context, the term “scope” can refer to:

Product scope. The features and functions that characterize a product, service, or result.
uu
Project scope. The work performed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and
uu
functions. The term “project scope” is sometimes viewed as including product scope.
Project life cycles can range along a continuum from predictive approaches at one end to adaptive or agile approaches
at the other. In a predictive life cycle, the project deliverables are defined at the beginning of the project and any changes
to the scope are progressively managed. In an adaptive or agile life cycle, the deliverables are developed over multiple
iterations where a detailed scope is defined and approved for each iteration when it begins.
Projects with adaptive life cycles are intended to respond to high levels of change and require ongoing stakeholder
engagement. The overall scope of an adaptive project will be decomposed into a set of requirements and work to
be performed, sometimes referred to as a product backlog. At the beginning of an iteration, the team will work to
determine how many of the highest-priority items on the backlog list can be delivered within the next iteration. Three
processes (Collect Requirements, Define Scope, and Create WBS) are repeated for each iteration. On the contrary, in a
predictive project, these processes are performed toward the beginning of the project and updated as necessary, using
the integrated change control process.
In an adaptive or agile life cycle, the sponsor and customer representatives should be continuously engaged with the
project to provide feedback on deliverables as they are created and to ensure that the product backlog reflects their
current needs. Two processes (Validate Scope and Control Scope) are repeated for each iteration. On the contrary, in a
predictive project, Validate Scope occurs with each deliverable or phase review and Control Scope is an ongoing process.
In predictive projects, the scope baseline for the project is the approved version of the project scope statement, work
breakdown structure (WBS), and its associated WBS dictionary. A baseline can be changed only through formal change
control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison while performing Validate Scope and Control Scope processes
as well as other controlling processes. Projects with adaptive life cycles use backlogs (including product requirements
and user stories) to reflect their current needs.
Completion of the project scope is measured against the project management plan, while completion of the product
scope is measured against the product requirements. The term “requirement” is defined as a condition or capability that
�
is required to be present in a product, service, or result to satisfy an agreement or other formally imposed specification.
�
Validate Scope is the process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables. The verified deliverables
obtained from the Control Quality process are an input to the Validate Scope process. One of the outputs of Validate
Scope is accepted deliverables that are formally signed off and approved by the authorized stakeholder. Therefore, the
stakeholder needs to get involved early on during planning (sometimes initiating as well) and to provide inputs about
quality of deliverables so that Control Quality can assess the performance and recommend necessary changes.
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TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT
Requirements have always been a concern in project management and have continued to gain more attention in
the profession. As the global environment becomes more complex, organizations are starting to recognize how to
use business analysis to their competitive advantage by defining, managing, and controlling requirements activities.
Activities of business analysis may start before a project is initiated and a project manager is assigned. According
to Requirements Management: A Practice Guide [14], the requirements management process starts with a needs
assessment, which may begin in portfolio planning, in program planning, or within a discrete project.
Eliciting, documenting, and managing stakeholder requirements takes place within the Project Scope Management
processes. Trends and emerging practices for Project Scope Management include but are not limited to a focus on
collaborating with business analysis professionals to:
Determine problems and identify business needs;
uu
Identify and recommend viable solutions for meeting those needs;

uu
Elicit, document, and manage stakeholder requirements in order to meet business and project objectives; and
uu
Facilitate the successful implementation of the product, service, or end result of the program or project [7].
uu
The process ends with the requirements closure, which transitions the product, service, or result to the recipient in
order to measure, monitor, realize, and sustain benefits over time.
The role with responsibility to conduct business analysis should be assigned to resources with sufficient business
analysis skills and expertise. If a business analyst is assigned to a project, requirement-related activities are the
responsibility of that role. The project manager is responsible for ensuring that requirements-related work is accounted
for in the project management plan and that requirements-related activities are performed on time and within budget
and deliver value.
The relationship between a project manager and a business analyst should be a collaborative partnership. A project
will have a higher likelihood of being successful if project managers and business analysts fully understand each other’s
roles and responsibilities to successfully achieve project objectives.
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Because each project is unique, the project manager will need to tailor the way Project Scope Management processes
are applied. Considerations for tailoring include but are not limited to:
Knowledge and requirements management. Does the organization have formal or informal knowledge and
uu
requirements management systems? What guidelines should the project manager establish for requirements to
be reused in the future?
Validation and control. Does the organization have existing formal or informal validation and control-related
uu
policies, procedures, and guidelines?
Development approach. Does the organization use agile approaches in managing projects? Is the development
uu
approach iterative or incremental? Is a predictive approach used? Will a hybrid approach be productive?
Stability of requirements. Are there areas of the project with unstable requirements? Do unstable requirements
uu
necessitate the use of lean, agile, or other adaptive techniques until they are stable and well defined?
Governance. Does the organization have formal or informal audit and governance policies, procedures,
uu
and guidelines?
In projects with evolving requirements, high risk, or significant uncertainty, the scope is often not understood at the
beginning of the project or it evolves during the project. Agile methods deliberately spend less time trying to define
and agree on scope in the early stage of the project and spend more time establishing the process for its ongoing
discovery and refinement. Many environments with emerging requirements find that there is often a gap between
the real business requirements and the business requirements that were originally stated. Therefore, agile methods
purposefully build and review prototypes and release versions in order to refine the requirements. As a result, scope is
defined and redefined throughout the project. In agile approaches, the requirements constitute the backlog.
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5.1 PLAN SCOPE MANAGEMENT
Plan Scope Management is the process of creating a scope management plan that documents how the project and
product scope will be defined, validated, and controlled. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and
direction on how scope will be managed throughout the project. This process is performed once or at predefined points
in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-2. Figure 5-3 depicts
the data flow diagram of the process.
Plan Scope Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Scope management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Data analysis .2 Requirements management
• Quality management plan • Alternatives analysis plan
• Project life cycle description .3 Meetings
• Development approach
factors
Figure 5-2. Plan Scope Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
4.1
Develop Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project 5.1 Project

Management Plan Scope Management
Plan Management
• Project • Scope management plan Plan
charter • Requirements
management plan
• Quality management plan
• Project life cycle description
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 5-3. Plan Scope Management: Data Flow Diagram
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The scope management plan is a component of the project or program management plan that describes how the
scope will be defined, developed, monitored, controlled, and validated. The development of the scope management plan
and the detailing of the project scope begin with the analysis of information contained in the project charter (Section
4.1.3.1), the latest approved subsidiary plans of the project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1), historical information
contained in the organizational process assets (Section 2.3), and any other relevant enterprise environmental factors
(Section 2.2).
5.1.1 PLAN SCOPE MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter documents the project purpose, high-level project description,
assumptions, constraints, and high-level requirements that the project is intended to satisfy.
Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The way the project and product scope will be
uu
managed can be influenced by how the organization’s quality policy, methodologies, and standards are
implemented on the project.
Project life cycle description. The project life cycle determines the series of phases that a project passes
uu
through from its inception to the end of the project.
Development approach. The development approach defines whether waterfall, iterative, adaptive, agile, or a
uu
hybrid development approach will be used.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Scope Management process include but are not
limited to:
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Organization’s culture,
uu
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Infrastructure,
uu
Personnel administration, and

uu
Marketplace conditions.
uu
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Scope Management process include but are not
limited to:
Policies and procedures, and
uu
Historical information and lessons learned repositories.

uu
5.1.2 PLAN SCOPE MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 4.1.2.1 Expertise should be considered from individuals or groups with specialized knowledge
Previous similar projects, and
uu
Information in the industry, discipline, and application area.

uu
A data analysis technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to alternatives analysis.
Various ways of collecting requirements, elaborating the project and product scope, creating the product, validating
the scope, and controlling the scope are evaluated.
5.1.2.3 MEETINGS
Project teams may attend project meetings to develop the scope management plan. Attendees may include the
project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected stakeholders, anyone with responsibility
for any of the scope management processes, and others as needed.
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5.1.3 PLAN SCOPE MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
5.1.3.1 SCOPE MANAGEMENT PLAN
The scope management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how the scope will be
defined, developed, monitored, controlled, and validated. The components of a scope management plan include:
Process for preparing a project scope statement;
uu
Process that enables the creation of the WBS from the detailed project scope statement;
uu
Process that establishes how the scope baseline will be approved and maintained; and
uu
Process that specifies how formal acceptance of the completed project deliverables will be obtained.
uu
The scope management plan can be formal or informal, broadly framed or highly detailed, based on the needs
of the project.
5.1.3.2 REQUIREMENTS MANAGEMENT PLAN
The requirements management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how project and
product requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed. According to Business Analysis for Practitioners:
A Practice Guide [7], some organizations refer to it as a business analysis plan. Components of the requirements
management plan can include but are not limited to:
How requirements activities will be planned, tracked, and reported;
uu
Configuration management activities such as: how changes will be initiated; how impacts will be analyzed; how
uu
they will be traced, tracked, and reported; as well as the authorization levels required to approve these changes;
Requirements prioritization process;
uu
Metrics that will be used and the rationale for using them; and
uu
Traceability structure that reflects the requirement attributes captured on the traceability matrix.
uu
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5.2 COLLECT REQUIREMENTS
Collect Requirements is the process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs and requirements
to meet objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the basis for defining the product scope and project
scope. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and
outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-4. Figure 5-5 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Collect Requirements

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Requirements documentation
.2 Project management plan .2 Data gathering .2 Requirements traceability
• Scope management plan • Brainstorming matrix
• Requirements management • Interviews
plan • Focus groups
• Stakeholder engagement • Questionnaires and
plan surveys
.3 Project documents • Benchmarking
• Assumption log .3 Data analysis
• Lessons learned register • Document analysis
• Stakeholder register .4 Decision making
.4 Business documents • Voting
• Business case • Multicriteria decision
.5 Agreements analysis
.6 Enterprise environmental .5 Data representation
factors • Affinity diagrams
.7 Organizational process assets • Mind mapping
• Nominal group technique
• Observation/conversation
• Facilitation
.7 Context diagram
.8 Prototypes
Figure 5-4. Collect Requirements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop
Project Charter
• Project charter
Project
Management
Plan

• Requirements management plan
• Scope management plan
• Stakeholder engagement plan
Project
Documents 5.2
Collect Project
Requirements
• Project • Requirements
Documents
charter documentation
Project documents
• Assumption log • Requirements
• Lessons learned register traceability matrix
Business
Documents
Business documents
• Business case
12.2
Conduct
Procurements
• Agreements
Enterprise/
Organization

�

�
Figure 5-5. Collect Requirements: Data Flow Diagram
139
The PMBOK® Guide does not specifically address product requirements since those are industry specific. Note that
Business Analysis for Practitioners: A Practice Guide [7] provides more in-depth information about product requirements.
The project’s success is directly influenced by active stakeholder involvement in the discovery and decomposition of
needs into project and product requirements and by the care taken in determining, documenting, and managing the
requirements of the product, service, or result of the project. Requirements include conditions or capabilities that are
required to be present in a product, service, or result to satisfy an agreement or other formally imposed specification.
Requirements include the quantified and documented needs and expectations of the sponsor, customer, and other
stakeholders. These requirements need to be elicited, analyzed, and recorded in enough detail to be included in the
scope baseline and to be measured once project execution begins. Requirements become the foundation of the WBS.
Cost, schedule, quality planning, and procurement are all based on these requirements.
5.2.1 COLLECT REQUIREMENTS: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter documents the high-level project description and high-level
requirements that will be used to develop detailed requirements.
Scope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan contains information on
uu
how the project scope will be defined and developed.
Requirements management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.2. The requirements management plan has
uu
information on how project requirements will be collected, analyzed, and documented.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan is used
uu
to understand stakeholder communication requirements and the level of stakeholder engagement in order to
assess and adapt to the level of stakeholder participation in requirements activities.
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Examples of project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
Assumption Log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log identified assumptions about the product,
uu
project, environment, stakeholders, and other factors that can influence requirements.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register is used to provide
uu
information on effective requirements collection techniques, especially for projects that are using an iterative or
adaptive product development methodology.
Stakeholder Register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register is used to identify stakeholders
uu
who can provide information on the requirements. It also captures requirements and expectations that
stakeholders have for the project.
Described in Section 1.2.6. A business document that can influence the Collect Requirements process is the
business case, which can describe required, desired, and optional criteria for meeting the business needs.
5.2.1.5 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Agreements can contain project and product requirements.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Collect Requirements process include but are not limited to:
uu
Infrastructure,
uu

uu
uu
�

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Collect Requirements process include but are not limited to:
Policies and procedures, and
uu
Historical information and lessons learned repository with information from previous projects.
uu
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5.2.2 COLLECT REQUIREMENTS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Business analysis,
uu
Requirements elicitation,
uu
Requirements analysis,
uu
Requirements documentation,
uu
Project requirements in previous similar projects,

uu
Diagramming techniques,
uu
Facilitation, and
uu
Conflict management.
uu
Brainstorming. Described in Section 4.1.2.2. Brainstorming is a technique used to generate and collect multiple
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ideas related to project and product requirements.
Interviews. An interview is a formal or informal approach to elicit information from stakeholders by talking
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to them directly. It is typically performed by asking prepared and spontaneous questions and recording the
responses. Interviews are often conducted on an individual basis between an interviewer and an interviewee, but
may involve multiple interviewers and/or multiple interviewees. Interviewing experienced project participants,
sponsors, other executives, and subject matter experts can aid in identifying and defining the features and
functions of the desired product deliverables. Interviews are also useful for obtaining confidential information.
Focus groups. Focus groups bring together prequalified stakeholders and subject matter experts to learn about
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their expectations and attitudes about a proposed product, service, or result. A trained moderator guides the
group through an interactive discussion designed to be more conversational than a one-on-one interview.
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Questionnaires and surveys. Questionnaires and surveys are written sets of questions designed to quickly
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accumulate information from a large number of respondents. Questionnaires and/or surveys are most appropriate
with varied audiences, when a quick turnaround is needed, when respondents are geographically dispersed, and
where statistical analysis could be appropriate.
Benchmarking. Described in Section 8.1.2.2. Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned products,
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processes, and practices to those of comparable organizations to identify best practices, generate ideas for
improvement, and provide a basis for measuring performance. The organizations compared during benchmarking
can be internal or external.
Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Data analysis techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited
to document analysis. Document analysis consists of reviewing and assessing any relevant documented information.
In this process, document analysis is used to elicit requirements by analyzing existing documentation and identifying
information relevant to the requirements. There is a wide range of documents that may be analyzed to help elicit relevant
requirements. Examples of documents that may be analyzed include but are not limited to:
Agreements;
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Business plans;
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Business process or interface documentation;

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Business rules repositories;

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Current process flows;

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Marketing literature;
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Problem/issue logs;
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Policies and procedures;

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Regulatory documentation such as laws, codes, or ordinances, etc.;

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Requests for proposal; and

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Use cases.
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Decision-making techniques that can be used in the Collect Requirements process include but are not limited to:
Voting. Voting is a collective decision-making technique and an assessment process having multiple alternatives
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with an expected outcome in the form of future actions. These techniques can be used to generate, classify, and
prioritize product requirements. Examples of voting techniques include:
nuUnanimity. A decision that is reached whereby everyone agrees on a single course of action.
nuMajority. A decision that is reached with support obtained from more than 50% of the members of the group.
Having a group size with an uneven number of participants can ensure that a decision will be reached, rather
than resulting in a tie.
nuPlurality.
A decision that is reached whereby the largest block in a group decides, even if a majority is not
achieved. This method is generally used when the number of options nominated is more than two.
Autocratic decision making. In this method, one individual takes responsibility for making the decision
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for the group.
Multicriteria decision analysis. A technique that uses a decision matrix to provide a systematic analytical
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approach for establishing criteria, such as risk levels, uncertainty, and valuation, to evaluate and rank many ideas.
5.2.2.5 DATA REPRESENTATION
Data representation techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Affinity diagrams. Affinity diagrams allow large numbers of ideas to be classified into groups for review and
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analysis.
Mind mapping. Mind mapping consolidates ideas created through individual brainstorming sessions into a
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single map to reflect commonality and differences in understanding and to generate new ideas.
Described in Section 4.1.2.3. The interpersonal and team skills that can be used in this process include but are not
limited to:
Nominal group technique. The nominal group technique enhances brainstorming with a voting process used
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to rank the most useful ideas for further brainstorming or for prioritization. The nominal group technique is a
structured form of brainstorming consisting of four steps:
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nuA question or problem is posed to the group. Each person silently generates and writes down their ideas.
nuThe moderator writes down the ideas on a flip chart until all ideas are recorded.
nuEach recorded idea is discussed until all group members have a clear understanding.
nuIndividuals vote privately to prioritize the ideas, usually using a scale of 1 – 5, with 1 being the lowest and 5
being the highest. Voting may take place in many rounds to reduce and focus in on ideas. After each round,
the votes are tallied and the highest scoring ideas are selected.
Observation/conversation. Observation and conversation provide a direct way of viewing individuals in their
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environment and how they perform their jobs or tasks and carry out processes. It is particularly helpful for detailed
processes when the people who use the product have difficulty or are reluctant to articulate their requirements.
Observation is also known as “job shadowing.” It is usually done externally by an observer viewing a business
expert performing a job. It can also be done by a “participant observer” who actually performs a process or
procedure to experience how it is done to uncover hidden requirements.
Facilitation. Described in Section 4.1.2.3. Facilitation is used with focused sessions that bring key stakeholders
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together to define product requirements. Workshops can be used to quickly define cross-functional
requirements and reconcile stakeholder differences. Because of their interactive group nature, well-facilitated
sessions can build trust, foster relationships, and improve communication among the participants, which can
lead to increased stakeholder consensus. In addition, issues can be discovered earlier and resolved more
quickly than in individual sessions.
Facilitation skills are used in the following situations, but are not limited to:
nuJoint application design/development (JAD). JAD sessions are used in the software development industry.
These facilitated sessions focus on bringing business subject matter experts and the development team
together to gather requirements and improve the software development process.
nuQuality function deployment (QFD). In the manufacturing industry, QFD is another facilitation technique that
helps determine critical characteristics for new product development. QFD starts by collecting customer
needs, also known as voice of the customer (VOC). These needs are then objectively sorted and prioritized,
and goals are set for achieving them.
nuUser stories. User stories, which are short, textual descriptions of required functionality, are often developed
during a requirements workshop. User stories describe the stakeholder role, who benefits from the feature
(role), what the stakeholder needs to accomplish (goal), and the benefit to the stakeholder (motivation).
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5.2.2.7 CONTEXT DIAGRAM
The context diagram is an example of a scope model. Context diagrams visually depict the product scope by showing
a business system (process, equipment, computer system, etc.), and how people and other systems (actors) interact
with it (see Figure 5-6). Context diagrams show inputs to the business system, the actor(s) providing the input, the
outputs from the business system, and the actor(s) receiving the output.
HR Talent Management Systems of ABC Company
Internal Users External Users
Hiring Recruiting
Managers Agencies
Internal External
User Jobs
Profiles Postings
Internal Job
Associates Seekers
Internal External
Jobs User
Postings Profiles
Internal
Full-Time and External
Part-Time Jobs
Contractors Websites
Internal Users External Users
LEGEND
Internal Users Internal Data Flow External Users External Data Flow
Figure 5-6. Context Diagram
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5.2.2.8 PROTOTYPES
Prototyping is a method of obtaining early feedback on requirements by providing a model of the expected product
before actually building it. Examples of prototypes are small-scale products, computer generated 2D and 3D models,
mock-ups, or simulations. Prototypes allow stakeholders to experiment with a model of the final product rather than
being limited to discussing abstract representations of their requirements. Prototypes support the concept of progressive
elaboration in iterative cycles of mock-up creation, user experimentation, feedback generation, and prototype revision.
When enough feedback cycles have been performed, the requirements obtained from the prototype are sufficiently
complete to move to a design or build phase.
Storyboarding is a prototyping technique showing sequence or navigation through a series of images or illustrations.
Storyboards are used on a variety of projects in a variety of industries, such as film, advertising, instructional design,
and on agile and other software development projects. In software development, storyboards use mock-ups to show
navigation paths through web pages, screens, or other user interfaces.
5.2.3 COLLECT REQUIREMENTS: OUTPUTS
5.2.3.1 REQUIREMENTS DOCUMENTATION
Requirements documentation describes how individual requirements meet the business need for the project.
Requirements may start out at a high level and become progressively more detailed as more information about the
requirements is known. Before being baselined, requirements need to be unambiguous (measurable and testable),
traceable, complete, consistent, and acceptable to key stakeholders. The format of the requirements document may
range from a simple document listing all the requirements categorized by stakeholder and priority, to more elaborate
forms containing an executive summary, detailed descriptions, and attachments.
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Many organizations categorize requirements into different types, such as business and technical solutions, the
former referring to stakeholder needs and the latter as to how those needs will be implemented. Requirements can
be grouped into classifications allowing for further refinement and detail as the requirements are elaborated. These
classifications include:
Business requirements. These describe the higher-level needs of the organization as a whole, such as the
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business issues or opportunities, and reasons why a project has been undertaken.
Stakeholder requirements. These describe needs of a stakeholder or stakeholder group.
uu
Solution requirements. These describe features, functions, and characteristics of the product, service, or
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result that will meet the business and stakeholder requirements. Solution requirements are further grouped into
functional and nonfunctional requirements:
nuFunctional requirements. Functional requirements describe the behaviors of the product. Examples include
actions, processes, data, and interactions that the product should execute.
nuNonfunctional requirements. Nonfunctional requirements supplement functional requirements and describe
the environmental conditions or qualities required for the product to be effective. Examples include: reliability,
security, performance, safety, level of service, supportability, retention/purge, etc.
Transition and readiness requirements. These describe temporary capabilities, such as data conversion and
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training requirements, needed to transition from the current as-is state to the desired future state.
Project requirements. These describe the actions, processes, or other conditions the project needs to meet.
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Examples include milestone dates, contractual obligations, constraints, etc.
Quality requirements. These capture any condition or criteria needed to validate the successful completion
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of a project deliverable or fulfillment of other project requirements. Examples include tests, certifications,
validations, etc.
5.2.3.2 REQUIREMENTS TRACEABILITY MATRIX
The requirements traceability matrix is a grid that links product requirements from their origin to the deliverables
that satisfy them. The implementation of a requirements traceability matrix helps ensure that each requirement adds
business value by linking it to the business and project objectives. It provides a means to track requirements throughout
the project life cycle, helping to ensure that requirements approved in the requirements documentation are delivered at
the end of the project. Finally, it provides a structure for managing changes to the product scope.
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Tracing requirements includes but is not limited to:
Business needs, opportunities, goals, and objectives;
uu
Project objectives;
uu
Project scope and WBS deliverables;

uu
Product design;
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Product development;
uu
Test strategy and test scenarios; and

uu
High-level requirements to more detailed requirements.

uu
Attributes associated with each requirement can be recorded in the requirements traceability matrix. These
attributes help to define key information about the requirement. Typical attributes used in the requirements traceability
matrix may include: a unique identifier, a textual description of the requirement, the rationale for inclusion, owner,
source, priority, version, current status (such as active, cancelled, deferred, added, approved, assigned, completed),
and status date. Additional attributes to ensure that the requirement has met stakeholders’ satisfaction may include
stability, complexity, and acceptance criteria. Figure 5-7 provides an example of a requirements traceability matrix
with its associated attributes.
Requirements Traceability Matrix

Project Name: Programs Portfolios
Cost Center:
Project Description:
Business Needs,
Associate Project WBS Product Product Test
ID Requirements Description Opportunities,
ID Objectives Deliverables Design Development Cases
Goals, Objectives
1.0
1.1
001
1.2
1.2.1
2.0
002 2.1
2.1.1
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3.0
�
003 3.1
3.2
004 4.0
005 5.0
Figure 5-7. Example of a Requirements Traceability Matrix
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5.3 DEFINE SCOPE
Define Scope is the process of developing a detailed description of the project and product. The key benefit of
this process is that it describes the product, service, or result boundaries and acceptance criteria. The inputs, tools
and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-8. Figure 5-9 depicts the data flow diagram
of the process.
Define Scope

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Project scope statement
.2 Project management plan .2 Data analysis .2 Project documents updates
• Scope management plan • Alternatives analysis • Assumption log
.3 Project documents .3 Decision making • Requirements
• Assumption log • Multicriteria decision documentation
• Requirements analysis • Requirements traceability
documentation .4 Interpersonal and team skills matrix
• Risk register • Facilitation • Stakeholder register
.4 Enterprise environmental .5 Product analysis
factors
Figure 5-8. Define Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project
Management
Plan
• Project scope statement

5.3 Project
Define Documents
Project Scope
• Project Project document updates
charter • Assumption log
Documents
• Requirements documentation
• Requirements traceability matrix
Project documents
• Assumption log
• Risk register
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 5-9. Define Scope: Data Flow Diagram
Since all the requirements identified in Collect Requirements may not be included in the project, the Define Scope
process selects the final project requirements from the requirements documentation developed during the Collect
Requirements process. It then develops a detailed description of the project and product, service, or result.
The preparation of a detailed project scope statement builds upon the major deliverables, assumptions, and
constraints that are documented during project initiation. During project planning, the project scope is defined and
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described with greater specificity as more information about the project is known. Existing risks, assumptions, and
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constraints are analyzed for completeness and added or updated as necessary. The Define Scope process can be highly
iterative. In iterative life cycle projects, a high-level vision will be developed for the overall project, but the detailed scope
is determined one iteration at a time, and the detailed planning for the next iteration is carried out as work progresses
on the current project scope and deliverables.
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5.3.1 DEFINE SCOPE: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter provides the high-level project description, product characteristics,
and approval requirements.
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. A project management plan component includes but is not limited to the scope
management plan as described in Section 5.1.3.1, which documents how the project scope will be defined, validated,
and controlled.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log identifies assumptions and constraints about
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the product, project, environment, stakeholders, and other factors that can influence the project and product scope.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation identifies
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requirements that will be incorporated into the scope.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains response strategies that may affect the
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project scope, such as reducing or changing project and product scope to avoid or mitigate a risk.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Define Scope process include but are not limited to:
uu
Infrastructure,
uu

uu
uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Define Scope process include but are not limited to:
Policies, procedures, and templates for a project scope statement;
uu
Project files from previous projects; and

uu
Lessons learned from previous phases or projects.

uu
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5.3.2 DEFINE SCOPE: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 4.1.2.1. Expertise should be considered from individuals or groups with knowledge of or
experience with similar projects.
An example of a data analysis technique that can be used in this process includes but is not limited to alternatives
analysis. Alternatives analysis can be used to evaluate ways to meet the requirements and the objectives identified in
the charter.
Described in Section 5.1.2.2. A decision-making technique that can be used in this process includes but is not limited
to multicriteria decision analysis. Described in Section 8.1.2.4, multicriteria decision analysis is a technique that uses
a decision matrix to provide a systematic analytical approach for establishing criteria, such as requirements, schedule,
budget, and resources, in order to refine the project and product scope for the project.
Described in Section 4.1.2.3. An example of an interpersonal and team skills technique is facilitation. Facilitation
is used in workshops and working sessions with key stakeholders who have a variety of expectations or fields of
expertise. The goal is to reach a cross-functional and common understanding of the project deliverables and project
and product boundaries.
5.3.2.5 PRODUCT ANALYSIS
Product analysis can be used to define products and services. It includes asking questions about a product or service
and forming answers to describe the use, characteristics, and other relevant aspects of what is going to be delivered.
�
Each application area has one or more generally accepted methods for translating high-level product or service
descriptions into meaningful deliverables. Requirements are captured at a high level and decomposed to the level of
�
detail needed to design the final product. Examples of product analysis techniques include but are not limited to:
Product breakdown,
uu
Requirements analysis,
uu
Systems analysis,
uu
Systems engineering,
uu
Value analysis, and

uu
Value engineering.
uu
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5.3.3 DEFINE SCOPE: OUTPUTS
5.3.3.1 PROJECT SCOPE STATEMENT
The project scope statement is the description of the project scope, major deliverables, assumptions, and constraints.
The project scope statement documents the entire scope, including project and product scope. It describes the project’s
deliverables in detail. It also provides a common understanding of the project scope among project stakeholders. It may
contain explicit scope exclusions that can assist in managing stakeholder expectations. It enables the project team
to perform more detailed planning, guides the project team’s work during execution, and provides the baseline for
evaluating whether requests for changes or additional work are contained within or outside the project’s boundaries.
The degree and level of detail to which the project scope statement defines the work that will be performed and the
work that is excluded can help determine how well the project management team can control the overall project scope.
The detailed project scope statement, either directly or by reference to other documents, includes the following:
Product scope description. Progressively elaborates the characteristics of the product, service, or result
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described in the project charter and requirements documentation.
Deliverables. Any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is required
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to be produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables also include ancillary results, such as
project management reports and documentation. These deliverables may be described at a summary level
or in great detail.
Acceptance criteria. A set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.
uu
Project exclusions. Identifies what is excluded from the project. Explicitly stating what is out of scope for the
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project helps manage stakeholders’ expectations and can reduce scope creep.
Although the project charter and the project scope statement are sometimes perceived as containing a certain
degree of redundancy, they are different in the level of detail contained in each. The project charter contains high-
level information, while the project scope statement contains a detailed description of the scope components. These
components are progressively elaborated throughout the project. Table 5-1 describes some of the key elements for
each document.
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Table 5-1. Elements of the Project Charter and Project Scope Statement
Project Charter Project Scope Statement

Project purpose Project scope description (progressively
elaborated)
Measurable project objectives and related
success criteria Project deliverables
High-level requirements Acceptance criteria
High-level project description, boundaries, Project exclusions
and key deliverables
Overall project risk
Summary milestone schedule
Preapproved financial resources
Key stakeholder list
Project approval requirements (i.e., what
constitutes success, who decides the
project is successful, who signs off on the
project)
Project exit criteria (i.e., what are the
conditions to be met in order to close or to
cancel the project or phase
Assigned project manager, responsibility,
and authority level
Name and authority of the sponsor or other
person(s) authorizing the project charter
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log is updated with additional assumptions or
uu
constraints that were identified during this process.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation may be updated
uu
with additional or changed requirements.
�
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix may be
uu
�
updated to reflect updates in requirement documentation.

Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. Where additional information on existing or new
uu
stakeholders is gathered as a result of this process, it is recorded in the stakeholder register.
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5.4 CREATE WBS
Create WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller, more manageable
components. The key benefit of this process is that it provides a framework of what has to be delivered. This process is
performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure 5-10. Figure 5-11 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Create WBS

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Scope baseline
• Scope management plan .2 Decomposition .2 Project documents updates
.2 Project documents • Assumption log
• Project scope statement • Requirements
documentation
factors
Figure 5-10. Create WBS: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
Project
Management
Plan Project
Management
Plan
• Scope baseline
5.4
Create
WBS• Project
Project charter
Documents
Project documents Project

• Project scope statement
Documents
Project document updates
• Assumption log
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 5-11. Create WBS: Data Flow Diagram
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The WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project team to accomplish
the project objectives and create the required deliverables. The WBS organizes and defines the total scope of the project
and represents the work specified in the current approved project scope statement.
The planned work is contained within the lowest level of WBS components, which are called work packages. A work
package can be used to group the activities where work is scheduled and estimated, monitored, and controlled. In the
context of the WBS, work refers to work products or deliverables that are the result of activity and not to the activity itself.
5.4.1 CREATE WBS: INPUTS
A project management plan component includes but is not limited to the scope management plan. Described in
Section 5.1.3.1, the scope management plan documents how the WBS will be created from the project scope statement.
Project scope statement. Described in Section 5.3.3.1. The project scope statement describes the work that
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will be performed and the work that is excluded.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Detailed requirements describe how individual
uu
requirements meet the business need for the project.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Create WBS process include but are not limited to
industry-specific WBS standards that are relevant to the nature of the project. These industry-specific standards may
serve as external reference sources for creating the WBS.

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Create WBS process include but are not limited to:
�
Policies, procedures, and templates for the WBS;

uu
Project files from previous projects; and

uu
Lessons learned from previous projects.

uu
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5.4.2 CREATE WBS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 4.1.2.1. Expertise should be considered from individuals or groups with knowledge of or
experience with similar projects.
5.4.2.2 DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition is a technique used for dividing and subdividing the project scope and project deliverables into
smaller, more manageable parts. The work package is the work defined at the lowest level of the WBS for which cost and
duration can be estimated and managed. The level of decomposition is often guided by the degree of control needed to
effectively manage the project. The level of detail for work packages will vary with the size and complexity of the project.
Decomposition of the total project work into work packages generally involves the following activities:
Identifying and analyzing the deliverables and related work,
uu
Structuring and organizing the WBS,

uu
Decomposing the upper WBS levels into lower-level detailed components,

uu
Developing and assigning identification codes to the WBS components, and

uu
Verifying that the degree of decomposition of the deliverables is appropriate.

uu
A portion of a WBS with some branches of the WBS decomposed down through the work package level is shown in
Figure 5-12.
1.0
Value Management
System Project
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Needs Standards Systems Project
Assessment Development Engineering Management
1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4

Current System Requirements Alternatives System Requirements
Audit Determination Development Development
1.1.1.1 1.1.2.1 1.1.3.1

Components Gap Alternatives
Identification Assessment Identification
1.1.1.2 1.1.2.2 1.1.3.2

Components Requirements Alternatives
Analysis Changes Identification Analysis
The WBS is illustrative only. It is not intended to represent the full project scope of any specific project,
nor to imply that this is the only way to organize a WBS on this type of project.
Figure 5-12. Sample WBS Decomposed Down Through Work Packages
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A WBS structure may be created through various approaches. Some of the popular methods include the top-down
approach, the use of organization-specific guidelines, and the use of WBS templates. A bottom-up approach can be used
to group subcomponents. The WBS structure can be represented in a number of forms, such as:
Using phases of the project life cycle as the second level of decomposition, with the product and project
uu
deliverables inserted at the third level, as shown in Figure 5-13;
Using major deliverables as the second level of decomposition, as shown in Figure 5-14; and
uu
Incorporating subcomponents that may be developed by organizations outside the project team, such as
uu
contracted work. The seller then develops the supporting contract WBS as part of the contracted work.
Software Product
Release 5.0
Project Product Detail Integration

Construct
Management Requirements Design and Test
Planning Software Software Software Software
User User User User

Meetings Documentation Documentation Documentation Documentation
Training Program Training Program Training Program Training Program

Administration Materials Materials Materials Materials
Figure 5-13. Sample WBS Organized by Phase

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Aircraft
System
Project Air Support Test and

Training Data Facilities
Management Vehicle Equipment Evaluation
System Base
Equipment Technical Organizational
Engineering Mock-ups
Management Training Orders Level SE Buildings
Supporting Facilities Engineering Intermediate Maintenance Operational

PM Activities Training Data Level SE Facility Test
Services Management Depot Developmental

Training Data Level SE Test
Test
Communication Navigation Fire Control

Airframe Engine
System System System
Figure 5-14. Sample WBS with Major Deliverables
Decomposition of the upper-level WBS components requires subdividing the work for each of the deliverables or
subcomponents into its most fundamental components, where the WBS components represent verifiable products, services,
or results. If an agile approach is used, epics can be decomposed into user stories. The WBS may be structured as an
outline, an organizational chart, or other method that identifies a hierarchical breakdown. Verifying the correctness of the
decomposition requires determining that the lower-level WBS components are those that are necessary and sufficient for
completion of the corresponding higher-level deliverables. Different deliverables can have different levels of decomposition.
To arrive at a work package, the work for some deliverables needs to be decomposed only to the next level, while others need
additional levels of decomposition. As the work is decomposed to greater levels of detail, the ability to plan, manage, and
control the work is enhanced. However, excessive decomposition can lead to nonproductive management effort, inefficient
use of resources, decreased efficiency in performing the work, and difficulty aggregating data over different levels of the WBS.
Decomposition may not be possible for a deliverable or subcomponent that will be accomplished far into the future.
The project management team usually waits until the deliverable or subcomponent is agreed on, so the details of the
WBS can be developed. This technique is sometimes referred to as rolling wave planning.
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The WBS represents all product and project work, including the project management work. The total of the work at
the lowest levels should roll up to the higher levels so that nothing is left out and no extra work is performed. This is
sometimes called the 100 percent rule.
For specific information regarding the WBS, refer to the Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures – Second
Edition [15]. This standard contains industry-specific examples of WBS templates that can be tailored to specific projects
in a particular application area.
5.4.3 CREATE WBS: OUTPUTS
5.4.3.1 SCOPE BASELINE
The scope baseline is the approved version of a scope statement, WBS, and its associated WBS dictionary, which can
be changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison. It is a component of
the project management plan. Components of the scope baseline include:
Project scope statement. The project scope statement includes the description of the project scope, major
uu
deliverables, assumptions, and constraints (Section 5.3.3.1).
WBS. The WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project team
uu
to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables. Each descending level of the WBS
represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work.
Work package. The lowest level of the WBS is a work package with a unique identifier. These identifiers provide
uu
a structure for hierarchical summation of costs, schedule, and resource information and form a code of accounts.
Each work package is part of a control account. A control account is a management control point where scope,
budget, and schedule are integrated and compared to the earned value for performance measurement. A control
account has two or more work packages, though each work package is associated with a single control account.
Planning package. A control account may include one or more planning packages. A planning package is a
uu
work breakdown structure component below the control account and above the work package with known work
content but without detailed schedule activities.
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WBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary is a document that provides detailed deliverable, activity, and scheduling
uu
information about each component in the WBS. The WBS dictionary is a document that supports the WBS. Most
of the information included in the WBS dictionary is created by other processes and added to this document at a
later stage. Information in the WBS dictionary may include but is not limited to:
nuCode of account identifier,
nuDescription of work,
nuAssumptions and constraints,
nuResponsible organization,
nuSchedule milestones,
nuAssociated schedule activities,
nuResources required,
nuCost estimates,
nuQuality requirements,
nuAcceptance criteria,
nuTechnical references, and
nuAgreement information.
nuAssumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log is updated with additional assumptions
or constraints that were identified during the Create WBS process.
nuRequirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation may be updated
to include approved changes resulting from the Create WBS process.
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5.5 VALIDATE SCOPE
Validate Scope is the process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables. The key benefit of this
process is that it brings objectivity to the acceptance process and increases the probability of final product, service,
or result acceptance by validating each deliverable. This process is performed periodically throughout the project as
needed. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-15. Figure 5-16 depicts
Validate Scope

.1 Project management plan .1 Inspection .1 Accepted deliverables
• Scope management plan .2 Decision making .2 Work performance
• Requirements management • Voting information
plan .3 Change requests
• Scope baseline .4 Project document updates
.2 Project documents • Lessons learned register
• Lessons learned register • Requirements
• Quality reports documentation
• Requirements • Requirements traceability
documentation matrix
• Requirements traceability
matrix
.3 Verified deliverables
.4 Work performance data
Figure 5-15. Validate Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

• Requirements management plan 4.7
• Scope baseline Close Project
• Accepted or Phase
deliverables
4.3
Direct and
Manage
Project Execution
4.6
• Work performance data 5.5 Perform
Validate Integrated
Scope
• Project • Change Change Control
charter requests
8.3
Control
Quality
4.5
• Verified deliverables
Monitor and
Control
• Work Project Work
performance
information
Project
Documents
Project
Project documents updates Documents
Project documents • Lessons learned register
• Lessons learned register • Requirements
• Quality report documentation
• Requirements documentation • Requirements traceability
• Requirements traceability matrix matrix
Figure 5-16. Validate Scope: Data Flow Diagram
The verified deliverables obtained from the Control Quality process are reviewed with the customer or sponsor to
ensure they are completed satisfactorily and have received formal acceptance of the deliverables by the customer or
sponsor. In this process, the outputs obtained as a result of the Planning processes in the Project Scope Management
Knowledge Area, such as the requirements documentation or the scope baseline, as well as the work performance data
obtained from the Execution processes in other Knowledge Areas, are the basis for performing the validation and for
final acceptance.
The Validate Scope process differs from the Control Quality process in that the former is primarily concerned with
acceptance of the deliverables, while the latter is primarily concerned with correctness of the deliverables and meeting
the quality requirements specified for the deliverables. Control Quality is generally performed before Validate Scope,
although the two processes may be performed in parallel.
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5.5.1 VALIDATE SCOPE: INPUTS
Scope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The project management plan specifies how formal
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acceptance of the completed project deliverables will be obtained.
Requirements management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.2. The requirements management plan describes
uu
how the project requirements are validated.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline is compared to actual results to determine if
uu
a change, corrective action, or preventive action is necessary.
Lessons learned register: Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project can be applied to
uu
later phases in the project to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of validating deliverables.
Quality reports. Described in Section 8.2.3.1. The information presented in the quality report may include
uu
all quality assurance issues managed or escalated by the team, recommendations for improvement, and the
summary of findings from the Control Quality process. This information is reviewed prior to product acceptance.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements are compared to the actual results
uu
to determine if a change, corrective action, or preventive action is necessary.
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix contains
uu
information about requirements, including how they will be validated.
5.5.1.3 VERIFIED DELIVERABLES
Verified deliverables are project deliverables that are completed and checked for correctness through the Control
Quality process.
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Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data can include the degree of compliance with requirements, number
of nonconformities, severity of the nonconformities, or the number of validation cycles performed in a period of time.
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5.5.2 VALIDATE SCOPE: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
5.5.2.1 INSPECTION
Described in Section 8.3.2.3. Inspection includes activities such as measuring, examining, and validating to
determine whether work and deliverables meet requirements and product acceptance criteria. Inspections are
sometimes called reviews, product reviews, and walkthroughs. In some application areas, these different terms have
unique and specific meanings.
Described in Section 5.2.2.4. An example of decision making that may be used in this process includes but is
not limited to voting. Voting is used to reach a conclusion when the validation is performed by the project team
and other stakeholders.
5.5.3 VALIDATE SCOPE: OUTPUTS
5.5.3.1 ACCEPTED DELIVERABLES
Deliverables that meet the acceptance criteria are formally signed off and approved by the customer or sponsor.
Formal documentation received from the customer or sponsor acknowledging formal stakeholder acceptance of the
project’s deliverables is forwarded to the Close Project or Phase process (Section 4.7).
Work performance information includes information about project progress, such as which deliverables have been
accepted and which have not been accepted and the reasons why. This information is documented as described in
Section 10.3.3.1 and communicated to stakeholders.
The completed deliverables that have not been formally accepted are documented, along with the reasons for
non-acceptance of those deliverables. Those deliverables may require a change request for defect repair. The change
requests (described in Section 4.3.3.4) are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change
Control process (Section 4.6).
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Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register is updated with information
uu
on challenges encountered and how they could have been avoided as well as approaches that worked well for
validating deliverables.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. The requirements documentation may be updated
uu
with the actual results of validation activity. Of particular interest is when the actual results are better than the
requirement or where a requirement was waived.
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix is updated
uu
with the results of the validation, including the method used and the outcome.
5.6 CONTROL SCOPE

Control Scope is the process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing changes to
the scope baseline. The key benefit of this process is that the scope baseline is maintained throughout the project. This
process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted
in Figure 5-17. Figure 5-18 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Control Scope

.1 Project management plan .1 Data analysis .1 Work performance
• Scope management plan • Variance analysis information
• Requirements management • Trend analysis .2 Change requests
plan .3 Project management plan
• Change management plan updates
• Configuration management • Scope management plan
plan • Scope baseline
• Scope baseline • Schedule baseline
• Performance measurement • Cost baseline
baseline • Performance measurement
.2 Project documents baseline
• Lessons learned register .4 Project documents updates
• Requirements • Lessons learned register
documentation • Requirements
• Requirements traceability documentation
matrix • Requirements traceability
.3 Work performance data matrix
Figure 5-17. Control Scope: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
167
Project 4.5
Management Monitor and
Plan Control
• Work performance information Project Work

• Requirements management plan 4.6
• Change management plan Perform
• Configuration management plan Integrated
• Scope baseline • Change requests Change Control
• Performance measurement
baseline
Project Project
Documents Management
Plan
Project management
plan updates
5.6 • Scope management plan
Project documents Control • Scope baseline
• Lessons learned register Scope
• Project • Schedule baseline
• Requirements documentation charter • Cost baseline
• Requirements traceability matrix • Performance
measurement
baseline
4.3 Project
Direct and Documents
Manage Project documents
Project Work updates
• Work performance data • Requirements traceability matrix
Enterprise/
Organization
Figure 5-18. Control Scope: Data Flow Diagram
Controlling the project scope ensures all requested changes and recommended corrective or preventive actions
are processed through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (see Section 4.6). Control Scope is also used
to manage the actual changes when they occur and is integrated with the other control processes. The uncontrolled
expansion to product or project scope without adjustments to time, cost, and resources is referred to as scope creep.
Change is inevitable; therefore, some type of change control process is mandatory for every project.
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5.6.1 CONTROL SCOPE: INPUTS
Scope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan documents how the
uu
project and product scope will be controlled.
uu
how the project requirements will be managed.
Change management plan. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The change management plan defines the process
uu
for managing change on the project.
Configuration management plan. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The configuration management plan defines
uu
those items that are configurable, those items that require formal change control, and the process for controlling
changes to such items.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline is compared to actual results to determine if
uu
a change, corrective action, or preventive action is necessary.
Performance measurement baseline. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. When using earned value analysis, the
uu
performance measurement baseline is compared to actual results to determine if a change, corrective action, or
preventive action is necessary.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project can be applied to
uu
later phases in the project to improve scope control.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation is used to detect
uu
any deviation in the agreed-upon scope for the project or product.
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix helps
uu
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to detect the impact of any change or deviation from the scope baseline on the project objectives. It may also
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provide status of requirements being controlled.
Work performance data can include the number of change requests received, the number of requests accepted, and
the number of deliverables verified, validated, and completed.
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Scope process include but are not limited to:
Existing formal and informal scope, control-related policies, procedures, guidelines; and
uu
Monitoring and reporting methods and templates to be used.

uu
5.6.2 CONTROL SCOPE: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Data analysis techniques that can be used in the Control Scope process include but are not limited to:
Variance analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Variance analysis is used to compare the baseline to the actual
uu
results and determine if the variance is within the threshold amount or if corrective or preventive action is
appropriate.
Trend analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Trend analysis examines project performance over time to
uu
determine if performance is improving or deteriorating.
Important aspects of project scope control include determining the cause and degree of variance relative to the scope
baseline (Section 5.4.3.1) and deciding whether corrective or preventive action is required.
5.6.3 CONTROL SCOPE: OUTPUTS
Work performance information produced includes correlated and contextualized information on how the project
and product scope are performing compared to the scope baseline. It can include the categories of the changes
received, the identified scope variances and their causes, how they impact schedule or cost, and the forecast of the
future scope performance.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Analysis of project performance may result in a change request to the scope and
schedule baselines or other components of the project management plan. Change requests are processed for review
and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6).
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request. Components that may require a change request for the project management plan include but are not limited to:
Scope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan may be updated to reflect
uu
a change in how the scope is managed.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. Changes to the scope baseline are incorporated in response to
uu
approved changes in scope, scope statement, the WBS, or the WBS dictionary. In some cases, scope variances can
be so severe that a revised scope baseline is needed to provide a realistic basis for performance measurement.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. Changes to the schedule baseline are incorporated in response
uu
to approved changes in scope, resources, or schedule estimates. In some cases, schedule variances can be so
severe that a revised schedule baseline is needed to provide a realistic basis for performance measurement.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. Changes to the cost baseline are incorporated in response to
uu
approved changes in scope, resources, or cost estimates. In some cases, cost variances can be so severe that a
revised cost baseline is needed to provide a realistic basis for performance measurement.
Performance measurement baseline. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Changes to the performance measurement
uu
baseline are incorporated in response to approved changes in scope, schedule performance, or cost estimates.
In some cases, the performance variances can be so severe that a change request is put forth to revise the
performance measurement baseline to provide a realistic basis for performance measurement.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register can be updated with
uu
techniques that are efficient and effective in controlling scope, including causes of variances and corrective
actions chosen.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation may be updated
uu
with additional or changed requirements.
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix may be
uu
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updated to reflect updates in requirement documentation.

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6
PROJE CT SCH EDUL E MAN AGEM ENT
Project Schedule Management includes the processes required to manage the timely completion of the project.
The Project Schedule Management processes are:
6.1 Plan Schedule Management—The process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation for
planning, developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule.
6.2 Define Activities—The process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed to produce
the project deliverables.
6.3 Sequence Activities—The process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities.
6.4 Estimate Activity Durations—The process of estimating the number of work periods needed to complete
individual activities with the estimated resources.
6.5 Develop Schedule—The process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and
schedule constraints to create the project schedule model for project execution and monitoring and controlling.
6.6 Control Schedule—The process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project schedule and
manage changes to the schedule baseline.
Figure 6-1 provides an overview of the Project Schedule Management processes. The Project Schedule Management
ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.
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Project Schedule
Management Overview
6.1 Plan Schedule

6.2 Define Activities 6.3 Sequence Activities
Management

.1 Project charter .1 Project management plan .1 Project management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Enterprise environmental .2 Project documents
.3 Enterprise environmental factors .3 Enterprise environmental
factors .3 Organizational process assets factors
.2 Tools & Techniques .1 Expert judgment .2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment .2 Decomposition .1 Precedence diagramming
.2 Data analysis .3 Rolling wave planning method
.3 Meetings .4 Meetings .2 Dependency determination
and integration
.3 Leads and lags
.1 Schedule management plan .1 Activity list
.4 Project management
.2 Activity attributes
information system
.3 Milestone list
.4 Change requests .3 Outputs
6.4 Estimate .5 Project management plan .1 Project schedule network
Activity Durations updates diagrams
.1 Inputs
.2 Project documents 6.5 Develop Schedule
.3 Enterprise environmental 6.6 Control Schedule
factors
.4 Organizational process assets .1 Inputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Inputs
.2 Project documents .1 Project management plan
.1 Expert judgment
.3 Agreements .2 Project documents
.2 Analogous estimating
.4 Enterprise environmental .3 Work performance data
.3 Parametric estimating
factors .4 Organizational process assets
.4 Three-point estimating
.5 Bottom-up estimating .5 Organizational process assets
.6 Data analysis .2 Tools & Techniques .1 Data analysis
.7 Decision making .1 Schedule network analysis .2 Critical path method
.8 Meetings .2 Critical path method .3 Project management
.3 Resource optimization information system
.3 Outputs
.4 Data analysis .4 Resource optimization
.1 Duration estimates
.5 Leads and lags .5 Leads and lags
.2 Basis of estimates
.6 Schedule compression .6 Schedule compression
.3 Outputs
information system
.8 Agile release planning
.2 Schedule forecasts
.3 Outputs .3 Change requests
.1 Schedule baseline .4 Project management plan
.2 Project schedule updates
.3 Schedule data .5 Project documents updates
.4 Project calendars
.5 Change requests
updates
Figure 6-1. Project Schedule Management Overview
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KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT
Project scheduling provides a detailed plan that represents how and when the project will deliver the products,
services, and results defined in the project scope and serves as a tool for communication, managing stakeholders’
expectations, and as a basis for performance reporting.
The project management team selects a scheduling method, such as critical path or an agile approach. Then, the
project-specific data, such as the activities, planned dates, durations, resources, dependencies, and constraints, are
entered into a scheduling tool to create a schedule model for the project. The result is a project schedule. Figure 6-2
provides a scheduling overview that shows how the scheduling method, scheduling tool, and outputs from the Project
Schedule Management processes interact to create a schedule model.
For smaller projects, defining activities, sequencing activities, estimating activity durations, and developing the
schedule model are so tightly linked that they are viewed as a single process that can be performed by a person
over a relatively short period of time. These processes are presented here as distinct elements because the tools and
techniques for each process are different. Some of these processes are presented more fully in the Practice Standard
for Scheduling [2].
When possible, the detailed project schedule should remain flexible throughout the project to adjust for knowledge
gained, increased understanding of the risk, and value-added activities.
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Project Specific Data
(e.g., WBS, activities,
resources, durations,
dependencies, constraints,
calendars, milestones
lags, etc.)
Scheduling Scheduling Schedule Project

Method Tool Model Information
For example,
CPM
Generates
Output
Project
Schedule
Examples of Project Schedule Presentations
Network Diagram
Activity List Bar Chart
Figure 6-2. Scheduling Overview
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TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT
With high levels of uncertainty and unpredictability in a fast-paced, highly competitive global marketplace where
long term scope is difficult to define, it is becoming even more important to have a contextual framework for effective
adoption and tailoring of development practices to respond to the changing needs of the environment. Adaptive
planning defines a plan but acknowledges that once work starts, the priorities may change and the plan needs to
reflect this new knowledge.
Some of the emerging practices for project scheduling methods include but are not limited to:
Iterative scheduling with a backlog. This is a form of rolling wave planning based on adaptive life cycles,
uu
such as the agile approach for product development. The requirements are documented in user stories that are
then prioritized and refined just prior to construction, and the product features are developed using time-boxed
periods of work. This approach is often used to deliver incremental value to the customer or when multiple
teams can concurrently develop a large number of features that have few interconnected dependencies. This
scheduling method is appropriate for many projects as indicated by the widespread and growing use of adaptive
life cycles for product development. The benefit of this approach is that it welcomes changes throughout the
development life cycle.
On-demand scheduling. This approach, typically used in a Kanban system, is based on the theory-of-
uu
constraints and pull-based scheduling concepts from lean manufacturing to limit a team’s work in progress
in order to balance demand against the team’s delivery throughput. On-demand scheduling does not rely
on a schedule that was developed previously for the development of the product or product increments,
but rather pulls work from a backlog or intermediate queue of work to be done immediately as resources
become available. On-demand scheduling is often used for projects that evolve the product incrementally in
operational or sustainment environments, and where tasks may be made relatively similar in size and scope
or can be bundled by size and scope.
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Because each project is unique, the project manager may need to tailor the way Project Schedule Management
Life cycle approach. What is the most appropriate life cycle approach that allows for a more detailed schedule?
uu
Resource availability. What are the factors influencing durations (such as the correlation between available
uu
resources and their productivity)?
Project dimensions. How will the presence of project complexity, technological uncertainty, product novelty,
uu
pace, or progress tracking (such as earned value, percentage complete, red-yellow-green (stop light) indicators)
impact the desired level of control?
Technology support. Is technology used to develop, record, transmit, receive, and store project schedule model
uu
information and is it readily accessible?
For more specific information regarding scheduling, refer to the Practice Standard for Scheduling [16].
Adaptive approaches use short cycles to undertake work, review the results, and adapt as necessary. These
cycles provide rapid feedback on the approaches and suitability of deliverables, and generally manifest as iterative
scheduling and on-demand, pull-based scheduling, as discussed in the section on Key Trends and Emerging Practices
in Project Schedule Management.
In large organizations, there may be a mixture of small projects and large initiatives requiring long-term roadmaps
to manage the development of these programs using scaling factors (e.g., team size, geographical distribution,
regulatory compliance, organizational complexity, and technical complexity). To address the full delivery life cycle for
larger, enterprise-wide systems, a range of techniques utilizing a predictive approach, adaptive approach, or a hybrid
of both, may need to be adopted. The organization may need to combine practices from several core methods, or
adopt a method that has already done so, and adopt a few principles and practices of more traditional techniques.
The role of the project manager does not change based on managing projects using a predictive development life
cycle or managing projects in adaptive environments. However, to be successful in using adaptive approaches, the
project manager will need to be familiar with the tools and techniques to understand how to apply them effectively.
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6.1 PLAN SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT
Plan Schedule Management is the process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation for
planning, developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule. The key benefit of this process is
that it provides guidance and direction on how the project schedule will be managed throughout the project. This
process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the
Plan Schedule Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Schedule management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Data analysis
• Scope management plan .3 Meetings
factors
Figure 6-3. Plan Schedule Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
4.1
Develop Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project 6.1 Project

Management Plan Schedule Management
Plan Management
• Project • Schedule management plan Plan
charter
�

�
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 6-4. Plan Schedule Management: Data Flow Diagram
179
6.1.1 PLAN SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter defines the summary milestone schedule that will influence the
management of the project schedule.
Scope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan describes how the scope
uu
will be defined and developed, which will provide information on how the schedule will be developed.
Development approach. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The product development approach will help define the
uu
scheduling approach, estimating techniques, scheduling tools, and techniques for controlling the schedule.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Schedule Management process include but are not
limited to:
Organizational culture and structure,
uu
Team resource availability and skills and physical resource availability,

uu
Scheduling software,
uu
Guidelines and criteria for tailoring the organization’s set of standard processes and procedures to satisfy the
uu
specific needs of the project, and
Commercial databases, such as standardized estimating data.
uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Schedule Management process include but are not
limited to:
Historical information and lessons learned repositories;
uu
Existing formal and informal schedule development, management- and control-related policies, procedures,
uu
and guidelines;
Templates and forms; and
uu
Monitoring and reporting tools.

uu
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6.1.2 PLAN SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
or training in previous, similar projects:
Schedule development, management, and control;
uu
Scheduling methodologies (e.g., predictive or adaptive life cycle);

uu
Scheduling software; and

uu
The specific industry for which the project is developed.

uu
Alternatives analysis can include determining which schedule methodology to use, or how to combine various
methods on the project. It can also include determining how detailed the schedule needs to be, the duration of
waves for rolling wave planning, and how often it should be reviewed and updated. An appropriate balance between
the level of detail needed to manage the schedule and the amount of time it takes to keep it up to date needs to be
reached for each project.
6.1.2.3 MEETINGS
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the schedule management plan. Participants at these meetings
may include the project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected stakeholders, anyone
with responsibility for schedule planning or execution, and others as needed.
6.1.3 PLAN SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
6.1.3.1 SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT PLAN

�
The schedule management plan is a component of the project management plan that establishes the criteria
�
and the activities for developing, monitoring, and controlling the schedule. The schedule management plan may be
formal or informal, highly detailed, or broadly framed based on the needs of the project, and includes appropriate
control thresholds.
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The schedule management plan can establish the following:
Project schedule model development. The scheduling methodology and the scheduling tool to be used in the
uu
development of the project schedule model are specified.
Release and iteration length. When using an adaptive life cycle, the time-boxed periods for releases, waves,
uu
and iterations are specified. Time-boxed periods are durations during which the team works steadily toward
completion of a goal. Time-boxing helps to minimize scope creep as it forces the teams to process essential
features first, then other features when time permits.
Level of accuracy. The level of accuracy specifies the acceptable range used in determining realistic activity
uu
duration estimates and may include an amount for contingencies.
Units of measure. Each unit of measurement (such as staff hours, staff days, or weeks for time measures, or
uu
meters, liters, tons, kilometers, or cubic yards for quantity measures) is defined for each of the resources.
Organizational procedures links. The work breakdown structure (WBS) (Section 5.4) provides the framework
uu
for the schedule management plan, allowing for consistency with the estimates and resulting schedules.
Project schedule model maintenance. The process used to update the status and record progress of the
uu
project in the schedule model during the execution of the project is defined.
Control thresholds. Variance thresholds for monitoring schedule performance may be specified to indicate an
uu
agreed-upon amount of variation to be allowed before some action needs to be taken. Thresholds are typically
expressed as percentage deviations from the parameters established in the baseline plan.
Rules of performance measurement. Earned value management (EVM) rules or other physical measurement
uu
rules of performance measurement are set. For example, the schedule management plan may specify:
nuRules for establishing percent complete,
nuEVM techniques (e.g., baselines, fixed-formula, percent complete, etc.) to be employed (for more specific
information, refer to the Practice Standard for Earned Value Management [17]), and
nuSchedule performance measurements such as schedule variance (SV) and schedule performance index (SPI)
used to assess the magnitude of variation to the original schedule baseline.
Reporting formats. The formats and frequency for the various schedule reports are defined.
uu
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6.2 DEFINE ACTIVITIES
Define Activities is the process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed to produce
the project deliverables. The key benefit of this process is that it decomposes work packages into schedule activities
that provide a basis for estimating, scheduling, executing, monitoring, and controlling the project work. This process
is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure 6-5. Figure 6-6 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Define Activities

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Activity list
• Schedule management plan .2 Decomposition .2 Activity attributes
• Scope baseline .3 Rolling wave planning .3 Milestone list
.2 Enterprise environmental .4 Meetings .4 Change requests
factors .5 Project management plan
.3 Organizational process assets updates
• Schedule baseline
• Cost baseline
Figure 6-5. Define Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
Project
Project Documents
• Activity list
Management • Activity attributes
Plan • Milestone list

• Scope management plan 6.2 4.6
• Scope baseline Define Perform Integrated
Activities
• Project • Change requests Change Control
charter
�
Enterprise/
Organization
�
Project
Management
• Enterprise environmental factors Plan
Project management
• Organizational process assets plan updates
• Cost baseline
Figure 6-6. Define Activities: Data Flow Diagram
183
6.2.1 DEFINE ACTIVITIES: INPUTS
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan defines the
uu
schedule methodology, the duration of waves for rolling wave planning, and the level of detail necessary to
manage the work.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The project WBS, deliverables, constraints, and assumptions
uu
documented in the scope baseline are considered explicitly while defining activities.
Enterprise environmental factors that influence the Define Activities process include but are not limited to:
Organizational cultures and structure,
uu
Published commercial information from commercial databases, and

uu
Project management information system (PMIS).

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Define Activities process include but are not limited to:
Lessons learned repository containing historical information regarding activity lists used by previous similar projects,
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Standardized processes,
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Templates that contain a standard activity list or a portion of an activity list from a previous project, and
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Existing formal and informal activity planning-related policies, procedures, and guidelines, such as the scheduling
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methodology, that are considered in developing the activity definitions.
6.2.2 DEFINE ACTIVITIES: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
of similar past projects and the work being performed.
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6.2.2.2 DECOMPOSITION
Described in Section 5.4.2.2. Decomposition is a technique used for dividing and subdividing the project scope and
project deliverables into smaller, more manageable parts. Activities represent the effort needed to complete a work
package. The Define Activities process defines the final outputs as activities rather than deliverables, as done in the
Create WBS process (Section 5.4).
The activity list, WBS, and WBS dictionary can be developed either sequentially or concurrently, with the WBS and WBS
dictionary used as the basis for development of the final activity list. Each work package within the WBS is decomposed
into the activities required to produce the work package deliverables. Involving team members in the decomposition can
lead to better and more accurate results.
6.2.2.3 ROLLING WAVE PLANNING
Rolling wave planning is an iterative planning technique in which the work to be accomplished in the near term is
planned in detail, while work further in the future is planned at a higher level. It is a form of progressive elaboration
applicable to work packages, planning packages, and release planning when using an agile or waterfall approach.
Therefore, work can exist at various levels of detail depending on where it is in the project life cycle. During early
strategic planning when information is less defined, work packages may be decomposed to the known level of detail. As
more is known about the upcoming events in the near term, work packages can be decomposed into activities.
6.2.2.4 MEETINGS
Meetings may be face-to-face, virtual, formal, or informal. Meetings may be held with team members or subject
matter experts to define the activities needed to complete the work.
6.2.3 DEFINE ACTIVITIES: OUTPUTS
6.2.3.1 ACTIVITY LIST
The activity list includes the schedule activities required on the project. For projects that use rolling wave planning
or agile techniques, the activity list will be updated periodically as the project progresses. The activity list includes
an activity identifier and a scope of work description for each activity in sufficient detail to ensure that project team
members understand what work is required to be completed.
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6.2.3.2 ACTIVITY ATTRIBUTES
Activity attributes extend the description of the activity by identifying multiple components associated with each
activity. The components for each activity evolve over time. During the initial stages of the project, they include
the unique activity identifier (ID), WBS ID, and activity label or name. When completed, they may include activity
descriptions, predecessor activities, successor activities, logical relationships, leads and lags (Section 6.3.2.3),
resource requirements, imposed dates, constraints, and assumptions. Activity attributes can be used to identify the
place where the work has to be performed, the project calendar the activity is assigned to, and the type of effort
involved. Activity attributes are used for schedule development and for selecting, ordering, and sorting the planned
schedule activities in various ways within reports
6.2.3.3 MILESTONE LIST
A milestone is a significant point or event in a project. A milestone list identifies all project milestones and indicates
whether the milestone is mandatory, such as those required by contract, or optional, such as those based on historical
information. Milestones have zero duration because they represent a significant point or event.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Once the project has been baselined, the progressive elaboration of deliverables into
activities may reveal work that was not initially part of the project baselines. This may result in a change request.
Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process
(Section 4.6).
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. Throughout the project, work packages are progressively
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elaborated into activities. This process may reveal work that was not part of the initial schedule baseline,
necessitating a change to delivery dates or other significant schedule milestones that are part of the
schedule baseline.
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approved changes in schedule activities.
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6.3 SEQUENCE ACTIVITIES
Sequence Activities is the process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities. The key
benefit of this process is that it defines the logical sequence of work to obtain the greatest efficiency given all project
constraints. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 6-7. Figure 6-8 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Sequence Activities

.1 Project management plan .1 Precedence diagramming .1 Project schedule network
• Schedule management plan method diagrams
• Scope baseline .2 Dependency determination .2 Project documents updates
.2 Project documents and integration • Activity attributes
• Activity attributes .3 Leads and lags • Activity list
• Activity list .4 Project management • Assumption log
• Assumption log information system • Milestone list
• Milestone list
factors
Figure 6-7. Sequence Activities: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
Project
Management
Plan

• Schedule management plan
• Scope baseline
Project 6.3 Project

Documents Sequence Documents
Activities • Project schedule
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network diagrams
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Project documents
• Activity attributes
• Activity list
• Assumption log
• Milestone list
Enterprise/ • Activity attributes
• Activity list
Organization • Assumption log
• Milestone list
Figure 6-8. Sequence Activities: Data Flow Diagram
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Every activity except the first and last should be connected to at least one predecessor and at least one successor
activity with an appropriate logical relationship. Logical relationships should be designed to create a realistic project
schedule. It may be necessary to use lead or lag time between activities to support a realistic and achievable project
schedule. Sequencing can be performed by using project management software or by using manual or automated
techniques. The Sequence Activities process concentrates on converting the project activities from a list to a diagram to
act as a first step to publish the schedule baseline.
6.3.1 SEQUENCE ACTIVITIES: INPUTS
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan defines the method
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used and the level of accuracy along with other criteria required to sequence activities.
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documented in the scope baseline are considered explicitly while sequencing activities.
Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. Activity attributes may describe a necessary sequence of
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events or defined predecessor or successor relationships, as well as defined lead and lag and logical relationships
between the activities.
Activity list. Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list contains all schedule activities required on the project
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that are to be sequenced. Dependencies and other constraints for these activities can influence the sequencing
of the activities.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. Assumptions and constraints recorded in the assumption log may
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influence the way activities are sequenced, the relationship between activities, and the need for leads and lags,
and may give rise to individual project risks that may impact the project schedule.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The milestone list may have scheduled dates for specific milestones,
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which may influence the way activities are sequenced.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Sequence Activities process include but are not limited to:
Government or industry standards,
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Project management information system (PMIS),

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Scheduling tools, and

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Organization work authorization systems.

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Sequence Activities process include but are not limited to:
Portfolio and program plans and project dependencies and relationships;
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Existing formal and informal activity planning-related policies, procedures, and guidelines, such as the scheduling
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methodology that is considered in developing logical relationships;
Templates that can be used to expedite the preparation of networks for project activities. Related activity attributes
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information in templates can also contain additional descriptive information useful in sequencing activities; and
Lessons learned repository containing historical information that can help optimize the sequencing process.
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6.3.2 SEQUENCE ACTIVITIES: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
6.3.2.1 PRECEDENCE DIAGRAMMING METHOD
The precedence diagramming method (PDM) is a technique used for constructing a schedule model in which activities
are represented by nodes and are graphically linked by one or more logical relationships to show the sequence in which
the activities are to be performed.
PDM includes four types of dependencies or logical relationships. A predecessor activity is an activity that logically
comes before a dependent activity in a schedule. A successor activity is a dependent activity that logically comes after
another activity in a schedule. These relationships are defined below and are illustrated in Figure 6-9:
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Finish-to-start (FS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity
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has finished. For example, installing the operating system on a PC (successor) cannot start until the PC hardware
is assembled (predecessor).
Finish-to-finish (FF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity
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has finished. For example, writing a document (predecessor) is required to finish before editing the document
(successor) can finish.
Start-to-start (SS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity
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has started. For example, level concrete (successor) cannot begin until pour foundation (predecessor) begins.
Start-to-finish (SF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity
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has started. For example, a new accounts payable system (successor) has to start before the old accounts
payable system can be shut down (predecessor).
In PDM, FS is the most commonly used type of precedence relationship. The SF relationship is very rarely used, but
is included to present a complete list of the PDM relationship types.
Two activities can have two logical relationships at the same time (for example, SS and FF). Multiple relationships
between the same activities are not recommended, so a decision has to be made to select the relationship with the
highest impact. Closed loops are also not recommended in logical relationships.
Finish to Start (FS)

Activity A Activity B
Activity A Activity A
Start to Start (SS) Finish to Finish (FF)
Activity B Activity B
Start to Finish (SF)
Activity A Activity B
Figure 6-9. Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) Relationship Types
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6.3.2.2 DEPENDENCY DETERMINATION AND INTEGRATION
Dependencies may be characterized by the following attributes: mandatory or discretionary, internal or external
(as described below). Dependency has four attributes, but two can be applicable at the same time in the following
ways: mandatory external dependencies, mandatory internal dependencies, discretionary external dependencies, or
discretionary internal dependencies.
Mandatory dependencies. Mandatory dependencies are those that are legally or contractually required or
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inherent in the nature of the work. Mandatory dependencies often involve physical limitations, such as on a
construction project, where it is impossible to erect the superstructure until after the foundation has been built,
or on an electronics project, where a prototype has to be built before it can be tested. Mandatory dependencies
are sometimes referred to as hard logic or hard dependencies. Technical dependencies may not be mandatory.
The project team determines which dependencies are mandatory during the process of sequencing the activities.
Mandatory dependencies should not be confused with assigning schedule constraints in the scheduling tool.
Discretionary dependencies. Discretionary dependencies are sometimes referred to as preferred logic,
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preferential logic, or soft logic. Discretionary dependencies are established based on knowledge of best
practices within a particular application area or some unusual aspect of the project where a specific sequence
is desired, even though there may be other acceptable sequences. For example, generally accepted best
practices recommend that during construction, the electrical work should start after finishing the plumbing
work. This order is not mandatory and both activities may occur at the same time (in parallel), but performing
the activities in sequential order reduces the overall project risk. Discretionary dependencies should be fully
documented since they can create arbitrary total float values and can limit later scheduling options. When fast
tracking techniques are employed, these discretionary dependencies should be reviewed and considered for
modification or removal. The project team determines which dependencies are discretionary during the process
of sequencing the activities.
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External dependencies. External dependencies involve a relationship between project activities and non-
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project activities. These dependencies are usually outside of the project team’s control. For example, the
testing activity in a software project may be dependent on the delivery of hardware from an external source, or
governmental environmental hearings may need to be held before site preparation can begin on a construction
project. The project management team determines which dependencies are external during the process of
sequencing the activities.
Internal dependencies. Internal dependencies involve a precedence relationship between project activities and
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are generally inside the project team’s control. For example, if the team cannot test a machine until they assemble
it, there is an internal mandatory dependency. The project management team determines which dependencies
are internal during the process of sequencing the activities.
6.3.2.3 LEADS AND LAGS
A lead is the amount of time a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor activity. For example,
on a project to construct a new office building, the landscaping could be scheduled to start 2 weeks prior to the scheduled
punch list completion. This would be shown as a finish-to-start with a 2-week lead as shown in Figure 6-10. Lead is often
represented as a negative value for lag in scheduling software.
Complete Write
Punch List Draft
FS – 2 Weeks (Lead) SS – 15 Days (Lag)
Landscape Edit
Building Lot Draft
Figure 6-10. Examples of Lead and Lag
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A lag is the amount of time a successor activity will be delayed with respect to a predecessor activity. For example,
a technical writing team may begin editing the draft of a large document 15 days after they begin writing it. This can be
shown as a start-to-start relationship with a 15-day lag as shown in Figure 6-10. Lag can also be represented in project
schedule network diagrams as shown in Figure 6-11 in the relationship between activities H and I (as indicated by the
nomenclature SS+10 (start-to-start plus 10 days lag) even though the offset is not shown relative to a timescale).
The project management team determines the dependencies that may require a lead or a lag to accurately define the
logical relationship. The use of leads and lags should not replace schedule logic. Also, duration estimates do not include
any leads or lags. Activities and their related assumptions should be documented.
A B
SS
C D E
FS + 15
Begin H F G End
SS + 10
I J
FF
K L
Figure 6-11. Project Schedule Network Diagram

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Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems includes scheduling software that has the
capability to help plan, organize, and adjust the sequence of the activities; insert the logical relationships, lead and lag
values; and differentiate the different types of dependencies.
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6.3.3 SEQUENCE ACTIVITIES: OUTPUTS
6.3.3.1 PROJECT SCHEDULE NETWORK DIAGRAMS
A project schedule network diagram is a graphical representation of the logical relationships, also referred to as
dependencies, among the project schedule activities. Figure 6-11 illustrates a project schedule network diagram. A
project schedule network diagram is produced manually or by using project management software. It can include full
project details, or have one or more summary activities. A summary narrative can accompany the diagram and describe
the basic approach used to sequence the activities. Any unusual activity sequences within the network should be fully
described within the narrative.
Activities that have multiple predecessor activities indicate a path convergence. Activities that have multiple successor
activities indicate a path divergence. Activities with divergence and convergence are at greater risk as they are affected
by multiple activities or can affect multiple activities. Activity I is called a path convergence, as it has more than one
predecessor, while activity K is called a path divergence, as it has more than one successor.
Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. Activity attributes may describe a necessary sequence of
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events or defined predecessor or successor relationships, as well as defined lead and lag and logical relationships
between the activities.
Activity list. Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list may be impacted by the change in relationships
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among the project activities during the sequencing activities.
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need to be updated based on the sequencing, relationship determination, and leads and lags, and may give rise
to individual project risks that may impact the project schedule.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The scheduled dates for specific milestones may be impacted by
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changes in relationships among the project activities during the sequencing activities.
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6.4 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY DURATIONS
Estimate Activity Durations is the process of estimating the number of work periods needed to complete individual
activities with estimated resources. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the amount of time each activity
will take to complete. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure 6-12. Figure 6-13 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Estimate Activity Durations

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Duration estimates
• Schedule management plan .2 Analogous estimating .2 Basis of estimates
• Scope baseline .3 Parametric estimating .3 Project documents updates
.2 Project documents .4 Three-point estimating • Activity attributes
• Activity attributes .5 Bottom-up estimating • Assumption log
• Activity list .6 Data analysis • Lessons learned register
• Assumption log • Alternatives analysis
• Lessons learned register • Reserve analysis
• Milestone list .7 Decision making
• Project team assignments .8 Meetings
• Resource breakdown
structure
• Resource calendars
• Resource requirements
• Risk register
factors
Figure 6-12. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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�
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Project
Management
Plan

• Scope baseline
Project • Duration estimates

Documents • Basis of estimates
6.4 Project
Project documents Estimate Activity Documents
• Activity attributes Durations
• Project
• Activity list charter
• Assumption log
• Milestone list
• Resource requirements Project document updates
• Risk register • Activity attributes
• Assumption log
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 6-13. Estimate Activity Durations: Data Flow Diagram
Estimating activity durations uses information from the scope of work, required resource types or skill levels,
estimated resource quantities, and resource calendars. Other factors that may influence the duration estimates include
constraints imposed on the duration, effort involved, or type of resources (e.g., fixed duration, fixed effort or work, fixed
number of resources), as well as the schedule network analysis technique used. The inputs for the estimates of duration
originate from the person or group on the project team who is most familiar with the nature of the work in the specific
activity. The duration estimate is progressively elaborated, and the process considers the quality and availability of the
input data. For example, as more detailed and precise data are available about the project engineering and design work,
the accuracy and quality of the duration estimates improve.
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The Estimate Activity Durations process requires an estimation of the amount of work effort required to complete
the activity and the amount of available resources estimated to complete the activity. These estimates are used to
approximate the number of work periods (activity duration) needed to complete the activity using the appropriate project
and resource calendars. In many cases, the number of resources that are expected to be available to accomplish an
activity, along with the skill proficiency of those resources, may determine the activity’s duration. A change to a driving
resource allocated to the activity will usually have an effect on the duration, but this is not a simple “straight-line” or
linear relationship. Sometimes, the intrinsic nature of the work (i.e., constraints imposed on the duration, effort involved,
or number of resources) will take a predetermined amount of time to complete regardless of the resource allocation
(e.g., a 24-hour stress test). Other factors for consideration when estimating duration include:
Law of diminishing returns. When one factor (e.g., resource) used to determine the effort required to produce a
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unit of work is increased while all other factors remain fixed, a point will eventually be reached at which additions
of that one factor start to yield progressively smaller or diminishing increases in output.
Number of resources. Increasing the number of resources to twice the original number of the resources does
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not always reduce the time by half, as it may increase extra duration due to risk, and at some point adding
too many resources to the activity may increase duration due to knowledge transfer, learning curve, additional
coordination, and other factors involved.
Advances in technology. This may also play an important role in determining duration estimates. For example, an
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increase in the output of a manufacturing plant may be achieved by procuring the latest advances in technology,
which may impact duration and resource needs.
Motivation of staff. The project manager also needs to be aware of Student Syndrome—or procrastination—
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when people start to apply themselves only at the last possible moment before the deadline, and Parkinson’s Law
where work expands to fill the time available for its completion.
All data and assumptions that support duration estimating are documented for each activity duration estimate.
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6.4.1 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY DURATIONS: INPUTS
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan defines the method
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used, as well as the level of accuracy and other criteria required to estimate activity durations.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline includes the WBS dictionary, which contains
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technical details that can influence the effort and duration estimates.
Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. Activity attributes may describe defined predecessor or
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successor relationships, as well as defined lead and lag and logical relationships between the activities that may
impact duration estimates.
Activity list. Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list contains all schedule activities required on the
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project, which are to be estimated. Dependencies and other constraints for these activities can influence the
duration estimates.
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give rise to individual project risks that may impact the project schedule.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project with regard to
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effort and duration estimating can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the accuracy and precision
of effort and duration estimates.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The milestone list may have scheduled dates for specific milestones
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that may impact the duration estimates.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. The project is staffed when the appropriate people
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have been assigned to the team.
Resource breakdown structure. Described in Section 9.2.3.3. The resource breakdown structure provides a
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hierarchical structure of the identified resources by resource category and resource type.
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Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.2.1.2. The resource calendars influence the duration of schedule
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activities due to the availability of specific resources, type of resources, and resources with specific attributes.
Resource calendars specify when and how long identified project resources will be available during the project.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. The estimated activity resource requirements will have
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an effect on the duration of the activity, since the level to which the resources assigned to the activity meet
the requirements will significantly influence the duration of most activities. For example, if additional or lower-
skilled resources are assigned to an activity, there may be reduced efficiency or productivity due to increased
communication, training, and coordination needs leading to a longer duration estimate.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. Individual project risks may impact resource selection and
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availability. Updates to the risk register are included with project documents updates, described in Section
11.5.3.2, from Plan Risk Responses.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Estimate Activity Durations process include but are not
limited to:
Duration estimating databases and other reference data,
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Productivity metrics,
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Published commercial information, and

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Location of team members.

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Estimate Activity Durations process include but are not
limited to:
Historical duration information,
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Project calendars,
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Estimating policies,
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Scheduling methodology, and

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Lessons learned repository.

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6.4.2 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY DURATIONS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Schedule development, management, and control;
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Expertise in estimating; and

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Discipline or application knowledge.

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6.4.2.2 ANALOGOUS ESTIMATING
Analogous estimating is a technique for estimating the duration or cost of an activity or a project using historical
data from a similar activity or project. Analogous estimating uses parameters from a previous, similar project, such as
duration, budget, size, weight, and complexity, as the basis for estimating the same parameter or measure for a future
project. When estimating durations, this technique relies on the actual duration of previous, similar projects as the basis
for estimating the duration of the current project. It is a gross value estimating approach, sometimes adjusted for known
differences in project complexity. Analogous duration estimating is frequently used to estimate project duration when
there is a limited amount of detailed information about the project.
Analogous estimating is generally less costly and less time-consuming than other techniques, but it is also
less accurate. Analogous duration estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project and may
be used in conjunction with other estimating methods. Analogous estimating is most reliable when the previous
activities are similar in fact and not just in appearance, and the project team members preparing the estimates
have the needed expertise.
6.4.2.3 PARAMETRIC ESTIMATING
Parametric estimating is an estimating technique in which an algorithm is used to calculate cost or duration based
on historical data and project parameters. Parametric estimating uses a statistical relationship between historical data
and other variables (e.g., square footage in construction) to calculate an estimate for activity parameters, such as cost,
budget, and duration.
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Durations can be quantitatively determined by multiplying the quantity of work to be performed by the number of labor
hours per unit of work. For example, duration on a design project is estimated by the number of drawings multiplied by
the number of labor hours per drawing, or on a cable installation, the meters of cable multiplied by the number of labor
hours per meter. If the assigned resource is capable of installing 25 meters of cable per hour, the duration required to
install 1,000 meters is 40 hours (1,000 meters divided by 25 meters per hour).
This technique can produce higher levels of accuracy depending on the sophistication and underlying data built into
the model. Parametric schedule estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project, in conjunction
with other estimating methods.
6.4.2.4 THREE-POINT ESTIMATING
The accuracy of single-point duration estimates may be improved by considering estimation uncertainty and risk.
Using three-point estimates helps define an approximate range for an activity’s duration:
Most likely (tM). This estimate is based on the duration of the activity, given the resources likely to be assigned,
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their productivity, realistic expectations of availability for the activity, dependencies on other participants, and
interruptions.
Optimistic (tO). The activity duration based on analysis of the best-case scenario for the activity.
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Pessimistic (tP). The duration based on analysis of the worst-case scenario for the activity.
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Depending on the assumed distribution of values within the range of the three estimates, the expected duration, tE,
can be calculated. One commonly used formula is triangular distribution:
tE = (tO + tM + tP) / 3.
Triangular distribution is used when there is insufficient historical data or when using judgmental data. Duration
estimates based on three points with an assumed distribution provide an expected duration and clarify the range of
uncertainty around the expected duration.
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6.4.2.5 BOTTOM-UP ESTIMATING
Bottom-up estimating is a method of estimating project duration or cost by aggregating the estimates of the lower-
level components of the WBS. When an activity’s duration cannot be estimated with a reasonable degree of confidence,
the work within the activity is decomposed into more detail. The detail durations are estimated. These estimates are
then aggregated into a total quantity for each of the activity’s durations. Activities may or may not have dependencies
between them that can affect the application and use of resources. If there are dependencies, this pattern of resource
usage is reflected and documented in the estimated requirements of the activity.
Alternatives analysis. Alternatives analysis is used to compare various levels of resource capability or skills;
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scheduling compression techniques (described in Section 6.5.2.6); different tools (manual versus automated);
and make, rent, or buy decisions regarding the resources. This allows the team to weigh resource, cost, and
duration variables to determine an optimal approach for accomplishing project work.
Reserve analysis. Reserve analysis is used to determine the amount of contingency and management reserve
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needed for the project. Duration estimates may include contingency reserves, sometimes referred to as schedule
reserves, to account for schedule uncertainty. Contingency reserves are the estimated duration within the schedule
baseline, which is allocated for identified risks that are accepted. Contingency reserves are associated with the
known-unknowns, which may be estimated to account for this unknown amount of rework. The contingency
reserve may be a percentage of the estimated activity duration or a fixed number of work periods. Contingency
reserves may be separated from the individual activities and aggregated. As more precise information about the
project becomes available, the contingency reserve may be used, reduced, or eliminated. Contingency should be
clearly identified in the schedule documentation.
Estimates may also be produced for the amount of management reserve of schedule for the project. Management
reserves are a specified amount of the project budget withheld for management control purposes and are
reserved for unforeseen work that is within scope of the project. Management reserves are intended to address
the unknown-unknowns that can affect a project. Management reserve is not included in the schedule baseline,
but it is part of the overall project duration requirements. Depending on contract terms, use of management
reserves may require a change to the schedule baseline.
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Described in Section 5.2.2.4. Decision-making techniques that can be used in this process include but are not limited
to voting. One variation of the voting method that is often used in agile-based projects is called the fist of five (also called
fist to five). In this technique, the project manager asks the team to show their level of support for a decision by holding
up a closed fist (indicating no support) up to five fingers (indicating full support). If a team member holds up fewer than
three fingers, the team member is given the opportunity to discuss any objections with the team. The project manager
continues the fist-of-five process until the team achieves consensus (everyone holds up three or more fingers) or agrees
to move on to the next decision.
6.4.2.8 MEETINGS
The project team may hold meetings to estimate activity durations. When using an agile approach, it is necessary
to conduct sprint or iteration planning meetings to discuss prioritized product backlog items (user stories) and decide
which of these items the team will commit to work on in the upcoming iteration. The team breaks down user stories to
low-level tasks, with estimates in hours, and then validates that the estimates are achievable based on team capacity
over the duration (iteration). This meeting is usually held on the first day of the iteration and is attended by the product
owner, the Scrum team, and the project manager. The outcome of the meeting includes an iteration backlog, as well as
assumptions, concerns, risks, dependencies, decisions, and actions.
6.4.3 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY DURATIONS: OUTPUTS
6.4.3.1 DURATION ESTIMATES
Duration estimates are quantitative assessments of the likely number of time periods that are required to complete
an activity, a phase, or a project. Duration estimates do not include any lags as described in Section 6.3.2.3. Duration
estimates may include some indication of the range of possible results. For example:
A range of 2 weeks ± 2 days, which indicates that the activity will take at least 8 days and not more than 12
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(assuming a 5-day work week); or
A 15% probability of exceeding 3 weeks, which indicates a high probability—85%—that the activity will take
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3 weeks or less.
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6.4.3.2 BASIS OF ESTIMATES
The amount and type of additional details supporting the duration estimate vary by application area. Regardless of
the level of detail, the supporting documentation should provide a clear and complete understanding of how the duration
estimate was derived.
Supporting detail for duration estimates may include:
Documentation of the basis of the estimate (i.e., how it was developed),
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Documentation of all assumptions made,

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Documentation of any known constraints,

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Indication of the range of possible estimates (e.g., ±10%) to indicate that the duration is estimated between a
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range of values),
Indication of the confidence level of the final estimate, and
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Documentation of individual project risks influencing this estimate.

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Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. Activity duration estimates produced during this process are
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documented as part of the activity attributes.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. This includes assumptions made in developing the duration
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estimate, such as resource skill levels and availability, as well as a basis of estimates for durations. Additionally,
constraints arising out of the scheduling methodology and scheduling tool are also documented.
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techniques that were efficient and effective in developing effort and duration estimates.
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6.5 DEVELOP SCHEDULE
Develop Schedule is the process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and schedule
constraints to create a schedule model for project execution and monitoring and controlling. The key benefit of this
process is that it generates a schedule model with planned dates for completing project activities. This process
is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in
Figure 6-14. Figure 6-15 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Develop Schedule

.1 Project management plan .1 Schedule network analysis .1 Schedule baseline
• Schedule management plan .2 Critical path method .2 Project schedule
• Scope baseline .3 Resource optimization .3 Schedule data
.2 Project documents .4 Data analysis .4 Project calendars
• Activity attributes • What-if scenario analysis .5 Change requests
• Activity list • Simulation .6 Project management plan
• Assumption log .5 Leads and lags updates
• Basis of estimates .6 Schedule compression • Schedule management plan
• Duration estimates .7 Project management • Cost baseline
• Lessons learned register information system .7 Project documents updates
• Milestone list .8 Agile release planning • Activity attributes
• Project schedule network • Assumption log
diagrams • Duration estimates
• Project team assignments • Lessons learned register
• Resource calendars • Resource requirements
• Resource requirements • Risk register
• Risk register
.3 Agreements
factors
Figure 6-14. Develop Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

• Scope baseline Project
Management
• Schedule baseline Plan
Project
Documents
Project documents
• Activity attributes Project management plan updates
• Activity list • Schedule management plan
• Assumption log • Cost baseline
• Basis of estimates
• Duration estimates
• Milestone list
4.6
6.5 Perform
• Project schedule network diagrams Develop
• Project team assignments Integrated
Schedule
• Project • Change requests Change Control
charter
• Risk register
12.2
Conduct
Procurements • Project schedule
• Schedule data
• Project calendars
• Agreements
Project
Documents
Enterprise/ Project documents updates
Organization • Activity attributes
• Assumption log
• Enterprise environmental factors • Lessons learned register
• Organizational process assets • Resource requirements
• Risk register
Figure 6-15. Develop Schedule: Data Flow Diagram
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Developing an acceptable project schedule is an iterative process. The schedule model is used to determine the
planned start and finish dates for project activities and milestones based on the best available information. Schedule
development can require the review and revision of duration estimates, resource estimates, and schedule reserves to
establish an approved project schedule that can serve as a baseline to track progress. Key steps include defining the
project milestones, identifying and sequencing activities, and estimating durations. Once the activity start and finish
dates have been determined, it is common to have the project staff assigned to the activities review their assigned
activities. The staff confirms that the start and finish dates present no conflict with resource calendars or assigned
activities on other projects or tasks and thus are still valid. The schedule is then analyzed to determine conflicts with
logical relationships and if resource leveling is required before the schedule is approved and baselined. Revising and
maintaining the project schedule model to sustain a realistic schedule continues throughout the duration of the project,
as described in Section 6.7.
For more specific information regarding scheduling, refer to the Practice Standard for Scheduling.
6.5.1 DEVELOP SCHEDULE: INPUTS
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan identifies the
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scheduling method and tool used to create the schedule and how the schedule is to be calculated.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope statement, WBS, and WBS dictionary have details about
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the project deliverables that are considered when building the schedule model.
Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. The activity attributes provide the details used to build the
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schedule model.
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Activity list. Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list identifies the activities that will be included in the
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schedule model.
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give rise to individual project risks that may impact the project schedule.
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Basis of estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.2. The amount and type of additional details supporting the
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duration estimate vary by application area. Regardless of the level of detail, the supporting documentation should
provide a clear and complete understanding of how the duration estimate was derived.
Duration estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.1. The duration estimates contain the quantitative assessments
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of the likely number of work periods that will be required to complete an activity. This will be used to calculate
the schedule.
Lessons learned. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project with regard to developing
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the schedule model can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the validity of the schedule model.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. The milestone list has scheduled dates for specific milestones.
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Project schedule network diagrams. Described in Section 6.3.3.1. The project schedule network diagrams
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contain the logical relationships of predecessors and successors that will be used to calculate the schedule.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. The project team assignments specify which resources
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are assigned to each activity.
Resource calendars. Described in Sections 9.2.1.2. The resource calendars contain information on the
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availability of resources during the project.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. The activity resource requirements identify the types and
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quantities of resources required for each activity used to create the schedule model.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides the details of all identified risks, and their
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characteristics, that affect the schedule model. Risk information relevant to the schedule is reflected in schedule
reserves using the expected or mean risk impact.
6.5.1.3 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Vendors may have an input to the project schedule as they develop the details of how
they will perform the project work to meet contractual commitments.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Develop Schedule process include but are not limited to:
Government or industry standards, and
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Communication channels.
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Develop Schedule process include but are not limited to:
Scheduling methodology containing the policies governing schedule model development and maintenance,
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and
Project calendar(s).
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6.5.2 DEVELOP SCHEDULE: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
6.5.2.1 SCHEDULE NETWORK ANALYSIS
Schedule network analysis is the overarching technique used to generate the project schedule model. It employs
several other techniques such as critical path method (described in Section 6.5.2.2), resource optimization techniques
(described in Section 6.5.2.3), and modeling techniques (described in Section 6.5.2.4). Additional analysis includes but
is not limited to:
Assessing the need to aggregate schedule reserves to reduce the probability of a schedule slip when multiple
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paths converge at a single point in time or when multiple paths diverge from a single point in time, to reduce the
probability of a schedule slip.
Reviewing the network to see if the critical path has high-risk activities or long lead items that would necessitate
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use of schedule reserves or the implementation of risk responses to reduce the risk on the critical path.
Schedule network analysis is an iterative process that is employed until a viable schedule model is developed.
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6.5.2.2 CRITICAL PATH METHOD
The critical path method is used to estimate the minimum project duration and determine the amount of schedule
flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model. This schedule network analysis technique calculates
the early start, early finish, late start, and late finish dates for all activities without regard for any resource limitations
by performing a forward and backward pass analysis through the schedule network, as shown in Figure 6-16. In this
example, the longest path includes activities A, C, and D, and therefore the sequence of A-C-D is the critical path.
The critical path is the sequence of activities that represents the longest path through a project, which determines
the shortest possible project duration. The longest path has the least total float—usually zero. The resulting early
and late start and finish dates are not necessarily the project schedule; rather they indicate the time periods within
which the activity could be executed, using the parameters entered in the schedule model for activity durations, logical
relationships, leads, lags, and other known constraints. The critical path method is used to calculate the critical path(s)
and the amount of total and free float or schedule flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model.
On any network path, the total float or schedule flexibility is measured by the amount of time that a schedule
activity can be delayed or extended from its early start date without delaying the project finish date or violating a
schedule constraint. A critical path is normally characterized by zero total float on the critical path. As implemented
with the precedence diagramming method sequencing, critical paths may have positive, zero, or negative total float
depending on the constraints applied. Positive total float is caused when the backward pass is calculated from a
schedule constraint that is later than the early finish date that has been calculated during forward pass calculation.
Negative total float is caused when a constraint on the late dates is violated by duration and logic. Negative float
analysis is a technique that helps to find possible accelerated ways of bringing a delayed schedule back on track.
Schedule networks may have multiple near-critical paths. Many software packages allow the user to define the
parameters used to determine the critical path(s). Adjustments to activity durations (when more resources or less
scope can be arranged), logical relationships (when the relationships were discretionary to begin with), leads and
lags, or other schedule constraints may be necessary to produce network paths with a zero or positive total float.
Once the total float and the free float have been calculated, the free float is the amount of time that a schedule
activity can be delayed without delaying the early start date of any successor or violating a schedule constraint. For
example the free float for Activity B, in Figure 6-16, is 5 days.
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6 5 10
B
Path A–B–D = 25
11 5 15
1 5 5 16 15 30
Start A D Finish
1 0 5 16 0 30
6 10 15
Path A–C–D = 30
C (Critical Path)
6 0 15
KEY Activity Early Early
Node Start Duration Finish
Activity Name
Late Total Late

Start Float Finish
NOTE: This example uses the accepted convention of the project Critical Path Link
starting on day 1 for calculating start and finish dates. There are Non-Critical Path Link
other accepted conventions that may be used.
Figure 6-16. Example of Critical Path Method
6.5.2.3 RESOURCE OPTIMIZATION
Resource optimization is used to adjust the start and finish dates of activities to adjust planned resource use to be
equal to or less than resource availability. Examples of resource optimization techniques that can be used to adjust the
schedule model due to demand and supply of resources include but are not limited to:
Resource leveling. A technique in which start and finish dates are adjusted based on resource constraints with
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the goal of balancing the demand for resources with the available supply. Resource leveling can be used when
shared or critically required resources are available only at certain times or in limited quantities, or are over-
allocated, such as when a resource has been assigned to two or more activities during the same time period (as
shown in Figure 6-17), or there is a need to keep resource usage at a constant level. Resource leveling can often
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cause the original critical path to change. Available float is used for leveling resources. Consequently, the critical
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path through the project schedule may change.

Resource smoothing. A technique that adjusts the activities of a schedule model such that the requirements for
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resources on the project do not exceed certain predefined resource limits. In resource smoothing, as opposed to
resource leveling, the project’s critical path is not changed and the completion date may not be delayed. In other
words, activities may only be delayed within their free and total float. Resource smoothing may not be able to
optimize all resources.
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Activities Before Resource Leveling
Tom: 8 hrs
Activity A Sue: 8 hrs
Start
Activity B Sue: 8 hrs
Activity C Tom: 8 hrs
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

Tom: 8 hrs Tom: 8 hrs
Sue: 16 hrs
Activities After Resource Leveling
Tom: 8 hrs
Activity A Sue: 8 hrs
Start
Activity B Sue: 8 hrs
Activity C Tom: 8 hrs
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

Tom: 8 hrs Sue: 8 hrs Tom: 8 hrs
Sue: 8 hrs
Figure 6-17. Resource Leveling
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What-if scenario analysis. What-if scenario analysis is the process of evaluating scenarios in order to predict
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their effect, positive or negative, on project objectives. This is an analysis of the question, “What if the situation
represented by scenario X happens?” A schedule network analysis is performed using the schedule to compute
the different scenarios, such as delaying a major component delivery, extending specific engineering durations,
or introducing external factors, such as a strike or a change in the permit process. The outcome of the what-if
scenario analysis can be used to assess the feasibility of the project schedule under different conditions, and in
preparing schedule reserves and response plans to address the impact of unexpected situations.
Simulation. Simulation models the combined effects of individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty
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to evaluate their potential impact on achieving project objectives. The most common simulation technique is
Monte Carlo analysis (see Section 11.4.2.5), in which risks and other sources of uncertainty are used to calculate
possible schedule outcomes for the total project. Simulation involves calculating multiple work package durations
with different sets of activity assumptions, constraints, risks, issues, or scenarios using probability distributions
and other representations of uncertainty (see Section 11.4.2.4). Figure 6-18 shows a probability distribution for a
project with the probability of achieving a certain target date (i.e., project finish date). In this example, there is a
10% probability that the project will finish on or before the target date of May 13, while there is a 90% probability
of completing the project by May 28.
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Project Finish Date
05/13/2017 20:30 05/28/17 19:45
10.0% 80.0% 10.0%
0.08 100.0%
0.07 87.5%
0.06 75.0%
0.05 62.5%
0.04 50.0%
0.03 37.5%
0.02 25.0%
0.01 12.5%
0.00 0.0%
05/05/2017 05/10/2017 05/15/2017 05/20/2017 05/25/2017 05/30/2017 06/04/2017 06/09/2017 06/14/2017
Figure 6-18. Example Probability Distribution of a Target Milestone
For more information on how Monte Carlo simulation is used for schedule models, see the Practice Standard
for Scheduling.
Described in Section 6.3.2.3. Leads and lags are refinements applied during network analysis to develop a viable
schedule by adjusting the start time of the successor activities. Leads are used in limited circumstances to advance a
successor activity with respect to the predecessor activity, and lags are used in limited circumstances where processes
require a set period of time to elapse between the predecessors and successors without work or resource impact.
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6.5.2.6 SCHEDULE COMPRESSION
Schedule compression techniques are used to shorten or accelerate the schedule duration without reducing the
project scope in order to meet schedule constraints, imposed dates, or other schedule objectives. A helpful technique
is the negative float analysis. The critical path is the one with the least float. Due to violating a constraint or imposed
date, the total float can become negative. Schedule compression techniques are compared in Figure 6-19 and include:
Crashing. A technique used to shorten the schedule duration for the least incremental cost by adding resources.
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Examples of crashing include approving overtime, bringing in additional resources, or paying to expedite delivery
to activities on the critical path. Crashing works only for activities on the critical path where additional resources
will shorten the activity’s duration. Crashing does not always produce a viable alternative and may result in
increased risk and/or cost.
Fast tracking. A schedule compression technique in which activities or phases normally done in sequence
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are performed in parallel for at least a portion of their duration. An example is constructing the foundation for a
building before completing all of the architectural drawings. Fast tracking may result in rework and increased
risk. Fast tracking only works when activities can be overlapped to shorten the project duration on the critical
path. Using leads in case of schedule acceleration usually increases coordination efforts between the activities
concerned and increases quality risk. Fast tracking may also increase project costs.
Normal 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15
Fast 1 2 3 4 5
Tracking
4 5 6 7 8
7 8 9 10 11
High Risk
Crashing 1 12 3
4 5 6 7
8 8 9 10
High Cost
Figure 6-19. Schedule Compression Comparison
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Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems include scheduling software that expedites
the process of building a schedule model by generating start and finish dates based on the inputs of activities, network
diagrams, resources, and activity durations.
6.5.2.8 AGILE RELEASE PLANNING
Agile release planning provides a high-level summary timeline of the release schedule (typically 3 to 6 months)
based on the product roadmap and the product vision for the product’s evolution. Agile release planning also
determines the number of iterations or sprints in the release, and allows the product owner and team to decide
how much needs to be developed and how long it will take to have a releasable product based on business goals,
dependencies, and impediments.
Since features represent value to the customer, the timeline provides a more easily understood project schedule
as it defines which feature will be available at the end of each iteration, which is exactly the depth of information the
customer is looking for.
Figure 6-20 shows the relationship among product vision, product roadmap, release planning, and iteration planning.
Product vision drives

product roadmap Release 1 Release 2 Release 3
Product roadmap
drives release plans
Release Plan
Release plan
establishes Iteration 0 Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration n
the iterations
Iteration Plan
Iteration plans
schedules feature
development Feature A Feature A Feature B Feature C Feature D
(User Story 1) (User Story 2) (User Story 3) (User Story 4) (User Story 5)
Prioritized features
delivered by user
stories (estimated Task A 5 Hours
in story points)
Task B 8 Hours
Tasks (estimated in
hours) created to Task C 4 Hours
deliver user stories
Task D 12 Hours
Figure 6-20. Relationship Between Product Vision, Release Planning, and Iteration Planning
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6.5.3 DEVELOP SCHEDULE: OUTPUTS
6.5.3.1 SCHEDULE BASELINE
A schedule baseline is the approved version of a schedule model that can be changed only through formal change
control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to actual results. It is accepted and approved by the appropriate
stakeholders as the schedule baseline with baseline start dates and baseline finish dates. During monitoring and
controlling, the approved baseline dates are compared to the actual start and finish dates to determine if variances have
occurred. The schedule baseline is a component of the project management plan.
6.5.3.2 PROJECT SCHEDULE
The project schedule is an output of a schedule model that presents linked activities with planned dates, durations,
milestones, and resources. At a minimum, the project schedule includes a planned start date and planned finish date
for each activity. If resource planning is done at an early stage, the project schedule remains preliminary until resource
assignments have been confirmed and scheduled start and finish dates are established. This process usually occurs no
later than the completion of the project management plan (Section 4.2.3.1). A target project schedule model may also
be developed with a defined target start and target finish for each activity. The project schedule may be presented in
summary form, sometimes referred to as the master schedule or milestone schedule, or presented in detail. Although
a project schedule model can be presented in tabular form, it is more often presented graphically, using one or more of
the following formats:
Bar charts. Also known as Gantt charts, bar charts represent schedule information where activities are listed
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on the vertical axis, dates are shown on the horizontal axis, and activity durations are shown as horizontal
bars placed according to start and finish dates. Bar charts are relatively easy to read and are commonly used.
Depending on the audience, float can be depicted or not. For control and management communications, the
broader, more comprehensive summary activity is used between milestones or across multiple interdependent
work packages and is displayed in bar chart reports. An example is the summary schedule portion of Figure 6-21
that is presented in a WBS-structured format.
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Milestone charts. These charts are similar to bar charts, but only identify the scheduled start or completion of
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major deliverables and key external interfaces. An example is the milestone schedule portion of Figure 6-21.
Project schedule network diagrams. These diagrams are commonly presented in the activity-on-node
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diagram format showing activities and relationships without a time scale, sometimes referred to as a pure
logic diagram, as shown in Figure 6-11, or presented in a time-scaled schedule network diagram format that
is sometimes called a logic bar chart, as shown for the detailed schedule in Figure 6-21. These diagrams, with
activity date information, usually show both the project network logic and the project’s critical path schedule
activities. This example also shows how each work package is planned as a series of related activities.
Another presentation of the project schedule network diagram is a time-scaled logic diagram. These diagrams
include a time scale and bars that represent the duration of activities with the logical relationships. They are
optimized to show the relationships between activities where any number of activities may appear on the
same line of the diagram in sequence.
Figure 6-21 shows schedule presentations for a sample project being executed, with the work in progress reported
through as-of date or status date. For a simple project schedule model, Figure 6-21 reflects schedule presentations in
the forms of (1) a milestone schedule as a milestone chart, (2) a summary schedule as a bar chart, and (3) a detailed
schedule as a project schedule linked bar chart diagram. Figure 6-21 also visually shows the relationships among the
different levels of detail of the project schedule.
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Milestone Schedule
Project Schedule Time Frame

Activity Calendar
Activity Description
Identifier units Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4 Period 5
1.1.MB Begin New Product Z 0
1.1.1.M1 Complete Component 1 0
1.1.3.M1 Complete Integration of Components 1 & 2 0
1.1.3.MF Finish New Product Z 0
Data Date
Summary Schedule
Calendar Project Schedule Time Frame

Activity
1.1 Develop and Deliver New Product Z 120
1.1.1 Work Package 1: Component 1 67
1.1.3 Work Package 3: Integrated Components 1 and 2 53
Data Date
Detailed Schedule
Calendar Project Schedule Time Frame

Activity
1.1.MB Begin New Product Z 0
1.1 Develop and Deliver Product Z 120
1.1.1.D Design Component 1 20 FS

1.1.1.B Build Component 1 33
1.1.1.T Test Component 1 14

SS
1.1.2.D Design Component 2 14
1.1.2.B Build Component 2 28

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1.1.2.T Test Component 2 11

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1.1.3 Work Package 3: Integrated Components 1 and 2 53
1.1.3.G Integrate Components 1 and 2 as Product Z 14
1.1.3.T Complete Integration of Components 1 and 2 32
1.1.3.M1 Test Integrated Components as Product Z 0
1.1.3.P Deliver Product Z 7
1.1.3.MF Finish New Product Z 0
Data Date
Figure 6-21. Project Schedule Presentations—Examples
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6.5.3.3 SCHEDULE DATA
The schedule data for the project schedule model is the collection of information for describing and controlling the
schedule. The schedule data includes, at a minimum, the schedule milestones, schedule activities, activity attributes,
and documentation of all identified assumptions and constraints. The amount of additional data varies by application
area. Information frequently supplied as supporting detail includes but is not limited to:
Resource requirements by time period, often in the form of a resource histogram;
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Alternative schedules, such as best-case or worst-case, not resource-leveled or resource-leveled, or with or

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without imposed dates; and
Applied schedule reserves.
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Schedule data could also include such items as resource histograms, cash-flow projections, order and delivery
schedules, or other relevant information.
6.5.3.4 PROJECT CALENDARS
A project calendar identifies working days and shifts that are available for scheduled activities. It distinguishes
time periods in days or parts of days that are available to complete scheduled activities from time periods that are not
available for work. A schedule model may require more than one project calendar to allow for different work periods for
some activities to calculate the project schedule. The project calendars may be updated.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Modifications to the project scope or project schedule may result in change requests
to the scope baseline, and/or other components of the project management plan. Change requests are processed for
review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6). Preventive actions may
include recommended changes to eliminate or reduce the probability of negative schedule variances.
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Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan may be updated to
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reflect a change in the way the schedule was developed and will be managed.
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Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. Activity attributes are updated to include any revised resource
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requirements and any other revisions generated by the Develop Schedule process.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log may be updated with changes to assumptions
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in duration, resource utilization, sequencing, or other information that is revealed as a result of developing the
schedule model.
Duration estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.1. The number and availability of resources, along with the
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activity dependencies can result in a change to the duration estimates. If the resource-leveling analysis changes
the resource requirements, then the duration estimates will likely need to be updated as well.
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techniques that were efficient and effective in developing the schedule model.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource leveling can have a significant effect on
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preliminary estimates for the types and quantities of resources required. If the resource-leveling analysis changes
the resource requirements, then the resource requirements are updated.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register may need to be updated to reflect opportunities or
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threats perceived through scheduling assumptions.
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6.6 CONTROL SCHEDULE
Control Schedule is the process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project schedule and managing
changes to the schedule baseline. The key benefit of this process is that the schedule baseline is maintained throughout
the project. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 6-22. Figure 6-23 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Control Schedule

• Schedule management plan • Earned value analysis information
• Schedule baseline • Iteration burndown chart .2 Schedule forecasts
• Scope baseline • Performance reviews .3 Change requests
• Performance measurement • Trend analysis .4 Project management plan
baseline • Variance analysis updates
.2 Project documents • What-if scenario analysis • Schedule management plan
• Lessons learned register .2 Critical path method • Schedule baseline
• Project calendars .3 Project management • Cost baseline
• Project schedule information system • Performance measurement
• Resource calendars .4 Resource optimization baseline
• Schedule data .6 Leads and lags .5 Project documents updates
.3 Work performance data .7 Schedule compression • Assumption log
.4 Organizational process assets • Basis of estimates
• Project schedule
• Risk register
• Schedule data
Figure 6-22. Control Schedule: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan
4.5
Monitor and
Project management plan Control
• Schedule management plan • Work performance information Project Work
• Scope baseline
• Performance measurement baseline
4.6
Perform
Integrated
Project • Change requests
Change Control
Documents
Project documents 6.6 Project

• Lessons learned register Control Management
• Project calendars Plan
Schedule
• Project Project management
• Resource calendars charter plan updates
• Schedule data • Schedule management
plan
• Cost baseline
4.3 • Performance
Direct and measurement baseline
Manage
Project Work
• Schedule forecasts Project
• Work performance data Documents
Project documents
updates
Enterprise/ • Assumption log
Organization • Basis of estimates
• Organizational process assets • Resource calendars
• Risk register
• Schedule data
Figure 6-23. Control Schedule: Data Flow Diagram
Updating the schedule model requires knowing the actual performance to date. Any change to the schedule baseline
can only be approved through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6). Control Schedule, as a
component of the Perform Integrated Change Control process, is concerned with:
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Determining the current status of the project schedule,

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Influencing the factors that create schedule changes,

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Reconsidering necessary schedule reserves,

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Determining if the project schedule has changed, and

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Managing the actual changes as they occur.

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When an agile approach is used, Control Schedule is concerned with:
Determining the current status of the project schedule by comparing the total amount of work delivered and
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accepted against the estimates of work completed for the elapsed time cycle;
Conducting retrospectives (scheduled reviews to record lessons learned) for correcting processes and improving,
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if required;
Reprioritizing the remaining work plan (backlog);
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Determining the rate at which the deliverables are produced, validated, and accepted (velocity) in the given time
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per iteration (agreed-upon work cycle duration, typically 2 weeks or 1 month);
Determining that the project schedule has changed; and
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When work is being contracted, regular and milestone status updates from contractors and suppliers are a means of
ensuring the work is progressing as agreed upon to ensure the schedule is under control. Scheduled status reviews and
walkthroughs should be done to ensure the contractor reports are accurate and complete.
6.6.1 CONTROL SCHEDULE: INPUTS
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management describes the frequency
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that the schedule will be updated, how reserve will be used, and how the schedule will be controlled.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. The schedule baseline is compared with actual results to
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determine if a change, corrective action, or preventive action is necessary.
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documented in the scope baseline are considered explicitly when monitoring and controlling the schedule
baseline.
Performance measurement baseline. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. When using earned value analysis the
uu
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later phases in the project to improve schedule control.
Project calendars. Described in Section 6.5.3.4. A schedule model may require more than one project calendar
uu
to allow for different work periods for some activities to calculate the schedule forecasts.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. Project schedule refers to the most recent version with notations
uu
to indicate updates, completed activities, and started activities as of the indicated date.
Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.2.1.2. Resource calendars show the availability of team and
uu
physical resources.
Schedule data. Described in Section 6.5.3.3. Schedule data will be reviewed and updated in the Control
uu
Schedule process.
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains data on project status such as which activities have
started, their progress (e.g., actual duration, remaining duration, and physical percent complete), and which activities
have finished.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Schedule process include but are not limited to:
Existing formal and informal schedule control-related policies, procedures, and guidelines;
uu
Schedule control tools; and

uu
Monitoring and reporting methods to be used.

uu
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6.6.2 CONTROL SCHEDULE: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Earned value analysis. Described in Section 7.4.2.2. Schedule performance measurements such as schedule
uu
variance (SV) and schedule performance index (SPI) are used to assess the magnitude of variation to the original
schedule baseline.
Iteration burndown chart. This chart tracks the work that remains to be completed in the iteration backlog. It
uu
is used to analyze the variance with respect to an ideal burndown based on the work committed from iteration
planning (see Section 6.4.2.8). A forecast trend line can be used to predict the likely variance at iteration
completion and take appropriate actions during the course of the iteration. A diagonal line representing the ideal
burndown and daily actual remaining work is then plotted. A trend line is then calculated to forecast completion
based on remaining work. Figure 6-24 is an example of an iteration burndown chart.
Iteration Burndown Chart

300
250
Actual
Remaining
200
Remaining Work
Work
Ideal
150 Remaining
Work
100 Forecast
Remaining
Work
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Iteration Days
Figure 6-24. Iteration Burndown Chart
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Performance reviews. Performance reviews measure, compare, and analyze schedule performance against
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the schedule baseline such as actual start and finish dates, percent complete, and remaining duration for work
in progress.
Trend analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Trend analysis examines project performance over time to determine
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whether performance is improving or deteriorating. Graphical analysis techniques are valuable for understanding
performance to date and for comparing to future performance goals in the form of completion dates.
Variance analysis. Variance analysis looks at variances in planned versus actual start and finish dates, planned
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versus actual durations, and variances in float. Part of variance analysis is determining the cause and degree of
variance relative to the schedule baseline (see Section 6.5.3.1), estimating the implications of those variances
for future work to completion, and deciding whether corrective or preventive action is required. For example, a
major delay on any activity not on the critical path may have little effect on the overall project schedule, while a
much shorter delay on a critical or near-critical activity may require immediate action.
What-if scenario analysis. Described in Section 6.5.2.4. What-if scenario analysis is used to assess the various
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scenarios guided by the output from the Project Risk Management processes to bring the schedule model into
alignment with the project management plan and approved baseline.
6.6.2.2 CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Described in Section 6.5.2.2. Comparing the progress along the critical path can help determine schedule status. The
variance on the critical path will have a direct impact on the project end date. Evaluating the progress of activities on
near critical paths can identify schedule risk.
Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems include scheduling software that provides
the ability to track planned dates versus actual dates, to report variances to and progress made against the schedule
baseline, and to forecast the effects of changes to the project schedule model.
6.6.2.4 RESOURCE OPTIMIZATION
Described in Section 6.5.2.3. Resource optimization techniques involve the scheduling of activities and the resources
required by those activities while taking into consideration both the resource availability and the project time.
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Adjusting leads and lags is applied during network analysis to find ways to bring project activities that are behind into
alignment with the plan. For example, on a project to construct a new office building, the landscaping can be adjusted to
start before the exterior work of the building is completed by increasing the lead time in the relationship, or a technical
writing team can adjust the start of editing the draft of a large document immediately after the document is written by
eliminating or decreasing lag time.
6.6.2.6 SCHEDULE COMPRESSION
Schedule compression techniques (see Section 6.5.2.6) are used to find ways to bring project activities that are
behind into alignment with the plan by fast tracking or crashing the schedule for the remaining work.
6.6.3 CONTROL SCHEDULE: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information on how the project work
is performing compared to the schedule baseline. Variances in the start and finish dates and the durations can be
calculated at the work package level and control account level. For projects using earned value analysis, the (SV) and
(SPI) are documented for inclusion in work performance reports (see Section 4.5.3.1).
6.6.3.2 SCHEDULE FORECASTS
Schedule updates are forecasts of estimates or predictions of conditions and events in the project’s future based on
information and knowledge available at the time of the forecast. Forecasts are updated and reissued based on work
performance information provided as the project is executed. The information is based on the project’s past performance
and expected future performance based on corrective or preventive actions. This can include earned value performance
indicators, as well as schedule reserve information that could impact the project in the future.
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Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Schedule variance analysis, as well as reviews of progress reports, results of performance
measures, and modifications to the project scope or project schedule, may result in change requests to the schedule
baseline, scope baseline, and/or other components of the project management plan. Change requests are processed
for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6). Preventive actions may
include recommended changes to eliminate or reduce the probability of negative schedule variances.
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan may be updated to
uu
reflect a change in the way the schedule is managed.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. Changes to the schedule baseline are incorporated in
uu
response to approved change requests related to change in project scope, resources, or activity duration
estimates. The schedule baseline may be updated to reflect changes caused by schedule compression
techniques or performance issues.
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approved changes in scope, resources, or cost estimates.
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. Schedule performance may indicate the need to revise
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assumptions on activity sequencing, durations, and productivity.
Basis of estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.2. Schedule performance may indicate the need to revise the
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way duration estimates were developed.
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techniques that were effective in maintaining the schedule, causes of variances, and corrective actions that were
used to respond to schedule variances.
Project schedule. An updated project schedule (see Section 6.5.3.2) will be generated from the schedule model
uu
populated with updated schedule data to reflect the schedule changes and manage the project.
Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.2.1.2. Resource calendars are updated to reflect changes to
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the utilization of resource calendars that were the result of optimizing resources, schedule compression, and
corrective or preventive actions.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register and risk response plans within it, may be updated
uu
based on the risks that may arise due to schedule compression techniques.
Schedule data. Described in Section 6.5.3.3. New project schedule network diagrams may be developed to
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display approved remaining durations and approved modifications to the schedule. In some cases, project
schedule delays can be so severe that a new target schedule with forecasted start and finish dates is needed to
provide realistic data for directing the work, measuring performance, and measuring progress.
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7
PROJE CT CO ST MA NAG EM ENT
Project Cost Management includes the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting, financing, funding,
managing, and controlling costs so that the project can be completed within the approved budget. The Project Cost
Management processes are:
7.1 Plan Cost Management—The process of defining how the project costs will be estimated, budgeted, managed,
monitored, and controlled.
7.2 Estimate Costs—The process of developing an approximation of the monetary resources needed to complete
project work.
7.3 Determine Budget—The process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to
establish an authorized cost baseline.
7.4 Control Costs—The process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and manage
changes to the cost baseline.
Figure 7-1 provides an overview of the Project Cost Management processes. The Project Cost Management processes
are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces, while in practice they overlap and interact in ways that
cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide. These processes interact with each other and with processes in
other Knowledge Areas.
On some projects, especially those of smaller scope, cost estimating and cost budgeting are tightly linked and can
be viewed as a single process that can be performed by a single person over a relatively short period of time. They are
presented here as distinct processes because the tools and techniques for each are different. The ability to influence
cost is greatest at the early stages of the project, making early scope definition critical (see Section 5.3).
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Project Cost
Management Overview
7.1 Plan Cost

7.2 Estimate Costs 7.3 Determine Budget
Management

.2 Project management plan .2 Project documents .2 Project documents
.3 Enterprise environmental .3 Enterprise environmental .3 Business documents
factors factors .4 Agreements
.4 Organizational process assets .4 Organizational process assets .5 Enterprise environmental
factors
.2 Tools & Techniques .2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment .1 Expert judgment
.2 Data analysis .2 Analogous estimating .2 Tools & Techniques
.3 Meetings .3 Parametric estimating .1 Expert judgment
.4 Bottom-up estimating .2 Cost aggregation
.3 Outputs
.5 Three-point estimating .3 Data analysis
.1 Cost management plan
.6 Data analysis .4 Historical information review
.7 Project management .5 Funding limit reconciliation
information system .6 Financing
.8 Decision making
.3 Outputs
.3 Outputs .1 Cost baseline
.1 Cost estimates .2 Project funding requirements
.2 Basis of estimates .3 Project documents updates
7.4 Control Costs
.1 Inputs
.3 Project funding requirements
.1 Expert judgment
.2 Data analysis
.3 To-complete performance
index
information system
.3 Outputs
.1 Work performance
information
.2 Cost forecasts
.3 Change requests
updates
Figure 7-1. Project Cost Management Overview
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KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT
Project Cost Management is primarily concerned with the cost of the resources needed to complete project activities.
Project Cost Management should consider the effect of project decisions on the subsequent recurring cost of using,
maintaining, and supporting the product, service, or result of the project. For example, limiting the number of design
reviews can reduce the cost of the project but could increase the resulting product’s operating costs.
Another aspect of cost management is recognizing that different stakeholders measure project costs in different
ways and at different times. For example, the cost of an acquired item may be measured when the acquisition decision
is made or committed, the order is placed, the item is delivered, or the actual cost is incurred or recorded for project
accounting purposes. In many organizations, predicting and analyzing the prospective financial performance of
the project’s product is performed outside of the project. In others, such as a capital facilities project, Project Cost
Management can include this work. When such predictions and analyses are included, Project Cost Management may
address additional processes and numerous general financial management techniques such as return on investment,
discounted cash flow, and investment payback analysis.
TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT
Within the practice of Project Cost Management, trends include the expansion of earned value management (EVM) to
include the concept of earned schedule (ES).
ES is an extension to the theory and practice of EVM. Earned schedule theory replaces the schedule variance
measures used in traditional EVM (earned value − planned value) with ES and actual time (AT). Using the alternate
equation for calculating schedule variance ES − AT, if the amount of earned schedule is greater than 0, then the project
is considered ahead of schedule. In other words, the project earned more than planned at a given point in time. The
schedule performance index (SPI) using earned schedule metrics is ES/AT. This indicates the efficiency with which work
is being accomplished. Earned schedule theory also provides formulas for forecasting the project completion date, using
earned schedule, actual time, and estimated duration.
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Because each project is unique, the project manager may need to tailor the way Project Cost Management processes
are applied. Considerations for tailoring include but are not limited to:
Knowledge management. Does the organization have a formal knowledge management and financial database
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repository that a project manager is required to use and that is readily accessible?
Estimating and budgeting. Does the organization have existing formal or informal cost estimating and
uu
budgeting-related policies, procedures, and guidelines?
Earned value management. Does the organization use earned value management in managing projects?
uu
Use of agile approach. Does the organization use agile methodologies in managing projects? How does this
uu
impact cost estimating?
Governance. Does the organization have formal or informal audit and governance policies, procedures, and guidelines?
uu
Projects with high degrees of uncertainty or those where the scope is not yet fully defined may not benefit from
detailed cost calculations due to frequent changes. Instead, lightweight estimation methods can be used to generate a
fast, high-level forecast of project labor costs, which can then be easily adjusted as changes arise. Detailed estimates
are reserved for short-term planning horizons in a just-in-time fashion.
In cases where high-variability projects are also subject to strict budgets, the scope and schedule are more often
adjusted to stay within cost constraints.
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7.1 PLAN COST MANAGEMENT
Plan Cost Management is the process of defining how the project costs will be estimated, budgeted, managed,
monitored, and controlled. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how the project
costs will be managed throughout the project. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The
inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 7-2. Figure 7-3 depicts the data flow
diagram of the process.
Plan Cost Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Cost management plan
• Schedule management plan .3 Meetings
• Risk management plan
factors
Figure 7-2. Plan Cost Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
4.1
Develop Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project 7.1 Project

Management Plan Cost Management
Plan Management
• Project • Cost management plan Plan
charter

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Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 7-3. Plan Cost Management: Data Flow Diagram
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The cost management planning effort occurs early in project planning and sets the framework for each of the cost
management processes so that performance of the processes will be efficient and coordinated. The cost management
processes and their associated tools and techniques are documented in the cost management plan. The cost management
plan is a component of the project management plan.
7.1.1 PLAN COST MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project charter provides the preapproved financial resources from which the detailed
project costs are developed. The project charter also defines the project approval requirements that will influence the
management of the project costs.
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan establishes the
uu
criteria and the activities for developing, monitoring, and controlling the schedule. The schedule management
plan provides processes and controls that will impact cost estimation and management.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan provides the approach for
uu
identifying, analyzing, and monitoring risks. The risk management plan provides processes and controls that will
impact cost estimation and management.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Cost Management process include but are not
limited to:
Organizational culture and structure can influence cost management.
uu
Market conditions describe what products, services, and results are available in the regional and global markets.
uu
Currency exchange rates for project costs are sourced from more than one country.
uu
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Published commercial information such as resource cost rate information is often available from commercial
uu
databases that track skills and human resource costs, and provide standard costs for material and equipment.
Published seller price lists are another source of information.
Project management information system provides alternative possibilities for managing cost.
uu
Productivity differences in different parts of the world can have a large influence on the cost of projects.
uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Cost Management process include but are not limited to:
Financial controls procedures (e.g., time reporting, required expenditure and disbursement reviews, accounting
uu
codes, and standard contract provisions);
Historical information and lessons learned repository;
uu
Financial databases; and

uu
Existing formal and informal cost estimating and budgeting-related policies, procedures, and guidelines.
uu
7.1.2 PLAN COST MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Previous similar projects;
uu
Information in the industry, discipline, and application area;

uu
Cost estimating and budgeting; and

uu
Earned value management.

uu
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Alternatives analysis can include reviewing strategic funding options such as: self-funding, funding with equity, or
funding with debt. It can also include consideration of ways to acquire project resources such as making, purchasing,
renting, or leasing.
7.1.2.3 MEETINGS
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the cost management plan. Attendees may include the project
manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected stakeholders, anyone with responsibility for
project costs, and others as needed.
7.1.3 PLAN COST MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
7.1.3.1 COST MANAGEMENT PLAN
The cost management plan is a component of the project management plan and describes how the project costs will
be planned, structured, and controlled. The cost management processes and their associated tools and techniques are
documented in the cost management plan.
For example, the cost management plan can establish the following:
Units of measure. Each unit used in measurements (such as staff hours, staff days, or weeks for time measures;
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meters, liters, tons, kilometers, or cubic yards for quantity measures; or lump sum in currency form) is defined
for each of the resources.
Level of precision. This is the degree to which cost estimates will be rounded up or down (e.g., US$995.59 to
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US$1,000), based on the scope of the activities and magnitude of the project.
Level of accuracy. The acceptable range (e.g., ±10%) used in determining realistic cost estimates is specified,
uu
and may include an amount for contingencies.
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Organizational procedures links. The work breakdown structure (WBS) (Section 5.4) provides the
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framework for the cost management plan, allowing for consistency with the estimates, budgets, and control
of costs. The WBS component used for the project cost accounting is called the control account. Each
control account is assigned a unique code or account number(s) that links directly to the performing
organization’s accounting system.
Control thresholds. Variance thresholds for monitoring cost performance may be specified to indicate an
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agreed-upon amount of variation to be allowed before some action needs to be taken. Thresholds are typically
expressed as percentage deviations from the baseline plan.
Rules of performance measurement. Earned value management (EVM) rules of performance measurement are
uu
set. For example, the cost management plan may:
nuDefine the points in the WBS at which measurement of control accounts will be performed;
nuEstablish the EVM techniques (e.g., weighted milestones, fixed-formula, percent complete, etc.) to be
employed; and
nuSpecify tracking methodologies and the EVM computation equations for calculating projected estimate at
completion (EAC) forecasts to provide a validity check on the bottom-up EAC.
Reporting formats. The formats and frequency for the various cost reports are defined.
uu
Additional details. Additional details about cost management activities include but are not limited to:
uu
nuDescription of strategic funding choices,

nuProcedure to account for fluctuations in currency exchange rates, and
nuProcedure for project cost recording.
For more specific information regarding earned value management, refer to the Practice Standard for Earned Value
Management – Second Edition [17].
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7.2 ESTIMATE COSTS
Estimate Costs is the process of developing an approximation of the cost of resources needed to complete project
work. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the monetary resources required for the project. This process
is performed periodically throughout the project as needed. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure 7-4. Figure 7-5 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Estimate Costs

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Cost estimates
• Cost management plan .2 Analogous estimating .2 Basis of estimates
• Quality management plan .3 Parametric estimating .3 Project documents updates
• Scope baseline .4 Bottom-up estimating • Assumption log
.2 Project documents .5 Three-point estimating • Lessons learned register
• Lessons learned register .6 Data analysis • Risk register
• Project schedule • Alternatives analysis
• Resources requirements • Reserve analysis
• Risk register • Cost of quality
.3 Enterprise environmental .7 Project management
factors information system
.4 Organizational process assets .8 Decision making
• Voting
Figure 7-4. Estimate Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
Project
Management
Plan

• Cost estimates
• Cost management plan
• Quality management.plan
• Scope baseline
Project 7.2 Project

Documents Estimate Documents
Costs
Project documents
• Resources requirements
• Risk register
• Assumption log
Enterprise/ • Lessons learned register
Organization • Risk register

Figure 7-5. Estimate Costs: Data Flow Diagram
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A cost estimate is a quantitative assessment of the likely costs for resources required to complete the activity. It is a
prediction that is based on the information known at a given point in time. Cost estimates include the identification and
consideration of costing alternatives to initiate and complete the project. Cost trade-offs and risks should be considered,
such as make versus buy, buy versus lease, and the sharing of resources in order to achieve optimal costs for the project.
Cost estimates are generally expressed in units of some currency (i.e., dollars, euros, yen, etc.), although in some
instances other units of measure, such as staff hours or staff days, are used to facilitate comparisons by eliminating the
effects of currency fluctuations.
Cost estimates should be reviewed and refined during the course of the project to reflect additional detail as it becomes
available and assumptions are tested. The accuracy of a project estimate will increase as the project progresses through
the project life cycle. For example, a project in the initiation phase may have a rough order of magnitude (ROM) estimate
in the range of −25% to +75%. Later in the project, as more information is known, definitive estimates could narrow
the range of accuracy to −5% to +10%. In some organizations, there are guidelines for when such refinements can be
made and the degree of confidence or accuracy that is expected.
Costs are estimated for all resources that will be charged to the project. This includes but is not limited to labor,
materials, equipment, services, and facilities, as well as special categories such as an inflation allowance, cost of
financing, or contingency costs. Cost estimates may be presented at the activity level or in summary form.
7.2.1 ESTIMATE COSTS: INPUTS
Cost management plan. Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan describes estimating methods
uu
that can be used and the level of precision and accuracy required for the cost estimate.
Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The quality management plan describes the activities
uu
and resources necessary for the project management team to achieve the quality objectives set for the project.
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Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline includes the project scope statement, WBS,
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and WBS dictionary:
nuProject scope statement. The scope statement (Section 5.3.3.1) reflects funding constraints by period for the
expenditure of project funds or other financial assumptions and constraints.
nuWork breakdown structure. The WBS (Section 5.4.3.1) provides the relationships among all the project
deliverables and their various components.
nuWBS dictionary. The WBS dictionary (Section 5.4.3.) and related detailed statements of work provide an
identification of the deliverables and a description of the work in each WBS component required to produce
each deliverable.
uu
developing cost estimates can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the accuracy and precision of
the cost estimates.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The schedule includes the type, quantity, and amount of time
uu
that team and physical resources will be active on the project. The duration estimates (Section 6.4.3.1) will
affect cost estimates when resources are charged per unit of time and when there are seasonal fluctuations
in costs. The schedule also provides useful information for projects that incorporate the cost of financing
(including interest charges).
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource requirements identify the types and quantities
uu
of resources required for each work package or activity.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains details of individual project risks that
uu
have been identified and prioritized, and for which risk responses are required. The risk register provides detailed
information that can be used to estimate costs.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Estimate Costs process include but are not limited to:
Market conditions. These conditions describe what products, services, and results are available in the market,
uu
from whom, and under what terms and conditions. Regional and/or global supply and demand conditions greatly
influence resource costs.
Published commercial information. Resource cost rate information is often available from commercial
uu
databases that track skills and human resource costs, and provide standard costs for material and equipment.
Published seller price lists are another source of information.
Exchange rates and inflation. For large-scale projects that extend multiple years with multiple currencies, the
uu
fluctuations of currencies and inflation need to be understood and built into the Estimate Cost process.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Estimate Costs process include but are not limited to:
Cost estimating policies,
uu
Cost estimating templates,

uu

uu
7.2.2 ESTIMATE COSTS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
uu
Information in the industry, discipline, and application area; and

uu
Cost estimating methods.

uu
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Described in Section 6.4.2.2. Analogous cost estimating uses values, or attributes, of a previous project that are
similar to the current project. Values and attributes of the projects may include but are not limited to: scope, cost, budget,
duration, and measures of scale (e.g., size, weight). Comparison of these project values, or attributes, becomes the basis
for estimating the same parameter or measurement for the current project.
Described in Section 6.4.2.3. Parametric estimating uses a statistical relationship between relevant historical data
and other variables (e.g., square footage in construction) to calculate a cost estimate for project work. This technique can
produce higher levels of accuracy depending on the sophistication and underlying data built into the model. Parametric
cost estimates can be applied to a total project or to segments of a project, in conjunction with other estimating methods.
Described in Section 6.4.2.5. Bottom-up estimating is a method of estimating a component of work. The cost
of individual work packages or activities is estimated to the greatest level of specified detail. The detailed cost
is then summarized or “rolled up” to higher levels for subsequent reporting and tracking purposes. The cost and
accuracy of bottom-up cost estimating are typically influenced by the size or other attributes of the individual
activity or work package.
7.2.2.5 THREE-POINT ESTIMATING
Described in Section 6.4.2.4. The accuracy of single-point cost estimates may be improved by considering estimation
uncertainty and risk and using three estimates to define an approximate range for an activity’s cost:
Most likely (cM). The cost of the activity, based on realistic effort assessment for the required work and any
uu
predicted expenses.
Optimistic (cO). The cost based on analysis of the best-case scenario for the activity.
uu
Pessimistic (cP). The cost based on analysis of the worst-case scenario for the activity.
uu
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Depending on the assumed distribution of values within the range of the three estimates, the expected cost, cE, can
be calculated using a formula. Two commonly used formulas are triangular and beta distributions. The formulas are:
Triangular distribution. cE = (cO + cM + cP) / 3
uu
Beta distribution. cE = (cO + 4cM + cP) / 6

uu
Cost estimates based on three points with an assumed distribution provide an expected cost and clarify the range of
uncertainty around the expected cost.
Data analysis techniques that can be used in the Estimate Costs process include but are not limited to:
Alternatives analysis. Alternatives analysis is a technique used to evaluate identified options in order to select
uu
which options or approaches to use to execute and perform the work of the project. An example would be
evaluating the cost, schedule, resource, and quality impacts of buying versus making a deliverable.
Reserve analysis. Cost estimates may include contingency reserves (sometimes called contingency allowances)
uu
to account for cost uncertainty. Contingency reserves are the budget within the cost baseline that is allocated for
identified risks. Contingency reserves are often viewed as the part of the budget intended to address the known-
unknowns that can affect a project. For example, rework for some project deliverables could be anticipated, while
the amount of this rework is unknown. Contingency reserves may be estimated to account for this unknown
amount of rework. Contingency reserves can be provided at any level from the specific activity to the entire
project. The contingency reserve may be a percentage of the estimated cost, a fixed number, or may be developed
by using quantitative analysis methods.
As more precise information about the project becomes available, the contingency reserve may be used, reduced,
or eliminated. Contingency should be clearly identified in cost documentation. Contingency reserves are part of
the cost baseline and the overall funding requirements for the project.
Cost of quality. Assumptions about costs of quality (Section 8.1.2.3) may be used to prepare the estimates. This
uu
includes evaluating the cost impact of additional investment in conformance versus the cost of nonconformance.
It can also include looking at short-term cost reductions versus the implication of more frequent problems later
on in the product life cycle.
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Described in Section 4.3.2.2. The project management information system can include spreadsheets, simulation
software, and statistical analysis tools to assist with cost estimating. Such tools simplify the use of some cost-estimating
techniques and thereby facilitate rapid consideration of cost estimate alternatives.
The decision-making techniques that can be used in the Estimate Costs process include but are not limited to voting.
Described in Section 5.2.2.4, voting is an assessment process having multiple alternatives with an expected outcome in
the form of future actions. These techniques are useful for engaging team members to improve estimate accuracy and
commitment to the emerging estimates.
7.2.3 ESTIMATE COSTS: OUTPUTS
7.2.3.1 COST ESTIMATES
Cost estimates include quantitative assessments of the probable costs required to complete project work, as well as
contingency amounts to account for identified risks, and management reserve to cover unplanned work. Cost estimates
can be presented in summary form or in detail. Costs are estimated for all resources that are applied to the cost
estimate. This includes but is not limited to direct labor, materials, equipment, services, facilities, information technology,
and special categories such as cost of financing (including interest charges), an inflation allowance, exchange rates,
or a cost contingency reserve. Indirect costs, if they are included in the project estimate, can be included at the activity
level or at higher levels.
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The amount and type of additional details supporting the cost estimate vary by application area. Regardless of
the level of detail, the supporting documentation should provide a clear and complete understanding of how the cost
estimate was derived.
Supporting detail for cost estimates may include:
Documentation of the basis of the estimate (i.e., how it was developed),
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Documentation of all assumptions made,

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Documentation of any known constraints,

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Documentation of identified risks included when estimating costs,

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Indication of the range of possible estimates (e.g., US$10,000 (±10%) to indicate that the item is expected to
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cost between a range of values), and
Indication of the confidence level of the final estimate.
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. During the Cost Estimates process, new assumptions may be
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made, new constraints may be identified, and existing assumptions or constraints may be revisited and changed.
The assumption log should be updated with this new information.
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techniques that were efficient and effective in developing cost estimates.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register may be updated when appropriate risk responses
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are chosen and agreed upon during the Estimate Cost process.
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7.3 DETERMINE BUDGET
Determine Budget is the process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to
establish an authorized cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the cost baseline against
which project performance can be monitored and controlled. This process is performed once or at predefined points in
the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 7-6. Figure 7-7 depicts
A project budget includes all the funds authorized to execute the project. The cost baseline is the approved version of
the time-phased project budget that includes contingency reserves, but excludes management reserves.
Determine Budget

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Cost baseline
• Cost management plan .2 Cost aggregation .2 Project funding requirements
• Resource management plan .3 Data analysis .3 Project documents updates
• Scope baseline • Reserve analysis • Cost estimates
.2 Project documents .4 Historical information review • Project schedule
• Basis of estimates .5 Funding limit reconciliation • Risk register
• Cost estimates .6 Financing
• Risk register
• Business case
.4 Agreements
factors
Figure 7-6. Determine Budget: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

• Resource management plan
• Scope baseline
Project
Management
Project • Cost baseline Plan
Documents
Project documents
• Cost estimates 7.3 7.4
• Project schedule Determine Control
• Risk register Budget
• Project • Project funding Costs
charter requirements
Business
Documents
Project
Documents
• Business case Project documents updates
• Benefits management plan • Cost estimates
• Risk register
12.2
Conduct
Procurements
• Agreements
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 7-7. Determine Budget: Data Flow Diagram

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7.3.1 DETERMINE BUDGET: INPUTS
Cost management plan. Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan describes how the project
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costs will be structured into the project budget.
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan provides information
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on rates (personnel and other resources), estimation of travel costs, and other foreseen costs that are necessary
to estimate the overall project budget.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline includes the project scope statement, WBS,
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and WBS dictionary details for cost estimation and management.
Basis of estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.2. Supporting detail for cost estimates contained in the basis for
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estimates should specify any basic assumptions dealing with the inclusion or exclusion of indirect or other costs
in the project budget.
Cost estimates. Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Cost estimates for each activity within a work package are
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aggregated to obtain a cost estimate for each work package.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule includes planned start and finish dates
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for the project’s activities, milestones, work packages, and control accounts. This information can be used to
aggregate costs to the calendar periods in which the costs are planned to be incurred.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register should be reviewed to consider how to aggregate
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the risk response costs. Updates to the risk register are included with project documents updates described in
Section 11.5.3.3.
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Described in Section 1.2.6. The business documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but
are not limited to:
Business case. The business case identifies the critical success factors for the project, including financial
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success factors.
Benefits management plan. The benefits management plan includes the target benefits, such as net present
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value calculations, timeframe for realizing benefits, and the metrics associated with the benefits.
7.3.1.4 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Applicable agreement information and costs relating to products, services, or results
that have been or will be purchased are included when determining the budget.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Estimate Costs process include but are not limited
to exchange rates. For large-scale projects that extend multiple years with multiple currencies, the fluctuations of
currencies need to be understood and built into the Determine Budget process.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Determine Budget process include but are not limited to:
Existing formal and informal cost budgeting-related policies, procedures, and guidelines;
uu

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Cost budgeting tools; and

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Reporting methods.
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7.3.2 DETERMINE BUDGET: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
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Information in the industry, discipline, and application area;

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Financial principles; and

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Funding requirement and sources.

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7.3.2.2 COST AGGREGATION
Cost estimates are aggregated by work packages in accordance with the WBS. The work package cost estimates
are then aggregated for the higher component levels of the WBS (such as control accounts) and, ultimately, for the
entire project.
A data analysis technique that can be used in the Determine Budget process includes but is not limited to reserve
analysis, which can establish the management reserves for the project. Management reserves are an amount of
the project budget withheld for management control purposes and are reserved for unforeseen work that is within
scope of the project. Management reserves are intended to address the unknown unknowns that can affect a project.
The management reserve is not included in the cost baseline but is part of the overall project budget and funding
requirements. When an amount of management reserves is used to fund unforeseen work, the amount of management
reserve used is added to the cost baseline, thus requiring an approved change to the cost baseline.
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7.3.2.4 HISTORICAL INFORMATION REVIEW
Reviewing historical information can assist in developing parametric estimates or analogous estimates. Historical
information may include project characteristics (parameters) to develop mathematical models to predict total project
costs. Such models may be simple (e.g., residential home construction is based on a certain cost per square foot of space)
or complex (e.g., one model of software development costing uses multiple separate adjustment factors, each of which
has numerous points within it).
Both the cost and accuracy of analogous and parametric models can vary widely. They are most likely to be
reliable when:
Historical information used to develop the model is accurate,
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Parameters used in the model are readily quantifiable, and

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Models are scalable, such that they work for large projects, small projects, and phases of a project.
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7.3.2.5 FUNDING LIMIT RECONCILIATION
The expenditure of funds should be reconciled with any funding limits on the commitment of funds for the project.
A variance between the funding limits and the planned expenditures will sometimes necessitate the rescheduling of
work to level out the rate of expenditures. This is accomplished by placing imposed date constraints for work into
the project schedule.
7.3.2.6 FINANCING
Financing entails acquiring funding for projects. It is common for long-term infrastructure, industrial, and public
services projects to seek external sources of funds. If a project is funded externally, the funding entity may have certain
requirements that are required to be met.
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7.3.3 DETERMINE BUDGET: OUTPUTS
7.3.3.1 COST BASELINE
The cost baseline is the approved version of the time-phased project budget, excluding any management reserves,
which can only be changed through formal change control procedures. It is used as a basis for comparison to actual
results. The cost baseline is developed as a summation of the approved budgets for the different schedule activities.
Figure 7-8 illustrates the various components of the project budget and cost baseline. Cost estimates for the various
project activities, along with any contingency reserves (see Section 7.2.2.6) for these activities, are aggregated
into their associated work package costs. The work package cost estimates, along with any contingency reserves
estimated for the work packages, are aggregated into control accounts. The summation of the control accounts
make up the cost baseline. Since the cost estimates that make up the cost baseline are directly tied to the schedule
activities, this enables a time-phased view of the cost baseline, which is typically displayed in the form of an S-curve,
as is illustrated in Figure 7-9. For projects that use earned value management, the cost baseline is referred to as the
performance measurement baseline.
Management reserves (Section 7.2.2.3) are added to the cost baseline to produce the project budget. As changes
warranting the use of management reserves arise, the change control process is used to obtain approval to move the
applicable management reserve funds into the cost baseline.
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Project Management
Budget Reserve
Cost Control Contingency

Baseline Accounts Reserve
Work Package Activity

Cost Estimates Contingency Reserve
Activity Cost
Estimates
Total Amount
Project Budget Component
Figure 7-8. Project Budget Components
Project Budget
Management Reserve
BAC
Cumulative Values
Funding Requirements
Expenditures
Cost Baseline
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Time
Figure 7-9. Cost Baseline, Expenditures, and Funding Requirements
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7.3.3.2 PROJECT FUNDING REQUIREMENTS
Total funding requirements and periodic funding requirements (e.g., quarterly, annually) are derived from the cost
baseline. The cost baseline will include projected expenditures plus anticipated liabilities. Funding often occurs in
incremental amounts, and may not be evenly distributed, which appear as steps in Figure 7-9. The total funds required
are those included in the cost baseline plus management reserves, if any. Funding requirements may include the
source(s) of the funding.
Cost estimates. Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Cost estimates are updated to record any additional information.
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Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. Estimated costs for each activity may be recorded as part of the
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project schedule.
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7.4 CONTROL COSTS
Control Costs is the process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and managing changes
to the cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that the cost baseline is maintained throughout the project. This
process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted
in Figure 7-10. Figure 7-11 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Control Costs

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Work performance
• Cost management plan .2 Data analysis information
• Cost baseline • Earned value analysis .2 Cost forecasts
• Performance measurement • Variance analysis .3 Change requests
baseline • Trend analysis .4 Project management plan
.2 Project documents • Reserve analysis updates
• Lessons learned register .3 To-complete performance • Cost management plan
.3 Project funding requirements index • Cost baseline
.4 Work performance data .4 Project management • Performance measurement
.5 Organizational process assets information system baseline
• Assumption log
• Cost estimates
• Risk register
Figure 7-10. Control Costs: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project 4.5
Plan Control
• Work performance information
Project Work

• Cost baseline 4.6
• Performance measurement baseline Perform
• Change requests Integrated
Change Control
Project
Documents
7.4 Project
Control Management
• Lessons learned register Costs
• Project Project management Plan
charter plan updates
• Cost baseline
7.3 • Performance measurement baseline
Determine
Budget
• Cost forecasts
• Project funding requirements
4.3
Project
Direct and
Documents
Manage Project documents updates
Project Work • Assumption log
• Cost estimates
• Risk register
Enterprise/
Organization
Figure 7-11. Control Costs: Data Flow Diagram
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Updating the budget requires knowledge of the actual costs spent to date. Any increase to the authorized budget can
only be approved through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6). Monitoring the expenditure of
funds without regard to the value of work being accomplished for such expenditures has little value to the project, other
than to track the outflow of funds. Much of the effort of cost control involves analyzing the relationship between the
consumption of project funds and the work being accomplished for such expenditures. The key to effective cost control
is the management of the approved cost baseline.
Project cost control includes:
Influencing the factors that create changes to the authorized cost baseline;
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Ensuring that all change requests are acted on in a timely manner;

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Managing the actual changes when and as they occur;

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Ensuring that cost expenditures do not exceed the authorized funding by period, by WBS component, by activity,
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and in total for the project;
Monitoring cost performance to isolate and understand variances from the approved cost baseline;
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Monitoring work performance against funds expended;

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Preventing unapproved changes from being included in the reported cost or resource usage;
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Informing appropriate stakeholders of all approved changes and associated cost; and
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Bringing expected cost overruns within acceptable limits.

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7.4.1 CONTROL COSTS: INPUTS
Cost management plan. Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan describes how the project
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costs will be managed and controlled.
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Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline is compared with actual results to determine if a
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change, corrective action, or preventive action is necessary.
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Performance measurement baseline. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. When using earned value analysis, the
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7.4.1.2. PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Examples of project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to the
lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project can be applied to later
phases in the project to improve cost control.
7.4.1.3 PROJECT FUNDING REQUIREMENTS
Described in Section 7.3.3.2. The project funding requirements include projected expenditures plus anticipated liabilities.
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains data on project status such as which costs have been
authorized, incurred, invoiced, and paid.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Costs process include but are not limited to:
Existing formal and informal cost control-related policies, procedures, and guidelines;
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Cost control tools; and

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Monitoring and reporting methods to be used.

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7.4.2 CONTROL COSTS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 4.1.2.1. Examples of expert judgment during the Control Costs process include but are not
limited to:
Variance analysis,
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Earned value analysis,

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Forecasting, and
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Financial analysis.
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Data analysis techniques that can be used to control costs include but are not limited to:
Earned value analysis (EVA). Earned value analysis compares the performance measurement baseline to the
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actual schedule and cost performance. EVM integrates the scope baseline with the cost baseline and schedule
baseline to form the performance measurement baseline. EVM develops and monitors three key dimensions for
each work package and control account:
nuPlanned value. Planned value (PV) is the authorized budget assigned to scheduled work. It is the authorized
budget planned for the work to be accomplished for an activity or work breakdown structure (WBS) component,
not including management reserve. This budget is allocated by phase over the life of the project, but at a given
point in time, planned value defines the physical work that should have been accomplished. The total of the
PV is sometimes referred to as the performance measurement baseline (PMB). The total planned value for the
project is also known as budget at completion (BAC).
nuEarned value. Earned value (EV) is a measure of work performed expressed in terms of the budget authorized
for that work. It is the budget associated with the authorized work that has been completed. The EV being
measured needs to be related to the PMB, and the EV measured cannot be greater than the authorized
PV budget for a component. The EV is often used to calculate the percent complete of a project. Progress
measurement criteria should be established for each WBS component to measure work in progress. Project
managers monitor EV, both incrementally to determine current status and cumulatively to determine the long-
term performance trends.
nuActual cost. Actual cost (AC) is the realized cost incurred for the work performed on an activity during a
specific time period. It is the total cost incurred in accomplishing the work that the EV measured. The AC
needs to correspond in definition to what was budgeted in the PV and measured in the EV (e.g., direct hours
only, direct costs only, or all costs including indirect costs). The AC will have no upper limit; whatever is spent
to achieve the EV will be measured.
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Variance analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Variance analysis, as used in EVM, is the explanation (cause,
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impact, and corrective actions) for cost (CV = EV – AC), schedule (SV = EV – PV), and variance at completion
(VAC = BAC – EAC) variances. Cost and schedule variances are the most frequently analyzed measurements.
For projects not using formal earned value analysis, similar variance analyses can be performed by comparing
planned cost against actual cost to identify variances between the cost baseline and actual project performance.
Further analysis can be performed to determine the cause and degree of variance relative to the schedule
baseline and any corrective or preventive actions needed. Cost performance measurements are used to assess
the magnitude of variation to the original cost baseline. An important aspect of project cost control includes
determining the cause and degree of variance relative to the cost baseline (see Section 7.3.3.1) and deciding
whether corrective or preventive action is required. The percentage range of acceptable variances will tend to
decrease as more work is accomplished. Examples of variance analysis include but are not limited to:
nuSchedule variance. Schedule variance (SV) is a measure of schedule performance expressed as the difference
between the earned value and the planned value. It is the amount by which the project is ahead or behind
the planned delivery date, at a given point in time. It is a measure of schedule performance on a project. It
is equal to the earned value (EV) minus the planned value (PV). The EVA schedule variance is a useful metric
in that it can indicate when a project is falling behind or is ahead of its baseline schedule. The EVA schedule
variance will ultimately equal zero when the project is completed because all of the planned values will have
been earned. Schedule variance is best used in conjunction with critical path method (CPM) scheduling and
risk management. Equation: SV = EV – PV.
nuCost variance. Cost variance (CV) is the amount of budget deficit or surplus at a given point in time, expressed
as the difference between earned value and the actual cost. It is a measure of cost performance on a project.
It is equal to the earned value (EV) minus the actual cost (AC). The cost variance at the end of the project will
be the difference between the budget at completion (BAC) and the actual amount spent. The CV is particularly
critical because it indicates the relationship of physical performance to the costs spent. Negative CV is often
difficult for the project to recover. Equation: CV = EV – AC.
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nuSchedule performance index. The schedule performance index (SPI) is a measure of schedule efficiency
expressed as the ratio of earned value to planned value. It measures how efficiently the project team is
accomplishing the work. It is sometimes used in conjunction with the cost performance index (CPI) to forecast
the final project completion estimates. An SPI value less than 1.0 indicates less work was completed than
was planned. An SPI greater than 1.0 indicates that more work was completed than was planned. Since the
SPI measures all project work, the performance on the critical path also needs to be analyzed to determine
whether the project will finish ahead of or behind its planned finish date. The SPI is equal to the ratio of the
EV to the PV. Equation: SPI = EV/PV.
nuCost performance index. The cost performance index (CPI) is a measure of the cost efficiency of budgeted
resources, expressed as a ratio of earned value to actual cost. It is considered the most critical EVA metric
and measures the cost efficiency for the work completed. A CPI value of less than 1.0 indicates a cost overrun
for work completed. A CPI value greater than 1.0 indicates a cost underrun of performance to date. The CPI is
equal to the ratio of the EV to the AC. Equation: CPI = EV/AC.
Trend analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Trend analysis examines project performance over time to determine
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if performance is improving or deteriorating. Graphical analysis techniques are valuable for understanding
performance to date and for comparison to future performance goals in the form of BAC versus estimate at
completion (EAC) and completion dates. Examples of the trend analysis techniques include but are not limited to:
nuCharts. In earned value analysis, three parameters of planned value, earned value, and actual cost can be
monitored and reported on both a period-by-period basis (typically weekly or monthly) and on a cumulative
basis. Figure 7-12 uses S-curves to display EV data for a project that is performing over budget and behind
the schedule.
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Project Budget
EAC
Management Reserve
BAC
ETC
Planned
Cumulative Cost
Value (PV)
Actual
Cost (AC)
Earned
Value (EV)
Data Date
Time
Figure 7-12. Earned Value, Planned Value, and Actual Costs
nuForecasting. As the project progresses, the project team may develop a forecast for the estimate at completion
(EAC) that may differ from the budget at completion (BAC) based on the project performance. If it becomes
obvious that the BAC is no longer viable, the project manager should consider the forecasted EAC. Forecasting
the EAC involves making projections of conditions and events in the project’s future based on current
performance information and other knowledge available at the time of the forecast. Forecasts are generated,
updated, and reissued based on work performance data (Section 4.3.3.2) that is provided as the project is
executed. The work performance information covers the project’s past performance and any information that
could impact the project in the future.
EACs are typically based on the actual costs incurred for work completed, plus an estimate to complete (ETC)
the remaining work. It is incumbent on the project team to predict what it may encounter to perform the ETC,
based on its experience to date. Earned value analysis works well in conjunction with manual forecasts of the
required EAC costs. The most common EAC forecasting approach is a manual, bottom-up summation by the
project manager and project team.
The project manager’s bottom-up EAC method builds upon the actual costs and experience incurred for
the work completed, and requires a new estimate to complete the remaining project work. Equation: EAC =
AC + Bottom-up ETC.
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The project manager’s manual EAC is quickly compared with a range of calculated EACs representing
various risk scenarios. When calculating EAC values, the cumulative CPI and SPI values are typically
used. While EVM data quickly provide many statistical EACs, only three of the more common methods are
described as follows:
muEAC forecast for ETC work performed at the budgeted rate. This EAC method accepts the actual project
performance to date (whether favorable or unfavorable) as represented by the actual costs, and predicts
that all future ETC work will be accomplished at the budgeted rate. When actual performance is unfavorable,
the assumption that future performance will improve should be accepted only when supported by project
risk analysis. Equation: EAC = AC + (BAC – EV).
muEAC forecast for ETC work performed at the present CPI. This method assumes that what the project has
experienced to date can be expected to continue in the future. The ETC work is assumed to be performed
at the same cumulative cost performance index (CPI) as that incurred by the project to date. Equation:
EAC = BAC / CPI.
muEAC forecast for ETC work considering both SPI and CPI factors. In this forecast, the ETC work will be
performed at an efficiency rate that considers both the cost and schedule performance indices. This
method is most useful when the project schedule is a factor impacting the ETC effort. Variations of this
method weight the CPI and SPI at different values (e.g., 80/20, 50/50, or some other ratio) according to
the project manager’s judgment. Equation: EAC = AC + [(BAC – EV) / (CPI × SPI)].
Reserve analysis. Described in Section 7.2.2.6. During cost control, reserve analysis is used to monitor the
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status of contingency and management reserves for the project to determine if these reserves are still needed or
if additional reserves need to be requested. As work on the project progresses, these reserves may be used as
planned to cover the cost of risk responses or other contingencies. Conversely, when opportunities are captured
and resulting in cost savings, funds may be added to the contingency amount, or taken from the project as
margin/profit.
If the identified risks do not occur, the unused contingency reserves may be removed from the project budget to
free up resources for other projects or operations. Additional risk analysis during the project may reveal a need
to request that additional reserves be added to the project budget.
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7.4.2.3 TO-COMPLETE PERFORMANCE INDEX
The to-complete performance index (TCPI) is a measure of the cost performance that is required to be achieved with
the remaining resources in order to meet a specified management goal, expressed as the ratio of the cost to finish
the outstanding work to the remaining budget. TCPI is the calculated cost performance index that is achieved on the
remaining work to meet a specified management goal, such as the BAC or the EAC. If it becomes obvious that the BAC
is no longer viable, the project manager should consider the forecasted EAC. Once approved, the EAC may replace the
BAC in the TCPI calculation. The equation for the TCPI based on the BAC: (BAC – EV) / (BAC – AC).
The TCPI is conceptually displayed in Figure 7-13. The equation for the TCPI is shown in the lower left as the work
remaining (defined as the BAC minus the EV) divided by the funds remaining (which can be either the BAC minus the
AC, or the EAC minus the AC).
If the cumulative CPI falls below the baseline (as shown in Figure 7-13), all future work of the project will need
to be performed immediately in the range of the TCPI (BAC) (as reflected in the top line of Figure 7-13) to stay
within the authorized BAC. Whether this level of performance is achievable is a judgment call based on a number of
considerations, including risk, time remaining in the project, and technical performance. This level of performance
is displayed as the TCPI (EAC) line. The equation for the TCPI is based on the EAC: (BAC – EV) / (EAC – AC). The EVM
formulas are provided in Table 7-1.
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Table 7-1. Earned Value Calculations Summary Table
Earned Value Analysis

Abbreviation Name Lexicon Definition How Used Equation Interpretation of Result
PV Planned The authorized budget assigned to The value of the work planned to be
Value scheduled work. completed to a point in time, usually
the data date, or project completion.
EV Earned Value The measure of work performed The planned value of all the work EV = sum of the planned
expressed in terms of the budget completed (earned) to a point in value of completed work
authorized for that work. time, usually the data date, without
reference to actual costs.
AC Actual Cost The realized cost incurred for the The actual cost of all the work
work performed on an activity during completed to a point in time, usually
a specific time period. the data date.
BAC Budget at The sum of all budgets established The value of total planned work, the
Completion for the work to be performed. project cost baseline.
CV Cost Variance The amount of budget deficit or The difference between the value of CV = EV – AC Positive = Under planned cost
surplus at a given point in time, work completed to a point in time, Neutral = On planned cost
expressed as the difference between usually the data date, and the actual Negative = Over planned cost
the earned value and the actual cost. costs to the same point in time.
SV Schedule The amount by which the project is The difference between the work SV = EV – PV Positive = Ahead of Schedule
Variance ahead or behind the planned completed to a point in time, usually Neutral = On schedule
delivery date, at a given point in the data date, and the work planned Negative = Behind Schedule
time, expressed as the difference to be completed to the same point
between the earned value and the in time.
planned value.
VAC Variance at A projection of the amount of budget The estimated difference in cost at VAC = BAC – EAC Positive = Under planned cost
Completion deficit or surplus, expressed as the the completion of the project. Neutral = On planned cost
difference between the budget at Negative = Over planned cost
completion and the estimate at
completion.
CPI Cost A measure of the cost efficiency of A CPI of 1.0 means the project is CPI = EV/AC Greater than 1.0 = Under planned
Performance budgeted resources exactly on budget, that the work cost
Index expressed as the ratio of earned actually done so far is exactly the Exactly 1.0 = On planned cost
value to actual cost. same as the cost so far. Other values Less than 1.0 = Over planned cost
show the percentage of how much
costs are over or under the budgeted
amount for work accomplished.
SPI Schedule A measure of schedule efficiency An SPI of 1.0 means that the project SPI = EV/PV Greater than 1.0 = Ahead of
Performance expressed as the ratio of earned is exactly on schedule, that the work schedule
Index value to planned value. actually done so far is exactly the Exactly 1.0 = On schedule
same as the work planned to be Less than 1.0 = Behind schedule
done so far. Other values show the
percentage of how much costs are
over or under the budgeted amount
for work planned.
EAC Estimate At The expected total cost of com- If the CPI is expected to be the same EAC = BAC/CPI
Completion pleting all work expressed as the for the remainder of the project, EAC
sum of the actual cost to date and can be calculated using:
the estimate to complete. If future work will be accomplished EAC = AC + BAC – EV
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at the planned rate, use:

If the initial plan is no longer valid, EAC = AC + Bottom-up ETC
use:
�
If both the CPI and SPI influence the EAC = AC + [(BAC – EV)/
remaining work, use: (CPI x SPI)]
ETC Estimate to The expected cost to finish all the Assuming work is proceeding on ETC = EAC – AC
Complete remaining project work. plan, the cost of completing the
remaining authorized work can be
calculated using:
Reestimate the remaining work from ETC = Reestimate
the bottom up.
TCPI To Complete A measure of the cost performance The efficiency that must be TCPI = (BAC – EV)/(BAC – AC) Greater than 1.0 = Harder to
Performance that must be achieved with the maintained in order to complete on complete
Index remaining resources in order to meet plan. Exactly 1.0 = Same to complete
a specified management goal, Less than 1.0 = Easier to complete
expressed as the ratio of the cost to
finish the outstanding work to the
budget available.
The efficiency that must be TCPI = (BAC – EV)/(EAC – AC) Greater than 1.0 = Harder to
maintained in order to complete the complete
current EAC. Exactly 1.0 = Same to complete
Less than 1.0 = Easier to complete
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Status Date
>1 TCPI
(BAC)
1.00 Baseline Plan
TCPI
(EAC)
<1
Cumulative
CPI
Formula:
Work Remaining (BAC-EV)

= TCPI
Funds Remaining (BAC-AC) or (EAC-AC)
Figure 7-13. To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)
Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems are often used to monitor the three EVM
dimensions (PV, EV, and AC), to display graphical trends, and to forecast a range of possible final project results.
7.4.3 CONTROL COSTS: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information on how the project work is
performing compared to the cost baseline. Variances in the work performed and the cost of the work are evaluated at
the work package level and control account level. For projects using earned value analysis, CV, CPI, EAC, VAC, and TCPI
are documented for inclusion in work performance reports (Section 4.5.3.1).
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7.4.3.2 COST FORECASTS
Either a calculated EAC value or a bottom-up EAC value is documented and communicated to stakeholders.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Analysis of project performance may result in a change request to the cost and
Cost management plan. Described in Section 7.1.3.1. Changes to the cost management plan, such as changes
uu
to control thresholds or specified levels of accuracy required in managing the project’s cost, are incorporated in
response to feedback from relevant stakeholders.
uu
uu
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. Cost performance may indicate the need to revise assumptions
uu
on resource productivity and other factors influencing cost performance.
Basis of estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.2. Cost performance may indicate the need to revisit the original
uu
basis of estimates.
Cost estimates. Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Cost estimates may need to be updated to reflect the actual cost
uu
efficiency for the project.
uu
techniques that were effective in maintaining the budget, variance analysis, earned value analysis, forecasting,
and corrective actions that were used to respond to cost variances.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register may be updated if the cost variances have crossed,
uu
or are likely to cross, the cost threshold.
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8
PROJE CT Q UA LITY MANA GEM ENT
Project Quality Management includes the processes for incorporating the organization’s quality policy regarding
planning, managing, and controlling project and product quality requirements in order to meet stakeholders’ objectives.
Project Quality Management also supports continuous process improvement activities as undertaken on behalf of the
performing organization.
The Project Quality Management processes are:
8.1 Plan Quality Management—The process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project
and its deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with quality requirements and/
or standards.
8.2 Manage Quality—The process of translating the quality management plan into executable quality activities that
incorporate the organization’s quality policies into the project.
8.3 Control Quality—The process of monitoring and recording the results of executing the quality management
activities to assess performance and ensure the project outputs are complete, correct, and meet customer expectations.
Figure 8-1 provides an overview of the Project Quality Management processes. The Project Quality Management
ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide. In addition, these quality processes may differ within
industries and companies.
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Project Quality
Management Overview
8.1 Plan Quality

8.2 Manage Quality 8.3 Control Quality
Management

.3 Project documents .3 Organizational process assets .3 Approved change requests
.4 Enterprise environmental .4 Deliverables
factors .5 Work performance data
.1 Data gathering
.5 Organizational process assets .6 Enterprise environmental
.2 Data analysis
factors
.2 Tools & Techniques .3 Decision making
.1 Expert judgement .4 Data representation
.2 Data gathering .5 Audits .2 Tools & Techniques
.3 Data analysis .6 Design for X .1 Data gathering
.4 Decision making .7 Problem solving .2 Data analysis
.5 Data representation .8 Quality improvement methods .3 Inspection
.6 Test and inspection planning .4 Testing/product evaluations
.3 Outputs
.7 Meetings .5 Data representation
.1 Quality reports
.6 Meetings
.3 Outputs .2 Test and evaluation
.1 Quality management plan documents .3 Outputs
.2 Quality metrics .3 Change requests .1 Quality control measurements
.3 Project management plan .4 Project management plan .2 Verified deliverables
updates updates .3 Work performance information
.4 Project documents updates .5 Project documents updates .4 Change requests
updates
Figure 8-1. Project Quality Management Overview
Figure 8-2 provides an overview of the major inputs and outputs of the Project Quality Management processes
and the interrelations of these processes in the Project Quality Management Knowledge Area. The Plan Quality
Management process is concerned with the quality that the work needs to have. Manage Quality is concerned with
managing the quality processes throughout the project. During the Manage Quality process, quality requirements
identified during the Plan Quality Management process are turned into test and evaluation instruments, which are
then applied during the Control Quality process to verify these quality requirements are met by the project. Control
Quality is concerned with comparing the work results with the quality requirements to ensure the result is acceptable.
There are two outputs specific to the Project Quality Management Knowledge Area that are used by other Knowledge
Areas: verified deliverables and quality reports.
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Plan Quality templates
Quality from organizational
Management process assets
Quality management
plan
Quality metrics Quality reports
To Other
Manage
Project
Quality
Processes
Test and evaluate documents Quality control

Quality reports measurements
Work performance
information
Project
Control
Integration
Deliverables Quality
Management
Work performance data
Validate
Scope
Verified deliverables
Figure 8-2. Major Project Quality Management Process Interrelations
KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Project Quality Management addresses the management of the project and the deliverables of the project. It
applies to all projects, regardless of the nature of their deliverables. Quality measures and techniques are specific
to the type of deliverables being produced by the project. For example, the project quality management of software
deliverables may use different approaches and measures from those used when building a nuclear power plant. In
either case, failure to meet the quality requirements can have serious negative consequences for any or all of the
project’s stakeholders. For example:
�
Meeting customer requirements by overworking the project team may result in decreased profits and increased
uu
�
levels of overall project risks, employee attrition, errors, or rework.

Meeting project schedule objectives by rushing planned quality inspections may result in undetected errors,
uu
decreased profits, and increased post-implementation risks.
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Quality and grade are not the same concepts. Quality as a delivered performance or result is “the degree to which a
set of inherent characteristics fulfill requirements” (ISO 9000 [18].). Grade as a design intent is a category assigned to
deliverables having the same functional use but different technical characteristics. The project manager and the project
management team are responsible for managing the trade-offs associated with delivering the required levels of both
quality and grade. While a quality level that fails to meet quality requirements is always a problem, a low-grade product
may not be a problem. For example:
It may not be a problem if a suitable low-grade product (one with a limited number of features) is of high quality
uu
(no obvious defects). In this example, the product would be appropriate for its general purpose of use.
It may be a problem if a high-grade product (one with numerous features) is of low quality (many defects). In
uu
essence, a high-grade feature set would prove ineffective and/or inefficient due to low quality.
Prevention is preferred over inspection. It is better to design quality into deliverables, rather than to find quality issues
during inspection. The cost of preventing mistakes is generally much less than the cost of correcting mistakes when
they are found by inspection or during usage.
Depending on the project and the industry area, the project team may need a working knowledge of statistical control
processes to evaluate data contained in the Control Quality outputs. The team should know the differences between the
following pairs of terms:
Prevention (keeping errors out of the process) and inspection (keeping errors out of the hands of the customer);
uu
Attribute sampling (the result either conforms or does not conform) and variable sampling (the result is rated on
uu
a continuous scale that measures the degree of conformity); and
Tolerances (specified range of acceptable results) and control limits (that identify the boundaries of common
uu
variation in a statistically stable process or process performance).
The cost of quality (COQ) includes all costs incurred over the life of the product by investment in preventing
nonconformance to requirements, appraising the product or service for conformance to requirements, and failing to
meet requirements (rework). Failure costs are often categorized into internal (found by the project team) and external
(found by the customer). Failure costs are also called the cost of poor quality. Section 8.1.2.3 provides some examples
to consider in each area. Organizations choose to invest in defect prevention because of the benefits over the life of the
product. Because projects are temporary, decisions about the COQ over a product’s life cycle are often the concern of
program management, portfolio management, the PMO, or operations.
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There are five levels of increasingly effective quality management as follows:
Usually, the most expensive approach is to let the customer find the defects. This approach can lead to warranty
uu
issues, recalls, loss of reputation, and rework costs.
Detect and correct the defects before the deliverables are sent to the customer as part of the quality control
uu
process. The control quality process has related costs, which are mainly the appraisal costs and internal
failure costs.
Use quality assurance to examine and correct the process itself and not just special defects.
uu
Incorporate quality into the planning and designing of the project and product.
uu
Create a culture throughout the organization that is aware and committed to quality in processes and products.
uu
TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Modern quality management approaches seek to minimize variation and to deliver results that meet defined
stakeholder requirements. Trends in Project Quality Management include but are not limited to:
Customer satisfaction. Understand, evaluate, define, and manage requirements so that customer expectations
uu
are met. This requires a combination of conformance to requirements (to ensure the project produces what it
was created to produce) and fitness for use (the product or service needs to satisfy the real needs). In agile
environments, stakeholder engagement with the team ensures customer satisfaction is maintained throughout
the project.
Continual improvement. The plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle is the basis for quality improvement as defined by
uu
Shewhart and modified by Deming. In addition, quality improvement initiatives such as total quality management
(TQM), Six Sigma, and Lean Six Sigma may improve both the quality of project management, as well as the
quality of the end product, service, or result.
Management responsibility. Success requires the participation of all members of the project team.
uu
Management retains, within its responsibility for quality, a related responsibility to provide suitable resources
at adequate capacities.
Mutually beneficial partnership with suppliers. An organization and its suppliers are interdependent.
uu
Relationships based on partnership and cooperation with the supplier are more beneficial to the organization and
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to the suppliers than traditional supplier management. The organization should prefer long-term relationships
�
over short-term gains. A mutually beneficial relationship enhances the ability for both the organization and the
suppliers to create value for each other, enhances the joint responses to customer needs and expectations, and
optimizes costs and resources.
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Each project is unique; therefore, the project manager will need to tailor the way Project Quality Management
Policy compliance and auditing. What quality policies and procedures exist in the organization? What quality
uu
tools, techniques, and templates are used in the organization?
Standards and regulatory compliance. Are there any specific quality standards in the industry that need to be
uu
applied? Are there any specific governmental, legal, or regulatory constraints that need to be taken into consideration?
Continuous improvement. How will quality improvement be managed in the project? Is it managed at the
uu
organizational level or at the level of each project?
Stakeholder engagement. Is there a collaborative environment for stakeholders and suppliers?
uu
In order to navigate changes, agile methods call for frequent quality and review steps built in throughout the project
rather than toward the end of the project.
Recurring retrospectives regularly check on the effectiveness of the quality processes. They look for the root cause of
issues then suggest trials of new approaches to improve quality. Subsequent retrospectives evaluate any trial processes
to determine if they are working and should be continued or new adjusting or should be dropped from use.
In order to facilitate frequent, incremental delivery, agile methods focus on small batches of work, incorporating as
many elements of project deliverables as possible. Small batch systems aim to uncover inconsistencies and quality
issues earlier in the project life cycle when the overall costs of change are lower.
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8.1 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Plan Quality Management is the process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and its
deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate compliance with quality requirements and/or standards.
The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how quality will be managed and verified
throughout the project. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure 8.3. Figure 8.4 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Plan Quality Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Quality management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Data gathering .2 Quality metrics
• Requirements management • Benchmarking .3 Project management plan
plan • Brainstorming updates
• Risk management plan • Interviews • Risk management plan
• Stakeholder engagement .3 Data analysis • Scope baseline
plan • Cost-benefit analysis .4 Project documents updates
• Scope baseline • Cost of quality • Lessons learned register
.3 Project documents .4 Decision making • Requirements traceability
• Assumption log • Multicriteria decision matrix
• Requirements analysis • Risk register
documentation .5 Data representation • Stakeholder register
• Requirements traceability • Flowcharts
matrix • Logical data model
• Risk register • Matrix diagrams
• Stakeholder register • Mind mapping
.4 Enterprise environmental .6 Test and inspection planning
factors .7 Meetings
Figure 8-3. Plan Quality Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop
Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project
Management
Project Plan
Management
Plan

• Requirements management plan Project management plan updates
• Risk management plan 8.1 • Risk management plan
• Stakeholder engagement plan Plan Quality • Scope baseline
• Project
• Scope baseline Management
charter
• Quality metrics
Project
Documents
Project
Documents
Project documents
• Assumption log
• Risk register
Enterprise/ • Risk register
Organization • Stakeholder register

Figure 8-4. Plan Quality Management: Data Flow Diagram
Quality planning should be performed in parallel with the other planning processes. For example, changes proposed
in the deliverables in order to meet identified quality standards may require cost or schedule adjustments and a detailed
risk analysis of the impact to plans.
The quality planning techniques discussed here are those used most frequently on projects. There are many others
that may be useful on certain projects or in specific application areas.
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8.1.1 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter provides the high-level project description and product characteristics.
It also contains the project approval requirements, measurable project objectives, and related success criteria that will
influence the quality management of the project.
Requirements management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.2. The requirements management plan provides
uu
the approach for identifying, analyzing, and managing the requirements that the quality management plan and
quality metrics will reference.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan provides the approach for
uu
identifying, analyzing, and monitoring risks. The information in the risk management plan and quality management
plan work together to successfully deliver product and project success.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan provides
uu
the method for documenting the stakeholders’ needs and expectations that provide the foundation for quality
management.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The WBS along with the deliverables documented in the project
uu
scope statement are considered while determining which quality standards and objectives are suitable for the
project, and which project deliverables and processes will be subjected to quality review. The scope statement
includes the acceptance criteria for the deliverables. The definition of acceptance criteria may significantly
increase or decrease quality costs and, therefore, project costs. Satisfying all acceptance criteria implies the
needs of the stakeholders have been met.
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log has all the assumptions and constraints
uu
regarding quality requirements and standard compliance.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation captures the
uu
requirements that the project and product should attain to meet stakeholder expectations. The components
of the requirements documentation include but are not limited to project and product quality requirements.
Requirements are used by the project team to help plan how quality control will be implemented on the project.
uu
product requirements to deliverables and helps to ensure each requirement in the requirements documentation
is tested. The matrix provides an overview of the tests required to verify the requirements.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains information on threats and opportunities
uu
that may impact quality requirements.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register helps to identify stakeholders who
uu
have a particular interest in or impact on quality, with the emphasis on the customer and project sponsor needs
and expectations.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Quality Management process include but are not
limited to:
Governmental agency regulations;
uu
Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area;

uu
Geographic distribution;
uu
Organizational structure;
uu
Marketplace conditions;
uu
Working or operating conditions of the project or its deliverables; and

uu
Cultural perceptions.
uu
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Quality Management process include but are not
limited to:
Organizational quality management system including policies, procedures, and guidelines;
uu
Quality templates such as check sheets, traceability matrix, and others; and
uu
Historical databases and lessons learned repository.

uu
8.1.2 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Quality assurance,
uu
Quality control,
uu
Quality measurements,
uu
Quality improvements, and

uu
Quality systems.
uu
Benchmarking. Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned project practices or the project’s quality
uu
standards to those of comparable projects to identify best practices, generate ideas for improvement, and provide
a basis for measuring performance. Benchmarked projects may exist within the performing organization or
outside of it, or can be within the same application area or other application area. Benchmarking allows for
�
analogies from projects in a different application area or different industries to be made.

�
Brainstorming. Described in Section 4.1.2.2. Brainstorming can be used to gather data creatively from a
uu
group of team members or subject matter experts to develop the quality management plan that best fits
the upcoming project.
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Interviews. Described in Section 5.2.2.2. Project and product quality needs and expectations, implicit and
uu
explicit, formal and informal, can be identified by interviewing experienced project participants, stakeholders,
and subject matter experts. Interviews should be conducted in an environment of trust and confidentiality to
encourage honest and unbiased contributions.
Cost-benefit analysis. A cost-benefit analysis is a financial analysis tool used to estimate the strengths and
uu
weaknesses of alternatives in order to determine the best alternative in terms of benefits provided. A cost-
benefit analysis will help the project manager determine if the planned quality activities are cost effective. The
primary benefits of meeting quality requirements include less rework, higher productivity, lower costs, increased
stakeholder satisfaction, and increased profitability. A cost-benefit analysis for each quality activity compares the
cost of the quality step to the expected benefit.
Cost of quality. The cost of quality (COQ) associated with a project consists of one or more of the following costs
uu
(Figure 8-5 lists examples for each cost group):
nuPrevention costs. Costs related to the prevention of poor quality in the products, deliverables, or services of
the specific project.
nuAppraisal costs. Costs related to evaluating, measuring, auditing, and testing the products, deliverables, or
services of the specific project.
nuFailure costs (internal/external). Costs related to nonconformance of the products, deliverables, or services to
the needs or expectations of the stakeholders.
The optimal COQ is one that reflects the appropriate balance for investing in the cost of prevention and appraisal
to avoid failure costs. Models show that there is an optimal quality cost for projects, where investing in additional
prevention/appraisal costs is neither beneficial nor cost effective.
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Cost of Conformance Cost of Nonconformance
Prevention Costs Internal Failure Costs

(Build a quality product) (Failures found by the project)
• Training • Rework
• Document processes • Scrap
• Equipment
• Time to do it right External Failure Costs
(Failures found by the customer)
Appraisal Costs • Liabilities
(Assess the quality) • Warranty work
• Testing • Lost business
• Destructive testing loss
• Inspections Money spent during and after
the project because of failures
Money spent during the project
to avoid failures
Figure 8-5. Cost of Quality
A decision-making technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to multicriteria decision
analysis. Multicriteria decision analysis tools (e.g., prioritization matrix) can be used to identify the key issues and
suitable alternatives to be prioritized as a set of decisions for implementation. Criteria are prioritized and weighted
before being applied to all available alternatives to obtain a mathematical score for each alternative. The alternatives
are then ranked by score. As used in this process, it can help prioritize quality metrics.
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Flowcharts. Flowcharts are also referred to as process maps because they display the sequence of steps
uu
and the branching possibilities that exist for a process that transforms one or more inputs into one or more
outputs. Flowcharts show the activities, decision points, branching loops, parallel paths, and the overall order
of processing by mapping the operational details of procedures that exist within a horizontal value chain. One
version of a value chain, known as a SIPOC (suppliers, inputs, process, outputs, and customers) model, is shown
in Figure 8-6. Flowcharts may prove useful in understanding and estimating the cost of quality for a process.
Information is obtained by using the workflow branching logic and associated relative frequencies to estimate
the expected monetary value for the conformance and nonconformance work required to deliver the expected
conforming output. When flowcharts are used to represent the steps in a process, they are sometimes called
process flows or process flow diagrams and they can be used for process improvement as well as identifying
where quality defects can occur or where to incorporate quality checks.
Logical data model. Logical data models are a visual representation of an organization’s data, described in
uu
business language and independent of any specific technology. The logical data model can be used to identify
where data integrity or other quality issues can arise.
Matrix diagrams. Matrix diagrams help find the strength of relationships among different factors, causes, and
uu
objectives that exist between the rows and columns that form the matrix. Depending on how many factors
may be compared, the project manager can use different shapes of matrix diagrams; for example, L, T, Y, X, C,
and roof–shaped. In this process they facilitate identifying the key quality metrics that are important for the
success of the project.
Mind mapping. Described in Section 5.2.2.3. Mind mapping is a diagrammatic method used to visually
uu
organizing information. A mind map in quality is often created around a single quality concept, drawn as an
image in the center of a blank landscape page, to which associated representations of ideas such as images,
words, and parts of words are added. The mind-mapping technique may help in the rapid gathering of project
quality requirements, constraints, dependencies, and relationships.
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Suppliers Inputs Process Outputs Customers
• • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • •
• • • • •
INPUT OUTPUT
SUPPLIER PROCESS CUSTOMER
Requirements and Requirements and

Feedback Loop Feedback Loop
Requirements List Measurements List Requirements List Measurements List

• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
NOTE: The components of this diagram are flexible and can take any direction depending upon the circumstance.
Figure 8-6. The SIPOC Model
8.1.2.6 TEST AND INSPECTION PLANNING
During the planning phase, the project manager and the project team determine how to test or inspect the product,
deliverable, or service to meet the stakeholders’ needs and expectations, as well as how to meet the goal for the
product’s performance and reliability. The tests and inspections are industry dependent and can include, for example,
alpha and beta tests in software projects, strength tests in construction projects, inspection in manufacturing, and field
�
tests and nondestructive tests in engineering.

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8.1.2.7 MEETINGS
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the quality management plan. Attendees can include the
project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected stakeholders, anyone with responsibility
for project quality management activities, and others as needed.
8.1.3 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
8.1.3.1 QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLAN
The quality management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how applicable
policies, procedures, and guidelines will be implemented to achieve the quality objectives. It describes the activities
and resources necessary for the project management team to achieve the quality objectives set for the project.
The quality management plan may be formal or informal, detailed, or broadly framed. The style and detail of the
quality management plan are determined by the requirements of the project. The quality management plan should
be reviewed early in the project to ensure that decisions are based on accurate information. The benefits of this
review can include a sharper focus on the project’s value proposition, reductions in costs, and less frequent schedule
overruns that are caused by rework.
The quality management plan may include but is not limited to the following components:
Quality standards that will be used by the project;
uu
Quality objectives of the project;

uu
Quality roles and responsibilities;

uu
Project deliverables and processes subject to quality review;

uu
Quality control and quality management activities planned for the project;
uu
Quality tools that will be used for the project; and

uu
Major procedures relevant for the project, such as dealing with nonconformance, corrective actions procedures,
uu
and continuous improvement procedures.
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8.1.3.2 QUALITY METRICS
A quality metric specifically describes a project or product attribute and how the Control Quality process will
verify compliance to it. Some examples of quality metrics include percentage of tasks completed on time, cost
performance measured by CPI, failure rate, number of defects identified per day, total downtime per month, errors
found per line of code, customer satisfaction scores, and percentage of requirements covered by the test plan as
a measure of test coverage.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Decisions on the quality management approach may
uu
require changes to the agreed-upon approach to managing risk on the project, and these will be recorded in the
risk management plan.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline may change as a result of this process if
uu
specific quality management activities need to be added. The WBS dictionary also records quality requirements,
which may need updating.
uu
on challenges encountered in the quality planning process.
Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. Where quality requirements are specified by
uu
this process, they are recorded in the requirements traceability matrix.
uu
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. Where additional information on existing or new stakeholders
uu
is gathered as a result of this process, it is recorded in the stakeholder register.
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8.2 MANAGE QUALITY
Manage Quality is the process of translating the quality management plan into executable quality activities that
incorporate the organization’s quality policies into the project. The key benefits of this process are that it increases
the probability of meeting the quality objectives as well as identifying ineffective processes and causes of poor quality.
Manage Quality uses the data and results from the control quality process to reflect the overall quality status of the
project to the stakeholders. This process is performed throughout the project.
The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 8-7. Figure 8-8 depicts the data
flow diagram of the process.
Manage Quality

.1 Project management plan .1 Data gathering .1 Quality reports
• Quality management plan • Checklists .2 Test and evaluation
.2 Project documents .2 Data analysis documents
• Lessons learned register • Alternatives analysis .3 Change requests
• Quality control • Document analysis .4 Project management plan
measurements • Process analysis updates
• Quality metrics • Root cause analysis • Quality management plan
• Risk report .3 Decision making • Scope baseline
.3 Organizational process assets • Multicriteria decision • Schedule baseline
analysis • Cost baseline
.4 Data representation .5 Project documents updates
• Affinity diagrams • Issue log
• Cause-and-effect diagrams • Lessons learned register
• Flowcharts • Risk register
• Histograms
• Matrix diagrams
• Scatter diagrams
.5 Audits
.6 Design for X
.7 Problem solving
.8 Quality improvement methods
Figure 8-7. Manage Quality: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.6
Perform
• Change requests
Integrated
Change Control
Project
Management Project
Plan Management
• Scope baseline
Project management plan • Schedule baseline
• Quality management plan • Cost baseline
8.2
Project Manage Project
• Project
Documents Qualitycharter • Quality reports Documents
• Test and evaluation
documents
Project documents
• Quality metrics Project documents updates
• Risk report • Issue log
• Risk register
Enterprise/
Organization
Figure 8-8. Manage Quality: Data Flow Diagram
Manage Quality is sometimes called quality assurance, although Manage Quality has a broader definition than quality
assurance as it is used in nonproject work. In project management, the focus of quality assurance is on the processes
used in the project. Quality assurance is about using project processes effectively. It involves following and meeting
standards to assure stakeholders that the final product will meet their needs, expectations, and requirements. Manage
Quality includes all the quality assurance activities, and is also concerned with the product design aspects and process
improvements. Manage Quality work will fall under the conformance work category in the cost of quality framework.
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The Manage Quality process implements a set of planned and systematic acts and processes defined within the
project’s quality management plan that helps to:
Design an optimal and mature product by implementing specific design guidelines that address specific aspects
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of the product,
Build confidence that a future output will be completed in a manner that meets the specified requirements and
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expectations through quality assurance tools and techniques such as quality audits and failure analysis,
Confirm that the quality processes are used and that their use meets the quality objectives of the project, and
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Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of processes and activities to achieve better results and performance
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and enhance stakeholders’ satisfaction.
The project manager and project team may use the organization’s quality assurance department, or other organizational
functions, to execute some of the Manage Quality activities such as failure analysis, design of experiments, and quality
improvement. Quality assurance departments usually have cross-organizational experience in using quality tools and
techniques and are a good resource for the project.
Manage Quality is considered the work of everybody—the project manager, the project team, the project sponsor, the
management of the performing organization, and even the customer. All of these have roles in managing quality in the
project, though the roles differ in size and effort. The level of participation in the quality management effort may differ
between industries and project management styles. In agile projects, quality management is performed by all team
members throughout the project, but in traditional projects, quality management is often the responsibility of specific
team members.
8.2.1 MANAGE QUALITY: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Project management plan components include but are not limited to the quality
management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1, the quality management plan defines the acceptable level of project
and product quality and describes how to ensure this level of quality in its deliverables and processes. The quality
management plan also describes what to do with nonconforming products and what corrective action to implement.
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managing quality can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
managing quality.
Quality control measurements. Described in Section 8.3.3.1. Quality control measurements are used to analyze
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and evaluate the quality of the processes and deliverables of the project against the standards of the performing
organization or the requirements specified. Quality control measurements can also compare the processes used
to create the measurements and validate actual measurements to determine their level of correctness.
Quality metrics. Described in Section 8.1.3.2. Quality metrics are verified as part of the Control Quality process.
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The Manage Quality process uses these quality metrics as a basis for the development of test scenarios for the
project and its deliverables and as a basis for improvement initiatives.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. Risk report is used in the Manage Quality process to identify sources
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of overall project risk and the most important drivers of overall risk exposure that can impact the quality objectives
of the project.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Manage Quality process include but are not limited to:
Organizational quality management system that includes policies, procedures, and guidelines;
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Quality templates such as check sheets, traceability matrix, test plans, test documents, and others;
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Results from previous audits; and

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Lessons learned repository with information from similar projects.

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8.2.2 MANAGE QUALITY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
A data-gathering technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to checklists (see Section
11.2.2.2). A checklist is a structured tool, usually component-specific, used to verify that a set of required steps has
been performed or to check if a list of requirements has been satisfied. Based on the project’s requirements and
practices, checklists may be simple or complex. Many organizations have standardized checklists available to ensure
consistency in frequently performed tasks. In some application areas, checklists are also available from professional
associations or commercial service providers. Quality checklists should incorporate the acceptance criteria included in
the scope baseline.
Alternatives analysis. Described in Section 9.2.2.5. This technique is used to evaluate identified options in order
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to select which different quality options or approaches are most appropriate to use.
Document analysis. Described in Section 5.2.2.3. The analysis of different documents produced as part of
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the output of project control processes, such as quality reports, test reports, performance reports, and variance
analysis, can point to and focus on processes that may be out of control and may jeopardize meeting the
specified requirements or stakeholders’ expectations.
Process analysis. Process analysis identifies opportunities for process improvements. This analysis also
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examines problems, constraints, and non-value-added activities that occur during a process.
Root cause analysis (RCA). Root cause analysis is an analytical technique used to determine the basic underlying
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reason that causes a variance, defect, or risk. A root cause may underlie more than one variance, defect, or risk. It
may also be used as a technique for identifying root causes of a problem and solving them. When all root causes
for a problem are removed, the problem does not recur.
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A decision-making technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to multicriteria decision
analysis. Described in Section 8.1.2.4. Multicriteria decision making is used to evaluate several criteria when discussing
alternatives that impact project or product quality. Project decisions can include choosing among different implementation
scenarios or suppliers. Product decisions can include evaluating the life cycle cost, schedule, stakeholder satisfaction,
and risks associated with resolving product defects.
Affinity diagrams. Described in Section 5.2.2.5. Affinity diagrams can organize potential causes of defects into
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groups showing areas that should be focused on the most.
Cause-and-effect diagrams. Cause-and-effect diagrams are also known as fishbone diagrams, why-why
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diagrams, or Ishikawa diagrams. This type of diagram breaks down the causes of the problem statement identified
into discrete branches, helping to identify the main or root cause of the problem. Figure 8-9 is an example of a
cause-and-effect diagram.
Flowcharts. Described in Section 8.1.2.5. Flowcharts show a series of steps that lead to a defect.
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Histograms. Histograms show a graphical representation of numerical data. Histograms can show the number
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of defects per deliverable, a ranking of the cause of defects, the number of times each process is noncompliant,
or other representations of project or product defects.
Matrix diagrams. Described in Section 8.1.2.5. The matrix diagram seeks to show the strength of relationships
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among factors, causes, and objectives that exist between the rows and columns that form the matrix.
Scatter diagrams. A scatter diagram is a graph that shows the relationship between two variables. Scatter
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diagrams can demonstrate a relationship between any element of a process, environment, or activity on one axis
and a quality defect on the other axis.
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People Process Equipment
Worker’s fatigue Low maintenance
Lack of training Not enough R&D Old technology
Nonoptional
manufacturing methods Improper handling
Product quality
not matching
the requirements
Low quality of Bad working Low commitment
raw material conditions to quality
Delay in arrival
Material Environment Management
Figure 8-9. Cause-and-Effect Diagram
8.2.2.5 AUDITS
An audit is a structured, independent process used to determine if project activities comply with organizational and
project policies, processes, and procedures. A quality audit is usually conducted by a team external to the project,
such as the organization’s internal audit department, PMO, or by an auditor external to the organization. Quality audit
objectives may include but are not limited to:
Identifying all good and best practices being implemented;
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Identifying all nonconformity, gaps, and shortcomings;

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Sharing good practices introduced or implemented in similar projects in the organization and/or industry;
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Proactively offering assistance in a positive manner to improve the implementation of processes to help raise
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team productivity; and
Highlighting contributions of each audit in the lessons learned repository of the organization.
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The subsequent effort to correct any deficiencies should result in a reduced cost of quality and an increase in sponsor
or customer acceptance of the project’s product. Quality audits may be scheduled or random, and may be conducted by
internal or external auditors.
Quality audits can confirm the implementation of approved change requests including updates, corrective actions,
defect repairs, and preventive actions.
8.2.2.6 DESIGN FOR X
Design for X (DfX) is a set of technical guidelines that may be applied during the design of a product for the optimization
of a specific aspect of the design. DfX can control or even improve the product’s final characteristics. The X in DfX can
be different aspects of product development, such as reliability, deployment, assembly, manufacturing, cost, service,
usability, safety, and quality. Using the DfX may result in cost reduction, quality improvement, better performance, and
customer satisfaction.
8.2.2.7 PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving entails finding solutions for issues or challenges. It can include gathering additional information,
critical thinking, creative, quantitative and/or logical approaches. Effective and systematic problem solving is a
fundamental element in quality assurance and quality improvement. Problems can arise as a result of the Control Quality
process or from quality audits and can be associated with a process or deliverable. Using a structured problem-solving
method will help eliminate the problem and develop a long-lasting solution. Problem-solving methods generally include
the following elements:
Defining the problem,
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Identifying the root-cause,

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Generating possible solutions,

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Choosing the best solution,

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Implementing the solution, and

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Verifying solution effectiveness.

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8.2.2.8 QUALITY IMPROVEMENT METHODS
Quality improvements can occur based on findings and recommendations from quality control processes, the findings
of the quality audits, or problem solving in the Manage Quality process. Plan-do-check-act and Six Sigma are two of the
most common quality improvement tools used to analyze and evaluate opportunities for improvement.
8.2.3 MANAGE QUALITY: OUTPUTS
8.2.3.1 QUALITY REPORTS
The quality reports can be graphical, numerical, or qualitative. The information provided can be used by other
processes and departments to take corrective actions in order to achieve the project quality expectations. The information
presented in the quality reports may include all quality management issues escalated by the team; recommendations for
process, project, and product improvements; corrective actions recommendations (including rework, defect/bugs repair,
100% inspection, and more); and the summary of findings from the Control Quality process.
8.2.3.2 TEST AND EVALUATION DOCUMENTS
Test and evaluation documents can be created based on industry needs and the organization’s templates. They are
inputs to the Control Quality process and are used to evaluate the achievement of quality objectives. These documents
may include dedicated checklists and detailed requirements traceability matrices as part of the document.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. If changes occur during the Manage Quality process that impact any of the components
of the project management plan, project documents, or project or product management processes, the project manager
should submit a change request and follow the Perform Integrated Change Control process as defined in Section 4.6.
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Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The agreed-upon approach to managing quality may
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need to be modified due to the actual results.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline may change as a result of specific quality
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management activities.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. The schedule baseline may change as a result of specific
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quality management activities.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline may change as a result of specific quality
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issue log.
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the managing quality.
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8.3 CONTROL QUALITY
Control Quality is the process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality management activities in
order to assess performance and ensure the project outputs are complete, correct, and meet customer expectations.
The key benefit of this process is verifying that project deliverables and work meet the requirements specified by key
stakeholders for final acceptance. The Control Quality process determines if the project outputs do what they were
intended to do. Those outputs need to comply with all applicable standards, requirements, regulations, and specifications.
This process is performed throughout the project.
The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 8-10. Figure 8-11 depicts the
data flow diagram of the process.
Control Quality

.1 Project management plan .1 Data gathering .1 Quality control measurements
• Quality management plan • Checklists .2 Verified deliverables
.2 Project documents • Check sheets .3 Work performance
• Lessons learned register • Statistical sampling information
• Quality metrics • Questionnaires and surveys .4 Change requests
• Test and evaluation .2 Data analysis .5 Project management plan
documents • Performance reviews updates
.3 Approved change requests • Root cause analysis • Quality management plan
.4 Deliverables .3 Inspection .6 Project documents updates
.5 Work performance data .4 Testing/product evaluations • Issue log
.6 Enterprise environmental .5 Data representation • Lessons learned register
factors • Cause-and-effect diagrams • Risk register
.7 Organizational process assets • Control charts • Test and evaluation
• Histogram documents
• Scatter diagrams
.6 Meetings
Figure 8-10. Control Quality: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project 4.5
Plan • Work performance information
Control
Project Work

4.6
Perform
Integrated
Project
Documents
Project documents 8.3 5.5

• Lessons learned register Control Validate
• Quality metrics • Project
Qualitycharter • Verified deliverables Scope
• Test and evaluation documents
4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Project Work Management
• Deliverables • Quality management plan

4.6
Perform
Integrated
Change Control Project
Documents
• Approved change requests • Issue log
• Risk register
• Test and evaluation documents
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 8-11. Control Quality: Data Flow Diagram
The Control Quality process is performed to measure the completeness, compliance, and fitness for use of a product
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or service prior to user acceptance and final delivery. This is done by measuring all steps, attributes, and variables used
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to verify conformance or compliance to the specifications stated during the planning stage.
Quality control should be performed throughout the project to formally demonstrate, with reliable data, that the
sponsor’s and/or customer’s acceptance criteria have been met.
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The level of effort to control quality and the degree of implementation may differ between industries and project
management styles; in pharmaceutical, health, transportation, and nuclear industries, for example, there may be stricter
quality control procedures compared to other industries, and the effort needed to meet the standards may be extensive.
For example, in agile projects, the Control Quality activities may be performed by all team members throughout the
project life cycle. In waterfall model-based projects, the quality control activities are performed at specific times, toward
the end of the project or phase, by specified team members.
8.3.1 CONTROL QUALITY: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Project management plan components include but are not limited to the quality
management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1, the quality management plan defines how quality control will be
performed within the project.
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later phases in the project to improve quality control.
Quality metrics. Described in Section 8.1.3.2. A quality metric specifically describes a project or product attribute
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and how the Control Quality process will verify compliance to it.
Test and evaluation documents. Described in Section 8.2.3.2. Test and evaluation documents are used to
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evaluate achievement of the quality objectives.
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Described in Section 4.6.3.1. As part of the Perform Integrated Change Control process, a change log update indicates
that some changes are approved and some are not. Approved change requests may include modifications such as
defect repairs, revised work methods, and revised schedules. Partial change completion may result in inconsistencies
and later delays due to incomplete steps or corrections. The implementation of approved changes should be verified,
confirmed for completeness, retested, and certified as correct.
produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Deliverables that are outputs from the Direct and Manage Project
Work process are inspected and compared to the acceptance criteria defined in the project scope statement.
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains data on product status such as observations, quality
metrics, and measurements for technical performance, as well as project quality information on schedule performance
and cost performance.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Control Quality process include but are not limited to:
Project management information system; quality management software can be used to track errors and variations
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in processes or deliverables;
Governmental agency regulations; and
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Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area.

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Quality process include but are not limited to:
Quality standards and policies;
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Quality templates, for example, check sheets, checklists, etc. and;

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Issue and defect reporting procedures and communication policies.

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8.3.2 CONTROL QUALITY: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Checklists. Described in Section 11.2.2.2. Checklists help in managing the control quality activities in a
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structured manner.
Check sheets. Check sheets are also known as tally sheets and are used to organize facts in a manner that will
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facilitate the effective collection of useful data about a potential quality problem. They are especially useful for
gathering attributes data while performing inspections to identify defects; for example, data about the frequencies
or consequences of defects collected. See Figure 8-12.
Defects/Date Date 1 Date 2 Date 3 Date 4 Total

Small scratch 1 2 2 2 7
Large scratch 0 1 0 0 1
Bent 3 3 1 2 9
Missing component 5 0 2 1 8
Wrong color 2 0 1 3 6
Labeling error 1 2 1 2 6
Figure 8-12. Check Sheets
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Statistical sampling. Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population of interest for inspection (for
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example, selecting 10 engineering drawings at random from a list of 75). The sample is taken to measure controls
and verify quality. Sample frequency and sizes should be determined during the Plan Quality Management process.
Questionnaires and Surveys. Surveys may be used to gather data about customer satisfaction after the
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deployment of the product or service. The cost regarding defects identified in the surveys may be considered
external failure costs in the COQ model and can have extensive cost implications for the organization.
Performance reviews. Performance reviews measure, compare, and analyze the quality metrics defined by the
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Plan Quality Management process against the actual results.
Root cause analysis (RCA). Described in Section 8.2.2.2. Root cause analysis is used to identify the source
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of defects.
8.3.2.3 INSPECTION
An inspection is the examination of a work product to determine if it conforms to documented standards. The results
of inspections generally include measurements and may be conducted at any level. The results of a single activity can be
inspected, or the final product of the project can be inspected. Inspections may be called reviews, peer reviews, audits,
or walkthroughs. In some application areas, these terms have narrow and specific meanings. Inspections also are used
to verify defect repairs.
8.3.2.4 TESTING/PRODUCT EVALUATIONS
Testing is an organized and constructed investigation conducted to provide objective information about the quality
of the product or service under test in accordance with the project requirements. The intent of testing is to find errors,
defects, bugs, or other nonconformance problems in the product or service. The type, amount, and extent of tests
needed to evaluate each requirement are part of the project quality plan and depend on the nature of the project, time,
budget, and other constraints. Tests can be performed throughout the project, as different components of the project
become available, and at the end of the project on the final deliverables. Early testing helps identify nonconformance
problems and helps reduce the cost of fixing the nonconforming components.
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Different application areas require different tests. For example, software testing may include unit testing, integration
testing, black-box, white-box, interface testing, regression testing, Alpha testing, etc. In construction projects, testing
may include cement strength, concrete workability test, nondestructive tests at construction sites for testing the quality
of hardened concrete structures, and soil tests. In hardware development, testing may include environmental stress
screening, burn-in tests, system testing, and more.
Cause-and-effect diagrams. Described in Section 8.2.2.4. Cause-and-effect diagrams are used to identify the
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possible effects of quality defects and errors.
Control charts. Control charts are used to determine whether or not a process is stable or has predictable
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performance. Upper and lower specification limits are based on the requirements and reflect the maximum and
minimum values allowed. Upper and lower control limits are different from specification limits. The control limits
are determined using standard statistical calculations and principles to ultimately establish the natural capability
for a stable process. The project manager and appropriate stakeholders may use the statistically calculated
control limits to identify the points at which corrective action will be taken to prevent performance that remains
outside the control limits. Control charts can be used to monitor various types of output variables. Although used
most frequently to track repetitive activities required for producing manufactured lots, control charts may also be
used to monitor cost and schedule variances, volume, frequency of scope changes, or other management results
to help determine if the project management processes are in control.
Histograms. Described in Section 8.2.2.4. Histograms can demonstrate the number of defects by source
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or by component.
Scatter diagrams. Described in Section 8.2.2.4. Scatter diagrams can show the planned performance on one
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axis and the actual performance on the second axis.
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8.3.2.6 MEETINGS
The following meetings may be used as part of the Control Quality process:
Approved change requests review. All approved change requests should be reviewed to verify that they were
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implemented as approved. This review should also check that partial changes are completed and all parts have
been properly implemented, tested, completed, and certified.
Retrospectives/lesson learned. A meeting held by a project team to discuss:
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nuSuccessful elements in the project/phase,

nuWhat could be improved,
nuWhat to incorporate in the ongoing project and what in future projects, and
nuWhat to add to the organization process assets.
8.3.3 CONTROL QUALITY: OUTPUTS
8.3.3.1 QUALITY CONTROL MEASUREMENTS
Quality control measurements are the documented results of Control Quality activities. They should be captured in the
format that was specified in the quality management plan.
8.3.3.2 VERIFIED DELIVERABLES
A goal of the Control Quality process is to determine the correctness of deliverables. The results of performing the
Control Quality process are verified deliverables that become an input to the Validate Scope process (Section 5.5) for
formalized acceptance. If there were any change requests or improvements related to the deliverables, they may be
changed, inspected, and reverified.
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information on project requirements fulfillment,
causes for rejections, rework required, recommendations for corrective actions, lists of verified deliverables, status of
the quality metrics, and the need for process adjustments.
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Described in Section 4.3.3.4. If changes occur during the Control Quality process that may impact any of the
components of the project management plan or project documents, the project manager should submit a change
request. Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control
process (Section 4.6).
request. Components that may require a change request for the project management plan include but are not limited to
the quality management plan, as described in Section 8.1.3.1.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Many times a deliverable that does not meet the quality requirements
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is documented as an issue.
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on the source of quality defects and how they could have been avoided as well as approaches that worked well.
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Test and evaluation documents. Described in Section 8.2.3.2. Test and evaluation documents may be modified
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as a result of this process in order to make future tests more effective.
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9
PROJE CT R ESOURCE MA NAGEM ENT
Project Resource Management includes the processes to identify, acquire, and manage the resources needed for
the successful completion of the project. These processes help ensure that the right resources will be available to the
project manager and project team at the right time and place.
The Project Resource Management processes are:
9.1 Plan Resource Management—The process of defining how to estimate, acquire, manage, and utilize physical
and team resources.
9.2 Estimate Activity Resources—The process of estimating team resources and the type and quantities of
material, equipment, and supplies necessary to perform project work.
9.3 Acquire Resources—The process of obtaining team members, facilities, equipment, materials, supplies, and
other resources necessary to complete project work.
9.4 Develop Team—The process of improving competencies, team member interaction, and the overall team
environment to enhance project performance.
9.5 Manage Team—The process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving issues,
and managing team changes to optimize project performance.
9.6 Control Resources—The process of ensuring that the physical resources assigned and allocated to the
project are available as planned, as well as monitoring the planned versus actual use of resources, and performing
corrective action as necessary.
Figure 9-1 provides an overview of the Project Resource Management processes. The Project Resource
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Management processes are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in practice, they overlap
and interact in ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.
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Project Resource
Management Overview
9.1 Plan Resource 9.2 Estimate

9.3 Acquire Resources
Management Activity Resources
.1 Inputs .1 Inputs 1 Inputs

.3 Project documents .3 Enterprise environmental .3 Enterprise environmental
.4 Enterprise environmental factors factors
factors .4 Organizational process .4 Organizational process assets
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques .1 Decision making
.2 Tools & Techniques .1 Expert judgment .2 Interpersonal and team skills
.1 Expert judgment .2 Bottom-up estimating .3 Pre-assignment
.2 Data representation .3 Analogous estimating .4 Virtual teams
.3 Organizational theory .4 Parametric estimating
.3 Outputs
.4 Meetings .5 Data analysis
.1 Physical resource
.3 Outputs assignments
information system
.1 Resource management plan .2 Project team assignments
.7 Meetings
.2 Team charter .3 Resource calendars
.3 Project documents updates .3 Outputs .4 Change requests
.1 Resource requirements .5 Project management plan
.2 Basis of estimates updates
.3 Resource breakdown .6 Project documents updates
9.4 Develop Team structure .7 Enterprise environmental
.4 Project documents updates factors updates
.1 Inputs assets updates
.2 Project documents 9.5 Manage Team
factors 9.6 Control Resources
.4 Organizational process 1 Inputs
assets .1 Project management plan
.2 Project documents .1 Inputs
.3 Work performance reports .1 Project management plan
.1 Colocation
.4 Team performance .2 Project documents
.2 Virtual teams
assessments .3 Work performance data
.3 Communication technology
.5 Enterprise environmental .4 Agreements
.5 Recognition and rewards
.6 Training .2 Tools & Techniques
.7 Individual and team .2 Tools & Techniques .1 Data analysis
assessments .1 Interpersonal and team skills .2 Problem solving
.8 Meetings .2 Project management .3 Interpersonal and team skills
information system .4 Project management
.3 Outputs
.1 Team performance .3 Outputs information system
assessments .1 Change requests .3 Outputs
.2 Change requests .2 Project management plan .1 Work performance information
.3 Project management plan updates .2 Change requests
updates .3 Project documents updates .3 Project management plan
.4 Project documents updates .4 Enterprise environmental updates
.5 Enterprise environmental factors updates .4 Project documents updates
factors updates
updates
Figure 9-1. Project Resource Management Overview
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There is a distinction between the skills and competencies needed for the project manager to manage team
resources versus physical resources. Physical resources include equipment, materials, facilities, and infrastructure.
Team resources or personnel refer to the human resources. Personnel may have varied skill sets, may be assigned
full- or part-time, and may be added or removed from the project team as the project progresses. There is some overlap
between Project Resource Management and Project Stakeholder Management (Section 13). This section (Section 9)
focuses on the subset of stakeholders who make up the project team.
KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The project team consists of individuals with assigned roles and responsibilities who work collectively to achieve
a shared project goal. The project manager should invest suitable effort in acquiring, managing, motivating, and
empowering the project team. Although specific roles and responsibilities for the project team members are assigned,
the involvement of all team members in project planning and decision making is beneficial. Participation of team
members during planning adds their expertise to the process and strengthens their commitment to the project.
The project manager should be both leader and manager of the project team. In addition to project management
activities such as initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing the various project phases, the
project manager is responsible for the team formation as an effective group. The project manager should be aware of
different aspects that influence the team, such as:
Team environment,
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Geographical locations of team members,

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Communications among stakeholders,

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Organizational change management,

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Internal and external politics,

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Cultural issues and organizational uniqueness, and

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Other factors that may alter project performance.

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As a leader, the project manager is also responsible for proactively developing team skills and competencies while
retaining and improving team satisfaction and motivation. The project manager should be aware of, and subscribe to,
professional and ethical behavior, and ensure that all team members adhere to these behaviors.
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Physical resource management is concentrated in allocating and using the physical resources (material, equipment,
and supplies, for example) needed for successful completion of the project in an efficient and effective way. In order to do
that, organizations should have data on resource demands (now and in the reasonable future), resource configurations
that will be required to meet those demands, and the supply of resources. Failing to manage and control resources
efficiently is a source of risk for successful project completion. For example:
Failing to secure critical equipment or infrastructure on time may result in delays in the manufacturing of the
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final product,
Ordering low-quality material may damage the quality of the product causing a high rate of recalls or rework, and
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Keeping too much inventory may result in high operations costs and reduce the organization’s profit. Unacceptably
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low inventory level, on the other hand, may result in not satisfying customer demand and, again, reduce the
organization’s profit.
TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Project management styles are shifting away from a command and control structure for managing projects and
toward a more collaborative and supportive management approach that empowers teams by delegating decision
making to the team members. In addition, modern project resource management approaches seek to optimize resource
utilization. Trends and emerging practices for Project Resource Management include but are not limited to:
Resource management methods. Due to the scarce nature of critical resources, in some industries, several
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trends have become popular in the past several years. There is extensive literature about lean management, just-
in-time (JIT) manufacturing, Kaizen, total productive maintenance (TPM), theory of constraints (TOC), and other
methods. A project manager should determine if the performing organization has adopted one or more resource
management tools and adapt the project accordingly.
Emotional intelligence (EI). The project manager should invest in personal EI by improving inbound (e.g.,
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self-management and self-awareness) and outbound (e.g., relationship management) competencies. Research
suggests that project teams that succeed in developing team EI or become an emotionally competent group are
more effective. Additionally, there is a reduction in staff turnover.
Self-organizing teams. The increase in using agile approaches mainly for the execution of IT projects has given
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rise to the self-organizing team, where the team functions with an absence of centralized control. In projects
that have self-organizing teams, the project manager (who may not be called a project manager) role provides
the team with the environment and support needed and trusts the team to get the job done. Successful self-
organizing teams usually consist of generalized specialists, instead of subject matter experts, who continuously
adapt to the changing environment and embrace constructive feedback.
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Virtual teams/distributed teams. The globalization of projects has promoted the need for virtual teams that work
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on the same project, but are not colocated at the same site. The availability of communication technology such as
email, audio conferencing, social media, web-based meetings, and video conferencing has made virtual teams
feasible. Managing virtual teams has unique advantages, such as being able to use special expertise on a project
team even when the expert is not in the same geographic area, incorporating employees who work from home
offices, and including people with mobility limitations or disabilities. The challenges of managing virtual teams
are mainly in the communication domain, including a possible feeling of isolation, gaps in sharing knowledge
and experience between team members, and difficulties in tracking progress and productivity, possible time zone
difference and cultural differences.
Because each project is unique, the project manager will need to tailor the way Project Resource Management
Diversity. What is the diversity background of the team?
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Physical location. What is the physical location of team members and physical resources?
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Industry-specific resources. What special resources are needed in the industry?

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Acquisition of team members. How will team members be acquired for the project? Are team resources
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full-time or part-time on the project?
Management of team. How is team development managed for the project? Are there organizational tools to
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manage team development or will new ones need to be established? Are there team members who have special
needs? Will the team need special training to manage diversity?
Life cycle approaches. What life cycle approach will be used on the project?
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Projects with high variability benefit from team structures that maximize focus and collaboration, such as self-
organizing teams with generalizing specialists.
Collaboration is intended to boost productivity and facilitate innovative problem solving. Collaborative teams may
facilitate accelerated integration of distinct work activities, improve communication, increase knowledge sharing, and
provide flexibility of work assignments in addition to other advantages.
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Although the benefits of collaboration also apply to other project environments, collaborative teams are often critical
to the success of projects with a high degree of variability and rapid changes, because there is less time for centralized
tasking and decision making.
Planning for physical and human resources is much less predictable in projects with high variability. In these
environments, agreements for fast supply and lean methods are critical to controlling costs and achieving the schedule.
9.1 PLAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Plan Resource Management is the process of defining how to estimate, acquire, manage, and use team and physical
resources. The key benefit of this process is that it establishes the approach and level of management effort needed
for managing project resources based on the type and complexity of the project. This process is performed once or at
predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 9-2.
Figure 9-3 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Plan Resource Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Resource management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Data representation .2 Team charter
• Quality management plan • Hierarchical charts .3 Project documents updates
• Scope baseline • Responsibility assignment • Assumption log
.3 Project documents matrix • Risk register
• Project schedule • Text-oriented formats
• Requirements .3 Organizational theory
documentation .4 Meetings
• Risk register
factors
Figure 9-2. Plan Resource Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop
Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project
Management • Resource management plan
Plan
Project
Management
Plan
9.1
• Scope baseline Plan
• Project
Resource
charter
Management
Project
Documents
• Team charter Project

Project documents
Documents
• Assumption log
• Risk register
• Risk register
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 9-3. Plan Resource Management: Data Flow Diagram
Resource planning is used to determine and identify an approach to ensure that sufficient resources are available for
the successful completion of the project. Project resources may include team members, supplies, materials, equipment,
services and facilities. Effective resource planning should consider and plan for the availability of, or competition for,
scarce resources.
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Those resources can be obtained from the organization’s internal assets or from outside the organization through a
�
procurement process. Other projects may be competing for the same resources required for the project at the same time
and location. This may significantly impact project costs, schedules, risks, quality, and other project areas.
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9.1.1 PLAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter provides the high-level project description and requirements. It also
has the key stakeholder list, summary milestones, and preapproved financial resources that may influence the resource
management of the project.
Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The quality management plan helps define the level of
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resources that will be required to achieve and maintain the defined level of quality and achieve the metrics for
the project.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline identifies the deliverables that drive the types
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and quantities of resources that will need to be managed.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule shows the timeline for needed resources.
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Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements will dictate the type and amount of
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resources needed for the project and may influence how they are managed.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains information on threats and opportunities
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that may impact resource planning.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register aids in identifying those
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stakeholders who have a particular interest in or an impact on resources needed for the project. It also helps to
identify stakeholders who can influence the use of one kind of resource over another.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Resource Management include but are not limited to:
Organizational culture and structure,
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Geographic distribution of facilities and resources,

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Existing resources competencies and availability, and

uu
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Resource Management include but are not limited to:
Human resource policies and procedures,
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Physical resource management policies and procedures,

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Safety policies,
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Security policies,
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Templates for the resource management plan, and

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Historical information for similar projects.

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9.1.2 PLAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Negotiating for the best resources within the organization;
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Talent management and personnel development;

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Determining the preliminary effort level needed to meet project objectives;

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Determining reporting requirements based on the organizational culture;

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Estimating lead times required for acquisition, based on lessons learned and market conditions;
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Identifying risks associated with resource acquisition, retention, and release plans;
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Complying with applicable government and union regulations; and

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Managing sellers and the logistics effort to ensure materials and supplies are available when needed.
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Data representation techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to charts. Various formats
exist to document and communicate team member roles and responsibilities. Most fall into hierarchical, matrix, or text-
oriented formats. Some project assignments are listed in subsidiary plans, such as the risk, quality, or communications
management plans. Regardless of the method used to document team member roles, the objective is to ensure that
each work package has an unambiguous owner and that all team members have a clear understanding of their roles
and responsibilities. A hierarchical format may be used to represent high-level roles, while a text-based format may be
better suited to document the detailed responsibilities.
Hierarchical charts. The traditional organizational chart structure can be used to show positions and relationships
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in a graphical, top-down format.
nuWork breakdown structures (WBS). The WBS is designed to show how project deliverables are broken down
into work packages and provide a way of showing high-level areas of responsibility.
nuOrganizational breakdown structure (OBS). While the WBS shows a breakdown of project deliverables, an OBS
is arranged according to an organization’s existing departments, units, or teams, with the project activities or
work packages listed under each department. An operational department, such as information technology or
purchasing, can see all of its project responsibilities by looking at its portion of the OBS.
nuResource breakdown structure. The resource breakdown structure is a hierarchical list of team and physical
resources related by category and resource type that is used for planning, managing and controlling project
work. Each descending (lower) level represents an increasingly detailed description of the resource until the
information is small enough to be used in conjunction with the work breakdown structure (WBS) to allow the
work to be planned, monitored, and controlled.
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Assignment Matrix. A RAM shows the project resources assigned to each work package. It is used to illustrate
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the connections between work packages, or activities, and project team members. On larger projects, RAMs can
be developed at various levels. For example, a high-level RAM can define the responsibilities of a project team,
group, or unit within each component of the WBS. Lower-level RAMs are used within the group to designate roles,
responsibilities, and levels of authority for specific activities. The matrix format shows all activities associated
with one person and all people associated with one activity. This also ensures that there is only one person
accountable for any one task to avoid confusion about who is ultimately in charge or has authority for the work.
One example of a RAM is a RACI (responsible, accountable, consult, and inform) chart, shown in Figure 9-4.
The sample chart shows the work to be done in the left column as activities. The assigned resources can be
shown as individuals or groups. The project manager can select other options, such as “lead” and “resource”
designations, as appropriate for the project. A RACI chart is a useful tool to use to ensure clear assignment of
roles and responsibilities when the team consists of internal and external resources.
Text-oriented formats. Team member responsibilities that require detailed descriptions can be specified in text-
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oriented formats. Usually in outline form, these documents provide information such as responsibilities, authority,
competencies, and qualifications. The documents are known by various names including position descriptions
and role-responsibility-authority forms. These documents can be used as templates for future projects, especially
when the information is updated throughout the current project by applying lessons learned.
RACI Chart Person
Activity Ann Ben Carlos Dina Ed
Create charter A R I I I
Collect
requirements I A R C C
Submit change
request I A R R C
Develop test plan A C I I R
R = Responsible A = Accountable C = Consult I = Inform
Figure 9-4. Sample RACI Chart
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9.1.2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY
Organizational theory provides information regarding the way in which people, teams, and organizational units
behave. Effective use of common techniques identified in organizational theory can shorten the amount of time, cost,
and effort needed to create the Plan Resource Management process outputs and improve planning efficiency. Applicable
organizational theories may recommend exercising a flexible leadership style that adapts to the changes in a team’s
maturity level throughout the project life cycle. It is important to recognize that the organization’s structure and culture
impacts the project organizational structure.
9.1.2.4 MEETINGS
The project team may hold meetings to plan resource management for the project.
9.1.3 PLAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
9.1.3.1 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PLAN
The resource management plan is the component of the project management plan that provides guidance on how
project resources should be categorized, allocated, managed, and released. It may be divided between the team
management plan and physical resource management plan according to the specifics of the project. The resource
management plan may include but is not limited to:
Identification of resources. Methods for identifying and quantifying team and physical resources needed.
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Acquiring resources. Guidance on how to acquire team and physical resources for the project.
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Roles and responsibilities:

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nuRole. The function assumed by, or assigned to, a person in the project. Examples of project roles are civil
engineer, business analyst, and testing coordinator.
nuAuthority. The rights to apply project resources, make decisions, sign approvals, accept deliverables, and
influence others to carry out the work of the project. Examples of decisions that need clear authority
include the selection of a method for completing an activity, quality acceptance criteria, and how to
respond to project variances. Team members operate best when their individual levels of authority match
their individual responsibilities.
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nuResponsibility. The assigned duties and work that a project team member is expected to perform in order to
complete the project’s activities.
nuCompetence. The skill and capacity required to complete assigned activities within the project constraints.
If project team members do not possess required competencies, performance can be jeopardized. When
such mismatches are identified, proactive responses such as training, hiring, schedule changes, or scope
changes are initiated.
Project organization charts. A project organization chart is a graphic display of project team members and their
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reporting relationships. It can be formal or informal, highly detailed or broadly framed, based on the needs of the
project. For example, the project organization chart for a 3,000-person disaster response team will have greater
detail than a project organization chart for an internal, 20-person project.
Project team resource management. Guidance on how project team resources should be defined, staffed,
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managed, and eventually released.
Training. Training strategies for team members.
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Team development. Methods for developing the project team.

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Resource control. Methods for ensuring adequate physical resources are available as needed and that the
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acquisition of physical resources is optimized for project needs. Includes information on managing inventory,
equipment, and supplies during throughout the project life cycle.
Recognition plan. Which recognition and rewards will be given to team members, and when they will be given.
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9.1.3.2 TEAM CHARTER
The team charter is a document that establishes the team values, agreements, and operating guidelines for the team.
The team charter may include but is not limited to:
Team values,
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Communication guidelines,
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Decision-making criteria and process,

uu
Conflict resolution process,

uu
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Meeting guidelines, and

uu
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Team agreements.
uu
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The team charter establishes clear expectations regarding acceptable behavior by project team members. Early
commitment to clear guidelines decreases misunderstandings and increases productivity. Discussing areas such as
codes of conduct, communication, decision making, and meeting etiquette allows team members to discover values that
are important to one another. The team charter works best when the team develops it, or at least has an opportunity to
contribute to it. All project team members share responsibility for ensuring the rules documented in the team charter are
followed. The team charter can be reviewed and updated periodically to ensure a continued understanding of the team
ground rules and to orient and integrate new team members.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log is updated with assumptions regarding the
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availability, logistics requirements, and location of physical resources as well as the skill sets and availability of
team resources.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register is updated with risks associated with team and
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physical resource availability or other known resource-related risks.
9.2 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY RESOURCES

Estimate Activity Resources is the process of estimating team resources and the type and quantities of materials,
equipment, and supplies necessary to perform project work. The key benefit of this process is that it identifies the
type, quantity, and characteristics of resources required to complete the project. This process is performed periodically
throughout the project as needed. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure
9-5. Figure 9-6 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
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Estimate Activity Resources

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Resource requirements
• Resource management plan .2 Bottom-up estimating .2 Basis of estimates
• Scope baseline .3 Analogous estimating .3 Resource breakdown
.2 Project documents .4 Parametric estimating structure
• Activity attributes .5 Data analysis .4 Project documents updates
• Activity list • Alternatives analysis • Activity attributes
• Assumption log .6 Project management • Assumption log
• Cost estimates information system • Lessons learned register
• Resource calendars .7 Meetings
• Risk register
factors
Figure 9-5. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
Project
Management
Plan

• Scope baseline
• Resource breakdown
Project structure
Documents
9.2 Project
Estimate Activity Documents
Resources
• Project
Project documents charter
• Activity list
• Assumption log
• Cost estimates
• Risk register
Project document updates
�
• Assumption log
�
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 9-6. Estimate Activity Resources: Data Flow Diagram
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The Estimate Activity Resources process is closely coordinated with other processes, such as the Estimate Costs
process. For example:
A construction project team will need to be familiar with local building codes. Such knowledge is often readily
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available from local sellers. If the internal labor pool lacks experience with unusual or specialized construction
techniques, the additional cost for a consultant may be the most effective way to secure knowledge of the local
building codes.
An automotive design team will need to be familiar with the latest automated assembly techniques. The requisite
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knowledge could be obtained by hiring a consultant, by sending a designer to a seminar on robotics, or by
including someone from manufacturing as a member of the project team.
9.2.1 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY RESOURCES: INPUTS
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan defines the
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approach to identify the different resources needed for the project. It also defines the methods to quantify the
resources needed for each activity and aggregates this information.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline identifies the project and product scope
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necessary to meet the project objectives. The scope drives the needs for both team and physical resources.
Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. Activity attributes provide the primary data source for use
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in estimating team and physical resources required for each activity on the activity list. Examples of attributes
include the resource requirements, imposed dates, activity location, assumptions, and constraints.
Activity list. Described in Section 6.2.3.1. The activity list identifies the activities that will need resources.
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log may have information on productivity factors,
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availability, cost estimates, and approaches to work that will influence the nature and number of team and
physical resources.
Cost estimates. Described in Section 7.2.3.1. The cost of resources may impact resource selection from the
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quantity and skill level perspectives.
Resource calendars. A resource calendar identifies the working days, shifts, start and end of normal business
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hours, weekends, and public holidays when each specific resource is available. Information on which resources
(such as team resource, equipment, and material) are potentially available during a planned activity period is
used for estimating resource utilization. Resource calendars also specify when, and for how long, identified
team and physical resources will be available during the project. This information may be at the activity or
project level. This includes consideration of attributes such as resource experience and/or skill level, as well
as various geographical locations.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register describes the individual risks that can impact
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resource selection and availability.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Estimate Activity Resources process include but are not
limited to:
Resource location,
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Resource availability,
uu
Team resource skills,

uu
Organizational culture,
uu
Published estimating data, and

uu
uu
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Estimate Activity Resources process include but are not
limited to:
Policies and procedures regarding staffing,
uu
Policies and procedures relating to supplies and equipment, and

uu
Historical information regarding types of resources used for similar work on previous projects.
uu
9.2.2 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY RESOURCES: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
or training in team and physical resource planning and estimating.
Described in Section 6.4.2.5. Team and physical resources are estimated at the activity level and then aggregated to
develop the estimates for work packages, control accounts, and summary project levels.
Described in Section 6.4.2.2. Analogous estimating uses information regarding resources from a previous similar
project as the basis for estimating a future project. It is used as quick estimating method and can be used when the
project manager can only identify a few top levels of the WBS.
Described in Section 6.4.2.3. Parametric estimating uses an algorithm or a statistical relationship between historical
data and other variables to calculate resource quantities needed for an activity, based on historical data and project
parameters. For example, if an activity needs 4,000 hours of coding and it needs to finish it in 1 year, it will require two
people to code (each doing 2,000 hours a year). This technique can produce higher levels of accuracy depending on the
sophistication and underlying data built into the model.
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A data analysis technique used in this process includes but is not limited to alternatives analysis. Alternatives analysis
is used to evaluate identified options in order to select the options or approaches to use to execute and perform the work
of the project. Many activities have multiple options for accomplishment. They include using various levels of resource
capability or skills, different sizes or types of machines, different tools (manual versus automated), and make-rent-or-
buy decisions regarding the resources. Alternatives analysis assists in providing the best solution to perform the project
activities, within the defined constraints.
Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems can include resource management software
that can help plan, organize, and manage resource pools and develop resource estimates. Depending on the sophistication
of the software, resource breakdown structures, resource availability, resource rates, and various resource calendars
can be defined to assist in optimizing resource utilization.
9.2.2.7 MEETINGS
The project manager may hold planning meetings with functional managers to estimate the resources needed per
activity, level of effort (LoE), skill level of the team resources, and the quantity of the materials needed. Participants
at these meetings may include the project manager, the project sponsor, selected project team members, selected
stakeholders, and others as needed.
9.2.3 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY RESOURCES: OUTPUTS
9.2.3.1 RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS
Resource requirements identify the types and quantities of resources required for each work package or activity in a
work package and can be aggregated to determine the estimated resources for each work package, each WBS branch,
and the project as a whole. The amount of detail and the level of specificity of the resource requirement descriptions
can vary by application area. The resource requirements’ documentation can include assumptions that were made in
determining which types of resources are applied, their availability, and what quantities are needed.
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Described in Section 6.4.3.2. The amount and type of additional details supporting the resource estimate vary by
application area. Regardless of the level of detail, the supporting documentation should provide a clear and complete
understanding of how the resource estimate was derived.
Supporting detail for resource estimates may include:
Method used to develop the estimate,
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Resources used to develop the estimate (such as information from previous similar projects),
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Assumptions associated with the estimate,

uu
Known constraints,
uu
Range of estimates,
uu
Confidence level of the estimate, and

uu
Documentation of identified risks influencing the estimate.

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9.2.3.3 RESOURCE BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE
The resource breakdown structure is a hierarchical representation of resources by category and type (see Figure 9-7
for example). Examples of resource categories include but are not limited to labor, material, equipment, and supplies.
Resource types may include the skill level, grade level, required certifications, or other information as appropriate to the
project. In Plan Resource Management, the resource breakdown structure was used to guide the categorization for the
project. In this process it is a completed document that will be used to acquire and monitor resources.
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Project
Personnel Material Equipment
Role Role Role Material Material Equipment Equipment

1 2 3 1 2 1 2
Level Level Grade

1 2 2
Figure 9-7. Sample Resource Breakdown Structure
Activity attributes. Described in Section 6.2.3.2. The activity attributes are updated with the resource
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requirements.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log is updated with assumptions regarding the
uu
types and quantities of resources required. Additionally, any resource constraints are entered including collective
bargaining agreements, continuous hours of operation, planned leave, etc.
uu
techniques that were efficient and effective in developing resource estimates, and information on those
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techniques that were not efficient or effective.

�
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9.3 ACQUIRE RESOURCES
Acquire Resources is the process of obtaining team members, facilities, equipment, materials, supplies, and other
resources necessary to complete project work. The key benefit of this process is that it outlines and guides the selection
of resources and assigns them to their respective activities. This process is performed periodically throughout the
project as needed. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 9-8. Figure 9-9
depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Acquire Resources

.1 Project management plan .1 Decision making .1 Physical resource
• Resource management plan • Multicriteria decision assignments
• Procurement management analysis .2 Project team assignments
plan .2 Interpersonal and team skills .3 Resource calendars
• Cost baseline • Negotiation .4 Change requests
.2 Project documents .3 Pre-assignment .5 Project management plan
• Project schedule .4 Virtual teams updates
• Resource calendars • Resource management plan
• Resource requirements • Cost baseline
• Stakeholder register .6 Project documents updates
.3 Enterprise environmental • Lessons learned register
factors • Project schedule
.4 Organizational process assets • Resource breakdown
structure
• Risk register
factors updates
updates
Figure 9-8. Acquire Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project 4.6
Management Perform
Plan Integrated

• Procurement management plan Project
• Cost baseline Management
Plan
Project management plan updates

9.3 • Resource management plan
Project Acquire • Cost baseline
Documents • Project
Resources
charter
Project documents • Physical resource assignments

• Project schedule • Project team assignments Project
• Resource calendars • Resource calendars Documents
• Risk register
Enterprise/ Enterprise/
Organization Organization
• Enterprise environmental factors updates
• Organizational process assets updates
Figure 9-9. Acquire Resources: Data Flow Diagram
The resources needed for the project can be internal or external to the project-performing organization. Internal
resources are acquired (assigned) from functional or resource managers. External resources are acquired through the
procurement processes.
The project management team may or may not have direct control over resource selection because of collective
bargaining agreements, use of subcontractor personnel, a matrix project environment, internal or external reporting
�
relationships, or other reasons. It is important that the following factors are considered during the process of acquiring
�
the project resources:
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The project manager or project team should effectively negotiate and influence others who are in a position to
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provide the required team and physical resources for the project.
Failure to acquire the necessary resources for the project may affect project schedules, budgets, customer
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satisfaction, quality, and risks. Insufficient resources or capabilities decrease the probability of success and, in a
worst-case scenario, could result in project cancellation.
If the team resources are not available due to constraints such as economic factors or assignment to other
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projects, the project manager or project team may be required to assign alternative resources, perhaps with
different competencies or costs. Alternative resources are allowed provided there is no violation of legal,
regulatory, mandatory, or other specific criteria.
These factors should be considered and accounted for in the planning stages of the project. The project manager
or project management team will be required to document the impact of the unavailability of required resources in the
project schedule, project budget, project risks, project quality, training plans, and other project management plans.
9.3.1 ACQUIRE RESOURCES: INPUTS
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan provides guidance
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on how to acquire resources for the project.
Procurement management plan. Described in Section 12.1.3.1. The procurement management plan has
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information regarding resources that will be acquired from outside the project. This includes information on how
procurements will be integrated with other project work and stakeholders involved in procuring resources.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline provides the overall budget for the project activities.
uu
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Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule shows the activities and their planned start
uu
and end dates to help determine when the resources need to be available and acquired.
Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.3.3.3. Resource calendars document the time periods that each
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resource needed for the project is available for the project. Creating a reliable schedule depends on having a
good understanding of each resource’s availability and schedule constraints, including time zones, work hours,
vacation time, local holidays, maintenance schedule and commitments to other projects. Resource calendars are
progressively elaborated and updated throughout the project. Once created as an output of this process, they are
used as needed whenever this process is repeated.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource requirements identify which resources need
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to be acquired.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register may reveal stakeholders’ needs
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or expectations for specific resources to be used on the project that need to be considered in the Acquire
Resources process.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Acquire Resources process include but are not limited to:
Existing information on organizational resources including availability, competence levels, and prior experience
uu
for team resources and resource costs;
uu
Organizational structure; and

uu
Geographic locations.
uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Acquire Resources process include but are not limited to:
�
Policies and procedures for acquiring, allocating, and assigning resources to the project; and
uu
�

uu
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9.3.2 ACQUIRE RESOURCES: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 5.2.2.4. Decision-making techniques that can be used in the Acquire Resources process include
but are not limited to multicriteria decision analysis, as described in Section 8.1.2.4. Selection criteria are often used to
select physical project resources, or the project team. Using a multicriteria decision analysis tool, criteria are developed
and used to rate or score potential resources (for example, choosing between internal and external team resources). The
criteria are weighted according to their relative importance and values can be changed for different types of resources.
Some examples of selection criteria that can be used are:
Availability. Verify that the resource is available to work on the project within the time period needed.
uu
Cost. Verify if the cost of adding the resource is within the prescribed budget.
uu
Ability. Verify that the team member provides the capability needed by the project.
uu
Some selection criteria that are unique for team resources are:
Experience. Verify that the team member has the relevant experience that will contribute to the project success.
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Knowledge. Consider if the team member has relevant knowledge of the customer, similar implemented projects,
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and nuances of the project environment.
Skills. Determine if the team member has the relevant skills to use a project tool.
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Attitude. Determine if the team member has the ability to work with others as a cohesive team.
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International factors. Consider team member location, time zone, and communication capabilities.
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An interpersonal and team skill that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to negotiation. Described
in Section 12.2.2.5. Many projects need to negotiate for required resources. The project management team may need
to negotiate with:
Functional managers. Ensure that the project receives the best resources possible in the required timeframe
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and until their responsibilities are complete.
Other project management teams within the performing organization. Appropriately assign or share scarce
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or specialized resources.
External organizations and suppliers. Provide appropriate, scarce, specialized, qualified, certified, or other
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specific team or physical resources. Special consideration should be given to external negotiating policies,
practices, processes, guidelines, legal, and other such criteria.
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The project management team’s ability to influence others plays an important role in negotiating resource allocation,
as does the politics of the organizations involved. For example, convincing a functional manager about the high visibility
of the project may influence him or her to assign the best resources to this project over competing ones.
9.3.2.3 PRE-ASSIGNMENT
When physical or team resources for a project are determined in advance, they are considered pre-assigned. This
situation can occur if the project is the result of specific resources being identified as part of a competitive proposal or if
the project is dependent upon the expertise of particular persons. Pre-assignment might also include the team members
who have already been assigned in Develop Project Charter Process or other processes before the initial Resource
Management Plan has been completed.
9.3.2.4 VIRTUAL TEAMS
The use of virtual teams creates new possibilities when acquiring project team members. Virtual teams can be
defined as groups of people with a shared goal who fulfill their roles with little or no time spent meeting face to face. The
availability of communication technology such as email, audio conferencing, social media, web-based meetings, and
video conferencing has made virtual teams feasible. The virtual team model makes it possible to:
Form teams of people from the same organization who live in widespread geographic areas;
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Add special expertise to a project team even though the expert is not in the same geographic area;
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Incorporate employees who work from home offices;

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Form teams of people who work different shifts, hours, or days;

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Include people with mobility limitations or disabilities;

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Move forward with projects that would have been held or canceled due to travel expenses; and
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Save the expense of offices and all physical equipment needed for employees.
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Communication planning becomes increasingly important in a virtual team environment. Additional time may be
needed to set clear expectations, facilitate communications, develop protocols for resolving conflict, include people in
decision making, understand cultural differences, and share credit in successes.
9.3.3 ACQUIRE RESOURCES: OUTPUTS
9.3.3.1 PHYSICAL RESOURCE ASSIGNMENTS
Documentation of the physical resource assignments records the material, equipment, supplies, locations, and other
physical resources that will be used during the project.
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9.3.3.2 PROJECT TEAM ASSIGNMENTS
Documentation of team assignments records the team members and their roles and responsibilities for the project.
Documentation can include a project team directory and names inserted into the project management plan, such as the
project organization charts and schedules.
9.3.3.3 RESOURCE CALENDARS
A resource calendar identifies the working days, shifts, start and end of normal business hours, weekends, and public
holidays when each specific resource is available. Information on which resources (such as team resource, equipment,
and material) are potentially available during a planned activity period is used for estimating resource utilization.
Resource calendars also specify when and for how long identified team and physical resources will be available during
the project. This information may be at the activity or project level. This includes consideration of attributes such as
resource experience and/or skill level, as well as various geographical locations.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. When changes occur as a result of carrying out the Acquire Resources process (for
example, impacts to the schedule) or when recommended corrective or preventive actions impact any of the components
of the project management plan or project documents, the project manager needs to submit a change request. Change
requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6).
request. Components of the project management plan that may be updated as a result of carrying out this process
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan may be updated to
uu
reflect actual experience in acquiring resources for the project, including lessons learned in acquiring resources
early in the project that will impact how resources are acquired later in the project.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline may change as a result of the acquisition of
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resources for the project.
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acquiring resources.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. Changes to the project schedule may result from the availability
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of required resources.
Resource breakdown structure. Described in Section 9.2.3.3. Resources acquired during this process are
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recorded in the resource breakdown structure.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource requirements documentation is updated to
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reflect resources acquired for the project.
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Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register is updated with any new
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stakeholders and any new information about existing stakeholders that has been gained as a result of
this process.
9.3.3.7 ENTERPRISE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS UPDATES
Enterprise environmental factors that are updated include but are not limited to:
Resource availability within the organization, and
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Amount of the organization’s consumable resources that have been used.

uu
Organizational process assets that are updated as a result of the Acquire Resources process include but are not
limited to documentation related to acquiring, assigning and allocating resources.
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9.4 DEVELOP TEAM
Develop Team is the process of improving competencies, team member interaction, and the overall team environment
to enhance project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it results in improved teamwork, enhanced
interpersonal skills and competencies, motivated employees, reduced attrition, and improved overall project performance.
This process is performed throughout the project.
Develop Team

.1 Project management plan .1 Colocation 1. Team performance
• Resource management plan .2 Virtual teams assessments
.2 Project documents .3 Communication technology .2 Change requests
• Lessons learned register .4 Interpersonal and team skills .3 Project management plan
• Project schedule • Conflict management updates
• Project team assignments • Influencing • Resource management plan
• Resource calendars • Motivation .4 Project documents updates
• Team charter • Negotiation • Lessons learned register
.3 Enterprise environmental • Team building • Project schedule
factors .5 Recognition and rewards • Project team assignments
.4 Organizational process assets .6 Training • Resource calendars
.7 Individual and team • Team charter
assessments .5 Enterprise environmental
.8 Meetings factors updates
updates
Figure 9-10. Develop Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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9.5
Manage
• Team performance assessments Team
4.6
Project Perform
Management Integrated
Plan • Change requests Change Control

Project
Management
Plan
9.4 Project management plan updates

Project Develop • Resource management plan
Teamcharter
Project documents
• Lessons learned register Project
• Project schedule Documents
• Team charter Project documents updates
• Team charter
Enterprise/ Enterprise/
Organization Organization
• Organizational process assets updates
Figure 9-11. Develop Team: Data Flow Diagram
Project managers require the skills to identify, build, maintain, motivate, lead, and inspire project teams to achieve
high team performance and to meet the project’s objectives. Teamwork is a critical factor for project success, and
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developing effective project teams is one of the primary responsibilities of the project manager. Project managers
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should create an environment that facilitates teamwork and continually motivates the team by providing challenges
and opportunities, providing timely feedback and support as needed, and recognizing and rewarding good performance.
High team performance can be achieved by employing these behaviors:
Using open and effective communication,
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Creating team-building opportunities,

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Developing trust among team members,

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Managing conflicts in a constructive manner,

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Encouraging collaborative problem solving, and

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Encouraging collaborative decision making.

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Project managers operate in a global environment and work on projects characterized by cultural diversity. Team
members often have diverse industry experience, communicate in multiple languages, and sometimes work with a
“team language” or cultural norm that may be different from their native one. The project management team should
capitalize on cultural differences, focus on developing and sustaining the project team throughout the project life cycle,
and promote working together interdependently in a climate of mutual trust. Developing the project team improves
the people skills, technical competencies, and overall team environment and project performance. It requires clear,
timely, effective, and efficient communication between team members throughout the life of the project. Objectives of
developing a project team include but are not limited to:
Improving the knowledge and skills of team members to increase their ability to complete project deliverables,
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while lowering costs, reducing schedules, and improving quality;
Improving feelings of trust and agreement among team members to raise morale, lower conflict, and increase
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teamwork;
Creating a dynamic, cohesive, and collaborative team culture to: (1) improve individual and team productivity,
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team spirit, and cooperation; and (2) allow cross-training and mentoring between team members to share
knowledge and expertise; and
Empowering the team to participate in decision making and take ownership of the provided solutions to improve
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team productivity for more effective and efficient results.
One of the models used to describe team development is the Tuckman ladder [19, 20], which includes five stages of
development that teams may go through. Although it is common for these stages to occur in order, it is not uncommon
for a team to get stuck in a particular stage or regress to an earlier stage. Projects with team members who worked
together in the past might skip a stage.
Forming. This phase is where the team members meet and learn about the project and their formal roles and
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responsibilities. Team members tend to be independent and not as open in this phase.
Storming. During this phase, the team begins to address the project work, technical decisions, and the project
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management approach. If team members are not collaborative or open to differing ideas and perspectives, the
environment can become counterproductive.
Norming. In this phase, team members begin to work together and adjust their work habits and behaviors to
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support the team. The team members learn to trust each other.
Performing. Teams that reach the performing stage function as a well-organized unit. They are interdependent
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and work through issues smoothly and effectively.
Adjourning. In this phase, the team completes the work and moves on from the project. This typically occurs when
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staff is released from the project as deliverables are completed or as part of the Close Project or Phase process.
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The duration of a particular stage depends upon team dynamics, team size, and team leadership. Project managers
should have a good understanding of team dynamics in order to move their team members through all stages in an
effective manner.
9.4.1 DEVELOP TEAM: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Project management plan components include but are not limited to the resource
management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1, the resource management plan provides guidance on providing
project team member rewards, feedback, additional training, and disciplinary actions as a result of team performance
assessments and other forms of project team management. The resource management plan may include also the team
performance assessment criteria.
uu
developing the team can be applied to later phases in the project to improve team performance.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule defines how and when to provide training
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to the project team and develop the competencies required at different phases. It identifies the need for team
development strategies based on variations, if any, during the project execution.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. Project team assignments identify the team and
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member roles and responsibilities.
Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.2.1.2. Resource calendars identify times when the project team
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members can participate in team development activities. It also helps illustrate team availability during the
entire project.
Team charter. Described in Section 9.1.3.2. The team charter is where the team operating guidelines are
uu
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documented. The team values and operating guidelines provide the structure that describes how the team will
operate together.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Develop Team process include but are not limited to:
Human resource management policies regarding hiring and termination, employee performance reviews,
uu
employee development and training records, and recognition and rewards;
Team member skills, competencies, and specialized knowledge; and
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Geographic distribution of team members.

uu
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The organizational process assets that can influence the Develop Team process include but are not limited to historical
information and the lessons learned repository.
9.4.2 DEVELOP TEAM: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
9.4.2.1 COLOCATION
Colocation involves placing many or all of the most active project team members in the same physical location to
enhance their ability to perform as a team. Colocation can be temporary, such as at strategically important times during
the project, or can continue for the entire project. Colocation strategies can include a team meeting room, common
places to post schedules, and other conveniences that enhance communication and a sense of community.
9.4.2.2 VIRTUAL TEAMS
The use of virtual teams can bring benefits such as the use of more skilled resources, reduced costs, less travel and
relocation expenses, and the proximity of team members to suppliers, customers, or other key stakeholders. Virtual
teams can use technology to create an online team environment where the team can store files, use conversations
threads to discuss issues, and keep a team calendar.
9.4.2.3 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Described in Section 10.1.2.3. Communication technology is important in addressing the team development issues in
colocated and virtual teams. It helps build a harmonious environment for the colocated team and a better understanding
for the virtual team, especially those working in different time zones. Examples of communication technology that may
be used are:
Shared portal. A shared repository for information sharing (e.g., website, collaboration software or intranet) is
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effective for virtual project teams.
Video conferencing. Video conferencing is an important technique for effective communication with
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virtual teams.
Audio conferencing. Communication within a team using audio conferencing is another technique to build
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rapport and confidence within virtual teams.
Email/chat. Regular communications using email and chat is also an effective technique.
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Conflict management. Described in Section 9.5.2.1. The project manager needs to resolve conflicts in a timely
uu
manner and in a constructive way in order to achieve a high-performing team.
Influencing. Described in Section 9.5.2.1. An influencing skill used in this process is gathering relevant and
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critical information to address important issues and reach agreements while maintaining mutual trust.
Motivation. Motivation is providing a reason for someone to act. Teams are motivated by empowering them to
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participate in decision making and encouraging them to work independently.
Negotiation. Described in Section 12.2.2.5. Negotiation among team members is used to reach consensus on
uu
project needs. Negotiation can build trust and harmony among the team members.
Team building. Team building is conducting activities that enhance the team’s social relations and build a
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collaborative and cooperative working environment. Team building activities can vary from a 5-minute agenda
item in a status review meeting to an offsite, professionally facilitated event designed to improve interpersonal
relationships. The objective of team-building activities is to help individual team members work together effectively.
Team-building strategies are particularly valuable when team members operate from remote locations without the
benefit of face-to-face contact. Informal communication and activities can help in building trust and establishing
good working relationships. While team building is essential during the initial stages of a project, it should be a
continuous process. Changes in a project environment are inevitable, and to manage them effectively, a continuous
or renewed team-building effort may be applied. The project manager should continually monitor team functionality
and performance to determine if any actions are needed to prevent or correct various team problems.
9.4.2.5 RECOGNITION AND REWARDS
Part of the team development process involves recognizing and rewarding desirable behavior. The original
plan for rewarding people is developed during the Plan Resource Management process. Rewards will be effective
only if they satisfy a need that is valued by that individual. Reward decisions are made, formally or informally,
during the process of managing the project team. Cultural differences should be considered when determining
recognition and rewards.
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People are motivated when they feel they are valued in the organization and this value is demonstrated by the rewards
given to them. Generally, money is viewed as a tangible aspect of any reward system, but intangible rewards could be
equally or even more effective. Most project team members are motivated by an opportunity to grow, accomplish, be
appreciated, and apply their professional skills to meet new challenges. A good strategy for project managers is to give
the team recognition throughout the life cycle of the project rather than waiting until the project is completed.
9.4.2.6 TRAINING
Training includes all activities designed to enhance the competencies of the project team members. Training can be
formal or informal. Examples of training methods include classroom, online, computer-based, on-the-job training from
another project team member, mentoring, and coaching. If project team members lack the necessary management or
technical skills, such skills can be developed as part of the project work. Scheduled training takes place as stated in
the resource management plan. Unplanned training takes place as a result of observation, conversation, and project
performance appraisals conducted during management of the project team. Training costs could be included in the
project budget or supported by the performing organization if the added skills may be useful for future projects. It may
be performed by in-house or by external trainers.
9.4.2.7 INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM ASSESSMENTS
Individual and team assessment tools give the project manager and the project team insight into areas of strengths
and weaknesses. These tools help project managers assess team members’ preferences, aspirations, how they process
and organize information, how they make decisions, and how they interact with people. Various tools are available such
as attitudinal surveys, specific assessments, structured interviews, ability tests, and focus groups. These tools can
provide improved understanding, trust, commitment, and communications among team members and facilitate more
productive teams throughout the project.
9.4.2.8 MEETINGS
Meetings are used to discuss and address pertinent topics for developing the team. Attendees include the project
manager and the project team. Types of meetings include but are not limited to project orientation meetings, team-
building meetings, and team development meetings.
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9.4.3 DEVELOP TEAM: OUTPUTS
9.4.3.1 TEAM PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS
As project team development efforts such as training, team building, and colocation are implemented, the project
management team makes formal or informal assessments of the project team’s effectiveness. Effective team
development strategies and activities are expected to increase the team’s performance, which increases the likelihood
of meeting project objectives.
The evaluation of a team’s effectiveness may include indicators such as:
Improvements in skills that allow individuals to perform assignments more effectively,
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Improvements in competencies that help team members perform better as a team,

uu
Reduced staff turnover rate, and

uu
Increased team cohesiveness where team members share information and experiences openly and help each
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other to improve the overall project performance.
As a result of conducting an evaluation of the team’s overall performance, the project management team can
identify the specific training, coaching, mentoring, assistance, or changes required to improve the team’s performance.
This should also include identifying the appropriate or required resources necessary to achieve and implement the
improvements identified in the assessment.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. If change requests occur as a result of carrying out the Develop Team process or if
recommended corrective or preventive actions impact any of the components of the project management plan or project
documents, the project manager needs to submit a change request and follow the Perform Integrated Change Control
process as defined in Section 4.6.
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request. Components that may require a change request for the project management plan include but are not limited to
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the resource management plan, as described in Section 9.1.3.1.
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uu
the development of the team.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. Activities to develop the project team may result in changes to
uu
the project schedule.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. When team development results in changes to agreed-
uu
upon assignments, these changes are recorded in the project team assignments documentation.
Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.2.1.2. Resource calendars are updated to reflect the availability of
uu
resources for the project.
Team charter. Described in Section 9.1.3.2. The team charter may be updated to reflect changes to agreed-upon
uu
team operating guidelines that result from team development.
Enterprise environmental factors that are updated as a result of the Develop Project Team process include but are
not limited to:
Employee development plan records, and
uu
Skill assessments.
uu
Organizational process assets that are updated as a result of the Develop Team process include but are not limited to:
Training requirements, and
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Personnel assessment.
uu
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9.5 MANAGE TEAM
Manage Team is the process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving issues, and
managing team changes to optimize project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it influences team
behavior, manages conflict, and resolves issues. This process is performed throughout the project.
Manage Team

.1 Project management plan .1 Interpersonal and team skills .1 Change requests
• Resource management plan • Conflict management .2 Project management plan
.2 Project documents • Decision making updates
• Issue log • Emotional intelligence • Resource management plan
• Lessons learned register • Influencing • Schedule baseline
• Project team assignments • Leadership • Cost baseline
• Team charter .2 Project management .3 Project documents updates
.3 Work performance reports information system • Issue log
.4 Team performance • Lessons learned register
assessments • Project team assignments
.5 Enterprise environmental .4 Enterprise environmental
factors factors updates
Figure 9-12. Manage Team: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan
Project management plan 4.6

• Resource management plan Perform
Integrated
• Change requests
Change Control
Project
Documents
Project
Project documents Management
• Issue log Project management plan updates Plan
• Lessons learned register • Resource management plan
• Project team assignments • Schedule baseline
• Team charter • Cost baseline
4.5 9.5
Monitor and Project
Manage
• Project Documents
Control Teamcharter
Project Work Project documents updates
• Issue log
• Work performance reports • Project team assignments
9.4
Develop Enterprise/
Team Organization
• Team performance assessments
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 9-13. Manage Team: Data Flow Diagram
Managing the project team requires a variety of management and leadership skills for fostering teamwork and
integrating the efforts of team members to create high-performance teams. Team management involves a combination
of skills with special emphasis on communication, conflict management, negotiation, and leadership. Project managers
should provide challenging assignments to team members and provide recognition for high performance.
The project manager needs to be sensitive to both the willingness and the ability of team members to perform their
work and adjust their management and leadership styles accordingly. Team members with low-skill abilities will require
more intensive oversight than those who have demonstrated ability and experience.
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9.5.1 MANAGE TEAM: INPUTS
management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1, the resource management plan provides guidance on how project team
resources should be managed and eventually released.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Issues arise in the course of managing the project team. An issue log can
uu
be used to document and monitor who is responsible for resolving specific issues by a target date.
uu
later phases in the project to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of managing the team.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. Project team assignments identify the team member
uu
roles and responsibilities.
Team charter. Described in Section 9.1.3.2. The team charter provides guidance for how the team will make
uu
decisions, conduct meetings, and resolve conflict.
Described in Section 4.5.3.1. Work performance reports are the physical or electronic representation of work
performance information intended to generate decisions, actions, or awareness. Performance reports that can help with
project team management include results from schedule control, cost control, quality control, and scope validation. The
information from performance reports and related forecasts assists in determining future team resource requirements,
recognition and rewards, and updates to the resource management plan.
9.5.1.4 TEAM PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS

�
Described in Section 9.4.3.1. The project management team makes ongoing formal or informal assessments of the
project team’s performance. By continually assessing the project team’s performance, actions can be taken to resolve
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issues, modify communication, address conflict, and improve team interaction.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Manage Team process include but are not limited to
human resource management policies.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Manage Team process include but are not limited to:
Certificates of appreciation,
uu
Corporate apparel, and

uu
Other organizational perquisites.

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9.5.2 MANAGE TEAM: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Conflict management. Conflict is inevitable in a project environment. Sources of conflict include scarce
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resources, scheduling priorities, and personal work styles. Team ground rules, group norms, and solid project
management practices, like communication planning and role definition, reduce the amount of conflict.
Successful conflict management results in greater productivity and positive working relationships. When managed
properly, differences of opinion can lead to increased creativity and better decision making. If the differences
become a negative factor, project team members are initially responsible for their resolution. If conflict escalates,
the project manager should help facilitate a satisfactory resolution. Conflict should be addressed early and
usually in private, using a direct, collaborative approach. If disruptive conflict continues, formal procedures may
be used, including disciplinary actions.
The success of project managers in managing their project teams often depends on their ability to resolve
conflict. Different project managers may use different conflict resolution methods. Factors that influence conflict
resolution methods include:
nuImportance and intensity of the conflict,
nuTime pressure for resolving the conflict,
nuRelative power of the people involved in the conflict,
nuImportance of maintaining a good relationship, and
nuMotivation to resolve conflict on a long-term or short-term basis.
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There are five general techniques for resolving conflict. Each technique has its place and use:
muWithdraw/avoid. Retreating from an actual or potential conflict situation; postponing the issue to be better
prepared or to be resolved by others.
muSmooth/accommodate. Emphasizing areas of agreement rather than areas of difference; conceding one’s
position to the needs of others to maintain harmony and relationships.
muCompromise/reconcile. Searching for solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to all parties in order
to temporarily or partially resolve the conflict. This approach occasionally results in a lose-lose situation.
muForce/direct. Pushing one’s viewpoint at the expense of others; offering only win-lose solutions, usually enforced
through a power position to resolve an emergency. This approach often results to a win-lose situation.
muCollaborate/problem solve. Incorporating multiple viewpoints and insights from differing perspectives;
requires a cooperative attitude and open dialogue that typically leads to consensus and commitment. This
approach can result in a win-win situation.
Decision making. Decision making, in this context, involves the ability to negotiate and influence the organization
uu
and the project management team, rather than the set of tools described in the decision making tool set. Some
guidelines for decision making include:
nuFocus on goals to be served,
nuFollow a decision-making process,
nuStudy the environmental factors,
nuAnalyze available information,
nuStimulate team creativity, and
nuAccount for risk.
Emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and manage the personal
uu
emotions of oneself and other people, as well as the collective emotions of groups of people. The team
can use emotional intelligence to reduce tension and increase cooperation by identifying, assessing, and
controlling the sentiments of project team members, anticipating their actions, acknowledging their concerns,
and following up on their issues.
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Influencing. Because project managers often have little or no direct authority over team members in a matrix
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environment, their ability to influence stakeholders on a timely basis is critical to project success. Key influencing
skills include:
nuAbility to be persuasive;
nuClearly articulating points and positions;
nuHigh levels of active and effective listening skills;
nuAwareness of, and consideration for, the various perspectives in any situation; and
nuGathering relevant information to address issues and reach agreements while maintaining mutual trust.
Leadership. Successful projects require leaders with strong leadership skills. Leadership is the ability to lead
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a team and inspire them to do their jobs well. It encompasses a wide range of skills, abilities and actions.
Leadership is important through all phases of the project life cycle. There are multiple leadership theories
defining leadership styles that should be used as needed for each situation or team. It is especially important to
communicate the vision and inspire the project team to achieve high performance.
Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems can include resource management or
scheduling software that can be used for managing and coordinating team members across project activities.
9.5.3 MANAGE TEAM: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. When change requests occur as a result of carrying out the Manage Team process or
when recommended corrective or preventive actions impact any of the components of the project management plan or
project documents, the project manager needs to submit a change request. Change requests are processed for review
For example, staffing changes, whether made by choice or by uncontrollable events, can disrupt the project team.
This disruption can cause the schedule to slip or the budget to be exceeded. Staffing changes include moving people to
different assignments, outsourcing some of the work, or replacing team members who leave.
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request. Components of the project management plan that may require a change request for the project management
plan include but are not limited to:
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan is updated to reflect
uu
actual experience in managing the project team.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. Changes to the project schedule may be required to reflect the
uu
way the team is performing.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. Changes to the project cost baseline may be required to reflect the
uu
way the team is performing.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. New issues raised as a result of this process are recorded in the issue log.
uu
uu
the managing the team.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. If changes to the team are required, those changes
uu
are recorded in the project team assignments documentation.
Enterprise environmental factors that are updated as a result of the Manage Team process include but are not
limited to:
Input to organizational performance appraisals, and
uu
Personnel skill.
uu
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9.6 CONTROL RESOURCES
Control Resources is the process of ensuring that the physical resources assigned and allocated to the project are
available as planned, as well as monitoring the planned versus actual utilization of resources and taking corrective
action as necessary. The key benefit of this process is ensuring that the assigned resources are available to the project
at the right time and in the right place and are released when no longer needed. This process is performed throughout
the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 9-14. Figure 9-15 depicts the data flow
Control Resources

• Resource management plan • Alternatives analysis information
.2 Project documents • Cost-benefit analysis .2 Change requests
• Issue log • Performance reviews .3 Project management plan
• Lessons learned register • Trend analysis updates
• Physical resource .2 Problem solving • Resource management plan
assignments .3 Interpersonal and team skills • Schedule baseline
• Project schedule • Negotiation • Cost baseline
• Resource breakdown • Influencing .4 Project documents updates
structure .4 Project management • Assumption log
• Resource requirements information system • Issue log
.3 Work performance data • Physical resource
.4 Agreements assignments
.5 Organizational process assets • Resource breakdown
structure
• Risk register
Figure 9-14. Control Resources: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan
Project management plan 4.5

• Resource management plan Monitor and
Control
Project
Documents
4.6
Perform
Project documents Integrated
• Issue log • Change requests
Change Control
• Physical resource assignments
• Risk register
9.6
Control
• Project
4.3 Resources
charter
Direct and
Manage
Project Work Project
Management
Plan
• Work performance data Project management plan updates
• Cost baseline
12.2
Conduct
Procurements
Project
Documents
• Agreements • Assumption log
• Issue log
• Physical resource assignments
Enterprise/ • Resource breakdown structure
Organization • Risk register
Figure 9-15. Control Resources: Data Flow Diagram

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The Control Resources process should be performed continuously in all project phases and throughout the project
�
life cycle. The resources needed for the project should be assigned and released at the right time, right place, and right
amount for the project to continue without delays. The Control Resources process is concerned with physical resources
such as equipment, materials, facilities, and infrastructure. Team members are addressed in the Manage Team process.
The Control Resources techniques discussed here are those used most frequently on projects. There are many others
that may be useful on certain projects or in some application areas.
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Updating resource allocation requires knowing what actual resources have been used to date and what is still
needed. This is done mainly by reviewing the performance usage to date. Control Resources is concerned with:
Monitoring resource expenditures,
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Identifying and dealing with resource shortage/surplus in a timely manner,

uu
Ensuring that resources are used and released according to the plan and project needs,
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Informing appropriate stakeholders if any issues arise with relevant resources,

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Influencing the factors that can create resources utilization change, and
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Any changes needed to the schedule or cost baselines can be approved only through the Perform Integrated Change
9.6.1 CONTROL RESOURCES: INPUTS
management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1, the resource management plan provides guidance on how physical
resources should be used, controlled, and eventually released.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log is used to identify issues such as lack of resources, delays
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in raw material supplies, or low grades of raw material.
uu
later phases in the project to improve physical resource control.
Physical resource assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. The physical resource assignments describe
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the expected resource utilization along with details such as type, amount, location, and whether the resource is
internal to the organization or outsourced.
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Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule shows the resources that are needed,
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when they are needed, and the location where they are needed.
Resource breakdown structure. Described in Section 9.2.3.3. The resource breakdown structure provides a
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reference in case any resource needs to be replaced or reacquired during the course of the project.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource requirements identify the needed material,
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equipment, supplies, and other resources.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register identifies individual risks that can impact
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equipment, materials, or supplies.
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains data on project status such as the number and type
of resources that have been used.
9.6.1.4 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Agreements made within the context of the project are the basis for all resources
external to the organization and should define procedures when new, unplanned resources are needed or when issues
arise with the current resources.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Resources process include but are not limited to:
Policies regarding resource control and assignment,
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Escalation procedures for handling issues within the performing organization, and
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Lessons learned repository from previous similar projects.

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9.6.2 CONTROL RESOURCES: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Data analysis techniques that can be used in this process include but are not limited to:
Alternatives analysis. Described in Section 9.2.2.5. Alternatives can be analyzed to select the best resolution
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for correcting variances in resource utilization. Alternatives such as paying additional for overtime or additional
team resources can be weighed against a late delivery or phased deliveries.
Cost-benefit analysis. Described in Section 8.1.2.3. This analysis helps to determine the best corrective action
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in terms of cost in case of project deviations.
Performance reviews. Performance reviews measure, compare, and analyze planned resource utilization
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to actual resource utilization. Cost and schedule work performance information can also be analyzed to help
pinpoint issues that can influence resource utilization.
Trend analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. As the project progresses, the project team may use trend analysis,
uu
based on current performance information, to determine the resources needed at upcoming stages of the project.
Trend analysis examines project performance over time and can be used to determine whether performance is
improving or deteriorating.
9.6.2.2 PROBLEM SOLVING
Described in Section 8.2.2.7. Problem solving may use a set of tools that helps the project manager to solve
problems that arise during the control resource process. The problem can come from inside the organization (machines
or infrastructure used by another department in the organization and not released in time, materials that have been
damaged because of unsuitable storage conditions, etc.) or from outside the organization (major supplier that has gone
bankrupt or bad weather that has damaged resources). The project manager should use methodical steps to deal with
problem solving, which can include:
Identify the problem. Specify the problem.
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Define the problem. Break it into smaller, manageable problems.

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Investigate. Collect data.

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Analyze. Find the root cause of the problem.

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Solve. Choose the suitable solution from a variety of available ones.

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Check the solution. Determine if the problem has been fixed.

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Interpersonal and team skills, sometimes known as “soft skills,” are personal competencies. The interpersonal and
team skills used in this process include:
Negotiation. Described in Section 12.2.2.5. The project manager may need to negotiate for additional physical
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resources, changes in physical resources, or costs associated with the resources.
Influencing. Described in Section 9.5.2.1. Influencing can help the project manager solve problems and obtain
uu
the resources needed in a timely manner.
Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems can include resource management or
scheduling software that can be used to monitor the resource utilization which helps ensure that the right resources are
working on the right activities at the right time and place.
9.6.3 CONTROL RESOURCES: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information on how the project work is
progressing by comparing resource requirements and resource allocation to resource utilization across the project
activities. This comparison can show gaps in resource availability that need to be addressed.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. When change requests occur as a result of carrying out the Control Resources process
or when recommended, corrective, or preventive actions impact any of the components of the project management
plan or project documents, the project manager needs to submit a change request. Change requests are processed for
review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6).
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Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan is updated to reflect
uu
actual experience in managing project resources.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. Changes to the project schedule may be required to reflect the
uu
way project resources are being managed.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. Changes to the project cost baseline may be required to reflect the
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way project resources are being managed.
Project documents that may be updated as a result of performing this process include but are not limited to:
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log may be updated with new assumptions
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regarding equipment, materials, supplies, and other physical resources.
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issue log.
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techniques that were effective in managing resource logistics, scrap, utilization variances, and corrective actions
that were used to respond to resource variances.
Physical resource assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.1. Physical resource assignments are dynamic and
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subject to change due to availability, the project, organization, environment, or other factors.
Resource breakdown structure. Described in Section 9.2.3.3. Changes to the resource breakdown structure
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may be required to reflect the way project resources are being used.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register is updated with any new risks associated with
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resource availability, utilization, or other physical resource risks.
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10
PROJE CT CO MMUNICA TIONS M ANAGEM ENT
Project Communications Management includes the processes necessary to ensure that the information needs of
the project and its stakeholders are met through development of artifacts and implementation of activities designed
to achieve effective information exchange. Project Communications Management consists of two parts. The first part
is developing a strategy to ensure communication is effective for stakeholders. The second part is carrying out the
activities necessary to implement the communication strategy.
The Project Communications Management processes are:
10.1 Plan Communications Management—The process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project
communication activities based on the information needs of each stakeholder or group, available organizational assets,
and the needs of the project.
10.2 Manage Communications—The process of ensuring timely and appropriate collection, creation, distribution,
storage, retrieval, management, monitoring, and the ultimate disposition of project information.
10.3 Monitor Communications—The process of ensuring the information needs of the project and its stakeholders
are met.
Figure 10-1 provides an overview of the Project Communications Management processes. The Project
Communications Management processes are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in
practice, they overlap and interact in ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.
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Project Communications
Management Overview
10.1 Plan Communications 10.2 Manage 10.3 Monitor

Management Communications Communications
.3 Project documents .3 Work performance reports .3 Work performance data
.4 Enterprise environmental .4 Enterprise environmental .4 Enterprise environmental
factors factors factors
.5 Organizational process assets .5 Organizational process assets .5 Organizational process assets
.2 Tools & Techniques .2 Tools & Techniques .2 Tools & Techniques
.1 Expert judgment .1 Communication technology .1 Expert judgment
.2 Communication requirements .2 Communication methods .2 Project management
analysis .3 Communication skills information system
.3 Communication technology .4 Project management .3 Data representation
.4 Communication models information system .4 Interpersonal and team skills
.5 Communication methods .5 Project reporting .5 Meetings
.6 Interpersonal and team skills .6 Interpersonal and team skills
.3 Outputs
.7 Data representation .7 Meetings
.8 Meetings
.3 Outputs .2 Change requests
.3 Outputs .1 Project communications .3 Project management plan
.1 Communications management .2 Project management plan updates
plan updates .4 Project documents updates
.2 Project management plan .3 Project documents updates
updates .4 Organizational process assets
.3 Project documents update updates
Figure 10-1. Project Communications Overview
KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT
Communication is the exchange of information, intended or involuntary. The information exchanged can be in the
form of ideas, instructions, or emotions. The mechanisms by which information is exchanged can be in:
Written form. Either physical or electronic.
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Spoken. Either face-to-face or remote.

uu
Formal or informal (as in formal papers or social media).

uu
Through gestures. Tone of voice and facial expressions.

uu
Through media. Pictures, actions, or even just the choice of words.

uu
Choice of words. There is often more than one word to express an idea; there can be subtle differences in the
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meaning of each of these words and phrases.
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Communications describe the possible means by which the information can be sent or received, either through
communication activities, such as meetings and presentations, or artifacts, such as emails, social media, project reports,
or project documentation.
Project managers spend most of their time communicating with team members and other project stakeholders, both
internal (at all organizational levels) and external to the organization. Effective communication builds a bridge between
diverse stakeholders who may have different cultural and organizational backgrounds as well as different levels of
expertise, perspectives, and interests.
Communication activities have many dimensions, including but not limited to:
Internal. Focus on stakeholders within the project and within the organization.
uu
External. Focus on external stakeholders such as customers, vendors, other projects, organizations, government,
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the public, and environmental advocates.
Formal. Reports, formal meetings (both regular and ad hoc), meeting agendas and minutes, stakeholder briefings,
uu
and presentations.
Informal. General communications activities using emails, social media, websites, and informal ad hoc discussions.
uu
Hierarchical focus. The position of the stakeholder or group with respect to the project team will affect the
uu
format and content of the message, in the following ways:
nuUpward. Senior management stakeholders.
nuDownward. The team and others who will contribute to the work of the project.
nuHorizontal. Peers of the project manager or team.
Official. Annual reports; reports to regulators or government bodies.

uu
Unofficial. Communications that focus on establishing and maintaining the profile and recognition of the
uu
project and building strong relationships between the project team and its stakeholders using flexible and
often informal means.
Written and oral. Verbal (words and voice inflections) and nonverbal (body language and actions), social media
uu
and websites, media releases.
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Communication develops the relationships necessary for successful project and program outcomes. Communication
activities and artifacts to support communication vary widely, ranging from emails and informal conversations to
formal meetings and regular project reports. The act of sending and receiving information takes place consciously
or unconsciously through words, facial expressions, gestures and other actions. In the context of successfully
managing project relationships with stakeholders, communication includes developing strategies and plans for suitable
communications artifacts and activities with the stakeholder community and the application of skills to enhance the
effectiveness of the planned and other ad hoc communications.
There are two parts to successful communication. The first part involves developing an appropriate communication
strategy based on both the needs of the project and the project’s stakeholders. From that strategy, a communications
management plan is developed to ensure that the appropriate messages are communicated to stakeholders in
various formats and various means as defined by the communication strategy. These messages constitute the
project’s communications—the second part of successful communication. Project communications are the products
of the planning process, addressed by the communications management plan that defines the collection, creation,
dissemination, storage, retrieval, management, tracking, and disposition of these communications artifacts. Finally,
the communication strategy and communications management plan will form the foundation to monitor the effect of
the communication.
The project’s communications are supported by efforts to prevent misunderstandings and miscommunication and by
careful selection of the methods, messengers, and messages developed from the planning process.
Misunderstandings can be reduced but not eliminated through using the 5Cs of written communications in composing
a traditional (non-social media) written or spoken message:
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Correct grammar and spelling. Poor use of grammar or inaccurate spelling can be distracting and can also
uu
introduce distortions in the message, diminishing credibility.
Concise expression and elimination of excess words. A concise, well-crafted message reduces the
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opportunities for misunderstanding the intent of the message.
Clear purpose and expression directed to the needs of the reader. Ensure that the needs and interests of the
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audience are factored into the message.
Coherent logical flow of ideas. A coherent logical flow of ideas and using “markers” such as introduction and
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summaries of the ideas throughout the writing.
Controlling flow of words and ideas. Controlling the flow of words and ideas may involve graphics or
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just summaries.
The 5Cs of written communications are supported by communication skills, such as:
Listening actively. Staying engaged with the speaker and summarizing conversations to ensure effective
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information exchange.
Awareness of cultural and personal differences. Developing the team’s awareness of cultural and personal
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differences to reduce misunderstandings and enhance communication capability.
Identifying, setting, and managing stakeholder expectations. Negotiating with stakeholders reduces the
uu
existence of conflicting expectations among the stakeholder community.
Enhancement of skills. Enhancing the skills of all team members in the following activities:
uu
nuPersuading a person, a team, or an organization to perform an action;

nuMotivating people and providing encouragement or reassurance;
nuCoaching to improve performance and achieve desired results;
nuNegotiating to achieve mutually acceptable agreements between parties and reduce approval or decision
delays; and
nuResolving conflict to prevent disruptive impacts.
The fundamental attributes of effective communication activities and developing effective communication
artifacts are:
�
nuClarity on the purpose of the communication—defining its purpose;

�
nuUnderstanding as much as possible about the receiver of the communications, meeting needs, and
preferences; and
nuMonitoring and measuring the effectiveness of the communications.
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TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT
Along with a focus on stakeholders and recognition of the value to projects and organizations of effective stakeholder
engagement comes the recognition that developing and implementing appropriate communication strategies is vital
to maintaining effective relationships with stakeholders. Trends and emerging practices for Project Communications
Management include but are not limited to:
Inclusion of stakeholders in project reviews. The stakeholder community of each project includes individuals,
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groups, and organizations that the project team has identified as essential to the successful delivery of project
objectives and organizational outcomes. An effective communication strategy requires regular and timely reviews
of the stakeholder community and updates to manage changes in its membership and attitudes.
Inclusion of stakeholders in project meetings. Project meetings should include stakeholders from outside
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the project and even the organization, where appropriate. Practices inherent in the agile approaches can be
applied to all types of projects. Practices often include short, daily standup meetings, where the achievements
and issues of the previous day, and plans for the current day’s work, are discussed with the project team and
key stakeholders.
Increased use of social computing. Social computing in the form of infrastructure, social media services,
uu
and personal devices has changed how organizations and their people communicate and do business. Social
computing incorporates different approaches to collaboration supported by public IT infrastructure. Social
networking refers to how users build networks of relationships to explore their interests and activities with
others. Social media tools can not only support information exchange, but also build relationships accompanied
by deeper levels of trust and community.
Multifaceted approaches to communication. The standard communication strategy for project stakeholder
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communications embraces and selects from all technologies and respects cultural, practical, and personal
preferences for language, media, content, and delivery. When appropriate, social media and other advanced
computing technologies may be included. Multifaceted approaches such as these are more effective for
communicating to stakeholders from different generations and cultures.
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Because each project is unique, the project team will need to tailor the way that Project Communications Management
Stakeholders. Are the stakeholders internal or external to the organization, or both?
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Physical location. What is the physical location of team members? Is the team colocated? Is the team in the
uu
same geographical area? Is the team distributed across multiple time zones?
Communications technology. What technology is available to develop, record, transmit, retrieve, track, and
uu
store communication artifacts? What technologies are most appropriate and cost effective for communicating to
stakeholders?
Language. Language is a main factor to consider in communication activities. Is one language used? Or are
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many languages used? Have allowances been made to adjust to the complexity of team members from diverse
language groups?
Knowledge management. Does the organization have a formal knowledge management repository? Is the
uu
repository used?
Project environments subject to various elements of ambiguity and change have an inherent need to communicate
evolving and emerging details more frequently and quickly. This motivates streamlining team member access to
information, frequent team checkpoints, and colocating team members as much as possible.
In addition, posting project artifacts in a transparent fashion, and holding regular stakeholder reviews are intended to
promote communication with management and stakeholders.
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10.1 PLAN COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT
Plan Communications Management is the process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project
communications activities based on the information needs of each stakeholder or group, available organizational
assets, and the needs of the project. The key benefit of this process is a documented approach to effectively and
efficiently engage stakeholders by presenting relevant information in a timely manner. This process is performed
periodically throughout the project as needed. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted
in Figure 10-2. Figure 10-3 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Plan Communications Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Communications management
.2 Project management plan .2 Communication requirements plan
• Resource management plan analysis .2 Project management plan
• Stakeholder engagement .3 Communication technology updates
plan .4 Communication models • Stakeholder engagement
.3 Project documents .5 Communication methods plan
• Requirements .6 Interpersonal and team skills .3 Project documents updates
documentation • Communication styles • Project schedule
• Stakeholder register assessment • Stakeholder register
.4 Enterprise environmental • Political awareness
factors • Cultural awareness
.5 Organizational process assets .7 Data representation
• Stakeholder engagement
assessment matrix
.8 Meetings
Figure 10-2. Plan Communications Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop
Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project
Management
Plan
• Communications management plan

• Resource management plan 10.1 Project
• Stakeholder engagement plan Plan Management
• Project
Communications Plan
charter
Management Project management
plan updates
• Stakeholder
Project engagement plan
Documents
Project
Project documents
Documents
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 10-3. Plan Communications Management: Data Flow Diagram
An effective communications management plan that recognizes the diverse information needs of the project’s
stakeholders is developed early in the project life cycle. It should be reviewed regularly and modified when necessary,
when the stakeholder community changes or at the start of each new project phase.
On most projects, communications planning is performed very early, during stakeholder identification and project
management plan development.
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While all projects share the need to communicate project information, the information needs and methods of distribution
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may vary widely. In addition, the methods of storage, retrieval, and ultimate disposition of the project information need
to be considered and documented during this process. The results of the Plan Communications Management process
should be reviewed regularly throughout the project and revised as needed to ensure continued applicability.
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10.1.1 PLAN COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter identifies the key stakeholder list. It may also contain information
about the roles and responsibilities of the stakeholders.
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. Provides guidance on how team resources will
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be categorized, allocated, managed, and released. Team members and groups may have communication
requirements that should be identified in the communications management plan.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan identifies
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the management strategies required to effectively engage stakeholders. These strategies are often fulfilled via
communications.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation can include project
uu
stakeholder communications.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register is used to plan communications
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activities with stakeholders.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Communications Management process include but
are not limited to:
Organizational culture, political climate, and governance framework;
uu
Personnel administration policies;

uu
Stakeholder risk thresholds;

uu
Established communication channels, tools, and systems;

uu
Global, regional, or local trends, practices, or habits; and

uu
Geographic distribution of facilities and resources.

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Communications Management process include but are
not limited to:
Organizational policies and procedures for social media, ethics, and security;
uu
Organizational policies and procedures for issue, risk, change, and data management;
uu
Organizational communication requirements;

uu
Standardized guidelines for development, exchange, storage, and retrieval of information;

uu
Historical information and lessons learned repository; and

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Stakeholder and communications data and information from previous projects.

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10.1.2 PLAN COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
knowledge or training in the following topics:
Politics and power structures in the organization;
uu
Environment and culture of the organization and other customer organizations;

uu
Organizational change management approach and practices;

uu
Industry or type of project deliverables;

uu
Organizational communications technologies;

uu
Organizational policies and procedures regarding legal requirements of corporate communications;

uu
Organizational policies and procedures regarding security; and

uu
Stakeholders, including customers or sponsors.

uu
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10.1.2.2 COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS
Analysis of communication requirements determines the information needs of the project stakeholders. These
requirements are defined by combining the type and format of information needed with an analysis of the value of
that information.
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Sources of information typically used to identify and define project communication requirements include but are not
limited to:
Stakeholder information and communication requirements from within the stakeholder register and stakeholder
uu
engagement plan;
Number of potential communication channels or paths, including one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many
uu
communications;
Organizational charts;
uu
Project organization and stakeholder responsibility, relationships, and interdependencies;

uu
Development approach;
uu
Disciplines, departments, and specialties involved in the project;

uu
Logistics of how many persons will be involved with the project and at which locations;
uu
Internal information needs (e.g., when communicating within organizations);

uu
External information needs (e.g., when communicating with the media, public, or contractors); and
uu
Legal requirements.
uu
The methods used to transfer information among project stakeholders may vary significantly. Common methods
used for information exchange and collaboration include conversations, meetings, written documents, databases, social
media, and websites.
Factors that can affect the choice of communication technology include:
Urgency of the need for information. The urgency, frequency, and format of the information to be communicated
uu
may vary from project to project and also within different phases of a project.
Availability and reliability of technology. The technology that is required for distribution of project
uu
communications artifacts should be compatible, available, and accessible for all stakeholders throughout
the project.
Ease of use. The choice of communication technologies should be suitable for project participants and proper
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training events should be planned, where appropriate.
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Project environment. Whether the team will meet and operate on a face-to-face basis or in a virtual environment;
uu
whether they will be located in one or multiple time zones; whether they will use multiple languages for
communication; and finally, whether there are any other project environmental factors, such as various aspects
of culture, which may constrain the efficiency of the communication.
Sensitivity and confidentiality of the information. Some aspects to consider are:
uu
nuWhether information to be communicated is sensitive or confidential. If so, additional security measures may
be required.
nuSocial media policies for employees to ensure appropriate behavior, security, and the protection of
proprietary information.
10.1.2.4 COMMUNICATION MODELS
Communication models can represent the communication process in its most basic linear form (sender and receiver),
in a more interactive form that encompasses the additional element of feedback (sender, receiver, and feedback), or in
a more complex model that incorporates the human elements of the sender(s) or receiver(s) and attempts to show the
complexity of any communication that involves people.
Sample basic sender/receiver communication model. This model describes communication as a process
uu
and consists of two parties, defined as the sender and receiver. This model is concerned with ensuring that the
message is delivered, rather than understood. The sequence of steps in a basic communication model is:
nuEncode. The message is coded into symbols, such as text, sound or some other medium for transmission
(sending).
nuTransmit message. The message is sent via a communication channel. The transmission of this message
may be compromised by various physical factors such as unfamiliar technology or inadequate infrastructure.
Noise and other factors may be present and contribute to loss of information in transmission and/or reception
of the message.
nuDecode. The data received is translated by the receiver back into a form useful to the receiver.
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Sample interactive communication model. This model also describes communication as a process consisting
uu
of two parties, the sender and receiver, but recognizes the need to ensure that the message has been understood.
In this model, noise includes any interference or barriers that might compromise the understanding of the
message, such as the distraction of the receiver, variations in the perceptions of receivers, or lack of appropriate
knowledge or interest. The additional steps in an interactive communication model are:
nuAcknowledge. Upon receipt of a message, the receiver may signal (acknowledge) receipt of the message, but
this does not necessarily mean agreement with or comprehension of the message—merely that it has been
received.
nuFeedback/response. When the received message has been decoded and understood, the receiver
encodes thoughts and ideas into a message and then transmits this message to the original sender. If
the sender perceives that the feedback matches the original message, the communication has been
successful. In communication between people, feedback can be achieved through active listening,
described in Section 10.2.2.6.
As part of the communication process, the sender is responsible for the transmission of the message, ensuring
the information being communicated is clear and complete, and confirming the message is correctly interpreted.
The receiver is responsible for ensuring that the information is received in its entirety, interpreted correctly, and
acknowledged or responded to appropriately. These components take place in an environment where there will
likely be noise and other barriers to effective communication.
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Cross-cultural communication presents challenges to ensuring that the meaning of the message has been
understood. Differences in communication styles can arise from differences in working methods, age, nationality,
professional discipline, ethnicity, race, or gender. People from different cultures communicate using different languages
(e.g., technical design documents, different styles) and expect different processes and protocols.
The communication model shown in Figure 10-4 incorporates the idea that the message itself and how it is
transmitted are influenced by the sender’s current emotional state, knowledge, background, personality, culture, and
biases. Similarly, the receiver’s emotional state knowledge, background, personality, culture, and biases will influence
how the message is received and interpreted, and will contribute to the barriers or noise.
This communication model and its enhancements can assist in developing communication strategies and plans for
person-to-person or even small group to small group communications. It is not useful for other communications artifacts
such as emails, broadcast messages, or social media.
Transmit
Message
Current Current
Emotional Emotional
State Encode Noise Decode State
Culture: Acknowledge Culture:
Noise
• Generational Message • Generational
• National • National
• Professional Sender Receiver • Professional
Medium
discipline discipline
• Gender • Gender
Personality Decode Encode Personality
biases Feedback biases
(assumptions) Noise Message (assumptions)
Figure 10-4. Communication Model for Cross-Cultural Communication

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10.1.2.5 COMMUNICATION METHODS
There are several communication methods that are used to share information among project stakeholders. These
methods are broadly classified as follows:
Interactive communication. Between two or more parties performing a multidirectional exchange of information
uu
in real time. It employs communications artifacts such as meetings, phone calls, instant messaging, some forms
of social media, and videoconferencing.
Push communication. Sent or distributed directly to specific recipients who need to receive the information.
uu
This ensures that the information is distributed but does not ensure that it actually reached or was understood
by the intended audience. Push communications artifacts include letters, memos, reports, emails, faxes, voice
mails, blogs, and press releases.
Pull communication. Used for large complex information sets, or for large audiences, and requires the recipients
uu
to access content at their own discretion subject to security procedures. These methods include web portals,
intranet sites, e-learning, lessons learned databases, or knowledge repositories.
Different approaches should be applied to meet the needs of the major forms of communication defined in the
communications management plan:
Interpersonal communication. Information is exchanged between individuals, typically face-to-face.
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Small group communication. Occurs within groups of around three to six people.
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Public communication. A single speaker addressing a group of people.

uu
Mass communication. There is a minimal connection between the person or group sending the message and
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the large, sometimes anonymous groups for whom the information is intended.
Networks and social computing communication. Supports emerging communication trends of many-to-many
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supported by social computing technology and media.
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Possible communications artifacts and methods include but are not limited to:
Notice boards,
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Newsletters/in-house magazines/e-magazines,
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Letters to staff/volunteers,
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Press releases,
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Annual reports,
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Emails and intranets,

uu
Web portals and other information repositories (for pull communication)

uu
Phone conversations,
uu
Presentations,
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Team briefings/group meetings,

uu
Focus groups,
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Face-to-face formal or informal meetings between various stakeholders,

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Consultation groups or staff forums, and

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Social computing technology and media.

uu
Communication styles assessment. A technique used to assess communication styles and identify the
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preferred communication method, format, and content for planned communication activities. Often used with
unsupportive stakeholders, this assessment may follow a stakeholder engagement assessment (described in
Section 13.2.2.5) to identify gaps in stakeholder engagement that require additional tailored communication
activities and artifacts.
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Political awareness. Political awareness helps the project manager to plan communications based on the project
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environment as well as the organization’s political environment. Political awareness concerns the recognition of
power relationships, both formal and informal, and also the willingness to operate within these structures. An
understanding of the strategies of the organization, knowing who wields power and influence in this arena, and
developing an ability to communicate with these stakeholders are all aspects of political awareness.
Cultural awareness. Cultural awareness is an understanding of the differences between individuals, groups,
uu
and organizations and adapting the project’s communication strategy in the context of these differences. This
awareness and any consequent actions minimize misunderstandings and miscommunication that may result from
cultural differences within the project’s stakeholder community. Cultural awareness and cultural sensitivity help
the project manager to plan communications based on the cultural differences and requirements of stakeholders
and team members.
A data representation technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to a stakeholder
engagement assessment matrix. Described in Section 13.2.2.5. The stakeholder engagement assessment matrix,
shown in Figure 13-6, displays gaps between current and desired engagement levels of individual stakeholders, it can
be further analyzed in this process to identify additional communication requirements (beyond the regular reports) as a
method to close any engagement level gaps.
10.1.2.8 MEETINGS
Project meetings can include virtual (e-meetings) or face-to-face meetings, and can be supported with document
collaboration technologies, including email messages and project websites. The Plan Communications Management
process requires discussion with the project team to determine the most appropriate way to update and communicate
project information, and to respond to requests from various stakeholders for information.
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10.1.3 PLAN COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
10.1.3.1 COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT PLAN
The communications management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how project
communications will be planned, structured, implemented, and monitored for effectiveness. The plan contains the
following information:
Stakeholder communication requirements;
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Information to be communicated, including language, format, content, and level of detail;

uu
Escalation processes;
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Reason for the distribution of that information;

uu
Timeframe and frequency for the distribution of required information and receipt of acknowledgment or response,
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if applicable;
Person responsible for communicating the information;
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Person responsible for authorizing release of confidential information;

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Person or groups who will receive the information, including information about their needs, requirements, and
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expectations;
Methods or technologies used to convey the information, such as memos, email, press releases, or social media;
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Resources allocated for communication activities, including time and budget;

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Method for updating and refining the communications management plan as the project progresses and develops,
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such as when the stakeholder community changes as the project moves through different phases;
Glossary of common terminology;
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Flow charts of the information flow in the project, workflows with possible sequence of authorization, list of
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reports, meeting plans, etc.; and
Constraints derived from specific legislation or regulation, technology, organizational policies, etc.
uu
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The communications management plan can include guidelines and templates for project status meetings, project
team meetings, e-meetings, and email messages. The use of a project website and project management software can
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be included if these are to be used in the project.
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request. Components that may require a change request for the project management plan include but are not limited
to the stakeholder engagement plan, which is described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan is
updated to reflect any processes, procedures, tools, or techniques that affect the engagement of stakeholders in project
decisions and execution.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule may be updated to reflect communication
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activities.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1.The stakeholder register may be updated to reflect
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communications planned.
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10.2 MANAGE COMMUNICATIONS
Manage Communications is the process of ensuring timely and appropriate collection, creation, distribution, storage,
retrieval, management, monitoring, and the ultimate disposition of project information. The key benefit of this process is
that it enables an efficient and effective information flow between the project team and the stakeholders. This process
is performed throughout the project.
The Manage Communications process identifies all aspects of effective communication, including choice of
appropriate technologies, methods, and techniques. In addition, it should allow for flexibility in the communications
activities, allowing adjustments in the methods and techniques to accommodate the changing needs of stakeholders
and the project. The inputs, tools, techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 10-5. Figure 10-6
depicts the data flow diagram of the Manage Communications process.
Manage Communications

.1 Project management plan .1 Communication technology .1 Project communications
• Resource management plan .2 Communication methods .2 Project management plan
• Communications .3 Communication skills updates
management plan • Communication competence • Communications
• Stakeholder engagement • Feedback management plan
plan • Nonverbal • Stakeholder engagement
.2 Project documents • Presentations plan
• Change log .4 Project management .3 Project documents updates
• Issue log information system • Issue log
• Lessons learned register .5 Project reporting • Lessons learned register
• Quality report .6 Interpersonal and team skills • Project schedule
• Risk report • Active listening • Risk register
• Stakeholder register • Conflict management • Stakeholder register
.3 Work performance reports • Cultural awareness .4 Organizational process
.4 Enterprise environmental • Meeting management assets updates
factors • Networking
.5 Organizational process assets • Political awareness
.7 Meetings
Figure 10-5. Manage Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan
Project management plan • Project communications

Project
Documents
Project • Issue log
Documents • Lessons learned register
• Risk register
Project documents
• Change log
• Issue log
• Lessons learned register 10.2 Project
• Quality report Manage
• Project
Management
• Risk report Communications
charter
Plan
Project management
• Stakeholder register plan updates
• Communications
management plan
4.5 • Stakeholder
Monitor and engagement plan
Control
Project Work
Enterprise/
Organization
assets updates
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 10-6. Manage Communications: Data Flow Diagram
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This process goes beyond the distribution of relevant information and seeks to ensure that the information being
communicated to project stakeholders has been appropriately generated and formatted, and received by the intended
audience. It also provides opportunities for stakeholders to make requests for further information, clarification, and
discussion. Techniques and considerations for effective communications management include but are not limited to:
Sender-receiver models. Incorporating feedback loops to provide opportunities for interaction/participation and
uu
remove barriers to effective communication.
Choice of media. Decisions about application of communications artifacts to meet specific project needs, such
uu
as when to communicate in writing versus orally, when to prepare an informal memo versus a formal report, and
when to use push/pull options and the choice of appropriate technology.
Writing style. Appropriate use of active versus passive voice, sentence structure, and word choice.
uu
Meeting management. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Preparing an agenda, inviting essential participants, and
uu
ensuring they attend. Dealing with conflicts within the meeting or resulting from inadequate follow-up of minutes
and actions, or attendance of the wrong people.
Presentations. Awareness of the impact of body language and design of visual aids.
uu
Facilitation. Described in Section 4.1.2.3. Building consensus and overcoming obstacles such as difficult group
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dynamics, and maintaining interest and enthusiasm among group members.
Active listening. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Listening actively involves acknowledging, clarifying and
uu
confirming, understanding, and removing barriers that adversely affect comprehension.
10.2.1 MANAGE COMMUNICATIONS: INPUTS
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan describes the
uu
communications that are needed for management of team or physical resources.
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. The communications management plan
uu
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describes how project communications will be planned, structured, monitored, and controlled.
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Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in detail in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan
uu
describes how stakeholders will be engaged through appropriate communication strategies.
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Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to
Change log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. The change log is used to communicate changes and approved,
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deferred, and rejected change requests to the impacted stakeholders.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. Information about issues is communicated to impacted stakeholders.
uu
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managing communications can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the efficiency and effectiveness
of communications and the communication process.
Quality report. Described in Section 8.2.3.1. Information in the quality report includes quality issues, project
uu
and product improvements, and process improvements. This information is forwarded to those who can take
corrective actions in order to achieve the project quality expectations.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report presents information on sources of overall project
uu
risk, together with summary information on identified individual project risks. This information is communicated
to risk owners and other impacted stakeholders.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register identifies the individuals, groups,
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or organizations that will need various types of information.
Described in Section 4.5.3.1. Work performance reports are circulated to the project stakeholders through this
process as defined in the communications management plan. Examples of work performance reports include status
reports and progress reports. Work performance reports can contain earned value graphs and information, trend lines
and forecasts, reserve burndown charts, defect histograms, contract performance information, and risk summaries.
They can be presented as dashboards, heat reports, stop light charts, or other representations useful for creating
awareness and generating decisions and actions.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence this process include but are not limited to:
uu

uu

uu

uu
Global, regional, or local trends and practices or habits; and

uu

uu
The organizational process assets that can influence this process include but are not limited to:
Corporate policies and procedures for social media, ethics, and security;
uu
Corporate policies and procedures for issue, risk, change, and data management;
uu

uu
Standardized guidelines for development, exchange, storage, and retrieval of information; and
uu
Historical information from previous projects, including the lessons learned repository.
uu
10.2.2 MANAGE COMMUNICATIONS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Described in Section 10.1.2.3. Factors that influence the technology include whether the team is colocated, the
confidentiality of any information that needs to be shared, resources available to the team members, and how the
organization’s culture influences the way in which meetings and discussions are normally conducted.
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10.2.2.2 COMMUNICATION METHODS

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Described in Section 10.1.2.5. The choice of communication methods should allow flexibility in the event that the
membership of the stakeholder community changes or their needs and expectations change.
383
10.2.2.3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Communication techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Communication competence. A combination of tailored communication skills that considers factors such as
uu
clarity of purpose in key messages, effective relationships and information sharing, and leadership behaviors.
Feedback. Feedback is information about reactions to communications, a deliverable, or a situation. Feedback
uu
supports interactive communication between the project manager, team and all other project stakeholders.
Examples include coaching, mentoring, and negotiating.
Nonverbal. Examples of nonverbal communication include appropriate body language to transmit meaning
uu
through gestures, tone of voice, and facial expressions. Mirroring and eye contact are also important techniques.
The team members should be aware of how they are expressing themselves both through what they say and
what they don’t say.
Presentations. A presentation is the formal delivery of information and/or documentation. Clear and effective
uu
presentations of project information to relevant stakeholders can include but are not limited to:
nuProgress reports and information updates to stakeholders;
nuBackground information to support decision making;
nuGeneral information about the project and its objectives, for the purposes of raising the profile of the work of
the project and the team; and
nuSpecific information aimed at increasing understanding and support of the work and objectives of the project.
Presentations will be successful when the content and delivery take the following into account:
nuThe audience, their expectations, and needs; and
nuThe needs and objectives of the project and project team.
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Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems can ensure that stakeholders can easily
retrieve the information they need in a timely way. Project information is managed and distributed using a variety of
tools, including:
Electronic project management tools. Project management software, meeting and virtual office support
uu
software, web interfaces, specialized project portals and dashboards, and collaborative work management tools.
Electronic communications management. Email, fax, and voice mail; audio, video and web conferencing; and
uu
websites and web publishing.
Social media management. Websites and web publishing; and blogs and applications, which offer the
uu
opportunity to engage with stakeholders and form online communities.
10.2.2.5 PROJECT REPORTING
Project reporting is the act of collecting and distributing project information. Project information is distributed to
many groups of stakeholders and should be adapted to provide information at an appropriate level, format, and detail
for each type of stakeholder. The format may range from a simple communication to more elaborate custom reports
and presentations. Information may be prepared regularly or on an exception basis. While work performance reports are
the output of the Monitor and Control Project Work process, this process develops ad hoc reports, project presentations,
blogs, and other types of communication about the project.
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Active listening. Techniques of active listening involve acknowledging, clarifying and confirming, understanding,
uu
and removing barriers that adversely affect comprehension.
Conflict management. Described in Section 9.5.2.1.
uu
Cultural awareness. Described in Section 10.1.2.6.

uu
Meeting management. Meeting management is taking steps to ensure meetings meet their intended objectives
uu
effectively and efficiently. The following steps should be used for meeting planning:
nuPrepare and distribute the agenda stating the objectives of the meeting.
nuEnsure that the meetings start and finish at the published time.
nuEnsure the appropriate participants are invited and attend.
nuStay on topic.
nuManage expectations, issues, and conflicts during the meeting.
nuRecord all actions and those who have been allocated the responsibility for completing the action.
Networking. Networking is interacting with others to exchange information and develop contacts. Networks
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provide project managers and their teams with access to informal organizations to solve problems, influence
actions of their stakeholders, and increase stakeholder support for the work and outcomes of the project, thus
improving performance.
Political awareness. Described in Section 10.1.2.6. Political awareness assists the project manager in engaging
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stakeholders appropriately to maintain their support throughout the project.
10.2.2.7 MEETINGS
Meetings support the actions defined in the communication strategy and communications plan.
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10.2.3 MANAGE COMMUNICATIONS: OUTPUTS
10.2.3.1 PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS
Project communications artifacts may include but are not limited to: performance reports, deliverable status, schedule
progress, cost incurred, presentations, and other information required by stakeholders.
request. Components of the project management plan that may be updated as a result of carrying out this process
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. When changes are made to the
uu
project communications approach as a result of this process, these changes are reflected in the project
communications plan.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. Stakeholder communication requirements and
uu
agreed-upon communications strategies are updated as a result of this process.
Issue log. Described in Sections 4.3.3.3. The issue log is updated to reflect any communication issues on the
uu
project, or how any communications have been used to impact active issues.
uu
on challenges encountered and how they could have been avoided as well as approaches that worked well and
what did not work well for managing communications.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule may be updated to reflect the status of
uu
communication activities.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register is updated to capture risks associated with
uu
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managing communications.
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Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register can be updated to include
uu
information regarding communications activities with project stakeholders.
387
Organizational process assets that may be updated as a result of this process include but are not limited to:
Project records such as correspondence, memos, meeting minutes and other documents used on the project; and
uu
Planned and ad hoc project reports and presentations.

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10.3 MONITOR COMMUNICATIONS

Monitor Communications is the process of ensuring the information needs of the project and its stakeholders are met.
The key benefit of this process is the optimal information flow as defined in the communications management plan and
the stakeholder engagement plan. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques,
and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 10-7. Figure 10-8 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Monitor Communications

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Work performance
• Resource management plan .2 Project management information
• Communications information system .2 Change requests
management plan .3 Data analysis .3 Project management plan
• Stakeholder engagement • Stakeholder engagement updates
plan assessment matrix • Communications
.2 Project documents .4 Interpersonal and team skills management plan
• Issue log • Observation/conversation • Stakeholder engagement
• Lessons learned register .5 Meetings plan
• Project communications .4 Project documents updates
.3 Work performance data • Issue log
.4 Enterprise environmental • Lessons learned register
factors • Stakeholder register
Figure 10-7. Monitor Communications: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management 4.5
Plan Monitor and
• Work performance information Control
Project Work
4.6
Perform
Integrated
Project
Documents
Project documents 10.3 Project

• Issue log Monitor
• Project
Management
• Lessons learned register Communications
charter
Plan
Project management
plan updates
• Communications
management plan
4.3 • Stakeholder
Direct and engagement plan
Manage
Documents
Project documents updates:
• Work performance reports • Issue log
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 10-8. Monitor Communications: Data Flow Diagram
Monitor Communications determines if the planned communications artifacts and activities have had the desired
effect of increasing or maintaining stakeholders’ support for the project’s deliverables and expected outcomes. The
impact and consequences of project communications should be carefully evaluated and monitored to ensure that the
right message with the right content (the same meaning for sender and receiver) is delivered to the right audience,
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through the right channel, and at the right time. Monitor Communications may require a variety of methods, such as
customer satisfaction surveys, collecting lessons learned, observations of the team, reviewing data from the issue log,
�
or evaluating changes in the stakeholder engagement assessment matrix described in Section 13.2.2.5.
The Monitor Communications process can trigger an iteration of the Plan Communications Management and/or
Manage Communications processes to improve effectiveness of communication through additional and possibly amended
communications plans and activities. Such iterations illustrate the continuous nature of the Project Communications
Management processes. Issues or key performance indicators, risks, or conflicts may trigger an immediate revision.
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10.3.1 MONITOR COMMUNICATIONS: INPUTS
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan can be used to
uu
understand the actual project organization and any changes through understanding of roles and responsibilities
and the project organization charts.
uu
contains the current plan for collecting, creating, and distributing information in a timely manner. It identifies the
team members, stakeholders, and the work involved in the communication process.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan identifies the
uu
communication strategies that are planned to engage stakeholders.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log provides the project’s history, a record of stakeholder
uu
engagement issues, and how they were resolved.
uu
later phases in the project to improve communication effectiveness.
Project communications. Described in Section 10.2.3.1. Provides information about communications that have
uu
been distributed.
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains data on the types and quantities of communications
that have actually been distributed.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Monitor Communications process include but are not
limited to:
uu

uu

uu

uu
The organizational process assets that may influence the Monitor Communications process include but are not
limited to:
uu

uu

uu
Historical information and lessons learned repository from previous projects; and
uu
Stakeholder and communications data and information from previous projects.

uu
10.3.2 MONITOR COMMUNICATIONS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Communications with the public, the community, and the media, and, in an international environment, between
uu
virtual groups; and
Communications and project management systems.
uu
391
Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems provides a set of standard tools for the
project manager to capture, store, and distribute information to internal and external stakeholders with the information
they need according the communications plan. The information contained in the system is monitored to assess its
validity and effectiveness.
A data representation technique that can be used includes but is not limited to the stakeholder engagement
assessment matrix (Section 13.2.2.5), which can provide information about the effectiveness of the communications
activities. This is achieved by reviewing changes between desired and current engagement and adjusting
communications as necessary.
Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process include but are not limited to observation/conversation
as described in Section 5.2.2.6. Discussion and dialogue with the project team helps determine the most appropriate
way to update and communicate project performance, and to respond to requests from stakeholders for information.
Observation and conversation enables the project manager to identify issues within the team, conflicts between people,
or individual performance issues.
10.3.2.5 MEETINGS
Face-to-face or virtual meetings are used for decision making; responding to stakeholder requests; and having
discussions with suppliers, vendors, and other project stakeholders.
10.3.3 MONITOR COMMUNICATIONS: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information on how project communication is
performing by comparing the communications that were implemented compared to those that were planned. It also
considers feedback on communications, such as survey results on communication effectiveness.
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Described in Section 4.3.3.4. The Monitor Communications process often results in the need for adjustment, action,
and intervention on communications activities defined in the communications management plan. Change requests are
processed through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6).
These change requests may result in:
Revision of stakeholder communication requirements, including stakeholders’ information distribution, content or
uu
format, and distribution method; and
New procedures to eliminate bottlenecks.
uu
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. The communications management plan is
uu
updated with new information to make communication more effective.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan is updated to
uu
reflect the actual situation of stakeholders, their communication needs, and their importance.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log may be updated with new information on issues raised,
uu
their progress, and resolution.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register may be updated with
uu
causes of issues, reasons behind the corrective actions chosen, and other communication lessons learned
as appropriate.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register may be updated with revised
uu
stakeholder communication requirements.
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11
PROJE CT R I SK MANA GEM ENT
Project Risk Management includes the processes of conducting risk management planning, identification, analysis,
response planning, response implementation, and monitoring risk on a project. The objectives of project risk management
are to increase the probability and/or impact of positive risks and to decrease the probability and/or impact of negative
risks, in order to optimize the chances of project success.
The Project Risk Management processes are:
11.1 Plan Risk Management—The process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a project.
11.2 Identify Risks—The process of identifying individual project risks as well as sources of overall project risk,
and documenting their characteristics.
11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis—The process of prioritizing individual project risks for further analysis
or action by assessing their probability of occurrence and impact as well as other characteristics.
11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis—The process of numerically analyzing the combined effect of identified
individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty on overall project objectives.
11.5 Plan Risk Responses—The process of developing options, selecting strategies, and agreeing on actions to
address overall project risk exposure, as well as to treat individual project risks.
11.6 Implement Risk Responses—The process of implementing agreed-upon risk response plans.
11.7 Monitor Risks—The process of monitoring the implementation of agreed-upon risk response plans,
tracking identified risks, identifying and analyzing new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout
the project.
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Figure 11-1 provides an overview of the Project Risk Management processes. The Project Management Risk processes
�
are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in practice, they overlap and interact in ways that
cannot be completely detailed in this PMBOK® Guide.
395
Project Risk
Management Overview
11.1 Plan 11.3 Perform 11.4 Perform

11.2 Identify Risks
Risk Management Qualitative Risk Analysis Quantitative Risk Analysis
.1 Project charter .1 Project management plan .1 Project management plan .1 Project management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Project documents .2 Project documents .2 Project documents
.3 Project documents .3 Agreements .3 Enterprise environmental .3 Enterprise environmental
.4 Enterprise environmental .4 Procurement factors factors
factors documentation .4 Organizational process .4 Organizational process
.5 Organizational process .5 Enterprise environmental assets assets
assets factors
.2 Tools & Techniques .1 Expert judgment .1 Expert judgment
assets
.1 Expert judgment .2 Data gathering .2 Data gathering
.2 Data analysis .2 Tools & Techniques .3 Data analysis .3 Interpersonal and team
.3 Meetings .1 Expert judgment .4 Interpersonal and team skills
.2 Data gathering skills .4 Representations of
.3 Outputs .3 Data analysis .5 Risk categorization uncertainty
.1 Risk management plan .4 Interpersonal and team .6 Data representation .5 Data analysis
skills .7 Meetings
.5 Prompt lists .3 Outputs
.6 Meetings .3 Outputs .1 Project documents
11.5 Plan .1 Project documents updates updates
. 3 Outputs
Risk Responses .1 Risk register
.2 Risk report
1 Inputs
updates 11.7 Monitor Risks
factors .1 Inputs
.4 Organizational process .1 Project management plan
assets 11.6 Implement .2 Project documents
Risk Responses .3 Work performance data
.4 Work performance reports
.1 Expert judgment .1 Inputs
.2 Data gathering .1 Project management plan .2 Tools & Techniques
.3 Interpersonal and team .2 Project documents .1 Data analysis
skills .3 Organizational process .2 Audits
.4 Strategies for threats assets .3 Meetings
.5 Strategies for opportunities
.2 Tools & Techniques .3 Outputs
.6 Contingent response
.1 Expert judgment .1 Work performance
strategies
.2 Interpersonal and team information
.7 Strategies for overall
skills .2 Change requests
project risk
.3 Project management .3 Project management plan
.8 Data analysis
information system updates
.9 Decision making
.3 Outputs .3 Outputs .5 Organizational process
.1 Change requests .1 Change requests assets updates
updates
Figure 11-1. Project Risk Management Overview
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KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT
All projects are risky since they are unique undertakings with varying degrees of complexity that aim to deliver
benefits. They do this in a context of constraints and assumptions, while responding to stakeholder expectations that
may be conflicting and changing. Organizations should choose to take project risk in a controlled and intentional manner
in order to create value while balancing risk and reward.
Project Risk Management aims to identify and manage risks that are not addressed by the other project management
processes. When unmanaged, these risks have the potential to cause the project to deviate from the plan and fail to
achieve the defined project objectives. Consequently, the effectiveness of Project Risk Management is directly related
to project success.
Risk exists at two levels within every project. Each project contains individual risks that can affect the achievement of
project objectives. It is also important to consider the riskiness of the overall project, which arises from the combination
of individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty. Project Risk Management processes address both levels of
risk in projects, and these are defined as follows:
Individual project risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on
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one or more project objectives.
Overall project risk is the effect of uncertainty on the project as a whole, arising from all sources of uncertainty
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including individual risks, representing the exposure of stakeholders to the implications of variations in project
outcome, both positive and negative.
Individual project risks can have a positive or negative effect on project objectives if they occur. Project Risk
Management aims to exploit or enhance positive risks (opportunities) while avoiding or mitigating negative risks
(threats). Unmanaged threats may result in issues or problems such as delay, cost overruns, performance shortfall,
or loss of reputation. Opportunities that are captured can lead to benefits such as reduced time and cost, improved
performance, or reputation.
Overall project risk can also be positive or negative. Management of overall project risk aims to keep project risk
exposure within an acceptable range by reducing drivers of negative variation, promoting drivers of positive variation,
and maximizing the probability of achieving overall project objectives.
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Risks will continue to emerge during the lifetime of the project, so Project Risk Management processes should be conducted
iteratively. Risk is initially addressed during project planning by shaping the project strategy. Risk should also be monitored and
managed as the project progresses to ensure that the project stays on track and emergent risks are addressed.
In order to manage risk effectively on a particular project, the project team needs to know what level of risk exposure
is acceptable in pursuit of the project objectives. This is defined by measurable risk thresholds that reflect the risk
appetite of the organization and project stakeholders. Risk thresholds express the degree of acceptable variation around
a project objective. They are explicitly stated and communicated to the project team and reflected in the definitions of
risk impact levels for the project.
TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT
The focus of project risk management is broadening to ensure that all types of risk are considered, and that project
risks are understood in a wider context. Trends and emerging practices for Project Risk Management include but are
not limited to:
Non-event risks. Most projects focus only on risks that are uncertain future events that may or may not occur.
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Examples of event-based risks include: a key seller may go out of business during the project, the customer may
change the requirement after design is complete, or a subcontractor may propose enhancements to the standard
operating processes.
There is an increasing recognition that non-event risks need to be identified and managed. There are two main
types of non-event risks:
nuVariability risk. Uncertainty exists about some key characteristics of a planned event or activity or decision.
Examples of variability risks include: productivity may be above or below target, the number of errors found
during testing may be higher or lower than expected, or unseasonal weather conditions may occur during the
construction phase.
nuAmbiguity risk. Uncertainty exists about what might happen in the future. Areas of the project where
imperfect knowledge might affect the project’s ability to achieve its objectives include: elements of the
requirement or technical solution, future developments in regulatory frameworks, or inherent systemic
complexity in the project.
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Variability risks can be addressed using Monte Carlo analysis, with the range of variation reflected in probability
distributions, followed by actions to reduce the spread of possible outcomes. Ambiguity risks are managed by
defining those areas where there is a deficit of knowledge or understanding, then filling the gap by obtaining
expert external input or benchmarking against best practices. Ambiguity is also addressed through incremental
development, prototyping, or simulation.
Project resilience. The existence of emergent risk is becoming clear, with a growing awareness of so-called
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unknowable-unknowns. These are risks that can only be recognized after they have occurred. Emergent risks
can be tackled through developing project resilience. This requires each project to have:
nuRightlevel of budget and schedule contingency for emergent risks, in addition to a specific risk budget for
known risks;
nuFlexible project processes that can cope with emergent risk while maintaining overall direction toward project
goals, including strong change management;
nuEmpowered project team that has clear objectives and that is trusted to get the job done within agreed-
upon limits;
nuFrequent review of early warning signs to identify emergent risks as early as possible; and
nuClear input from stakeholders to clarify areas where the project scope or strategy can be adjusted in response
to emergent risks.
Integrated risk management. Projects exist in an organizational context, and they may form part of a program
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or portfolio. Risk exists at each of these levels, and risks should be owned and managed at the appropriate level.
Some risks identified at higher levels will be delegated to the project team for management, and some project
risks may be escalated to higher levels if they are best managed outside the project. A coordinated approach to
enterprise-wide risk management ensures alignment and coherence in the way risk is managed across all levels.
This builds risk efficiency into the structure of programs and portfolios, providing the greatest overall value for a
given level of risk exposure.
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Because each project is unique, it is necessary to tailor the way Project Risk Management processes are applied.
Considerations for tailoring include but are not limited to:
Project size. Does the project’s size in terms of budget, duration, scope, or team size require a more detailed
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approach to risk management? Or is it small enough to justify a simplified risk process?
Project complexity. Is a robust risk approach demanded by high levels of innovation, new technology, commercial
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arrangements, interfaces, or external dependencies that increase project complexity? Or is the project simple
enough that a reduced risk process will suffice?
Project importance. How strategically important is the project? Is the level of risk increased for this project
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because it aims to produce breakthrough opportunities, addresses significant blocks to organizational
performance, or involves major product innovation?
Development approach. Is this a waterfall project, where risk processes can be followed sequentially and
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iteratively, or does the project follow an agile approach where risk is addressed at the start of each iteration as
well as during its execution?
Tailoring of the Project Risk Management processes to meet these considerations is part of the Plan Risk Management
process, and the outcomes of tailoring decisions are recorded in the risk management plan.
High-variability environments, by definition, incur more uncertainty and risk. To address this, projects managed using
adaptive approaches make use of frequent reviews of incremental work products and cross-functional project teams to
accelerate knowledge sharing and ensure that risk is understood and managed. Risk is considered when selecting the
content of each iteration, and risks will also be identified, analyzed, and managed during each iteration.
Additionally, the requirements are kept as a living document that is updated regularly, and work may be reprioritized
as the project progresses, based on an improved understanding of current risk exposure.
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11.1 PLAN RISK MANAGEMENT
Plan Risk Management is the process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a project. The key
benefit of this process is that it ensures that the degree, type, and visibility of risk management are proportionate to both
risks and the importance of the project to the organization and other stakeholders. This process is performed once or
at predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure
11-2. Figure 11-3 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Plan Risk Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Risk management plan
• All components • Stakeholder analysis
.3 Project documents .3 Meetings
factors
Figure 11-2. Plan Risk Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop Project
Charter
• Project charter
Project
Management
Plan

• All components
11.1 Project
Management
• Project • Risk management plan Plan
charter
Project
Documents
Project documents
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 11-3. Plan Risk Management: Data Flow Diagram
The Plan Risk Management process should begin when a project is conceived and should be completed early in the
project. It may be necessary to revisit this process later in the project life cycle, for example at a major phase change, or
if the project scope changes significantly, or if a subsequent review of risk management effectiveness determines that
the Project Risk Management process requires modification.
11.1.1 PLAN RISK MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter documents the high-level project description and boundaries, high-
level requirements, and risks.
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Described in Section 4.2.3.1. In planning Project Risk Management, all approved subsidiary management plans
should be taken into consideration in order to make the risk management plan consistent with them. The methodology
outlined in other project management plan components might influence the Plan Risk Management process.
Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to the stakeholder
register as described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register contains details of the project’s stakeholders and
provides an overview of their project roles and their attitude toward risk on this project. This is useful in determining
roles and responsibilities for managing risk on the project, as well as setting risk thresholds for the project.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Risk Management process include but are not
limited to overall risk thresholds set by the organization or key stakeholders.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Risk Management process include but are not
limited to:
Organizational risk policy;
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Risk categories, possibly organized into a risk breakdown structure;

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Common definitions of risk concepts and terms;

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Risk statement formats;

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Templates for the risk management plan, risk register, and risk report;
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Roles and responsibilities;

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Authority levels for decision making; and

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Lessons learned repository from previous similar projects.

uu
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11.1.2 PLAN RISK MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Familiarity with the organization’s approach to managing risk, including enterprise risk management where this
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is performed;
Tailoring risk management to the specific needs of a project; and
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Types of risk that are likely to be encountered on projects in the same area.
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Data analysis techniques that can be used for this process includes but are not limited to a stakeholder analysis
(Section 13.1.2.3) to determine the risk appetite of project stakeholders.
11.1.2.3 MEETINGS
The risk management plan may be developed as part of the project kick-off meeting or a specific planning meeting
may be held. Attendees may include the project manager, selected project team members, key stakeholders, or team
members who are responsible to manage the risk management process on the project. Others outside the organization
may also be invited, as needed, including customers, sellers, and regulators. A skilled facilitator can help participants
remain focused on the task, agree on key aspects of the risk approach, identify and overcome sources of bias, and
resolve any disagreements that may arise.
Plans for conducting risk management activities are defined in these meetings and documented in the risk
management plan (see Section 11.1.3.1).
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11.1.3 PLAN RISK MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
11.1.3.1 RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN
The risk management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how risk management
activities will be structured and performed. The risk management plan may include some or all of the following elements:
Risk strategy. Describes the general approach to managing risk on this project.
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Methodology. Defines the specific approaches, tools, and data sources that will be used to perform risk
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management on the project.
Roles and responsibilities. Defines the lead, support, and risk management team members for each type of
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activity described in the risk management plan, and clarifies their responsibilities.
Funding. Identifies the funds needed to perform activities related to Project Risk Management. Establishes
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protocols for the application of contingency and management reserves.
Timing. Defines when and how often the Project Risk Management processes will be performed throughout the
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project life cycle, and establishes risk management activities for inclusion into the project schedule.
Risk categories. Provide a means for grouping individual project risks. A common way to structure risk categories
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is with a risk breakdown structure (RBS), which is a hierarchical representation of potential sources of risk (see
example in Figure 11-4). An RBS helps the project team consider the full range of sources from which individual
project risks may arise. This can be useful when identifying risks or when categorizing identified risks. The
organization may have a generic RBS to be used for all projects, or there may be several RBS frameworks for
different types of projects, or the project may develop a tailored RBS. Where an RBS is not used, an organization
may use a custom risk categorization framework, which may take the form of a simple list of categories or a
structure based on project objectives.
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RBS LEVEL 0 RBS LEVEL 1 RBS LEVEL 2
1.1 Scope definition
1.2 Requirements definition
1.3 Estimates, assumptions, and constraints
1. TECHNICAL RISK 1.4 Technical processes
1.5 Technology
1.6 Technical interfaces
Etc.
2.1 Project management
2.2 Program/portfolio management
2.3 Operations management
2. MANAGEMENT RISK 2.4 Organization
2.5 Resourcing
2.6 Communication
0. ALL SOURCES OF Etc.
PROJECT RISK
3.1 Contractual terms and conditions
3.2 Internal procurement
3.3 Suppliers and vendors
3. COMMERCIAL RISK 3.4 Subcontracts
3.5 Client/customer stability
3.6 Partnerships and joint ventures
Etc.
4.1 Legislation
4.2 Exchange rates
4.3 Site/facilities
4. EXTERNAL RISK 4.4 Environmental/weather
4.5 Competition
4.6 Regulatory
Etc.
Figure 11-4. Extract from Sample Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS)
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Stakeholder risk appetite. The risk appetites of key stakeholders on the project are recorded in the risk
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management plan, as they inform the details of the Plan Risk Management process. In particular, stakeholder risk
appetite should be expressed as measurable risk thresholds around each project objective. These thresholds will
determine the acceptable level of overall project risk exposure, and they are also used to inform the definitions of
probability and impacts to be used when assessing and prioritizing individual project risks.
Definitions of risk probability and impacts. Definitions of risk probability and impact levels are specific to the
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project context and reflect the risk appetite and thresholds of the organization and key stakeholders. The project
may generate specific definitions of probability and impact levels or it may start with general definitions provided
by the organization. The number of levels reflects the degree of detail required for the Project Risk Management
process, with more levels used for a more detailed risk approach (typically five levels), and fewer for a simple
process (usually three). Table 11-1 provides an example of definitions of probability and impacts against three
project objectives. These scales can be used to evaluate both threats and opportunities by interpreting the impact
definitions as negative for threats (delay, additional cost, and performance shortfall) and positive for opportunities
(reduced time or cost, and performance enhancement).
Table 11-1. Example of Definitions for Probability and Impacts
+/– IMPACT ON PROJECT OBJECTIVES

SCALE PROBABILITY
TIME COST QUALITY
Very High >70% >6 months >$5M Very significant impact on overall functionality
High 51-70% 3-6 months $1M-$5M Significant impact on overall functionality
Medium 31-50% 1-3 months $501K-$1M Some impact in key functional areas
Low 11-30% 1-4 weeks $100K-$500K Minor impact on overall functionality
Very Low 1-10% 1 week <$100K Minor impact on secondary functions
Nil <1% No change No change No change in functionality
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Probability and impact matrix. Described in Section 11.3.2.6. Prioritization rules may be specified by the
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organization in advance of the project and be included in organizational process assets, or they may be tailored to
the specific project. Opportunities and threats are represented in a common probability and impact matrix using
positive definitions of impact for opportunities and negative impact definitions for threats. Descriptive terms
(such as very high, high, medium, low, and very low) or numeric values can be used for probability and impact.
Where numeric values are used, these can be multiplied to give a probability-impact score for each risk, which
allows the relative priority of individual risks to be evaluated within each priority level. An example probability and
impact matrix is presented in Figure 11-5, which also shows a possible numeric risk scoring scheme.
Threats Opportunities
Very High Very High

0.90 0.05 0.09 0.18 0.36 0.72 0.72 0.36 0.18 0.09 0.05 0.90
High High
0.70 0.04 0.07 0.14 0.28 0.56 0.56 0.28 0.14 0.07 0.04 0.70
Probability
Probability
Medium Medium
0.50 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.03 0.50
Low Low
0.30 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.24 0.24 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.30
Very Low Very Low

0.10 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.10
Very Low Low Moderate High Very High Very High High Moderate Low Very Low
0.05 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05
Negative Impact Positive Impact
Figure 11-5. Example Probability and Impact Matrix with Scoring Scheme
Reporting formats. Reporting formats define how the outcomes of the Project Risk Management process will
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be documented, analyzed, and communicated. This section of the risk management plan describes the content
and format of the risk register and the risk report, as well as any other required outputs from the Project Risk
Management processes.
Tracking. Tracking documents how risk activities will be recorded and how risk management processes will
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be audited.
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11.2 IDENTIFY RISKS
Identify Risks is the process of identifying individual project risks as well as sources of overall project risk, and
documenting their characteristics. The key benefit of this process is the documentation of existing individual project risks
and the sources of overall project risk. It also brings together information so the project team can respond appropriately
to identified risks. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the
Identify Risks

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Risk register
• Requirements management .2 Data gathering .2 Risk report
plan • Brainstorming .3 Project documents updates
• Schedule management plan • Checklists • Assumption log
• Cost management plan • Interviews • Issue log
• Quality management plan .3 Data analysis • Lessons learned register
• Resource management plan • Root cause analysis
• Risk management plan • Assumption and constraint
• Scope baseline analysis
• Schedule baseline • SWOT analysis
• Cost baseline • Document analysis
.2 Project documents .4 Interpersonal and team skills
• Assumption log • Facilitation
• Cost estimates .5 Prompt lists
• Duration estimates .6 Meetings
• Issue log
• Requirements
documentation
.3 Agreements
factors
Figure 11-6. Identify Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

• Scope baseline
• Cost baseline
Project
Documents
Project documents
• Assumption log
• Cost estimates 11.2 Project
• Duration estimates Identify
• Project Documents
• Issue log Riskscharter
• Lessons learned register • Risk register
• Requirements documentation • Risk report

12.1 • Assumption log
Plan • Issue log
Procurement • Lessons learned register
Management
• Procurement documentation
12.2
Conduct
Procurements
• Agreements
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 11-7. Identify Risks: Data Flow Diagram
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Identify Risks considers both individual project risks and sources of overall project risk. Participants in risk
identification activities may include the following: project manager, project team members, project risk specialist
(if assigned), customers, subject matter experts from outside the project team, end users, other project managers,
operations managers, stakeholders, and risk management experts within the organization. While these personnel are
often key participants for risk identification, all project stakeholders should be encouraged to identify individual project
risks. It is particularly important to involve the project team so they can develop and maintain a sense of ownership and
responsibility for identified individual project risks, the level of overall project risk, and associated risk response actions.
When describing and recording individual project risks, a consistent format should be used for risk statements to
ensure that each risk is understood clearly and unambiguously in order to support effective analysis and risk response
development. Risk owners for individual project risks may be nominated as part of the Identify Risks process, and will
be confirmed during the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process. Preliminary risk responses may also be identified
and recorded and will be reviewed and confirmed as part of the Plan Risk Responses process.
Identify Risks is an iterative process, since new individual project risks may emerge as the project progresses through
its life cycle and the level of overall project risk will also change. The frequency of iteration and participation in each risk
identification cycle will vary by situation, and this will be defined in the risk management plan.
11.2.1 IDENTIFY RISKS: INPUTS
Requirements management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.2. The requirements management plan may
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indicate project objectives that are particularly at risk.
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. The schedule management plan may identify areas
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that are subject to uncertainty or ambiguity.
Cost management plan. Described in Section 7.1.3.1. The cost management plan may identify areas that are
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subject to uncertainty or ambiguity.
Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The quality management plan may identify areas that
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are subject to uncertainty or ambiguity, or where key assumptions have been made that might give rise to risk.
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Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan may identify
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areas that are subject to uncertainty or ambiguity, or where key assumptions have been made that might give
rise to risk.
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Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan provides information on
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risk-related roles and responsibilities, indicates how risk management activities are included in the budget and
schedule, and describes categories of risk, which may be expressed as a risk breakdown structure (Figure 11-4).
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline includes deliverables and criteria for their
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acceptance, some of which might give rise to risk. It also contains the WBS, which can be used as a framework
to structure risk identification techniques.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. The schedule baseline may be reviewed to identify milestones
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and deliverable due dates that are subject to uncertainty or ambiguity, or where key assumptions have been
made that might give rise to risk.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline may be reviewed to identify costs or funding
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requirements that are subject to uncertainty or ambiguity, or where key assumptions have been made that might
give rise to risk.
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give rise to individual project risks and may also influence the level of overall project risk.
Cost estimates. Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Cost estimates provide quantitative assessments of project costs,
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ideally expressed as a range, indicating the degree of risk, where a structured review of the documents may
indicate that the current estimate is insufficient and poses a risk to the project.
Duration estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.1. Duration estimates provide quantitative assessments of
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project durations, ideally expressed as a range, indicating the degree of risk, where a structured review of the
documents may indicate that the current estimate is insufficient and poses a risk to the project.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Issues recorded in the issue log may give rise to individual project risks
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and may also influence the level of overall project risk.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned about risk identified from earlier phases
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of the project are reviewed to determine whether similar risks might recur during the remainder of the project.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation lists the project
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requirements and allows the team to identify those that could be at risk.
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Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource requirements provide quantitative
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assessments of project resource requirements, ideally expressed as a range, indicating the degree of risk,
where a structured review of the documents may indicate that the current estimate is insufficient and poses
a risk to the project.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register indicates which individuals or
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groups might participate in identifying risks to the project. It also details those individuals who are available to
act as risk owners.
11.2.1.3 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. If the project requires external procurement of resources, the agreements may have
information such as milestone dates, contract type, acceptance criteria, and awards and penalties that can present
threats or opportunities.
Described in Section 12.3.1.4. If the project requires external procurement of resources, the initial procurement
documentation should be reviewed as procuring goods and services from outside the organization may increase or
decrease overall project risk and may introduce additional individual project risks. As the procurement documentation
is updated throughout the project, the most up to date documentation can be reviewed for risks. For example, seller
performance reports, approved change requests and information on inspections.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Identify Risks process include but are not limited to:
Published material, including commercial risk databases or checklists,
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Academic studies,
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Benchmarking results, and

uu
Industry studies of similar projects.

uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Identify Risks process include but are not limited to:
Project files, including actual data,
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Organizational and project process controls,

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Risk statement formats, and

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Checklists from previous similar projects.

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11.2.2 IDENTIFY RISKS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
of similar projects or business areas. Such experts should be identified by the project manager and invited to consider
all aspects of individual project risks as well as sources of overall project risk, based on their previous experience and
areas of expertise. The experts’ bias should be taken into account in this process.
Brainstorming. The goal of brainstorming (see Section 4.1.2.2) is to obtain a comprehensive list of individual
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project risks and sources of overall project risk. The project team usually performs brainstorming, often with
a multidisciplinary set of experts who are not part of the team. Ideas are generated under the guidance of a
facilitator, either in a free-form brainstorm session or one that uses more structured techniques. Categories of
risk, such as in a risk breakdown structure, can be used as a framework. Particular attention should be paid to
ensuring that risks identified through brainstorming are clearly described, since the technique can result in ideas
that are not fully formed.
Checklists. A checklist is a list of items, actions, or points to be considered. It is often used as a reminder.
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Risk checklists are developed based on historical information and knowledge that has been accumulated from
similar projects and from other sources of information. They are an effective way to capture lessons learned
from similar completed projects, listing specific individual project risks that have occurred previously and that
may be relevant to this project. The organization may maintain a risk checklist based on its own completed
projects or may use generic risk checklists from the industry. While a checklist may be quick and simple to use,
it is impossible to build an exhaustive one, and care should be taken to ensure the checklist is not used to avoid
the effort of proper risk identification. The project team should also explore items that do not appear on the
checklist. Additionally, the checklist should be reviewed from time to time to update new information as well as
remove or archive obsolete information.
Interviews. Individual project risks and sources of overall project risk can be identified by interviewing experienced
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project participants, stakeholders, and subject matter experts. Interviews (see Section 5.2.2.2) should be
conducted in an environment of trust and confidentiality to encourage honest and unbiased contributions.
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Root cause analysis. Root cause analysis (see Section 8.2.2.2) is typically used to discover the underlying
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causes that lead to a problem, and develop preventive action. It can be used to identify threats by starting with a
problem statement (for example, the project might be delayed or over budget) and exploring which threats might
result in that problem occurring. The same technique can be used to find opportunities by starting with a benefit
statement (for example, early delivery or under budget) and exploring which opportunities might result in that
benefit being realized.
Assumption and constraint analysis. Every project and its project management plan are conceived
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and developed based on a set of assumptions and within a series of constraints. These are often already
incorporated in the scope baseline and project estimates. Assumption and constraint analysis explores the
validity of assumptions and constraints to determine which pose a risk to the project. Threats may be identified
from the inaccuracy, instability, inconsistency, or incompleteness of assumptions. Constraints may give rise to
opportunities through removing or relaxing a limiting factor that affects the execution of a project or process.
SWOT analysis. This technique examines the project from each of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
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and threats (SWOT) perspectives. For risk identification, it is used to increase the breadth of identified risks by
including internally generated risks. The technique starts with the identification of strengths and weaknesses
of the organization, focusing on either the project, organization, or the business area in general. SWOT analysis
then identifies any opportunities for the project that may arise from strengths, and any threats resulting from
weaknesses. The analysis also examines the degree to which organizational strengths may offset threats and
determines if weaknesses might hinder opportunities.
Document analysis. Described in Section 5.2.2.3. Risks may be identified from a structured review of project
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documents, including, but not limited to, plans, assumptions, constraints, previous project files, contracts,
agreements, and technical documentation. Uncertainty or ambiguity in project documents, as well as
inconsistencies within a document or between different documents, may be indicators of risk on the project.
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Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process includes but are not limited to facilitation (see Section
4.1.2.3). Facilitation improves the effectiveness of many of the techniques used to identify individual project risks and
sources of overall project risk. A skilled facilitator can help participants remain focused on the risk identification task,
follow the method associated with the technique accurately, ensure clear risk descriptions, identify and overcome
sources of bias, and resolve any disagreements that may arise.
11.2.2.5 PROMPT LISTS
A prompt list is a predetermined list of risk categories that might give rise to individual project risks and that could also
act as sources of overall project risk. The prompt list can be used as a framework to aid the project team in idea generation
when using risk identification techniques. The risk categories in the lowest level of the risk breakdown structure can be
used as a prompt list for individual project risks. Some common strategic frameworks are more suitable for identifying
sources of overall project risk, for example PESTLE (political, economic, social, technological, legal, environmental), TECOP
(technical, environmental, commercial, operational, political), or VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, ambiguity).
11.2.2.6 MEETINGS
To undertake risk identification, the project team may conduct a specialized meeting (often called a risk workshop).
Most risk workshops include some form of brainstorming (see Section 4.1.2.2), but other risk identification techniques
may be included depending on the level of the risk process defined in the risk management plan. Use of a skilled
facilitator will increase the effectiveness of the meeting. It is also essential to ensure that the right people participate in
the risk workshop. On larger projects, it may be appropriate to invite the project sponsor, subject matter experts, sellers,
representatives of the customer, or other project stakeholders. Risk workshops for smaller projects may be restricted to
a subset of the project team.
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11.2.3 IDENTIFY RISKS: OUTPUTS
11.2.3.1 RISK REGISTER
The risk register captures details of identified individual project risks. The results of Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis,
Plan Risk Responses, Implement Risk Responses, and Monitor Risks are recorded in the risk register as those processes
are conducted throughout the project. The risk register may contain limited or extensive risk information depending on
project variables such as size and complexity.
On completion of the Identify Risks process, the content of the risk register may include but is not limited to:
List of identified risks. Each individual project risk is given a unique identifier in the risk register. Identified risks
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are described in as much detail as required to ensure unambiguous understanding. A structured risk statement
may be used to distinguish risks from their cause(s) and their effect(s).
Potential risk owners. Where a potential risk owner has been identified during the Identify Risks process, the
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risk owner is recorded in the risk register. This will be confirmed during the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis
process.
List of potential risk responses. Where a potential risk response has been identified during the Identify Risks
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process, it is recorded in the risk register. This will be confirmed during the Plan Risk Responses process.
Additional data may be recorded for each identified risk, depending on the risk register format specified in the risk
management plan. This may include: a short risk title, risk category, current risk status, one or more causes, one or
more effects on objectives, risk triggers (events or conditions that indicate that a risk is about to occur), WBS reference
of affected activities, and timing information (when was the risk identified, when might the risk occur, when might it no
longer be relevant, and what is the deadline for taking action).
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11.2.3.2 RISK REPORT
The risk report presents information on sources of overall project risk, together with summary information on identified
individual project risks. The risk report is developed progressively throughout the Project Risk Management process. The
results of Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis, Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis, Plan Risk Responses, Implement Risk
Responses, and Monitor Risks are also included in the risk report as those processes are completed. On completion of
the Identify Risks process, information in the risk report may include but is not limited to:
Sources of overall project risk, indicating which are the most important drivers of overall project risk exposure;
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and
Summary information on identified individual project risks, such as number of identified threats and opportunities,
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distribution of risks across risk categories, metrics and trends, etc.
Additional information may be included in the risk report, depending on the reporting requirements specified in the
risk management plan.
Project documents that may be updated as a result of this process include but are not limited to:
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. During the Identify Risks process, new assumptions may be
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The assumption log should be updated with this new information.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log should be updated to capture any new issues uncovered
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or changes in currently logged issues.
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information on techniques that were effective in identifying risks to improve performance in later phases or
other projects.
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11.3 PERFORM QUALITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis is the process of prioritizing individual project risks for further analysis or action
by assessing their probability of occurrence and impact as well as other characteristics. The key benefit of this
process is that it focuses efforts on high-priority risks. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs,
tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 11-8. Figure 11-9 depicts the data flow
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Project documents updates
• Risk management plan .2 Data gathering • Assumption log
.2 Project documents • Interviews • Issue log
• Assumption log .3 Data analysis • Risk register
• Risk register • Risk data quality • Risk report
• Stakeholder register assessment
.3 Enterprise environmental • Risk probability and impact
factors assessment
.4 Organizational process assets • Assessment of other risk
parameters
• Facilitation
.5 Risk categorization
.6 Data representation
• Probability and impact
matrix
• Hierarchical charts
.7 Meetings
Figure 11-8. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

11.3
Project Perform Project
Documents Qualitative Documents
• Project
Risk Analysis
charter • Assumption log
• Issue log
• Risk register
Project documents • Risk report
• Assumption log
• Risk register
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 11-9. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Data Flow Diagram
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis assesses the priority of identified individual project risks using their probability of
occurrence, the corresponding impact on project objectives if the risks occur, and other factors. Such assessments are
subjective as they are based on perceptions of risk by the project team and other stakeholders. Effective assessment
therefore requires explicit identification and management of the risk attitudes of key participants in the Perform
Qualitative Risk Analysis process. Risk perception introduces bias into the assessment of identified risks, so attention
should be paid to identifying bias and correcting for it. Where a facilitator is used to support the Perform Qualitative
Risk Analysis process, addressing bias is a key part of the facilitator’s role. An evaluation of the quality of the available
information on individual project risks also helps to clarify the assessment of each risk’s importance to the project.
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Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis establishes the relative priorities of individual project risks for Plan Risk Responses.
It identifies a risk owner for each risk who will take responsibility for planning an appropriate risk response and ensuring
that it is implemented. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis also lays the foundation for Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis
if this process is required.
The Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process is performed regularly throughout the project life cycle, as defined in
the risk management plan. Often, in an agile development environment, the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process is
conducted before the start of each iteration.
11.3.1 PERFORM QUALITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Project management plan components include the risk management plan as
described in Section 11.1.3.1. Of particular interest in this process are the roles and responsibilities for conducting risk
management, budgets for risk management, schedule activities for risk management, risk categories (often defined in
a risk breakdown structure), definitions of probability and impact, the probability and impact matrix, and stakeholders’
risk thresholds. These inputs are usually tailored to the project during the Plan Risk Management process. If they are
not available, they may be developed during the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process and presented to the project
sponsor for approval before use.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log is used for identifying, managing, and
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monitoring key assumptions and constraints that may affect the project. These may inform the assessment of
the priority of individual project risks.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains details of each identified individual project
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risk that will be assessed during the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. This includes details of project stakeholders who may be
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nominated as risk owners.

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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis include but are not limited to:
Industry studies of similar projects, and
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Published material, including commercial risk databases or checklists.

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The organizational process assets that can influence Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis include but are not limited to
information from similar completed projects.
11.3.2 PERFORM QUALITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Previous similar projects, and
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Qualitative risk analysis.

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Expert judgment is often obtained through facilitated risk workshops or interviews. The possibility of expert views
being biased should be taken into account in this process.
Data-gathering techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to interviews. Structured or
semi-structured interviews (Section 5.2.2.2) can be used to assess the probability and impacts of individual project risks,
as well as other factors. The interviewer should promote an environment of trust and confidentiality in the interview
setting to encourage honest and unbiased assessments.
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Data analysis techniques that can be used during this process include but are not limited to:
Risk data quality assessment. Risk data quality assessment evaluates the degree to which the data about
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individual project risks is accurate and reliable as a basis for qualitative risk analysis. The use of low-quality
risk data may lead to a qualitative risk analysis that is of little use to the project. If data quality is unacceptable,
it may be necessary to gather better data. Risk data quality may be assessed via a questionnaire measuring
the project’s stakeholder perceptions of various characteristics, which may include completeness, objectivity,
relevancy, and timeliness. A weighted average of selected data quality characteristics can then be generated to
give an overall quality score.
Risk probability and impact assessment. Risk probability assessment considers the likelihood that a specific
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risk will occur. Risk impact assessment considers the potential effect on one or more project objectives such
as schedule, cost, quality, or performance. Impacts will be negative for threats and positive for opportunities.
Probability and impact are assessed for each identified individual project risk. Risks can be assessed in
interviews or meetings with participants selected for their familiarity with the types of risk recorded in the
risk register. Project team members and knowledgeable persons external to the project are included. The level
of probability for each risk and its impact on each objective are evaluated during the interview or meeting.
Differences in the levels of probability and impact perceived by stakeholders are to be expected, and such
differences should be explored. Explanatory detail, including assumptions justifying the levels assigned, are
also recorded. Risk probabilities and impacts are assessed using the definitions given in the risk management
plan (see Table 11-1). Risks with low probability and impact may be included within the risk register as part
of a watch list for future monitoring.
Assessment of other risk parameters. The project team may consider other characteristics of risk (in addition
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to probability and impact) when prioritizing individual project risks for further analysis and action. These
characteristics may include but are not limited to:
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nuUrgency. The period of time within which a response to the risk is to be implemented in order to be effective.
A short period indicates high urgency.
nuProximity. The period of time before the risk might have an impact on one or more project objectives. A short
period indicates high proximity.
nuDormancy. The period of time that may elapse after a risk has occurred before its impact is discovered. A
short period indicates low dormancy.
nuManageability. The ease with which the risk owner (or owning organization) can manage the occurrence or
impact of a risk. Where management is easy, manageability is high.
nuControllability.
The degree to which the risk owner (or owning organization) is able to control the risk’s
outcome. Where the outcome can be easily controlled, controllability is high.
nuDetectability. The ease with which the results of the risk occurring, or being about to occur, can be detected
and recognized. Where the risk occurrence can be detected easily, detectability is high.
nuConnectivity. The extent to which the risk is related to other individual project risks. Where a risk is connected
to many other risks, connectivity is high.
nuStrategic impact. The potential for the risk to have a positive or negative effect on the organization’s strategic
goals. Where the risk has a major effect on strategic goals, strategic impact is high.
nuPropinquity. The degree to which a risk is perceived to matter by one or more stakeholders. Where a risk is
perceived as very significant, propinquity is high.
The consideration of some of these characteristics can provide a more robust prioritization of risks than is possible
by only assessing probability and impact.
Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process include but are not limited to facilitation (see Section
4.1.2.3). Facilitation improves the effectiveness of the qualitative analysis of individual project risks. A skilled facilitator
can help participants remain focused on the risk analysis task, follow the method associated with the technique
accurately, reach consensus on assessments of probability and impacts, identify and overcome sources of bias, and
resolve any disagreements that may arise.
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11.3.2.5 RISK CATEGORIZATION
Risks to the project can be categorized by sources of risk (e.g., using the risk breakdown structure (RBS); see
Figure 11-4), the area of the project affected (e.g., using the work breakdown structure (WBS); see Figures 5-12,
5-13, and 5-14), or other useful categories (e.g., project phase, project budget, and roles and responsibilities) to
determine the areas of the project most exposed to the effects of uncertainty. Risks can also be categorized by
common root causes. Risk categories that may be used for the project are defined in the risk management plan.
Grouping risks into categories can lead to the development of more effective risk responses by focusing attention and
effort on the areas of highest risk exposure, or by developing generic risk responses to address groups of related risks.
Data representation techniques that can be used during this process include but are not limited to:
Probability and impact matrix. A probability and impact matrix is a grid for mapping the probability of each
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risk occurrence and its impact on project objectives if that risk occurs. This matrix specifies combinations of
probability and impact that allow individual project risks to be divided into priority groups (see Figure 11-5). Risks
can be prioritized for further analysis and planning of risk responses based on their probability and impacts.
The probability of occurrence for each individual project risk is assessed as well as its impact on one or more
project objectives if it does occur, using definitions of probability and impact for the project as specified in the
risk management plan. Individual project risks are assigned to a priority level based on the combination of their
assessed probability and impact, using a probability and impact matrix.
An organization can assess a risk separately for each objective (e.g., cost, time, and scope) by having a separate
probability and impact matrix for each. Alternatively, it may develop ways to determine one overall priority level
for each risk, either by combining assessments for different objectives, or by taking the highest priority level
regardless of which objective is affected.
Hierarchical charts. Where risks have been categorized using more than two parameters, the probability and
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impact matrix cannot be used and other graphical representations are required. For example, a bubble chart displays
three dimensions of data, where each risk is plotted as a disk (bubble), and the three parameters are represented
by the x-axis value, the y-axis value, and the bubble size. An example bubble chart is shown in Figure 11-10, with
detectability and proximity plotted on the x and y axes, and impact value represented by bubble size.
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Bubble size = Impact Value
High
Large
bubbles
in this
area are
unacceptable
Proximity
Low
Low High
Small bubbles Detectability

in this area are
acceptable
Figure 11-10. Example Bubble Chart Showing Detectability, Proximity, and Impact Value
11.3.2.7 MEETINGS
To undertake qualitative risk analysis, the project team may conduct a specialized meeting (often called a risk
workshop) dedicated to the discussion of identified individual project risks. The goals of this meeting include the review
of previously identified risks, assessment of probability and impacts (and possibly other risk parameters), categorization,
and prioritization. A risk owner, who will be responsible for planning an appropriate risk response and for reporting
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progress on managing the risk, will be allocated to each individual project risk as part of the Perform Qualitative Risk
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Analysis process. The meeting may start by reviewing and confirming the probability and impact scales to be used for
the analysis. The meeting may also identify additional risks during the discussion, and these should be recorded for
analysis. Use of a skilled facilitator will increase the effectiveness of the meeting.
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11.3.3 PERFORM QUALITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS: OUTPUTS
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. During the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process, new
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assumptions may be made, new constraints may be identified, and existing assumptions or constraints may be
revisited and changed. The assumption log should be updated with this new information.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log should be updated to capture any new issues uncovered
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or changes in currently logged issues.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register is updated with new information generated during
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the Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process. Updates to the risk register may include assessments of probability
and impacts for each individual project risk, its priority level or risk score, the nominated risk owner, risk urgency
information or risk categorization, and a watch list for low-priority risks or risks requiring further analysis.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report is updated to reflect the most important individual
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project risks (usually those with the highest probability and impact), as well as a prioritized list of all identified
risks on the project and a summary conclusion.
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11.4 PERFORM QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis is the process of numerically analyzing the combined effect of identified individual
project risks and other sources of uncertainty on overall project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it
quantifies overall project risk exposure, and it can also provide additional quantitative risk information to support risk
response planning. This process is not required for every project, but where it is used, it is performed throughout the
project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 11-11. Figure 11-12 depicts the data flow diagram
for the process.
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Project documents updates
• Risk management plan .2 Data gathering • Risk report
• Scope baseline • Interviews
• Schedule baseline .3 Interpersonal and team skills
• Cost baseline • Facilitation
.2 Project documents .4 Representations of
• Assumption log uncertainty
• Basis of estimates .5 Data analysis
• Cost estimates • Simulations
• Cost forecasts • Sensitivity analysis
• Duration estimates • Decision tree analysis
• Milestone list • Influence diagrams
• Risk register
• Risk report
factors
Figure 11-11. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

• Scope baseline
• Cost baseline
Project
Documents
Project documents 11.4

• Assumption log
Perform Project
• Basis of estimates Documents
• Cost estimates Quantitative
• Project
• Cost forecasts Risk Analysis
charter • Risk report
• Milestone list
• Risk register
• Risk report
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 11-12. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Data Flow Diagram
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis is not required for all projects. Undertaking a robust analysis depends on the availability
of high-quality data about individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty, as well as a sound underlying project
baseline for scope, schedule, and cost. Quantitative risk analysis usually requires specialized risk software and expertise
in the development and interpretation of risk models. It also consumes additional time and cost. The use of quantitative
risk analysis for a project will be specified in the project’s risk management plan. It is most likely appropriate for large or
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complex projects, strategically important projects, projects for which it is a contractual requirement, or projects in which
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a key stakeholder requires it. Quantitative risk analysis is the only reliable method to assess overall project risk through
evaluating the aggregated effect on project outcomes of all individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty.
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis uses information on individual project risks that have been assessed by the
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process as having a significant potential to affect the project’s objectives.
Outputs from Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis are used as inputs to the Plan Risk Responses process, particularly
in recommending responses to the level of overall project risk and key individual risks. A quantitative risk analysis
may also be undertaken following the Plan Risk Responses process, to determine the likely effectiveness of planned
responses in reducing overall project risk exposure.
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11.4.1 PERFORM QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS: INPUTS
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan specifies whether quantitative
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risk analysis is required for the project. It also details the resources available for the analysis and the expected
frequency of analyses.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline describes the starting point from which the
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effect of individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty are evaluated.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. The schedule baseline describes the starting point from which
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the effect of individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty can be evaluated.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline describes the starting point from which the effect
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of individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty can be evaluated.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. Assumptions may form inputs to the quantitative risk analysis if
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they are assessed as posing a risk to project objectives. The effect of constraints may also be modeled during a
quantitative risk analysis.
Basis of estimates. Described in Sections 6.4.3.2 and 7.2.3.2. The basis of estimates used in the planning of
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the project may be reflected in variability modeled during a quantitative risk analysis process. This may include
information on the estimate’s purpose, classification, assumed accuracy, methodology, and source.
Cost estimates. Described in Section 7.2.3.1. Cost estimates provide the starting point from which cost variability
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is evaluated.
Cost forecasts. Described in Section 7.4.3.2. Forecasts such as the project’s estimate to complete (ETC),
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estimate at completion (EAC), budget at completion (BAC), and to-complete performance index (TCPI) may be
compared to the results of a quantitative cost risk analysis to determine the confidence level associated with
achieving these targets.
Duration estimates. Described in Section 6.4.3.1. Duration estimates provide the starting point from which
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schedule variability is evaluated.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. Significant events in the project define the schedule targets against
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which the results of a quantitative schedule risk analysis are compared, in order to determine the confidence
level associated with achieving these targets.
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Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource requirements provide the starting point from
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which variability is evaluated.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains details of individual project risks to be
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used as input for quantitative risk analysis.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report describes sources of overall project risk and the
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current overall project risk status.
Schedule forecasts. Described in Section 6.6.3.2. Forecasts may be compared to the results of a quantitative
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schedule risk analysis to determine the confidence level associated with achieving these targets.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process include but
are not limited to:
Industry studies of similar projects, and
uu
Published material, including commercial risk databases or checklists.

uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process include
information from similar completed projects.
11.4.2 PERFORM QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Translating information on individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty into numeric inputs for the
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quantitative risk analysis model,

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Selecting the most appropriate representation of uncertainty to model particular risks or other sources of uncertainty,
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Modeling techniques that are appropriate in the context of the project,

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Identifying which tools would be most suitable for the selected modeling techniques, and
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Interpreting the outputs of quantitative risk analysis.

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Interviews (see Section 5.2.2.2) may be used to generate inputs for the quantitative risk analysis, drawing on inputs
that include individual project risks and other sources of uncertainty. This is particularly useful where information is
required from experts. The interviewer should promote an environment of trust and confidentiality during the interview
to encourage honest and unbiased contributions.
Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process include but are not limited to facilitation (see
Section 4.1.2.3). A skilled facilitator is useful for gathering input data during a dedicated risk workshop involving
project team members and other stakeholders. Facilitated workshops can improve effectiveness by establishing a
clear understanding of the purpose of the workshop, building consensus among participants, ensuring continued
focus on the task, and using creative approaches to deal with interpersonal conflict or sources of bias.
11.4.2.4 REPRESENTATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY
Quantitative risk analysis requires inputs to a quantitative risk analysis model that reflect individual project risks and
other sources of uncertainty.
Where the duration, cost, or resource requirement for a planned activity is uncertain, the range of possible values
can be represented in the model as a probability distribution. This may take several forms. The most commonly used
are triangular, normal, lognormal, beta, uniform, or discrete distributions. Care should be taken when selecting an
appropriate probability distribution to reflect the range of possible values for the planned activity.
Individual project risks may be covered by probability distributions. Alternatively, risks may be included in the
model as probabilistic branches, where optional activities are added to the model to represent the time and/or cost
impact of the risk should it occur, and the chance that these activities actually occur in a particular simulation run
matches the risk’s probability. Branches are most useful for risks that might occur independently of any planned
activity. Where risks are related, for example, with a common cause or a logical dependency, correlation is used in
the model to indicate this relationship.
Other sources of uncertainty may also be represented using branches to describe alternative paths through
the project.
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Data analysis techniques that can be used during this process include but are not limited to:
Simulation. Quantitative risk analysis uses a model that simulates the combined effects of individual project risks
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and other sources of uncertainty to evaluate their potential impact on achieving project objectives. Simulations
are typically performed using a Monte Carlo analysis. When running a Monte Carlo analysis for cost risk, the
simulation uses the project cost estimates. When running a Monte Carlo analysis for schedule risk, the schedule
network diagram and duration estimates are used. An integrated quantitative cost-schedule risk analysis uses
both inputs. The output is a quantitative risk analysis model.
Computer software is used to iterate the quantitative risk analysis model several thousand times. The input
values (e.g., cost estimates, duration estimates, or occurrence of probabilistic branches) are chosen at random
for each iteration. Outputs represent the range of possible outcomes for the project (e.g., project end date,
project cost at completion). Typical outputs include a histogram presenting the number of iterations where a
particular outcome resulted from the simulation, or a cumulative probability distribution (S-curve) representing
the probability of achieving any particular outcome or less. An example S-curve from a Monte Carlo cost risk
analysis is shown in Figure 11-13.
Range of Uncertainty
100 100
90 90
80 85% Chance 80
of Costing
Expected
Cumulative Probability (%)

Cumulative Probability (%)
70 $2.45M or Less 70
Value
$2.35M
60 60
50 Target 50
$2.2M
40 40
23% Chance
of Meeting
30 Target 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
$2.0M $2.1M $2.2M $2.3M $2.4M $2.5M $2.6M $2.7M $2.8M
Predicted Total Project Cost
Figure 11-13. Example S-Curve from Quantitative Cost Risk Analysis
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For a quantitative schedule risk analysis, it is also possible to conduct a criticality analysis that determines which
elements of the risk model have the greatest effect on the project critical path. A criticality index is calculated for
each element in the risk model, which gives the frequency with which that element appears on the critical path
during the simulation, usually expressed as a percentage. The output from a criticality analysis allows the project
team to focus risk response planning efforts on those activities with the highest potential effect on the overall
schedule performance of the project.
Sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis helps to determine which individual project risks or other sources of
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uncertainty have the most potential impact on project outcomes. It correlates variations in project outcomes with
variations in elements of the quantitative risk analysis model.
One typical display of sensitivity analysis is the tornado diagram, which presents the calculated correlation
coefficient for each element of the quantitative risk analysis model that can influence the project outcome.
This can include individual project risks, project activities with high degrees of variability, or specific sources
of ambiguity. Items are ordered by descending strength of correlation, giving the typical tornado appearance.
An example tornado diagram is shown in Figure 11-14.
Activity or Risk Driving

Projection Duration
Activity B12.3 Manufacture reactors
Risk 5.2 DCS may fail installation test
Risk 5.7 Duplicate test may not be required
Activity A3.12 Construct control room
Risk 4.6 Piling contractor may deliver early
Activity A7.1 Provide temporary facilities
Activity D1.9 Install Equipment
Risk 7.2 Hydrotest may find fewer faults
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Correlation with Project Duration
Figure 11-14. Example Tornado Diagram
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Decision tree analysis. Decision trees are used to support selection of the best of several alternative courses of
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action. Alternative paths through the project are shown in the decision tree using branches representing different
decisions or events, each of which can have associated costs and related individual project risks (including both
threats and opportunities). The end-points of branches in the decision tree represent the outcome from following
that particular path, which can be negative or positive.
The decision tree is evaluated by calculating the expected monetary value of each branch, allowing the optimal
path to be selected. An example decision tree is shown in Figure 11-15.
Decision Definition Decision Node Chance Node Net Path Value
Input: Scenario Probability,

Input: Cost of Each Decision Computed:
Decision to Reward if it Occurs
Output: Decision Made Payoffs minus Costs
be Made Output: Expected Monetary
along Path
Value (EMV)
60% Strong Demand $80M

($200M)
$80M = $200M – $120M
Build New Plant
(Invest $120M)
$36M = .60 ($80M) + 40% Weak Demand -$30M

.40 (–$30M) ($90M)
EMV (before costs) of Build –$30M = $90M – $120M
Build or Upgrade? New Plant considering demand
Decision EMV = $46M 60% Strong Demand

(the larger of $36M $70M
($120M)
and $46M)
$70M = $120M – $50M
Upgrade Plant
(Invest $50M)
Decision Node
$46M = .60 ($70M) + 40% Weak Demand
Chance Node $10M
.40 ($10M) ($60M)
EMV (before costs) of Upgrade $10M = $60M – $50M
End of Branch
Plant considering demand
Note 1: The decision tree shows how to make a decision between alternative capital strategies (represented as “decision nodes”)
when the environment contains uncertain elements (represented as “chance nodes”).
Note 2: Here, a decision is being made whether to invest $120M US to build a new plant or to instead invest only $50M US
to upgrade the existing plant. For each decision, the demand (which is uncertain, and therefore represents a
“chance node”) must be accounted for. For example, strong demand leads to $200M revenue with the new plant
but only $120M US for the upgraded plant, perhaps due to capacity limitations of the upgraded plant. The end of
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each branch shows the net effect of the payoffs minus costs. For each decision branch, all effects are added (see
shaded areas) to determine the overall Expected Monetary Value (EMV) of the decision. Remember to account for
the investment costs. From the calculations in the shaded areas, the upgraded plant has a higher EMV of $46M –
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also the EMV of the overall decision. (This choice also represents the lowest risk, avoiding the worst case possible
outcome of a loss of $30M).
Figure 11-15. Example Decision Tree
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Influence diagrams. Influence diagrams are graphical aids to decision making under uncertainty. An influence
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diagram represents a project or situation within the project as a set of entities, outcomes, and influences, together
with the relationships and effects between them. Where an element in the influence diagram is uncertain as a
result of the existence of individual project risks or other sources of uncertainty, this can be represented in the
influence diagram using ranges or probability distributions. The influence diagram is then evaluated using a
simulation technique, such as Monte Carlo analysis, to indicate which elements have the greatest influence
on key outcomes. Outputs from an influence diagram are similar to other quantitative risk analysis methods,
including S-curves and tornado diagrams.
11.4.3 PERFORM QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS: OUTPUTS
Project documents that can be considered as outputs for this process include but are not limited to the risk report
described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report will be updated to reflect the results of the quantitative risk analysis. This
will typically include:
Assessment of overall project risk exposure. Overall project risk is reflected in two key measures:
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nuChances of project success, indicated by the probability that the project will achieve its key objectives (e.g.,
required end date or interim milestones, required cost target, etc.) given the identified individual project risks
and other sources of uncertainty; and
nuDegree of inherent variability remaining within the project at the time the analysis was conducted, indicated
by the range of possible project outcomes.
Detailed probabilistic analysis of the project. Key outputs from the quantitative risk analysis are presented,
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such as S-curves, tornado diagrams, and criticality analysis, together with a narrative interpretation of the results.
Possible detailed results of a quantitative risk analysis may include:
nuAmount of contingency reserve needed to provide a specified level of confidence;
nuIdentification of individual project risks or other sources of uncertainty that have the greatest effect on the
project critical path; and
nuMajor drivers of overall project risk, with the greatest influence on uncertainty in project outcomes.
Prioritized list of individual project risks. This list includes those individual project risks that pose the greatest
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threat or present the greatest opportunity to the project, as indicated by sensitivity analysis.
Trends in quantitative risk analysis results. As the analysis is repeated at different times during the project life
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cycle, trends may become apparent that inform the planning of risk responses.
Recommended risk responses. The risk report may present suggested responses to the level of overall
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project risk exposure or key individual project risks, based on the results of the quantitative risk analysis. These
recommendations will form inputs to the Plan Risk Responses process.
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11.5 PLAN RISK RESPONSES
Plan Risk Responses is the process of developing options, selecting strategies, and agreeing on actions to address
overall project risk exposure, as well as to treat individual project risks. The key benefit of this process is that it identifies
appropriate ways to address overall project risk and individual project risks. This process also allocates resources
and inserts activities into project documents and the project management plan as needed. This process is performed
throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 11-16.
Figure 11-17 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Plan Risk Responses

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Change requests
• Resource management plan .2 Data gathering .2 Project management plan
• Risk management plan • Interviews updates
• Cost baseline .3 Interpersonal and team skills • Schedule management plan
.2 Project documents • Facilitation • Cost management plan
• Lessons learned register .4 Strategies for threats • Quality management plan
• Project schedule .5 Strategies for opportunities • Resource management plan
• Project team assignments .6 Contingent response • Procurement management
• Resource calendars strategies plan
• Risk register .7 Strategies for overall project • Scope baseline
• Risk report risk • Schedule baseline
• Stakeholder register .8 Data analysis • Cost baseline
.3 Enterprise environmental • Alternatives analysis .3 Project documents updates
factors • Cost-benefit analysis • Assumption log
.4 Organizational process assets .9 Decision making • Cost forecasts
• Multicriteria decision • Lessons learned register
analysis • Project schedule
• Risk register
• Risk report
Figure 11-16. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan
4.6
Perform
Project management plan Integrated
• Resource management plan • Change requests Change Control
• Cost baseline
11.5 Project
Project Plan Risk Management
Documents Responses
• Project Plan
Project management
Project documents • Cost management plan
• Lessons learned register • Quality management plan
• Project schedule • Resource management plan
• Resource breakdown structure • Procurement management plan
• Resource calendars • Scope baseline
• Risk register • Schedule baseline
• Risk report • Cost baseline
Project
Documents
• Assumption log
Enterprise/ • Cost forecasts
Organization • Lessons learned register
• Enterprise environmental factors • Risk register
• Organizational process assets • Risk report
Figure 11-17. Plan Risk Responses: Data Flow Diagram
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Effective and appropriate risk responses can minimize individual threats, maximize individual opportunities, and
reduce overall project risk exposure. Unsuitable risk responses can have the converse effect. Once risks have been
identified, analyzed, and prioritized, plans should be developed by the nominated risk owner for addressing every
individual project risk the project team considers to be sufficiently important, either because of the threat it poses to the
project objectives or the opportunity it offers. The project manager should also consider how to respond appropriately to
the current level of overall project risk.
Risk responses should be appropriate for the significance of the risk, cost-effective in meeting the challenge, realistic
within the project context, agreed upon by all parties involved, and owned by a responsible person. Selecting the
optimal risk response from several options is often required. The strategy or mix of strategies most likely to be effective
should be selected for each risk. Structured decision-making techniques may be used to choose the most appropriate
response. For large or complex projects, it may be appropriate to use a mathematical optimization model or real options
analysis as a basis for a more robust economic analysis of alternative risk response strategies.
Specific actions are developed to implement the agreed-upon risk response strategy, including primary and backup
strategies, as necessary. A contingency plan (or fallback plan) can be developed for implementation if the selected
strategy turns out not to be fully effective or if an accepted risk occurs. Secondary risks should also be identified.
Secondary risks are risks that arise as a direct result of implementing a risk response. A contingency reserve is often
allocated for time or cost. If developed, it may include identification of the conditions that trigger its use.
11.5.1 PLAN RISK RESPONSES: INPUTS
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan is used to help
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determine how resources allocated to agreed-upon risk responses will be coordinated with other project resources.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Risk management roles and responsibilities and risk
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thresholds are used in this process.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline has information on the contingency fund that is
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allocated to respond to risks.

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Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned about effective risk responses used in
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earlier phases of the project are reviewed to determine if similar responses might be useful during the remainder
of the project.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The schedule is used to determine how agreed-upon risk
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responses will be scheduled alongside other project activities.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.2. Project team assignments can show the resources
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that can be allocated to agreed-upon risk responses.
Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.2.1.2. Resource calendars identify when potential resources are
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available to be allocated to agreed-upon risk responses.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains details of individual project risks that
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have been identified and prioritized, and for which risk responses are required. The priority level for each risk
can help to guide the selection of appropriate risk responses. For example, high-priority threats or opportunities
may require priority action and highly proactive response strategies. Threats and opportunities in the low-priority
zone may not require proactive management action beyond being placed in the risk register as part of the watch
list or adding a contingency reserve.
The risk register identifies the nominated risk owner for each risk. It may also contain preliminary risk responses
identified earlier in the Project Risk Management process. The risk register may provide other data on identified
risks that can assist in planning risk responses, including root causes, risk triggers and warning signs, risks
requiring responses in the near term, and risks where a need for additional analysis has been identified.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report presents the current level of overall risk exposure of
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the project that will inform selection of the risk response strategy. The risk report may also list individual project
risks in priority order and provide additional analysis of the distribution of individual project risks that may inform
risk response selection.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register identifies potential owners for
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risk responses.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Risk Responses process include but are not limited
to the risk appetite and thresholds of key stakeholders.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Risk Responses process include but are not limited to:
Templates for the risk management plan, risk register, and risk report;
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Historical databases; and

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Lessons learned repositories from similar projects.

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11.5.2 PLAN RISK RESPONSES: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
in the following topics:
Threat response strategies,
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Opportunity response strategies,

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Contingent response strategies, and

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Overall project risk response strategies.

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Expert input may be sought from individuals with particular subject matter expertise relevant to a specific individual
project risk, for example, where specialist technical knowledge is required.
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Data-gathering techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to interviews (see
Section 5.2.2.2). Development of responses to individual project risks and overall project risk may be undertaken
during structured or semi-structured interviews (see Section 5.2.2.2) with risk owners. Other stakeholders may
also be interviewed if necessary. The interviewer should promote an environment of trust and confidentiality in the
interview setting to encourage honest and unbiased decisions.
Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process includes but are not limited to facilitation (see
Section 4.1.2.3). The use of facilitation improves the effectiveness of developing responses to individual project
risks and overall project risk. A skilled facilitator can help risk owners understand the risk, identify and compare
alternative possible risk response strategies, choose an appropriate response strategy, and identify and overcome
sources of bias.
11.5.2.4 STRATEGIES FOR THREATS
Five alternative strategies may be considered for dealing with threats, as follows:
Escalate. Escalation is appropriate when the project team or the project sponsor agrees that a threat is outside
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the scope of the project or that the proposed response would exceed the project manager’s authority. Escalated
risks are managed at the program level, portfolio level, or other relevant part of the organization, and not on the
project level. The project manager determines who should be notified about the threat and communicates the
details to that person or part of the organization. It is important that ownership of escalated threats is accepted
by the relevant party in the organization. Threats are usually escalated to the level that matches the objectives
that would be affected if the threat occurred. Escalated threats are not monitored further by the project team after
escalation, although they may be recorded in the risk register for information.
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Avoid. Risk avoidance is when the project team acts to eliminate the threat or protect the project from its
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impact. It may be appropriate for high-priority threats with a high probability of occurrence and a large negative
impact. Avoidance may involve changing some aspect of the project management plan or changing the objective
that is in jeopardy in order to eliminate the threat entirely, reducing its probability of occurrence to zero. The
risk owner may also take action to isolate the project objectives from the risk’s impact if it were to occur.
Examples of avoidance actions may include removing the cause of a threat, extending the schedule, changing the
project strategy, or reducing scope. Some risks can be avoided by clarifying requirements, obtaining information,
improving communication, or acquiring expertise.
Transfer. Transfer involves shifting ownership of a threat to a third party to manage the risk and to bear the
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impact if the threat occurs. Risk transfer often involves payment of a risk premium to the party taking on the
threat. Transfer can be achieved by a range of actions, which include but are not limited to the use of insurance,
performance bonds, warranties, guarantees, etc. Agreements may be used to transfer ownership and liability for
specified risks to another party.
Mitigate. In risk mitigation, action is taken to reduce the probability of occurrence and/or impact of a threat. Early
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mitigation action is often more effective than trying to repair the damage after the threat has occurred. Adopting
less complex processes, conducting more tests, or choosing a more stable seller are examples of mitigation
actions. Mitigation may involve prototype development (see Section 5.2.2.8) to reduce the risk of scaling up from
a bench-scale model of a process or product. Where it is not possible to reduce probability, a mitigation response
might reduce the impact by targeting factors that drive the severity. For example, designing redundancy into a
system may reduce the impact from a failure of the original component.
Accept. Risk acceptance acknowledges the existence of a threat, but no proactive action is taken. This strategy
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may be appropriate for low-priority threats, and it may also be adopted where it is not possible or cost-effective
to address a threat in any other way. Acceptance can be either active or passive. The most common active
acceptance strategy is to establish a contingency reserve, including amounts of time, money, or resources to
handle the threat if it occurs. Passive acceptance involves no proactive action apart from periodic review of the
threat to ensure that it does not change significantly.
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11.5.2.5 STRATEGIES FOR OPPORTUNITIES
Five alternative strategies may be considered for dealing with opportunities, as follows:
Escalate. This risk response strategy is appropriate when the project team or the project sponsor agrees that
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an opportunity is outside the scope of the project or that the proposed response would exceed the project
manager’s authority. Escalated opportunities are managed at the program level, portfolio level, or other relevant
part of the organization, and not on the project level. The project manager determines who should be notified
about the opportunity and communicates the details to that person or part of the organization. It is important
that ownership of escalated opportunities is accepted by the relevant party in the organization. Opportunities
are usually escalated to the level that matches the objectives that would be affected if the opportunity occurred.
Escalated opportunities are not monitored further by the project team after escalation, although they may be
recorded in the risk register for information.
Exploit. The exploit strategy may be selected for high-priority opportunities where the organization wants to
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ensure that the opportunity is realized. This strategy seeks to capture the benefit associated with a particular
opportunity by ensuring that it definitely happens, increasing the probability of occurrence to 100%. Examples of
exploiting responses may include assigning an organization’s most talented resources to the project to reduce
the time to completion, or using new technologies or technology upgrades to reduce cost and duration.
Share. Sharing involves transferring ownership of an opportunity to a third party so that it shares some of the
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benefit if the opportunity occurs. It is important to select the new owner of a shared opportunity carefully so they
are best able to capture the opportunity for the benefit of the project. Risk sharing often involves payment of a
risk premium to the party taking on the opportunity. Examples of sharing actions include forming risk-sharing
partnerships, teams, special-purpose companies, or joint ventures.
Enhance. The enhance strategy is used to increase the probability and/or impact of an opportunity. Early
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enhancement action is often more effective than trying to improve the benefit after the opportunity has occurred.
The probability of occurrence of an opportunity may be increased by focusing attention on its causes. Where it
is not possible to increase probability, an enhancement response might increase the impact by targeting factors
that drive the size of the potential benefit. Examples of enhancing opportunities include adding more resources
to an activity to finish early.
Accept. Accepting an opportunity acknowledges its existence but no proactive action is taken. This strategy may
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be appropriate for low-priority opportunities, and it may also be adopted where it is not possible or cost-effective
to address an opportunity in any other way. Acceptance can be either active or passive. The most common active
acceptance strategy is to establish a contingency reserve, including amounts of time, money, or resources to take
advantage of the opportunity if it occurs. Passive acceptance involves no proactive action apart from periodic
review of the opportunity to ensure that it does not change significantly.
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11.5.2.6 CONTINGENT RESPONSE STRATEGIES
Some responses are designed for use only if certain events occur. For some risks, it is appropriate for the project
team to make a response plan that will only be executed under certain predefined conditions, if it is believed that
there will be sufficient warning to implement the plan. Events that trigger the contingency response, such as missing
intermediate milestones or gaining higher priority with a seller, should be defined and tracked. Risk responses
identified using this technique are often called contingency plans or fallback plans and include identified triggering
events that set the plans in effect.
11.5.2.7 STRATEGIES FOR OVERALL PROJECT RISK
Risk responses should be planned and implemented not only for individual project risks but also to address overall
project risk. The same risk response strategies that are used to deal with individual project risks can also be applied to
overall project risk:
Avoid. Where the level of overall project risk is significantly negative and outside the agreed-upon risk
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thresholds for the project, an avoid strategy may be adopted. This involves taking focused action to reduce
the negative effect of uncertainty on the project as a whole and bring the project back within the thresholds.
An example of avoidance at the overall project level would include removal of high-risk elements of scope
from the project. Where it is not possible to bring the project back within the thresholds, the project may be
canceled. This represents the most extreme degree of risk avoidance and it should be used only if the overall
level of threat is, and will remain, unacceptable.
Exploit. Where the level of overall project risk is significantly positive and outside the agreed-upon risk thresholds
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for the project, an exploit strategy may be adopted. This involves taking focused action to capture the positive
effect of uncertainty on the project as a whole. An example of exploiting at the overall project level would include
addition of high-benefit elements of scope to the project to add value or benefits to stakeholders. Alternatively
the risk thresholds for the project may be modified with the agreement of key stakeholders in order to embrace
the opportunity.
Transfer/share. If the level of overall project risk is high but the organization is unable to address it effectively,
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a third party may be involved to manage the risk on behalf of the organization. Where overall project risk is
negative, a transfer strategy is required, which may involve payment of a risk premium. In the case of high
positive overall project risk, ownership may be shared in order to reap the associated benefits. Examples of
both transfer and share strategies for overall project risk include but are not limited to setting up a collaborative
business structure in which the buyer and the seller share the overall project risk, launching a joint venture or
special-purpose company, or subcontracting key elements of the project.
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Mitigate/enhance. These strategies involve changing the level of overall project risk to optimize the chances
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of achieving the project’s objectives. The mitigation strategy is used where overall project risk is negative, and
enhancement applies when it is positive. Examples of mitigation or enhancement strategies include replanning
the project, changing the scope and boundaries of the project, modifying project priority, changing resource
allocations, adjusting delivery times, etc.
Accept. Where no proactive risk response strategy is possible to address overall project risk, the organization
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may choose to continue with the project as currently defined, even if overall project risk is outside the agreed-
upon thresholds. Acceptance can be either active or passive. The most common active acceptance strategy is
to establish an overall contingency reserve for the project, including amounts of time, money, or resources to be
used if the project exceeds its thresholds. Passive acceptance involves no proactive action apart from periodic
review of the level of overall project risk to ensure that it does not change significantly.
A number of alternative risk response strategies may be considered. Data analysis techniques that can be used to
select a preferred risk response strategy include but are not limited to:
Alternatives analysis. A simple comparison of the characteristics and requirements of alternative risk response
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options can lead to a decision on which response is most appropriate.
Cost-benefit analysis. If the impact of an individual project risk can be quantified in monetary terms, then the
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cost-effectiveness of alternative risk response strategies can be determined using cost-benefit analysis (see
Section 8.1.2.3). The ratio of (change in impact level) divided by (implementation cost) gives the cost effectiveness
of the response strategy, with a higher ratio indicating a more effective response.
Decision-making techniques that can be used to select a risk response strategy include but are not limited to
multicriteria decision analysis (described in Section 8.1.2.4). One or more risk response strategies may be under
consideration. Decision-making techniques can help prioritize risk response strategies. Multicriteria decision analysis
uses a decision matrix to provide a systematic approach for establishing key decision criteria, evaluating and ranking
alternatives, and selecting a preferred option. Criteria for risk response selection may include but are not limited to
cost of response, likely effectiveness of response in changing probability and/or impact, resource availability, timing
constraints (urgency, proximity, and dormancy), level of impact if the risk occurs, effect of response on related risks,
introduction of secondary risks, etc. Different strategies may be selected later in the project if the original choice proves
to be ineffective.
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11.5.3 PLAN RISK RESPONSES: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Planned risk responses may result in a change request to the cost and schedule
baselines or other components of the project management plan. Change requests are processed for review and
disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6).
Schedule management plan. Described in Section 6.1.3.1. Changes to the schedule management plan, such as
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changes to resource loading and leveling, or updates to the schedule strategy, are incorporated.
Cost management plan. Described in Section 7.1.3.1. Changes to the cost management plan, such as changes
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to cost accounting, tracking, and reports, as well as updates to the budget strategy and how contingency reserves
are consumed, are incorporated.
Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. Changes to the quality management plan, such as
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changes to approaches for meeting requirements, quality management approaches, or quality control processes,
are incorporated.
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. Changes to the resource management plan, such as
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changes to resource allocation, as well as updates to the resource strategy, are incorporated.
Procurement management plan. Described in Section 12.1.3.1. Changes to the procurement management
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plan, such as alterations in the make-or-buy decision or contract type(s), are incorporated.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. Changes in the scope baseline are incorporated in response to
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approved changes in scope that may arise from agreed-upon risk responses.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. Changes in the schedule baseline are incorporated in response
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to approved changes in schedule estimates that may arise from agreed-upon risk responses.
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Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. Changes in the cost baseline are incorporated in response to
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approved changes in cost estimates that may arise from agreed-upon risk responses.
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. During the Plan Risk Responses process, new assumptions
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may be made, new constraints may be identified, and existing assumptions or constraints may be revisited and
changed. The assumption log should be updated with this new information.
Cost forecasts. Described in Section 7.4.3.2. Cost forecasts may change as a result of planned risk responses.
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about risk responses that may be useful for future phases of the project or future projects.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. Activities relating to agreed-upon risk responses may be added
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to the project schedule.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.2. Once the responses are confirmed, the necessary
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resources should be allocated to each action associated with a risk response plan. These resources include suitably
qualified and experienced personnel to execute the agreed-upon action (usually within the project team) a specific
budget and time allowance for the action, and any required technical resources to complete the action.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register is updated when appropriate risk responses are
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chosen and agreed upon. Updates to the risk register may include but are not limited to:
nuAgreed-upon response strategies;
nuSpecific actions to implement the chosen response strategy;
nuTrigger conditions, symptoms, and warning signs of a risk occurrence;
nuBudget and schedule activities required to implement the chosen responses;
nuContingency plans and risk triggers that call for their execution;
nuFallback plans for use when a risk that has occurred and the primary response proves to be inadequate;
nuResidual risks that are expected to remain after planned responses have been taken, as well as those that
have been deliberately accepted; and
nuSecondary risks that arise as a direct outcome of implementing a risk response.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report may be updated to present agreed-upon responses
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to the current overall project risk exposure and high-priority risks, together with the expected changes that may
be expected as a result of implementing these responses.
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11.6 IMPLEMENT RISK RESPONSES
Implement Risk Responses is the process of implementing agreed-upon risk response plans. The key benefit of
this process is that it ensures that agreed-upon risk responses are executed as planned in order to address overall
project risk exposure, minimize individual project threats, and maximize individual project opportunities. This process is
performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure
11-18. Figure 11-19 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Implement Risk Responses

• Risk management plan .2 Interpersonal and team skills .2 Project documents updates
.2 Project documents • Influencing • Issue log
• Lessons learned register .3 Project management • Lessons learned register
• Risk register information system • Project team assignments
• Risk report • Risk register
.3 Organizational process assets • Risk report
Figure 11-18. Implement Risk Responses: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
Project
Management
Plan 4.6
Perform
Integrated
11.6
Project Implement
Risk Responses
charter
Project documents
• Risk register
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• Risk report Project

Documents
�

Enterprise/ • Issue log
Organization • Project team assignments
• Risk register
• Risk report
Figure 11-19. Implement Risk Responses: Data Flow Diagram
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Proper attention to the Implement Risk Responses process will ensure that agreed-upon risk responses are actually
executed. A common problem with Project Risk Management is that project teams spend effort in identifying and
analyzing risks and developing risk responses, then risk responses are agreed upon and documented in the risk register
and risk report, but no action is taken to manage the risk.
Only if risk owners give the required level of effort to implementing the agreed-upon responses will the overall risk
exposure of the project and individual threats and opportunities be managed proactively.
11.6.1 IMPLEMENT RISK RESPONSES: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Project management plan components include but are not limited to the risk
management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1, the risk management plan lists the roles and responsibilities of
project team members and other stakeholders for risk management. This information is used when allocating owners
for agreed-upon risk responses. The risk management plan also defines the level of detail for the risk management
methodology for the project. It also specifies risk thresholds for the project based on the risk appetite of key stakeholders,
which define the acceptable target that the implementation of risk responses is required to achieve.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project with regard
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to implementing risk responses can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the effectiveness
of this process.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register records the agreed-upon risk responses for each
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individual risk and the nominated owners for each response plan.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report includes an assessment of the current overall project
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risk exposure, as well as the agreed-upon risk response strategy. It also describes the major individual project
risks with their planned responses.
The organizational process assets that can influence the Implement Risk Responses process include but are not
limited to the lessons learned repository from similar completed projects that indicate the effectiveness of particular
risk responses.
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11.6.2 IMPLEMENT RISK RESPONSES: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
knowledge to validate or modify risk responses if necessary, and decide how to implement them in the most
efficient and effective manner.
Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process include but are not limited to influencing. Some risk
response actions may be owned by people outside the immediate project team or who have other competing demands.
The project manager or person responsible for facilitating the risk process may need to exercise influencing (see
Section 9.5.2.1) to encourage nominated risk owners to take necessary action where required.
Described in Section 4.3.2.2. Project management information systems can include schedule, resource, and cost
software to ensure that agreed-upon risk response plans and their associated activities are integrated into the project
alongside other project activities.
11.6.3 IMPLEMENT RISK RESPONSES: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Implementation of risk responses may result in a change request to the cost and
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Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Where issues are identified as part of the Implement Risk Responses
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process, they are recorded in the issue log.
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on challenges encountered when implementing risk responses and how they could have been avoided, as well
as approaches that worked well for implementing risk responses.
Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.2. Once the risk responses are confirmed, the necessary
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resources should be allocated to each action associated with a risk response plan. These resources include
suitably qualified and experienced personnel to execute the agreed-upon action (usually within the project team),
a specific budget and time allowance for the action, and any required technical resources to complete the action.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register may be updated to reflect any changes to the
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previously agreed-upon risk responses for individual project risks that are subsequently made as a result of the
Implement Risk Responses process.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report may be updated to reflect any changes to the
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previously agreed-upon risk response to overall project risk exposure that are subsequently made as a result of
the Implement Risk Responses process.
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11.7 MONITOR RISKS
Monitor Risks is the process of monitoring the implementation of agreed-upon risk response plans, tracking identified
risks, identifying and analyzing new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project. The key
benefit of this process is that it enables project decisions to be based on current information about overall project risk
exposure and individual project risks. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques,
and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 11-20. Figure 11-21 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Monitor Risks

• Risk management plan • Technical performance information
.2 Project documents analysis .2 Change requests
• Issue log • Reserve analysis .3 Project management plan
• Lessons learned register .2 Audits updates
• Risk register .3 Meetings • Any component
• Risk report .4 Project documents updates
.3 Work performance data • Assumption log
.4 Work performance reports • Issue log
• Risk register
• Risk report
updates
Figure 11-20. Monitor Risks: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project 4.5
Plan Control
• Work Project Work
performance
information
4.6
Perform
Integrated
Project • Change Change Control
Documents requests
Project documents
• Issue log 11.7 Project
• Lessons learned register Monitor Management
• Risk register • Project
Risks Plan
• Risk report Project management
• Any component
4.3
Direct and
Manage Project
Project Work Documents
Project documents
updates
• Work performance data • Assumption log
• Issue log
4.5 • Risk register
Monitor and • Risk report
Control
Project Work Enterprise/
Organization
• Work performance reports assets updates
Figure 11-21. Monitor Risks: Data Flow Diagram
In order to ensure that the project team and key stakeholders are aware of the current level of risk exposure, project
work should be continuously monitored for new, changing, and outdated individual project risks and for changes in
the level of overall project risk by applying the Monitor Risks process. The Monitor Risks process uses performance
information generated during project execution to determine if:
Implemented risk responses are effective,
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Level of overall project risk has changed,

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Status of identified individual project risks has changed,

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New individual project risks have arisen,

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Risk management approach is still appropriate,

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Project assumptions are still valid,

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Risk management policies and procedures are being followed,

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Contingency reserves for cost or schedule require modification, and

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Project strategy is still valid.

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11.7.1 MONITOR RISKS: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. Project management plan components include but are not limited to the risk
management plan. Described in Section 11.3.1.1. The risk management plan provides guidance on how and when
risks should be reviewed, which policies and procedures should be followed, the roles and responsibilities in the
monitoring process, and reporting formats.
Project documents that should be considered as inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log is used to see if any of the open issues have been updated
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and necessitate an update to the risk register.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Risk-related lessons from earlier in the project can be
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applied to later phases in the project.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register has key inputs that include identified individual
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project risks, risk owners, agreed-upon risk responses, and specific implementation actions. It may also provide
other details including control actions for assessing the effectiveness of response plans, symptoms and warning
signs of risk, residual and secondary risks, and a watch list of low-priority risks.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. The risk report includes an assessment of the current overall project
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risk exposure as well as the agreed-upon risk response strategy. It also describes the major individual risks with
planned responses and risk owners.
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Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains data on project status such as risk responses that
have been implemented, risks that have occurred, risks that are active and those that have been closed out.
Described in Section 4 5.3.1. Work performance reports provide information from performance measurements that
can be analyzed to provide project work performance information including variance analysis, earned value data, and
forecasting data. This information could be relevant when monitoring performance-related risks.
11.7.2 MONITOR RISKS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Technical performance analysis. Technical performance analysis compares technical accomplishments during
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project execution to the schedule of technical achievement. It requires the definition of objective, quantifiable
measures of technical performance, which can be used to compare actual results against targets. Such technical
performance measures may include weight, transaction times, number of delivered defects, storage capacity,
etc. Deviation can indicate the potential impact of threats or opportunities.
Reserve analysis. Described in Section 7.2.2.6. Throughout execution of the project, some individual project
uu
risks may occur with positive or negative impacts on budget or schedule contingency reserves. Reserve analysis
compares the amount of the contingency reserves remaining to the amount of risk remaining at any time in the
project in order to determine if the remaining reserve is adequate. This may be communicated using various
graphical representations, including a burndown chart.
11.7.2.2 AUDITS
Described in Section 8.2.2.5. Risk audits are a type of audit that may be used to consider the effectiveness of the risk
management process. The project manager is responsible for ensuring that risk audits are performed at an appropriate
frequency, as defined in the project’s risk management plan. Risk audits may be included during routine project review
meetings or may form part of a risk review meeting, or the team may choose to hold separate risk audit meetings. The
format for the risk audit and its objectives should be clearly defined before the audit is conducted.
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11.7.2.3 MEETINGS
Meetings that can be used during this process include but are not limited to risk reviews. Risk reviews are scheduled
regularly and should examine and document the effectiveness of risk responses in dealing with overall project risk
and with identified individual project risks. Risk reviews may also result in identification of new individual project risks,
(including secondary risks that arise from agreed-upon risk responses), reassessment of current risks, the closing of
risks that are outdated, issues that have arisen as the result of risks that have occurred, and identification of lessons
to be learned for implementation in ongoing phases in the current project or in similar projects in the future. The risk
review may be conducted as part of a periodic project status meeting or a dedicated risk review meeting may be held,
as specified in the risk management plan.
11.7.3 MONITOR RISKS: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information on how project risk management
is performing by comparing the individual risks that have occurred with the expectation of how they would occur. This
information indicates the effectiveness of the response planning and response implementation processes.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. The Monitor Risks process may result in a change request to the cost and schedule
baselines or other components of the project management plan. Change requests are processed for review and
disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6).
Change requests can include recommended corrective and preventive actions to address the current level of overall
project risk or to address individual project risks.
request. This may affect any component of the project management plan.
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Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. During the Monitor Risks process, new assumptions may be
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The assumption log is updated with this new information.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Where issues are identified as part of the Monitor Risks process, these
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are recorded in the issue log.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register is updated with any
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risk-related lessons learned during risk reviews so these can be used on later phases of the project or in
future projects.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register is updated with information on individual project
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risks generated during the Monitor Risks process. This may include adding new risks, updating outdated risks or
risks that were realized, updating risk responses, and so forth.
Risk report. Described in Section 11.2.3.2. As new information becomes available through the Monitor Risks
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process, the risk report is updated to reflect the current status of major individual project risks and the current
level of overall project risk. The risk report may also include details of the top individual project risks, agreed-
upon responses and owners, and conclusions and recommendations. It may also include conclusions from risk
audits on the effectiveness of the risk management process.
Organizational process assets that are updated as a result of the Monitor Risks process include but are not limited to:
Templates for the risk management plan, risk register, and risk report; and
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Risk breakdown structure.

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12
PROJE CT PR OCUREMENT M ANAGEM ENT
Project Procurement Management includes the processes necessary to purchase or acquire products, services,
or results needed from outside the project team. Project Procurement Management includes the management and
control processes required to develop and administer agreements such as contracts, purchase orders, memoranda of
agreements (MOAs), or internal service level agreements (SLAs). The personnel authorized to procure the goods and/or
services required for the project may be members of the project team, management, or part of the organization’s
purchasing department if applicable.
Project Procurement Management processes include the following:
12.1 Plan Procurement Management—The process of documenting project procurement decisions, specifying the
approach, and identifying potential sellers.
12.2 Conduct Procurements—The process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding a contract.
12.3 Control Procurements—The process of managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract performance,
making changes and corrections as appropriate, and closing out contracts.
The procurement processes are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces. In practice, procurement
processes can be complex and can interact with each other and with processes in other Knowledge Areas in ways
that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide. The processes described in this section are written from the
viewpoint where goods or services are obtained from outside of the project.
Figure 12-1 provides an overview of the Project Procurement Management processes. The Project Procurement
Management processes are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in practice, they overlap and
interact in ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.
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Project Procurement
Management Overview
12.1 Plan Procurement 12.2 Conduct 12.3 Control

Management Procurements Procurements

.2 Business documents .2 Project documents .2 Project documents
.3 Project management plan .3 Procurement documentation .3 Agreements
.4 Project documents .4 Seller proposals .4 Procurement documentation
.5 Enterprise environmental .5 Enterprise environmental .5 Approved change requests
factors factors .6 Work performance data
.6 Organizational process assets .6 Organizational process assets .7 Enterprise environmental
factors
.1 Expert judgment .1 Expert judgment
.2 Data gathering .2 Advertising .2 Tools & Techniques
.3 Data analysis .3 Bidder conferences .1 Expert judgment
.4 Source selection analysis .4 Data analysis .2 Claims administration
.5 Meetings .5 Interpersonal and team skills .3 Data analysis
.4 Inspection
.5 Audits
.1 Procurement management .1 Selected sellers
plan .2 Agreements .3 Outputs
.2 Procurement strategy .3 Change requests .1 Closed procurements
.3 Bid documents .4 Project management plan .2 Work performance information
.4 Procurement statement of updates .3 Procurement documentation
work .5 Project documents updates updates
.5 Source selection criteria .6 Organizational process assets .4 Change requests
.6 Make-or-buy decisions updates .5 Project management plan
.7 Independent cost estimates updates
.8 Change requests .6 Project documents updates
.9 Project documents updates .7 Organizational process assets
updates
Figure 12-1 Project Procurement Management Overview
KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT
More than most other project management processes, there can be significant legal obligations and penalties tied to
the procurement process. The project manager does not have to be a trained expert in procurement management laws
and regulations but should be familiar enough with the procurement process to make intelligent decisions regarding
contracts and contractual relationships. The project manager is typically not authorized to sign legal agreements binding
the organization; this is reserved for those who have the authority to do so.
The Project Procurement Management processes involve agreements that describe the relationship between two
parties—a buyer and a seller. Agreements can be as simple as the purchase of a defined quantity of labor hours at
a specified labor rate, or they can be as complex as multiyear international construction contracts. The contracting
approach and the contract itself should reflect the simplicity or complexity of the deliverables or required effort and
should be written in a manner that complies with local, national, and international laws regarding contracts.
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A contract should clearly state the deliverables and results expected, including any knowledge transfer from the seller
to the buyer. Anything not in the contract cannot be legally enforced. When working internationally, project managers
should keep in mind the effect that culture and local law have upon contracts and their enforceability, no matter how
clearly a contract is written.
A purchasing contract includes terms and conditions and may incorporate other buyer specifics as to what the seller
is to perform or provide. It is the project management team’s responsibility to make certain that all procurements meet
the specific needs of the project while working with the procurement office to ensure organizational procurement
policies are followed. Depending on the application area, an agreement can be a contract, an SLA, an understanding,
an MOA, or a purchase order.
Most organizations document policies and procedures specifically defining procurement rules and specifying who
has authority to sign and administer such agreements on behalf of the organization. Across the world, organizations use
different names for departments or divisions that deal with procurement, such as purchasing, contracting, procurement,
or acquisitions; however, the responsibilities are likely to be similar.
Although all project documents may be subject to some form of review and approval, the legally binding nature of
a contract means it will be subjected to a more extensive approval process, often involving the legal department. In
all cases, the primary focus of the review and approval process is to ensure that the contract adequately describes
the products, services, or results that the seller is agreeing to provide, while being in compliance with the laws and
regulations regarding procurements. These sections are often separate appendices or annexes, allowing standardized
legal contract language to be used.
A complex project may involve managing multiple contracts simultaneously or in sequence. In such cases, each
contract life cycle may begin and end during any phase of the project life cycle. The buyer-seller relationship may exist
at many levels on any one project, and between organizations internal to and external to the acquiring organization.
Depending on the application area, the seller may be identified as a contractor, vendor, service provider, or supplier.
The buyer may be the owner of the final product, a subcontractor, the acquiring organization, a service requestor, or the
purchaser. The seller can be viewed during the contract life cycle first as a bidder, then as the selected source, and then
as the contracted supplier or vendor.
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The winning bidder may manage the work as a project. In such cases:
The buyer becomes the customer to subcontractors, suppliers, and service providers and is therefore a key
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project stakeholder from the seller’s perspective.
The seller’s project management team may be concerned with all the processes involved in performing the work
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or providing the services.
Terms and conditions of the contract and the procurement statement of work (SOW) become key inputs to many
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of the seller’s management processes. The contract can actually contain the inputs (e.g., major deliverables,
key milestones, cost objectives) or it can limit the project team’s options (for example, buyer approval of staffing
decisions is often required on IT integration projects). The procurement SOW may have other names, such as the
technical statement of work.
The seller itself may become a buyer of lower-tiered products, services, and materials from subcontractors
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and suppliers.
In this section, it is assumed that the buyer of an item for the project is assigned to the project team and/or is part
of the larger organization. The seller is assumed to be providing services and/or materials to the project and is usually
outside the performing organization. For some projects, the seller role may be filled by a group or function that is part of
the performing organization but external to the project. For larger, more complex projects, the seller may become part
of an integrated project team after the contract is awarded.
For smaller organizations or startup companies and those without a purchasing, contracting, or procurement
department, the project manager may assume the purchasing authority role to negotiate and sign contracts directly
(decentralized purchasing). For more mature organizations, the actual procurement and contracting functions
will be carried out by a separate department with the specific role to purchase, negotiate, and sign contracts
(centralized purchasing).
In international contracting, the legal jurisdictions under which the contracts will be administered are clearly spelled
out in the contract. In most cases, the seller is an external contractor who is bound by a formal contractual relationship.
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TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT
There are a number of major trends in software tools, risk, processes, logistics, and technology with different
industries that can affect the success rate of projects. Trends and emerging practices for Project Procurement
Management include but are not limited to:
Advances in tools. There has been significant improvement in the development of tools to manage the
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procurement and implementation phases of a project. Online tools for procurement now give the buyers a
single point where procurements can be advertised and provide sellers with a single source to find procurement
documents and complete them directly online. In the construction/engineering/infrastructure field, the increasing
use of the building information model (BIM) in software tools has been shown to save significant amounts of time
and money on projects using it. This approach can substantially reduce construction claims, thereby reducing
both costs and schedule. Major companies and governments worldwide are beginning to mandate the use of
BIM on large projects.
More advanced risk management. An increasing trend in risk management is to write contracts that accurately
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allocate specific risks to those entities most capable of managing them. No contractor is capable of managing all
the possible major risks on a project. The buyer will be required to accept the risks that the contractors do not have
control over, such as changing corporate policies in the buying organization, changing regulatory requirements,
and other risks from outside the project. Contracts may specify that risk management be performed as part of
the contract.
Changing contracting processes. There has been a significant growth in megaprojects in the past several
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years, particularly in the areas of infrastructure development and engineering projects. Multibillion-dollar projects
are now common. A large proportion of these involve international contracts with multiple contractors from many
countries and are inherently more risky than projects using only local contractors. Increasingly, the contractor
works closely with the client in the procurement process to take advantage of discounts through quantity
purchases or other special considerations. For these projects, the use of internationally recognized standard
contract forms is increasing in order to reduce problems and claims during execution.
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Logistics and supply chain management. Because so many large engineering, construction infrastructure
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projects are done through multiple international contractors, the management of the flow of materials becomes
critical to successful completion. For long-lead items, both the manufacture of the items and their transportation
to the project site become schedule-drivers. In the IT field, a long-lead item may require ordering 2 to 3 months
in advance. In complex construction projects, long-lead items may require ordering 1 to 2 years in advance or
longer. For these projects, long-lead items may be procured in advance of other procurement contracts to meet
the planned project completion date. It is possible to begin contracting for these long-lead materials, supplies,
or equipment before the final design of the end product itself is completed based on the known requirements
identified in the top-level design. The management of the supply chain is an area of increasing emphasis by the
contractor’s project team. Not only are primary sources of supplies identified early in the project, but secondary,
back-up sources are also generally identified. Many countries around the world require international contractors
to purchase certain minimum percentages of material and supplies from local vendors.
Technology and stakeholder relations. Publicly funded projects are under increasing scrutiny. A trend in
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infrastructure and commercial construction projects is the use of technology including web cameras (webcams)
to improve stakeholder communications and relations. During construction, one or more webcams are installed
on the site, with periodic updates to a publicly available website. The progress on the project can be viewed on
the Internet by all stakeholders. Video data can also be stored, allowing analysis if a claim arises. Some projects
have discovered that the use of webcams minimizes disputes relating to the construction work on site, as the
webcam has recorded the events, so there should be no disagreement about the facts of the matter.
Trial engagements. Not every seller is well suited for an organization’s environment. Therefore, some projects
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will engage several candidate sellers for initial deliverables and work products on a paid basis before making the
full commitment to a larger portion of the project scope. This accelerates momentum by allowing the buyer to
evaluate potential partners, while simultaneously making progress on project work.
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Because each project is unique, the project manager may need to tailor the way that Project Procurement Management
Complexity of procurement. Is there one main procurement or are there multiple procurements at different
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times with different sellers that add to the complexity of the procurements?
Physical location. Are the buyers and sellers in the same location, or reasonably close, or in different time zones,
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countries, or continents?
Governance and regulatory environment. Are local laws and regulations regarding procurement activities
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integrated with the organization’s procurement policies? How does this affect contract auditing requirements?
Availability of contractors. Are there available contractors who are capable of performing the work?
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In agile environments, specific sellers may be used to extend the team. This collaborative working relationship can
lead to a shared risk procurement model where both the buyer and the seller share in the risk and rewards associated
with a project.
Larger projects may use an adaptive approach for some deliverables and a more stable approach for other parts.
In these cases, a governing agreement such as a master services agreement (MSA) may be used for the overall
engagement, with the adaptive work being placed in an appendix or supplement. This allows changes to occur on the
adaptive scope without impacting the overall contract.
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12.1 PLAN PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT
Plan Procurement Management is the process of documenting project procurement decisions, specifying the
approach and identifying potential sellers. The key benefit of this process is that it determines whether to acquire
goods and services from outside the project and, if so, what to acquire as well as how and when to acquire it. Goods
and services may be procured from other parts of the performing organization or from external sources. This process is
performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure 12-2. Figure 12-3 depicts the data flow diagram of the process.
Plan Procurement Management

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Procurement management
.2 Business documents .2 Data gathering plan
• Business case • Market research .2 Procurement strategy
• Benefits management plan .3 Data analysis .3 Bid documents
.3 Project management plan • Make-or-buy analysis .4 Procurement statement of
• Scope management plan .4 Source selection analysis work
• Quality management plan .5 Meetings .5 Source selection criteria
• Resource management plan .6 Make-or-buy decisions
• Scope baseline .7 Independent cost estimates
.4 Project documents .8 Change requests
• Milestone list .9 Project documents updates
• Project team assignments • Lessons learned register
• Requirements • Milestone list
documentation • Requirements
• Requirements traceability documentation
• Resource requirements matrix
• Risk register • Risk register
• Stakeholder register • Stakeholder register
.5 Enterprise environmental .10 Organizational process
factors assets updates
Figure 12-2. Plan Procurement Management: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Project
Develop
Management
Project Charter • Procurement management plan Plan
• Project charter
Project
Management Procurement
Plan Documentation
• Procurement strategy
• Procurement statement of work
• Bid documents
Project management plan • Make-or-buy decisions
• Scope management plan • Independent cost estimates
• Resource management plan 4.6
• Scope baseline Perform
Integrated
12.1
Business Plan
Documents Procurement
Management
Business documents Project

• Business case Documents
• Source selection
• Benefits management plan criteria
Project
Documents Project documents updates
• Milestone list
Project documents • Requirements traceability matrix
• Milestone list • Risk register
• Project team assignments • Stakeholder register
Enterprise/
• Resource requirements • Organizational process assets
Organization
• Risk register updates
Enterprise/
Organization

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Figure 12-3. Plan Procurement Management: Data Flow Diagram
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Defining roles and responsibilities related to procurement should be done early in the Plan Procurement Management
process. The project manager should ensure that the project team is staffed with procurement expertise at the level
required for the project. Participants in the procurement process may include personnel from the purchasing or
procurement department as well as personnel from the buying organization’s legal department. These responsibilities
should be documented in the procurement management plan.
Typical steps might be:
Prepare the procurement statement of work (SOW) or terms of reference (TOR).
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Prepare a high-level cost estimate to determine the budget.

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Advertise the opportunity.

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Identify a short list of qualified sellers.

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Prepare and issue bid documents.

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Prepare and submit proposals by the seller.

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Conduct a technical evaluation of the proposals including quality.

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Perform a cost evaluation of the proposals.

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Prepare the final combined quality and cost evaluation to select the winning proposal.
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Finalize negotiations and sign contract between the buyer and the seller.
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The requirements of the project schedule can significantly influence the strategy during the Plan Procurement
Management process. Decisions made in developing the procurement management plan can also influence the
project schedule and are integrated with the Develop Schedule process, the Estimate Activity Resources process, and
make-or-buy decisions.
12.1.1 PLAN PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter contains the objectives, project description, summary milestones,
and the preapproved financial resources.
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Described in Section 1.2.6. The business documents include the following:

Business case. The procurement strategy and business case need to be aligned to ensure the business case
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remains valid.
Benefits management plan. The benefits management plan describes when specific project benefits are
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expected to be available, which will drive procurement dates and contract language.
Scope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan describes how the scope
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of work by the contractors will be managed through the execution phase of the project.
Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. The quality management plan contains the applicable
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industry standards and codes the project is required to follow. This information is used in bidding documents
such as the RFP and will eventually be referenced in the contract. This information may be used in supplier
prequalification or as part of the selection criteria.
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan has information on
uu
which resources will be purchased or leased, along with any assumptions or constraints that would influence
the procurement.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The scope baseline contains the scope statement, WBS, and WBS
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dictionary. Early in the project, the project scope may still be evolving. The elements of the scope that are known
are used to develop the statement of work (SOW) and the terms of reference (TOR).
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. This list of major milestones show when the sellers are required to
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deliver their results.
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Project team assignments. Described in Section 9.3.3.2. The project team assignments contain information on
uu
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the skills and abilities of the project team and their availability to support the procurement activities. If the project
team does not have the skills to perform the procurement activities for which they are responsible, additional
resources will need to be acquired or training will need to be provided, or both.
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Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements documentation may include:
uu
nuTechnical requirements that the seller is required to satisfy, and

nuRequirements with contractual and legal implications that may include health, safety, security, performance,
environmental, insurance, intellectual property rights, equal employment opportunity, licenses, permits, and
other nontechnical requirements.
uu
product requirements from their origin to the deliverables that satisfy them.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. Resource requirements contain information on specific
uu
needs such as team and phyisical resources that may need to be acquired.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register provides the list of risks, along with the results of
uu
risk analysis and risk response planning. Some risks are transferred via a procurement agreement.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register provides details on the
uu
project participants and their interests in the project, including regulatory agencies, contracting personnel,
and legal personnel.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Plan Procurement Management process include but are
not limited to:
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Products, services, and results that are available in the marketplace;

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Sellers, including their past performance or reputation;

uu
Typical terms and conditions for products, services, and results or for the specific industry;
uu
Unique local requirements, such as regulatory requirements for local labor or sellers;
uu
Legal advice regarding procurements;

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Contract management systems, including procedures for contract change control;

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Established multi-tier supplier system of prequalified sellers based on prior experience; and
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Financial accounting and contract payments system.

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The various types of contractual agreements used by the organization also influence decisions for the Plan Procurement
Management process. The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Procurement Management process
Preapproved seller lists. Lists of sellers that have been properly vetted can streamline the steps needed to
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advertise the opportunity and shorten the timeline for the seller selection process.
Formal procurement policies, procedures, and guidelines. Most organizations have formal procurement
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policies and buying organizations. When such procurement support is not available, the project team should
supply both the resources and the expertise to perform such procurement activities.
Contract types. All legal contractual relationships generally fall into one of two broad families: either fixed-price
uu
or cost-reimbursable. Also, there is a third hybrid type commonly used called the time and materials contract.
The more popular contract types in use are discussed below as discrete types, but, in practice, it is not unusual
to combine one or more types into a single procurement.
nuFixed-price contracts. This category of contracts involves setting a fixed total price for a defined product,
service, or result to be provided. These contracts should be used when the requirements are well defined and
no significant changes to the scope are expected. Types of fixed-price contract include:
muFirm fixed price (FFP). The most commonly used contract type is the FFP. It is favored by most buying
organizations because the price for goods is set at the outset and not subject to change unless the scope
of work changes.
muFixed price incentive fee (FPIF). This fixed-price arrangement gives the buyer and seller some flexibility
in that it allows for deviation from performance, with financial incentives tied to achieving agreed-upon
metrics. Typically, such financial incentives are related to cost, schedule, or technical performance of the
seller. Under FPIF contracts, a price ceiling is set, and all costs above the price ceiling are the responsibility
of the seller.
muFixed price with economic price adjustments (FPEPA). This type is used whenever the seller’s performance
period spans a considerable period of years, or if the payments are made in a different currency. It
is a fixed-price contract, but with a special provision allowing for predefined final adjustments to the
contract price due to changed conditions, such as inflation changes or cost increases (or decreases) for
specific commodities.
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Cost-reimbursable contracts. This category of contract involves payments (cost reimbursements) to the
uu
seller for all legitimate actual costs incurred for completed work, plus a fee representing seller profit. This type
should be used if the scope of work is expected to change significantly during the execution of the contract.
Variations can include:
nuCost plus fixed fee (CPFF). The seller is reimbursed for all allowable costs for performing the contract work and
receives a fixed-fee payment calculated as a percentage of the initial estimated project costs. Fee amounts
do not change unless the project scope changes.
nuCost plus incentive fee (CPIF). The seller is reimbursed for all allowable costs for performing the contract work
and receives a predetermined incentive fee based on achieving certain performance objectives as set forth
in the contract. In CPIF contracts, if the final costs are less or greater than the original estimated costs, then
both the buyer and seller share costs from the departures based upon a prenegotiated cost-sharing formula,
for example, an 80/20 split over/under target costs based on the actual performance of the seller.
nuCost plus award fee (CPAF). The seller is reimbursed for all legitimate costs, but the majority of the fee
is earned based on the satisfaction of certain broad subjective performance criteria that are defined and
incorporated into the contract. The determination of fee is based solely on the subjective determination of
seller performance by the buyer and is generally not subject to appeals.
Time and material contracts (T&M). Time and material contracts (also called time and means) are a hybrid
uu
type of contractual arrangement with aspects of both cost-reimbursable and fixed-price contracts. They are often
used for staff augmentation, acquisition of experts, and any outside support when a precise statement of work
cannot be quickly prescribed.
12.1.2 PLAN PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Procurement and purchasing,
uu
Contract types and contract documents, and

uu
Regulations and compliance topics.

uu
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A data-gathering technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to market research. Market
research includes examination of industry and specific seller capabilities. Procurement teams may leverage information
gained at conferences, online reviews, and a variety of sources to identify market capabilities. The team may also refine
specific procurement objectives to leverage maturing technologies while balancing risks associated with the breadth of
sellers who can provide the desired materials or services.
Data analysis techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to make-or-buy analysis.
A make-or-buy analysis is used to determine whether work or deliverables can best be accomplished by the project
team or should be purchased from outside sources. Factors to consider in the make-or-buy decision include the
organization’s current resource allocation and their skills and abilities, the need for specialized expertise, the desire to
not expand permanent employment obligations, and the need for independent expertise. It also includes evaluating the
risks involved with each make-or-buy decision.
Make-or-buy analysis may use payback period, return on investment (ROI), internal rate of return (IRR), discounted
cash flow, net present value (NPV), benefit/cost analysis (BCA), or other techniques in order to decide whether to include
something as part of the project or purchase it externally.
12.1.2.4 SOURCE SELECTION ANALYSIS
It is necessary to review the prioritization of the competing demands for the project before deciding on the selection
method. Since competitive selection methods may require sellers to invest a large amount of time and resources
upfront, it is a good practice to include the evaluation method in the procurement documents so bidders know how they
will be evaluated. Commonly used selection methods include the following:
Least cost. The least cost method may be appropriate for procurements of a standard or routine nature where
uu
well-established practices and standards exist and from which a specific and well-defined outcome is expected,
which can be executed at different costs.
Qualifications only. The qualifications only selection method applies when the time and cost of a full selection
uu
process would not make sense because the value of the procurement is relatively small. The buyer establishes
a short list and selects the bidder with the best credibility, qualifications, experience, expertise, areas of
specialization, and references.
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Quality-based/highest technical proposal score. The selected firm is asked to submit a proposal with both
uu
technical and cost details and is then invited to negotiate the contract if the technical proposal proves acceptable.
Using this method, technical proposals are first evaluated based on the quality of the technical solution offered.
The seller who submitted the highest-ranked technical proposal is selected if their financial proposal can be
negotiated and accepted.
Quality and cost-based. The quality and cost-based method allows cost to be included as a factor in the seller
uu
selection process. In general, when risk and/or uncertainty are greater for the project, quality should be a key
element when compared to cost.
Sole source. The buyer asks a specific seller to prepare technical and financial proposals, which are then
uu
negotiated. Since there is no competition, this method is acceptable only when properly justified and should be
viewed as an exception.
Fixed budget. The fixed-budget method requires disclosing the available budget to invited sellers in the RFP
uu
and selecting the highest-ranking technical proposal within the budget. Because sellers are subject to a cost
constraint, they will adapt the scope and quality of their offer to that budget. The buyer should therefore ensure
that the budget is compatible with the SOW and that the seller will be able to perform the tasks within the budget.
This method is appropriate only when the SOW is precisely defined, no changes are anticipated, and the budget
is fixed and cannot be exceeded.
12.1.2.5 MEETINGS
Research alone may not provide specific information to formulate a procurement strategy without additional
information interchange meetings with potential bidders. By collaborating with potential bidders, the organization
purchasing the material or service may benefit while the seller can influence a mutually beneficial approach or product.
Meetings can be used to determine the strategy for managing and monitoring the procurement.
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12.1.3 PLAN PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
12.1.3.1 PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN
The procurement management plan contains the activities to be undertaken during the procurement process. It
should document whether international competitive bidding, national competitive bidding, local bidding, etc., should be
done. If the project is financed externally, the sources and availability of funding should be aligned with the procurement
management plan and the project schedule.
The procurement management plan can include guidance for:
How procurement will be coordinated with other project aspects, such as project schedule development and
uu
control processes;
Timetable of key procurement activities;
uu
Procurement metrics to be used to manage contracts;

uu
Stakeholder roles and responsibilities related to procurement, including authority and constraints of the project
uu
team when the performing organization has a procurement department;
Constraints and assumptions that could affect planned procurements;
uu
The legal jurisdiction and the currency in which payments will be made;
uu
Determination of whether independent estimates will be used and whether they are needed as evaluation criteria;
uu
Risk management issues including identifying requirements for performance bonds or insurance contracts to
uu
mitigate some forms of project risk; and
Prequalified sellers, if any, to be used.
uu
A procurement management plan can be formal or informal, can be highly detailed or broadly framed, and is based
upon the needs of each project.
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12.1.3.2 PROCUREMENT STRATEGY
Once the make-or-buy analysis is complete and the decision is made to acquire from outside the project, a procurement
strategy should be identified. The objective of the procurement strategy is to determine the project delivery method, the
type of legally binding agreement(s), and how the procurement will advance through the procurement phases.
Delivery methods. Delivery methods are different for professional services versus construction projects.
uu
nuFor professional services, delivery methods include: buyer/services provider with no subcontracting, buyer/
services provider with subcontracting allowed, joint venture between buyer and services provider, and buyer/
services provider acts as the representative.
nuFor industrial or commercial construction, project delivery methods include but are not limited to: turnkey,
design build (DB), design bid build (DBB), design build operate (DBO), build own operate transfer (BOOT),
and others.
Contract payment types. Contract payment types are separate from the project delivery methods and are
uu
coordinated with the buying organization’s internal financial systems. They include but are not limited to these
contract types plus variations: lump sum, firm fixed price, cost plus award fees, cost plus incentive fees, time
and materials, target cost, and others.
nuFixed-price contracts are suitable when the type of work is predictable and the requirements are well defined
and not likely to change.
nuCost plus contracts are suitable when the work is evolving, likely to change, or not well defined.
nuIncentives and awards may be used to align the objectives of buyer and seller.
Procurement phases. The procurement strategy can also include information on procurement phases.
uu
Information may include:
nuSequencing or phasing of the procurement, a description of each phase and the specific objectives
of each phase;
nuProcurement performance indicators and milestones to be used in monitoring;
nuCriteria for moving from phase to phase;
nuMonitoring and evaluation plan for tracking progress; and
nuProcess for knowledge transfer for use in subsequent phases.
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12.1.3.3 BID DOCUMENTS
Bid documents are used to solicit proposals from prospective sellers. Terms such as bid, tender, or quotation are generally
used when the seller selection decision is based on price (as when buying commercial or standard items), while a term
such as proposal is generally used when other considerations such as technical capability or technical approach are the
most important. Specific procurement terminology used may vary by industry and location of the procurement.
Depending on the goods or services needed, the bidding documents can include a request for information, request
for quotation, request for proposal, or other appropriate procurement documents. The conditions involving their use are
presented below:
Request for information (RFI). An RFI is used when more information on the goods and services to be acquired
uu
is needed from the sellers. It will typically be followed by an RFQ or RFP.
Request for quotation (RFQ). An RFQ is commonly used when more information is needed on how vendors
uu
would satisfy the requirements and/or how much it will cost.
Request for proposal (RFP). An RFP is used when there is a problem in the project and the solution is not easy
uu
to determine. This is the most formal of the “request for” documents and has strict procurement rules for content,
timeline, and seller responses.
The buyer structures procurement documents to facilitate an accurate and complete response from each prospective
seller and to facilitate easy evaluation of the responses. These documents include a description of the desired form of
the response, the relevant procurement SOW, and any required contractual provisions.
The complexity and level of detail of the procurement documents should be consistent with the value of, and risks
associated with, the planned procurement. Procurement documents are required to be sufficiently detailed to ensure
consistent, appropriate responses, but flexible enough to allow consideration of any seller suggestions for better ways
to satisfy the same requirements.
12.1.3.4 PROCUREMENT STATEMENT OF WORK
The statement of work (SOW) for each procurement is developed from the project scope baseline and defines only
that portion of the project scope that is to be included within the related contract. The SOW describes the procurement
item in sufficient detail to allow prospective sellers to determine if they are capable of providing the products, services,
�
or results. Sufficient detail can vary based on the nature of the item, the needs of the buyer, or the expected contract
form. Information included in a SOW can include specifications, quantity desired, quality levels, performance data, period
�
of performance, work location, and other requirements.
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The procurement SOW should be clear, complete, and concise. It includes a description of any collateral services
required, such as performance reporting or post-project operational support for the procured item. The SOW can be
revised as required as it moves through the procurement process until incorporated into a signed agreement.
The phrase terms of reference (TOR) is sometimes used when contracting for services. Similar to the procurement
SOW, a TOR typically includes these elements:
Tasks the contractor is required to perform as well as specified coordination requirements;
uu
Standards the contractor will fulfill that are applicable to the project;
uu
Data that needs to be submitted for approval;

uu
Detailed list of all data and services that will be provided to the contractor by the buyer for use in performing the
uu
contract, if applicable; and
Definition of the schedule for initial submission and the review/approval time required.
uu
12.1.3.5 SOURCE SELECTION CRITERIA
In choosing evaluation criteria, the buyer seeks to ensure that the proposal selected will offer the best quality for the
services required. The source selection criteria may include but are not limited to:
Capability and capacity;
uu
Product cost and life cycle cost;

uu
Delivery dates;
uu
Technical expertise and approach;

uu
Specific relevant experience;

uu
Adequacy of the proposed approach and work plan in responding to the SOW;
uu
Key staff’s qualifications, availability, and competence;

uu
Financial stability of the firm;

uu
Management experience; and

uu
Suitability of the knowledge transfer program, including training.

uu
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For international projects, evaluation criteria may include “local content” requirements, for example, participation by
nationals among proposed key staff.
The specific criteria may be a numerical score, color-code, or a written description of how well the seller satisfies
the buying organization’s needs. The criteria will be part of a weighting system that can be used to select a single seller
that will be asked to sign a contract and establish a negotiating sequence by ranking all the proposals by the weighted
evaluation scores assigned to each proposal.
12.1.3.6 MAKE-OR-BUY DECISIONS
A make-or-buy analysis results in a decision as to whether particular work can best be accomplished by the project
team or needs to be purchased from outside sources.
12.1.3.7 INDEPENDENT COST ESTIMATES
For large procurements, the procuring organization may elect to either prepare its own independent estimate or
have a cost estimate prepared by an outside professional estimator to serve as a benchmark on proposed responses.
Significant differences in cost estimates can be an indication that the procurement SOW was deficient or ambiguous, or
that the prospective sellers either misunderstood or failed to respond fully to the procurement SOW.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. A decision that involves procuring goods, services, or resources may require a change
request. Other decisions during procurement planning can also create the need for additional change requests. Changes
to the project management plan, its subsidiary plans, and other components may result in change requests that impact
procurement actions. Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change
479
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register is updated with any relevant
uu
lessons regarding regulations and compliance, data gathering, data analysis, and source selection analysis.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. This list of major milestones shows when the sellers are expected
uu
to deliver their results.
uu

uu
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. Each approved seller comes with its own unique set of risks,
uu
depending on the seller’s organization, the duration of the contract, the external environment, the project delivery
method, the type of contracting vehicle chosen, and the final agreed-upon price.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register is updated with any additional
uu
information on stakeholders, particularly regulatory agencies, contracting personnel, and legal personnel.
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Organizational process assets that are updated as a result of the Plan Procurement Management process include but
are not limited to information on qualified sellers.
For projects with few procurements and relatively simple procurements, some of these outputs may be combined.
However, for projects with large, complex procurements and where much of the work is done by contractors, there are
several different types of documentation. Table 12-1 is a representative list of common types of documents used in
procurements and some of their contents. Given the legal nature of procurements, this list should not be considered
prescriptive, but rather it should be used as a general outline of types of documents and contents needed to conduct
procurement. The organization, environment, and legal constraints dictate the required procurement documents and
information needed for the project.
Table 12-1. Comparison of Procurement Documentation
Procurement Procurement Statement of

Bid Documents
Management Plan Strategy Work
How procurement work will be Procurement delivery methods Description of the procurement Request for information (RFI),
coordinated and integrated with item Request for quote (RFQ),
other project work, particularly Request for proposal (RFP)
with resources, schedule, and
budget
Timetable for key procurement Type of agreements Specifications, quality require-
activities ments and performance metrics
Procurement metrics to manage Procurement phases Description of collateral services
the contract required
Responsibilities of all Acceptance methods and criteria
stakeholders
Procurement assumptions and Performance data and other
constraints reports required
Legal jurisdiction and currency Quality
used for payment
Information on independent Period and place of performance
estimates
Risk management issues Currency; payment schedule
Prequalified sellers, if applicable Warranty
�
�
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12.2 CONDUCT PROCUREMENTS
Conduct Procurements is the process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding a contract. The
key benefit of this process is that it selects a qualified seller and implements the legal agreement for delivery. The end
results of the process are the established agreements including formal contracts. This process is performed periodically
throughout the project as needed. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the Conduct Procurements process
are depicted in Figure 12-4. Figure 12-5 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Conduct Procurements

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Selected sellers
• Scope management plan .2 Advertising .2 Agreements
• Requirements management .3 Bidder conferences .3 Change requests
plan .4 Data analysis .4 Project management plan
• Communications • Proposal evaluation updates
management plan .5 Interpersonal and team skills • Requirements management
• Risk management plan • Negotiation plan
• Procurement management • Quality management plan
plan • Communications
• Configuration management management plan
plan • Risk management plan
• Cost baseline • Procurement management
.2 Project documents plan
• Lessons learned register • Scope baseline
• Project schedule • Schedule baseline
• Requirements • Cost baseline
documentation .5 Project documents updates
• Stakeholder register • Requirements
.3 Procurement documentation documentation
.4 Seller proposals • Requirements traceability
.5 Enterprise environmental matrix
factors • Resource calendars
.6 Organizational process assets • Risk register
updates
�
Figure 12-4. Conduct Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
�
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Project
Management
Plan
12.3
Control
Project management plan Procurements
• Scope management plan • Selected sellers
• Procurement management plan 4.6
• Configuration management plan Perform
• Cost baseline Integrated
Project
Documents
Project
Management
Project documents Project management Plan
• Lessons learned register plan updates
• Project schedule • Requirements
• Requirements documentation management plan
• Risk register • Quality management plan
• Stakeholder register • Communications management plan
• Procurement management plan
12.2 • Scope baseline
Procurement Conduct • Schedule baseline
Documentation • Cost baseline
Procurements
• Project
charter
Project
Project documents Documents
Enterprise/ updates
Organization • Agreements • Lessons learned register
• Enterprise environmental factors • Resource calendars
• Organizational process assets • Risk register
Enterprise/
Sellers Organization
• Organizational
process assets
updates
• Seller proposals
4.5
4.1 Monitor and
Develop Control
Project Charter Project Work
4.7 6.5
Close Develop
Project or Phase Schedule
�
�
7.3 9.6
Determine Control
Budget Resources
12.3 13.1
Control Identify
Procurements Stakeholders
13.2
Plan
Stakeholder
Engagement
Figure 12-5. Conduct Procurements: Data Flow Diagram
483
12.2.1 CONDUCT PROCUREMENTS: INPUTS
Scope management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.1. The scope management plan describes how the overall
uu
scope of work will be managed, including the scope performed by sellers.
uu
how requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed. The requirements management plan may
include how sellers will manage the requirements they are under agreement to satisfy.
uu
describes how communications between buyers and sellers will be conducted.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan is a component of the
uu
project management plan and describes how risk management activities will be structured and performed for
the project.
Procurement management plan. Described in Section 12.1.3.1. The procurement management plan contains
uu
the activities to be undertaken during the Conduct Procurements process.
Configuration management plan. Described in Section 5.6.1.1. The configuration management plan defines
uu
those items that are configurable, those items that require formal change control, and the process for controlling
changes to such items. It includes formats and processes for how sellers will provide configuration management
in a way that is consistent with the buyer’s approach.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. The cost baseline includes the budget for the procurement as well
uu
as costs associated with managing the procurement process and sellers.
uu
�
conducting procurements can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the efficiency of this process.
�
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The project schedule identifies the start and end dates of project
uu
activities, including procurement activities. It also defines when contractor deliverables are due.
484
uu
nuTechnical requirements the seller is required to satisfy, and

uu
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. This document contains all of the details about the
uu
identified stakeholders.
Procurement documentation provides a written record used in reaching the legal agreement, and may include older
documents predating the current project. Procurement documentation can include:
Bid documents. Described in Section 12.1.3.3. Procurement documents include the RFI, RFP, RFQ, or other
uu
documents sent to sellers so they can develop a bid response.
Procurement statement of work. Described in Section 12.1.3.4. The procurement statement of work (SOW)
uu
provides sellers with a clearly stated set of goals, requirements, and outcomes from which they can provide
a quantifiable response.
Independent cost estimates. Described in Section 12.1.3.7. Independent cost estimates are developed either
uu
internally or by using external resources and provide a reasonableness check against the proposals submitted
by bidders.
Source selection criteria. Described in Section 12.1.3.5. These criteria describe how bidder proposals will be
uu
evaluated, including evaluation criteria and weights. For risk mitigation, the buyer may decide to sign agreements
with more than one seller to mitigate damage caused by a single seller having problems that impact the
overall project.
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12.2.1.4 SELLER PROPOSALS
Seller proposals, prepared in response to a procurement document package, form the basic information that will be
used by an evaluation body to select one or more successful bidders (sellers). If the seller is going to submit a price
proposal, good practice is to require that it be separate from the technical proposal. The evaluation body reviews each
submitted proposal according to the source selection criteria and selects the seller that can best satisfy the buying
organization’s requirements.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Conduct Procurements Process include:
Local laws and regulations regarding procurements;
uu
Local laws and regulations ensuring that the major procurements involve local sellers;
uu
External economic environment constraining procurement processes;

uu
uu
Information on relevant past experience with sellers, both good and bad;
uu
Prior agreements already in place; and

uu
Contract management systems.

uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Conduct Procurements process include but are not limited to:
List of preferred sellers that have been prequalified,
uu
Organizational policies that influence the selection of a seller,

uu
Specific organizational templates or guidelines that will determine the way agreements are drafted and built,
uu
and
Financial policies and procedures regarding invoicing and payment processes.
uu
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12.2.2 CONDUCT PROCUREMENTS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Proposal evaluation;
uu
Technical or subject matter;

uu
Relevant functional areas such as finance, engineering, design, development, supply chain management, etc.;
uu
Industry regulatory environment;

uu
Laws, regulations, and compliance requirements; and

uu
Negotiation.
uu
12.2.2.2 ADVERTISING
Advertising is communicating with users or potential users of a product, service, or result. Existing lists of potential
sellers often can be expanded by placing advertisements in general circulation publications such as selected newspapers
or in specialty trade publications. Most government jurisdictions require public advertising or online posting of pending
government contracts.
12.2.2.3 BIDDER CONFERENCES
Bidder conferences (also called contractor conferences, vendor conferences, and pre-bid conferences) are meetings
between the buyer and prospective sellers prior to proposal submittal. They are used to ensure that all prospective
bidders have a clear and common understanding of the procurement and no bidders receive preferential treatment.
A data analysis technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to proposal evaluation. Proposals
�
are evaluated to ensure they are complete and respond in full to the bid documents, procurement statement of work,
source selection criteria, and any other documents that went out in the bid package.
�
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Interpersonal and team skills that can be used for this process include negotiation. Negotiation is a discussion aimed
at reaching an agreement. Procurement negotiation clarifies the structure, rights, and obligations of the parties and
other terms of the purchases so that mutual agreement can be reached prior to signing the contract. Final document
language reflects all agreements reached. Negotiation concludes with a signed contract document or other formal
agreement that can be executed by both buyer and seller.
The negotiation should be led by a member of the procurement team that has the authority to sign contracts. The
project manager and other members of the project management team may be present during negotiation to provide
assistance as needed.
12.2.3 CONDUCT PROCUREMENTS: OUTPUTS
12.2.3.1 SELECTED SELLERS
The selected sellers are those who have been judged to be in a competitive range based on the outcome of the proposal
or bid evaluation. Final approval of complex, high-value, high-risk procurements will generally require organizational
senior management approval prior to award.
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12.2.3.2 AGREEMENTS
A contract is a mutually binding agreement that obligates the seller to provide the specified products, services, or
results; obligates the buyer to compensate the seller; and represents a legal relationship that is subject to remedy in the
courts. The major components in an agreement document will vary, and may include but are not limited to:
Procurement statement of work or major deliverables;
uu
Schedule, milestones, or date by which a schedule is required;

uu
Performance reporting;
uu
Pricing and payment terms;

uu
Inspection, quality, and acceptance criteria;

uu
Warranty and future product support;

uu
Incentives and penalties;

uu
Insurance and performance bonds;

uu
Subordinate subcontractor approvals;

uu
General terms and conditions;

uu
Change request handling; and

uu
Termination clause and alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.

uu
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Change requests to the project management plan, its subsidiary plans, and other
components are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control process
(Section 4.6).
489
Requirements management plan. Described in Section 5.1.3.2. There may be changes to project requirements
uu
due to changes identified by sellers.
Quality management plan. Described in Section 8.1.3.1. Sellers may offer alternative quality standards or
uu
alternative solutions that impact the quality approaches defined in the quality management plan.
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. As sellers are hired, the communications
uu
management plan is updated to incorporate their communications needs and approaches.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Each agreement and seller has its own set of risks that
uu
may require updates to the risk management plan. Specific risks are incorporated into the risk register.
Procurement management plan. Described in Section 12.1.3.1. Updates may be required depending on the
uu
results of the contracting and negotiations processes.
Scope baseline. Described in Section 5.4.3.1. The project WBS and deliverables documented in the scope
uu
baseline are considered when performing procurement activities. Any one or all of these may change during the
procurement process.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. If there are delivery changes created by sellers that impact
uu
overall project schedule performance, the baseline schedule may need to be updated and approved to reflect the
current expectations.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. Contractor and materials prices can change frequently during the
uu
delivery of a project. These changes can occur because of fluctuating materials and labor prices created by the
external economic environment and need to be incorporated into the cost baseline.
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uu
on challenges encountered while conducting procurements and how they could have been avoided as well as
approaches that worked well.
uu

Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. As sellers are incorporated into the project’s
uu
plan, the requirements register and the traceability matrix may change depending on the capabilities of the
specific seller.
Resource calendars. Described in Section 9.2.1.2. Schedule resource calendars may need to be updated
uu
depending on the availabilities of the sellers.
uu
method, the type of contracting vehicle chosen, and the final agreed-upon price. Changes are made to the risk
register during the contracting process, which reflect the specific risks of each seller.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. This document contains all the details about the identified
uu
stakeholders. The stakeholder register is updated as agreements are made with specific sellers.
Elements of the organizational process assets that can be updated as a result of the Conduct Procurements process
can include:
Listings of prospective and prequalified sellers; and
uu
Information on relevant experience with sellers, both good and bad.

uu
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12.3 CONTROL PROCUREMENTS
Control Procurements is the process of managing procurement relationships; monitoring contract performance,
and making changes and corrections as appropriate; and closing out contracts. The key benefit of this process is
that it ensures that both the seller’s and buyer’s performance meet the project’s requirements according to the
terms of the legal agreement. This process is performed throughout the project as needed. The inputs, tools and
techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 12-6. Figure 12-7 depicts the data flow diagram
of the process.
Control Procurements

.1 Project management plan .1 Expert judgment .1 Closed procurements
• Requirements management .2 Claims administration .2 Work performance
plan .3 Data analysis information
• Risk management plan • Performance reviews .3 Procurement documentation
• Procurement management • Earned value analysis updates
plan • Trend analysis .4 Change requests
• Change management plan .4 Inspection .5 Project management plan
• Schedule baseline .5 Audits updates
.2 Project documents • Risk management plan
• Assumption log • Procurement management
• Lessons learned register plan
• Milestone list • Schedule baseline
• Quality reports • Cost baseline
• Requirements .6 Project documents updates
documentation • Lessons learned register
• Requirements traceability • Resource requirements
• Risk register matrix
• Stakeholder register • Risk register
.3 Agreements • Stakeholder register
.4 Procurement documentation .7 Organizational process assets
.5 Approved change requests updates
factors
Figure 12-6. Control Procurements: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

• Procurement management plan Procurement
• Change management plan Documentation
• Schedule baseline • Closed procurements
• Procurement documentation updates
Project
Documents 4.5
Monitor and
Control
Project documents
• Assumption log
• Milestone list 4.6
• Quality reports
Perform
Integrated
• Change requests
• Risk register Change Control
4.6 12.3 Project

Perform Management
Control
Integrated Plan
Change Control Procurements
• Project
charter
• Approved change requests
• Procurement management plan
4.3 • Schedule baseline
Direct and • Cost baseline
Manage
Documents
• Work performance data Project documents updates
12.1 • Requirements traceability matrix
Plan • Risk register
Procurement • Stakeholder register
Management
• Procurement documentation Enterprise/

Organization
assets updates
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12.2
Conduct
Procurements
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• Agreements
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 12-7. Control Procurements: Data Flow Diagram
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Both the buyer and the seller administer the procurement contract for similar purposes. Each is required to ensure
that both parties meet their contractual obligations and that their own legal rights are protected. The legal nature of
the relationship makes it imperative that the project management team is aware of the implications of actions taken
when controlling any procurement. On larger projects with multiple providers, a key aspect of contract administration is
managing communication among the various providers.
Because of the legal aspect, many organizations treat contract administration as an organizational function that
is separate from the project. While a procurement administrator may be on the project team, this individual typically
reports to a supervisor from a different department.
Control Procurements includes application of the appropriate project management processes to the contractual
relationship(s) and integration of the outputs from these processes into the overall management of the project. This
integration often occurs at multiple levels when there are multiple sellers and multiple products, services, or results involved.
Administrative activities may include:
Collection of data and managing project records, including maintenance of detailed records of physical and
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financial performance and establishment of measurable procurement performance indicators;
Refinement of procurement plans and schedules;
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Set up for gathering, analyzing, and reporting procurement-related project data and preparation of periodic
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reports to the organization;
Monitoring the procurement environment so that implementation can be facilitated or adjustments made; and
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Payment of invoices.
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The quality of the controls, including the independence and credibility of procurement audits, is critical to the reliability
of the procurement system. The organization’s code of ethics, its legal counsel, and external legal advisory arrangements
including any ongoing anti-corruption initiatives can contribute to proper procurement controls.
Control Procurements has a financial management component that involves monitoring payments to the seller. This
ensures that payment terms defined within the contract are met and that compensation is linked to the seller’s progress
as defined in the contract. A principal concern when making payments is to ensure there is a close relationship of
payments made to the work accomplished. A contract that requires payments linked to project output and deliverables
rather than inputs such as labor hours has better controls.
Agreements can be amended at any time prior to contract closure by mutual consent, in accordance with the change
control terms of the agreement. Such amendments are typically captured in writing.
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12.3.1 CONTROL PROCUREMENTS: INPUTS
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how contractor requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan describes how risk activities
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created by sellers will be structured and performed for the project.
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the activities to be performed during the Control Procurement process.
Change management plan. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The change management plan contains information
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about how seller-created changes will be processed.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. If there are slippages created by sellers that impact overall
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project performance, the schedule may need to be updated and approved to reflect the current expectations.
Project documents that can be considered as inputs to this process include but are not limited to:
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log documents the assumptions that have been
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made during the procurement process.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project can be applied
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further along in the project to improve contractor performance and the procurement process.
Milestone list. Described in Section 6.2.3.3. This list of major milestones shows when the sellers are expected
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to deliver their results.
Quality reports. Described in Section 8.2.3.1. The quality reports can identify seller processes, procedures,
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or products that are out of compliance.
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nuTechnical requirements the seller is required to satisfy, and

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Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register includes information about
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identified stakeholders, including contracted team members, selected sellers, contracting officers, and other
stakeholders who are involved in procurements.
12.3.1.3 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. Agreements are understandings between parties, including understanding of the
duties of each party. The relevant agreements are reviewed to verify terms and conditions are met.
Procurement documentation contains complete supporting records for administration of the procurement processes.
Procurement documentation includes the statement of work, payment information, contractor work performance
information, plans, drawings, and other correspondence.
Described in Section 4.6.3.1. Approved change requests can include modifications to the terms and conditions of
the contract, including the procurement statement of work (SOW), pricing, and descriptions of the products, services, or
results to be provided. All procurement-related changes are formally documented in writing and approved before being
implemented through the Control Procurements process. In complex projects and programs, change requests may come
from sellers involved with the project that can influence other involved sellers. The project should have the capability of
identifying, communicating, and resolving changes that impact the work of multiple sellers.
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains seller data on project status such as technical
performance; activities that have started, are in progress, or have completed; and costs that have been incurred or
committed. Work performance data can also include information on the seller invoices that have been paid.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Control Procurements process include but are not
limited to:
Contract change control system,
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Marketplace conditions,
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Financial management and accounts payable system, and

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Buying organization’s code of ethics.

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Control Procurements process include but are not limited
to, procurement policies.
12.3.2 CONTROL PROCUREMENTS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Relevant functional areas such as finance, engineering, design, development, supply chain management, etc.;
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Laws, regulations, and compliance requirements; and

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Claims administration.
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12.3.2.2 CLAIMS ADMINISTRATION
Contested changes and potential constructive changes are those requested changes where the buyer and seller
cannot reach an agreement on compensation for the change or cannot agree that a change has occurred. These
contested changes are called claims. When they cannot be resolved, they become disputes and finally appeals. Claims
are documented, processed, monitored, and managed throughout the contract life cycle, usually in accordance with the
terms of the contract. If the parties themselves do not resolve a claim, it may have to be handled in accordance with
alternative dispute resolution (ADR) typically following procedures established in the contract. Settlement of all claims
and disputes through negotiation is the preferred method.
Data analysis techniques that can be used to monitor and control procurements include but are not limited to:
Performance Reviews. Performance reviews for contracts measure, compare, and analyze quality, resource,
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schedule, and cost performance against the agreement. This includes identifying work packages that are ahead
or behind schedule, over or under budget, or have resource or quality issues.
Earned Value Analysis (EVA). Described in Section 7.4.2.2. Schedule and cost variances along with schedule
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and cost performance indexes are calculated to determine the degree of variance from target.
Trend Analysis. Described in Section 4.5.2.2. Trend analysis can develop a forecast estimate at completion
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(EAC) for cost performance to see if performance is improving or deteriorating. See 7.4.2.2 for more detail on
EAC methods.
12.3.2.4 INSPECTION
An inspection is a structured review of the work being performed by the contractor. This may involve a simple review
of the deliverables or an actual physical review of the work itself. On a construction/engineering/infrastructure project,
inspections involve walkthroughs of the site by both the buyer and the contractor to ensure a mutual understanding of
the work in progress.
12.3.2.5 AUDITS
Audits are described in Section 8.2.2.5. Audits are a structured review of the procurement process. Rights and
obligations related to audits should be described in the procurement contract. Resulting audit observations should be
brought to the attention of the buyer’s project manager and the seller’s project manager for adjustments to the project,
when necessary.
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12.3.3 CONTROL PROCUREMENTS: OUTPUTS
12.3.3.1 CLOSED PROCUREMENTS
The buyer, usually through its authorized procurement administrator, provides the seller with formal written notice
that the contract has been completed. Requirements for formal procurement closure are usually defined in the terms
and conditions of the contract and are included in the procurement management plan. Typically, all deliverables should
have been provided on time and meet technical and quality requirements, there should be no outstanding claims or
invoices, and all final payments should have been made. The project management team should have approved all
deliverables prior to closure.
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information on how a seller is performing by
comparing the deliverables received, the technical performance achieved, and the costs incurred and accepted against
the SOW budget for the work performed.
12.3.3.3 PROCUREMENT DOCUMENTATION UPDATES
Procurement documentation that may be updated includes the contract with all supporting schedules, requested
unapproved contract changes, and approved change requests. Procurement documentation also includes any
seller-developed technical documentation and other work performance information such as deliverables, seller
performance reports and warranties, financial documents including invoices and payment records, and the results of
contract-related inspections.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. Change requests to the project management plan, its subsidiary plans, and other
components such as the cost baseline, schedule baseline, and procurement management plan, may result from the
Control Procurements process. Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated
Change Control process (Section 4.6).
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Requested but unresolved changes can include direction provided by the buyer or actions taken by the seller, which
the other party considers a constructive change to the contract. Since any of these constructive changes may be disputed
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by one party and can lead to a claim against the other party, such changes are uniquely identified and documented by
project correspondence.
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Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Each agreement and seller has its own set of risks
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that may require updates to the risk management plan. If significant unexpected risks occur during the
execution of the contract, the risk management plan may require updating. Specific risks are incorporated
into the risk register.
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the activities to be undertaken during the procurement process. Updates may be required depending on the
results of the performance of the sellers during execution of the work.
Schedule baseline. Described in Section 6.5.3.1. If there are significant schedule changes created by sellers
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that impact overall project schedule performance, the baseline schedule may need to be updated and approved
to reflect the current expectations. The buyer should be aware of any cascading impacts of schedule delays
created by a seller that impact other sellers.
Cost baseline. Described in Section 7.3.3.1. Contractor and material costs can change frequently during the
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delivery of a project. These changes can occur because of fluctuating materials and labor prices created by the
external economic environment and need to be incorporated into the cost baseline.
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techniques that were effective in maintaining the scope, schedule, and cost of the procured items. Where
variances occurred, the register should show the corrective actions that were used to respond to variances
and how effective those actions were. If there are any claims, information should be documented to avoid
recurrences. Additional information on how to improve the procurement process can also be recorded.
Resource requirements. Described in Section 9.2.3.1. As the work progresses by the contractors, there may be
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changes to the resource requirements resulting from work being done that is not in accordance with the planned
work schedule.
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Requirements traceability matrix. Described in Section 5.2.3.2. The requirements traceability matrix is updated
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with information on requirements that have been satisfied.
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method, the type of contracting vehicle chosen, and the final agreed-upon price. Changes are made to the risk
register during the execution of the project, as early risks may no longer be applicable and new risks occur.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. As the work progresses through the execution phase,
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the contractors and suppliers may change. These changes should be reflected in the stakeholder register.
Organizational process assets that can be updated as a result of the Control Procurements process include but are
not limited to:
Payment schedules and requests. All payments should be made in accordance with the procurement contract
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terms and conditions.
Seller performance evaluation documentation. Seller performance evaluation documentation is prepared by
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the buyer and documents the seller’s ability to continue to perform work on the current contract, indicates
whether the seller can be allowed to perform work on future projects, or rates how well the seller is performing
the project work or has performed in the past.
Prequalified seller lists updates. Prequalified seller lists are lists of potential sellers who are previously qualified
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(approved). These lists will be updated according to the Procurement Control process outcomes because sellers
could be disqualified and removed from the lists based on poor performance.
Lessons learned repository. Lessons learned should be archived in the lessons learned repository to improve
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procurements on future projects. At the end of a contract, the actual results of the procurement are compared
with the projected results in the original procurement management plan. These lessons learned state whether
the project objectives were achieved and, if not, provides the reasons they were not.
Procurement file. A complete set of indexed contract documentation, including the closed contract, is prepared
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for inclusion with the final project files.
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13
PROJE CT STAKEH OL DER M ANAGEM ENT
Project Stakeholder Management includes the processes required to identify the people, groups, or organizations that
could impact or be impacted by the project, to analyze stakeholder expectations and their impact on the project, and to
develop appropriate management strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders in project decisions and execution.
The processes support the work of the project team to analyze stakeholder expectations, assess the degree to which
they impact or are impacted by the project, and develop strategies to effectively engage stakeholders in support of
project decisions and the planning and execution of the work of the project.
The Project Stakeholder Management processes are:
13.1 Identify Stakeholders—The process of identifying project stakeholders regularly and analyzing and
documenting relevant information regarding their interests, involvement, interdependencies, influence, and potential
impact on project success.
13.2 Plan Stakeholder Engagement—The process of developing approaches to involve project stakeholders based
on their needs, expectation, interests, and potential impact on the project.
13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement—The process of communicating and working with stakeholders to meet
their needs and expectations, address issues, and foster appropriate stakeholder engagement involvement.
13.4 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement—The process of monitoring project stakeholder relationships and tailoring
strategies for engaging stakeholders through the modification of engagement strategies and plans.
Figure 13-1 provides an overview of the Project Stakeholder Management processes. The Project Stakeholder
Management processes are presented as discrete processes with defined interfaces while, in practice, they overlap and
interact in ways that cannot be completely detailed in the PMBOK® Guide.
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Project Stakeholder
Management Overview
13.1 Identify 13.2 Plan Stakeholder 13.3 Manage Stakeholder 13.4 Monitor Stakeholder
Stakeholders Engagement Engagement Engagement
.1 Project charter .1 Project charter .1 Project management plan .1 Project management plan
.2 Business documents .2 Project management plan .2 Project documents .2 Project documents
.3 Project management plan .3 Project documents .3 Enterprise environmental .3 Work performance data
.4 Project documents .4 Agreements factors .4 Enterprise environmental
.5 Agreements .5 Enterprise environmental .4 Organizational process factors
.6 Enterprise environmental factors assets .5 Organizational process
assets
.2 Tools & Techniques .2 Communication skills .1 Data analysis
.2 Tools & Techniques .1 Expert judgment .3 Interpersonal and team .2 Decision making
.1 Expert judgment .2 Data gathering skills .3 Data representation
.2 Data gathering .3 Data analysis .4 Ground rules .4 Communication skills
.3 Data analysis .4 Decision making .5 Meetings .5 Interpersonal and team
.4 Data representation .5 Data representation skills
.3 Outputs
.5 Meetings .6 Meetings .6 Meetings
.1 Change requests
.3 Outputs .3 Outputs .2 Project management plan .3 Outputs
.1 Stakeholder register .1 Stakeholder engagement updates .1 Work performance
.2 Change requests plan .3 Project documents updates information
.3 Project management plan .2 Change requests
updates .3 Project management plan
.4 Project documents updates updates
Figure 13-1. Project Stakeholder Management Overview
KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
Every project has stakeholders who are impacted by or can impact the project in a positive or negative way. Some
stakeholders may have a limited ability to influence the project’s work or outcomes; others may have significant influence
on the project and its expected outcomes. Academic research and analyses of high-profile project disasters highlight
the importance of a structured approach to the identification, prioritization, and engagement of all stakeholders. The
ability of the project manager and team to correctly identify and engage all stakeholders in an appropriate way can mean
the difference between project success and failure. To increase the chances of success, the process of stakeholder
identification and engagement should commence as soon as possible after the project charter has been approved, the
project manager has been assigned and the team begins to form.
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Stakeholder satisfaction should be identified and managed as a project objective. The key to effective stakeholder
engagement is a focus on continuous communication with all stakeholders, including team members, to understand their
needs and expectations, address issues as they occur, manage conflicting interests, and foster appropriate stakeholder
engagement in project decisions and activities.
The process of identifying and engaging stakeholders for the benefit of the project is iterative. Although the processes
in Project Stakeholder Management are described only once, the activities of identification, prioritization, and engagement
should be reviewed and updated routinely, and at least at the following times when:
The project moves through different phases in its life cycle,
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Current stakeholders are no longer involved in the work of the project or new stakeholders become members of
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the project’s stakeholder community, or
There are significant changes in the organization or the wider stakeholder community.
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TRENDS AND EMERGING PRACTICES IN PROJECT STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Broader definitions of stakeholders are being developed that expand the traditional categories of employees, suppliers,
and shareholders to include groups such as regulators, lobby groups, environmentalists, financial organizations, the
media, and those who simply believe they are stakeholders—they perceive that they will be affected by the work or
outcomes of the project.
Trends and emerging practices for Project Stakeholder Management include but are not limited to:
Identifying all stakeholders, not just a limited set;
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Ensuring that all team members are involved in stakeholder engagement activities;
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Reviewing the stakeholder community regularly, often in parallel with reviews of individual project risks;
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Consulting with stakeholders who are most affected by the work or outcomes of the project through the
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concept of co-creation. Co-creation places greater emphasis on including affected stakeholders in the team
as partners; and
Capturing the value of effective stakeholder engagement, both positive and negative. Positive value can be based
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on the consideration of benefits derived from higher levels of active support from stakeholders, particularly
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powerful stakeholders. Negative value can be derived by measuring the true costs of not engaging stakeholders
effectively, leading to product recalls or loss of organizational or project reputation.
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Because each project is unique, the project manager may need to tailor the way Project Stakeholder Management
Stakeholder diversity. How many stakeholders are there? How diverse is the culture within the
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stakeholder community?
Complexity of stakeholder relationships. How complex are the relationships within the stakeholder community?
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The more networks a stakeholder or stakeholder group participates in, the more complex the networks of
information and misinformation the stakeholder may receive.
Communication technology. What communication technology is available? What support mechanisms are in
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place to ensure that best value is achieved from the technology?
Projects experiencing a high degree of change require active engagement and participation with project stakeholders.
To facilitate timely, productive discussion and decision making, adaptive teams engage with stakeholders directly rather
than going through layers of management. Often the client, user, and developer exchange information in a dynamic
co-creative process that leads to more stakeholder involvement and higher satisfaction. Regular interactions with the
stakeholder community throughout the project mitigate risk, build trust, and support adjustments earlier in the project
cycle, thus reducing costs and increasing the likelihood of success for the project.
In order to accelerate the sharing of information within and across the organization, agile methods promote aggressive
transparency. The intent of inviting any stakeholders to project meetings and reviews or posting project artifacts in public
spaces is to surface as quickly as possible any misalignment, dependency, or other issue related to the changing project.
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13.1 IDENTIFY STAKEHOLDERS
Identify Stakeholders is the process of identifying project stakeholders regularly and analyzing and documenting
relevant information regarding their interests, involvement, interdependencies, influence, and potential impact on
project success. The key benefit of this process is that it enables the project team to identify the appropriate focus for
engagement of each stakeholder or group of stakeholders. This process is performed periodically throughout the project
as needed. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted in Figure 13-2. Figure 13-3 depicts
the data flow diagram for the process.
Identify Stakeholders

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Stakeholder register
.2 Business documents .2 Data gathering .2 Change requests
• Business case • Questionnaires and surveys .3 Project management plan
• Benefits management plan • Brainstorming updates
.3 Project management plan .3 Data analysis • Requirements management
• Communications • Stakeholder analysis plan
management plan • Document analysis • Communications
• Stakeholder engagement .4 Data representation management plan
plan • Stakeholder mapping/ • Risk management plan
.4 Project documents representation • Stakeholder engagement
• Change log .5 Meetings plan
• Issue log .4 Project documents updates
• Requirements • Assumption log
documentation • Issue log
.5 Agreements • Risk register
factors
Figure 13-2. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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4.1
Develop
Project Charter
• Project charter
Project
Management Project
Plan Management
Plan
Project management plan • Communications management plan
• Communications management plan • Risk management plan
• Stakeholder engagement plan • Stakeholder engagement plan
Project 13.1
Documents Identify
Stakeholders
• Project • Stakeholder register
charter
Project documents
• Change log
Project
• Issue log
Documents
• Assumption log
• Issue log
• Risk register
Business
Documents
4.6
Perform
Integrated
• Business case • Change requests Change Control
12.2
Conduct
Procurements
• Agreements
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 13-3. Identify Stakeholders: Data Flow Diagram
This process frequently occurs for the first time in a project either prior to or at the same time the project charter is
developed and approved. It is repeated as necessary, but should be performed at the start of each phase and when a
significant change in the project or the organization occurs. Each time the identification process is repeated, the project
management plan components and project documents should be consulted to identify relevant project stakeholders.
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13.1.1 IDENTIFY STAKEHOLDERS: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter identifies the key stakeholder list. It may also contain information
about the responsibilities of the stakeholders.
In the first iteration of the Identify Stakeholders process, the business case and the benefits management plan are
sources of information about the project’s stakeholders.
Business case. Described in Section 1.2.6.1. The business case identifies the project objectives and identifies
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an initial list of stakeholders affected by the project.
Benefits management plan. Described in Section 1.2.6.2. The benefits management plan describes the
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expected plan for realizing the benefits claimed in the business case. It may identify the individuals and groups
that will benefit from the delivery of the outcomes of the project and are thus considered as stakeholders.
Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The project management plan is not available when initially identifying stakeholders;
however, once it has been developed, project management plan components include but are not limited to:
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. Communications and stakeholder
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engagement are strongly linked. Information included in the communications management plan is a source of
knowledge about the project’s stakeholders.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan identifies the
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management strategies and actions required to effectively engage stakeholders.
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It is unlikely that any project documents will be an input for the initial stakeholder identification. However, stakeholder
identification occurs throughout the project. Once the project is past the startup phase, more documents become
available and are used throughout the project. Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process
Change log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. The change log may introduce a new stakeholder or change the nature
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of an existing stakeholder’s relationship to the project.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log records issues that may introduce new stakeholders to the
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project or change the type of participation of existing stakeholders.
Requirements documentation. Described in Section 5.2.3.1. Requirements can provide information on potential
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stakeholders.
13.1.1.5 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. The parties of an agreement are project stakeholders. The agreement can contain
references to additional stakeholders.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Identify Stakeholders process include but are not limited to:
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Government or industry standards (regulations, product standards, and codes of conduct);

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Global, regional, or local trends and practices or habits; and

uu

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The organizational process assets that can influence the Identify Stakeholders process include but are not limited to:
Stakeholder register templates and instructions,
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Stakeholder registers from previous projects, and

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Lessons learned repository with information about the preferences, actions, and involvement of stakeholders.
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13.1.2 IDENTIFY STAKEHOLDERS: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Understanding the politics and power structures in the organization,
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Knowledge of the environment and culture of the organization and other affected organizations including
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customers and the wider environment,
Knowledge of the industry or type of project deliverable, and
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Knowledge of individual team member contributions and expertise.

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Questionnaires and surveys. Described in Section 5.2.2.2. Questionnaires and surveys can include one-on-one
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reviews, focus group sessions, or other mass information collection techniques.
Brainstorming. Described in Section 4.1.2.2. Brainstorming as used to identify stakeholders can include both
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brainstorming and brain writing.
nuBrainstorming. A general data-gathering and creativity technique that elicits input from groups such as team
members or subject matter experts.
nuBrain writing. A refinement of brainstorming that allows individual participants time to consider the question(s)
individually before the group creativity session is held. The information can be gathered in face-to-face
groups or using virtual environments supported by technology.
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Stakeholder analysis. Stakeholder analysis results in a list of stakeholders and relevant information such as
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their positions in the organization, roles on the project, “stakes,” expectations, attitudes (their levels of support
for the project), and their interest in information about the project. Stakeholders’ stakes can include but are not
limited to a combination of:
nuInterest. A person or group can be affected by a decision related to the project or its outcomes.
nuRights (legal or moral rights). Legal rights, such as occupational health and safety, may be defined in the
legislation framework of a country. Moral rights may involve concepts of protection of historical sites or
environmental sustainability.
nuOwnership. A person or group has a legal title to an asset or a property.
nuKnowledge. Specialist knowledge, which can benefit the project through more effective delivery of project
objectives, organizational outcomes, or knowledge of the power structures of the organization.
nuContribution. Provision of funds or other resources, including human resources, or providing support for the
project in more intangible ways, such as advocacy in the form of promoting the objectives of the project or
acting as a buffer between the project and the power structures of the organization and its politics.
Document analysis. Described in Section 5.2.2.3. Assessing the available project documentation and lessons
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learned from previous projects to identify stakeholders and other supporting information.
A data representation technique that may be used in this process includes but is not limited to stakeholder mapping/
representation. Stakeholder mapping and representation is a method of categorizing stakeholders using various
methods. Categorizing stakeholders assists the team in building relationships with the identified project stakeholders.
Common methods include:
Power/interest grid, power/influence grid, or impact/influence grid. Each of these techniques supports
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a grouping of stakeholders according to their level of authority (power), level of concern about the project’s
outcomes (interest), ability to influence the outcomes of the project (influence), or ability to cause changes to
the project’s planning or execution. These classification models are useful for small projects or for projects with
simple relationships between stakeholders and the project, or within the stakeholder community itself.
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Stakeholder cube. This is a refinement of the grid models previously mentioned. This model combines the
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grid elements into a three-dimensional model that can be useful to project managers and teams in identifying
and engaging their stakeholder community. It provides a model with multiple dimensions that improves the
depiction of the stakeholder community as a multidimensional entity and assists with the development of
communication strategies.
Salience model. Describes classes of stakeholders based on assessments of their power (level of authority or
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ability to influence the outcomes of the project), urgency (need for immediate attention, either time-constrained
or relating to the stakeholders’ high stake in the outcome), and legitimacy (their involvement is appropriate).
There is an adaptation of the salience model that substitutes proximity for legitimacy (applying to the team and
measuring their level of involvement with the work of the project). The salience model is useful for large complex
communities of stakeholders or where there are complex networks of relationships within the community. It is
also useful in determining the relative importance of the identified stakeholders.
Directions of influence. Classifies stakeholders according to their influence on the work of the project or the
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project team itself. Stakeholders can be classified in the following ways:
nuUpward (senior management of the performing organization or customer organization, sponsor, and steering
committee),
nuDownward (the team or specialists contributing knowledge or skills in a temporary capacity),
nuOutward (stakeholder groups and their representatives outside the project team, such as suppliers,
government departments, the public, end-users, and regulators), or
nuSideward (the peers of the project manager, such as other project managers or middle managers who are in
competition for scarce project resources or who collaborate with the project manager in sharing resources
or information).
Prioritization. Prioritizing stakeholders may be necessary for projects with a large number of stakeholders,
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where the membership of the stakeholder community is changing frequently, or when the relationships between
stakeholders and the project team or within the stakeholder community are complex.
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13.1.2.5 MEETINGS
Meetings are used to develop an understanding of significant project stakeholders. They can take the form of facilitation
workshops, small group guided discussions, and virtual groups using electronics or social media technologies to share
ideas and analyze data.
13.1.3 IDENTIFY STAKEHOLDERS: OUTPUTS
13.1.3.1 STAKEHOLDER REGISTER
The main output of the Identify Stakeholders process is the stakeholder register. This document contains information
about identified stakeholders that includes but is not limited to:
Identification information. Name, organizational position, location and contact details, and role on the project.
uu
Assessment information. Major requirements, expectations, potential for influencing project outcomes, and the
uu
phase of the project life cycle where the stakeholder has the most influence or impact.
Stakeholder classification. Internal/external, impact/influence/power/interest, upward/downward/outward/
uu
sideward, or any other classification model chosen by the project manager.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. During the first iteration of identifying stakeholders, there will not be any change
requests. As stakeholder identification continues throughout the project, new stakeholders, or new information about
stakeholders, may result in a change request to the product, project management plan, or project documents.
Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated Change Control
(Section 4.6) process.
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When stakeholders are identified at the very beginning of a project, there will not be updates to the project management
plan. As the project progresses, any change to the project management plan goes through the organization’s change
control process via a change request. Components that may require a change request for the project management plan
Requirements management plan. Described in Section 5.1.1.2. Newly identified stakeholders can impact how
uu
requirements activities will be planned, tracked, and reported.
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. Stakeholder communication requirements
uu
and agreed-upon communications strategies are recorded in the communications management plan.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. Where stakeholder communication requirements and
uu
agreed-upon communications strategies affect the approach to managing risk on the project, this is reflected in
the risk management plan.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. Agreed-upon communications strategies for
uu
identified stakeholders are recorded in the stakeholder engagement plan.
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. Much of the information about the relative power, interest, and
uu
engagement of stakeholders is based on assumptions. This information is entered into the assumption log.
Additionally, any constraints associated with interacting with specific stakeholders are entered as well.
uu
issue log.
uu
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13.2 PLAN STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Plan Stakeholder Engagement is the process of developing approaches to involve project stakeholders based on their
needs, expectations, interests, and potential impact on the project. The key benefit is that it provides an actionable plan
to interact effectively with stakeholders. This process is performed periodically throughout the project as needed.
Plan Stakeholder Engagement

.1 Project charter .1 Expert judgment .1 Stakeholder engagement
.2 Project management plan .2 Data gathering plan
• Resource management plan • Benchmarking
• Communications .3 Data analysis
management plan • Assumption and constraint
• Risk management plan analysis
.3 Project documents • Root cause analysis
• Assumption log .4 Decision making
• Change log • Prioritization/ranking
• Issue log .5 Data representation
• Project schedule • Mind mapping
• Risk register • Stakeholder engagement
• Stakeholder register assessment matrix
.4 Agreements .6 Meetings
factors
Figure 13-4. Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan

4.1 Project
Develop Management
Project Charter Plan
• Project charter
13.2
Project Plan
Documents Stakeholder
• Project
Engagement
charter
Project documents
• Assumption log
• Change log
• Issue log
• Risk register
12.2
Conduct
Procurements
• Agreements
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 13-5. Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram

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An effective plan that recognizes the diverse information needs of the project’s stakeholders is developed early in the
project life cycle and is reviewed and updated regularly as the stakeholder community changes. The first version of the
stakeholder engagement plan is developed after the initial stakeholder community has been identified by the Identify
Stakeholder process. The stakeholder engagement plan is updated regularly to reflect changes to the stakeholder
community. Typical trigger situations requiring updates to the plan include but are not limited to:
When it is the start of a new phase of the project;
uu
When there are changes to the organization structure or within the industry;
uu
When new individuals or groups become stakeholders, current stakeholders are no longer part of the stakeholder
uu
community, or the importance of particular stakeholders to the project’s success changes; and
When outputs of other project process areas, such as change management, risk management, or issue
uu
management, require a review of stakeholder engagement strategies.
The results of these adjustments may be changes to the relative importance of the stakeholders who have
been identified.
13.2.1 PLAN STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: INPUTS
Described in Section 4.1.3.1. The project charter contains information on the project purpose, objectives, and success
criteria that can be taken into consideration when planning how to engage stakeholders.
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan may contain
uu
information regarding roles and responsibilities of the team and other stakeholders listed in the stakeholder register.
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. The communications strategies for
uu
stakeholder management and their implementation plans are both inputs to, and recipients of, information from
processes in Project Stakeholder Management.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan may contain risk thresholds
uu
or risk attitudes that can assist in the selection of the optimal stakeholder engagement strategy mix.
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Project documents that can be considered as inputs for this process, especially after initial planning has taken place,
Assumption log. Described in Section 4.1.3.2. The assumption log contains information about assumptions and
uu
constraints and may be linked to specific stakeholders.
Change log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. The change log contains changes to the original scope of the project.
uu
It usually links to specific stakeholders because they fall into categories of requesting certain changes, making
decisions about change requests, or being impacted by the implementation of approved changes.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Managing and resolving issues contained in the issue log will require
uu
additional communications with the stakeholders affected.
Project schedule. Described in Section 6.5.3.2. The schedule contains activities that may be linked to specific
uu
stakeholders as owners or executors.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains the identified risks of the project and usually
uu
links them to the specific stakeholders as either risk owners or as subject to risk impact.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register provides the list of project stakeholders
uu
including additional classification data and other information.
13.2.1.4 AGREEMENTS
Described in Section 12.2.3.2. When planning for the engagement of contractors and suppliers, coordination usually
involves working with the procurement/contracting group in the organization to ensure contractors and suppliers are
effectively managed.
The enterprise environmental factors that can influence Plan Stakeholder Engagement include but are not limited to:
uu

uu
�
Stakeholder risk appetites;

uu
�
Established communication channels;

uu
Global regional or local trends, practices, or habits; and

uu

uu
519
The organizational process assets that can influence the Plan Stakeholder Engagement process include but are
not limited to:
uu
uu

uu

uu
Lessons learned repository with information about the preferences, actions, and involvement of stakeholders; and
uu
Software tools needed to support effective stakeholder engagement.

uu
13.2.2 PLAN STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Politics and power structures in the organization and outside the organization,
uu
Environment and culture of the organization and outside the organization,

uu
Analytical and assessment techniques to be used for stakeholder engagement processes,

uu
Communication means and strategies, and

uu
Knowledge from previous projects of the characteristics of stakeholders and stakeholder groups and organizations
uu
involved in the current project that may have been involved in previous similar projects.
A data-gathering technique that can be used for this process includes but is not limited to benchmarking. Described
in Section 8.1.2.2. The results of stakeholder analysis are compared with information from other organizations or other
projects that are considered to be world class.
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Assumption and constraint analysis. Described in Section 11.2.2.3. Analysis of current assumptions and
uu
constraints may be conducted in order to tailor appropriate engagement strategies.
Root cause analysis. Described in Section 8.2.2.2. Root cause analysis identifies underlying reasons for
uu
the level of support of project stakeholders in order to select the appropriate strategy to improve their level
of engagement.
Decision-making techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to prioritization/ranking.
Stakeholder requirements need to be prioritized and ranked, as do the stakeholders themselves. Stakeholders with the
most interest and the highest influence are often prioritized at the top of the list.
Data representation techniques that may be used in this process include but are not limited to:
Mind mapping. Described in Section 5.2.2.3. Mind mapping is used to visually organize information about
uu
stakeholders and their relationship to each other and the organization.
Stakeholder engagement assessment matrix. A stakeholder engagement assessment matrix supports
uu
comparison between the current engagement levels of stakeholders and the desired engagement levels required
for successful project delivery. One way to classify the engagement level of stakeholders is shown in Figure 13-6.
The engagement level of stakeholders can be classified as follows:
nuUnaware. Unaware of the project and potential impacts.
nuResistant. Aware of the project and potential impacts but resistant to any changes that may occur as a result
of the work or outcomes of the project. These stakeholders will be unsupportive of the work or outcomes of
the project.
nuNeutral. Aware of the project, but neither supportive nor unsupportive.
�
nuSupportive. Aware of the project and potential impacts and supportive of the work and its outcomes.
nuLeading. Aware of the project and potential impacts and actively engaged in ensuring that the project
�
is a success.
521
In Figure 13-6, C represents the current engagement level of each stakeholder and D indicates the level that the
project team has assessed as essential to ensure project success (desired). The gap between current and desired for
each stakeholder will direct the level of communications necessary to effectively engage the stakeholder. The closing of
this gap between current and desired is an essential element of monitoring stakeholder engagement.
Stakeholder Unaware Resistant Neutral Supportive Leading

Stakeholder 1 C D
Stakeholder 2 C D
Stakeholder 3 DC
Figure 13-6. Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix
13.2.2.6 MEETINGS
Meetings are used to discuss and analyze the input data of the stakeholder engagement planning process and to
develop a sound stakeholder engagement plan.
13.2.3 PLAN STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
13.2.3.1 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT PLAN
The stakeholder engagement plan is a component of the project management plan that identifies the strategies and
actions required to promote productive involvement of stakeholders in decision making and execution. It can be formal or
informal and highly detailed or broadly framed, based on the needs of the project and the expectations of stakeholders.
The stakeholder engagement plan may include but is not limited to specific strategies or approaches for engaging
with individuals or groups of stakeholders.
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13.3 MANAGE STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Manage Stakeholder Engagement is the process of communicating and working with stakeholders to meet their
needs and expectations, address issues, and foster appropriate stakeholder involvement. The key benefit of this
process is that it allows the project manager to increase support and minimize resistance from stakeholders. This
process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of the process are depicted
in Figure 13-7. Figure 13-8 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Manage Stakeholder Engagement

• Communications .2 Communication skills .2 Project management plan
management plan • Feedback updates
• Risk management plan .3 Interpersonal and team skills • Communications
• Stakeholder engagement • Conflict management management plan
plan • Cultural awareness • Stakeholder engagement
• Change management plan • Negotiation plan
.2 Project documents • Observation/conversation .3 Project documents updates
• Change log • Political awareness • Change log
• Issue log .4 Ground rules • Issue log
• Lessons learned register .5 Meetings • Lessons learned register
• Stakeholder register • Stakeholder register
factors
Figure 13-7. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
�
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Project
Management
Plan
Project
Management
Project management plan Plan
• Communications management plan Project management plan updates
• Risk management plan • Communications management plan
• Stakeholder engagement plan • Stakeholder engagement plan
• Change management plan
13.3
Project Manage Project
Documents Stakeholder Documents
• Project Project documents updates
Engagement
charter • Change log
• Issue log
Project documents • Lessons learned register
• Change log • Stakeholder register
• Issue log
• Lessons learned register 4.6
• Stakeholder register Perform
Integrated
Enterprise/
Organization

Figure 13-8. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram
Manage Stakeholder Engagement involves activities such as:

Engaging stakeholders at appropriate project stages to obtain, confirm, or maintain their continued commitment
uu
to the success of the project;
Managing stakeholder expectations through negotiation and communication;
uu
Addressing any risks or potential concerns related to stakeholder management and anticipating future issues
uu
that may be raised by stakeholders; and
Clarifying and resolving issues that have been identified.
uu
Managing stakeholder engagement helps to ensure that stakeholders clearly understand the project goals, objectives,
benefits, and risks for the project, as well as how their contribution will enhance project success.
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13.3.1 MANAGE STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: INPUTS
uu
describes the methods, formats, and technologies used for stakeholder communication.
Risk management plan. Described in Section 11.1.3.1. The risk management plan describes the risk categories,
uu
risk appetites, and reporting formats that can be used to manage stakeholder engagement.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan provides
uu
guidance and information on managing stakeholder expectations.
Change management plan. Described in Section 4.2.3.1. The change management plan describes the process
uu
for submitting, evaluating and implementing changes to the project.
Project documents that can be considered as inputs to this process include but are not limited to:
Change log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. Change requests and their status are documented in the change log
uu
and communicated to the appropriate stakeholders.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Any project or stakeholder concerns are documented in the issue log, as
uu
well as any assigned action items associated with managing the issue.
uu
managing stakeholder engagement can be applied to later phases in the project to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of this process.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register provides the list of project
uu
stakeholders and any information needed to execute the stakeholder engagement plan.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Manage Stakeholder Engagement include but are not
limited to:
Organizational culture, political climate, and governance structure of the organization;
uu

uu

uu

uu

uu

uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Manage Stakeholder Engagement process include but are
not limited to:
uu
uu

uu
uu
Historical information from previous similar projects.

uu
13.3.2 MANAGE STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Politics and power structures in the organization and outside the organization;
uu
Environment and culture of the organization and outside the organization;

uu
Analytical and assessment techniques to be used for stakeholder engagement processes;

uu
Communication methods and strategies;

uu
Characteristics of stakeholders, stakeholder groups, and organizations involved in the current project that may
uu
have been involved in previous projects; and
Requirements management, vendor management, and change management.
uu
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The methods of communication identified for each stakeholder in the communications management plan are applied
during stakeholder engagement management. The project management team uses feedback to assist in understanding
stakeholder reaction to the various project management activities and key decisions. Feedback may be collected in the
following ways, but not limited to:
Conversations; both formal and informal,
uu
Issue identification and discussion,

uu
Meetings,
uu
Progress reporting, and

uu
Surveys.
uu
Conflict management. Described in Section 9.5.2.1. The project manager should ensure that conflicts are
uu
resolved in a timely manner.
Cultural awareness. Described in Section 10.1.2.6. Cultural awareness is used to help the project manager
uu
and team to communicate effectively by considering cultural differences and the requirements of stakeholders.
Negotiation. Described in Section 12.2.2.5. Negotiation is used to achieve support or agreement that supports
uu
the work of the project or its outcomes and to resolve conflicts within the team or with other stakeholders.
Observation/conversation. Described in Section 5.2.2.6. Observation/conversation is used to stay in touch with
uu
the work and attitudes of project team members and other stakeholders.
Political awareness. Described in Section 10.1.2.6. Political awareness is achieved through understanding the
uu
power relationships within and around the project.
527
13.3.2.4 GROUND RULES
Ground rules, defined in the team charter set the expected behavior for project team members, as well as other
stakeholders, with regard to stakeholder engagement.
13.3.2.5 MEETINGS
Described in Section 10.1.2.8. Meetings are used to discuss and address any issue or concern regarding stakeholder
engagement. Types of meetings that are beneficial as part of this process include but are not limited to:
Decision making,
uu
Issue resolution,
uu
Lessons learned and retrospectives,

uu
Project kick-off,
uu
Sprint planning, and

uu
Status updates.
uu
13.3.3 MANAGE STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. As a result of managing stakeholder engagement, changes to the project scope or
product scope may emerge. All change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform Integrated
Change Control process (Section 4.6).
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Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. The communications management plan is
uu
updated to reflect new or changed stakeholder requirements.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. The stakeholder engagement plan is updated to
uu
reflect new or changed management strategies required to effectively engage stakeholders.
Change log. Described in Section 4.6.3.3. The change log may be updated based on any change requests.
uu
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log may be updated to reflect an update to, or the development
uu
of, an issue log entry.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. The lessons learned register is updated with effective
uu
or ineffective approaches to managing stakeholder engagement so that information can be used in the current
project or future projects.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register may be updated based on new
uu
information provided to stakeholders about resolved issues, approved changes, and general project status.
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13.4 MONITOR STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Monitor Stakeholder Engagement is the process of monitoring project stakeholder relationships and tailoring strategies
for engaging stakeholders through modification of engagement strategies and plans. The key benefit of this process is that
it maintains or increases the efficiency and effectiveness of stakeholder engagement activities as the project evolves and
its environment changes. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs
of the process are depicted in Figure 13-9. Figure 13-10 depicts the data flow diagram for the process.
Monitor Stakeholder Engagement

• Resource management plan • Alternatives analysis information
• Communications • Root cause analysis .2 Change requests
management plan • Stakeholder analysis .3 Project management plan
• Stakeholder engagement .2 Decision making updates
plan • Multicriteria decision • Resource management plan
.2 Project documents analysis • Communications
• Issue log • Voting management plan
• Lessons learned register .3 Data representation • Stakeholder engagement
• Project communications • Stakeholder engagement plan
• Risk register assessment matrix .4 Project documents updates
• Stakeholder register .4 Communication skills • Issue log
.3 Work performance data • Feedback • Lessons learned register
.4 Enterprise environmental • Presentations • Risk register
factors .5 Interpersonal and team skills • Stakeholder register
.5 Organizational process assets • Active listening
• Cultural awareness
• Leadership
• Networking
• Political awareness
.6 Meetings
Figure 13-9. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs, Tools & Techniques, and Outputs
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Project
Management
Plan 4.5
Monitor and
Control
4.6
Perform
Integrated
Project • Change requests
Change Control
Documents
Project documents
• Issue log
13.4 Project
• Lessons learned register Monitor Management
• Project communications Stakeholder
• Project Plan
Project management
• Risk register Engagement
• Resource management
plan
4.3 • Stakeholder engagement plan
Direct and
Manage
Project Work
Project
Documents
• Issue log
• Risk register
Enterprise/ • Stakeholder register
Organization

Figure 13-10. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Data Flow Diagram

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13.4.1 MONITOR STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: INPUTS
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. The resource management plan identifies the
uu
methods for team member management.
uu
describes the plans and strategies for communication to the project’s stakeholders.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. Defines the plan for managing stakeholder
uu
needs and expectations.
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. The issue log documents all the known issues related to the project and
uu
stakeholders.
Lessons learned register. Described in Section 4.4.3.1. Lessons learned earlier in the project can be applied in
uu
later phases of the project to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of engaging stakeholders.
Project communications. Described in Section 10.2.3.1. These include the project communications that have
uu
been distributed to stakeholders as defined in the communications management plan and the stakeholder
engagement plan.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register contains the identified risks for the project, including
uu
those related to stakeholder engagement and interactions, their categorization, and list of potential responses.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.3.1. The stakeholder register contains stakeholder information
uu
that includes but is not limited to stakeholder identification, assessment, and classification.
Described in Section 4.3.3.2. Work performance data contains data on project status such as which stakeholders are
supportive of the project, and their level and type of engagement.
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The enterprise environmental factors that can influence the Monitor Stakeholder Engagement process include but
are not limited to:
uu

uu

uu

uu

uu

uu
The organizational process assets that can influence the Monitor Stakeholder Engagement process include but are
not limited to:
uu
uu
Organizational communication requirement;

uu
uu
Historical information from previous projects.

uu
13.4.2 MONITOR STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Alternatives analysis. Described in Section 9.2.2.5. Alternatives analysis can be used to evaluate options to
uu
respond to variances in the desired results of stakeholder engagement.
Root cause analysis. Described in Section 8.2.2.2. A root cause analysis can be used to determine the basic
uu
underlying reason that stakeholder engagement is not having the planned effect.
Stakeholder analysis. Described in Section 13.1.2.3. The stakeholder analysis helps to determine the position
uu
of stakeholder groups and individuals at any particular time in the project.
533
Decision-making techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Multicriteria decision analysis. Described in Section 8.1.2.4. Criteria for successful stakeholder engagement
uu
are prioritized and weighted to identify the most appropriate choice.
Voting. Described in Section 5.2.2.4. Voting can be used to select the best response for a variance in stakeholder
uu
engagement.
A data representation technique used in this process includes but is not limited to a stakeholder engagement
assessment matrix. Described in Section 13.2.2.3. The stakeholder engagement assessment matrix monitors stakeholder
engagement through tracking changes in level of engagement for each stakeholder.
Communication techniques that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Feedback. Described in Section 10.2.2.3. Feedback is used to ensure that the information to stakeholders is
uu
received and understood.
Presentations. Described in Section 10.2.2.3. Presentations provide clear information to stakeholders.
uu
Interpersonal skills to that can be used for this process include but are not limited to:
Active listening. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Active listening is used to reduce misunderstandings and other
uu
miscommunication.
Cultural awareness. Described in Section 10.1.2.6. Cultural awareness and cultural sensitivity help the
uu
project manager to plan communications based on the cultural differences and requirements of stakeholders
and team members.
Leadership. Described in Section 3.4.4. Successful stakeholder engagement requires strong leadership skills to
uu
communicate the vision and inspire stakeholders to support the work and outcomes of the project.
Networking. Described in Section 10.2.2.6. Networking ensures access to information about levels of
uu
engagement of stakeholders.
Political awareness. Described in Section 10.1.2.6. Political awareness is used to understand the strategies
uu
of the organization, understand who wields power and influence in this arena, and to develop an ability to
communicate with these stakeholders.
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13.4.2.6 MEETINGS
Types of meetings include status meetings, standup meetings, retrospectives, and any other meetings as agreed
upon in the stakeholder engagement plan to monitor and assess stakeholder engagement levels. Meetings are no longer
limited by face-to-face or voice-to-voice interactions. While face-to-face interactions are ideal, they can be expensive.
Teleconferencing and technology bridge the gap and provide numerous ways to connect and conduct a meeting.
13.4.3 MONITOR STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: OUTPUTS
Described in Section 4.5.1.3. Work performance information includes information about the status of stakeholder
engagement, such as the level of current project support and compared to the desired levels of engagement as defined
in the stakeholder engagement assessment matrix, stakeholder cube, or other tool.
Described in Section 4.3.3.4. A change request may include corrective and preventive actions to improve the current
level of stakeholder engagement. Change requests are processed for review and disposition through the Perform
Integrated Change Control process (Section 4.6).
request. Components of the project management plan that may require a change request include but are not limited to:
Resource management plan. Described in Section 9.1.3.1. Team responsibilities for stakeholder engagement
uu
activities may need to be updated.
Communications management plan. Described in Section 10.1.3.1. The project’s communication strategies
uu
may need to be updated.
Stakeholder engagement plan. Described in Section 13.2.3.1. Information about the project’s stakeholder
uu
�
community may need to be updated.

�
535
Issue log. Described in Section 4.3.3.3. Information in the issue log indicates stakeholder attitudes and may
uu
need to be updated.
uu
on challenges and how they could have been avoided. It is also updated with approaches that worked well for
engaging stakeholders optimally, and those that did not work well.
Risk register. Described in Section 11.2.3.1. The risk register may need to be updated with responses to
uu
stakeholder risks.
Stakeholder register. Described in Section 13.1.12-13.1. The stakeholder register is updated with information
uu
as a result of monitoring stakeholder engagement.
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[18] International Standards Organization. 2015. ISO 9000:2015 Quality Management Systems—Fundamentals
and Vocabulary. Geneva: Author.
537
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IN TRODU CTION
A standard is a document established by an authority, custom, or general consent as a model or example. This
standard was developed using a process based on the concepts of consensus, openness, due process, and balance. This
standard describes the processes considered to be good practice on most projects most of the time. These processes
are organized by Process Group. It further defines key project management concepts including the relationship of project
management to organizational strategy and objectives, governance, portfolio management, program management, the
project environment, and project success. It also covers information on project life cycles, project stakeholders, and
the role of the project manager. Section 1 discusses key concepts and provides contextual information about project
management. Sections 2 through 6 provide definitions for each of the five Process Groups and describe the processes
within those Process Groups. Sections 2 through 6 also describe the key benefits, inputs, and outputs for each project
management process. This standard serves as the foundation and framework for A Guide to the Project Management
Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide).1 PMBOK® Guide expands on the information in this standard by providing a more
in-depth description of the context, environment and influences on project management. In addition, the PMBOK® Guide
provides descriptions of the project management process inputs and outputs, identifies tools and techniques, and
discusses key concepts and emerging trends associated with each Knowledge Area.
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Project Management Institute. 2017. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide).
541
1.1 PROJECTS AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result. The temporary nature of
projects indicates a definite beginning and end. Temporary does not necessarily mean a project has a short duration.
A project’s end is reached when the objectives have been achieved or when the project is terminated because its
objectives will not or cannot be met, or when the need for the project no longer exists. The decision to terminate a project
requires approval and authorization by an appropriate authority.
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project
requirements. Project management is accomplished through the appropriate application and integration of the project
management processes identified for the project.
Managing a project typically includes but is not limited to:
Identifying project requirements;
uu
Addressing the various needs, concerns, and expectations of stakeholders;

uu
Establishing and maintaining active communication with stakeholders;

uu
Managing resources; and

uu
Balancing the competing project constraints, which include but are not limited to:
uu
nuScope,
nuSchedule,
nuCost,
nuQuality,
nuResources, and
nuRisk.
Project circumstances will influence how each project management process is implemented and how the project
constraints are prioritized.
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1.2 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG PORTFOLIOS, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS
A portfolio is defined as projects, programs, subsidiary portfolios, and operations managed in a coordinated manner
to achieve strategic objectives. Portfolio management is the centralized management of one or more portfolios to
achieve strategic objectives. Portfolio management focuses on ensuring the portfolio is performing consistent with the
organization’s objectives and evaluating portfolio components to optimize resource allocation. Portfolios may include
work that is operational in nature.
A program is defined as related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities managed in a coordinated
manner to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually. Programs include program related work
outside the scope of the discrete projects in the program. Program management is the application of knowledge,
skills, and principles to a program to achieve the program objectives and to obtain benefits and control not available
by managing related program components individually. Programs may also include work that is operational in nature.
Program management supports organizational strategies by authorizing, changing, or terminating projects and
managing their interdependencies. Managing project interdependencies may include, among other actions, the following:
Resolving resource constraints and/or conflicts that affect components within the program;
uu
Aligning with the organization’s strategies that impact and affect program goals and objectives
uu
Managing issues and employing change management within a shared governance structure;
uu
Addressing project and program risks that can impact one or more components; and
uu
Managing program benefits realization by effectively analyzing, sequencing and monitoring component
uu
interdependencies.
A project may be managed in three separate scenarios: as a stand-alone project (outside a portfolio or program);
within a program; or within a portfolio. Project management has interactions with portfolio and program management
when a project is within a portfolio or program.
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Figure 1-1 illustrates a sample portfolio structure indicating relationships of the components, shared resources
and stakeholders. The portfolio components are grouped together in order to facilitate the effective governance and
management of that work and to achieve organizational strategies and priorities. Organizational and portfolio planning
impact the components by means of prioritization based on risk, funding, and other considerations. This allows
organizations to have an overall view of how the strategic goals are reflected in the portfolio; institute appropriate
portfolio, program, and project governance; and authorize human, financial, or physical resources. These resources
will be allocated based on expected performance and benefits. Figure 1-1 illustrates that organizational strategies
and priorities are linked and have relationships between portfolios and programs, between portfolios and projects, and
between programs and individual projects. These relationships are not always strictly hierarchical.
Organizational project management (OPM) is a strategy execution framework utilizing portfolio, program, and project
management. It provides a framework that enables organizations to consistently and predictably deliver on organizational
strategy, producing better performance, better results, and a sustainable competitive advantage.
Organizational Strategy
Sample Portfolio
Program Program Portfolio

A B A
Program Program
B1 C
Project Project Project Project Project Project Project Project Project Operations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Shared Resources and Stakeholders
Figure 1-1. Example of Portfolio, Program, and Project Management Interfaces
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1.3 LINKING ORGANIZATIONAL GOVERNANCE AND PROJECT GOVERNANCE
There are various types of governance including organizational governance; organizational project management
(OPM) governance; and portfolio, program, and project governance. Organizational governance is a structured way to
provide direction and control through policies, and processes, to meet strategic and operational goals. Organizational
governance is typically conducted by a board of directors to ensure accountability, fairness, and transparency to its
stakeholders. Organizational governance principles, decisions, and processes may influence and impact the governance
of portfolios, programs, and projects in the following ways:
Enforcing legal, regulatory, standards, and compliance requirements,
uu
Defining ethical, social, and environmental responsibilities, and

uu
Specifying operational, legal, and risk policies.

uu
Project governance is the framework, functions, and processes that guide project management activities in order to
create a unique product, service, or result to meet organizational, strategic, and operational goals. Governance at the
project level includes:
Guiding and overseeing the management of project work;
uu
Ensuring adherence to policies, standards, and guidelines;

uu
Establishing governance roles, responsibilities, and authorities;

uu
Decision-making regarding risk escalations, changes, and resources (e.g. team, financial, physical, facilities);
uu
Ensuring appropriate stakeholder engagement; and

uu
Monitoring performance.
uu
The project governance framework provides the project stakeholders with structure, processes, roles, responsibilities,
accountabilities, and decision-making models for managing the project. Elements of a project governance framework
include but are not limited to principles or processes for:
Stage gate or phase reviews;
uu
Identifying, escalating, and resolving risks and issues;

uu
Defining roles, responsibilities, and authorities;

uu
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Process for project knowledge management and capturing lessons learned;

uu
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Decision making, problem solving and escalating topics that are beyond the project manager’s authority; and
uu
Reviewing and approving changes to project, and product changes that are beyond the authority of the
uu
project manager.
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1.4 PROJECT SUCCESS AND BENEFITS MANAGEMENT
Projects are initiated to realize business opportunities that are aligned with an organization’s strategic goals. Prior
to initiating a project, a business case is often developed to outline the project objectives, the required investment, and
financial and qualitative criteria for project success. The business case provides the basis to measure success and
progress throughout the project life cycle by comparing the results with the objectives and the identified success criteria.
Projects are typically initiated as a result of one or more of the following strategic considerations:
Market demand,
uu
Strategic opportunity/business need,

uu
Social need,
uu
Environmental consideration,
uu
Customer request,
uu
Technological advancement,
uu
Legal or regulatory requirement, and

uu
Existing or forecasted problem.

uu
A benefits management plan describes how and when the benefits of the project will be delivered and how they will
be measured. The benefits management plan may include the following:
Target benefits. The expected tangible and intangible business value to be gained by the implementation of the
uu
product, service, or result.
Strategic alignment. How the project benefits support and align with the business strategies of the organization.
uu
Timeframe for realizing benefits. Benefits by phase: short term, long term, and ongoing.
uu
Benefits owner. The accountable person or group that monitors, records, and reports realized benefits throughout
uu
the timeframe established in the plan.
Metrics. The direct and indirect measurements used to show the benefits realized.
uu
Risks. Risks associated with achieving target benefits.

uu
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The success of the project is measured against the project objectives and success criteria. In many cases, the success
of the product, service, or result is not known until sometime after the project is complete. For example, an increase in
market share, a decrease in operating expenses, or the success of a new product may not be known when the project is
transitioned to operations. In these circumstances, the project management office (PMO), portfolio steering committee,
or some other business function within the organization should evaluate the success at a later date to determine if the
outcomes met the business objectives.
Both the business case and the benefits management plan are developed prior to the project being initiated.
Additionally, both documents are referenced after the project has been completed. Therefore, they are considered
business documents rather than project documents or components of the project management plan. As appropriate,
these business documents may be inputs to some of the processes involved in managing the project, such as developing
the project charter.
1.5 THE PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

A project life cycle is the series of phases that a project passes through from its start to its completion. A project
phase is a collection of logically related project activities that culminates in the completion of one or more deliverables.
The phases can be sequential, iterative, or overlapping. The names, number, and duration of the project phases are
determined by the management and control needs of the organization(s) involved in the project, the nature of the project
itself, and its area of application. Phases are time bound, with a start and end or control point (sometimes referred to
as a phase review, phase gate, control gate, or other similar term). At the control point, the project charter and business
documents are reexamined based on the current environment. At that time, the project’s performance is compared to
the project management plan to determine if the project should be changed, terminated, or continue as planned.
547
The project life cycle can be influenced by the unique aspects of the organization, industry, development method, or
technology employed. While every project has a start and end, the specific deliverables and work that take place vary
widely depending on the project. The life cycle provides the basic framework for managing the project, regardless of the
specific work involved.
Though projects vary in size and the amount of complexity they contain, a typical project can be mapped to the
following project life cycle structure (see Figure 1-2):
Starting the project,
uu
Organizing and preparing,

uu
Carrying out the work, and

uu
Closing the project.

uu
Project Life Cycle
Starting Organizing Carrying Out Ending the

the Project and Preparing the Work Project
Generic Phases
Figure 1-2. Generic Depiction of a Project Life Cycle
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A generic life cycle structure typically displays the following characteristics:
Cost and staffing levels are low at the start, increase as the work is carried out, and drop rapidly as the project
uu
draws to a close.
Risk is greatest at the start of the project as illustrated by Figure 1-3. These factors decrease over the life cycle
uu
of the project as decisions are reached and as deliverables are accepted.
The ability of stakeholders to influence the final characteristics of the project’s product, without significantly
uu
impacting cost and schedule, is highest at the start of the project and decreases as the project progresses
toward completion. Figure 1-3 illustrates the cost of making changes and correcting errors typically increases
substantially as the project approaches completion.
High Risk
Degree
Cost of changes
Low
Project Time
Figure 1-3. Impact of Variables Over Time

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1.6 PROJECT STAKEHOLDERS
A stakeholder is an individual, group, or organization that may affect, be affected by, or perceive itself to be affected
by a decision, activity, or outcome of a project. Project stakeholders may be internal or external to the project, they may
be actively involved, passively involved, or unaware of the project. Project stakeholders may have a positive or negative
impact on the project, or be positively or negatively impacted by the project. Examples of stakeholders include but are
not limited to:
Internal stakeholders:
uu
nuSponsor,
nuResource manager,
nuProject management office (PMO),
nuPortfolio steering committee,
nuProgram manager,
nuProject managers of other projects, and
nuTeam members.
External stakeholders:
uu
nuCustomers,
nuEnd users,
nuSuppliers,
nuShareholders
nuRegulatory bodies, and
nuCompetitors
Part 2 - Standard
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Stakeholders
Suppliers
Customers
End Users
Sponsors
Governing Bodies
Steering Committees
PMOs
Project Team
PPP Managers
Resource Managers
Project
Manager
Figure 1-4. Examples of Project Stakeholders
Figure 1-4 shows examples of project stakeholders. Stakeholder involvement may range from occasional contributions
in surveys and focus groups to full project sponsorship that includes the provision of financial, political, or other types
of support. The type and level of project involvement can change over the course of the project’s life cycle. Therefore,
�
successfully identifying, analyzing, and engaging stakeholders and effectively managing their project expectations and
participation throughout the project life cycle is critical to project success.
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1.7 ROLE OF THE PROJECT MANAGER
The project manager is the person assigned by the performing organization to lead the team responsible for achieving
the project objectives. The project manager’s reporting relationships are based on the organizational structure and
project governance.
In addition to any specific technical skills and general management proficiencies required for the project, project
managers should have at least the following attributes:
Knowledge about project management, the business environment, technical aspects, and other information
uu
needed to manage the project effectively;
Skills needed to effectively lead the project team, coordinate the work, collaborate with stakeholders, solve
uu
problems, and make decisions;
Abilities to develop and manage scope, schedules, budgets, resources, risks, plans, presentations, and
uu
reports; and
Other attributes required to successfully manage the project, such as personality, attitude, ethics, and leadership.
uu
Project managers accomplish work through the project team and other stakeholders. Project managers rely on
important interpersonal skills, including, but not limited to:
Leadership,
uu
Team building,
uu
Motivating,
uu
Communicating,
uu
Influencing,
uu
Decision making,
uu
Political and cultural awareness,

uu
Negotiating,
uu
Facilitating,
uu
Managing conflict, and

uu
Coaching.
uu
The project manager is successful when the project objectives have been achieved. Another aspect of success is
stakeholder satisfaction. The project manager should address stakeholder needs, concerns and expectations to satisfy
relevant stakeholders. To be successful, the project manager should tailor the project approach, life cycle, and project
management processes to meet the project and product requirements.
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1.8 PROJECT MANAGEMENT KNOWLEDGE AREAS
The Project Management Knowledge Areas are fields or areas of specialization that are commonly employed when
managing projects. A Knowledge Area is a set of processes associated with a particular topic in project management.
These 10 Knowledge Areas are used on most projects most of the time. The needs of a specific project may require
additional Knowledge Areas. The 10 Knowledge Areas are:
Project Integration Management. Project Integration Management includes the processes and activities to
uu
identify, define, combine, unify, and coordinate the various processes and project management activities within
the Project Management Process Groups.
Project Scope Management. Project Scope Management includes the processes required to ensure that the
uu
project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully.
Project Schedule Management. Project Schedule Management includes the processes required to manage the
uu
timely completion of the project.
Project Cost Management. Project Cost Management includes the processes involved in planning, estimating,
uu
budgeting, financing, funding, managing, and controlling costs so the project can be completed within the
approved budget.
Project Quality Management. Project Quality Management includes the processes for incorporating the
uu
organization’s quality policy regarding planning, managing, and controlling project and product quality
requirements, in order to meet stakeholders’ expectations.
Project Resource Management. Project Resource Management includes the processes to identify, acquire, and
uu
manage the resources needed for the successful completion of the project.
Project Communications Management. Project Communications Management includes the processes required
uu
to ensure timely and appropriate planning, collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management,
control, monitoring, and ultimate disposition of project information.
Project Risk Management. Project Risk Management includes the processes of conducting risk management
uu
planning, identification, analysis, response planning, response implementation, and monitoring risk on a project.
Project Procurement Management. Project Procurement Management includes the processes necessary to
uu
purchase or acquire products, services, or results needed from outside the project team.
Project Stakeholder Management. Project Stakeholder Management includes the processes required to identify
uu
the people, groups, or organizations that could impact or be impacted by the project, to analyze stakeholder
expectations and their impact on the project, and to develop appropriate management strategies for effectively
engaging stakeholders in project decisions and execution.
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1.9 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESS GROUPS
This standard describes the project management processes employed to meet project objectives. Project management
processes are grouped in five Project Management Process Groups:
Initiating Process Group. The process(es) performed to define a new project or a new phase of an existing
uu
project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase. Initiating processes are described in Section 2.
Planning Process Group. The process(es) required to establish the scope of the project, refine the objectives,
uu
and define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken to achieve.
Planning processes are described in Section 3.
Executing Process Group. The process(es) performed to complete the work defined in the project management
uu
plan to satisfy the project requirements. Executing processes are described in Section 4.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group. The process(es) required to track, review, and regulate the progress
uu
and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required; and initiate the
corresponding changes. Monitoring and Controlling processes are described in Section 5.
Closing Process Group. The process(es) performed to formally complete or close a project, phase, or contract.
uu
Closing processes are described in Section 6.
These five Process Groups are independent of the application areas, (such as marketing, information services, or
accounting) or industry focus (such as construction, aerospace, telecommunications). Individual processes in the Process
Groups are often iterated prior to completing a phase or a project. The number of process iterations and interactions
between processes varies based on the needs of the project. Processes generally fall into one of three categories:
Processes used once or at predefined points in the project. Developing the project charter and closing the
uu
project or phase are examples.
Processes that are performed periodically as needed. Acquiring resources is performed when resources are
uu
needed. Conducting procurements will be performed prior to needing the procured item.
Processes that are performed continuously throughout the project. Defining activities may occur throughout
uu
the project life cycle, especially when the project uses rolling wave planning or an adaptive development approach.
Many of the monitoring and control processes are ongoing from the start of the project, until it is closed out.
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The output of one process generally becomes an input to another process or is a deliverable of the project or project
phase. For example, the project management plan and project documents (e.g., risk register, responsibility assignment
matrix, etc.) produced in the Planning Process Group are provided to the Executing Process Group where updates are
made. Figure 1-4 illustrates an example of how Process Groups can overlap during a project or phase.
Process Groups are not project phases. If the project is divided into phases, the processes in the Process Groups
interact within each phase. It is possible that all Process Groups could be represented within a phase, as illustrated
in Figure 1-5. As projects are separated into distinct phases, such as concept development, feasibility study, design,
prototype, build, or test, etc., processes in each of the Process Groups are repeated as necessary in each phase until the
completion criteria for that phase have been satisfied.
Initiating Planning Executing Monitoring Closing

Process Process Process and Controlling Process
Level of
Effort
Start Finish
Time
Figure 1-5. Example of Process Group Interactions Within a Project or Phase
Table 1-1 shows the 49 processes mapped to the Process Groups and Knowledge Areas.
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Table 1-1. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping

Control

5.2 Collect
Requirements
5.3 Define Scope
5.4 Create WBS

6.2 Define
Activities
6.3 Sequence
Activities
6.4 Estimate
Activity Durations
6.5 Develop
Schedule

7.2 Estimate Costs
7.3 Determine
Budget
Quality Management
Management

11.2 Identify Risks
11.3 Perform
Qualitative Risk
Analysis
11.4 Perform
Quantitative Risk
Analysis
11.5 Plan Risk
Responses

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1.10 ENTERPRISE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PROCESS ASSETS
Projects exist and operate in environments that may have an influence on them. These influences can have a favorable
or unfavorable impact on the project. Two major categories of influences are enterprise environmental factors (EEFs) and
organizational process assets (OPAs).
EEFs originate from the environment outside of the project and often outside of the enterprise. These factors refer
to conditions, which are not under the control of the project team, that influence, constrain, or direct the project. EEFs
may have an impact at the enterprise, portfolio, program, or project level. (Refer to Section 2.2 in the PMBOK® Guide for
additional information on EEFs.) One set of such factors are the internal organizational culture, structure and governance.
Examples in this area include but are not limited to: vision, mission, values, beliefs, cultural norms, hierarchy, and
authority relationships.
OPAs are internal to the enterprise. These may arise from the enterprise itself, a portfolio, a program, another project,
or a combination of these. OPAs are the plans, processes, policies, procedures, and knowledge bases specific to and
used by the performing organization. These assets influence the management of the project. Examples include but
are not limited to: change control procedures, templates, information from previous projects, and lessons learned
repositories. (Refer to Section 2.3 in the PMBOK® Guide for additional information on OPAs).
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1.11 TAILORING THE PROJECT ARTIFACTS
The term artifact in this context includes project management processes, inputs, tools, techniques, outputs, EEFs, and
OPAs. The project manager and the project management team select and adapt the appropriate artifacts for use on their
specific project. This selection and adaptation activity is known as tailoring. Tailoring is necessary because each project
is unique; therefore, not every process, input, tool, technique, or output is required on every project.
The project management plan is the most prevalent artifact. It has many components, such as the subsidiary
management plans, baselines, and a description of the project life cycle. Subsidiary management plans are plans
associated with a specific aspect or Knowledge Area of the project, for example, a schedule management plan,
risk management plan and change management plan. Part of tailoring is identifying the project management plan
components needed for a particular project. The project management plan is an input and project management plan
updates are an output of many processes in this standard. Rather than listing the individual project management plan
components in the input/output tables, examples of the components that may be inputs or may be updated as outputs
are listed beneath the input/output tables for each process. The possible components are listed as examples only. These
inputs and outputs are not required and are not the only inputs or updates to the project management plan that a project
manager may use in that particular process.
The project management plan is one of the primary project artifacts, but there are other documents that are not
part of the project management plan that are used to manage the project. These other documents are called project
documents. Similar to project management plan components, project documents needed for a process will depend on
the individual project. The project manager is accountable for identifying the project documents needed for a process
and the project documents that will be updated as an output of a process. The project documents listed beneath the
input/output tables throughout this standard are possible examples of project documents, not a comprehensive list.
Table 1-2 is a representative list of project management plan components and project documents. It is not complete
list, but it does provide a representation of the types of documents that are often used to help manage a project.
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558
Table 1-2. Project Management Plan and Project Documents
Project Management Plan Project Documents

1. Scope management plan 1. Activity attributes 19. Quality control measurements
2. Requirements management plan 2. Activity list 20. Quality metrics
3. Schedule management plan 3. Assumption log 21. Quality report
4. Cost management plan 4. Basis of estimates 22. Requirements documentation
5. Quality management plan 5. Change log 23. Requirements traceability matrix
6. Resource management plan 6. Cost estimates 24. Resource breakdown structure
7. Communications management plan 7. Cost forecasts 25. Resource calendars
8. Risk management plan 8. Duration estimates 26. Resource requirements
9. Procurement management plan 9. Issue log 27. Risk register
10. Stakeholder engagement plan 10. Lessons learned register 28. Risk report
11. Change management plan 11. Milestone list 29. Schedule data
12. Configuration management plan 12. Physical resource assignments 30. Schedule forecasts
13. Scope baseline 13. Project calendars 31. Stakeholder register
14. Schedule baseline 14. Project communications 32. Team charter
15. Cost baseline 15. Project schedule 33. Test and evaluation documents
16. Performance measurement baseline 16. Project schedule network diagram
17. Project life cycle description 17. Project scope statement
18. Development approach 18. Project team assignments
Business documents are documents that are generally originated outside of the project, and are used as inputs to
the project. Examples of business documents include the business case and benefits management plan. The use of the
business documents will depend on the company culture and project initiation process.
The enterprise environmental factors that influence the project and the organizational process assets available to the
project will depend on the project and project environment and are not listed in this standard.
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2
INITI ATI NG PR OCESS G ROU P
The Initiating Process Group consists of those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an
existing project by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase. The purpose of the Initiating Process Group is
to align the stakeholders’ expectations and the project purpose, inform stakeholders of the scope and objectives, and
discuss how their participation in the project and its associated phases can help to ensure their expectations are met.
Within the Initiating processes, the initial scope is defined and initial financial resources are committed. Stakeholders
who will interact and influence the overall outcome of the project are identified. If not already assigned, the project
manager is appointed. This information is captured in the project charter and stakeholder register. When the project
charter is approved, the project is officially authorized, and the project manager is authorized to apply organizational
resources to project activities.
The key benefits of this Process Group are that only projects that are aligned with the organization’s strategic
objectives are authorized and that the business case, benefits, and stakeholders are considered from the start of
the project. In some organizations, the project manager is involved in developing the business case and defining the
benefits. In those organizations, the project manager generally helps write the project charter; in other organizations,
the pre-project work is done by the project sponsor, project management office (PMO), portfolio steering committee,
or other stakeholder group. This standard assumes the project has been approved by the sponsor or other governing
body and they have reviewed the business documents prior to authorizing the project.
Business documents are documents that are generally originated outside of the project, but are used as input to the
project. Examples of business documents include the business case, and benefits management plan. Figure 2-1 shows
the sponsor and the business documents in relation to the Initiating Processes.
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Project
Boundaries
Monitoring &
Controlling Processes
End
Planning
Processes Deliverables Users
Sponsor Business Initiating Closing

Documents Processes Processes
Organiza-
Project tional
Executing Records
Processes Process
Assets
Figure 2-1. Project Boundaries
As described in Section 1.5, projects are often divided into phases. When this is done, information from processes
in the Initiating Process Group is reexamined to determine if the information is still valid. Revisiting the Initiating
processes at the start of each phase helps keep the project focused on the business need that the project was
undertaken to address. The project charter, business documents, and success criteria are verified. The influence,
drivers, expectations, and objectives of the project stakeholders are reviewed.
Involving the sponsors, customers, and other stakeholders during initiation creates a shared understanding
of success criteria. It also increases the likelihood of deliverable acceptance when the project is complete, and
stakeholder satisfaction throughout the project.
The Initiating Process Group includes the project management processes identified in Sections 2.1 through 2.2.
Project Integration Project Stakeholder

Develop Identify
Project Charter Stakeholders
The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the
Project Integration Management Knowledge Area. This Knowledge
Area coordinates and unifies the processes from the other
Knowledge Areas.
Figure 2-2. Initiating Process Group
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2.1 DEVELOP PROJECT CHARTER
Develop Project Charter is the process of developing a document that formally authorizes the existence of a project and
provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities. The key benefits of
this process are that it provides a direct link between the project and the strategic objectives of the organization, creates
a formal record of the project, and shows the organizational commitment to the project. This process is performed once,
or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are shown in Figure 2-3.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Business documents .1 Project charter
.2 Agreements .2 Assumption log
factors
assets
Figure 2-3. Develop Project Charter: Inputs and Outputs
2.2 IDENTIFY STAKEHOLDERS

Identify Stakeholders is the process of identifying project stakeholders regularly and analyzing and documenting
project success. The key benefit of this process is that it enables the project team to identify the appropriate focus for
engagement of each stakeholder or group of stakeholders. This process is performed periodically throughout the project
as needed. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 2-4.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Stakeholder register
.2 Business documents .2 Change requests
.3 Project management plan .3 Project management plan
.5 Agreements .4 Project documents updates
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factors
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Figure 2-4. Identify Stakeholders: Inputs and Outputs
The needs of the project determine which components of the project management plan and which project documents
are necessary.
563
2.2.1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN COMPONENTS
Examples of project management plan components that may be inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
Communications management plan, and
uu
Stakeholder engagement plan.

uu
2.2.2 PROJECT DOCUMENTS EXAMPLES

Examples of project documents that may be inputs for this process include but are not limited to:
Change log,
uu
Issue log, and

uu
Requirements documentation.
uu
2.2.3 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN UPDATES

Examples of project management plan components that may be updated as a result of this process include but are
not limited to:
Requirements management plan,
uu
Communications management plan,

uu
Risk management plan, and

uu

uu
2.2.4 PROJECT DOCUMENTS UPDATES

Examples of project documents that may be updated as a result of this process include but are not limited to:
Assumption log,
uu
Issue log, and

uu
Risk register.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
564
3
PLAN N I NG PR OCESS G RO U P
The Planning Process Group consists of those processes that establish the total scope of the effort, define and
refine the objectives, and develop the course of action required to attain those objectives. The processes in the
Planning Process Group develop the components of the project management plan and the project documents used
to carry out the project. The nature of a project may require the use of repeated feedback loops for additional
analysis. As more project information or characteristics are gathered and understood, additional planning will likely
be required. Significant changes that occur throughout the project life cycle may initiate a need to revisit one or
more of the planning processes and, possibly, one or both of the Initiating processes. This ongoing refinement of the
project management plan is called progressive elaboration, indicating that planning and documentation are iterative
or ongoing activities. The key benefit of this Process Group is to define the course of action to successfully complete
the project or phase.
The project management team seeks input and encourages involvement from relevant stakeholders while planning
the project and developing the project management plan and project documents. When the initial planning effort is
completed, the approved version of the project management plan is considered a baseline. Throughout the project,
the Monitoring and Controlling processes compare the project performance to the baselines.
The Planning Process Group (Figure 3-1) includes the project management processes identified in Sections 3.1
to 3.24.
�
�
565
Project Scope Project Schedule Project Cost
Management Management Management
Plan Scope Plan Schedule Define Plan Cost

Management Management Activities Management
Estimate
Collect Sequence Activity Estimate
Requirements Activities Durations Costs
Define Develop
Schedule Determine
Scope
Budget
Create WBS
Project Quality
Management
Project Integration
Management Plan Quality
Management
Project Stakeholder
Management Develop
Project
Management
Plan Plan
Stakeholder Project Resource
Plan
Resource
Management
Project Risk
Management
Estimate
Plan Risk Identify Activity
Management Risks Project Procurement Resources
Management
Plan
Perform Perform Procurement
Qualitative Quantitative Management Project Communications
Risk Analysis Risk Analysis Management
Plan
Communications
Responses
The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the Project
Integration Management Knowledge Area. This Knowledge Area coordinates
and unifies the processes from the other Knowledge Areas.
Figure 3-1. Planning Process Group
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566
3.1 DEVELOP PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
Develop Project Management Plan is the process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all plan components and
consolidating them into an integrated project management plan. The key benefit of this process is the production of a
comprehensive document that defines the basis of all project work and how the work will be performed. This process is
performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-2.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Project management plan
.2 Outputs from other processes
factors
Figure 3-2. Develop Project Management Plan: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
3.2 PLAN SCOPE MANAGEMENT

Plan Scope Management is the process of creating a scope management plan that documents how the project and
product scope will be defined, validated, and controlled. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and
direction on how scope will be managed throughout the project. This process is performed once or at predefined points
in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-3.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Scope management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Requirements management
.3 Enterprise environmental plan
factors
�
�
Figure 3-3. Plan Scope Management: Inputs and Outputs
The needs of the project determine which components of the project management plan are necessary.
567
Quality management plan,
uu
Project life cycle description, and

uu
Development approach.
uu
3.3 COLLECT REQUIREMENTS

Collect Requirements is the process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs and requirements
to meet objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the basis for defining the product scope and project
scope. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure 3-4.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Requirements documentation
.2 Project management plan .2 Requirements traceability
.3 Project documents matrix
.5 Agreements
factors
Figure 3-4. Collect Requirements: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

Scope management plan,
uu
Requirements management plan, and

uu

uu
Part 2 - Standard
568
Assumption log,
uu
Lessons learned register, and

uu
Stakeholder register.
uu
3.4 DEFINE SCOPE

Define Scope is the process of developing a detailed description of the project and product. The key benefit of this
process is that it describes the product, service, or result boundaries and acceptance criteria. This process is performed
once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-5.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Project scope statement
factors
Figure 3-5. Define Scope: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

An example of a project management plan component that may be an input for this process includes but is not
�
limited to the scope management plan.

�

Assumption log,
uu
Requirements documentation, and

uu
Risk register.
uu
569
Assumption log,
uu
uu
Requirements traceability matrix, and

uu
uu
3.5 CREATE WBS

Create Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into
smaller, more manageable components. The key benefit of this process is that it provides a framework of what has to be
delivered. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure 3-6.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Scope baseline (see note)
.2 Project documents .2 Project documents updates
factors
Note: The scope baseline is the approved version of a scope

statement, WBS, and its associated WBS dictionary.
Figure 3-6. Create WBS: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

limited to the scope management plan.
Part 2 - Standard
570
Project scope statement, and
uu
uu

Project document that may be updated as a result of this process include but is not limited to:
Assumption log, and
uu
uu
3.6 PLAN SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT

Plan Schedule Management is the process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation for planning,
developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule. The key benefit of this process is that it provides
guidance and direction on how the project schedule will be managed throughout the project. This process is performed
once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-7.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Schedule management plan
factors
Figure 3-7. Plan Schedule Management: Inputs and Outputs
�
�
571
Scope management plan, and
uu
Development approach.
uu
3.7 DEFINE ACTIVITIES

Define Activities is the process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed to produce the
project deliverables. The key benefit of this process is that it decomposes work packages into schedule activities that
provide a basis for estimating, scheduling, executing, monitoring, and controlling the project work. This process is
performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-8.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Activity list
.2 Enterprise environmental .2 Activity attributes
factors .3 Milestone list
.3 Organizational process assets .4 Change requests
updates
Figure 3-8. Define Activities: Inputs and Outputs

Schedule management plan, and
uu
Scope baseline.
uu

Components of the project management plan that may be updated as a result of this process include but are not
limited to:
Schedule baseline, and
uu
Cost baseline.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
572
3.8 SEQUENCE ACTIVITIES
Sequence Activities is the process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities. The
key benefit of this process is that it defines the logical sequence of work to obtain the greatest efficiency given all
project constraints. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Project schedule network
.2 Project documents diagrams
.3 Enterprise environmental .2 Project documents updates
factors
Figure 3-9. Sequence Activities: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

Activity attributes,
uu
�
Activity list,
uu
�
Assumption log, and

uu
Milestone list.
uu

uu
Activity list,
uu
Assumption log, and

uu
Milestone list.
uu
573
3.9 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY DURATIONS
Estimate Activity Durations is the process of estimating the number of work periods needed to complete individual
activities with estimated resources. The key benefit of this process is that it provides the amount of time each activity will
take to complete. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted
in Figure 3-10.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Duration estimates
.2 Project documents .2 Basis of estimates
factors
Figure 3-10. Estimate Activity Durations: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

uu
Activity list,
uu
Assumption log,
uu
Lessons learned register,

uu
Milestone list,
uu
Project team assignments,

uu
Resource breakdown structure,

uu
Resource calendars,
uu
Resource requirements, and

uu
Risk register.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
574
uu
Assumption log,
uu
Lessons learned register.

uu
3.10 DEVELOP SCHEDULE

Develop Schedule is the process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and schedule
constraints to create a schedule model for project execution and monitoring and controlling. The key benefit of this
process is that it generates a schedule model with planned dates for completing project activities. This process is
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Schedule baseline
.2 Project documents .2 Project schedule
.3 Agreements .3 Schedule data
.4 Enterprise environmental .4 Project calendars
factors .5 Change requests
.5 Organizational process assets .6 Project management plan
updates
Figure 3-11. Develop Schedule: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

�
�

uu
Scope baseline.
uu
575
uu
Activity list,
uu
Assumption log,
uu
Basis of estimates,
uu
Duration estimates,
uu

uu
Milestone list,
uu
Project schedule network diagram,

uu

uu
Resource calendars,
uu

uu
Risk register.
uu

limited to:
uu
Cost baseline.
uu

uu
Assumption log,
uu
Duration estimates,
uu

uu

uu
Risk register.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
576
3.11 PLAN COST MANAGEMENT
Plan Cost Management is the process of defining how the project costs will be estimated, budgeted, managed,
monitored, and controlled. The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how the project
costs will be managed throughout the project. This process is performed once, or at predefined points in the project. The
inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-12.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Cost management plan
factors
Figure 3-12. Plan Cost Management: Inputs and Outputs

uu
Risk management plan.

uu
3.12 ESTIMATE COSTS

Estimate Costs is the process of developing an approximation of the monetary resources needed to complete project
work. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the monetary resources required for the project. This process is
performed periodically throughout the project as needed. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-13.
�
�
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Cost estimates
factors
Figure 3-13. Estimate Costs: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
577
Cost management plan,
uu
Quality management plan, and

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu
Risk register.
uu

Assumption log,
uu

uu
Risk register.
uu
3.13 DETERMINE BUDGET

Determine Budget is the process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to
establish an authorized cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that it determines the cost baseline against
which project performance can be monitored and controlled. This process is performed once or at predefined points in
the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-14.
Part 2 - Standard
578
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Cost baseline
.2 Project documents .2 Project funding requirements
.3 Business documents .3 Project documents updates
.4 Agreements
factors
Figure 3-14. Determine Budget: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Resource management plan, and

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

Basis of estimates,
uu
Cost estimates,
uu
Project schedule, and

uu
Risk register.
uu
�
�

Cost estimates,
uu

uu
Risk register.
uu
579
3.14 PLAN QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Plan Quality Management is the process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and its
The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how quality will be managed and verified
throughout the project. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of
this process are shown in Figure 3-15.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Quality management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Quality metrics
.4 Enterprise environmental updates
factors .4 Project documents updates
Figure 3-15. Plan Quality Management: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Risk management plan,

uu
Stakeholder engagement plan, and

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

Assumption log,
uu
uu
Requirements traceability matrix,

uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
Part 2 - Standard
580
Examples of project management plan components that may be updated as a result of this process include but are
not limited to:
uu
Scope baseline.
uu

uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
3.15 PLAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Plan Resource Management is the process of defining how to estimate, acquire, manage, and utilize physical and
team resources. The key benefit of this process is that it establishes the approach and level of management effort
needed for managing project resources based on the type and complexity of the project. This process is performed once
or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are shown in Figure 3-16.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Resource management plan
.2 Project management plan .2 Team charter
factors
�
Figure 3-16. Plan Resource Management: Inputs and Outputs

�
are necessary.
581
Quality management plan, and
uu
Scope baseline.
uu
3.15.2 PROJECT DOCUMENTS

Project schedule,
uu
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu

Assumption log, and
uu
Risk register.
uu
3.16 ESTIMATE ACTIVITY RESOURCES

Estimate Activity Resources is the process of estimating team resources and the type and quantities of materials,
equipment, and supplies necessary to perform project work. The key benefit of this process is that it identifies the
type, quantity, and characteristics of resources required to complete the project. This process is performed periodically
throughout the project as needed. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-17.
Part 2 - Standard
582
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Resource requirements
.3 Enterprise environmental .3 Resource breakdown
factors structure
.4 Organizational process assets .4 Project documents updates
Figure 3-17. Estimate Activity Resources: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

uu
Activity list,
uu
Assumption log,
uu
Cost estimates,
uu
Resource calendars, and

uu
Risk register.
uu
�
�

uu
Assumption log,
uu

uu
583
3.17 PLAN COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT
Plan Communications Management is the process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project
and the needs of the project. The key benefit of this process is a documented approach to effectively and efficiently
engage stakeholders by presenting relevant information in a timely manner. This process is performed periodically
throughout the project as needed. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-18.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Communications management
.2 Project management plan plan
Figure 3-18. Plan Communications Management: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu

uu

uu
uu

limited to the stakeholder engagement plan.
Part 2 - Standard
584
uu
uu
3.18 PLAN RISK MANAGEMENT

Plan Risk Management is the process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a project. The key
benefit of this process is that it ensures that the degree, type, and visibility of risk management are proportionate to both
the risks and the importance of the project to the organization and other stakeholders. This process is performed once
or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and output of this process are depicted in Figure 3-19.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Risk management plan
factors
Figure 3-19. Plan Risk Management: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

In planning Project Risk Management, all available components of the project management plan should be taken into
consideration in order to ensure risk management is consistent with the needs of the project.
�
�

An example of a project document that may be an input for this process includes but is not limited to the
stakeholder register.
585
3.19 IDENTIFY RISKS
Identify Risks is the process of identifying individual project risks as well as sources of overall project risk, and
documenting their characteristics. The key benefit of this process is the documentation of the existing individual project
risks and the sources of overall project risk. It also brings together information so the project team can to respond
appropriately to the identified risks. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 3-20.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Risk register
.2 Project documents .2 Risk report
.3 Agreements .3 Project documents updates
factors
Figure 3-20. Identify Risks: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Schedule management plan,

uu

uu

uu
Resource management plan,

uu

uu
Scope baseline,
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
586
Assumption log,
uu
Cost estimates,
uu
Duration estimates,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
uu

uu
uu

Assumption log,
uu
Issue log, and

uu

uu
�
�
587
3.20 PERFORM QUALITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis is the process of prioritizing individual project risks for further analysis or action by
assessing their probability of occurrence and impact as well as other characteristics. The key benefit of this process is
that it focuses efforts on high-priority risks. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of
this process are depicted in Figure 3-21.
Inputs Outputs
factors
Figure 3-21. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

limited to the risk management plan.

Assumption log,
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
Part 2 - Standard
588
Assumption log,
uu
Issue log,
uu
Risk register, and

uu
Risk report.
uu
3.21 PERFORM QUANTITATIVE RISK ANALYSIS

Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis is the process of numerically analyzing the combined effect of identified individual
project risks and other sources of uncertainty on overall project objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it quantifies
overall project risk exposure and can also provide additional quantitative risk information to support risk response planning.
This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-22.
Inputs Outputs
factors
Figure 3-22. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

�
�

uu
Scope baseline,
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu
589
Assumption log,
uu
Basis of estimates,
uu
Cost estimates,
uu
Cost forecasts,
uu
Duration estimates,
uu
Milestone list,
uu
Resource requirements,
uu
Risk register,
uu
Risk report, and

uu
Schedule forecasts.
uu

Project documents that may be updated as a result of this process include but are not limited to the risk report.
3.22 PLAN RISK RESPONSES

Plan Risk Responses is the process of developing options, selecting strategies, and agreeing on actions to address
overall project risk exposure as well as to treat individual project risks. The key benefit of this process is that it identifies
appropriate ways to address overall project risk and individual project risks. This process also allocates resources
and inserts activities into project documents and the project management plan as needed. This process is performed
throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-23.
Inputs Outputs
Figure 3-23. Plan Risk Responses: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
Part 2 - Standard
590
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu

uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu
Resource calendars,
uu
Risk register,
uu
Risk report, and

uu
uu

limited to:
uu

uu

uu
�

uu
�
Procurement management plan,

uu
Scope baseline,
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu
591
Assumption log,
uu
Cost forecasts,
uu

uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
Risk report.
uu
3.23 PLAN PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

Plan Procurement Management is the process of documenting project procurement decisions, specifying the
approach, and identifying potential sellers. The key benefit of this process is that it determines whether to acquire
goods and services from outside the project and, if so, what to acquire as well as how and when to acquire it. Goods
and services may be procured from other parts of the performing organization or from external sources. This process
is performed once or at predefined points in the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted
in Figure 3-24.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Procurement management
.2 Business documents plan
.3 Project management plan .2 Procurement strategy
.4 Project documents .3 Bid documents
.5 Enterprise environmental .4 Procurement statement
factors of work
.6 Organizational process assets .5 Source selection criteria
.6 Make-or-buy decisions
.7 Independent cost estimates
.8 Change requests
assets updates
Figure 3-24. Plan Procurement Management: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
Part 2 - Standard
592
uu

uu

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

Milestone list,
uu

uu
uu

uu
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu

uu
Milestone list,
uu
uu
�

uu
�
Risk register, and

uu
uu
593
3.24 PLAN STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Plan Stakeholder Engagement is the process of developing approaches to involve project stakeholders based on their
needs, expectations, interests, and potential impact on the project. The key benefit is that it provides an actionable plan
to interact with stakeholders effectively. This process is performed periodically throughout the project as needed. The
inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 3-25.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Stakeholder engagement plan
.4 Agreements
factors
Figure 3-25. Plan Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu

uu
Risk management plan.

uu

Assumption log,
uu
Change log,
uu
Issue log,
uu
Project schedule,
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
Part 2 - Standard
594
4
EX EC UTI NG PR OCESS G ROU P
The Executing Process Group consists of those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project
management plan to satisfy the project requirements. This Process Group involves coordinating resources, managing
stakeholder engagement, and integrating and performing the activities of the project in accordance with the project
management plan. The key benefit of this Process Group is that the work needed to meet the project requirements
and objectives is performed according to plan. A large portion of the project budget, resources, and time is
expended in performing the Executing Process Group processes. The processes in the Executing Process Group
may generate change requests. If approved, the change requests may trigger one or more planning processes that
result in a modified management plan, project documents, and possibly new baselines. The Executing Process Group
(Figure 4-1) includes the project management processes identified in Sections 4.1 through 4.10.
�
�
595
Project Quality Project Resource
Manage Acquire
Quality Resources
Project Stakeholder
Management
Develop
Team
Manage
Stakeholder
Engagement
Project Integration
Management
Manage
Team
Direct and Manage
Project Work
Manage
Project Knowledge
Project Procurement Project Communications

Conduct Manage
Procurements Project Risk Communications
Management
Implement
Risk Responses
The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the Project Integration Management Knowledge
Area. This Knowledge Area coordinates and unifies the processes from the other Knowledge Areas.
Figure 4-1. Executing Process Group
Part 2 - Standard
596
4.1 DIRECT AND MANAGE PROJECT WORK
Direct and Manage Project Work is the process of leading and performing the work defined in the project management
plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives. The key benefit of this process is that it
provides overall management of the project work and deliverables, thus improving the probability of project success.
This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 4-2.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Deliverables
.2 Project documents .2 Work performance data
.3 Approved change requests .3 Issue log
.4 Enterprise environmental .4 Change requests
updates
Figure 4-2. Direct and Manage Project Work: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.


Change log,
uu

uu
�
Milestone list,
uu
�
Project communications,
uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
Risk report.
uu
597
Any component of the project management plan may be updated as a result of this process.

Activity list,
uu
Assumption log,
uu

uu
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
4.2 MANAGE PROJECT KNOWLEDGE

Manage Project Knowledge is the process of using existing knowledge and creating new knowledge to achieve the
project’s objectives and contribute to organizational learning. The key benefits of this process are that prior organizational
knowledge is leveraged to produce or improve the project outcomes and that knowledge created by the project is
available to support organizational operations and future projects or phases. This process is performed throughout the
project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 4-3.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Lessons learned register
.3 Deliverables updates
.4 Enterprise environmental .3 Organizational process assets
factors updates
Figure 4-3. Manage Project Knowledge: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
Part 2 - Standard
598
All components of the project management plan may be inputs for this process.
4.2.2 PROJECT DOCUMENTS

uu

uu

uu
Source selection criteria, and

uu
uu

4.3 MANAGE QUALITY

Manage Quality is the process of translating the quality management plan into executable quality activities that
incorporate the organization’s quality policies into the project. The key benefit of this process is that it increases the
probability of meeting the quality objectives, as well as identifying ineffective processes and causes of poor quality. This
process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are shown in Figure 4-4.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Quality reports
.2 Project documents .2 Test and evaluation
.3 Organizational process assets documents
�
.3 Change requests
�
updates
Figure 4-4. Manage Quality: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
599
limited to the quality management plan.

uu
Quality control measurements,

uu
Quality metrics, and

uu
Risk report.
uu

limited to:
uu
Scope baseline,
uu
Schedule baseline,
uu
Cost baseline.
uu

Issue log,
uu

uu
Risk register.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
600
4.4 ACQUIRE RESOURCES
Acquire Resources is the process of obtaining team members, facilities, equipment, materials, supplies, and other
resources necessary to complete project work. The key benefit of this process is that it outlines and guides the selection
of resources and assigns them to their respective activities. This process is performed periodically throughout the
project as needed. The inputs and outputs of this process are shown in Figure 4-5.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Physical resource
.2 Project documents assignments
.3 Enterprise environmental .2 Project team assignments
factors .3 Resource calendars
.4 Organizational process assets .4 Change requests
updates
.6 Project document updates
factors updates
updates
Figure 4-5. Acquire Resources: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Procurement management plan, and

uu
Cost baseline.
uu
�
�

Project schedule
uu
Resource calendars,
uu

uu
uu
601
limited to:
uu
Cost baseline.
uu

uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu
Resource calendars,
uu
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
4.5 DEVELOP TEAM

Develop Team is the process of improving competencies, team member interaction, and overall team environment
to enhance project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it results in improved teamwork, enhanced
interpersonal skills and competencies, motivated employees, reduced attrition, and improved overall project performance.
This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are shown in Figure 4-6.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Team performance
.2 Project documents assessments
.3 Enterprise environmental .2 Change requests
factors updates
updates
Figure 4-6. Develop Team: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
Part 2 - Standard
602
limited to the resource management plan.

uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu

uu
Team charter.
uu

A component of the project management plan that may be updated as a result of this process includes but is not

A project document that may be updated as a result of this process includes but is not limited to:
uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu

uu
�
Team charter.
uu
�
603
4.6 MANAGE TEAM
Manage Team is the process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving issues, and
managing team changes to optimize project performance. The key benefit of this process is that it influences team
behavior, manages conflict, and resolves issues. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and
outputs of this process are shown in Figure 4-7.
Inputs Outputs
.3 Work performance reports updates
.4 Team performance .3 Project documents updates
assessments .4 Enterprise environmental
.5 Enterprise environmental factors updates
factors
Figure 4-7. Manage Team: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.


Issue log,
uu

uu
Project team assignments, and

uu
Team charter.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
604
limited to:
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu

Issue log,
uu

uu
Project team assignments.

uu
4.7 MANAGE COMMUNICATIONS

Manage Communications is the process of ensuring timely and appropriate collection, creation, distribution, storage,
retrieval, management, monitoring, and the ultimate disposition of project information. The key benefit of this process is
that it enables an efficient and effective information flow between the project team and the stakeholders. This process
is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 4-8.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Project communications
�
Figure 4-8. Manage Communications: Inputs and Outputs

�
are necessary.
605
uu

uu

uu
4.7.2 PROJECT DOCUMENTS EXAMPLE

Change log,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
Quality report,
uu
Risk report, and

uu
uu

Examples of the project management plan components that may be updated as a result of this process include but
are not limited to:
uu

uu

Issue log,
uu

uu
Project schedule,
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
Part 2 - Standard
606
4.8 IMPLEMENT RISK RESPONSES
Implement Risk Responses is the process of implementing agreed-upon risk response plans. The key benefit of this
process is that it ensures that agreed-upon risk responses are executed as planned in order to address overall project
risk exposure, as well as to minimize individual project threats and maximize individual project opportunities. This
process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 4-9.
Inputs Outputs
Figure 4-9. Implement Risk Responses: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.


uu
Risk register, and

uu
�
Risk report.
uu
�

Issue log,
uu

uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
Risk report.
uu
607
4.9 CONDUCT PROCUREMENTS
Conduct Procurements is the process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding a contract.
The key benefit of this process is that it selects a qualified seller and implements the legal agreement for delivery.
This process is performed periodically throughout the project as needed. The inputs and outputs of this process are
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Selected sellers
.2 Project documents .2 Agreements
.3 Procurement documentation .3 Change requests
.4 Seller proposals .4 Project management plan
updates
Figure 4-10. Conduct Procurements: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu

uu

uu

uu

uu
Configuration management plan, and

uu
Cost baseline.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
608
uu
Project schedule,
uu
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu

limited to:
uu

uu

uu

uu

uu
Scope baseline,
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu

�

uu
�
uu

uu
Resource calendars,
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
609
4.10 MANAGE STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Manage Stakeholder Engagement is the process of communicating and working with stakeholders to meet their
needs and expectations, address issues, and foster appropriate stakeholder involvement. The key benefit of this process
is that it allows the project manager to increase support and minimize resistance from stakeholders. This process is
Inputs Outputs
Figure 4-11. Manage Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu

uu
Stakeholder engagement plan, and

uu
Change management plan.

uu

Change log,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
uu
Part 2 - Standard
610
limited to:
uu

uu

Change log,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
uu
�
�
611
�
�
Part 2 - Standard
612
5
MON I TOR ING AND CO NTR OLLI NG P ROC ES S GROU P
The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group consists of those processes required to track, review, and regulate
the progress and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required; and initiate
the corresponding changes. Monitoring is collecting project performance data, producing performance measures,
and reporting and disseminating performance information. Controlling is comparing actual performance with planned
performance, analyzing variances, assessing trends to effect process improvements, evaluating possible alternatives,
and recommending appropriate corrective action as needed. The key benefit of this Process Group is that project
performance is measured and analyzed at regular intervals, appropriate events, or when exception conditions occur
in order to identify and correct variances from the project management plan. The Monitoring and Controlling Process
Group also involves:
Evaluating change requests and deciding on the appropriate response;
uu
Recommending corrective or preventive action in anticipation of possible problems;

uu
Monitoring the ongoing project activities against the project management plan and project baselines; and
uu
Influencing the factors that could circumvent the change control process so only approved changes are
uu
implemented.
Continuous monitoring provides the project team and other stakeholders with insight into the status of the project
and identifies any areas that require additional attention. The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group monitors and
controls the work being done within each Knowledge Area, each Process Group, each life cycle phase, and the project
as a whole. The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group (Figure 5-1) includes the project management processes
identified in Sections 5.1 through 5.12.
�
�
613
Project Scope Project Schedule Project Cost
Management Management Management
Validate Control Control

Scope Schedule Costs
Control
Scope Project Quality
Management
Project Integration
Management Control
Quality
Project Stakeholder Monitor and

Control
Management
Project Work
Monitor Project Resource

Stakeholder Management
Engagement Perform
Integrated
Change Control
Control
Resources
Project Procurement
Management
Project Communications
Control Project Risk Management
Procurements Management
Monitor
Monitor Communications
Risks
The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the Project Integration Management Knowledge
Area. This Knowledge Area coordinates and unifies the processes from the other Knowledge Areas.
Figure 5-1. Monitoring and Controlling Process Group
Part 2 - Standard
614
5.1 MONITOR AND CONTROL PROJECT WORK
Monitor and Control Project Work is the process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting the overall progress to meet
the performance objectives defined in the project management plan. The key benefit of this process is that it allows
stakeholders to understand the current state of the project, to recognize the actions taken to address any performance
issues, and to have visibility into the future project status with cost and schedule forecasts. This process is performed
throughout the project. The inputs and outputs for this process are depicted in Figure 5-2.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Work performance reports
.3 Work performance information .3 Project management plan
.4 Agreements updates
factors
Figure 5-2. Monitor and Control Project Work: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.


Assumption log,
uu
Basis of estimates,
uu
�
Cost forecasts,
uu
�
Issue log,
uu

uu
Milestone list,
uu
Quality reports,
uu
Risk register,
uu
Risk report, and

uu
Schedule forecasts.
uu
615

Cost forecasts,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
Schedule forecasts.
uu
5.2 PERFORM INTEGRATED CHANGE CONTROL

Perform Integrated Change Control is the process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes and managing
changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents, and the project management plan; and
communicating the decisions. This process reviews all requests for changes to project documents, deliverables, or the
project management plan, and determines the resolution of the change requests. The key benefit of this process is that
it allows for documented changes within the project to be considered in an integrated manner while addressing overall
project risk, which often arises from changes made without consideration of the overall project objectives or plans. This
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Approved change requests
.4 Change requests .3 Project documents updates
factors
Figure 5-3. Perform Integrated Change Control: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
Part 2 - Standard
616
Change management plan,
uu
Configuration management plan,

uu
Scope baseline,
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu

Basis of estimates,
uu
Requirements traceability matrix, and

uu
Risk report.
uu


Any formally controlled project document may be changed as a result of this process. A project document that is
normally updated as a result of this process is the change log. The change log is used to document changes that occur
during a project.
�
�
617
5.3 VALIDATE SCOPE
Validate Scope is the process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables. The key benefit of this
process is that it brings objectivity to the acceptance process and increases the probability of final product, service,
or result acceptance by validating each deliverable. This process is performed periodically throughout the project as
needed. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-4.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Accepted deliverables
.2 Project documents .2 Work performance information
.3 Verified deliverables .3 Change requests
.4 Work performance data .4 Project documents updates
Figure 5-4. Validate Scope: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Requirements management plan, and

uu
Scope baseline.
uu

uu
Quality reports,
uu

uu
Requirements traceability matrix.

uu
Part 2 - Standard
618
Examples of project documents that may be updated as a result of this process include but are not limited to:
uu

uu

uu
5.4 CONTROL SCOPE

Control Scope is the process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing changes to
the scope baseline. The key benefit of this process is that the scope baseline is maintained throughout the project. This
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Work performance information
.3 Work performance data .3 Project management plan
Figure 5-5. Control Scope: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
�

uu
�
Change management plan,

uu
Configuration management plan,

uu
Scope baseline, and

uu
Performance measurement baseline.

uu
619
uu

uu

uu

limited to:
uu
Scope baseline,
uu
Schedule baseline,
uu
Cost baseline and

uu

uu

uu

uu

uu
Part 2 - Standard
620
5.5 CONTROL SCHEDULE
Control Schedule is the process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project schedule and manage
changes to the schedule baseline. The key benefit of this process is that the schedule baseline is maintained
throughout the project. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are
Inputs Outputs
.2 Project documents .2 Schedule forecasts
.3 Work performance data .3 Change requests
.4 Organizational process assets .4 Project management plan
updates
Figure 5-6. Control Schedule: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu
Schedule baseline,
uu
Scope baseline, and

uu

uu

�

uu
Project calendars,
uu
Project schedule,
uu

uu
Schedule data.
uu
621
limited to:
uu

uu
Cost baseline and

uu

uu

Assumption log,
uu
Basis of estimates,
uu

uu
Project schedule,
uu
Resource calendars,
uu
Risk register, and

uu
Schedule data.
uu
5.6 CONTROL COSTS

Control Costs is the process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and managing changes
to the cost baseline. The key benefit of this process is that the cost baseline is maintained throughout the project. This
Inputs Outputs
.2 Project documents .2 Cost forecasts
.3 Project funding requirements .3 Change requests
Figure 5-7. Control Costs: Inputs and Outputs
Part 2 - Standard
622
uu
Cost baseline, and

uu

uu

An example of a project document that may an input for this process includes but is not limited to the lessons
learned register.

limited to:
uu
Cost baseline, and

uu

uu

Assumption log,
uu
Basis of estimates,
uu
Cost estimates,
uu

uu
Risk register.
uu
623
5.7 CONTROL QUALITY
Control Quality is the process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality management activities to
assess performance and ensure the project outputs are complete, correct, and meet customer expectations. The key
benefit of this process is verifying that project deliverables and work meet the requirements specified by key stakeholders
for final acceptance. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are shown
in Figure 5-8.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Quality control measurements
.2 Project documents .2 Verified deliverables
.3 Approved change requests .3 Work performance information
.4 Deliverables .4 Change requests
Figure 5-8. Control Quality: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.


uu
Quality metrics, and

uu
Test and evaluation documents.

uu
Part 2 - Standard
624

Issue log,
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
Test and evaluation documents.

uu
5.8 CONTROL RESOURCES

Control Resources is the process of ensuring that the physical resources assigned and allocated to the project are
available as planned, as well as monitoring the planned versus actual utilization of resources and taking corrective
action as necessary. The key benefit of this process is ensuring that the assigned resources are available to the project
at the right time and in the right place and are released when no longer needed. This process is performed throughout
the project. The inputs and outputs of this process are shown in Figure 5-9.
Inputs Outputs
.5 Organizational process assets .4 Project documents updates
Figure 5-9. Control Resources: Inputs and Outputs

�
are necessary.
625

Issue log,
uu

uu
Physical resource assignments,

uu
Project schedule
uu

uu

uu
Risk register.
uu

limited to:
uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu

Assumption log,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
Physical resource assignments,

uu
Resource breakdown structure, and

uu
Risk register.
uu
Part 2 - Standard
626
5.9 MONITOR COMMUNICATIONS
Monitor Communications is the process of ensuring the information needs of the project and its stakeholders are met.
The key benefit of this process is the optimal information flow as defined in the communications management plan and
stakeholder engagement plan. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this process
are depicted in Figure 5-10.
Inputs Outputs
Figure 5-10. Monitor Communications: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu

uu

uu

�
Issue log,
uu

uu
Project communications.
uu
627
limited to:
uu

uu

Issue log,
uu

uu
uu
5.10 MONITOR RISKS

Monitor Risks is the process of monitoring the implementation of agreed-upon risk response plans, tracking identified
risks, identifying and analyzing new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project. The key
benefit of this process is that it enables project decisions to be based on current information about overall project risk
exposure and individual project risks. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs of this
process are depicted in Figure 5-11.
Inputs Outputs
updates
Figure 5-11. Monitor Risks: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
Part 2 - Standard
628

Issue log,
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
Risk report.
uu


Assumption log,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
Risk report.
uu
�
5.11 CONTROL PROCUREMENTS

Control Procurements is the process of managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract performance and
making changes and corrections as appropriate, and closing out contracts. The key benefit of this process is that it
ensures that both the seller’s and buyer’s performance meets the project’s requirements according to the terms of the
legal agreements. This process is performed throughout the project, when procurements are active. The inputs and
outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5-12.
629
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project management plan .1 Closed procurements
.2 Project documents .2 Work performance information
.3 Agreements .3 Procurement documentation
.4 Procurement documentation updates
.5 Approved change requests .4 Change requests
updates
Figure 5-12. Control Procurements: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

uu

uu

uu
Change management plan, and

uu
Schedule baseline.
uu

Assumption log,
uu

uu
Milestone list,
uu
Quality reports,
uu
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
Part 2 - Standard
630
limited to:
uu

uu

uu
Cost baseline.
uu

uu
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
5.12 MONITOR STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

Monitor Stakeholder Engagement is the process of monitoring project stakeholder relationships, and tailoring
strategies for engaging stakeholders through modification of engagement strategies and plans. The key benefit of this
process is that it maintains or increases the efficiency and effectiveness of stakeholder engagement activities as the
project evolves and its environment changes. This process is performed throughout the project. The inputs and outputs
of this process are depicted in Figure 5-13.
Inputs Outputs
�

Figure 5-13. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.
631
uu

uu

uu

Issue log,
uu

uu
uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu

limited to:
uu

uu

uu

Issue log,
uu

uu
Risk register, and

uu
uu
Part 2 - Standard
632
6
C LOSI N G PRO CESS GR OU P
The Closing Process Group consists of the process(es) performed to formally complete or close a project, phase,
or contract. This Process Group verifies that the defined processes are completed within all of the Process Groups to
close the project or phase, as appropriate, and formally establishes that the project or project phase is complete. The
key benefit of this Process Group is that phases, projects, and contracts are closed out appropriately. While there is
only one process in this Process Group, organizations may have their own processes associated with project, phase,
or contract closure. Therefore, the term Process Group is maintained.
This Process Group may also address the early closure of the project, for example, aborted projects or
cancelled projects.
The Closing Process Group (Figure 6-1) includes the project management process identified in Section 6.1.
Project Integration
Management
The dashed circular arrow indicates that the process is part of the
Project Integration Management Knowledge Area. This Knowledge
Close Area coordinates and unifies the processes from the other
Project or Phase Knowledge Areas.
�
Figure 6-1. Closing Process Group
633
6.1 CLOSE PROJECT OR PHASE
Close Project or Phase is the process of finalizing all activities for the project, phase, or contract. The key benefits
of this process are the project or phase information is archived, the planned work is completed, and organizational
resources are released to pursue new endeavors. This process is performed once or at predefined points in the
project. The inputs and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 6-2.
Inputs Outputs
.1 Project charter .1 Project documents updates
.2 Project management plan .2 Final product, service, or
.3 Project documents result transition
.4 Accepted deliverables .3 Final report
.5 Business documents .4 Organizational process assets
Figure 6-2. Close Project or Phase: Inputs and Outputs
are necessary.

All components of the project management plan may be inputs to this process.
Part 2 - Standard
634
Assumption log,
uu
Basis of estimates,
uu
Change log,
uu
Issue log,
uu

uu
Milestone list,
uu
uu
Quality control measurements,

uu
Quality reports,
uu
uu
Risk register, and

uu
Risk report.
uu

Any project documents that may be updated as a result of this process include but are not limited to the lessons
learned register.
�
�
635
Part 2 - Standard
636
Part 3
Appendices, Glossary,
and Index
The information contained in this part is not an American National Standard (ANS) and has not
been processed in accordance with ANSI’s requirements for an ANS. As such, the information in
this part may contain material that has not been subjected to public review or a consensus process.
In addition, it does not contain requirements necessary for conformance to an ANS standard.
�
�
APPE N DI X X1
SI X TH EDITI ON CH ANG ES
The purpose of this appendix is to provide an overview of the changes made to A Guide to the Project Management
Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)—Fifth Edition to create the PMBOK® Guide—Sixth Edition.
X1.1 SCOPE OF UPDATE

The approved scope for the PMBOK® Guide—Sixth Edition includes:
Review the following and determine whether the material will be included or excluded in the new editions, and
uu
track the disposition:
nuAll material relevant to Sections 1 through 13, Annex A1, and the Glossary that was deferred during the
development of A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)—Fifth Edition
nuAll comments and feedback relevant to Sections 1 through 13, Annex A1, and the Glossary of A Guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)—Fifth Edition that have been received by PMI
since the initial development and publication.
Review, interpret, and ensure appropriate alignment with ISO 21500 in the development of the standard.
uu
Ensure harmonization with any other relevant PMI foundational standards.

uu
Consider the project manager role delineation study results and other PMI research studies for incorporation as
uu
appropriate.
Review, conduct, and analyze research for significant additions, deletions, and changes to the Sixth Edition and
uu
possibly for strategic input to future editions.
With that directive in mind, the update team focused on bringing greater consistency and clarity by refining and
standardizing the processes, inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs.
639
X1.2 RULES FOR HARMONIZATION BETWEEN GLOSSARY TERMS AND THE PMI LEXICON
OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT TERMS
To ensure that terms used in the PMBOK® Guide align with the PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms 1 and
harmonize with other relevant PMI standards, the Sixth Edition followed these business rules:
For terms found in both the PMBOK® Guide and the PMI Lexicon, the definition from the PMI Lexicon is used.
uu
Where terms used in the PMBOK® Guide are not found in the PMI Lexicon but are found in other relevant
uu
PMI standards, the definitions of the terms should be identical. If the definitions do not align with the
respective standards, the term is elevated to the PMI Lexicon team for assistance in creating an acceptable
common definition.
X1.3 RULES FOR HANDLING INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

The following business rules were used to provide consistency in the order and information within the inputs and
outputs for each project management process:
Fundamental Rules:
uu
nuInputs are any documents that are key to the process.

nuOutputs should become an input to another project management process unless the output is a terminal
output or embedded within another input such as project documents.
nuInputs should come from an output from another project management process unless the input comes from
outside the project.
Project Documents Rules:
uu
nuWhen specific project documents are identified the first time, they are listed as a specific output. Subsequently,
they are listed as “project documents updates” in the output list, and described in the section narrative.
nuWhen any project document is an input, the term “project documents” is listed and the specific project
documents are described in the section narrative.
Project Management Plan Rules:
uu
nuFor those planning processes that create a subsidiary plan, the project charter is the first input and the project
management plan is the second input.
nuThe process that creates a component of the project management plan lists the component specifically.
Subsequently, components are listed as “project management plan updates” in the output list, and described
in the section narrative.
nuWhen the project management plan serves as a process input, specific components of the project management
plan that may be considered are described in the section narrative.
1
Project Management Institute. 2016. The PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms. Available from
http://www.pmi.org/Lexiconterms
Part 3 - Appendix X1
640
Sequencing Rules:
uu
nuIf the project charter is an input, it is the first input.

nuWhen the project management plan is an input or output, the subsidiary management plans are listed in the
order of the sections in the PMBOK® Guide where they are produced as an output, followed by baselines and
then any other plans.
nuProject documents are listed in alphabetical order.
nuEnterprise environmental factors and organizational process assets are listed last in that order.
nuWhen updates are an output they are listed in the following sequence:
muProject management plan updates,
muProject documents updates, and
muOrganizational process assets updates.
X1.4 RULES FOR HANDLING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

The Sixth Edition endeavored to reduce the number of tools and techniques by focusing on those that are currently
used on most projects most of the time. Based on academic and market research a number of tools and techniques
were eliminated. In order to reduce repetition a tool or technique is described the first time it is listed and subsequent
processes using that tool or technique refer back to the earlier description.
The Sixth Edition grouped some of the commonly used tools and techniques by their intent. Not all tools and techniques
fall within a group, but for those tools or techniques that are part of a group, the group is listed and then examples of
tools and techniques in that group are described in the narrative. The tools and techniques groups are:
Data gathering,
uu
Data analysis,
uu
Data representation,
uu
Decision-making,
uu
Communication skills, and

uu
�
Interpersonal and team skills.

uu
�
Appendix X6 identifies all the tools and techniques in the PMBOK® Guide by group, where appropriate, and lists the
processes where they are used.
641
X1.5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT PLAN
Not every component of the project management plan is created in a separate process. Such components are
considered to be created in the Develop Project Management Plan process. They include the change management plan,
configuration management plan, performance measurement baseline, project life cycle, development approach, and
management reviews.
X1.6 SECTION 1—INTRODUCTION

The Introduction section was significantly rewritten. Introductory information about projects, programs, and portfolios
that aligns with other PMI foundational standards remains. However, there is new information on project and development
life cycles, project phases, and phase gates. This information provides a high-level overview on selecting development
approaches from predictive, iterative, incremental and adaptive, based on the nature of the project. New information on
business documents includes the business case and the benefits management plan.
X1.7 SECTION 2—THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH PROJECTS OPERATE

The content of Section 2 was significantly rewritten. Information on organizational process assets and enterprise
environmental factors remains. However, there is new content on governance, management elements, and organizational
structure types.
X1.8 SECTION 3—THE ROLE OF THE PROJECT MANAGER

This is a new section that outlines the project manager’s role on the team. It includes information on the project
manager’s sphere of influence and competencies. PMI’s Talent Triangle® is discussed with its emphasis on strategic
and business management skills, technical project management skills, and leadership skills. Leadership styles and
personality are also discussed as part of this section. The final part of this section focuses on the project manager as
an integrator.
X1.9 AGILE
Since the Fifth Edition of the PMBOK® Guide there has been more adoption of agile and adaptive methodologies in the
management of projects. The Sixth Edition has included a subsection called Considerations for Adaptive Environments
at the beginning of Sections 4 through 13. Some agile-specific tools and techniques have been introduced into the
PMBOK® Guide, such as sprint and iteration planning. Appendix X3 describes the use of agile, adaptive, iterative, and
hybrid approaches from the perspective of the Project Management Process Groups.
642
X1.10 KNOWLEDGE AREA FRONT MATERIAL
Each of the Knowledge Area sections includes standardized material prior to introducing the first process. The material
is presented in the following subsections:
Key Concepts. Collects key concepts associated with the specific knowledge area. This information was
uu
presented in earlier editions; in this edition it is consolidated and presented for consistency between knowledge
areas. These key concepts are compiled in Appendix X4.
Trends and Emerging Practices. The profession of project management continues to evolve. However, the
uu
purpose of the PMBOK® Guide is not to lead the industry; it is to describe what is considered good practice on
most projects most of the time. This subsection identifies some of the trends or emerging practices that are
occurring, but that may not be practiced on most projects.
Tailoring Considerations. The Sixth Edition emphasizes the importance of tailoring all aspects of the project
uu
to meet the needs of the organization, environment, stakeholders and other variables. This subsection identifies
areas the project manager can consider when tailoring their project. These tailoring considerations are compiled
in Appendix X5.
Considerations for Agile/Adaptive Environments. This subsection identifies some of the areas where adaptive
uu
approaches may differ from predictive approaches in the particular Knowledge Area.
X1.11 KNOWLEDGE AREA AND PROCESS CHANGES

Two Knowledge Areas names were changed to more closely reflect the work that is done.
Project Time Management was changed to Project Schedule Management to reflect that the project schedule is
uu
defined and managed during the project, whereas time is not managed.
Both team resources and physical resources are addressed in the Sixth Edition. Thus, the Knowledge Area Project
uu
Human Resource Management was changed to Project Resource Management.
One process was removed and three new processes were added, to reflect changes in the way projects are managed
in practice. One process was moved between Knowledge Areas. These changes are summarized below, and discussed
in the relevant Knowledge Area section:
Manage Project Knowledge (Section 4.4)—Added.
uu
Estimate Activity Resources (Section 6.4)—Moved to Project Resource Management.

uu
Control Resources (Section 9.6)—Added.

uu
Implement Risk Responses (Section 11.6)—Added.

uu
Close Procurements (Section 12.4)—Eliminated.

uu
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Several process names were changed to improve consistency across the processes and to improve clarity. Research
indicates that project managers tend to monitor, facilitate, and manage rather than control, particularly in processes
that involve interactions with people. Therefore, process names for Control Communications, Control Risks, and
Control Stakeholder Engagement were changed to Monitor Communications, Monitor Risks, and Monitor Stakeholder
Engagement. The list below summarizes all the process name changes:
Perform Quality Assurance (Section 8.2)—Changed to Manage Quality.
uu
Plan Human Resource Management (Section 9.1)—Changed to Plan Resource Management.

uu
Acquire Project Team (Section 9.2)—Changed to Acquire Resources.

uu
Develop Project Team (Section 9.3)—Changed to Develop Team.

uu
Manage Project Team (Section 9.4)—Changed to Manage Team.

uu
Control Communications (Section 10.3)—Changed to Monitor Communications

uu
Control Risks (Section 11.6)—Changed to Monitor Risks.

uu
Plan Stakeholder Management (Section 13.2)—Changed to Plan Stakeholder Engagement.

uu
Control Stakeholder Engagement (Section 13.4)—Changed to Monitor Stakeholder Engagement.

uu
X1.12 SECTION 4—PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT CHANGES

A new process, Manage Project Knowledge, was added. This is a result of many deferred comments from the Fifth
Edition indicating the need to address knowledge management in projects. A key output of this process is the lessons
learned register. This register is used throughout many of the processes in the Sixth Edition. This emphasizes the need
to learn continually throughout the project rather than waiting until the end to reflect.
Business documents are inputs to the Develop Project Charter and Close Project or Phase processes. The introduction
of business documents underscores the importance of staying attuned to the business case and benefits management
throughout the project. Administrative closure activities for procurements have been absorbed into the Close Project or
Phase process.
Changes consistent with information described in Sections X1.1 through X1.11 were implemented. Table X1-1
summarizes the Section 4 processes:
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Table X1-1. Section 4 Changes
Fifth Edition Processes Sixth Edition Processes

4.1 Develop Project Charter 4.1 Develop Project Charter
4.2 Develop Project Management Plan 4.2 Develop Project Management Plan
4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work 4.3 Direct and Manage Project Work
4.4 Monitor and Control Project Work 4.4 Manage Project Knowledge
4.5 Perform Integrated Change Control 4.5 Monitor and Control Project Work
4.6 Close Project or Phase 4.6 Perform Integrated Change Control
4.7 Close Project or Phase
X1.13 SECTION 5—PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT CHANGES

The Sixth Edition team collaborated with The Standard for Business Analysis to ensure that both foundational
standards were aligned, though not duplicative. No changes to process names were necessary.
Changes consistent with information described in Sections X1.1 through X1.11 were implemented.
X1.14 SECTION 6—PROJECT SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT CHANGES

Section 6 was renamed from Project Time Management to Project Schedule Management. Research indicated
support for the name change as project managers do not manage time, they define and manage the project schedule.
Due to the shift in focus and renaming of Project Human Resource Management to Project Resource Management, the
process Estimate Activity Resources was moved from this Knowledge Area to Project Resource Management. Some
agile concepts were incorporated into the Develop Schedule process. Figures and associated text were updated to
clarify scheduling concepts addressed in the section.
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6.1 Plan Schedule Management 6.1 Plan Schedule Management
6.2 Define Activities 6.2 Define Activities
6.3 Sequence Activities 6.3 Sequence Activities
6.4 Estimate Activity Resources 6.4 Estimate Activity Durations
6.5 Estimate Activity Durations 6.5 Develop Schedule
6.6 Develop Schedule 6.6 Control Schedule
6.7 Control Schedule
X1.15 SECTION 7—PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT CHANGES

Changes consistent with information described in Sections X1.1 through X1.11 were implemented.
X1.16 SECTION 8—PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT CHANGES

Academic and market research was conducted regarding the Perform Quality Assurance process. Research indicated
that many of the quality tools and techniques that were identified previously are not widely used in today’s projects.
The profession focuses more on managing quality through the quality management plan. Thus, the Perform Quality
Assurance process shifted focus and the name was changed to Manage Quality.

8.1 Plan Quality Management 8.1 Plan Quality Management
8.2 Perform Quality Assurance 8.2 Manage Quality
8.3 Control Quality 8.3 Control Quality
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X1.17 SECTION 9—PROJECT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CHANGES
The Sixth Edition expanded the scope of this section from its previous focus on human resources to include all
resources. To distinguish between human resources and other resources, the term team resources is used to refer to
human resources and the term physical resources is used to refer to other resources. The Estimate Activity Resources
process was transferred into this Knowledge Area from Project Schedule Management, and a new process Control
Resources was added. The word “project” was eliminated from Develop Team and Manage Team as it is inferred that
the only team the project manager is concerned about developing and managing is the project team.

9.1 Plan Human Resource Management 9.1 Plan Resource Management
9.2 Acquire Project Team 9.2 Estimate Activity Resources
9.3 Develop Project Team 9.3 Acquire Resources
9.4 Manage Project Team 9.4 Develop Team
9.5 Manage Team
9.6 Control Resources
X1.18 SECTION 10—PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT CHANGES

A subtle but important distinction was made in this section about project communication. The term “communication”
indicates the act of communicating, such as facilitating a meeting, giving information and active listening. The term
“communications” indicates the artifacts of communication, such as memos, presentations, and emails. Because it is
not possible to control how and when people communicate, the name of the Control Communications process has been
changed to Monitor Communications.
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647

10.1 Plan Communications Management 10.1 Plan Communications Management
10.2 Manage Communications 10.2 Manage Communications
10.3 Control Communications 10.3 Monitor Communications
X1.19 SECTION 11—PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT CHANGES

An increased emphasis on overall project risk was integrated throughout the risk management processes. A new
process, Implement Risk Responses, was added. This process is part of the Executing Process Group. The new process
emphasizes the importance of not just planning risk responses, but implementing them as well. A new risk response
“escalate” was introduced to indicate that if risks are identified that are outside the scope of the project objectives,
they should be passed to the relevant person or part of the organization. Because risks are uncertain future events or
conditions, they cannot be controlled; however, they can be monitored. Thus, the process Control Risks was renamed
to Monitor Risks.

11.1 Plan Risk Management 11.1 Plan Risk Management
11.2 Identify Risks 11.2 Identify Risks
11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis 11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis
11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis 11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis
11.5 Plan Risk Responses 11.5 Plan Risk Responses
11.6 Control Risks 11.6 Implement Risk Responses
11.7 Monitor Risks
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X1.20 SECTION 12—PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT CHANGES
Much of the information in this Knowledge Area was updated to reflect a more global perspective. Many projects are
conducted with stakeholders in various countries, or by organizations with offices in multiple countries.
Market research shows that very few project managers actually close out procurements. Someone in contracts,
procurement or legal departments usually has that authority. Therefore, information from Close Procurements about
evaluating all completed deliverables and comparing them to the contract was absorbed into Control Procurements.
Information about administrative, communications, and records was moved to Close Project or Phase.

12.1 Plan Procurement Management 12.1 Plan Procurement Management
12.2 Conduct Procurements 12.2 Conduct Procurements
12.3 Administer Procurements 12.3 Control Procurements
12.4 Close Procurements

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X1.21 SECTION 13—PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT CHANGES
In keeping with current research and practice, a shift was made to focus on stakeholder engagement rather than
stakeholder management. Because project managers rarely, if ever, have the ability to control stakeholders, Control
Stakeholder Engagement was renamed to Monitor Stakeholder Engagement.

13.1 Identify Stakeholders 13.1 Identify Stakeholders
13.2 Plan Stakeholder Management 13.2 Plan Stakeholder Engagement
13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement 13.3 Manage Stakeholder Engagement
13.4 Control Stakeholder Engagement 13.4 Monitor Stakeholder Engagement
X1.22 GLOSSARY
The glossary of the PMBOK® Guide—Sixth Edition was updated to clarify meaning and improve the quality and
accuracy of any translations. Terms that are not used in the Sixth Edition, or are not used differently from everyday
usage, were eliminated.
650
APPE N DI X X2
C ON TRIBUTO RS A ND REV IEWERS OF
THE PMBO K ® GUI DE—SIX TH EDI T I ON
PMI volunteers first attempted to codify the Project Management Body of Knowledge in the Special Report on Ethics,
Standards, and Accreditation, published in 1983. Since that time, other volunteers have come forward to update and
improve that original document and contribute to this globally recognized standard for project management, PMI’s
A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). This appendix lists, those individuals who have
contributed to the development and production of the PMBOK® Guide – Sixth Edition. No list can adequately portray all
the contributions of those who have volunteered to develop the PMBOK® Guide – Sixth Edition.
The Project Management Institute is grateful to all of these individuals for their support and acknowledges their
contributions to the project management profession.
X2.1 PMBOK® GUIDE—SIXTH EDITION CORE COMMITTEE

The following individuals served as members, were contributors of text or concepts, and served as leaders within the
Project Core Committee:
Cyndi Snyder Dionisio, MBA, PMP, Chair
David A. Hillson, PhD, PMI Fellow, HonFAPM, Vice Chair (Volunteer Engagement Lead & Section 11 Lead)
Lynda Bourne, DPM, FACS (Sections 10 & 13 Lead)
Larkland A. Brown, PMP, PMI-ACP (Section 6 Lead)
Pan C.P. Kao, PhD, PMP, (Sections 7 & 12 Lead)
Mercedes Martinez Sanz, PMP (Section 4 Lead)
Alejandro Romero-Torres, PhD, PMP, (Document Quality & Management Lead & Section 5 Lead)
Guy Schleffer, PfMP, PMP, (Sections 8 & 9 Lead)
Michael J. Stratton, PhD, PMP (Section 1, 2, & 3 Lead)†
Kristin L. Vitello, Standards Project Specialist
Gwen Whitman, EMBA, PfMP (Project Communications Lead)
†
Deceased. The core committee and PMI acknowledge Michael J. Stratton for his work on the PMBOK Guide -
Sixth Edition. Mike was dedicated to the profession and this work is a testament of his contributions to the field
of project management.
651
X2.2 SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTORS
In addition to the members of the Project Core Committee, the following individuals provided significant input
or concepts:
Ernest Baker, PMP, PRINCE2® Practitioner
Cheryl Burcham, PMP
Guido Caciagli, B., PMP
Jimmy I. Char, PMP, SDI
Cătălin-Teodor Dogaru, PhD, MBA
Andrés Falcón, PMP
Anna Maria Felici, PMP
Eren Gokce, MBA, PMP
Pamela S. Goodhue, MBA, PMP
Franco R. Graziano, MPA, PMP
Joy Gumz, CPA, PMP
Salah M. Haswah, PMP, PgMP
Puja Kasariya, PMP
Srikanth Krishnamoorthy, PMP, PGDSA
Tom Magee, MBA, PMP
David A. Maynard, MBA, PMP
Bob Mahler, PMP, PMI-RMP
Frank R. Parth, MBA, PMP
Dattatraya Y. Pathak, PMP, PfMP
Judy Payne, PhD, MBA
Nagy Attalla Saad, PMP, ITIL
Davidov Shai
Kavita Sharma, PMP, RMP
Jurgen T. Sturany, PMP
Dirk Withake, PgMP, PMP
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X2.3 PMBOK® GUIDE—SIXTH EDITION CONTENT COMMITTEE
The following individuals were contributors of text or concepts and provided recommendations on drafts of the
PMBOK® Guide—Sixth Edition:
Vahid Azadmanesh, MBA, PMP
Brad Bigelow, PMP, MSP
Wayne R. Brantley, MSEd, PMP
Marcelo A. Briola PhD, PMP
Michael C. Broadway, PMP
Mariana Nella Caffarena Bolivar
Steven Flannes
Sandra Fonseca, PhD, CISA, CRISC
Theofanis C. Giotis, PMP, PMI-ACP
Piyush Govil, BE, PMP
Rex M. Holmlin, PE, PMP
Éamonn V. Kelly, DBA, PMP
Srikanth Krishnamoorthy
Fabiano de Alcântara de Lima, PhD, PMP
Shashank Neppalli
Andrea Pantano
Kristine Persun, PMP
Piyush Prakash PMP, Prince 2
Raju N. Rao, PMP, SCPM
Krupakar Reddy, PMP, PRINCE2 Practitioner
Emadeldin Seddik, PhD, PMP
Tejas V. Sura, PMP, PfMP
Nicholas Tovar
Fede Varchavsky, MBA, PMP
Angelo Valle, PhD, CRK
Ronald H. Verheijden, PMP
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X2.4 REVIEWERS
X2.4.1 SME REVIEW

In addition to the members of the Committee, the following individuals provided their review and recommendations
on drafts of the standard:
David P. Bieg, PMI-PBA
James F. Carilli, PMP, PgMP
Shika Carter, PMP, PgMP
Dan Deakin, PMP, CISSP
Theofanis C. Giotis, PMP, PMI-ACP
Dave Gunner, MSc, PMP
George Jucan, PMP
Ginger Levin, PhD, PMP, PgMP
Vanina Mangano, PMP, PMI-RMP
Juan Carlos Moreno, MBA, PMP
Marvin R. Nelson, MBA, SCPM
Klaus Nielsen, MBA, PMP
Chris Richards, PMP
Ivan Rincon, MBA, PMP
Shaligram Pokharel, REng (Nepal), PhD
Paul E. Shaltry, MA, PMP
Carolina Gabriela Spindola, PMP, SSBB
Langeswaran Supramaniam, C Build E FCABE, PMP
Michael A Yinger
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X2.4.2 FINAL EXPOSURE DRAFT REVIEW (STANDARD PORTION)
In addition to the members of the Committee, the following individuals provided recommendations for improving the
Exposure Draft of the PMBOK® Guide—Sixth Edition (standard portion):
Ahmed A. Raouf Hamdy, PhD, PMP Charalampos Apostolopoulos, Nigel Blampied, PE, PMP
Farhad Abdollahyan, PMP, OPM3 CP PhD, PMP Wolfgang Blickle, PMP, PMI-ACP
Adil Abdulghani Rodolfo Arguello Jaqueline Boeck
Tetsuhide Abe, PMP Abd Razak B Ariffin, PMP Dennis L. Bolles, PMP
Klaus Abert Deepak Arora, MBA, PMP Kiron D. Bondale, PMP, PMI-RMP
Ayodeji R. Abitogun, MBA, PMP C. H. ArunPrabu, PMP Raúl Borges, PMP
Taiwo Abraham Zaher Asfari, MBA, PMI-ACP Farid F. Bouges, PhD, PMP, PfMP
Mohammad I. Abu Irshaid, Ayman Atallah, BE, PMP Joao Boyadjian
PMP, PfMP Reza Atashfaraz, MSc, PMP Damiano Bragantini, PMP
Manuel Acosta A. Sharaf A. Attas, PMP, PMI-RMP Ralf Braune
Phill C. Akinwale, MSc, PMP Abdurazaq Attuwaijri Kevin Brennan
Mazen Al Bazreh Ashraf M Awwad, MSc, PMP Naga Pradeep Buddhavarapu, PMP
Jose Rafael Alcala Gomez, PMP Vikram Kumar B. T. David E. Buehler, PMP
Ameer Ali Nabeel Eltyeb Babiker, PMP, P3O Susan M. Burk
Hammam Zayed Alkouz, Mohamed A Badie, PMP, Andrea Caccamese, PMP,
PMP, PMI-RMP Prince2 Practitioner Prince2 Practitioner
Bill Allbee, PMP Smitha Balakrishnan Roberto A. Cadena Legaspi,
Charmaine Y. Allen, PMP, PBA Saket Bansal, PMP, PMI-ACP PMP, MCI
Kristin L. Allen, PE, PMP Manuel F. Baquero V., MSc, PMP Shawna D. Camp, MBA, PMP
Abdulaziz Almalki Haytham Baraka, PMP, CCP Iker Castillo, PMP
Ayman Alminawi, MBA, PMP Robert Barclay Igor Castro
Ahmad Moh. Al-Musallami, Karuna Basu Helena Cedersjö, MSc, PMP
MSc, PMP Joy Beatty, PMI-PBA, CBAP Balasubramanian Chandrasekaran,
Imad Alsadeq, P3M3, MB Frances Bellows, PMP, ACP BE, PMP
Mohammed Ahmad S. Al-Shamsi, Peter G. Bembir, MPhil, PMP Joo-Kwan Chang
PhD, PEng Anis Ben Hassen, Msc Project/ Panos Chatzipanos, PhD, Dr Eur Ing
Essam Alsultan, MBA, PMP Programme/Portfolio Pengzhi Chen, PMP, MSC
�
Haluk Altunel, PhD, PMP Management, PMP Wilson Lee Chung, PMP
Priscilla S. R. Alves, PMP Racquel Benedict Xavier Clerfeuille,
�
Angelo Amaral German Bernate, MPM MSc, SSL Black Belt

Barnabas Seth Amarteifio, Bryan D. Berthot, MBA, PMP Martin A. Collado, PMP, ITIL
PMP, ITIL (Expert) Karl F. Best, PMP, CStd Sergio Luis Conte, PhD, PMP
Wilson Anandaraj, MBA, PMP Shantanu Bhamare, PMP, LIMC Lawrence (Larry) Cooper,
Guillermo Anton Jasbir Singh Bhogal, PMP, ITIL-V3 PMP, PMI-ACP
John Aogon, PMP Michael M. Bissonette, MBA, PfMP Hélio R. Costa, DSc
Hamid Aougab, PMP, PMI-ACP Molly Blake-Michaels, MS, PMP Scott Cunningham
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Adriano Jose da Silva Neves Les Foley, MPM, PMP David G. Hendrickson, PMP
Hernán D’Adamo, MPM, PMP Gloria Folle Estrada, PMP Barbara Henrich
Michelle Daigle, PMP Frank P. Forte, PMP Baruch Herrera
Larry C Dalton, PfMP, PgMP Laura Franch, PMP Sergio Herrera-Apestigue,
Farshid Damirchilo, MSc Nestor C. Gabarda Jr., ECE, PMP PMP, P3O
Tran Dang Jaime Garcia Castro, PMP Robert Hierholtz, PhD, MBA, PMP
Teodor Darabaneanu, PMP, MEng Sam Ghavanloo, PMP Robert N. Higgins V,
Russell W. Darnall, DM, PMP Ing Gustavo Giannattasio PMP, ITIL Expert
Edson G. Freitas, PMP MBA, PMP David A. Hillson, PhD, PMI Fellow,
Jean-Michel de Jaeger, EMBA, PMP Sheila Gibbs HonFAPM
Maria Angela de Souza Fernandes Carl M. Gilbert, PMP PfMP Shirley Hinton, PMP
Allan E. Dean PMP, PgMP Theofanis Giotis, PhDc, PMP Kenji Hiraishi, MsE, PMP
G. Murat Dengiz, PMP José Abranches Gonçalves, Lenora Holmsten, PMP, MPM
Valerie P. Denney, DBA, PMP MSc, PMP Jenny Anne Horst-Martz, JD, PMP
Jacqueline E. Dennis, PMP, PgMP Juan Carlos González, Alfred J. Howard, PMP, ITIL Expert
Konika Dey, MCA, PMP PMP, PMI-ACP Cynthia L. Hoxey, PMP
Cyndi Snyder Dionisio, MBA, PMP Jean Gouix, PMP, PgMP Gheorghe Hriscu, PMP, CGEIT
Ajay Kumar Dixit, MBA, B Tech Therese Graff Ananth HV PMP, CSM
Roland Doerr, MSc, PMP Scott M. Graffius, PMP, CSM Guillermo A. Ibañez, PMP, ITIL
Rex Wotan Dominguez Chang Brian Grafsgaard, PMP, PgMP Victor Manuel Ibanez Salazar,
Jorge Duenas-Lozano Sara Grilli Colombo PMP, MA
Stephen M. Duffield, MPM, CPPD Anita Griner Waleed Idris
Josée Dufour, PMP Maxim Grishin, PhD, PMP Shuichi Ikeda, PMP
Darya Duma, PEng, PMP Robert C Grove, MBA, PMP Andrea Innocenti PMP, CGEIT
Keiran J. Dunne, PhD David Guan, PMP Can Izgi, PMP
Awab Elameer, PMP, PMI-SP Juan E. Guarache, V, BEng, PMP Pablo Jaramillo
Khaled EL-Nakib, MSc, PMP Pier Luigi Guida Tariq Javed, MS, PMP
Yasir Elsadig, PMP, PfMP Vijay Guliani, PMP, PMI-PBA Cari Jewell, PMP, MISST
Majdi N. Elyyan, PMP, PMI-RMP Tomasz Gutmanski Gabriela Jimenez P.
Pedro Engrácia Omar Haddad, CAPM, PMP Icvillajoe Joe
Mark W. Erwin, PMP, PMI-ACP Mustafa Hafizoglu, PMP Tony Johnson, PMP, PfMP
�
Behnam Faizabadi, PhD, PMP Yoshifumi Hamamichi Michele J. Jones, PMP

Marco Falcao, PMP, PMI-RMP Simon Harris, PMP, CGEIT Yves Jordan, PMP
�
Puian Masudi Far, PhDc, PMP Patti M. Harter, PMP Alisher Kabildjanov, PMP
Jamil Faraj Sean Shraden Hasley, MSIT-PM SS Kanagaraj, PMP, ITIL
Saurater Faraday, PMI-RMP Ahmed Hassan Naoki Kasahara, PMP
Fereydoun Fardad, PMP, PRINCE2 Akram Hassan, PhD, PMP Arcady Katnikov
Sergio Ferreto Gutiérrez, Susumu Hayakawa, PMP Suhail Khaled
MPM, MBA Bruce A. Hayes, PMP Basher Khalil
David Foley, MBA Guangcheng He, PMP Aaron Ho Khong, PMP, ITIL Expert
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M. Raashid Kiani, PMP, CSM Nancy Lopez Lubomira Mihailova, MBA, PMP
Taeyoung Kim, PMP Samuel López González de Murillo, Gloria J. Miller, PMP
Ariel S. Kirshbom, PMP, ACP MPM, PMP Romeo Mitchell, MSc, BSc
Konstantinos Kirytopoulos, Carlos López Javier, MBA, PMP Mannan Mohammed, Peng, PMP
PhD, PMP Zheng Lou, MBA, PMP Venkatram Vasi Mohanvasi
Ian Koenig PMP Sérgio Lourenço, PMP, PMI-RMP Ricardo Monteiro
Athens Kolias, MPM, PMP Catia Lourenço Paula Morais
Henry Kondo, PMP, PfMP Hugo Kleber Magalhães Lourenço, Maciej Mordaka, PMP
Maciej Koszykowski, PMP, ACP Rachel A. Morris, PMP
PMP, PMI-RMP Amy S. Lugibihl, PMP Doris Moss
Rouzbeh Kotobzadeh, Sergio O. Lugo, MBA, PMP Henrique Moura, PMP, PMI-RMP
PMP, PMI-ACP Vijaya Prasanth M. L., PMP, MCTS Timur Mukharyamov, PhD, PMP
Srikanth Krishnamoorthy, José Carlos Machicao, MSc, PMP Antonio Muntaner, PMP
PMP, PGDSA Frederick G. Mackaden, Muktesh Murthy, MBA (IS), PMP
Amit Kumar CRISC, PMP Lemya Musa M. Idris,
Devesh Kumar Jas Madhur PMP, PMI-PBA
Pramit Kumar, PMP Krishan Gopal Maheshwari, Khalid M. Musleh, PMP, PMI-RMP
Rakesh Kumar, MBA, PMP PMP, ITILv3 Expert Syed Ahsan Mustaqeem, PE, PMP
Santosh Kumar Konstantinos Maliakas, Todd Nielsen Myers, MBA, PMP
S. Y. Satish Kumar MSc (PM), PMP Narayanaswamy Nagarajan, PMP
Abhilash Kuzhikat, PMP, CISA Rich Maltzman, PMP Kiran Nalam
Thierry Labriet Vaios Maniotis Faig Nasibov, PMP
G.Lakshmi Sekhar, PMP, PMI-SP Antonio Marino, PMP, PMI-ACP Asad Naveed, PMP, RMP
Boon Soon Lam Gaitan Marius Titi, Eng, PMP Serge Patrick N’Guessan,
Vincent Hiu Sing Lam, PMP Photoula Markou-Voskou MSIS, PMP
Ruchie Lamba Lou Marks, PMP Praveen K. Nidumolu,
Deborah Langlois MBA, PMP Cristian Martín Corrales, MPM, PMP PMP, PMI-ACP
Alvaro Latorre,MsC, PMP Mike McElroy, MHA, PMP Eric Nielsen, PMP
Olivier Lazar Jon McGlothian, MBA, PMP Jeffrey S. Nielsen, PMP, PgMP
Chang-Hee Lee, PMP, CISA William T. McNamara, PMP Víctor Nieva Martín-Portugués, PMP
Cheryl G. Lee, PMP, PMI-PBA Rob D. Meadows, MBA, PMP Michael C. Nollet, PMP, PMI-ACP
�
Oliver F. Lehmann, MSc, PMP Alain Patrick Medenou, Takamasa Nomura

Michael J Leisegang, PMP PMP, PRINCE2 Practitioner Ernesto Antonio Noya Carbajal
�
Craig Letavec, PgMP, PfMP Lourdes Medina, PMP, PfMP Mufaro M. Nyachoto,
Jean-Pierre Lhomme, PMP Peter Berndt de Souza Mello, PMI-PBA, CAPM
Junquan Liu PMI-SP, PMP Conor O’Brien,
Shihan Liu Yan Bello Mendez MBA (Tech Open), PMP
Tong Liu (James Liu), PhD, PMP Ernst Menet, PMP Peter O’Driscoll
Anand Loganathan, MS Sunil Meshram, PMP Michael O. Ogberuhor, PMP, EVP
Anand Lokhande, PMP Mohammed M’Hamdi, PMP Bayonle Oladoja, PMP, PRINCE2
657
Antonio Oliva González, PMP, EMPM Raman Rezaei Nitin Shende, PMP, PRINCE2
Habeeb Omar, PgMP, PfMP Tashfeen Riaz, PMP, MPM Gregory P. Shetler, PhD, PgMP
Stefan Ondek, PMP Juan Carlos Rincón Acuña, Patricia C. C. Sibinelli, MEng, PMP
Marian Oprea, PMP, ITIL PhD, PMP Alexsandro Silva
Henrique Ortega-Tenorio, PMP Juan Sebastian Rivera Ortiz Christopher M. Simonek, PMP
Venkateswar Oruganti, FIETE, PMP Dan Roman, PMP, PMI-ACP Rohit Singh
Musab Abdalmageed Osman Rafael Fernando Ronces Rosas, Sathya Sivagurunathan
Abubakar PMP, ITIL Venkatramanan S., PMP
Jaime Andres Alvarez Ospina, David W. Ross, PMP, PgMP Michelle A. Sobers, MS
PMP, PMI-RMP Kaydashov Ruslan, PMP Pamela L. Soderholm, PMP
Tabitha A. Palmer, PMP Philip Leslie Russell, PMP Khaled Soliman
Neeraj Pandit, PMP Mohamed Salah Eldien Saad, PMP Mauro Sotille, PMP, PMI-RMP
Luke Panezich, PMP, PMI-ACP Eyad Saadeh, PfMP, PgMP Sriram Srinivasan, PMP, CGEIT
Hariyo Pangarso Imad Sabonji, PMP Pranay Srivastava, PMP, CSM
Laura Paton, PMP, PMI-PBA Kumar Sadasivan, PMP Alexander Stamenov
Seenivasan Pavanasam, Mihail Sadeanu, PhD, PMP Jamie Stasch
PMP, PgMP Gopal Sahai, PMP, PMI-PBA John Stenbeck, PMP, PMI-ACP
Anil Peer, PEng, PMP Joudi Ahmad Said, PMP, MSc Michael J. Stratton, PhD, PMP
Mauricio Perez Calvo, Ibrahim Saig, PhD, PMP, MRCPI S. Sudha, PMP
PMP, PMI-RMP Brian Salk, PhD, PMP John L. Sullivan, MEd, PMP
Dana Persada Mulyoto, MBA, PMP Omar A. Samaniego, PMP, PMI-RMP Karen Z. Sullivan, PMP, PSM
LEE Nan Phin, PMP, CSM Abubaker Sami, PfMP, PgMP Surichaqui Yasuji Suzuki, PMP
Luca Pietrandrea Carlos Sánchez Golding, PMP Mark A. Swiderski, PMP, MBA
Crispin (“Kik”) Piney, BSc, PgMP Yiannis Sandis, MSc, PMP Titus K. Syengo, PMP
Jose Angelo Pinto, PMP, OPM3 CP Iván S. Tejera Santana, Paul S. Szwed, DSc, PMP
Narendra Pondugula, PMP, PMI-ACP PMP, PMI-ACP Hadi Tahmasbi Ashtiani
Hin-Fei Poon Murali Santhanam, PMP, BCom Shoji Tajima, PMP, ITC
Svetlana Prahova, PMP Subhendu Sarangi Peter Tashkoff, PMP
B. K. Subramanya Prasad, PMP, CSM Saikat Sarkar, PMP Ahmet Taspinar
T.V. Prasanna Raaj, PMP Shreesh Sarvagya Gokrem Tekir
Suhail Qadir, PMP, BTech Supriya Saxena Sunil Telkar PMP, PGDBL
�
Collin Quiring, PMP, OPM3 Nicole Schelter, PMP Sal J. Thompson, MBA, PMP
Nader K. Rad, PMP Kathy Schwalbe, PhD, PMP Mark S. Tolbert, PMP, PMI-ACP
�
Noalur Rahim, PMP Dion Serben Mukund Toro, PMP

Prashanth Bagepalli Rajarao, Marcus Gregorio Serrano, Stephen Tower, PMP, MBCI
BE, PMP MBA, PMP John Tracy, PMP, MBA
S. Ramani, PgMP, PfMP Isaac Sethian, MBA, PMP Biagio Tramontana, Eng, PMP
Gurdev S. Randhawa, PMP Bruce G. Shapiro, PMP Micol Trezza, MBA, PMP
Alakananda Rao Ian Sharpe, 4-DM CPPD Konstantin Trunin, PMP
Vicky Restrepo, PMP Cindy C Shelton, PMP, PMI-ACP Ahmet Tümay, PhD, PMP
658
M. Jeffery Tyler, PMP Cynthia J. Young,
Hafiz Umar, MBA, PMP PhD, PMP, LSSMBB
Krishnakant T. Upadhyaya, PMP Gordon Young
Atta Ur Rahman, MBA, PMP Alan E. Yue, PMP, PMI-ACP
Ebenezer Uy Hany I. Zahran
Madhavan V. Saeed Zamani
Ali Vahedi Diz, PgMP, PfMP Alessandri Zapata Rosas, PMP
Tom Van Medegael, PMP Azam M. Zaqzouq, MCT, PMP
Stephen VanArsdale Salim Zid, MSc, PMP
Enid T. Vargas Maldonado, Eire Emilio Zimmermann
PMP, PMI-PBA Marcin Zmigrodzki, PhD, PgMP
Paola D. Vargas
Allam V. V. S. Venu, PMP, PgMP
Roberto Villa, PMP
Tiziano Villa, PMP, PMI-ACP
Benjamin Villar Lurquin, Bs
Dave Violette, MPM, PMP
Vijay Srinivas Vittalam PMP, RMP
Julian Vivas
Sameh Wahba, PMP, CPMC
Prakash Waknis, PMP
Xiaojin Wang, PhD, PMP
Tsunefumi Watanabe, PMP
Barbara A. Waters, MBA, PMP
Shayla P. Watson, MA
Patrick Weaver, PMP, PMI-SP
Kevin R. Wegryn, PMP, Security+
Lars Wendestam, MSc, PMP
Jan Werewka, PMP
Carol E. P. Whitaker, MBA, PMP
Sean Whitaker, MBA, PMP
�
Angela Wick, PMP, PBA

Michal P. Wieteska
�
J. Craig Williams
Malgorzata Wolny
Sek-Kay Steve Wong, MBA, PMP
Louise M. Worsley
Yan Wu, APME, PMP
Clement C. L. Yeung, PMP
659
X2.4.3 FINAL EXPOSURE DRAFT REVIEW (GUIDE PORTION)
In addition to the members of the Committee, the following individuals provided recommendations for improving the
Exposure Draft of the PMBOK® Guide—Sixth Edition (guide portion):
Farhad Abdollahyan, PMP, OPM3CP Harwinder Singh Bhatia, Ron Cwik MBA, PMP
Tetsuhide Abe, PMP PMP, PMI-ACP Yudha P. Damiat, PMP, PMI-SP
Ali Abedi, PhD, PMP Jasbir Singh Bhogal, PMP, ITIL-V3 Farshid Damirchilo, MSc
Amir Mansour Abdollahi, MSc, PE Jayaram Bhogi PMP, CSM William H. Dannenmaier, PMP, MBA
Eric Aboagye Michael M. Bissonette, MBA, MS Sankalpa Dash
Umesh AC Greta Blash, PMP, PMI-ACP Gina Davidovic PMP, PgMP
Jer Adamsson Steve Blash, PMP, PMI-ACP Beatriz Benezra Dehtear, MBA
Carles Adell, MPM, PMP Dennis L. Bolles, PMP G. Murat Dengiz, PMP
Mounir A. Ajam, RMP, GPM-bTM Rodolphe Boudet, PMP Stephen A. Devaux, PMP, MSPM
Uğur Aksoylu, PMP Farid F. Bouges, PhD, PfMP, PMP Shanmugasundaram Dhandapani
Tarik Al Hraki, PMP, PMI-RMP Damiano Bragantini, PMP Sachin S. Dhaygude, PMP, PMI-ACP
Melad Al Aqra, PMP, MIET Ralf Braune, PhD, PMP Ivana Dilparic
Amer Albuttma, BSc, PMP Maria del Carmen Brown, PMP Marcelo Sans Dodson, DBA,PMP
Jose Rafael Alcala Gomez, PMP James N. Bullock, Nedal A. Dudin, PMP, PBA
Filippo Alessandro, PMP PMP, ASQ CMQ/OE Jorge A. Dueñas, PMP, AVS
Hammam Zayed Alkouz, Andy Burns PMP, PMI-ACP Eunice Duran Tapia, PMP, PfMP
PMP, PMI-RMP Nicola Bussoni, PMP Wael K. Elmetwaly, PMP, PMI-ACP
Eric Allen Roberto A. Cadena Legaspi, Talha M. El-Gazzar, PMP
Wasel A. Al-Muhammad, MBA, PMP PMP, MCI Carol Elliott, MBA, PMP
Turki Mohammed Alqawsi, MITM Carla M. Campion, Larry Elwood, PMP, CISSP
Imad Alsadeq, MB, P3M3 BEng (Hons), PMP Angela England
Haluk Altunel, PhD, PMP Shika Carter, PMP, PgMP Marco Falcao, PMP, PMI-RMP
Barnabas Seth Amarteifio, Luis Casacó, MA, PMP Puian Masudi Far, PhDc, PMP
PMP, ITIL (Expert) Guillermo A. Cepeda L., Jared Farnum
Serge Amon, MBA, PMP PMP, PMI-RMP Jose L. Fernandez-Sanchez, PhD
Abd Razak B Ariffin, PMP Kristine Chapman Eduardo S. Fiol, PMP
Sridhar Arjula Panos Chatzipanos, Regis Fitzgibbon
Kalpesh Ashar, PMP, PMI-ACP PhD, Dr Eur Eng. Garry Flemings
Vijaya C. Avula, PMP, ACP Satish Chhiba Carlos Augusto Freitas, CAPM, PMP
Andy Bacon, PMP, CSP Aditya Chinni Scott J. Friedman, PMP, ACG
Andrey Badin Virgiliu Cimpoeru, PhDc, PMP MAG Sanaa Fuchs
Sherif I. Bakr, PMP, MBA Jorge Omar Clemente, PMP, CPA Nestor C. Gabarda Jr., ECE, PMP
Karuna Basu Martin A. Collado, PMP, ITIL Robert M. Galbraith, PMP
Chandra Beaveridge, BEng, PMP Sergio Luis Conte, PhD, PMP Carl M. Gilbert, PMP, PfMP
Jane Alam Belgaum, PMP Franco Cosenza, PGDipBA, PMP Theofanis Giotis, PhDc, PMP
Stefan Bertschi, PhD Veronica Cruz Dhananjay Gokhale
660
José Abranches Gonçalves, Tony Johnson, PMP, PfMP Boon Soon Lam
MSc, PMP Michele J. Jones, PMP Luc R. Lang PMP
Herbert G. Gonder, PMP Rajesh G. Kadwe, PMP Jon Lazarus
Edward Gorni, PMP, MSc Orhan Kalayci, PMP, CBAP Chang-Hee Lee PMP, CISA
Julie Grabb PMP, B Math Samer Faker Kamal, Ivan Lee PMP, PMI-ACP
Stuart Gray PMP, LEED AP BD+C Oliver F. Lehmann, MSc, PMP
Christiane Gresse von Surendran Kamalanathan Katherine A. Leigh
Wangenheim, Dr. rer. nat., PMP Vaijayantee Kamat, PMP Donald LePage
Grzegorz Grzesiak Nils Kandelin Peter Liakos, PMP, Cert APM
Ahmed Guessous, PMP Carl Karshagen, PMP Tong Liu, PhD, PMP
Neeraj Gupta, PMP, CSM Anton Kartamyshev Chandra Sekhar Lolla
Sunita Gupta Scott Kashkin, MS, PMP Venkata Satya
Raj Guttha PhD, PMP Katsuichi Kawamitsu, PMP, ITC Stefania Lombardi, PhDc, PMP
Mustafa Hafizoglu, PMP Rachel V. Keen, PMP Daniel D. Lopez, CSP, PMP
Kazuro Haga, PMP, PMI-RMP Suhail Khaled Zheng Lou, MBA, PMP
Yoshifumi Hamamichi Jamal Khalid Sérgio Lourenço, PMP, PMI-RMP
Simon Harris, PMP, CGEIT Eng. Ahmed Samir Khalil, Hugo Kleber Magalhães Lourenço,
Gabrielle B. Haskins, PMP PMP, OPM3-CP PMP, ACP
Hossam Hassan Basher Khalil Xiang Luo, PMP, PMI-PBA
Madhavi Hawa, MBA Ranga Raju Kidambi José Carlos Machicao, PMP, MSc
Randell R. Hayes II, PMP, MBA Mostafa K. Kilani, BEng, PMP Sowjanya Machiraju, MS, PMP
Guangcheng He, PMP Diwakar Killamsetty Robert Mahler
Kym Henderson, RFD, MSc (Comp) Taeyoung Kim, PMP Mostafa M. Abbas, PMP, OCE
Sergio Herrera-Apestigue, Konstantinos Kirytopoulos, Konstantinos Maliakas,
PMP, P3O PhD, PMP MSc (PM), PMP
Robert Hierholtz, PhD, MBA, PMP Kashinath Kodliwadmanth Rich Maltzman, PMP
Bob Hillier, PMP Maarten Koens, PMP Ammar Mango
Aaron Ho Khong, PMP, ITIL Expert Dwaraka Ramana Kompally, Antonio Marino, PMP, PMI-ACP
Scott C. Holbrook, PMP, CISSP MBA, PMP Gaitan Marius Titi, Eng, PMP
Regina Holzinger, PhD, PMP Henry Kondo, PMP, PfMP Lou Marks, PMP
Christina M. House, MBA, PMP Maciej Koszykowski, Rodrigo Marques da Rocha
�
Gheorghe Hriscu, PMP, CGEIT PMP, PMI-RMP Ronnie Maschk, PMP

Terri Anne Iacobucci, SPHR, PMP Ahmed A F Krimly Maria T Mata-Sivera, PMP
�
Guillermo A. Ibañez, PMP, ITIL Srikanth Krishnamoorthy, Kurisinkal Mathew

Can Izgi, PMP PMP, PGDSA Stephen J. Matney, CEM, PMP
Anand Jayaraman PMP, MCA Bret Kuhne David A. Maynard, MBA, PMP
Anil K. Jayavarapu, PMP Avinash Kumar, PMP Pierre Mbeniyaba Mboundou
Cari Jewell, PMP, MISST Pramit Kumar, PMP Thomas McCabe
Martina Jirickova Thomas M. Kurihara Jon McGlothian, MBA, PMP
Alan John Andrew Lakritz Alan McLoughlin, PMP, PMI-ACP
661
Ernst Menet, PMP Luke Panezich, PMP, PMI-ACP Rafael Fernando Ronces Rosas,
Mohammed M’Hamdi, PMP Sungjoon Park, PMP PMP, ITIL
Roberta Miglioranza, PMP, Prince2 Gino Parravidino Jacobo, PMP, ITIL Prakash Roshan
Gloria J. Miller, PMP Richard L. Pascoe, PMP William S. Ruggles, PMP, CSSMBB
Daniel Minahan, MSPM, PMP George Pasieka, PMP Nagy Attalla Saad, PMP, ITIL
Javier A Miranda, PMP, PMI-ACP Sneha Patel, PMP Natesa Sabapathy, PhD, PMP
Saddam Mohammed Babikr Satyabrata Pati, PMP Kumar Sadasivan, PMP
Mohammed Seenivasan Pavanasam PMP, PgMP Dzhamshid Safin, PhD, PMP
Venkatramvasi Mohanvasi, PMP R. Anthoney Pavelich, PMP Edgardo S. Safranchik, PMP
Maciej Mordaka, PMP P. B. Ramesh, PMP, ACP Ibrahim Mohammed Ali Saig
Paola Morgese, PMP Brent C. Peters, BA Naoto Sakaue
Moises Moshinsky, MSc, PMP Yvan Petit, PhD, PMP Xavier Salas Ceciliano, MSc, PMP
Henrique Moura, PMP, PMI-RMP Crispin (“Kik”) Piney, BSc, PgMP Anderson Sales
Nathan Mourfield Jose Angelo Pinto, PMP, OPM3 CP Floriano Salvaterra, PMP, IPMA-C
Alison K. Munro, MSc, PMP Napoleón Posada, MBA, PMP Omar A. Samaniego, PMP, PMI-RMP
Khalid M. Musleh, PMP, PMI-RMP B K Subramanya Prasad, PMP, CSM Abubaker Sami, PfMP, PgMP
Vasudev Narayanan Carl W. Pro, PMP, PMI-RMP Angela Sammon
Faig Nasibov, PMP Srikanth PV P. Sampathkumar, MBA, PMP
Daud Nasir, PMP, LSSBB Nader K. Rad, PMP Iván S. Tejera Santana,
Nasrullah Karen Rainford, EdD, PMP PMP, PMI-ACP
Nghi M. Nguyen, PhD, PMP S. Ramani, PfMP, PgMP Luciana de Jesus Santos, PMP
Eric Nielsen, PMP Niranjana Koodavalli Ramaswamy, Aminu Sarafa, PMP, CCP
Yamanta Raj Niroula, PMP BE Mech, PGDM Darpan Saravia, PMP, CSM
Emily Nyindodo Jesus Esteban Ramirez, BEng, eCS Tamara Scatcherd
Peter O’Driscoll Michele Ranaldo, PMP Stephen M. Schneider, PhD, PMP
Kiyohisa Okada Gurdev S. Randhawa, PMP Ludwig Schreier, Eur Ing, PMP
Bayonle Oladoja, PMP, PRINCE2 Sreekiran K. Ranganna, PMP, MBA Birgitte Sharif, PMP
Sofia Olguin Alakananda Rao Sanjeev Sharma
Edward C. Olszanowski III, Muhammad Sauood ur Rauf, PMP Alexander Shavrin, PhD, PMP
PMP, EMBA P. Ravikumar, PMP, PMI-ACP Nitin Shende, PMP, PRINCE2
Austen B. Omonyo, PhD, PMP Michael Reed, PMP, PfMP Luqman Shantal, PMP, TOGAF
�
Stefan Ondek, PMP Messias Reis, PMP N. K. Shrivastava, PMP, SPC4

Tom Oommen Alexander V. Revin, PMP Mohamad Sibai
�
H. Metin Ornek, PMP, MBA Mohammadreza Rezaei Gustavo Silva

Juan Carlos Pacheco Gustavo Ribas Sumit Kumar Sinha, PMP
Durgadevi S. Padmanaban, David B. Rich, PMP Ronald Zack Sionakides, MBA, PMP
MBA, PMP Gregg D. Richie, PMP, MCTS Klas Skogmar, EMBA, PMP
Ravindranath Palahalli Edgar Robleto Cuadra J. Greg Smith, EVP
Boopathy Pallavapuram, PMP Bernard Roduit Kenneth F. Smith, PhD, PMP
Rajeev R. Pandey David Roe, PMP Pamela L. Soderholm, PMP
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John Paul Soltesz Konstantin Trunin, PMP Xiaojin Wang, PhD, PMP
Sheilina Somani, RPP, PMP Tassos Tsochataridis, MSc, PMP J. LeRoy Ward, PMP, PgMP
Mauro Sotille, PMP, PMI-RMP Krishnakant T. Upadhyaya, PMP Toshiyuki Henry Watanabe, PE, PMP
Setty Sreelatha, PMP, PMI-ACP Ali Vahedi Diz, PgMP, PfMP Ashleigh Waters, PMP
Shishir Srivastav, PMP, CSM Jorge Valdés Garciatorres, Ganesh Watve, MBA, PMP
Pranay Srivastava, PMP, CSM PMP, SMC Patrick Weaver, PMP, PMI-SP
John Stenbeck, PMP, PMI-ACP Jose Felix Valdez-Torero, PMP Michal P. Wieteska
Jim Stewart Tom Van Medegael, PMP Roger Wild, PMP
Yasuji Suzuki, PMP Raymond Z van Tonder, Rebecca A. Winston, JD
Mark A. Swiderski, PMP, MBA PMP, ND Elec Eng Lisa Wolf
Ahmed Taha, PMP, PMI-RMP Ravi Vanukuru, BE, PMP Carlos Magno Xavier, PhD, PMP
Francis Taiwo, PMP, PMI-ACP Ricardo Viana Vargas, MSc, PMP Wenyi Xiao, PMP
Yahya Tatar, PMP, MBA Neelanshu Varma, PMP Haotian Xu, CAPM
Gerhard J. Tekes, PMP, PMI-RMP Debbie Varn, PMP, SHRM-SCP Clement C. L. Yeung, PMP
Gokrem Tekir Vijay Vemana, PgMP, PMP Saeed Zamani
João Paulo Tinoco Nagesh V., PMP Azam M. Zaqzouq, MCT, PMP
Claudia A. Tocantins, MSc, PMP Aloysio Vianna Jr., DEng, PMP Omran M. Zbeida, PMP, BSP
Mukund Toro, PMP Roberto Villa, PMP Marcin Zmigrodzki, PMP, PgMP
Juan Torres Vela Jorge Villanueva, MSc (PM), PMP Rolf Dieter Zschau, PMP
Stephen Tower, PMP, MBCI Dave Violette, MPM, PMP Alan Zucker, PMP, CSM
Brenda Tracy Yiannis Vithynos PMP, PMI-ACP
John Tracy, MBA, PMP Steve Waddell, MBA, PMP
X2.5 PMI STANDARDS PROGRAM MEMBER ADVISORY GROUP (MAG)

The following individuals served as members of the PMI Standards Program Member Advisory Group during
development of the PMBOK® Guide—Sixth Edition:
Maria Cristina Barbero, PMP, PMI-ACP
Brian Grafsgaard, PMP, PgMP
Hagit Landman, PMP, PMI-SP
�
Yvan Petit, PhD, PMP

Chris Stevens, PhD
�

John Zlockie, MBA, PMP, PMI Standards Manager
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X2.6 CONSENSUS BODY REVIEW
The following individuals served as members of the PMI Standards Program Consensus Body:
Nigel Blampied, PE, PMP
Dennis L. Bolles, PMP
Chris Cartwright, MPM, PMP
Sergio Coronado, PhD
Andrea Demaria, PMP
John L. Dettbarn, Jr., DSc, PE
Charles T. Follin, PMP
Laurence Goldsmith, MBA, PMP
Dana J Goulston, PMP
David Gunner, PMP
Dorothy L. Kangas, PMP
Thomas Kurihara
Timothy MacFadyen
Harold “Mike” Mosley, Jr., PE, PMP
Eric S Norman, PMP, PgMP
Nanette Patton, MSBA, PMP
Yvan Petit, PhD, PMP
Crispin (“Kik”) Piney, BSc, PgMP
Michael Reed, PMP, PfMP
David W. Ross, PMP, PgMP
Paul E. Shaltry, PMP
Chris Stevens, PhD
Adam D. Sykes, MS, PMP
Matthew D. Tomlinson, PMP, PgMP
X2.7 PRODUCTION STAFF

Special mention is due to the following employees of PMI:
Donn Greenberg, Manager, Publications
Roberta Storer, Product Editor
Barbara Walsh, Publications Production Supervisor
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APPE N DI X X3
AGI LE , I TER ATIVE, A DAP TI V E, AND
H Y BRID PR OJ ECT ENVIR ONM ENTS
This appendix explores the nuances of how the Project Management Process Groups described in The Standard for
Project Management are performed with respect to the project environment and life cycle.
Section 1.4.2.1 of the PMBOK® Guide states that the “project life cycle needs to be flexible enough to deal with the
variety of factors included in the project.” It is the nature of projects to evolve as more detailed and specific information
becomes available. This ability to evolve and adapt is more relevant in environments with a high degree of change and
uncertainty or with a wide variation of stakeholder interpretation and expectations.
X3.1 THE CONTINUUM OF PROJECT LIFE CYCLES

To understand the application of the process in adaptive projects, the continuum of project life cycles should be defined.
The PMBOK® Guide Glossary describes the project life cycle as “the series of phases that a project passes through from
its start to its completion.” Within a project life cycle, there are generally one or more phases that are associated with
the development of the product, service, or result. These are called a development life cycle. Development life cycles can
be predictive (plan-driven), adaptive (agile), iterative, incremental, or a hybrid.
Figure X3-1 shows the various ways in which requirements and plans are handled, how risk and cost are managed,
schedule considerations, and how the involvement of key stakeholders is handled depending on the type of life cycle
being employed.
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Predictive Iterative Incremental Agile
Requirements are defined up-front Requirements can be elaborated at Requirements are elaborated
before development begins periodic intervals during delivery frequently during delivery
Deliver plans for the eventual Delivery can be divided into subsets Delivery occurs frequently with
deliverable. Then deliver only a of the overall product customer-valued subsets of the
single final product at end of project overall product
timeline
Change is constrained as much as Change is incorporated at periodic Change is incorporated in real-time

possible intervals during delivery
Key stakeholders are involved at Key stakeholders are regularly Key stakeholders are continuously
specific milestones involved involved
Risk and cost are controlled by Risk and cost are controlled by Risk and cost are controlled as
detailed planning of mostly progressively elaborating the plans requirements and constraints
knowable considerations with new information emerge
Figure X3-1. The Continuum of Project Life Cycles
Predictive project life cycles are characterized by an emphasis on specification of requirements and detailed planning
during the beginning phases of a project. Detailed plans based on known requirements and constraints may reduce risk
and cost. Milestones for key stakeholder involvement are also planned. As execution of the detailed plan progresses, the
monitoring and controlling processes focus on constraining changes that might impact the scope, schedule, or budget.
Highly adaptive or agile life cycles for projects are characterized by progressive elaboration of requirements based
on short iterative planning and executing cycles. Risk and cost are reduced by progressive evolution of initial plans.
Key stakeholders are continuously involved and provide frequent feedback which enables responding to changes more
quickly and also leads to better quality.
The following considerations apply to the center of the life cycle continuum: (a) risk and cost are reduced by iterative
evolution of initial plans; and (b) key stakeholders have more opportunities to be involved in incremental, iterative, and
agile cycles than stakeholders at the project milestones of highly predictive life cycles.
Project life cycles in the center of the life cycle continuum tend to align more closely with the predictive side or the
agile side of the continuum depending on the way requirements are specified, how risk and cost are handled, and the
nature of key stakeholder involvement. Projects in this part of the continuum may utilize hybrid project methods.
It should be emphasized that development life cycles are complex and multidimensional. Often, the different
phases in a given project employ different life cycles, just as distinct projects within a given program may each be
executed differently.
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X3.2 PROJECT PHASES
Section 1.2.4.2 of the PMBOK® Guide defines phases as “a collection of logically related project activities that
culminates in the completion of one or more deliverables.” Processes in each of the Process Groups are repeated as
necessary in each phase until the completion criteria for that phase have been satisfied.
Projects on the more adaptive side of the continuum make use of two recurring patterns of project phase relationships
as described in Sections X3.2.1 and X3.2.2.
X3.2.1 SEQUENTIAL ITERATION-BASED PHASES

Adaptive projects are often decomposed into a sequence of phases called Iterations. Each iteration utilizes the
relevant project management processes. These iterations create a cadence of predictable, timeboxed pre-agreed,
consistent duration that aids with scheduling.
Performing the process groups repeatedly incurs overhead. The overhead is considered necessary to effectively
manage projects with high degrees of complexity, uncertainty, and change. The effort level for iteration-based phases
is illustrated in Figure X3-2.
Effort per
Effort
Iteration
Monitoring & Monitoring & Monitoring & Monitoring &

Controlling Processes Controlling Processes Controlling Processes Controlling Processes
Planning Planning Planning Planning
Processes Processes Processes Processes
Initiating Closing Initiating Closing Initiating Closing Initiating Closing

Processes Processes Processes Processes Processes Processes Processes Processes
Executing Executing Executing Executing

Processes Processes Processes Processes
Sequential Iteration Cycles Time
Figure X3-2. Level of Effort for Process Groups across Iteration Cycles
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X3.2.2 CONTINUOUS OVERLAPPING PHASES
Projects that are highly adaptive will often perform all of the project management process groups continuously
throughout the project life cycle. Inspired by techniques from lean thinking, the approach is often referred to as “continuous
and adaptive planning,” which acknowledges that once work starts, the plan will change, and the plan needs to reflect
this new knowledge. The intent is to aggressively refine and improve all elements of the project management plan,
beyond the prescheduled checkpoints associated with Iterations. The interaction of the Process Groups in this approach
is illustrated in Figure X3-3.
Initiating Processes
Planning Processes
Executing Processes
Monitoring and Controlling Processes
Figure X3-3. Relationship of Process Groups in Continuous Phases
These highly adaptive approaches continuously pull tasks from a prioritized list of work. This aims to minimize the
overhead of managing Process Groups repeatedly, by removing the start and end of iteration activities. Continuous pull
systems can be viewed as microiterations with an emphasis on maximizing the time available on execution rather than
management. They do however need their own planning, tracking, and adjustment mechanisms to keep them on track
and adapt to changes.
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X3.3 PROCESS GROUPS IN ADAPTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
As shown in the previous section, each of the Project Management Process Groups occurs in projects across the
project life cycle continuum. There are some variations in how the Process Groups interact within adaptive and highly
adaptive life cycles.
X3.3.1 INITIATING PROCESS GROUP

Initiating processes are those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an existing project
by obtaining authorization to start the project or phase. Adaptive projects revisit and revalidate the project charter on a
frequent basis. As the project progresses, competing priorities and changing dynamics may cause the project constraints
and success criteria to become obsolete. For this reason, the Initiating processes are performed regularly on adaptive
projects in order to ensure the project is moving within constraints and toward goals that reflect the latest information.
Adaptive projects rely heavily on a knowledgeable customer or designated customer representative who can state
needs and desires, and provide feedback on the emerging deliverable on a continuous, ongoing basis. Identifying this
stakeholder or other stakeholders at the start of the project permits frequent interactions when performing Execution and
Monitoring and Controlling processes. The associated feedback ensures that the correct project outputs are delivered. As
indicated previously, an Initiating process is typically conducted on each iterative cycle of an adaptive life cycle project.
X3.3.2 PLANNING PROCESS GROUP

Planning processes are those processes required to establish the scope of the project, refine the objectives, and
define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken to achieve.
Highly predictive project life cycles are generally characterized by few changes to project scope and high stakeholder
alignment. These projects benefit from detailed up-front planning. Adaptive life cycles, on the other hand, develop a set
of high-level plans for the initial requirements and progressively elaborate requirements to an appropriate level of detail
for the planning cycle. Therefore, predictive and adaptive life cycles differ as to how much planning is done and when
it is done.
Additionally, projects navigating high degrees of complexity and uncertainty should involve as many team members
and stakeholders as possible in the planning processes. The intent is to overcome uncertainty by incorporating a wide
band of input into planning.
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X3.3.3 EXECUTING PROCESS GROUP
Executing processes are those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project management plan
to satisfy the project requirements.
Work in agile, iterative, and adaptive project life cycles is directed and managed through iterations. Each iteration
is a short, fixed time period to undertake work followed by a demonstration of functionality or design. Based on the
demonstration, relevant stakeholders and the team conduct a retrospective review. The demonstration and review helps
check progress against the plan and determines if any changes to the project scope, schedule, or execution processes
are necessary. These sessions also help manage stakeholder engagement by showing increments of work done and
discussing future work. The retrospective allows issues with the execution approach to be identified and discussed in a
timely fashion along with ideas for improvements. Retrospectives are a primary tool to manage project knowledge and
develop the team through discussions of what is working well and team-based problem solving.
While work is undertaken via short iterations, it is also tracked and managed against longer-term project delivery
timeframes. Trends of development speed, spend, defect rates, and team capacity that are tracked at an iteration level
are summed and extrapolated at a project level to track completion performance. Highly adaptive approaches aim
to utilize specialized team knowledge for task completion. Rather than a project manager selecting and sequencing
work, higher-level objectives are explained and the team members are empowered to self-organize specific tasks
as a group to best meet those objectives. This leads to the creation of practical plans with high levels of buy-in from
the team members.
Junior teams working on highly adaptive projects typically need coaching and work assignments before reaching this
empowered team state. However, with progressive trials within the confines of a short iteration, teams are reviewed as
part of the retrospective to determine if they acquired the required skills to perform without coaching.
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670
X3.3.4 MONITORING AND CONTROLLING PROCESS GROUP
Monitoring and Controlling processes are those processes required to track, review, and regulate the progress and
performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required; and initiate the corresponding
changes.
Iterative, agile, and adaptive approaches track, review, and regulate progress and performance by maintaining a
backlog. The backlog is prioritized by a business representative with help from the project team who estimates and
provides information about technical dependencies. Work is pulled from the top of the backlog for the next iteration
based on business priority and team capacity. Requests for change and defect reports are evaluated by the business
representative in consultation with the team for technical input and are prioritized accordingly in the backlog of work.
This single-list-of-work-and-changes approach originated in project environ-ments with very high rates of change
that tended to overwhelm any attempts to separate change requests from originally planned work. Combining these
work streams into a single backlog that can be easily resequenced provides a single place for stakeholders to manage
and control project work, perform change control, and validate scope.
As prioritized tasks and changes are pulled from the backlog and completed via iterations, trends, and metrics on
work performed, change effort and defect rates are calculated. By sampling progress frequently via short iterations,
measures of team capacity and progress against the original scope are made by measuring the number of change
impacts and defect remediation efforts. This allows estimates of cost, schedule, and scope to be made based on real
progress rates and change impacts.
These metrics and projections are shared with project stakeholders via trend graphs (information radiators) to
communicate progress, share issues, drive continuous improvement activities, and manage stakeholder expectations.
X3.3.5 CLOSING PROCESS GROUP

The Closing processes are the processes performed to formally complete or close a project, phase, or contract. Work
on iterative, adaptive, and agile projects is prioritized to undertake the highest business value items first. So, if the
Closing Process Group prematurely closes a project or phase, there is a high chance that some useful business value
will already have been generated. This allows premature closure to be less of a failure due to sunk costs and more of
an early benefits realization, quick win, or proof of concept for the business.
671
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672
APPE N DI X X4
SUMMA RY OF KEY CO NCEP TS FOR K NOWLEDGE AREAS
The purpose of this appendix is to provide a summary of the sections on Key Concepts for each of the Knowledge
Areas in Sections 4-13. It can be used as an aid for project practitioners, a checklist of learning objectives for providers
of project management training, or as a study aid by those preparing for certification.
X4.1 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Key concepts for Project Integration Management include:
Project Integration Management is the specific responsibility of the project manager and it cannot be delegated
uu
or transferred. The project manager is the one that combines the results from all the other Knowledge Areas to
provide an overall view of the project. The project manager is ultimately responsible for the project as a whole.
Projects and project management are integrative by nature, with most tasks involving more than one
uu
Knowledge Area.
The relationships of processes within the Project Management Process Groups and between the Project
uu
Management Process
Project Integration Management is about:
uu
nuEnsuring that the due dates of project deliverables, the project life cycle, and the benefits realization plan
are aligned;
nuProviding a project management plan to achieve the project objectives;
nuEnsuring the creation and the use of appropriate knowledge to and from the project;
nuManaging project performance and changes to the project activities;
nuMaking integrated decisions regarding key changes impacting the project;
nuMeasuring and monitoring progress and taking appropriate action;
nuCollecting, analyzing and communicating project information to relevant stakeholders;
nuCompleting all the work of the project and formally closing each phase, contract, and the project as a whole; and
nuManaging phase transitions when necessary.
673
X4.2 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT
Key concepts for Project Scope Management include:
Scope can refer to product scope (the features and functions that characterize a product, service, or result), or to
uu
project scope (the work performed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and functions).
Project life cycles range along a continuum from predictive to adaptive or agile. In a life cycle that uses a
uu
predictive approach, the project deliverables are defined at the beginning of the project and any changes to the
scope are progressively managed. In an adaptive or agile approach, the deliverables are developed over multiple
iterations where a detailed scope is defined and approved for each iteration when it begins.
Completion of the project scope is measured against the project management plan. Completion of the product
uu
scope is measured against the product requirements.
X4.3 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT

Key concepts for Project Schedule Management include:
Project scheduling provides a detailed plan that represents how and when the project will deliver the products,
uu
services, and results defined in the project scope.
The project schedule is used as a tool for communication, managing stakeholder expectations, and a basis for
uu
performance reporting.
When possible, the detailed project schedule should remain flexible throughout the project to adjust for knowledge
uu
gained, increased understanding of the risk, and value-added activities.
X4.4 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT

Key concepts for Project Cost Management include:
Project Cost Management is primarily concerned with the cost of the resources needed to complete project
uu
activities, but it should also consider the effect of project decisions on the subsequent recurring cost of using,
maintaining, and supporting project deliverables.
Different stakeholders will measure project costs in different ways and at different times. Stakeholder requirements
uu
for managing costs should be considered explicitly.
Predicting and analyzing the prospective financial performance of the project’s product may be performed outside
uu
the project, or it may be part of Project Cost Management.
674
X4.5 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Key concepts for Project Quality Management include:
Project Quality Management addresses the management of the project and the deliverables of the project. It
uu
applies to all projects, regardless of the nature of their deliverables. Quality measures and techniques are specific
to the type of deliverables being produced by the project.
Quality and grade are different concepts. Quality is “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills
uu
requirements” (ISO 9000).1 Grade is a category assigned to deliverables having the same functional use but
different technical characteristics. The project manager and team are responsible for managing trade-offs
associated with delivering the required levels of both quality and grade.
Prevention is preferred over inspection. It is better to design quality into deliverables, rather than to find quality
uu
issues during inspection. The cost of preventing mistakes is generally much less than the cost of correcting
mistakes when they are found by inspection or during usage.
Project managers may need to be familiar with sampling. Attribute sampling (the result either conforms or does
uu
not conform) and variable sampling (the result is rated on a continuous scale that measures the degree of
conformity).
Many projects establish tolerances and control limits for project and product measurements. Tolerances (the
uu
specified range of acceptable results) and control limits (the boundaries of common variation in a statistically
stable process or process performance).
The cost of quality (COQ) includes all costs incurred over the life of the product by investment in preventing
uu
nonconformance to requirements, appraising the product or service for conformance to requirements, and
failing to meet requirements (rework). Cost of quality is often the concern of program management, portfolio
management, the PMO, or operations.
The most effective quality management is achieved when quality is incorporated into the planning and designing
uu
of the project and product, and when organizational culture is aware and committed to quality.
1
International Standards Organization. 2015. Quality Management Systems—Fundamentals and Vocabulary.
Geneva: Author.
675
X4.6 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Key concepts for Project Resource Management include:
Project resources include both physical resources (equipment, materials, facilities, and infrastructure) and team
uu
resources (individuals with assigned project roles and responsibilities).
Different skills and competences are needed to manage team resources versus physical resources.
uu
The project manager should be both the leader and the manager of the project team, and should invest suitable
uu
effort in acquiring, managing, motivating, and empowering team members.
The project manager should be aware of team influences such as the team environment, geographical location of
uu
team members, communication among stakeholders, organizational change management, internal and external
politics, cultural issues, and organizational uniqueness.
The project manager is responsible for proactively developing team skills and competences while retaining and
uu
improving team satisfaction and motivation.
Physical resource management is concentrated on allocating and utilizing the physical resources needed for
uu
successful completion of the project in an efficient and effective way. Failure to manage and control resources
efficiently may reduce the chance of completing the project successfully.
X4.7 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

Key concepts for Project Communications Management include:
Communication is the process of exchanging information, intended or involuntary, between individuals and/
uu
or groups. Communications describes the means by which information can be sent or received, either through
activities, such as meetings and presentations, or artifacts, such as emails, social media, project reports, or
project documentation. Project Communications Management addresses both the process of communication, as
well as management of communications activities and artifacts.
Effective communication creates a bridge between diverse stakeholders whose differences will generally
uu
have an impact or influence upon the project execution or outcome, so it is vital that all communication is
clear and concise.
Communication activities include internal and external, formal and informal, written and oral.
uu
Communication can be directed upwards to senior management stakeholders, downwards to team members,
uu
or horizontally to peers. This will affect the format and content of the message.
676
Communication takes place consciously or unconsciously through words, facial expressions, gestures and other
uu
actions. It includes developing strategies and plans for suitable communications artifacts, and the application
of skills to enhance effectiveness.
Effort is required to prevent misunderstandings and miscommunication, and the methods, messengers, and
uu
messages should be carefully selected.
Effective communication depends on defining the purpose of communication, understanding the receiver of the
uu
communications, and monitoring effectiveness.
X4.8 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT

Key concepts for Project Risk Management include:
All projects are risky. Organizations choose to take project risk in order to create value, while balancing
uu
risk and reward.
Project Risk Management aims to identify and manage risks that are not covered by other project
uu
management processes.
Risk exists at two levels within every project: Individual project risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if
uu
it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or more project objectives. Overall project risk is the effect
of uncertainty on the project as a whole, arising from all sources of uncertainty including individual risks,
representing the exposure of stakeholders to the implications of variations in project outcome, both positive and
negative. Project Risk Management processes address both levels of risk in projects.
Individual project risks can have a positive or negative effect on project objectives if they occur. Overall project
uu
risk can also be positive or negative.
Risks will continue to emerge during the lifetime of the project, so Project Risk Management processes should
uu
be conducted iteratively.
In order to manage risk effectively on a particular project, the project team needs to know what level of risk
uu
exposure is acceptable in pursuit of project objectives. This is defined by measurable risk thresholds that reflect
the risk appetite of the organization and project stakeholders.
677
X4.9 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT
Key concepts for project procurement management include:
The project manager should be familiar enough with the procurement process to make intelligent decisions
uu
regarding contracts and contractual relationships.
Procurement involves agreements that describe the relationship between a buyer and a seller. Agreements can
uu
be simple or complex, and the procurement approach should reflect the degree of complexity. An agreement can
be a contract, a service-level agreement, an understanding, a memorandum of agreement, or a purchase order.
Agreements must comply with local, national, and international laws regarding contracts.
uu
The project manager should ensure that all procurements meet the specific needs of the project, while working
uu
with procurement specialists to ensure organizational policies are followed.
The legally binding nature of an agreement means it will be subjected to a more extensive approval process, often
uu
involving the legal department, to ensure that it adequately describes the products, services, or results that the
seller is agreeing to provide, while being in compliance with the laws and regulations regarding procurements.
A complex project may involve multiple contracts simultaneously or in sequence. The buyer-seller relationship
uu
may exist at many levels on any one project, and between organizations internal to and external to the
acquiring organization.
X4.10 KEY CONCEPTS FOR PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

Key concepts for project stakeholder management include:
Every project has stakeholders who are impacted by or can impact the project in a positive or negative way. Some
uu
stakeholders will have a limited ability to influence the project’s work or outcomes; others will have significant
influence on the project and its expected outcomes.
The ability of the project manager and team to correctly identify and engage all of the stakeholders in an
uu
appropriate way can mean the difference between project success and failure.
To increase the chances of success, the process of stakeholder identification and engagement should commence
uu
as soon as possible after the project charter has been approved, the project manager has been assigned, and
the team begins to form.
The key to effective stakeholder engagement is a focus on continuous communication with all stakeholders.
uu
Stakeholder satisfaction should be identified and managed as a key project objective.
The process of identifying and engaging stakeholders for the benefit of the project is iterative, and should be
uu
reviewed and updated routinely, particularly when the project moves into a new phase, or if there are significant
changes in the organization or the wider stakeholder community.
678
APPE N DI X X5
SUMMA RY OF TA IL OR ING C ONS I DERATI ONS
FOR KN OWLEDG E AR EAS
The purpose of this appendix is to provide a summary of the Tailoring Concepts sections for each of the Knowledge
Areas in Sections 4 through 13. Because each project is unique, this information can be used to aid practitioners in
determining how to tailor processes, inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs for a project. This information can also
help determine the degree of rigor that should be applied to the various processes in a Knowledge Area.
X5.1 PROJECT INTEGRATION MANAGEMENT

Considerations for tailoring project integration management include but are not limited to:
Project life cycle. What is an appropriate project life cycle? What phases should comprise the project life cycle?
uu
Development life cycle. What development life cycle and approach is appropriate for the product, service
uu
or result? Is a predictive or adaptive approach appropriate? If adaptive, should the product be developed
incrementally or iteratively? Is a hybrid approach best?
Management approaches. What management processes are most effective based on the organizational culture
uu
and the complexity of the project?
Knowledge management. How will knowledge be managed in the project to foster a collaborative working
uu
environment?
Change. How will change be managed in the project?
uu
Governance. What control boards, committees, and other stakeholders are part of the project? What are the
uu
project status reporting requirements?
Lessons learned. What information should be collected throughout and at the end of the project? How will
uu
historical information and lessons learned be made available to future projects?
Benefits. When and how should benefits be reported: at the end of the project or at the end of each iteration
uu
or phase?
679
X5.2 PROJECT SCOPE MANAGEMENT
Considerations for tailoring project scope management include but are not limited to:
Knowledge and requirements management. Does the organization have formal or informal knowledge and
uu
requirements management systems? What guidelines should the project manager establish for requirements to
be reused in the future?
Validation and control. Does the organization have existing formal or informal validation and control-related
uu
policies, procedures, and guidelines?
Use of agile approach. Does the organization use agile approaches in managing projects? Is the development
uu
approach iterative or incremental? Is a predictive approach used? Will a hybrid approach be productive?
uu
and guidelines?
X5.3 PROJECT SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT

Considerations for tailoring project schedule management include but are not limited to:
Life cycle approach. What is the most appropriate life cycle approach that allows for a detailed schedule?
uu
Duration and resource. What are the factors influencing durations, such as the correlation between resource
uu
availability and productivity?
Project dimensions. How will the presence of project complexity, technological uncertainty, product novelty,
uu
pace or progress tracking, (such as earned value management, percentage complete, red-yellow-green (stop
light) indicators) impact the desired level of control?
Technology support. Is technology used to develop, record, transmit, receive, and store project schedule model
uu
information and is it readily accessible?
680
X5.4 PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT
Considerations for tailoring project cost management include but are not limited to:
Knowledge management. Does the organization have a formal knowledge management and financial databases
uu
repository that a project manager is required to use and is readily accessible?
Estimating and budgeting. Does the organization have existing formal or informal cost estimating and
uu
budgeting-related policies, procedures, and guidelines?
Earned value management. Does the organization use earned value management in managing projects?
uu
Use of agile approach. Does the organization use agile methodologies in managing projects? How does this
uu
impact cost estimating?
uu
and guidelines?
X5.5 PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Considerations for tailoring project quality management include but are not limited to:
Policy compliance and auditing. What quality policies and procedures exist in the organization? What quality
uu
tools, techniques, and templates are used in the organization?
Standards and regulatory compliance. Are there any specific quality standards in the industry that need
uu
to be applied? Are there any specific governmental, legal, or regulatory constraints that need to be taken
into consideration?
Continuous improvement. How will quality improvement be managed in the project? Is it managed at the
uu
organizational level or at the level of each project?
Stakeholder engagement. Is there a collaborative environment with stakeholders and suppliers?
uu
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X5.6 PROJECT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Considerations for tailoring project resource management include but are not limited to:
Diversity. What is the diversity background of the team?
uu
Physical location. What is the physical location of team members and physical resources?
uu
Industry-specific resources. What special resources are needed in in the industry?

uu
Acquisition of team members. How will team members be acquired for the project? Are team resources full-
uu
time or part-time on the project?
Development and management of team. How is team development managed for the project? Are there
uu
organizational tools to manage team development or will new ones need to be established? Will the team need
special training to manage diversity?
Life cycle approaches. What life cycle approach will be used on the project?
uu
X5.7 PROJECT COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

Considerations for tailoring project communications management include but are not limited to:
Stakeholders. Are the stakeholders internal or external to the organization, or both?
uu
Physical location. What is the physical location of team members? Is the team colocated? Is the team in the
uu
same geographical area? Is the team distributed across multiple time zones?
Communications technology. What technology is available to develop, record, transmit, retrieve, track,
uu
and store communication artifacts? What technologies are most appropriate and cost effective for communicating
to stakeholders?
Language. Language is a main factor to consider in communication activities. Is one language used? Or are
uu
many languages used? Have allowances been made to adjust to the complexity of team members from diverse
language groups?
Knowledge management. Does the organization have a formal knowledge management repository? Is the
uu
repository used?
682
X5.8 PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT
Considerations for tailoring project risk management include but are not limited to:
Project size. Does the project’s size in terms of budget, duration, scope, or team size require a more detailed
uu
approach to risk management? Or is it small enough to justify a simplified risk process?
Project complexity. Is a robust risk approach demanded by high levels of innovation, new technology,
uu
commercial arrangements, interfaces, or external dependencies that increase project complexity? Or is the
project simple enough that a reduced risk process will suffice?
Project importance. How strategically important is the project? Is the level of risk increased for this project
uu
because it aims to produce breakthrough opportunities, addresses significant blocks to organizational
performance, or involves major product innovation?
Development approach. Is this a waterfall project where risk processes can be followed sequentially and
uu
iteratively, or does the project follow an agile approach where risk is addressed at the start of each iteration as
well as during execution?
X5.9 PROJECT PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT

Considerations for tailoring project procurement management include but are not limited to:
Complexity of procurement. Is there one main procurement or are there multiple procurements at different
uu
times with different sellers that add to the complexity of the procurements?
Physical location. Are the buyers and sellers in the same location or reasonably close or in different time zones,
uu
countries, or continents?
Governance and regulatory environment. Are local laws and regulations regarding procurement activities
uu
integrated with the organization’s procurement policies? How does this affect contract auditing requirements?
Availability of contractors. Are there available contractors who are capable of performing the work?
uu
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X5.10 PROJECT STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT
Considerations for tailoring project stakeholder management include but are not limited to:
Stakeholder diversity. How many stakeholders are there? How diverse is the culture within the stakeholder
uu
community?
Complexity of stakeholder relationships. How complex are the relationships within the stakeholder community?
uu
The more networks a stakeholder or stakeholder group participates in, the more complex the networks of
information and misinformation the stakeholder may receive.
Communication technology. What communication technology is available? What support mechanisms are in
uu
place to ensure that best value is achieved from the technology?
684
APPE N DI X X6
TOOLS AND TECHNIQU ES
X6.1 INTRODUCTION
The PMBOK® Guide - Sixth Edition presents tools and techniques differently from previous editions. Where appropriate,
this edition groups tools and techniques by their purpose. The group name describes the intent of what needs to be
done and the tools and techniques in the group represent different methods to accomplish the intent. For example, data
gathering is a group with the intent of gathering data and information. Brainstorming, interviews, and market research
are among the techniques that can be used to gather data and information.
This approach reflects the emphasis in the Sixth Edition on the importance of tailoring the information presented in
the PMBOK® Guide to the needs of the environment, situation, organization, or project.
There are 132 individual tools and techniques in the PMBOK® Guide – Sixth Edition. These are not the only tools
and techniques that can be used to manage a project. They represent those tools and techniques that are considered
to be good practice on most projects most of the time. Some are mentioned once and some appear many times in the
PMBOK® Guide.
To assist practitioners in identifying where specific tools and techniques are used, this appendix identifies each tool
and technique, the group to which it belongs (if appropriate), and the process(es) where it is listed in the PMBOK® Guide.
The process in which a tool or technique is described in the guide is in boldface type. In other processes where the tool
or technique is listed, it will reference the process in which it is described. Processes may provide additional verbiage
on how a tool or technique is used in a particular process.
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685
X6.2 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES GROUPS
The following tools and techniques groups are used throughout the PMBOK® Guide:
Data gathering techniques. Used to collect data and information from a variety of sources. There are nine data
uu
gathering tools and techniques.
Data analysis techniques. Used to organize, assess, and evaluate data and information. There are 27 data
uu
analysis tools and techniques.
Data representation techniques. Used to show graphic representations or other methods used to convey data
uu
and information. There are 15 data representation tools and techniques.
Decision-making techniques. Used to select a course of action from different alternatives. There are two
uu
decision-making tools and techniques.
Communication skills. Used to transfer information between stakeholders. There are two communication skills
uu
tools and techniques.
Interpersonal and team skills. Used to effectively lead and interact with team members and other stakeholders.
uu
There are 17 interpersonal and team skills tools and techniques.
There are 60 ungrouped tools and techniques.
Table X6-1. Categorization and Index of Tools and Techniques
Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique
Data Gathering Tools and Techniques

Benchmarking 5.2 8.1 13.2
Brainstorming 4.1, 4.2 5.2 8.1 11.2 13.1
Check sheets 8.3
Checklists 4.2 8.2, 8.3 11.2
Focus groups 4.1, 4.2 5.2
Interviews 4.1, 4.2 5.2 8.1 11.2,
11.3,
11.4,
11.5
Market research 12.1
Questionnaires 5.2 13.1
and surveys
Statistical sampling 8.3
686
Table X6-1. Categorization and Index of Tools and Techniques (cont.)
Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique
Data Analysis Tools and Techniques

Alternatives 4.5, 4.6 5.1, 5.4 6.1, 6.4 7.1, 7.2 8.2 9.2, 9.6 11.5 13.4
analysis
Assessment 11.3
of other risk
parameters
Assumption and 11.2
constraint analysis
Cost of quality 7.2 8.1
Cost-benefit 4.5, 4.6 8.1 9.6 11.5
analysis
Decision tree 11.4
analysis
Document analysis 4.7 5.2 8.2 11.2 13.1
Earned value 4.5 6.6 7.4 12.3
analysis
Influence diagrams 11.4
Iteration burndown 6.6
chart
Make-or-buy 12.1
analysis
Performance 6.6 8.3 9.6 12.3
reviews
Process analysis 8.2
Proposal evaluation 12.2
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Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique
Data Analysis Tools and Techniques (cont.)

Regression analysis 4.7
Reserve analysis 6.4 7.2, 7.3, 11.6
7.4
Risk data quality 11.3
assessment
Risk probability and 11.3
impact assessment
Root cause analysis 4.5 8.2, 8.3 11.2 13.2,
13.4
Sensitivity analysis 11.4
Simulation 6.5 11.4
Stakeholder 11.1 13.1,
analysis 13.4
SWOT analysis 11.2 13.2
Technical 11.7
performance
analysis
Trend analysis 4.5, 4.7 5.6 6.6 7.4 9.6 12.3
Variance analysis 4.5, 4.7 5.6 6.6 7.4
What-if scenario 6.5, 6.6
analysis
688
Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique
Data Representation Tools and Techniques

Affinity diagrams 5.2 8.2
Cause-and-effect 8.2, 8.3
diagrams
Control charts 8.3
Flowcharts 8.1, 8.2
Hierarchical charts 9.1
Histograms 8.2, 8.3
Logical data model 8.1
Matrix diagrams 8.1, 8.2
Matrix-based charts 9.1
Mind mapping 5.2 8.1 13.2
Probability and 11.3
impact matrix
Scatter diagrams 8.2, 8.3
Stakeholder 10.1, 13.2,
engagement 10.3 13.4
assessment matrix
Stakeholder 13.1
mapping/
representation
Text-oriented 9.1
formats
Decision-Making Tools and Techniques
Multicriteria 4.6 5.2, 5.3 8.1, 8.2 9.3 11.5 13.4
decision analysis
Voting 4.5, 4.6 5.2, 5.5 6.4 7.2 13.4
Communication Skills Tools and Techniques
�
Feedback 10.2 13.4

�
Presentations 10.2 13.4
689
Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique
Interpersonal and Team Skills Tools and Techniques

Active listening 4.4 10.2 13.4
Communication 10.1
styles assessment
Conflict 4.1, 4.2 9.4, 9.5 10.2 13.3
management
Cultural awareness 10.1, 13.3,
10.2 13.4
Decision making 9.5
Emotional 9.5
intelligence
Facilitation 4.1, 4.2, 5.2, 5.3 11.2,
4.4 11.3,
11.4,
11.5
Influencing 9.4, 9.5, 11.6
9.6
Leadership 4.4 9.5 13.4
Meeting 4.1, 4.2 10.2
management
Motivation 9.4
Negotiation 9.3, 9.4, 12.2 13.3
9.6
Networking 4.4 10.2 13.4
Nominal group 5.2
technique
Observation/ 5.2 10.3 13.3
conversation
Political awareness 4.4 10.1, 13.3,
10.2 13.4
Team building 9.4
690
Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique
Ungrouped Tools and Techniques

Advertising 12.2
Agile release 6.5
planning
Analogous 6.4 7.2 9.2
estimating
Audits 8.2 11.7 12.3
Bidder conferences 12.2
Bottom-up 6.4 7.2 9.2
estimating
Change control 4.6
tools
Claims 12.3
administration
Colocation 9.4
Communication 10.1,
methods 10.2
Communication 10.1
models
Communication 10.1
requirements
analysis
Communication 9.4 10.1,
technology 10.2
Context diagram 5.2
Contingent 11.5
response strategies
Cost aggregation 7.3
Critical path method 6.5, 6.6
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Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique
Ungrouped Tools and Techniques (cont.)

Decomposition 5.4 6.3
Dependency 6.3
determination
and integration
Design for X 8.2
Expert judgment 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1 9.1, 9.2 10.1, 11.1, 12.1, 13.1,
4.3, 4.4, 5.3, 5.4 6.4 7.3, 7.4 10.3 11.2, 12.2, 13.2,
4.5, 4.6, 11.3, 12.3 13.3
4.7 11.4,
11.5,
11.6
Financing 7.3
Funding limit 7.3
reconciliation
Ground rules 13.3
Historical 7.3
information review
Individual and team 9.4
assessments
Information 4.4
management
Inspections 5.5 8.3 12.3 13.3
Knowledge 4.4
management
Leads and lags 6.3, 6.5,
6.6
Meetings 4.1, 4.2, 5.1 6.1, 6.2, 7.1 8.1, 8.3 9.1, 9.2, 10.1, 11.1, 12.1 13.1,
4.3, 4.5, 6.4 9.4 10,2, 11.2, 13.2,
4.6, 4.7 10.3 11.3, 13.3,
11.6 13.4
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Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique

Organizational 9.1
theory
Parametric 6.4 7.2 9.2
estimating
Pre-assignment 9.3
Precedence 6.3
diagramming
method
Problem solving 8.2 9.6
Product analysis 5.3
Project management 4.3 6.3, 6.5, 7.2, 7.4 9.2, 9.5, 10.2, 11.6
information system 6.6 9.6 10.3
Project reporting 8.2
Prompt lists 11.2
Prototypes 5.2
Quality improvement 8.2
methods
Recognition and 9.4
rewards
Representations 11.4
of uncertainty
Resource 6.5, 6.6
optimization
Risk categorization 11.3
Rolling wave 6.2
planning
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Knowledge AreaA
Communication
Procurement
Stakeholder
Integration
Resources
Schedule
Tool and
Quality
Scope
Cost
Risk
Technique

Schedule 6.5, 6.6
compression
Schedule network 6.5
analysis
Source selection 12.1
analysis
Strategies for 11.5
opportunities
Strategies for 11.5
overall project risk
Strategies for 11.5
threats
Test and inspection 8.1
planning
Testing/product 8.3
evaluations
Three-point 6.4 7.2
estimating
To-complete 7.4
performance index
Training 9.4
Virtual teams 9.3, 9.4
A
The boldface entries indicate the section numbers of the processes where a tool or technique is described.
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GLOSSARY
1. INCLUSIONS AND EXCLUSIONS

This glossary includes terms that are:
Unique or nearly unique to project management (e.g., project scope statement, work package, work breakdown
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structure, critical path method).
Not unique to project management, but used differently or with a narrower meaning in project management than
uu
in general everyday usage (e.g., early start date).
This glossary generally does not include:
Application area-specific terms.
uu
Terms used in project management that do not differ in any material way from everyday use (e.g., calendar
uu
day, delay).
Compound terms whose meaning is clear from the meanings of the component parts.
uu
Variants when the meaning of the variant is clear from the base term.
uu
Terms that are used only once and are not critical to understanding the point of the sentence. This can include
uu
a list of examples that would not have each term defined in the Glossary.
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2. COMMON ACRONYMS
AC actual cost
BAC budget at completion
CCB change control board
COQ cost of quality
CPAF cost plus award fee
CPFF cost plus fixed fee
CPI cost performance index
CPIF cost plus incentive fee
CPM critical path method
CV cost variance
EAC estimate at completion
EF early finish date
ES early start date
ETC estimate to complete
EV earned value
EVM earned value management
FF finish-to-finish
FFP firm fixed price
FPEPA fixed price with economic price adjustment
FPIF fixed price incentive fee
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FS finish to start
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IFB invitation for bid
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LF late finish date
LOE level of effort
LS late start date
OBS organizational breakdown structure
PDM precedence diagramming method
PMBOK Project Management Body of Knowledge
PV planned value
QFD quality function deployment
RACI responsible, accountable, consult, and inform
RAM responsibility assignment matrix
RBS risk breakdown structure
RFI request for information
RFP request for proposal
RFQ request for quotation
SF start-to-finish
SOW statement of work
SPI schedule performance index
SS start-to-start
SV schedule variance
SWOT strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
T&M time and material contract
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WBS work breakdown structure

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VAC variance at completion
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3. DEFINITIONS
Many of the words defined here have broader, and in some cases different, dictionary definitions. In some cases,
a single glossary term consists of multiple words (e.g., root cause analysis).
Acceptance Criteria. A set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted.
Accepted Deliverables. Products, results, or capabilities produced by a project and validated by the project customer
or sponsors as meeting their specified acceptance criteria.
Accuracy. Within the quality management system, accuracy is an assessment of correctness.
Acquire Resources. The process of obtaining team members, facilities, equipment, materials, supplies, and other
resources necessary to complete project work.
Acquisition. Obtaining human and material resources necessary to perform project activities. Acquisition implies a cost
of resources, and is not necessarily financial.
Activity. A distinct, scheduled portion of work performed during the course of a project.
Activity Attributes. Multiple attributes associated with each schedule activity that can be included within the activity
list. Activity attributes include activity codes, predecessor activities, successor activities, logical relationships, leads and
lags, resource requirements, imposed dates, constraints, and assumptions.
Activity Duration. The time in calendar units between the start and finish of a schedule activity. See also duration.
Activity Duration Estimates. The quantitative assessments of the likely number of time periods that are required to
complete an activity.
Activity List. A documented tabulation of schedule activities that shows the activity description, activity identifier, and
a sufficiently detailed scope of work description so project team members understand what work is to be performed.
Activity-on-Node (AON). See precedence diagramming method (PDM).
Actual Cost (AC). The realized cost incurred for the work performed on an activity during a specific time period.
Actual Duration. The time in calendar units between the actual start date of the schedule activity and either the
data date of the project schedule if the schedule activity is in progress or the actual finish date if the schedule
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activity is complete.
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Adaptive Life Cycle. A project life cycle that is iterative or incremental.

Affinity Diagrams. A technique that allows large numbers of ideas to be classified into groups for review and analysis.
Agreements. Any document or communication that defines the initial intentions of a project. This can take the form of
a contract, memorandum of understanding (MOU), letters of agreement, verbal agreements, email, etc.
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Alternative Analysis. A technique used to evaluate identified options in order to select the options or approaches to use
to execute and perform the work of the project.
Analogous Estimating. A technique for estimating the duration or cost of an activity or a project using historical data
from a similar activity or project.
Analytical Techniques. Various techniques used to evaluate, analyze, or forecast potential outcomes based on possible
variations of project or environmental variables and their relationships with other variables.
Assumption. A factor in the planning process that is considered to be true, real, or certain, without proof or demonstration.
Assumption Log. A project document used to record all assumptions and constraints throughout the project life cycle.
Attribute Sampling. Method of measuring quality that consists of noting the presence (or absence) of some characteristic
(attribute) in each of the units under consideration.
Authority. The right to apply project resources, expend funds, make decisions, or give approvals.
Backward Pass. A critical path method technique for calculating the late start and late finish dates by working backward
through the schedule model from the project end date.
Bar Chart. A graphic display of schedule-related information. In the typical bar chart, schedule activities or work
breakdown structure components are listed down the left side of the chart, dates are shown across the top, and activity
durations are shown as date-placed horizontal bars. See also Gantt chart.
Baseline. The approved version of a work product that can be changed only through formal change control procedures
and is used as a basis for comparison to actual results.
Basis of Estimates. Supporting documentation outlining the details used in establishing project estimates such as
assumptions, constraints, level of detail, ranges, and confidence levels.
Benchmarking. Benchmarking is the comparison of actual or planned products, processes, and practices to those
of comparable organizations to identify best practices, generate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for
measuring performance.
Benefits Management Plan. The documented explanation defining the processes for creating, maximizing, and
sustaining the benefits provided by a project or program.
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Bid Documents. All documents used to solicit information, quotations, or proposals from prospective sellers.
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Bidder Conference. The meetings with prospective sellers prior to the preparation of a bid or proposal to ensure all
prospective vendors have a clear and common understanding of the procurement. Also known as contractor conferences,
vendor conferences, or pre-bid conferences.
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Bottom-Up Estimating. A method of estimating project duration or cost by aggregating the estimates of the lower-level
components of the work breakdown structure (WBS).
Budget. The approved estimate for the project or any work breakdown structure component or any schedule activity.
Budget at Completion (BAC). The sum of all budgets established for the work to be performed.
Buffer. See reserve.
Business Case. A documented economic feasibility study used to establish validity of the benefits of a selected
component lacking sufficient definition and that is used as a basis for the authorization of further project
Business Value. The net quantifiable benefit derived from a business endeavor. The benefit may be tangible,
intangible, or both.
Cause and Effect Diagram. A decomposition technique that helps trace an undesirable effect back to its root cause.
Change. A modification to any formally controlled deliverable, project management plan component, or project document.
Change Control. A process whereby modifications to documents, deliverables, or baselines associated with the project
are identified, documented, approved, or rejected.
Change Control Board (CCB). A formally chartered group responsible for reviewing, evaluating, approving, delaying,
or rejecting changes to the project, and for recording and communicating such decisions.
Change Control System. A set of procedures that describes how modifications to the project deliverables and
documentation are managed and controlled.
Change Control Tools. Manual or automated tools to assist with change and/or configuration management.
At a minimum, the tools should support the activities of the CCB.
Change Log. A comprehensive list of changes submitted during the project and their current status.
Change Management Plan. A component of the project management plan that establishes the change control board,
documents the extent of its authority, and describes how the change control system will be implemented.
Change Request. A formal proposal to modify a document, deliverable, or baseline.
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Charter. See project charter.

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Checklist Analysis. A technique for systematically reviewing materials using a list for accuracy and completeness.
Checksheets. A tally sheet that can be used as a checklist when gathering data.
Claim. A request, demand, or assertion of rights by a seller against a buyer, or vice versa, for consideration, compensation,
or payment under the terms of a legally binding contract, such as for a disputed change.
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Claims Administration. The process of processing, adjudicating, and communicating contract claims.
Close Project or Phase. The process of finalizing all activities for the project, phase, or contract.
Closing Process Group. The process(es) performed to formally complete or close a project, phase, or contract.
Code of Accounts. A numbering system used to uniquely identify each component of the work breakdown
structure (WBS).
Collect Requirements. The process of determining, documenting, and managing stakeholder needs and requirements
to meet project objectives.
Colocation. An organizational placement strategy where the project team members are physically located close to one
another in order to improve communication, working relationships, and productivity.
Communication Methods. A systematic procedure, technique, or process used to transfer information among project
stakeholders.
Communication Models. A description, analogy, or schematic used to represent how the communication process will
be performed for the project.
Communication Requirements Analysis. An analytical technique to determine the information needs of the project
stakeholders through interviews, workshops, study of lessons learned from previous projects, etc.
Communications Management Plan. A component of the project, program, or portfolio management plan that
describes how, when, and by whom information about the project will be administered and disseminated.
Communication Styles Assessment. A technique to identify the preferred communication method, format, and content
for stakeholders for planned communication activities.
Communication Technology. Specific tools, systems, computer programs, etc., used to transfer information among
project stakeholders.
Conduct Procurements. The process of obtaining seller responses, selecting a seller, and awarding a contract.
Configuration Management Plan. A component of the project management plan that describes how to identify and
account for project artifacts under configuration control, and how to record and report changes to them.
Configuration Management System. A collection of procedures used to track project artifacts and monitor and control
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changes to these artifacts.

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Conformance. Within the quality management system, conformance is a general concept of delivering results that fall
within the limits that define acceptable variation for a quality requirement.
Constraint. A limiting factor that affects the execution of a project, program, portfolio, or process.
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Context Diagrams. A visual depiction of the product scope showing a business system (process, equipment, computer
system, etc.), and how people and other systems (actors) interact with it.
Contingency. An event or occurrence that could affect the execution of the project that may be accounted for with
a reserve.
Contingency Reserve. Time or money allocated in the schedule or cost baseline for known risks with active
response strategies.
Contingent Response Strategies. Responses provided which may be used in the event that a specific trigger occurs.
Contract. A contract is a mutually binding agreement that obligates the seller to provide the specified product or service
or result and obligates the buyer to pay for it.
Contract Change Control System. The system used to collect, track, adjudicate, and communicate changes to
a contract.
Control. Comparing actual performance with planned performance, analyzing variances, assessing trends to effect
process improvements, evaluating possible alternatives, and recommending appropriate corrective action as needed.
Control Account. A management control point where scope, budget, actual cost, and schedule are integrated and
compared to earned value for performance measurement.
Control Chart. A graphic display of process data over time and against established control limits, which has a centerline
that assists in detecting a trend of plotted values toward either control limit.
Control Costs. The process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project costs and manage changes to
the cost baseline.
Control Limits. The area composed of three standard deviations on either side of the centerline or mean of a
normal distribution of data plotted on a control chart, which reflects the expected variation in the data. See also
specification limits.
Control Procurements. The process of managing procurement relationships, monitoring contract performance, making
changes and corrections as appropriate, and closing out contracts.
Control Quality. The process of monitoring and recording results of executing the quality management activities to
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assess performance and ensure the project outputs are complete, correct, and meet customer expectations.
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Control Resources. The process of ensuring that the physical resources assigned and allocated to the project are
available as planned, as well as monitoring the planned versus actual utilization of resources and performing corrective
action as necessary.
Control Schedule. The process of monitoring the status of the project to update the project schedule and manage
changes to the schedule baseline.
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Control Scope. The process of monitoring the status of the project and product scope and managing changes to the
scope baaseline.
Corrective Action. An intentional activity that realigns the performance of the project work with the project
management plan.
Cost Aggregation. Summing the lower-level cost estimates associated with the various work packages for a given level
within the project’s WBS or for a given cost control account.
Cost Baseline. The approved version of the time-phased project budget, excluding any management reserves, which
can be changed only through formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison to actual results.
Cost-Benefit Analysis. A financial analysis tool used to determine the benefits provided by a project against its costs.
Cost Management Plan. A component of a project or program management plan that describes how costs will be
planned, structured, and controlled.
Cost of Quality (CoQ). All costs incurred over the life of the product by investment in preventing nonconformance to
requirements, appraisal of the product or service for conformance to requirements, and failure to meet requirements.
Cost Performance Index (CPI). A measure of the cost efficiency of budgeted resources expressed as the ratio of earned
value to actual cost.
Cost Plus Award Fee Contract (CPAF). A category of contract that involves payments to the seller for all legitimate
actual costs incurred for completed work, plus an award fee representing seller profit.
Cost Plus Fixed Fee Contract (CPFF). A type of cost-reimbursable contract where the buyer reimburses the seller for
the seller’s allowable costs (allowable costs are defined by the contract) plus a fixed amount of profit (fee).
Cost Plus Incentive Fee Contract (CPIF). A type of cost-reimbursable contract where the buyer reimburses the seller
for the seller’s allowable costs (allowable costs are defined by the contract), and the seller earns its profit if it meets
defined performance criteria.
Cost-Reimbursable Contract. A type of contract involving payment to the seller for the seller’s actual costs, plus a fee
typically representing the seller’s profit.
Cost Variance (CV). The amount of budget deficit or surplus at a given point in time, expressed as the difference
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between the earned value and the actual cost.

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Crashing. A technique used to shorten the schedule duration for the least incremental cost by adding resources.
Create WBS. The process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller, more manageable
components.
Criteria. Standards, rules, or tests on which a judgment or decision can be based or by which a product, service, result,
or process can be evaluated.
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Critical Path. The sequence of activities that represents the longest path through a project, which determines the
shortest possible duration.
Critical Path Activity. Any activity on the critical path in a project schedule.
Critical Path Method (CPM). A method used to estimate the minimum project duration and determine the amount
of schedule flexibility on the logical network paths within the schedule model.
Data. Discrete, unorganized, unprocessed measurements or raw observations.
Data Analysis Techniques. Techniques used to organize, assess, and evaluate data and information.
Data Date. A point in time when the status of the project is recorded.
Data Gathering Techniques. Techniques used to collect data and information from a variety of sources.
Data Representation Techniques. Graphic representations or other methods used to convey data and information.
Decision-Making Techniques. Techniques used to select a course of action from different alternatives.
Decision Tree Analysis. A diagramming and calculation technique for evaluating the implications of a chain of multiple
options in the presence of uncertainty.
Decomposition. A technique used for dividing and subdividing the project scope and project deliverables into smaller,
more manageable parts.
Defect. An imperfection or deficiency in a project component where that component does not meet its requirements or
specifications and needs to be either repaired or replaced.
Defect Repair. An intentional activity to modify a nonconforming product or product component.
Define Activities. The process of identifying and documenting the specific actions to be performed to produce the
project deliverables.
Define Scope. The process of developing a detailed description of the project and product.
Deliverable. Any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is required to be produced
to complete a process, phase, or project.
Dependency. See logical relationship.
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Determine Budget. The process of aggregating the estimated costs of individual activities or work packages to establish
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an authorized cost baseline.

Development Approach. The method used to create and evolve the product, service, or result during the project life
cycle, such as predictive, iterative, incremental, agile, or a hybrid method.
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Develop Project Charter. The process of developing a document that formally authorizes the existence of a project and
provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
Develop Project Management Plan. The process of defining, preparing, and coordinating all plan components and
consolidating them into an integrated project management plan.
Develop Schedule. The process of analyzing activity sequences, durations, resource requirements, and schedule
constraints to create the project schedule model for project execution and monitoring and controlling.
Develop Team. The process of improving competences, team member interaction, and overall team environment to
enhance project performance.
Diagramming Techniques. Approaches to presenting information with logical linkages that aid in understanding.
Direct and Manage Project Work. The process of leading and performing the work defined in the project management
plan and implementing approved changes to achieve the project’s objectives.
Discrete Effort. An activity that can be planned and measured and that yields a specific output. [Note: Discrete effort is
one of three earned value management (EVM) types of activities used to measure work performance.]
Discretionary Dependency. A relationship that is established based on knowledge of best practices within a particular
application area or an aspect of the project where a specific sequence is desired.
Documentation Reviews. The process of gathering a corpus of information and reviewing it to determine accuracy
and completeness.
Duration. The total number of work periods required to complete an activity or work breakdown structure component,
expressed in hours, days, or weeks. Contrast with effort.
Early Finish Date (EF). In the critical path method, the earliest possible point in time when the uncompleted portions of
a schedule activity can finish based on the schedule network logic, the data date, and any schedule constraints.
Early Start Date (ES). In the critical path method, the earliest possible point in time when the uncompleted portions of
a schedule activity can start based on the schedule network logic, the data date, and any schedule constraints.
Earned Value (EV). The measure of work performed expressed in terms of the budget authorized for that work.
Earned Value Management. A methodology that combines scope, schedule, and resource measurements to assess
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project performance and progress.

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Effort. The number of labor units required to complete a schedule activity or work breakdown structure component,
often expressed in hours, days, or weeks. Contrast with duration.
Emotional Intelligence. The ability to identify, assess, and manage the personal emotions of oneself and other people,
as well as the collective emotions of groups of people.
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Enterprise Environmental Factors. Conditions, not under the immediate control of the team, that influence, constrain,
or direct the project, program, or portfolio.
Estimate. A quantitative assessment of the likely amount or outcome of a variable, such as project costs, resources,
effort, or durations.
Estimate Activity Durations. The process of estimating the number of work periods needed to complete individual
activities with the estimated resources.
Estimate Activity Resources. The process of estimating team resources and the type and quantities of material,
equipment, and supplies necessary to perform project work.
Estimate at Completion (EAC). The expected total cost of completing all work expressed as the sum of the actual cost
to date and the estimate to complete.
Estimate Costs. The process of developing an approximation of the monetary resources needed to complete
project work.
Estimate to Complete (ETC). The expected cost to finish all the remaining project work.
Execute. Directing, managing, performing, and accomplishing the project work; providing the deliverables; and providing
work performance information.
Executing Process Group. Those processes performed to complete the work defined in the project management plan
to satisfy the project requirements.
Expert Judgment. Judgment provided based upon expertise in an application area, knowledge area, discipline, industry,
etc., as appropriate for the activity being performed. Such expertise may be provided by any group or person with
specialized education, knowledge, skill, experience, or training.
Explicit Knowledge. Knowledge that can be codified using symbols such as words, numbers, and pictures.
External Dependency. A relationship between project activities and non-project activities.
Fallback Plan. Fallback plans include an alternative set of actions and tasks available in the event that the primary plan
needs to be abandoned because of issues, risks, or other causes.
Fast Tracking. A schedule compression technique in which activities or phases normally done in sequence are performed
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in parallel for at least a portion of their duration.

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Fee. Represents profit as a component of compensation to a seller.

Finish Date. A point in time associated with a schedule activity’s completion. Usually qualified by one of the following:
actual, planned, estimated, scheduled, early, late, baseline, target, or current.
Finish-to-Finish (FF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity
has finished.
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Finish-to-Start (FS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity
has finished.
Firm Fixed Price Contract (FFP). A type of fixed price contract where the buyer pays the seller a set amount (as defined
by the contract), regardless of the seller’s costs.
Fishbone diagram. See Cause and Effect Diagram.
Fixed-Price Contract. An agreement that sets the fee that will be paid for a defined scope of work regardless of the
cost or effort to deliver it.
Fixed Price Incentive Fee Contract (FPIF). A type of contract where the buyer pays the seller a set amount (as defined
by the contract), and the seller can earn an additional amount if the seller meets defined performance criteria.
Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment Contract (FPEPA). A fixed-price contract, but with a special provision
allowing for predefined final adjustments to the contract price due to changed conditions, such as inflation changes, or
cost increases (or decreases) for specific commodities.
Float. Also called slack. See total float and free float.
Flowchart. The depiction in a diagram format of the inputs, process actions, and outputs of one or more processes
within a system.
Focus Groups. An elicitation technique that brings together prequalified stakeholders and subject matter experts to
learn about their expectations and attitudes about a proposed product, service, or result.
Forecast. An estimate or prediction of conditions and events in the project’s future based on information and knowledge
available at the time of the forecast.
Forward Pass. A critical path method technique for calculating the early start and early finish dates by working forward
through the schedule model from the project start date or a given point in time.
Free Float. The amount of time that a schedule activity can be delayed without delaying the early start date of any
successor or violating a schedule constraint.
Functional Organization. An organizational structure in which staff is grouped by areas of specialization and the project
manager has limited authority to assign work and apply resources.
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Funding Limit Reconciliation. The process of comparing the planned expenditure of project funds against any
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limits on the commitment of funds for the project to identify any variances between the funding limits and the
planned expenditures.
Gantt Chart. A bar chart of schedule information where activities are listed on the vertical axis, dates are shown on the
horizontal axis, and activity durations are shown as horizontal bars placed according to start and finish dates.
Grade. A category or rank used to distinguish items that have the same functional use but do not share the same
requirements for quality.
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Ground Rules. Expectations regarding acceptable behavior by project team members.
Histogram. A bar chart that shows the graphical representation of numerical data.
Historical Information. Documents and data on prior projects including project files, records, correspondence, closed
contracts, and closed projects.
Identify Risks. The process of identifying individual risks as well as sources of overall risk and documenting their
characteristics.
Identify Stakeholders. The process of identifying project stakeholders regularly and analyzing and documenting
project success.
Implement Risk Responses. The process of implementing agreed-upon risk response plans.
Imposed Date. A fixed date imposed on a schedule activity or schedule milestone, usually in the form of a “start no
earlier than” and “finish no later than” date.
Incentive Fee. A set of financial incentives related to cost, schedule, or technical performance of the seller.
Incremental Life Cycle. An adaptive project life cycle in which the deliverable is produced through a series of iterations
that successively add functionality within a predetermined time frame. The deliverable contains the necessary and
sufficient capability to be considered complete only after the final iteration.
Independent Estimates. A process of using a third party to obtain and analyze information to support prediction of cost,
schedule, or other items.
Influence Diagram. A graphical representation of situations showing causal influences, time ordering of events, and
other relationships among variables and outcomes.
Information. Organized or structured data, processed for a specific purpose to make it meaningful, valuable, and useful
in specific contexts.
Information Management Systems. Facilities, processes, and procedures used to collect, store, and distribute
information between producers and consumers of information in physical or electronic format.
Initiating Process Group. Those processes performed to define a new project or a new phase of an existing project by
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obtaining authorization to start the project or phase.

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Input. Any item, whether internal or external to the project, which is required by a process before that process proceeds.
May be an output from a predecessor process.
Inspection. Examination of a work product to determine whether it conforms to documented standards.
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Interpersonal and Team Skills. Skills used to effectively lead and interact with team members and other stakeholders.
Interpersonal Skills. Skills used to establish and maintain relationships with other people.
Interviews. A formal or informal approach to elicit information from stakeholders by talking to them directly.
Invitation for Bid (IFB). Generally, this term is equivalent to request for proposal. However, in some application areas,
it may have a narrower or more specific meaning.
Issue. A current condition or situation that may have an impact on the project objectives.
Issue Log. A project document where information about issues is recorded and monitored.
Iterative Life Cycle. A project life cycle where the project scope is generally determined early in the project life cycle,
but time and cost estimates are routinely modified as the project team’s understanding of the product increases.
Iterations develop the product through a series of repeated cycles, while increments successively add to the
functionality of the product.
Knowledge. A mixture of experience, values and beliefs, contextual information, intuition, and insight that people use to
make sense of new experiences and information.
Lag. The amount of time whereby a successor activity will be delayed with respect to a predecessor activity.
Late Finish Date (LF). In the critical path method, the latest possible point in time when the uncompleted portions of a
schedule activity can finish based on the schedule network logic, the project completion date, and any schedule constraints.
Late Start Date (LS). In the critical path method, the latest possible point in time when the uncompleted portions of a
schedule activity can start based on the schedule network logic, the project completion date, and any schedule constraints.
Lead. The amount of time whereby a successor activity can be advanced with respect to a predecessor activity.
Lessons Learned. The knowledge gained during a project which shows how project events were addressed or should
be addressed in the future for the purpose of improving future performance.
Lessons Learned Register. A project document used to record knowledge gained during a project so that it can be used
in the current project and entered into the lessons learned repository.
Lessons Learned Repository. A store of historical information about lessons learned in projects.
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Level of Effort (LOE). An activity that does not produce definitive end products and is measured by the passage of time.
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Life Cycle. See project life cycle.
Log. A document used to record and describe or denote selected items identified during execution of a process or
activity. Usually used with a modifier, such as issue, change, issue, or assumption.
Logical Relationship. A dependency between two activities, or between an activity and a milestone.
Make-or-Buy Analysis. The process of gathering and organizing data about product requirements and analyzing them
against available alternatives including the purchase or internal manufacture of the product.
Make-or-Buy Decisions. Decisions made regarding the external purchase or internal manufacture of a product.
Manage Communications. Manage Communications is the process of ensuring timely and appropriate collection,
creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, monitoring, and the ultimate disposition of project information.
Management Reserve. An amount of the project budget or project schedule held outside of the performance
measurement baseline (PMB) for management control purposes, that is reserved for unforeseen work that is within
scope of the project.
Management Skills. The ability to plan, organize, direct, and control individuals or groups of people to achieve
specific goals.
Manage Project Knowledge. The process of using existing knowledge and creating new knowledge to achieve the
project’s objectives and contribute to organizational learning.
Manage Quality. The process of translating the quality management plan into executable quality activities that
incorporate the organization’s quality policies into the project.
Manage Stakeholder Engagement. The process of communicating and working with stakeholders to meet their needs
and expectations, address issues, and foster appropriate stakeholder involvement.
Manage Team. The process of tracking team member performance, providing feedback, resolving issues, and managing
team changes to optimize project performance.
Mandatory Dependency. A relationship that is contractually required or inherent in the nature of the work.
Master Schedule. A summary-level project schedule that identifies the major deliverables and work breakdown
structure components and key schedule milestones. See also milestone schedule.
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Matrix Diagrams. A quality management and control tool used to perform data analysis within the organizational
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structure created in the matrix. The matrix diagram seeks to show the strength of relationships between factors, causes,
and objectives that exist between the rows and columns that form the matrix.
Matrix Organization. Any organizational structure in which the project manager shares responsibility with the functional
managers for assigning priorities and for directing the work of persons assigned to the project.
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Methodology. A system of practices, techniques, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline.
Milestone. A significant point or event in a project, program, or portfolio.
Milestone Schedule. A type of schedule that presents milestones with planned dates. See also master schedule.
Mind-Mapping. A technique used to consolidate ideas created through individual brainstorming sessions into a single
map to reflect commonality and differences in understanding and to generate new ideas.
Monitor. Collect project performance data, produce performance measures, and report and disseminate
performance information.
Monitor and Control Project Work. The process of tracking, reviewing, and reporting overall progress to meet the
performance objectives defined in the project management plan.
Monitor Communications. The process of ensuring that the information needs of the project and its stakeholders
are met.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group. Those processes required to track, review, and regulate the progress
and performance of the project; identify any areas in which changes to the plan are required; and initiate the
corresponding changes.
Monitor Risks. The process of monitoring the implementation of agreed-upon risk response plans, tracking identified
risks, identifying and analyzing new risks, and evaluating risk process effectiveness throughout the project.
Monitor Stakeholder Engagement. The process of monitoring project stakeholder relationships, and tailoring strategies
for engaging stakeholders through the modification of engagement strategies and plans.
Monte Carlo Simulation. An analysis technique where a computer model is iterated many times, with the input
values chosen at random for each iteration driven by the input data, including probability distributions and probabilistic
branches. Outputs are generated to represent the range of possible outcomes for the project.
Multicriteria Decision Analysis. This technique utilizes a decision matrix to provide a systematic analytical approach
for establishing criteria, such as risk levels, uncertainty, and valuation, to evaluate and rank many ideas.
Network. See project schedule network diagram.
Network Logic. All activity dependencies in a project schedule network diagram.
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Network Path. A sequence of activities connected by logical relationships in a project schedule network diagram.
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Networking. Establishing connections and relationships with other people from the same or other organizations.
Node. A point at which dependency lines connect on a schedule network diagram.
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Nominal Group Technique. A technique that enhances brainstorming with a voting process used to rank the most
useful ideas for further brainstorming or for prioritization.
Objective. Something toward which work is to be directed, a strategic position to be attained, a purpose to be achieved,
a result to be obtained, a product to be produced, or a service to be performed.
Opportunity. A risk that would have a positive effect on one or more project objectives.
Organizational Breakdown Structure (OBS). A hierarchical representation of the project organization, which illustrates
the relationship between project activities and the organizational units that will perform those activities.
Organizational Learning. A discipline concerned with the way individuals, groups, and organizations develop knowledge.
Organizational Process Assets. Plans, processes, policies, procedures, and knowledge bases that are specific to and
used by the performing organization.
Output. A product, result, or service generated by a process. May be an input to a successor process.
Overall Project Risk. The effect of uncertainty on the project as a whole, arising from all sources of uncertainty
including individual risks, representing the exposure of stakeholders to the implications of variations in project
outcome, both positive and negative.
Parametric Estimating. An estimating technique in which an algorithm is used to calculate cost or duration based on
historical data and project parameters.
Path Convergence. A relationship in which a schedule activity has more than one predecessor.
Path Divergence. A relationship in which a schedule activity has more than one successor.
Percent Complete. An estimate expressed as a percent of the amount of work that has been completed on an activity
or a work breakdown structure component.
Performance Measurement Baseline (PMB). Integrated scope, schedule, and cost baselines used for comparison to
manage, measure, and control project execution.
Performance Reviews. A technique that is used to measure, compare, and analyze actual performance of work in
progress on the project against the baseline.
Perform Integrated Change Control. The process of reviewing all change requests; approving changes and managing
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changes to deliverables, organizational process assets, project documents, and the project management plan; and
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communicating the decisions.

Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis. The process of prioritizing individual project risks for further analysis or action by
assessing their probability of occurrence and impact as well as other characteristics.
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Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis. The process of numerically analyzing the combined effect of identified individual
project risks and other sources of uncertainty on overall project objectives.
Phase. See project phase.
Phase Gate. A review at the end of a phase in which a decision is made to continue to the next phase, to continue with
modification, or to end a project or program.
Plan Communications Management. The process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project
and the needs of the project.
Plan Cost Management. The process of defining how the project costs will be estimated, budgeted, managed,
monitored, and controlled.
Planned Value (PV). The authorized budget assigned to scheduled work.
Planning Package. A work breakdown structure component below the control account with known work content but
without detailed schedule activities. See also control account.
Planning Process Group. Those processes required to establish the scope of the project, refine the objectives, and
define the course of action required to attain the objectives that the project was undertaken to achieve.
Plan Procurement Management. The process of documenting project procurement decisions, specifying the approach,
and identifying potential sellers.
Plan Quality Management. The process of identifying quality requirements and/or standards for the project and its
Plan Resource Management. The process of defining how to estimate, acquire, manage, and utilize physical and
team resources.
Plan Risk Management. The process of defining how to conduct risk management activities for a project.
Plan Risk Responses. The process of developing options, selecting strategies, and agreeing on actions to address
overall project risk exposure, as well as to treat individual project risks.
Plan Schedule Management. The process of establishing the policies, procedures, and documentation for planning,
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developing, managing, executing, and controlling the project schedule.

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Plan Scope Management. The process of creating a scope management plan that documents how the project and
product scope will be defined, validated, and controlled.
Plan Stakeholder Engagement. The process of developing approaches to involve project stakeholders, based on their
needs, expectations, interests, and potential impact on the project.
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Plurality. Decisions made by the largest block in a group, even if a majority is not achieved.
Policy. A structured pattern of actions adopted by an organization such that the organization’s policy can be explained
as a set of basic principles that govern the organization’s conduct.
Portfolio. Projects, programs, subsidiary portfolios, and operations managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives.
Portfolio Management. The centralized management of one or more portfolios to achieve strategic objectives.
Practice. A specific type of professional or management activity that contributes to the execution of a process and that
may employ one or more techniques and tools.
Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM). A technique used for constructing a schedule model in which activities are
represented by nodes and are graphically linked by one or more logical relationships to show the sequence in which the
activities are to be performed.
Precedence Relationship. A logical dependency used in the precedence diagramming method.
Predecessor Activity. An activity that logically comes before a dependent activity in a schedule.
Predictive Life Cycle. A form of project life cycle in which the project scope, time, and cost are determined in the early
phases of the life cycle.
Preventive Action. An intentional activity that ensures the future performance of the project work is aligned with the
project management plan.
Probability and Impact Matrix. A grid for mapping the probability of occurrence of each risk and its impact on project
objectives if that risk occurs.
Procedure. An established method of accomplishing a consistent performance or result, a procedure typically can be
described as the sequence of steps that will be used to execute a process.
Process. A systematic series of activities directed towards causing an end result such that one or more inputs will be
acted upon to create one or more outputs.
Procurement Audits. The review of contracts and contracting processes for completeness, accuracy, and effectiveness.
Procurement Documents. The documents utilized in bid and proposal activities, which include the buyer’s
Invitation for bid, invitation for negotiations, request for information, request for quotation, request for proposal,
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and seller’s responses.

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Procurement Documentation. All documents used in signing, executing, and closing an agreement. Procurement
documentation may include documents predating the project.
Procurement Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes how
a project team will acquire goods and services from outside of the performing organization.
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Procurement Statement of Work. Describes the procurement item in sufficient detail to allow prospective sellers to
determine if they are capable of providing the products, services, or results.
Procurement Strategy. The approach by the buyer to determine the project delivery method and the type of legally
binding agreement(s) that should be used to deliver the desired results.
Product. An artifact that is produced, is quantifiable, and can be either an end item in itself or a component item.
Additional words for products are material and goods. See also deliverable.
Product Analysis. For projects that have a product as a deliverable, it is a tool to define scope that generally means
asking questions about a product and forming answers to describe the use, characteristics, and other relevant aspects
of what is going to be manufactured.
Product Life Cycle. The series of phases that represent the evolution of a product, from concept through delivery,
growth, maturity, and to retirement.
Product Scope. The features and functions that characterize a product, service, or result.
Product Scope Description. The documented narrative description of the product scope.
Program. Related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities that are managed in a coordinated manner to
obtain benefits not available from managing them individually.
Program Management. The application of knowledge, skills, and principles to a program to achieve the program
objectives and obtain benefits and control not available by managing program components individually.
Progressive Elaboration. The iterative process of increasing the level of detail in a project management plan as greater
amounts of information and more accurate estimates become available.
Project. A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.
Project Calendar. A calendar that identifies working days and shifts that are available for scheduled activities.
Project Charter. A document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence of a project
and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities.
Project Communications Management. Project Communications Management includes the processes required
to ensure timely and appropriate planning, collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, control,
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monitoring, and ultimate disposition of project information.

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Project Cost Management. Project Cost Management includes the processes involved in planning, estimating,
budgeting, financing, funding, managing, and controlling costs so the project can be completed within the
approved budget.
Project Funding Requirements. Forecast project costs to be paid that are derived from the cost baseline for total or
periodic requirements, including projected expenditures plus anticipated liabilities.
Project Governance. The framework, functions, and processes that guide project management activities in order to
create a unique product, service, or result to meet organizational, strategic, and operational goals.
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Project Initiation. Launching a process that can result in the authorization of a new project.
Project Integration Management. Project Integration Management includes the processes and activities to identify,
define, combine, unify, and coordinate the various processes and project management activities within the Project
Management Process Groups.
Project Life Cycle. The series of phases that a project passes through from its start to its completion.
Project Management. The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the
project requirements.
Project Management Body of Knowledge. A term that describes the knowledge within the profession of project
management. The project management body of knowledge includes proven traditional practices that are widely applied
as well as innovative practices that are emerging in the profession.
Project Management Information System. An information system consisting of the tools and techniques used to
gather, integrate, and disseminate the outputs of project management processes.
Project Management Knowledge Area. An identified area of project management defined by its knowledge
requirements and described in terms of its component processes, practices, inputs, outputs, tools, and techniques.
Project Management Office (PMO). A management structure that standardizes the project-related governance
processes and facilitates the sharing of resources, methodologies, tools, and techniques.
Project Management Plan. The document that describes how the project will be executed, monitored and controlled,
and closed.
Project Management Process Group. A logical grouping of project management inputs, tools and techniques,
and outputs. The Project Management Process Groups include initiating processes, planning processes, executing
processes, monitoring and controlling processes, and closing processes. Project Management Process Groups are
not project phases.
Project Management System. The aggregation of the processes, tools, techniques, methodologies, resources, and
procedures to manage a project.
Project Management Team. The members of the project team who are directly involved in project management
activities. See also Project Team.
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Project Manager (PM). The person assigned by the performing organization to lead the team that is responsible for
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achieving the project objectives.

Project Organization Chart. A document that graphically depicts the project team members and their interrelationships
for a specific project.
Project Phase. A collection of logically related project activities that culminates in the completion of one or
more deliverables.
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Project Procurement Management. Project Procurement Management includes the processes necessary to purchase
or acquire products, services, or results needed from outside the project team.
Project Quality Management. Project Quality Management includes the processes for incorporating the organization’s
quality policy regarding planning, managing, and controlling project and product quality requirements, in order to meet
stakeholders’ expectations.
Project Resource Management. Project Resource Management includes the processes to identify, acquire, and
manage the resources needed for the successful completion of the project.
Project Risk Management. Project Risk Management includes the processes of conducting risk management planning,
identification, analysis, response planning, response implementation, and monitoring risk on a project.
Project Schedule. An output of a schedule model that presents linked activities with planned dates, durations,
milestones, and resources.
Project Schedule Management. Project Schedule Management includes the processes required to manage the timely
completion of the project.
Project Schedule Network Diagram. A graphical representation of the logical relationships among the project
schedule activities.
Project Scope. The work performed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and functions.
Project Scope Management. Project Scope Management includes the processes required to ensure that the project
includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully.
Project Scope Statement. The description of the project scope, major deliverables, assumptions, and constraints.
Project Stakeholder Management. Project Stakeholder Management includes the processes required to identify the
people, groups, or organizations that could impact or be impacted by the project, to analyze stakeholder expectations
and their impact on the project, and to develop appropriate management strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders
in project decisions and execution.
Project Team. A set of individuals who support the project manager in performing the work of the project to achieve its
objectives. See also Project Management Team.
Project Team Directory. A documented list of project team members, their project roles, and communication information.
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Proposal Evaluation Techniques. The process of reviewing proposals provided by suppliers to support contract
award decisions.
Prototypes. A method of obtaining early feedback on requirements by providing a working model of the expected
product before actually building it.
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Quality. The degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements.
Quality Audits. A quality audit is a structured, independent process to determine if project activities comply with
organizational and project policies, processes, and procedures.
Quality Checklists. A structured tool used to verify that a set of required steps has been performed.
Quality Control Measurements. The documented results of control quality activities.
Quality Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes how applicable
policies, procedures, and guidelines will be implemented to achieve the quality objectives.
Quality Management System. The organizational framework whose structure provides the policies, processes,
procedures, and resources required to implement the quality management plan. The typical project quality management
plan should be compatible to the organization’s quality management system.
Quality Metrics. A description of a project or product attribute and how to measure it.
Quality Policy. A policy specific to the Project Quality Management Knowledge Area, it establishes the basic principles
that should govern the organization’s actions as it implements its system for quality management.
Quality Report. A project document that includes quality management issues, recommendations for corrective actions,
and a summary of findings from quality control activities and may include recommendations for process, project, and
product improvements.
Quality Requirement. A condition or capability that will be used to assess conformance by validating the acceptability
of an attribute for the quality of a result.
Questionnaires. Written sets of questions designed to quickly accumulate information from a large number
of respondents.
RACI Chart. A common type of responsibility assignment matrix that uses responsible, accountable, consult, and inform
statuses to define the involvement of stakeholders in project activities.
Regression Analysis. An analytical technique where a series of input variables are examined in relation to their
corresponding output results in order to develop a mathematical or statistical relationship.
Regulations. Requirements imposed by a governmental body. These requirements can establish product, process,
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or service characteristics, including applicable administrative provisions that have government-mandated compliance.
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Request for Information (RFI). A type of procurement document whereby the buyer requests a potential seller
to provide various pieces of information related to a product or service or seller capability.
Request for Proposal (RFP). A type of procurement document used to request proposals from prospective sellers
of products or services. In some application areas, it may have a narrower or more specific meaning.
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Request for Quotation (RFQ). A type of procurement document used to request price quotations from prospective
sellers of common or standard products or services. Sometimes used in place of request for proposal and, in some
application areas, it may have a narrower or more specific meaning.
Requirement. A condition or capability that is necessary to be present in a product, service, or result to satisfy a
business need.
Requirements Documentation. A description of how individual requirements meet the business need for the project.
Requirements Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes how
requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed.
Requirements Traceability Matrix. A grid that links product requirements from their origin to the deliverables that
satisfy them.
Reserve. A provision in the project management plan to mitigate cost and/or schedule risk. Often used with a modifier
(e.g., management reserve, contingency reserve) to provide further detail on what types of risk are meant to be mitigated.
Reserve Analysis. An analytical technique to determine the essential features and relationships of components in the
project management plan to establish a reserve for the schedule duration, budget, estimated cost, or funds for a project.
Residual Risk. The risk that remains after risk responses have been implemented.
Resource. A team member or any physical item needed to complete the project.
Resource Breakdown Structure. A hierarchical representation of resources by category and type.
Resource Calendar. A calendar that identifies the working days and shifts upon which each specific resource is
available.
Resource Histogram. A bar chart showing the amount of time that a resource is scheduled to work over a series of
time periods.
Resource Leveling. A resource optimization technique in which adjustments are made to the project schedule to
optimize the allocation of resources and which may affect critical path. See also resource optimization technique and
resource smoothing.
Resource Management Plan. A component of the project management plan that describes how project resources are
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acquired, allocated, monitored, and controlled.

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Resource Manager. An individual with management authority over one or more resources.
Resource Optimization Technique. A technique in which activity start and finish dates are adjusted to balance demand
for resources with the available supply. See also resource leveling and resource smoothing.
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Resource Requirements. The types and quantities of resources required for each activity in a work package.
Resource Smoothing. A resource optimization technique in which free and total float are used without affecting the
critical path. See also resource leveling and resource optimization technique.
Responsibility. An assignment that can be delegated within a project management plan such that the assigned resource
incurs a duty to perform the requirements of the assignment.
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM). A grid that shows the project resources assigned to each work package.
Result. An output from performing project management processes and activities. Results include outcomes (e.g.,
integrated systems, revised process, restructured organization, tests, trained personnel, etc.) and documents
(e.g., policies, plans, studies, procedures, specifications, reports, etc.). See also deliverable.
Rework. Action taken to bring a defective or nonconforming component into compliance with requirements
or specifications.
Risk. An uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or more project objectives.
Risk Acceptance. A risk response strategy whereby the project team decides to acknowledge the risk and not take any
action unless the risk occurs.
Risk Appetite. The degree of uncertainty an organization or individual is willing to accept in anticipation of a reward.
Risk Audit. A type of audit used to consider the effectiveness of the risk management process.
Risk Avoidance. A risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to eliminate the threat or protect the project
from its impact.
Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS). A hierarchical representation of potential sources of risks.
Risk Categorization. Organization by sources of risk (e.g., using the RBS), the area of the project affected (e.g., using
the WBS), or other useful category (e.g., project phase) to determine the areas of the project most exposed to the effects
of uncertainty.
Risk Category. A group of potential causes of risk.
Risk Data Quality Assessment. Technique to evaluate the degree to which the data about risks is useful for
risk management.
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Risk Enhancement. A risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to increase the probability of occurrence
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or impact of an opportunity.
Risk Escalation. A risk response strategy whereby the team acknowledges that a risk is outside of its sphere of
influence and shifts the ownership of the risk to a higher level of the organization where it is more effectively managed.
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Risk Exploiting. A risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to ensure that an opportunity occurs.
Risk Exposure. An aggregate measure of the potential impact of all risks at any given point in time in a project,
program, or portfolio.
Risk Management Plan. A component of the project, program, or portfolio management plan that describes how risk
management activities will be structured and performed.
Risk Mitigation. A risk response strategy whereby the project team acts to decrease the probability of occurrence or
impact of a threat.
Risk Owner. The person responsible for monitoring the risks and for selecting and implementing an appropriate risk
response strategy.
Risk Register. A repository in which outputs of risk management processes are recorded.
Risk Report. A project document developed progressively throughout the Project Risk Management processes, which
summarizes information on individual project risks and the level of overall project risk.
Risk Review. A meeting to examine and document the effectiveness of risk responses in dealing with overall project
risk and with identified individual project risks.
Risk Sharing. A risk response strategy whereby the project team allocates ownership of an opportunity to a third party
who is best able to capture the benefit of that opportunity.
Risk Threshold. The level of risk exposure above which risks are addressed and below which risks may be accepted.
Risk Transference. A risk response strategy whereby the project team shifts the impact of a threat to a third party,
together with ownership of the response.
Role. A defined function to be performed by a project team member, such as testing, filing, inspecting, or coding.
Rolling Wave Planning. An iterative planning technique in which the work to be accomplished in the near term is
planned in detail, while the work in the future is planned at a higher level.
Root Cause Analysis. An analytical technique used to determine the basic underlying reason that causes a variance or
a defect or a risk. A root cause may underlie more than one variance or defect or risk.
Schedule. See project schedule and schedule model.
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Schedule Baseline. The approved version of a schedule model that can be changed using formal change control
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procedures and is used as the basis for comparison to actual results.

Schedule Compression. A technique used to shorten the schedule duration without reducing the project scope.
Schedule Data. The collection of information for describing and controlling the schedule.
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Schedule Forecasts. Estimates or predictions of conditions and events in the project’s future based on information and
knowledge available at the time the schedule is calculated.
Schedule Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that establishes the criteria
and the activities for developing, monitoring, and controlling the schedule.
Schedule Model. A representation of the plan for executing the project’s activities including durations, dependencies,
and other planning information, used to produce a project schedule along with other scheduling artifacts.
Schedule Network Analysis. A technique to identify early and late start dates, as well as early and late finish dates, for
the uncompleted portions of project activities.
Schedule Performance Index (SPI). A measure of schedule efficiency expressed as the ratio of earned value to
planned value.
Schedule Variance (SV). A measure of schedule performance expressed as the difference between the earned value
and the planned value.
Scheduling Tool. A tool that provides schedule component names, definitions, structural relationships, and formats that
support the application of a scheduling method.
Scope. The sum of the products, services, and results to be provided as a project. See also project scope and
product scope.
Scope Baseline. The approved version of a scope statement, work breakdown structure (WBS), and its associated
WBS dictionary, that can be changed using formal change control procedures and is used as a basis for comparison
to actual results.
Scope Creep. The uncontrolled expansion to product or project scope without adjustments to time, cost, and resources.
Scope Management Plan. A component of the project or program management plan that describes how the scope will
be defined, developed, monitored, controlled, and validated.
Secondary Risk. A risk that arises as a direct result of implementing a risk response.
Self-Organizing Teams. A team formation where the team functions with an absence of centralized control.
Seller. A provider or supplier of products, services, or results to an organization.
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Seller Proposals. Formal responses from sellers to a request for proposal or other procurement document specifying
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the price, commercial terms of sale, and technical specifications or capabilities the seller will do for the requesting
organization that, if accepted, would bind the seller to perform the resulting agreement.
Sensitivity Analysis. An analysis technique to determine which individual project risks or other sources of uncertainty
have the most potential impact on project outcomes, by correlating variations in project outcomes with variations in
elements of a quantitative risk analysis model.
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Sequence Activities. The process of identifying and documenting relationships among the project activities.
Service Level Agreement (SLA). A contract between a service provider (either internal or external) and the end user
that defines the level of service expected from the service provider.
Simulation. An analytical technique that models the combined effect of uncertainties to evaluate their potential impact
on objectives.
Source Selection Criteria. A set of attributes desired by the buyer which a seller is required to meet or exceed to be
selected for a contract.
Specification. A precise statement of the needs to be satisfied and the essential characteristics that are required.
Specification Limits. The area, on either side of the centerline, or mean, of data plotted on a control chart that meets
the customer’s requirements for a product or service. This area may be greater than or less than the area defined by the
control limits. See also control limits.
Sponsor. A person or group who provides resources and support for the project, program, or portfolio and is accountable
for enabling success.
Sponsoring Organization. The entity responsible for providing the project’s sponsor and a conduit for project funding
or other project resources.
Stakeholder. An individual, group, or organization that may affect, be affected by, or perceive itself to be affected by a
decision, activity, or outcome of a project, program, or portfolio.
Stakeholder Analysis. A technique of systematically gathering and analyzing quantitative and qualitative information
to determine whose interests should be taken into account throughout the project.
Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix. A matrix that compares current and desired stakeholder
engagement levels.
Stakeholder Engagement Plan. A component of the project management plan that identifies the strategies and actions
required to promote productive involvement of stakeholders in project or program decision making and execution.
Stakeholder Register. A project document including the identification, assessment, and classification of project
stakeholders.
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Standard. A document established by an authority, custom, or general consent as a model or example.

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Start Date. A point in time associated with a schedule activity’s start, usually qualified by one of the following: actual,
planned, estimated, scheduled, early, late, target, baseline, or current.
Start-to-Finish (SF). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot finish until a predecessor activity
has started.
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Start-to-Start (SS). A logical relationship in which a successor activity cannot start until a predecessor activity
has started.
Statement of Work (SOW). A narrative description of products, services, or results to be delivered by the project.
Statistical Sampling. Choosing part of a population of interest for inspection.
Successor Activity. A dependent activity that logically comes after another activity in a schedule.
Summary Activity. A group of related schedule activities aggregated and displayed as a single activity.
SWOT Analysis. Analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of an organization, project, or option.
Tacit Knowledge. Personal knowledge that can be difficult to articulate and share such as beliefs, experience,
and insights.
Tailoring. Determining the appropriate combination of processes, inputs, tools, techniques, outputs, and life cycle
phases to manage a project.
Team Charter. A document that records the team values, agreements, and operating guidelines, as well as establishing
clear expectations regarding acceptable behavior by project team members.
Team Management Plan. A component of the resource management plan that describes when and how team members
will be acquired and how long they will be needed.
Technique. A defined systematic procedure employed by a human resource to perform an activity to produce a product
or result or deliver a service, and that may employ one or more tools.
Templates. A partially complete document in a predefined format that provides a defined structure for collecting,
organizing, and presenting information and data.
Test and Evaluation Documents. Project documents that describe the activities used to determine if the product meets
the quality objectives stated in the quality management plan.
Threat. A risk that would have a negative effect on one or more project objectives.
Three-Point Estimating. A technique used to estimate cost or duration by applying an average or weighted average of
optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely estimates when there is uncertainty with the individual activity estimates.
�
Threshold. A predetermined value of a measurable project variable that represents a limit that requires action to be
�
taken if it is reached.
Time and Material Contract (T&M). A type of contract that is a hybrid contractual arrangement containing aspects of
both cost-reimbursable and fixed-price contracts.
To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI). A measure of the cost performance that is required to be achieved with the
remaining resources in order to meet a specified management goal, expressed as the ratio of the cost to finish the
outstanding work to the remaining budget.
Part 3 - Glossary
724
Tolerance. The quantified description of acceptable variation for a quality requirement.
Tool. Something tangible, such as a template or software program, used in performing an activity to produce a product
or result.
Tornado Diagram. A special type of bar chart used in sensitivity analysis for comparing the relative importance of
the variables.
Total Float. The amount of time that a schedule activity can be delayed or extended from its early start date without
delaying the project finish date or violating a schedule constraint.
Trend Analysis. An analytical technique that uses mathematical models to forecast future outcomes based on
historical results.
Trigger Condition. An event or situation that indicates that a risk is about to occur.
Unanimity. Agreement by everyone in the group on a single course of action.
Update. A modification to any deliverable, project management plan component, or project document that is not under
formal change control.
Validate Scope. The process of formalizing acceptance of the completed project deliverables.
Validation. The assurance that a product, service, or result meets the needs of the customer and other identified
stakeholders. Contrast with verification.
Variance. A quantifiable deviation, departure, or divergence away from a known baseline or expected value.
Variance Analysis. A technique for determining the cause and degree of difference between the baseline and actual
performance.
Variance At Completion (VAC). A projection of the amount of budget deficit or surplus, expressed as the difference
between the budget at completion and the estimate at completion.
Variation. An actual condition that is different from the expected condition that is contained in the baseline plan.
Verification. The evaluation of whether or not a product, service, or result complies with a regulation, requirement,
specification, or imposed condition. Contrast with validation.
�
Verified Deliverables. Completed project deliverables that have been checked and confirmed for correctness through
�
the Control Quality process.

Virtual Teams. Groups of people with a shared goal who fulfill their roles with little or no time spent meeting face to face.
725
Voice of the Customer. A planning technique used to provide products, services, and results that truly reflect customer
requirements by translating those customer requirements into the appropriate technical requirements for each phase
of project product development.
WBS Dictionary. A document that provides detailed deliverable, activity, and scheduling information about each
component in the work breakdown structure.
What-If Scenario Analysis. The process of evaluating scenarios in order to predict their effect on project objectives.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). A hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the
project team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables.
Work Breakdown Structure Component. An entry in the work breakdown structure that can be at any level.
Work Package. The work defined at the lowest level of the work breakdown structure for which cost and duration are
estimated and managed.
Work Performance Data. The raw observations and measurements identified during activities being performed to carry
out the project work.
Work Performance Information. The performance data collected from controlling processes, analyzed in comparison
with project management plan components, project documents, and other work performance information.
Work Performance Reports. The physical or electronic representation of work performance information compiled
in project documents, intended to generate decisions, actions, or awareness.
�
�
Part 3 - Glossary
726
IN D E X
A Activity resource requirements. See Estimate Activity

Resources process; Resource requirements
AC. See Actual cost
Activity sequencing. See Sequence Activities process
Acceptance criteria, 154, 698
Actual cost (AC), 261, 698
Accepted deliverables, 166, 698
Actual duration, 698
Accuracy, 182, 238, 698
Adaptive environments
Acquire Resources process, 328–335, 601–602
Project Communications Management and, 365
definition, 698
Project Cost Management and, 234
inputs, 330–331
Project Integration Management and, 74
outputs, 333–335
Project Procurement Management and, 465
overview, 328–330
Project Resource Management and, 311
tools and techniques, 332–333
Project Risk Management and, 400
Acquisition, 698
Project Schedule Management and, 178
Acronyms, common, 696–697
Project Scope Management and, 133
Action item tracking, 94, 110
Project Stakeholder Engagement and, 506
Active listening, 104, 363, 372, 381, 386, 534
Project Quality Management and, 276
Active/passive risk acceptance strategies, 443–446
Adaptive life cycles, 19, 698
Activity
ADR. See Alternative dispute resolution
definition, 698
Affinity diagram, 144, 293, 698
iterative, 33
Agile approach
Activity attributes, 698
�
Control Schedule process and, 224

as input, 188, 198, 207, 322, 573, 576, 583
tailoring considerations, cost estimating, 234
�
as output, 186, 194, 204, 221, 327, 573, 575, 576, 583
Agile environments
Activity duration, 698
Activity duration estimates, 698. See also Estimate Activity
Durations process
Activity identifier (ID), 188
Activity list
definition, 698
Project Risk Management and, 400
as input, 188, 198, 207, 322
as output, 185, 194
Activity-on-node (AON), 218, 698. See also Precedence
Diagramming Method
Project Stakeholder Engagement and, 506
727
Agile release planning, 215 Autocratic decision making, 119, 144
Agreements, 460, 698. See also Contract(s); Service level Automated tools, 73, 118
agreements Avoidance, overall project risk and, 445
as input, 78, 109, 125, 141, 208, 251, 355, 413, 496,
510, 519 B
master services, 465
BAC. See Budget at completion
as output, 489
Backward pass, 210, 699
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR), 498
Bar chart, 217, 699
Alternatives analysis, 111, 119, 202, 245, 292, 325, 356,
Baseline(s), 87, 699. See also Cost baseline; Scope
446, 533
baseline
definition, 699
Baseline schedule. See Schedule baseline
Ambiguity risk, 398, 399
Basis of estimates, 108, 204, 699
Analogous estimating, 200, 244, 324, 699
as input, 116, 124, 208, 250, 430
Analytical techniques, 699
as output, 229, 230, 247, 270, 326
AON. See Activity-on-node
Benchmarking, 143, 281, 699
Approved change request, 115
Benefits management, project success and, 546–547
as input, 93, 300, 301, 495, 496
Benefits management plan, 33, 251, 469, 509, 699
as output, 120
Best practices
quality audits and, 295
benchmarking and, 143, 281, 399
schedule baseline and, 229
discretionary dependencies and, 191
Artifacts
Beta distribution, 245
communication, 375
Bid(s), 477. See also Proposals
project, 558–559
winning bidder and, 462
Assessments, individual and team, 342
Bidder. See Seller(s)
Assets. See Organizational process assets (OPAs)
Bidder conferences, 487, 699
Assignment matrix (RAM), 317
Bid documents, 477, 485, 699
Assumption(s), 33, 699
BIM. See Building information model
Assumption and constraint analysis, 415, 521
Body of knowledge (BOK), 1, 2, 69
Assumption log
BOK. See Body of knowledge
definition, 699
Bottom-up estimating, 324
as input, 108, 124, 141, 152, 188, 198, 207, 280, 323,
definition, 700
�
412, 421, 430, 495, 519

description of, 202, 244
as output, 81, 97, 155, 194, 204, 221, 230, 247, 270,
�
Brainstorming, 78, 80, 85, 142, 144, 281, 414, 416, 511
320, 327, 358, 418, 427, 448, 458, 515
Brain writing, 511
Attribute(s), 149
Bubble chart, 425–426
Attribute sampling, 274, 699
Budget(s)
Audio conferencing, 340
definition, 700
Audits, 118, 276, 498
time-phased project, 87, 248, 254
configuration item verification and, 118
Budget at completion (BAC), 261, 262, 264, 430, 700
procurement, 494, 714
Buffer. See Reserve
quality, 290, 294–295, 296, 718
Building information model (BIM), 463
risk, 456, 458, 720
Burndown chart, 226
Authority, 699. See also Governance frameworks
Part 3 - Index
728
Business Analysis for Practitioners: A Practice Guide, 7, Change control board (CCB), 115, 120, 700
33, 140 Change control system, 700. See also Contract change
Business case control system
business documents and, 77–78 Change log
definition, 700 definition, 700
as input, 125, 251, 469, 509 as input, 92, 124, 382, 510, 519, 525
project, 30–32 as output, 529
Business documents, 29–30 Change management plan, 88, 116, 169, 495, 525, 700
business case and, 77–78 Change request(s). See also Approved change request;
definition, 559 Change management plan; Perform Integrated Change
as input, 125, 141, 251, 469, 509 Control process; Requested change
project life cycle and, 30 approved change requests review, 305
project management, 29–30 components requiring, 171, 186, 221, 229, 287, 297,
Business environment, 10 351, 358, 387, 393, 490, 500, 515, 529
Business management plan, 125 definition, 700
Business management skills, 58–60 as input, 117, 301
PMI Talent Triangle® and, 56, 57 as output, 96, 112, 166, 170, 186, 220, 228, 269, 296,
Business requirements, 148 306, 334, 343, 350, 357, 393, 447, 451, 457, 479, 489,
Business value, 8, 10, 148 499, 514, 528, 535
definition, 7, 700 project baselines and, 115
state transition and, 6 status tracking, 124
Buyer tools and, 119
procurement process and, 461 types of, 96, 112
seller and, 460–461 Charter. See Develop Project Charter process; Project
trial engagements and, 464 charter; Team charter
winning bidder, 462 Checklist(s), 85, 302, 414. See also Quality checklists
Buyer-seller relationship, 461 Checklist analysis, 700
Checksheets, 302, 700
C Claim, 700
Claims administration, 498, 701
CA. See Control account
Closed procurements, 499
Calendar. See Project calendar; Resource calendars
�
Close Project or Phase process, 121–128, 634–635

Cause-and-effect diagrams, 293, 294, 304, 700
definition, 701
�
CCB. See Change control board

inputs, 124–126
Change(s)
outputs, 127–128
contested, 498
overview, 121–123
definition, 700
projects and, 6
Closing Process Group, 23, 633–635
Change control. See also Perform Integrated Change
definition, 701
Control process
inputs and outputs, 634
meetings, 120
overview of, 633
procedures, 40
Code of accounts, 701
tools, 118–119, 700
Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct, 3
729
Collaboration Communications management plan, 87, 377
benefits of, 311–312 approaches and, 374
social computing and, 364 communication forms and, 374
Collect Requirements process, 138–149, 568–569 definition, 701
definition, 701 as input, 381, 390, 484, 509, 518, 525, 532
inputs, 140–141 as output, 377, 387, 393, 490, 529, 535
outputs, 147–149 Communications technology, 365
overview, 138–140 Communication styles, 373
tools and techniques, 142–147 Communication styles assessment, 375, 701
Colocated teams, 340 Communication technologies, 340, 370, 383, 506, 701.
Colocation, 340, 343, 701 See also E-mail; Web conferencing
Communication. See also Control Communications choice of, factors in, 370–371
process; Organizational communication requirements; tailoring considerations, 506
Plan Communications Management; Project Competence, 319
Communications Management Competencies
5 Cs of written, 361, 362–363 leadership skills, 60–63
channels, 45, 209, 368, 370, 383, 391, 519, 526, 533 leadership styles and, 65
conversation, 145, 527 management and, 64
correspondence, 388, 496, 499 overview, 56–57
cross-cultural, 373 personality and, 66
informal, 341 strategic and business management skills, 58–60
interactive, 374 technical project management skills, 58
language and, 365 Complexity
leadership and, 61 integration and, 68
mass, 374 procurement and, 465
nonverbal, 384 project, 400
project, 92, 124, 387, 390, 532 Compliance
skills, 363, 384, 527, 534 controlling PMOs and, 48
social computing and, 364, 373 tailoring considerations and, 276
successful, two parts of, 362 Computer software. See Scheduling software; Software
Communication artifacts and methods, 375 Conduct Procurements process, 482–491, 608–609
�
Communication competence, 363 definition, 701

Communication methods, 374–375, 383, 701 inputs, 484–486
�
artifacts and, 375 outputs, 488–491

Communication models, 371–373, 701 overview, 482–483
cross-cultural communication, 373 tools and techniques, 487–488
sample interactive, 371 Confidentiality
Communication planning, 333. See also Plan information and, 101, 102, 383
Communications process; Project Communications policies, 40
Management sensitivity and, 371
Communication requirements analysis, 369–370, 701 trust and, 282, 414, 422, 433, 442
Communications management, techniques and Configuration control, 115, 118
approaches, 381 Configuration items, change control and, 118
Part 3 - Index
730
Configuration management plan, 88, 116, 169, 701 Control chart, 304, 702
as input, 484 Control/controlling, 107, 702
Configuration management systems, 41, 701 Control Costs process, 257–270, 622–623
Configuration verification and audit, 118 definition, 702
Conflict management, 61, 80, 86, 341, 348–349, 386, 527 inputs, 259–260
Conformance. See also Nonconformance outputs, 268–270
cost of, 283 overview, 257–259
cost of quality and, 245, 274 tools and techniques, 260–268
customer satisfaction and, 275 Control limits, 702. See also Specification limits
definition, 701 Control Procurements process, 492–501, 629–631
government standards and, 47 definition, 702
Conformance work, 284, 289 inputs, 495–497
Connectivity, risk and, 424 outputs, 499–501
Constraints, 28, 39, 701 overview, 492–494
Contested changes, 498 tools and techniques, 497–498
Context diagrams, 146, 702 Control Quality process, 298–306, 624–625
Contingency, 702 definition, 702
Contingency allowance. See Reserve inputs, 300–302
Contingency plan, 72, 439, 445, 448 outputs, 305–306
Contingency reserve, 202, 245, 254, 439, 443, 702. See overview, 298–300
also Reserve analysis tools and techniques, 302–305
Contingent response strategies, 445, 702 Control Resources process, 352–358, 625–626
Contract(s), 460–461. See also Agreements; Time and definition, 702
Material Contract (T&M) inputs, 354–355
administration of, 494 outputs, 357–358
closure of, 41, 126, 494, 633 overview, 352–354
cost-reimbursable, 472, 703 tools and techniques, 356–357
definition, 702 Control Schedule process, 222–230, 621–622
fixed-price, 471, 707 agile approach and, 224
legally binding nature of, 461 inputs, 224–225
payment types and, 476 outputs, 228–230
�
procurement, 464, 494, 498, 501 overview, 222–224

purchasing, 461 tools and techniques, 226–228
�
termination clause, 489 Control Scope process, 167–171, 619–620

time and material, 472, 724 definition, 703
types of, 471–472 inputs, 169–170
Contract change control system, 702 outputs, 170–171
Contracting processes, changing, 463 overview, 167–168
Contract management systems, 110, 470, 486 tools and techniques, 170
Contractor(s), 465. See also Seller(s); Subcontractors Control thresholds, 181, 182, 239, 269
Contractor conferences. See Bidder conferences Conversation, 145, 392, 527
Contract payment types, 476 COQ. See Cost of quality
Control account (CA), 161, 239, 254, 702 Corporate knowledge base repositories, 95
731
Corrective action definition, 703
change request for, 96, 112 inputs, 157
definition, 703 outputs, 161–162
Correspondence, 388, 496, 499 overview, 156–157
Cost(s). See also Actual cost tools and techniques, 158–161
failure, 274, 275, 282, 303 Criteria, 703
indirect, 246, 261 Criticality index, 434
Cost aggregation, 252, 703 Critical path, 209, 704
Cost baseline Critical path activity, 704
definition, 703 Critical path method (CPM), 210–211, 227, 704
as input, 116, 259, 412, 430, 439, 484 Critical success factors, 31
as output, 171, 186, 221, 229, 254–255, 269, 297, 334, Cross training, 337
351, 358, 447, 490, 500 Cultural awareness, 376, 527, 534
Cost-benefit analysis, 111, 119, 282, 356, 446, 703 Cultural diversity, 338, 363
Cost contingency reserve, 246 Culture. See Organizational culture
Cost control. See Control Costs process Customer(s). See also Voice of the Customer
Cost estimates. See also Estimate Costs process buyer becoming, 462
independent, 479, 485 external, 78
as input, 250, 323, 412, 430 Customer culture, 101
as output, 246, 256, 270 Customer request, 78, 546
Cost forecasts, 113, 269, 430, 448 Customer requirements, 20, 273
Cost management. See Project Cost Management Customer satisfaction, 275
Cost management plan, 87, 238 CV. See Cost variance
definition, 703
as input, 241, 250, 259, 411 D
as output, 238, 269, 447
Daily standup meetings, 364
Cost of quality (COQ), 245, 274, 282–283, 703
Data. See also Work performance data
Cost performance index (CPI), 263, 703
definition, 704
Cost performance measurements, 262
overview, 26–27
Cost plus award fee (CPAF) contract, 472
Data analysis technique, 111, 119, 126, 136, 143, 153,
Cost plus fixed fee (CPFF) contract, 472, 703
170, 181, 202, 213–214, 226, 238, 245, 252, 261,
�
Cost plus incentive fee (CPIF) contract, 472

282–283, 292, 303, 325, 356, 404, 415, 423, 433–436,
Cost-reimbursable contracts, 472, 703
�
446, 456, 473, 487, 498, 512, 521, 533, 704

Cost variance (CV), 262, 703
Data date, 704
CPAF. See Cost plus award fee contract
Data gathering techniques, 80, 85, 142–143, 281–282,
CPFF. See Cost plus fixed fee
292, 302–303, 414, 422, 432, 442, 473, 511, 520, 704
CPI. See Cost performance index
Data representation techniques, 144, 284–285, 293–294,
CPIF. See Cost plus incentive fee (CPIF) contract
304, 315, 316–317, 376, 392, 425–426, 512–513,
CPM. See Critical path method
521–522, 534, 704
Crashing, 215, 703
Decision making
Create WBS process, 156–162, 570–571. See also Work
business case and, 31
breakdown structure (WBS)
effective, 349
Part 3 - Index
732
Decision-making techniques, 111, 119, 144, 153, 166, Dependency determination
203, 246, 283, 293, 446, 521, 534, 704 discretionary dependencies, 191
guidelines and, 349 external dependencies, 192
selection criteria, 332 integration and, 191–192
Decision tree analysis, 435, 704 internal dependencies, 192
Decoding/encoding of messages, 371 mandatory dependencies, 191
Decomposition, 185. See also Work Breakdown Structure Design for X (DfX), 295
(WBS) Design of experiments (DOE), 290
definition, 704 Design reviews, 233
WBS components and, 160 Detectability, risk and, 424, 426
into work packages, 158, 316 Determine Budget process, 248–256, 578–579
Defect(s) definition, 704
definition, 704 inputs, 250–251
histograms and, 293, 304 outputs, 254–256
Defect repair, 96, 112, 704 overview, 248–249
Define Activities process, 183–186, 572 tools and techniques, 252–253
definition, 704 Development approach, 135, 180, 400, 704
inputs, 184 Development life cycle, 19, 74
outputs, 185–186 Develop Project Charter process, 75–81, 563
overview, 183 definition, 705
tools and techniques, 184–185 inputs, 77–79
Define Scope process, 150–155, 569–570 outputs, 81
definition, 704 overview, 75–77
inputs, 152 tools and techniques, 79–80
outputs, 154–155 Develop Project Management Plan process, 82–89, 567
overview, 150–151 definition, 705
tools and techniques, 153 inputs, 83–84
Deliverable(s). See also Result overview, 82–83
accepted, 166, 698 project management plan, 86–89
definition, 704 tools and techniques, 85–89
as input, 101, 125, 301 Develop Schedule process, 205–221, 575–576
�
output as, 21, 95, 154 definition, 705

project management and, 16, 22 inputs, 207–209
�
projects and, 5 outputs, 217–221

verified, 165, 305, 725 overview, 205–207
WBS structure and, 160 tools and techniques, 209–216
Delivery methods, 476 Develop Team process, 336–344, 602–603
Deming, W. Edwards, 275 definition, 705
Dependency. See also Logical relationship inputs, 339–340
mandatory, 191, 710 overview, 336–339
DfX. See Design for X
733
Diagramming techniques, 705 E
Direct and Manage Project Work process, 90–97, 597–598
EAC. See Estimate at completion
definition, 705
EAC forecasts, 239, 264, 265
inputs, 92–94
Early Finish date (EF), 210, 705
outputs, 95–97
Early Start date (ES), 210, 705
overview, 90–92
Earned schedule (ES), 233
Earned value (EV), 261, 705
Directions of influence, stakeholder analysis, 513
Earned value analysis (EVA), 111, 226, 261, 498
Discrete effort, 705
calculations, summary table, 267
Discretionary dependencies, 191, 705
Earned value management (EVM)
Disputes, 498
cost baseline for, 254
Disruptive conflict, 348
definition, 705
Distributed teams, 311
expansion of, 233
Diversity
rules of performance measurement, 182, 239, 254
cultural, 311, 338
Earned value performance indicators, 228
stakeholder, 506
Ecological impacts, 78
Document(s). See also Business documents; Procurement
Economic feasibility study, 30–32, 125
documents; Project documents
EEFs. See Enterprise environmental factors
bid, 477, 485, 699
EF. See Early Finish date
business, 29–30
Effort, 705
operational, 128
Electronic communications management, 385
project business case, 30–32
Electronic project management tools, 385
test and evaluation, 296, 300, 303–304, 306, 724
Email, 78, 311, 333, 340, 361, 362, 373, 374, 375, 376,
Document analysis, 126, 292, 415, 512
377, 385
Documentation. See also Lessons learned; Procurement
E-meetings, 376, 377
documentation; Requirements documentation; Written
Emerging practices. See Practices, emerging
communication
Emotional intelligence (EI), 310, 349, 705
bid documents, 699
EMV. See Expected Monetary Value (EMV)
reviews, 705
Encoding/decoding of messages, 371
seller performance evaluation, 501
Enhance strategy
technical, 125, 415, 499
opportunity and, 444
�
DOE. See Design of experiments

overall project risk and, 446
Dormancy, risk and, 424
�
Enterprise environmental factors (EEFs), 37–39, 557

DU or DUR. See Duration
definition, 706
Duration (DU or DUR), 705. See also Most likely duration;
external to organization, 39
Optimistic duration; Pessimistic duration
as input, 78, 84, 93, 101, 109, 117, 135, 141, 152, 157,
Duration estimates, 203. See also Estimate Activity
180, 184, 189, 199, 209, 236–237, 243, 251, 280, 301,
Durations process
315, 323, 331, 339, 348, 368, 383, 391, 403, 413, 422,
as input, 208, 412, 430
431, 441, 470, 486, 497, 510, 519, 526, 533
as output, 221
internal to organization, 38
organizational process assets and, 557
as output, 335, 344, 351
project influences and, 37
Part 3 - Index
734
Environment, 37–49, 133. See also Adaptive environments; EVA. See Earned value analysis
Agile environments; Enterprise environmental factors; EVM. See Earned value management
Globalization/global environment Execute, 706
management elements, 44–45 Executing Process Group, 23, 595–611
organizational process assets, 39–41 definition, 706
organizational structure types, 45–47 overview, 595
organizational systems, 42–44 processes in, 596
overview, 37 Expected Monetary Value (EMV), 435
project, 365, 371 Expert judgment, 58, 85, 94, 102, 110, 118, 126, 136,
regulatory, 465 142, 153, 158, 181, 184, 200, 237, 243, 252, 260, 281,
Environmental consideration, 118, 546 315, 324, 369, 391, 404, 414, 422, 431, 441, 451, 472,
ES. See Early Start date 487, 497, 511, 520, 526, 706. See also Subject matter
Escalation, 355 experts (SMEs)
opportunities and, 444 Explicit knowledge, 100, 706
threats and, 442 Exploit strategy
Estimate(s). See also Analogous estimating; Basis opportunity and, 444
of estimates; Independent estimates; Parametric overall project risk and, 445
estimating; Three-point estimate External dependencies, 192, 706
definition, 706 External stakeholders, 361, 550
independent, 708
independent cost, 479 F
Estimate Activity Durations process, 195–204, 574–575
Facilitated workshops, 432
definition, 706
Facilitation, 80, 86, 104, 145, 381, 442
inputs, 198–199
Failure costs, 274, 275, 282, 303
overview, 195–197
Fallback plan, 439, 445, 448, 706
Fast tracking, 191, 215, 228, 706
Estimate Activity Resources process, 320–327, 582–583
Feasibility study, 20, 30–32, 77, 125, 555
definition, 706
Fee, 706
inputs, 322–324
Feedback, 384, 527, 534
outputs, 325–327
FF. See Finish-to-finish
overview, 320–322
FFP. See Firm fixed price contract
�

Final product, service, or result, 127
Estimate at completion (EAC), 264–265, 706
�
Final report, 127–128

Estimate Costs process, 240–247, 577–578
Financing, 253
definition, 706
Finish date, 210, 211, 706
inputs, 241–243
Finish-to-finish (FF), 190, 706
outputs, 246–247
Finish-to-start (FS), 190, 707
overview, 240–241
Firm Fixed Price Contract (FFP), 471, 707
Fishbone diagram, 293, 707. See also Cause-and-effect
Estimate to complete (ETC), 706
diagrams
ETC. See Estimate to complete
Fixed-budget method, 474
Ethics, 3
Fixed formula method, 182, 239
EV. See Earned value
Fixed-price contracts, 471, 707
735
Fixed Price Incentive Fee contract (FPIF), 471, 707 Governance, 28, 465. See also Organizational governance;
Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment contract Project governance
(FPEPA), 471, 707 Governance frameworks, 43–44
Float, 191, 210, 707, 725 components of, 43
Flowcharts, 284, 293, 707 portfolios, programs, projects and, 44
Flow diagrams, process, 23 Governance of Portfolios, Programs, and Projects:
Focus groups, 80, 85, 142, 707 A Practice Guide, 44
Forecast(s). See also Schedule forecasts Government jurisdictions, 487. See also Regulatory bodies
cost, 113 Grade of products/services, 707
definition, 707 Graphical analysis techniques, 227, 263
EAC, 239, 264, 265 Ground rules, project team, 320, 348, 528, 708
Forecasting, 264 Group(s). See also Focus groups; Project Management
Forecasting methods, 92, 220–221 Process Groups,
Forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning, 338 projects and, 4
Forward pass, 210, 707 Guidelines, procurement, 471
FPEPA. See Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge,
contract (FPEPA) A (PMBOK® Guide)
FPIF. See Fixed Price Incentive Fee contract components of, 17–18
FPP. See Firm Fixed Price contracts development of, 69
Free float, 707 foundation and framework for, 541
FS. See Finish-to-start overview of industry standard, 1–2
Fully plan-driven life cycles. See Predictive life cycle purpose of, 2
Functional manager
project manager and, 52, 55, 325 H
skills and, 332
Hierarchical charts, 316, 425–426
Functional organization, 707
High-level project/product description, 81, 135, 140, 152,
Functional requirements, 118, 148
279, 314, 402
Funding limit reconciliation, 253, 707
High-level requirements, 80, 81, 135, 140, 149, 402
Funding requirements
Histograms, 293, 304, 708
cost baseline, expenditures and, 255
Historical information
project funding, 256
definition, 708
�
Future state, transition state and, 6

lessons learned and, 41, 74
�
review, 253
G Human resource management. See Project Resource
Gantt chart, 217, 707 Management
Generally recognized, 2 Hybrid life cycle, 19
Globalization/global environment Hybrid methodologies, 73
cultural diversity and, 338
cultural influences and, 39 I
international factors, 332
ID. See Activity identifier
virtual teams/distributed teams and, 311
Identified risks. See also Risk register
Good practice, 2, 28
Part 3 - Index
736
contingency reserves and, 245 Inflation allowance, 241, 246
cost estimates and, 246, 247 Influence, directions of, 513
list of, 417 Influence diagram, 436, 708
reserve analysis and, 265 Influence/impact grid, stakeholder analysis, 512
risk breakdown structure and, 405 Influencing skills, 341, 350, 357
risk perception and, 420 Information, 708. See also Documentation; Historical
SWOT analysis and, 415 information; Project information
Identify Risks process, 409–418, 586–587 confidentiality/sensitivity of, 371
definition, 708 project management data and, 26–27
inputs, 411–413 urgency of need for, 370
outputs, 417–418 work performance, 26
overview, 409–411 Information management systems, 708. See also Project
tools and techniques, 414–416 Management Information System
Identify Stakeholders process, 507–515, 563–564 Information-sharing procedures, formal, 102
definition, 708 Information storage and retrieval. See Corporate
inputs, 509–510 knowledge base repositories
outputs, 514–515 Information system. See Project Management Information
overview, 507–508 System
tools and techniques, 511–514 Initiating Process Group, 23, 561–564
IFB. See Invitation for bid definition, 708
Impact scales, risk and, 426 overview, 561–562
Impact value, 426. See also Probability and impact matrix project boundaries and, 562
Implementing Organizational Project Management: Initiating project
A Practice Guide, 17 context for, 7–9
Implement Risk Responses process, 449–452, 607 processes, procedures and, 40
definition, 708 Input(s). See also specific process
inputs, 450 definition, 708
outputs, 451–452 project management processes and, 22, 555
overview, 449–450 Inspection(s)
tools and techniques, 451 definition, 708
Imposed date, 708 description of, 166, 303, 498
�
Improvement planning for, 285

continual, 275 prevention and, 274
�
continuous, 276 Integrated change control. See Perform Integrated Change

quality, 275, 296 Control process
Incentive fee, 708 Integrated risk management, 399
Incremental life cycle, 19, 708 Integration, 66–68. See also Project Integration
Independent cost estimates, 479, 485 Management
Independent estimates, 708 cognitive level and, 67
Indirect costs, 246, 261 complexity and, 68
Individual project risk, 397 context level and, 67
Industry, project manager and, 55 overview, 66
Inflation, 243 process level and, 67
737
Intellectual property rights, 470, 480, 483, 485, 491, 495 K
Interactive communication, 374
Kaizen, 310
Interdependencies, 14, 16, 102–103
Kanban system, 177
Internal dependencies, 192
Key concepts
Internal rate of return (IRR), 34, 473
Project Communications Management and, 360–363
Internal stakeholders, 550
Interpersonal and team skills, 709
Interpersonal communication, 374
Project Procurement Management and, 460–462
Interpersonal skills, 144–145, 153
Project Quality Management and, 273–275
definition, 709
Project Resource Management and, 309–310
“soft” skills, 53
Project Risk Management and, 397–398
team skills and, 332–333, 341, 348–350, 357, 375–
376, 386, 392, 416, 424, 432, 442, 451, 488, 527, 534
types of, 80, 104, 534, 552
Project Stakeholder Engagement and, 504–505
Interviews, 80, 85, 142, 282, 414, 432, 709
Key performance indicators (KPIs), 95, 389
Invitation for bid (IFB), 709
Key stakeholder list, 81, 314, 368, 509
IRR. See Internal rate of return
Knowledge, 709. See also Manage Project Knowledge
Ishikawa diagrams, 293
process
Issue, 709
body of, 1
Issue log
explicit, 100, 706
definition, 709
product, management of, 73
as input, 124, 347, 354, 382, 390, 412, 455, 510, 519,
project management and, 16
525, 532
project manager and, 52
as output, 96, 113,297, 306, 351, 358, 387, 393, 418,
repositories for, 41
427, 452, 458, 515, 529, 536
tacit, 100, 724
Iteration backlog, 203, 226
Knowledge Areas, 23–25, 553
Iteration burndown chart, 226
mapping of, 24–25, 556
Iteration length, 182
overview, 23–25
Iteration planning, 215
PMBOK® Guide key components and, 18
Iterative activity, 33
Process Groups and, 24–25, 556
Iterative life cycle, 19, 151, 709
Knowledge management, 133, 365
�
Iterative planning technique, 185, 721

misconceptions, 100
Iterative process, 205, 209, 411
�
product, 73
project, 73
J tools and techniques, 103
JAD. See Joint application design/development (JAD) Known risks, 31, 399
sessions “Known-unknowns,” 202, 245
JIT. See Just-in-time KPIs. See Key performance indicators
“Job shadowing,” 145
Joint application design/development (JAD) sessions, 145
Joint venture, 444, 445, 476
Judgment. See Expert judgment
Part 3 - Index
738
L Lessons learned repository
definition, 709
Lag(s)
as output, 128, 501
adjusting, 228
Leveling. See Resource leveling
definition, 193, 709
Level of accuracy, 182, 238
example of, 192
Level of effort (LoE), 300, 325, 450, 709
leads and, 192–193, 214
Level of precision, 238
Language, 365
Lexicon. See PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms
Late finish date (LF), 210, 709
LF. See Late finish date
Late start date (LS), 210, 709
Life cycle. See also Iterative life cycle; Predictive life cycle;
Law of diminishing returns, 197
Product life cycle; Project life cycle
Lead(s)
attributes and, 20
adjusting, 228
definition, 710
definition, 192, 709
development, 19, 74
example of, 192
incremental, 19, 708
lags and, 192–193, 214
iterative, 19, 151, 709
Leader(s), qualities and skills of, 61–62
predictive, 19, 714
Leadership, 534
Life cycle approach, 178, 311
management compared to, 64–66
Listening techniques, 386, 534. See also Active listening
styles, 65
LoE. See Level of effort
Leadership skills, 60–63, 350
Log, 710. See also Issue log
getting things done, 62–63
Logical data model, 284
people, dealing with, 60
Logical relationship, 710. See also Precedence
PMI Talent Triangle® and, 56, 57
Diagramming Method (PDM); Precedence relationship
politics, power and, 62–63
Logic bar chart, 218
qualities and, 61–62
Logistics, 464
Lean Six Sigma, 275
Long-lead items, 464
Least cost method, 473
LS. See Late start date
Legal requirements, 78, 369, 370
Legal rights, 512
Lessons learned, 208. See also Retrospectives M
definition, 709 Majority, 144
�
meetings, 305 Make-or-buy analysis, 473, 476, 710

�
tailoring considerations, 74 Make-or-buy decisions, 473, 479, 710

Lessons learned register Make versus buy decision, 241
definition, 709 Manageability, risk and, 424
description of, 104 Manage Communications process, 379–388, 605–606
as input, 92, 101, 108, 124, 141, 165, 169, 198, 208, definition, 710
225, 242, 291, 300, 339, 347, 354, 382, 390, 412, 440, inputs, 381–383
450, 455, 484, 495, 525, 532 outputs, 387–388
as output, 97,104, 113, 167, 171, 204, 221, 230, 247, overview, 379–381
270, 287, 297, 306, 327, 335, 344, 351, 358, 387, 393, tools and techniques, 383–386
418, 448, 452, 458, 480, 491, 500, 529, 536
739
Management. See also Conflict management; Portfolio Managing Change in Organizations: A Practice Guide, 6
management; Program management; Project Mandatory dependencies, 191, 710
management; Project Quality Management Market conditions, 243
leadership compared to, 64–66 Market demand, 78
meetings and, 80, 86, 386 Market research, 473
project knowledge, 73 Mass communication, 374
risk, 399, 463 Master schedule, 217, 710
social media, 385 Master services agreement (MSA), 465
supply chain, 464 Matrix diagrams, 284, 293, 710
team, 311 Matrix organization(s), 710
Management elements, 44–45 Matrix project environment, 329
Management reserves, 202, 248, 252, 254, 256, 265, Measure, units of, 182, 238
405, 710 Measurement. See Metrics; Quality control measurements;
Management responsibility, 275 Quality metrics
Management skills, 710 Media, choice of, 381
Manage Project Knowledge process, 98–105, 598–599 Meetings, 80, 95, 111, 127, 136, 181, 185, 238, 286, 318,
definition, 710 325, 342, 404
inputs, 100–102 activity durations and, 203
outputs, 104–106 approved change requests review, 305
overview, 98–100 change control, 120
tools and techniques, 102–104 change control board and, 120
Manage Quality process, 288–297, 599–600 management of, 80, 86, 381, 386
definition, 710 project, 364
inputs, 290–291 project kick-off, 86
outputs, 296–297 project management plan and, 86
overview, 288–290 project-related, 364, 376
tools and techniques, 292–296 quality control and, 305
Manager(s). See also Project manager retrospectives/lessons learned, 305
functional, 53, 55, 325, 332 risk analysis and, 426
portfolio, 13 risk identification and, 416
program, 11, 29, 55 risk review, 457
�
Manage Stakeholder Engagement process, 523–529, types of, 528

610–611 Megaprojects, 11, 463
�
definition, 710 Memorandums of understanding (MOUs), 78, 461

inputs, 525–526 Methodology, 2, 711
outputs, 528–529 Metrics. See also Quality control measurements; Quality
overview, 523–524 metrics
tools and techniques, 526–528 benefits management plan and, 33
Manage Team process, 345–351, 604–605 project success and, 34–35
definition, 710 work performance, 109
inputs, 347–348 Milestone, 711
outputs, 350–351 Milestone charts, 218
overview, 345–346
Part 3 - Index
740
Milestone list Motivation
as input, 92, 108, 124, 188, 198, 208, 430, 469, 495 behaviors and, 60
as output, 186, 194, 480 conflict management and, 348
Milestone schedule, 711. See also Master schedule leadership and, 65, 309
Mind-mapping, 144, 284, 521, 711 staff and, 197
Mitigation. See Risk mitigation team skills and, 341
Modeling techniques, 209, 431 user stories and, 145
Monitor and Control Project Work process, 105–113, MOUs. See Memorandums of understanding
615–616 MSA. See Master services agreement
definition, 711 Multicriteria Decision Analysis, 119, 144, 534, 711
inputs, 107–110 Multiphase projects, 86
outputs, 112–113
overview, 105–107 N
Navigating Complexity: A Practice Guide, 68
Monitor Communications process, 388–393, 627–628
Negative risks, 395, 397
definition, 711
Negotiation, 341, 357, 488, 527
inputs, 390–391
Net present value (NPV), 34, 473
outputs, 392–393
Network(s), 711. See also Project schedule network diagram
overview, 388–389
social computing communication and, 374
Network analysis. See Schedule network analysis
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group, 23, 613–632
Networking, 386, 534, 711
definition, 711
Networking skills, 104, 534
overview, 613
Network logic, 218, 711
processes in, 614
Network path, 210, 711. See also Critical path method
Monitor, 711
(CPM)
Monitor Risks process, 453–458, 628–629
Node, 189, 435, 711
definition, 711
Nominal group technique, 144–145, 712
inputs, 455–456
Nonconformance
outputs, 457–458
costs and, 245, 282, 283
overview, 453–454
prevention of, 274
problems, 303
�
Monitor Stakeholder Engagement process, 530–536,

work, 284
631–632
�
Nonverbal communication, 384

definition, 711
NPV. See Net present value
inputs, 532–533
outputs, 535–536
overview, 530–531 O
tools and techniques, 533–535 Objective, 712
Monte Carlo analysis, 213–214, 399, 433, 436 OBS. See Organizational breakdown structure
Monte Carlo simulation, 214, 711 Observation/conversation, 145, 527
Morale, 45, 338 On-demand scheduling, 177
Most likely duration, 201 OPAs. See Organizational process assets (OPAs)
Operational documents, 128
741
OPM. See Organizational Project Management reporting relationships and, 319, 329
Opportunities, 397, 712 selection of, factors in, 46
strategies for, 444 types of, 45–47
Optimistic duration, 201 Organizational systems, 42–44
Organizational breakdown structure (OBS), 316, 712 governance frameworks and, 43–44
Organizational charts, 370 overview, 42–43
Organizational communication requirements, 40, 102, Organizational theory, 318
369, 383, 391, 520, 525, 533 Organization charts and position descriptions, 316–317
Organizational culture, 38. See also Cultural diversity hierarchical-type charts and, 316
Organizational governance matrix-based charts, 317
frameworks, 43–44 text-oriented formats, 317
project governance and, 545 Output(s). See also specific process
Organizational knowledge base. See Corporate knowledge definition, 712
base repositories project management processes and, 22, 555
Organizational knowledge repositories, 41 Overall project risk, 397, 712
Organizational learning, 712 strategies for, 445–446
Organizational procedures links, 182, 239 Overlapping project phases, 19, 547
Organizational process assets (OPAs)
categories of, 39–40 P
definition, 712
Parameters. See Project characteristics
enterprise environmental factors and, 557
Parametric estimating, 200–201, 244, 324, 712
as input, 79, 84, 94, 102, 110, 117, 136, 141, 152, 157,
Path convergence, 194, 712
170, 180, 184, 189, 199, 209, 225, 237, 243, 251, 260,
Path divergence, 194, 712
281, 291, 302, 314, 324, 331, 340, 348, 355, 369, 383,
Payback period (PBP), 34, 473
391, 403, 413, 422, 431, 441, 450, 471–472, 486, 497,
Payment schedules and requests, 501
510, 520, 526, 533
Payment types, contract, 476
as output, 105, 128, 335, 344, 388, 458, 481, 491, 501
PBOs. See Project-based organizations (PBOs)
processes, policies, and procedures, 40–41
PBP. See Payback period
project influences and, 37
PDCA. See Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle
Organizational project management (OPM)
PDM. See Precedence Diagramming Method
definition, 544
PDPC. See Process Decision Program Charts (PDPC)
�
governance framework, 44
Percent complete, 712
purpose of, 17
�
Performance appraisals, 126, 344, 351

strategies and, 16–17
Performance assessment. See Team performance
Organizational strategy
assessments
expert judgment and, 79
Performance measurement, rules of, 239
portfolio structure and, 12
Performance measurement baseline (PMB), 88, 621, 712
Organizational structure(s), 42, 44. See also Project
as input, 169, 224, 259
management office
as output, 171, 229, 269, 620
functional organization, 707
Performance reporting, 175, 478, 489. See also Work
hierarchical, 45
performance reports
matrix organizations, 710
Performance reviews, 227, 303, 356, 498, 712
project characteristics and, 47
Performing integration. See Integration
Part 3 - Index
742
Performing organization, 39, 40, 271, 332. See also Seller(s) Planned value (PV), 261, 713
Perform Integrated Change Control process, 113–120, Planning package, 161, 713. See also Control account
616–617 Planning Process Group, 23, 565–594
inputs, 116–117 overview, 565–566
outputs, 120 processes in, 566
overview, 113–115 Plan Procurement Management process, 466–481,
tools and techniques, 118–120 592–593
Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis process, 419–427, definition, 713
588–589 inputs, 468–472
inputs, 421–422 overview, 466–468
outputs, 427 tools and techniques, 472–474
overview, 419–421 Plan Quality Management process, 277–287, 580–581
tools and techniques, 422–426 definition, 713
Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process, 428–436, inputs, 279–281
589–590 outputs, 286–287
inputs, 430–431 tools and techniques, 281–286
outputs, 436 Plan Resource Management process, 312–320, 581–582
Phase. See Project phase(s) outputs, 318–320
Phase closure, 126, 127, 128. See also Close Project or overview, 312–313
Phase process tools and techniques, 315–318
Phase gate Plan Risk Management process, 401–408, 585
description of, 21 inputs, 402–403
Physical resource assignments, 333, 354, 358, 626 outputs, 405–408
Plan Communications Management, 366–378 overview, 401–402
inputs, 368–369 tools and techniques, 404
�
outputs, 377–378 Plan Risk Responses process, 437–448, 590–592

�

Plan Communications Management process, 584–585, outputs, 447–448
713 overview, 437–439
Plan Cost Management process, 235–239, 577 tools and techniques, 441–446
definition, 713 Plan Schedule Management process, 179–182, 571–572
inputs, 236–237 definition, 713
outputs, 238–239 inputs, 180
overview, 235–236 outputs, 181–182
tools and techniques, 237–238 overview, 179
Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle, 275 tools and techniques, 181
743
Plan Scope Management process, 134–137, 567–568 Project Integration Management and, 73
definition, 713 Project Procurement Management and, 463–464
inputs, 135–136 Project Quality Management and, 275
outputs, 137 Project Resource Management and, 310–311
overview, 134–135 Project Risk Management and, 398–399
tools and techniques, 136 Project Schedule Management and, 177
Plan Stakeholder Engagement process, 516–522, 594 Project Scope Management and, 132
definition, 713 Project Stakeholder Engagement and, 505
inputs, 518–520 Practice Standard for Earned Value Management, 182
outputs, 522 Practice Standard for Earned Value Management –
overview, 516–518 Second Edition, 239
tools and techniques, 520–522 Practice Standard for Scheduling, 175, 178, 207, 214
Plurality, 144, 714 Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structures –
PM. See Project manager Second Edition, 161
PMB. See Performance measurement baseline Preapproved seller lists, 471
PMBOK® Guide. See Guide to the Project Management Pre-assignment of team members, 333
Body of Knowledge Pre-bid conferences. See Bidder conferences
PMI Lexicon of Project Management Terms, 3 Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM), 189–190
PMIS. See Project Management Information System critical paths and, 210
PMI Talent Triangle®, 56–57 definition, 714
PMO. See Project management office relationship types, 190
Policy Precedence relationship. See also Logical relationship
processes, procedures and, 40–41, 102 internal dependencies and, 192
procurement, 471 Precision, level of, 238
Political awareness, 104, 376, 386, 527, 534 Predecessor activity, 194, 714
Politics, leadership skills and, 62–63 Predictive life cycle, 19, 131, 714
Portfolio(s) Preferred logic/preferential logic, 191. See also
definition, 11, 15, 714 Discretionary dependencies
governance of, 44 Prequalified seller lists updates, 501
programs, projects and, 11–13, 543–544 Presentations, 381, 384, 534
�
Portfolio management Preventive action

definition, 15, 714 change request for, 96, 112
�
description of, 15 definition, 714

organizational strategies and, 16 inspection and, 274
program management and, 11, 12 Probability and impact matrix, 425
Portfolio Management, The Standard for, 3, 15, 33 definition, 714
Portfolio manager, 13 scoring scheme and, 408
Positive risks, 395, 397 Probability distributions, 432
Practice, 714 cumulative (S-curve), 433
Practices, emerging influence diagram and, 436
Project Communications Management and, 364 simulation and, 213
Project Cost Management, 233 target milestone and, 214
variability risks and, 399
Part 3 - Index
744
Problem solving, 295, 356 Product analysis, 153, 715
Procedure(s) Product backlog, 131, 203
definition, 714 Product evaluations. See Test and evaluation documents
processes, policies and, 40–41 Product life cycle
procurement, 471 cost of quality and, 245
Process(es), 714 definition, 715
Process analysis, 292 Product requirements
Process assets. See Organizational process assets brainstorming and, 142
Process closure. See Closing Process Group facilitation and, 145
Process flow diagrams, 23, 284 industry specific, 140
Process Groups. See Project Management Process Groups meeting, 552
Process level, integration at, 67 requirements traceability matrix and, 93, 148, 280, 470
Procurement(s) Product reviews, 166
closed, 499 Product roadmap, 215–216
complexity of, 465 Product scope, 115, 131, 715
phases, 476 Product vision, 216
Procurement audit, 494, 714 Professional conduct, 3
Procurement closure, formal, 125, 499 Program(s)
Procurement contract, 464, 494, 498, 501 definition, 11, 715
Procurement documentation, 485 governance of, 44
comparison of, 481 portfolios, projects and, 11–13, 543–544
definition, 714 Program management
as input, 496 definition, 715
as output, 499 description of, 14
Procurement documents portfolio management and, 11
definition, 714 Program Management, The Standard for, 3, 14, 33
as input, 125, 413 Program manager, 11, 29, 55
procurement contract, 464, 494, 498, 501 Progressive elaboration, 147, 185, 186, 565, 715
Procurement file, 501 Project(s), 4–9
Procurement management plan, 87, 125 boundaries, 562
definition, 714 complex, 461
�
as input, 330, 484, 495 definition, 4, 542, 715

as output, 447, 475, 490, 500 funding requirements, 256
�
Procurement negotiation, 488 initiation of, 546

Procurement phases, 476 multiphase, 86
Procurement policies, formal, 471 portfolios, programs and, 11–13, 543–544
Procurement statement of work, 477–478, 485, 715 Project artifacts, tailoring, 558–559
Procurement strategy, 476, 715 Project boundaries, 562
Product(s) Project budget components, 255
definition, 715 Project business case, 30–32
final, 127 Project calendar, 220, 225, 715
projects and, 4 Project characteristics, 47, 253
745
Project charter. See also Develop Project Charter process; 327, 335, 344, 351, 358, 378, 387, 393, 418, 427, 436,
Key stakeholder list 448, 452, 458, 480, 491, 500, 515, 529, 536
definition, 715 project management plan and, 89, 559
elements of, 155 Project environment, 365, 371. See also Adaptive
as input, 83, 124, 135, 140, 152, 180, 236, 279, 314, environments; Agile environments
368, 402, 468, 509, 518 Project execution. See Executing Process Group
management plan and, 34 Project funding requirements
as output, 81 definition, 715
Project closure. See also Close Project or Phase process as input, 260
documents, 128 as output, 256
guidelines, 41 Project governance
Project communication(s), 92, 124, 387 definition, 44, 715
as input, 390, 532 organizational governance and, 545
Project communication requirements. See Communication Project importance, 400
requirements analysis Project initiation
Project Communications Management, 24, 359–365 context, 7–9
agile/adaptive environments and, 365 definition, 716
definition, 715 Project Integration Management, 23. See also specific
key concepts for, 360–363 process
overview, 360 agile/adaptive environments, 74
processes in, 359 definition, 716
tailoring considerations, 365 key concepts, 72
trends and emerging practices, 364 overview, 69–71
Project complexity, 400 processes in, 70
Project constraints. See Constraints tailoring considerations, 74
Project cost control. See Control Costs process trends and emerging practices, 73
Project Cost Management, 24, 231–234 Project life cycle, 19, 547–549
agile/adaptive environments and, 234 adaptive, 19, 131, 698
key concepts for, 233 Predictive, 19, 131, 714
overview, 231–232 project management plan and, 135
�
processes in, 231 Project management. See also Organizational project

tailoring considerations, 234 management
�
trends and emerging practices, 233 definition, 10, 716

Project dimensions, 178 importance of, 10–11
Project documents Knowledge Areas, 23–25
as input, 92–93, 101, 108, 116, 124, 141, 152, 157, processes, 22
165, 169, 188, 198, 207–208, 225, 242, 250, 260, 280, Process Groups in, 23–25
291, 300, 314, 322, 331, 339, 347, 354, 368, 382, 390, Project management body of knowledge, 1, 2, 69, 716
403, 412–413, 421, 430–431, 440, 450, 455, 469–470, Project Management Information System (PMIS), 26, 95,
484–485, 495, 510, 519, 525, 532 193, 216, 227, 246, 268, 325, 350, 357, 385, 392,
as output, 97, 113, 120, 127, 128, 155, 162, 167, 171, 451, 716
194, 204, 221, 230, 247, 256, 270, 287, 297, 306, 320, Project Management Knowledge Areas, 23–25, 553, 716
Part 3 - Index
746
Project management office (PMO), 40, 48–49, 716 Project meetings, 364
Project management plan, 86–89, 403. See also Develop Project organization chart, 319, 716
Project Management Plan process Project performance appraisals, 342
baselines, 87 Project phase(s)
components and, 88, 116, 135, 165, 169, 279, 314, definition, 20, 716
368, 411–412, 564, 568, 569, 570, 572, 573, 574, 575, overview, 20–21
577, 578, 579, 580, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 588, 589, phase names and, 20
591, 593, 594, 597, 599, 600, 601, 603, 604, 606, 607, Process Groups and, 555
608, 610, 615, 617, 618, 619, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, Project portfolio, 11
629, 630, 632, 634 Project presentations, 385
definition, 716 Project Procurement Management, 24, 459–465
as input, 92, 100, 107, 116, 123, 135, 140, 152, 157, agile/adaptive environments and, 465
165, 169, 180, 184, 188, 198, 207, 224, 236, 241–242, definition, 717
250, 259, 279, 290, 300, 314, 322, 330, 339, 347, 354, key concepts for, 460–462
368, 381, 390, 411, 421, 430, 439, 450, 455, 469, 484, overview, 460
495, 509, 518, 525, 532, 568, 572, 621 processes in, 459
as output, 97, 105, 112, 120, 171, 186, 221, 229, 269, tailoring considerations, 465
287, 297, 306, 334, 343, 351, 358, 378, 387, 393, 447, trends and emerging practices, 463–464
457, 490, 500, 515, 529, 535, 564, 572, 576, 581, 584, Project Quality Management, 24, 271–276. See also
591, 598, 599, 600, 602, 603, 605, 606, 607, 609, 611, Quality management plan
616, 617, 620, 622, 623, 625, 626, 628, 629, 631, 632 agile/adaptive environments and, 276
subsidiary management plans, 87 definition, 717
Project Management Process Groups, 23, 554–556 interrelations, major, 273
categories of, 23 key concepts for, 273–275
Knowledge Area mapping and, 24–25, 556 tailoring considerations, 276
PMBOK key components and, 18 trends and emerging practices, 275
project/phase interactions and, 555 Project records, 41, 79, 109, 388, 494
Project management software, 188, 194, 377, 385 Project reporting, 385
Project management system, 391, 716 Project reports, 123, 361, 362, 388
Project management team, 716. See also Project team(s) Project requirements, 148
�
Project manager (PM). See also Competencies; Project Resource Management, 24, 307–312. See also
Leadership skills Employees
�
competencies of, 56–66 agile/adaptive environments and, 311–312

leadership styles and, 65 key concepts for, 309–310
overview, 51–52 overview, 307–309
responsibilities, 73 tailoring considerations, 311
role of, 51–52, 66, 551 trends and emerging practices, 310–311
skills and, 52 Project risk(s)
sphere of influence, 52–56 individual, 397
Project Manager Competency Development (PMCD) overall, 397, 445–446, 712
Framework, 56 prioritized list of, 436
747
Project risk exposure, assessment of, 436 key concepts for, 131
Project Risk Management, 24, 395–400 overview, 130
agile/adaptive environments and, 400 processes, 129
definition, 717 tailoring considerations, 133
key concepts for, 397–398 trends and emerging practices, 132
overview, 396 Project scope statement
processes in, 395 definition, 717
tailoring considerations, 400 elements of, 155
trends and emerging practices, 398–399 as input, 157
Project schedule as output, 154, 161
definition, 717 Project size, 400
as input, 93, 225, 242, 250, 314, 331, 339, 355, 440, Project sponsor, 29
484, 519 Project Stakeholder Engagement, 24, 503–506
as output, 217–219, 230, 256, 335, 344, 378, 387, 448 agile/adaptive environments and, 506
Project Schedule Management, 24, 173–178 definition, 717
agile/adaptive environments and, 178 key concepts for, 504–505
key concepts, 175 tailoring considerations, 506
overview of, 174 trends and emerging practices, 505
processes, 173 Project stakeholder(s), 550–551
scheduling overview, 176 examples of, 551
tailoring considerations, 178 external, 550
trends and emerging practices, 177 internal, 550
Project schedule model Project statement of work. See Statement of work
development, 182 Project success
maintenance, 182, 208 benefits management and, 546–547
schedule data for, 220 failure or, 123, 504
schedule network analysis and, 209 measures of, 34–35
target, 217 Project team assignments, 339, 344, 347
Project schedule network diagram as input, 440, 469
definition, 717 as output, 351, 448, 452
�
description of, 193–194, 218 Project team(s), 717. See also Manage Project Team
as input, 208 process; Team(s); Virtual teams
�
lag and, 193 assignments, 198, 208

as output, 194, 218 development objectives, 338
Project schedule presentations, example, 219 resource management, 319
Project scope, 131. See also Control Scope process; Define Project team directory, 717
Scope process; Verify Scope process Proposal(s). See Seller proposals
change requests and, 115 Proposal evaluation techniques, 717
definition, 717 Prototypes, 147, 717
description, 154 Pull communication, 374
Project Scope Management, 23, 129–133 Purchasing contract, 461
agile/adaptive environments and, 133 Push communication, 374
definition, 717 PV. See Planned value
Part 3 - Index
748
Q R
QFD. See Quality Function Deployment RACI. See Responsible, accountable, consult and inform
Qualifications only selection method, 473 (RACI) chart
Qualitative risk analysis. See Perform Qualitative Risk RACI chart, 317, 718
Analysis process RAM. See Assignment matrix; Responsibility assignment
Quality. See also Plan Quality Management process; matrix
Project Quality Management RBS. See Resource breakdown structure; Risk breakdown
definition, 718 structure
grade and, 274 RCA. See Root cause analysis
Quality assurance, 289. See also Manage Quality process Recognition, 319, 341–342
Quality audits, 290, 294–296, 718 Regression analysis, 126, 718
Quality checklists, 292, 718 Regulations, 718
Quality control measurements Regulatory bodies, 550
definition, 718 Report(s). See also Quality report; Risk report
as input, 124, 291 final, 127–128
as output, 305 project, 123, 361, 362, 388
Quality function deployment, 145 work performance, 26
Quality improvement Reporting formats, 182, 239, 408, 455, 525
initiatives, 275 Requested change. See also Change requests
methods, 296 Request for information (RFI), 477, 718
Quality management. See Project Quality Management Request for proposal (RFP), 477, 718
Quality management plan, 87, 320. See also Manage Request for quotation (RFQ), 477, 719
Quality process; Plan Quality Management process; Requirement(s). See also High-level requirements; Product
Project Quality Management requirements
definition, 718 business, 148
as input, 135, 241, 314, 411, 469 classifications, 148
as output, 286, 297, 447, 490 cross-functional, 145
Quality management system, 718 definition, 719
Quality metrics functional, 118, 148
definition, 718 legal, 78, 369, 370
as input, 291, 300 nonfunctional, 148
�
as output, 287 organizational communication, 369, 383, 391, 520,

�
Quality policy, 718 525, 533

Quality report, 108, 124, 165, 296, 382, 495, 718 project, 148
Quality requirements, 148, 718 quality, 148, 718
Quality standards. See Standard solution, 148
Quantitative risk analysis. See Perform Quantitative Risk stakeholder, 148
Analysis process transition and readiness, 148
Questionnaires, 143, 303, 511, 718 Requirements documentation, 147–148. See also Collect
Quotation, 477 Requirements process; Contract(s)
definition, 719
as input, 124, 152, 157, 165, 169, 280, 314, 368, 412,
470, 485, 495, 510
as output, 97, 147–148, 155, 162, 167, 171, 480, 491
749
Requirements Management: A Practice Guide, 132 as input, 208, 242, 331, 355, 413, 431, 470
Requirements management plan, 87, 137, 140, 165, 169, as output, 221, 325, 500
279, 719 Resource smoothing, 211, 720
as input, 411, 484, 495 Responsibility, 319, 720
as output, 490 Responsibility assignment matrix (RAM), 720
Requirements traceability matrix Responsible, accountable, consult, and inform (RACI)
definition, 719 chart, 317, 718
example of, 149 Result(s). See also Deliverable(s)
as input, 93, 116, 165, 169, 280, 470, 496 definition, 720
as output, 148–149, 155, 167, 171, 287, 480, 491, 501 final, 127
Reserve, 719. See also Management reserve projects and, 4
Reserve analysis, 202, 245, 265, 456, 719. See also Retrospectives, 224, 276, 305, 535. See also Lessons
Contingency reserve learned
Residual risk, 448, 719 Return on investment (ROI), 15, 473
Resolution of conflicts. See Conflict management Reviews
Resource(s) approved change requests, 305
availability of, 178 design, 233
definition, 719 documentation, 705
industry-specific, 311 peer, 303
number of, 197 performance, 227, 303, 356, 498, 712
Resource assignments. See Physical resource assignments product, 165
Resource breakdown structure (RBS) project, 364
data representation and, 316 risk, 721
definition, 719 Rewards, 319, 341–342
as input, 101, 198, 355 Rework, 10, 720
as output, 326, 335, 358 RFI. See Request for information
sample, 327 RFP. See Request for proposal
Resource calendars RFQ. See Request for quotation
definition, 719 Risk(s). See also Identified risks; Identify Risks process;
as input, 199, 208, 225, 323, 331, 339, 440 Monitor Risks process; Opportunities; Project Risk
as output, 230, 334, 344, 491 Management; Project risk(s); Threat(s)
�
Resource histogram, 719 definition, 720

Resource leveling, 207, 211, 212, 719 levels of, 397
�
Resource management plan, 87, 250, 318, 322 negative, 395, 397
definition, 719 overall project, 712
as input, 368, 381, 390, 411, 439, 469, 518, 532 positive, 395, 397
as output, 334, 351, 358, 447, 535 project life cycle and, 549
Resource manager, 719 residual, 719
Resource optimization techniques, 211–212, 227, 719 secondary, 722
Resource planning, 217, 313, 314 Risk acceptance
Resource requirements. See also Project Resource active/passive strategies, 443, 444, 446
Management definition, 720
definition, 720
Part 3 - Index
750
Risk analysis. See Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis as output, 113, 221, 230, 247, 256, 270, 287, 297, 306,
process; Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis process 320, 335, 358, 387, 417, 427, 448, 452, 458, 480, 491,
Risk appetite, 720 501, 515, 536
Risk attitudes, 420, 518 Risk report
Risk audits, 456, 458, 720 definition, 721
Risk avoidance, 443, 720 as input, 93, 116, 125, 291, 382, 431, 440, 450, 455
Risk breakdown structure (RBS) as output, 418, 427, 448, 452, 458
definition, 720 Risk responses, 436. See also Plan Risk Responses
extract from sample, 406 process
risk categories and, 405 Risk reviews, 721
Risk categorization, 425, 720 Risk sharing, 444, 721
Risk category, 405, 417, 720 Risk threshold
Risk data quality assessment, 423, 720 agreed-upon, 398, 445
Risk enhancement, 720 definition, 721
Risk escalation, 545, 720 measurable, 398, 407
Risk exploiting, 721 setting, 403
Risk exposure, 398. See also Plan Risk Responses process; Risk transference, 443, 445, 721
Risk report Risk triggers, 417, 448
assessment of overall project, 436 Role(s)
Risk identification. See Identify Risks process project manager and, 51
Risk impact. See Probability and impact matrix responsibilities and, 318
Risk management plan, 87, 405. See also Plan Risk Role-responsibility-authority forms, 317
Management process Rolling wave planning, 160, 185, 721
definition, 721 Root cause analysis (RCA), 111, 292, 303, 415, 521,
elements of, 405–408 533, 721
as input, 236, 279, 412, 430, 439, 484, 495, 518, 525
as output, 287, 405–408, 490, 500 S
Risk mitigation, 443, 446, 721
Safety, 24, 45, 315
Risk owner, 721
Design for X and, 295
Risk parameters, assessment of other, 423–424
enterprise environmental factors and, 78, 84, 117
�
Risk perception, 420

requirements documentation and, 470, 480, 485,
Risk probability and impacts
�
491, 495
assessment, 423
solution requirements and, 148
description, 407
stakeholder analysis and, 512
matrix/scoring scheme, 408
Scatter diagrams, 293, 304
Risk register, 97
Schedule(s), 721. See also Control Schedule process;
content of, 417
Master schedule; Project schedule; Schedule model
definition, 721
Schedule baseline, 87. See also Baseline schedule
as input, 93, 125, 152, 199, 208, 242, 250, 280, 291,
definition, 721
314, 323, 355, 421, 431, 440, 450, 455, 470, 485, 496,
as input, 116, 224, 412, 430, 495
519, 532
as output, 171, 186, 217, 229, 297, 351, 358, 447,
490, 500
751
Schedule compression, 228, 721 scope of work and, 469, 484
Schedule compression techniques, 215 Scope model. See Context diagrams
Schedule control. See Control Schedule process Scope of work
Schedule data, 721 activity list and, 185
as input, 225 firm fixed price (FFP) and, 471
as output, 220, 230 scope management plan and, 469, 484
Schedule development. See Develop Schedule process WBS and, 157, 161
Schedule-drivers, 464 Scope statement. See Project scope statement
Schedule forecasts Secondary risks, 448, 722
definition, 722 Selected sellers, 488
as input, 108, 431 Self-organizing teams, 310, 722
as output, 113, 228 Seller(s). See also Buyer-seller relationship; Project
Schedule management plan, 87, 181. See also Develop Procurement Management
Schedule process buyer and, 460–461
as input, 184, 188, 198, 207, 224, 236, 411 partnership with, 275
as output, 181–182, 229, 447 prequalified, 501
Schedule model, 722 terms for, 461
Schedule network analysis, 209, 722. See also Backward Seller lists
pass; Critical path method; Resource leveling preapproved, 471
Schedule performance index (SPI), 182, 226, 233, 263, prequalified, 501
722 Seller performance evaluation documentation, 501
Schedule variance (SV), 262, 722 Seller proposals
Scheduling definition, 722
alternative, with a backlog, 177 as input, 486
on-demand, 177 Sender-receiver communication models, 371, 381
overview, 176 Sensitivity analysis, 434, 722
Scheduling, Practice Standard for, 175, 178, 207, 214 Sequence Activities process, 187–194, 573
Scheduling software, 38, 95, 216, 227, 357 definition, 723
Scheduling tool, 722 inputs, 188–189
Scope, 722. See also Product scope; Project scope outputs, 194
�
Scope baseline. See also Control Scope process overview, 187–188

definition, 722 tools and techniques, 189–193
�
elements of, 242 Sequencing, 188

as input, 116, 165, 169, 184, 188, 198, 207, 224, 242, Service(s)
250, 279, 314, 322, 412, 430, 469 final, 127
as output, 161–162, 171, 287, 297, 447, 490 projects and, 4
Scope change, 304, 319, 402, 472 Service level agreements (SLAs), 78, 461, 723
Scope creep, 154, 168, 182, 722 SF. See Start-to-finish
Scope exclusions, 154 Shared portal, 340
Scope management plan, 87, 137 Sharing, opportunity and, 444
definition, 722 Shewhart, Walter A., 275
as input, 140, 165, 169, 180, 469, 484 Simulation, 213–214, 433–434, 723
as output, 137, 171 SIPOC model, 284, 285
Part 3 - Index
752
Situation, analysis of, 31 classification of, 514
Six Sigma, 275 definition, 723
Skills. See also Interpersonal skills; Team skills external, 550
communication, 363, 384, 534 good practices and, 2
influencing, 341, 350, 357 internal, 550
leadership, 60–63 key, 34, 80, 145, 298, 407, 454, 624
management, 710 project meetings and, 364
networking, 386, 534, 711 project reviews and, 364
PMI Talent Triangle® and, 56–57 project success and, 34
project manager and, 52 tailoring considerations, 365
soft, 53, 357 unsatisfied, 10
strategic and business management, 58–60 Stakeholder analysis, 512, 533, 723
technical project management, 58 Stakeholder engagement assessment matrix, 521–522,
Slack. See Float 723
SLAs. See Service level agreements Stakeholder engagement plan, 87, 140, 279, 522
SMEs. See Subject matter experts definition, 723
Social computing, 364, 374 as input, 368, 381, 390, 509, 525, 532
Social media management, 385 as output, 387, 393, 522, 529, 535
Soft skills, 53, 357 Stakeholder expectation, 363
Software. See also Scheduling software Stakeholder identification, 367, 504, 510, 514, 532
information technology, 38 Stakeholder register
project management, 188, 194, 377, 385 definition, 723
simulation and, 433 as input, 141, 280, 314, 331, 368, 382, 413, 421, 440,
WBS structure and, 159 470, 485, 496, 519, 525, 532
Software development, 84, 252 as output, 155, 287, 335, 378, 514, 387, 393, 480, 491,
JAD sessions and, 145 501, 529, 536
storyboards and, 147 Stakeholder relations
Solution requirements, 148 complexity of, 506
Source selection criteria, 473–474, 478–479, 485, 723 technology and, 464
SOW. See Statement of work Stakeholder requirements, 148
Specification, 723 Standard for Portfolio Management, The, 3, 33
�
Specification limits, 723. See also Control limits Standard for Program Management, The, 3, 14, 33
Sphere of influence, project manager, 52–56 Standard for Project Management, The, 2–3, 28
�
SPI. See Schedule performance index overview, 541

Sponsor, 29, 723 Standup meetings, 95, 364, 535
Sponsoring organization, 33, 723 Start date, 723
SS. See Start-to-start Start-to-finish (SF), 190, 723
Staffing management plan. See Project Resource Start-to-start (SS), 190, 724
Management Statement of work (SOW), 462, 468, 469
Stage gate, 21, 545 definition, 724
Stakeholder(s). See also Identify Stakeholders process; procurement, 477–478, 485
Management Stakeholder Engagement process; Project Statistical sampling, 303, 724
stakeholder(s) Storyboarding, 147
753
Strategic management, PMI Talent Triangle® and, 56, 57 Project Risk Management and, 400
Strategic opportunity/business need, 546 Project Schedule Management and, 178
Strategic planning, 185. See also Organizational strategy Project Scope Management and, 133
Strategic project management skills, 58–60 Project Stakeholder Engagement and, 506
Strategic skills, 58–60 Talent, 56–57
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. See TCPI. See To-complete performance index
SWOT analysis Team(s). See also Colocated teams; Develop Project Team
Subcontractors, 38, 462 process; Project management team; Project team(s)
Subject matter experts (SMEs), 54, 55, 104. See also acquisition of members, 311
Expert judgment high-performance, 346
brainstorming and, 80, 85, 281 management of, 311
facilitation and, 145 project manager and, 51
interviews and, 142, 282, 414 self-organizing, 310, 722
Subsidiary management plans, 87, 558 virtual, 311, 333, 340, 725
Subsidiary plans, 83, 135, 316, 479, 489, 499 Team assessments, 342
Success Team building, 341
factors, critical, 31 Team-building activities, 337, 341, 342
project, measurement of, 34–35 Team charter, 319–320, 339, 347, 724
Successor activity, 186, 188, 190, 214 Team management plan, 724
definition, 189, 724 Team performance assessments, 339, 343, 347
lags and, 193 Team skills, 144–145
leads and, 192 definition, 708
multiple, 194 interpersonal skills and, 332–333, 341, 348–350, 357,
Summary activity, 194, 217, 724 375–376, 386, 392, 416, 432, 442, 451, 488, 527, 534
Supplier. See Seller(s) risk and, 424
Surveys, 143, 303, 511, 718 types of, 80, 104
SV. See Schedule variance Technical performance analysis, 456
SWOT analysis, 415, 724 Technical project management skills, 58
System(s). See Organizational systems PMI Talent Triangle® and, 56, 57
Technique(s)
T definition, 724
�
information management, 103–104

T&M. See Time and Material Contract
knowledge management, 103
�
Tacit knowledge, 724

project management processes and, 22
Tailoring, 2
Technology. See also Communication technologies; E-mail;
definition, 724
Software; Web conferencing
overview, 28
advances in, 78, 197
project artifacts, 558–559
availability/reliability of, 370
communications, 365
stakeholder relations and, 464
support, 178
Templates, 40, 724
Terms of reference (TOR), 468, 469, 478
Part 3 - Index
754
Test and evaluation documents, 296, 300, 303–304, Project Stakeholder Engagement and, 505
306, 724 quantitative risk analysis and, 436
Test and inspection planning, 285 Trend analysis, 111, 126, 170, 227, 263–265, 356,
Text-oriented formats, roles and responsibilities, 317 498, 725
Theory of Constraints (TOC), 310 Triangular distribution, 201, 245
Threat(s), 397 Trigger condition, 448, 518, 725
definition, 724 Tuckman ladder of team development, 338
strategies for, 442–443
Three-point estimate, 201, 244–245, 724 U
Threshold, 724
Unanimity, 144, 725
Time and Material Contract (T&M), 472, 724
Uncertainty, 398, 415
Time-boxing, 182
Union labor/contracts. See Contracts
Time management. See Project Schedule Management
Units of measure, 182, 238
Time-phased project budget, 87, 248, 254
“Unknown-unknowns,” 202
Time-scaled schedule network diagram, 218
Update(s)
TOC. See Theory of Constraints
change request for, 96
To-complete performance index (TCPI), 266, 268, 724
definition, 725
Tolerances, 274, 725
User stories, 145
Tools
advances in, 463
automated, 73 V
change control, 118–119, 700 VAC. See Variance at completion
definition, 725 Validate Scope process, 131, 163–167, 618–619
information management, 103–104 definition, 725
knowledge management, 103 inputs, 165
project management processes and, 22 outputs, 166–167
visual management, 73 overview, 163–164
TOR. See Terms of reference tools and techniques, 166
Tornado diagram, 434, 436, 725 Validation
Total float, 191, 210, 725 control and, 133
Traceability matrices, 40 definition, 725
�
Transfer. See Risk transference Value. See Business value

Trend(s) Value analysis. See Earned value analysis (EVA)
�
industry specific, 55 Variance, 725

Project Communications Management and, 364 Variance analysis, 111, 126, 170, 262–263, 725
Project Cost Management, 233 Variance at completion (VAC), 725
Project Integration Management and, 73 Variation, 725
Project Procurement Management and, 463–464 Vendor. See Seller(s)
Project Quality Management and, 275 Vendor conferences. See Bidder conferences
Project Resource Management and, 310–311 Verification, 725
Project Risk Management and, 398–399 Verified deliverables, 165, 305, 725
Project Schedule Management, 177 Video conferencing, 340
Project Scope Management and, 132 Virtual meetings, 103, 392
755
Virtual teams, 311, 333, 340, 725 Work performance information, 26, 357
Visual management tools, 73 definition, 726
VOC. See Voice of the Customer as input, 109, 535
Voice of the Customer (VOC), 145, 726 as output, 166, 170, 228, 305, 392, 457, 499
Voting, 111, 119, 144, 534 Work performance reports, 26
definition, 726
W as input, 116, 347, 382, 456
as output
Walkthroughs, 166, 224, 303, 498
Workshops, 145. See also Facilitated workshops
Watch list, risks and, 423, 427, 440, 455
Written communication, 360, 361. See also E-mail 5 Cs of,
Waterfall development approach, 135, 185
361, 362–363
Waterfall life cycles, 19
Waterfall model-based projects, 299, 400
WBS. See Work breakdown structure X
WBS dictionary, 162, 726 X, Design for X (DfX), 295
WBS ID, 186
What-if scenario analysis, 213, 227, 726
Work breakdown structure (WBS). See also Create WBS
process
approaches to, 159
cost management plan and, 239
data representation and, 316
definition, 726
as output, 161
planned value and, 261
planning package and, 161
samples, 159–160
scope baseline and, 242
WBS ID, 186
Work breakdown structure component, 726
Work Breakdown Structures, Practice Standard for –
Second Edition, 161
�
Work packages, 157

�
decomposition and, 158, 183, 185

definition, 726
description of, 161
level of detail and, 158
progressive elaboration and, 186
Work performance data, 26
definition, 726
as input, 165, 169, 225, 260, 301, 355, 390, 456,
496, 532
as output, 95
Part 3 - Index
756
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PRE FACE
The Project Management Institute and Agile Alliance® chartered this practice guide to create a greater
understanding of agile approaches in their communities. The vision for this practice guide is to equip project
teams with tools, situational guidelines, and an understanding of the available agile techniques and approaches
to enable better results.
Project teams are using agile approaches in a variety of industries beyond software development. Both
organizations realize that expansion has created a need for a common language, open mindedness, and the
willingness to be flexible in how products and deliverables are brought to market. In addition, both organizations
realize there are multiple ways to achieve successful delivery. There are a broad range of tools, techniques, and
frameworks; teams have choices for approaches and practices that fit their project and the organizational culture
in order to achieve the desired outcome.
The Agile Practice Guide core committee members are from varying backgrounds and use various approaches.
Some of the committee members are consultants and some work inside organizations. All have worked in agile
ways for many years.
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TABLE O F CO NTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1
2. AN INTRODUCTION TO AGILE ..................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Definable Work vs. High-Uncertainty Work ..................................................................... 7
2.2 The Agile Manifesto and Mindset .................................................................................... 8
2.3 Lean and the Kanban Method ........................................................................................ 12
2.4 Uncertainty, Risk, and Life Cycle Selection ................................................................... 13
3. LIFE CYCLE SELECTION ............................................................................................................ 17
3.1 Characteristics of Project Life Cycles............................................................................ 18
3.1.1 Characteristics of Predictive Life Cycles........................................................... 20
3.1.2 Characteristics of Iterative Life Cycles ............................................................. 21
3.1.3 Characteristics of Incremental Life Cycles ....................................................... 22
3.1.4 Characteristics of Agile Life Cycles ................................................................... 24
3.1.5 Agile Suitability Filters ....................................................................................... 25
3.1.6 Characteristics of Hybrid Life Cycles ................................................................ 26
3.1.7 Combined Agile and Predictive Approaches ..................................................... 27
3.1.8 Predominantly Predictive Approach with Some Agile Components ................ 28
3.1.9 A Largely Agile Approach with a Predictive Component .................................. 28
3.1.10 Hybrid Life Cycles as Fit-For-Purpose ............................................................. 29
3.1.11 Hybrid Life Cycles as Transition Strategy ....................................................... 30
3.2 Mixing Agile Approaches ............................................................................................... 31
3.3 Project Factors That Influence Tailoring ....................................................................... 32
I
4. IMPLEMENTING AGILE: CREATING AN AGILE ENVIRONMENT ................................................. 33
4.1 Start with an Agile Mindset............................................................................................ 33
4.2 Servant Leadership Empowers the Team ...................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Servant Leader Responsibilities ........................................................................ 34
4.2.2 Role of the Project Manager in an Agile Environment ...................................... 37
4.2.3 Project Managers Use Servant Leadership ....................................................... 38
4.3 Team Composition .......................................................................................................... 38
4.3.1 Agile Teams ........................................................................................................ 39
4.3.2 Agile Roles .......................................................................................................... 40
4.3.3 Generalizing Specialists..................................................................................... 42
4.3.4 Team Structures ................................................................................................. 43
4.3.5 Dedicated Team Members ................................................................................. 44
4.3.6 Team Workspaces .............................................................................................. 46
4.3.7 Overcoming Organizational Silos ...................................................................... 47
5. IMPLEMENTING AGILE: DELIVERING IN AN AGILE ENVIRONMENT .......................................... 49
5.1 Charter the Project and the Team .................................................................................. 49
5.2 Common Agile Practices ................................................................................................ 50
5.2.1 Retrospectives .................................................................................................... 50
5.2.2 Backlog Preparation .......................................................................................... 52
5.2.3 Backlog Refinement ........................................................................................... 52
5.2.4 Daily Standups ................................................................................................... 53
5.2.5 Demonstrations/Reviews ................................................................................... 55
5.2.6 Planning for Iteration-Based Agile .................................................................... 55
5.2.7 Execution Practices that Help Teams Deliver Value ......................................... 56
5.2.8 How Iterations and Increments Help Deliver Working Product ........................ 57
5.3 Troubleshooting Agile Project Challenges .................................................................... 57
5.4 Measurements in Agile Projects .................................................................................... 60
5.4.1 Agile Teams Measure Results ........................................................................... 61
Table of Contents
II
6. ORGANIZATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PROJECT AGILITY ................................................. 71
6.1 Organizational Change Management ............................................................................ 71
6.1.1 Drivers for Change Management ....................................................................... 73
6.1.2 Readiness for Change ........................................................................................ 73
6.2 Organizational Culture.................................................................................................... 75
6.2.1 Creating an Environment of Safety .................................................................... 75
6.2.2 Assessing Culture .............................................................................................. 75
6.3 Procurement and Contracts ........................................................................................... 77
6.4 Business Practices ......................................................................................................... 79
6.5 Multiteam Coordination and Dependencies (Scaling)................................................... 80
6.5.1 Frameworks........................................................................................................ 80
6.5.2 Considerations ................................................................................................... 80
6.6 Agile and the Project Management Office (PMO) .......................................................... 81
6.6.1 An Agile PMO is Value-Driven ............................................................................ 81
6.6.2 An Agile PMO is Invitation-Oriented .................................................................. 81
6.6.3 An Agile PMO is Multidisciplinary ..................................................................... 82
6.7 Organizational Structure ................................................................................................ 83
6.8 Evolving the Organization .............................................................................................. 84
7. A CALL TO ACTION ................................................................................................................... 87
ANNEX A1
PMBOK® GUIDE MAPPING ............................................................................................................ 89
ANNEX A2
AGILE MANIFESTO MAPPING ....................................................................................................... 97
ANNEX A3
OVERVIEW OF AGILE AND LEAN FRAMEWORKS .......................................................................... 99
APPENDIX X1
CONTRIBUTORS AND REVIEWERS.............................................................................................. 115
III
APPENDIX X2
ATTRIBUTES THAT INFLUENCE TAILORING................................................................................ 119
APPENDIX X3
AGILE SUITABILITY FILTER TOOLS............................................................................................. 125
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 139
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................... 141
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................. 149
INDEX ......................................................................................................................................... 157
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Table of Contents
IV
LIST OF TA BL ES AND F I GU RES
Figure 2-1. The Four Values of the Agile Manifesto .............................................................. 8

Figure 2-2. The Twelve Principles Behind the Agile Manifesto ............................................ 9
Figure 2-3. The Relationship Between the Agile Manifesto Values, Principles,
and Common Practices ..................................................................................... 10
Figure 2-4. Agile is a Blanket Term for Many Approaches ................................................. 11
Figure 2-5. Uncertainty and Complexity Model Inspired
by the Stacey Complexity Model ....................................................................... 14
Figure 3-1. The Continuum of Life Cycles ........................................................................... 19
Figure 3-2. Predictive Life Cycle .......................................................................................... 21
Figure 3-3. Iterative Life Cycle ............................................................................................. 21
Figure 3-4. A Life Cycle of Varying-Sized Increments ........................................................ 22
Figure 3-5. Iteration-Based and Flow-Based Agile Life Cycles .......................................... 24
Figure 3-6. Agile Development Followed by a Predictive Rollout ....................................... 27
Figure 3-7. A Combined Agile and Predictive Approach Used Simultaneously ................. 27
Figure 3-8. A Largely Predictive Approach with Agile Components .................................. 28
Figure 3-9. A Largely Agile Approach with a Predictive Component ................................. 28
Figure 5-1. Burndown Chart for Remaining Story Points ................................................... 62
Figure 5-2. Burnup Chart for Showing Story Points Completed ......................................... 63
Figure 5-3. Example of a Kanban Board .............................................................................. 65
Figure 5-4. Feature Chart ..................................................................................................... 67
Figure 5-5. Product Backlog Burnup Chart ......................................................................... 68
V
Figure 5-6. Earned Value in an Agile Context ...................................................................... 69
Figure 5-7. Cumulative Flow Diagram of Completed Features ........................................... 70
Figure 6-1. The Relationship Between Change Management and Agile Approaches ....... 72
Figure 6-2. Example of Assessing Organizational Culture ................................................. 76
Figure 6-3. Initial Ranked Backlog for Changes ................................................................. 85
Figure 6-4. Using Backlogs and Kanban Boards to Organize and Track Change Work ....... 86
Figure A3-1. Agile Approaches Plotted by Breadth and Detail ........................................... 100
Figure A3-2. Kanban Board Demonstrating Work in Progress Limits,
and a Pull System to Optimize the Flow of Work ........................................... 105
Figure A3-3. The Crystal Family of Methods........................................................................ 106
Figure A3-4. Feature-Driven Development Project Life Cycle............................................. 109
Figure A3-5. DSDM Approach to Constraint-Driven Agility................................................. 110
Figure A3-6. Representatives of Scrum Teams Participating in SoS teams ...................... 112
Figure X3-1. Model for Suitability of Agile Approach .......................................................... 127
Figure X3-2. Buy-In to Approach Assessment .................................................................... 129
Figure X3-3. Trust in Team Assessment .............................................................................. 130
Figure X3-4. Assessment for Decision-Making Powers of Team ....................................... 130
Figure X3-5. Team Size Assessment.................................................................................... 131
Figure X3-6. Experience Level Assessment ......................................................................... 131
Figure X3-7. Assessment for Access to the Customer/Business ....................................... 132
Figure X3-8. Likelihood of Change Assessment .................................................................. 132
Figure X3-9. Assessment for Criticality of Product or Service ........................................... 133
Figure X3-10. Incremental Delivery Assessment .................................................................. 133
Figure X3-11. Suitability Assessment Radar Chart ............................................................... 134
Figure X3-12. Drug Store Project ........................................................................................... 135
Figure X3-13. Military Messaging Example ........................................................................... 137
List of Tables and Figures

VI
Table 1-1. In-Scope and Out-of-Scope Items ...................................................................... 4
Table 3-1. Characteristics of Four Categories of Life Cycles ............................................ 18
Table 3-2. Tailoring Options to Improve Fit........................................................................ 32
Table 4-1. Attributes of Successful Agile Teams ............................................................... 40
Table 4-2. Agile Team Roles ............................................................................................... 41
Table 5-1. Agile Pain Points and Troubleshooting Possibilities ........................................ 58
Table A1-1. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping .............. 90
Table A1-2. Application of Agile in PMBOK® Guide Knowledge Areas ................................ 91
Table A2-1. Agile Manifesto Values Covered in the Agile Practice Guide ........................... 97
Table A2-2. Agile Practice Guide Mapping of Principles Behind the Agile Manifesto ........ 98
Table A3-1. Scrum Events and Artifacts............................................................................. 101
Table A3-2. The Practices of eXtreme Programming......................................................... 102
Table A3-3. Defining Principles and Properties of the Kanban Method ............................ 104
Table A3-4. The Core Values and Common Properties of Crystal ..................................... 107
Table A3-5. The Key Elements of the Agile Unified Process .............................................. 111
Table A3-6. Comparison of LeSS and Scrum ..................................................................... 113
Table X2-1. Tailoring Guidelines ......................................................................................... 121
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VII
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VIII
1
IN TRODUCTI ON
Welcome to the Agile Practice Guide! This guide was developed as a collaborative effort by the Project Management
Institute (PMI) and Agile Alliance®. The members of the core writing team who developed this practice guide included
volunteers from both organizations, drawing on subject matter expertise from a broad range of current practitioners and
leaders from a diverse range of backgrounds, beliefs, and cultures.
This practice guide provides practical guidance geared toward project leaders and team members adapting to an
agile approach in planning and executing projects. While our core writing team recognizes there is staunch support
to use predictive approaches and conversely, passion around shifting to an agile mindset, values, and principles, this
practice guide covers a practical approach to project agility. This practice guide represents a bridge to understanding
the pathway from a predictive approach to an agile approach. In fact, there are similar activities between the two, such
as planning, that are handled differently but occur in both environments.
Our core writing team used an agile mindset to collaborate and manage the development of this first edition of the
practice guide. As technology and culture changes, future updates and refinements to the practice guide will reflect
current approaches.
Our core team adopted a more informal, relaxed writing style for this practice guide than is typical for PMI standards.
The guide incorporates new elements, such as tips, sidebars, and case studies to better illustrate key points and
concepts. Our team intends for these changes to make this practice guide more readable and user-friendly.
This practice guide goes beyond addressing the use of agile in the computer software development industry, because
agile has expanded into non-software development environments. Manufacturing, education, healthcare and other
industries are becoming agile to varying degrees and this use beyond software is within the scope of this practice guide.
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1
AGILE-BASED LEARNING So why an Agile Practice Guide and why now? Project teams have used
agile techniques and approaches in various forms for at least several decades.
Education is a prime and fertile
The Agile Manifesto [1]1 expressed definitive values and principles of agile
ground to expand agile practices
as the use of agile gained substantial momentum (see Section 2.1). Today,
beyond software development.
project leaders and teams find themselves in an environment disrupted by
Teachers in middle schools, high
exponential advances in technology and demands from customers for more
schools, and universities around the
immediate delivery of value. Agile techniques and approaches effectively
world are beginning to use agile to
manage disruptive technologies. In addition, the first principle of agile places
create a culture of learning. Agile
customer satisfaction as the highest priority and is key in delivering products
techniques are used to provide focus
and services that delight customers (see Section 2.1). Rapid and transparent
on prioritizing competing priorities.
customer feedback loops are readily available with the widespread use
Face-to-face interaction, meaningful
of social media. Therefore, in order to stay competitive and relevant,
learning, self-organizing teams, and
organizations can no longer be internally focused but rather need to focus
incremental and/or iterative learning
outwardly to the customer experience.
that exploit the imagination are all
agile principles that can change the
mindset in the classroom and advance
educational goals (Briggs, 2014).*
*Briggs, Sara. “Agile Based
Learning: What Is It and How Can It
Change Education?” Opencolleges.
edu.au February 22, 2014, retrieved
from http://www.opencolleges.edu.
au/informed/features/agile-based-
learning-what-is-it-and-how-can-
it-change-education/
1
The numbers in brackets refer to the list of references at the end of this practice guide.
Section 1
2
Disruptive technologies are rapidly changing the playing field by DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGY
decreasing the barriers to entry. More mature organizations are increasingly
Disruptive technology is
prone to being highly complex and potentially slow to innovate, and lag
especially enabled by the transition
behind in delivering new solutions to their customers. These organizations
to cloud computing. Companies
find themselves competing with smaller organizations and startups that
across the globe are leveraging
are able to rapidly produce products that fit customer needs. This speed of
the model for quick and cheap
change will continue to drive large organizations to adopt an agile mindset
access to computing resources
in order to stay competitive and keep their existing market share.
and to gain entry into traditional
markets. Cloud computing requires
a reduced upfront payment, but is
The Agile Practice Guide is project-focused and addresses project life
paid over time via a subscription
cycle selection, implementing agile, and organizational considerations
service, based upon a pay-as-you-
for agile projects. Organizational change management (OCM) is essential
go or pay-what-you-use model.
for implementing or transforming practices but, since OCM is a discipline
Updated applications, infrastructure,
within itself, it is outside the scope of this practice guide. Those seeking
and platforms are released into the
guidance in OCM may refer to Managing Change in Organizations—
cloud in an iterative and incremental
A Practice Guide [2].
fashion, keeping pace with
Additional items that are in scope and out of scope for this practice guide improvements to technology and
are listed in Table 1-1. evolving customer demand.
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Table 1-1. In-Scope and Out-of-Scope Items
In Scope Out of Scope
Implementing agile approaches at a project or team level Implementing agile throughout the organization or
creating agile programs
Coverage of most popular agile approaches, as listed in Coverage of niche approaches, company-specific
industry surveys methods, or incomplete life cycle techniques
Suitability factors to consider when choosing an agile Recommending or endorsing a particular approach/
approach and/or practice practice
Mapping agile to PMBOK® Guide processes and Change or modification of PMBOK® Guide processes
Knowledge Areas and/or Knowledge Areas
Discussion on the use of agile beyond software Removal of software industry influence on agile
development approaches. (Note that software is included in this
practice guide even though the use of agile is growing in
many other industries beyond software.)
Guidance, techniques, and approaches to consider when Prescriptive step-by-step instructions on how to
implementing agile in projects or organizations implement agile in projects or organizations
Definitions of generally accepted terms New terms and/or definitions
This practice guide is for project teams who find themselves in the messy middle-ground between predictive and
agile approaches, who are trying to address rapid innovation and complexity, and who are dedicated to the team’s
improvement. This practice guide provides useful guidance for successful projects that deliver business value to meet
customer expectations and needs.
Section 1
4
This practice guide is organized as follows:
Section 2 An Introduction to Agile—This section includes the Agile Manifesto mindset, values, and principles. It
also covers the concepts of definable and high-uncertainty work, and the correlation between lean, the Kanban Method,
and agile approaches.
Section 3 Life Cycle Selection—This section introduces the various life cycles discussed in this practice guide. This
section also addresses suitability filters, tailoring guidelines, and common combinations of approaches.
Section 4 Implementing Agile: Creating an Agile Environment—This section discusses critical factors to consider
when creating an agile environment such as servant leadership and team composition.
Section 5 Implementing Agile: Delivering in an Agile Environment—This section includes information on how to
organize teams and common practices teams can use for delivering value on a regular basis. It provides examples of
empirical measurements for teams and for reporting status.
Section 6 Organizational Considerations for Project Agility—This section explores organizational factors that
impact the use of agile approaches, such as culture, readiness, business practices, and the role of a PMO.
Section 7 A Call to Action—The call to action requests input for continuous improvement of this practice guide.
The annexes, appendixes, references, bibliography, and glossary provide additional useful information and definitions:
Annexes. Contain mandatory information that is too lengthy for inclusion in the main body of the practice guide.
uu
Appendixes. Contain nonmandatory information that supplements the main body of this practice guide.
uu
References. Identify where to locate standards and other publications that are cited in this practice guide.
uu
Bibliography. Lists additional publications by section that provide detailed information on topics covered in this
uu
practice guide.
Glossary. Presents a list of terms and their definitions that are used in this practice guide.
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5
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Section 1
6
2
AN IN TRO DUCTI ON TO A GI LE
2.1 DEFINABLE WORK VS. HIGH-UNCERTAINTY WORK

Project work ranges from definable work to high-uncertainty work. Definable work projects are characterized by clear
procedures that have proved successful on similar projects in the past. The production of a car, electrical appliance, or
home after the design is complete are examples of definable work. The production domain and processes involved are
usually well understood and there are typically low levels of execution uncertainty and risk.
New design, problem solving, and not-done-before work is exploratory. It requires subject matter experts to
collaborate and solve problems to create a solution. Examples of people encountering high-uncertainty work include
software systems engineers, product designers, doctors, teachers, lawyers, and many problem-solving engineers. As
more definable work is automated, project teams are undertaking more high-uncertainty work projects that require the
techniques described in this practice guide.
High-uncertainty projects have high rates of change, complexity, and risk. These characteristics can present problems
for traditional predictive approaches that aim to determine the bulk of the requirements upfront and control changes
through a change request process. Instead, agile approaches were created to explore feasibility in short cycles and
quickly adapt based on evaluation and feedback.
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7
2.2 THE AGILE MANIFESTO AND MINDSET
Thought leaders in the software industry formalized the agile movement in 2001 with the publication of the Manifesto
for Agile Software Development (see Figure 2-1).
We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and

helping others do it. Through this work we have come to value:
Individuals and interactions over processes and tools
Working software over comprehensive documentation
Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value the
items on the left more.
© 2001, the Agile Manifesto authors
Figure 2-1. The Four Values of the Agile Manifesto
Section 2
8
Twelve clarifying principles flowed from these values as shown in Figure 2-2.
1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous
delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes
harness change for the customer’s competitive advantage.
3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months,
with a preference to the shorter timescale.
4. Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project.
5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and
support they need, and trust them to get the job done.
6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a
development team is face-to-face conversation.
7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers, and
users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely.
9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility.
10. Simplicity—the art of maximizing the amount of work not done—is essential.
11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-organizing
teams.
12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then
tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly.
Figure 2-2. The Twelve Principles Behind the Agile Manifesto

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9
Although originating in the software industry, these principles have since spread to many other industries.
This embodiment of mindset, values, and principles defines what constitutes an agile approach. The various agile
approaches in use today share common roots with the agile mindset, value, and principles. This relationship is shown
in Figure 2-3.
Agile 4 Values 12 Principles Practices

Mindset
Agile is a mindset defined by values, guided by principles, and manifested through

many different practices. Agile practitioners select practices based on their needs.
Figure 2-3. The Relationship Between the Agile Manifesto Values, Principles, and Common Practices
As shown in Figure 2-3, the model, inspired by Ahmed Sidky, articulates agile as a mindset defined by the Agile
Manifesto values, guided by the Agile Manifesto principles, and enabled by various practices. It is worth noting that
while the term “agile” became popularized after the Manifesto, the approaches and techniques being used by project
teams today existed before the Agile Manifesto by many years and, in some cases, decades.
Section 2
10
Agile approaches and agile methods are umbrella terms that cover a Is agile an approach, a method, a
variety of frameworks and methods. Figure 2-4 places agile in context and practice, a technique, or a framework?
visualizes it as a blanket term, referring to any kind of approach, technique, Any or all of these terms could
framework, method, or practice that fulfills the values and principles of the apply depending on the situation.
Agile Manifesto. Figure 2-4 also shows agile and the Kanban Method as This practice guide, uses the term
subsets of lean. This is because they are named instances of lean thinking “approach” unless one of the other
that share lean concepts such as: “focus on value,” “small batch sizes,” terms is obviously more correct.
and “elimination of waste.”
Lean
Agile
Kanban ScrumBan
Crystal
AUP
Scrum
FDD
XP
DSDM
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Figure 2-4. Agile is a Blanket Term for Many Approaches

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11
In general, there are two strategies to fulfill agile values and principles. The first is to adopt a formal agile approach,
intentionally designed and proven to achieve desired results. Then take time to learn and understand the agile approaches
before changing or tailoring them. Premature and haphazard tailoring can minimize the effects of the approach and thus
limit benefits. (See Appendix X2 for Tailoring Considerations).
The second strategy is to implement changes to project practices in a manner that fits the project context to achieve
progress on a core value or principle. Use timeboxes to create features, or specific techniques to iteratively refine
features. Consider dividing up one large project into several releases, if that works for the specific project context.
Implement changes that will help the project succeed—the changes do not need to be part of the organization’s formal
practices. The end goal is not to be agile for its own sake, but rather to deliver a continuous flow of value to customers
and achieve better business outcomes.
2.3 LEAN AND THE KANBAN METHOD

One way to think about the relationship between lean, agile, and the Kanban Method is to consider agile and the
Kanban Method as descendants of lean thinking. In other words, lean thinking is a superset, sharing attributes with
agile and Kanban.
This shared heritage is very similar and focuses on delivering value, respect for people, minimizing waste, being
transparent, adapting to change, and continuously improving. Project teams sometimes find it useful to blend various
methods—whatever works for the organization or team is what should be done regardless of its origin. The objective is
the best outcome regardless of the approach used.
The Kanban Method is inspired by the original lean-manufacturing system and used specifically for knowledge work.
It emerged in the mid-2000s as an alternative to the agile methods that were prevalent at the time.
Section 2
12
The Kanban Method is less prescriptive than some agile approaches and less disruptive, as it is the original “start-
where-you-are” approach. Project teams can begin applying the Kanban Method with relative ease and progress toward
other agile approaches if that is what they deem necessary or appropriate. For more details on the Kanban Method, see
Annex A3 on Overview of Agile and Lean Frameworks.
CASE
There is and probably always will be a lot of discussion around the Kanban Method and whether
it belongs to the lean or agile movement. It was conceived in and around lean manufacturing,
but is widely used in agile settings.
2.4 UNCERTAINTY, RISK, AND LIFE CYCLE SELECTION

Some projects have considerable uncertainty around project requirements and how to fulfill those requirements using
current knowledge and technology. These uncertainties can contribute to high rates of change and project complexity.
These characteristics are illustrated in Figure 2-5.
As project uncertainty increases, so too does the risk of rework and the need to use a different approach. To mitigate
the impact of these risks, teams select life cycles that allow them to tackle projects with high amounts of uncertainty
via small increments of work.
Teams can verify their work when they use small increments and can change what they do next. When teams deliver
small increments, they are better able to understand the true customer requirements faster and more accurately than
with a static written specification.
13
High Uncertainty
Ch
ao Fundamentally
s risky
Co
Requirements Uncertainty
m
pl
ex
Co
m Adaptive
pl
ica approaches
work well here
te
d
Si
m
Low Uncertainty
Linear
pl
e approaches
work well here
Low Uncertainty High Uncertainty

Technical Degree of Uncertainty
Figure 2-5. Uncertainty and Complexity Model Inspired by the Stacey Complexity Model
Teams can plan and manage projects with clear and stable requirements and clear technical challenges with little
difficulty. However, as the uncertainty in the project increases, the likelihood of changes, wasted work, and rework also
increases, which is costly and time consuming.
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Section 2
14
Some teams have evolved project life cycles to use iterative and incremental approaches. Many teams discover that
when they explore the requirements iteratively and deliver more often incrementally, the teams adapt to changes more
easily. These iterative and incremental approaches reduce waste and rework because the teams gain feedback. These
approaches use:
Very short feedback loops,
uu
Frequent adaptation of process,

uu
Reprioritization,
uu
Regularly updated plans, and

uu
Frequent delivery.
uu
What do simple, complicated, and complex projects mean? Consider large projects, such as the
Boston Big Dig construction project. On the surface, the project seemed fairly straightforward: move
the elevated highway underground. There was high agreement on the requirements (see the Y axis in
Figure 2-5). There was low uncertainty on how the project would proceed until the project started. And,
�
as is the case for many large projects, the project encountered surprises along the way.
�
When a team works on a project where there is little opportunity for interim deliverables or little
T IP
opportunity for prototyping, the team most likely will use a predictive life cycle to manage it. The team can
adapt to what it discovers, but will not be able to use agile approaches to manage the iterative discovery
of requirements or incremental deliverables for feedback.
The Big Dig project was not simple by any means. However, many projects that start out in the lower
left part of the Stacey Complexity Model have no real means of moving to other approaches. Assess the
project, both in the requirements and the means of delivery, to determine the best approach for the life
cycle of the project.
15
These iterative, incremental, and agile approaches work well for projects that involve new or novel tools, techniques,
materials, or application domains. (Refer to Section 3 on Life Cycle Selection). They also work well for projects that:
Require research and development;
uu
Have high rates of change;

uu
Have unclear or unknown requirements, uncertainty, or risk; or

uu
Have a final goal that is hard to describe.

uu
By building a small increment and then testing and reviewing it, the team can explore uncertainty at a low cost in
a short time, reduce risk, and maximize business value delivery. This uncertainty may be centered on suitability and
requirements (is the right product being built?); technical feasibility and performance (can this product be built this
way?); or process and people (is this an effective way for the team to work?). All three of these characteristics—product
specification, production capability, and process suitability—typically have elements of high uncertainty.
However, iterative and incremental approaches have their limits of applicability. When both technology
uncertainty and requirements uncertainty are very high (the top right of Figure 2-5), the project moves beyond
complex to chaotic. In order for the project to become reliably possible, it needs one of the variables (uncertainty
or disagreement) to be contained.
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Section 2
16
3
LIFE C YCLE SEL ECTIO N
Projects come in many shapes and there are a variety of ways to undertake WHAT TO CALL NON-AGILE
them. Project teams need awareness of the characteristics and options APPROACHES?
available to select the approach most likely to be successful for the situation.
There is no single term that is
This practice guide refers to four types of life cycles, defined as follows: universally used to describe non-agile
approaches. Initially, the practice
Predictive life cycle. A more traditional approach, with the bulk
uu
guide used the term plan-driven to
of planning occurring upfront, then executing in a single pass;
describe the emphasis on an upfront
a sequential process.
plan and then execution of that
Iterative life cycle. An approach that allows feedback for unfinished
uu plan. Some people prefer the terms
work to improve and modify that work. waterfall or serial to describe this
Incremental life cycle. An approach that provides finished
uu life cycle. In the end, we settled on
deliverables that the customer may be able to use immediately. the term predictive since it is used in
A Guide to the Project Management
Agile life cycle. An approach that is both iterative and incremental
uu
Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)
to refine work items and deliver frequently.
[3] and the Software Extension to the
PMBOK® Guide Fifth Edition [4].
Many organizations do not
experience either of these extremes
and instead occupy some middle
ground. That is natural, but we still
�
need a way to talk about both ends

�
of the spectrum. If agile is at one end,

we call the other end predictive.
17
3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECT LIFE CYCLES
Table 3-1 summarizes the characteristics of the four life cycle categories covered in this practice guide.
Table 3-1. Characteristics of Four Categories of Life Cycles
Characteristics
Approach Requirements Activities Delivery Goal
Predictive Fixed Performed once for Single delivery Manage cost

the entire project
Iterative Dynamic Repeated until Single delivery Correctness of

correct solution
Incremental Dynamic Performed once for Frequent smaller Speed

a given increment deliveries
Agile Dynamic Repeated until Frequent small Customer value via

correct deliveries frequent deliveries
and feedback
It is important to note that all projects have these characteristics—no project is completely devoid of considerations
around requirements, delivery, change, and goals. A project’s inherent characteristics determine which life cycle is the
best fit for that project.
Another way to understand how project life cycles vary is by using a continuum ranging from predictive cycles on one
end, to agile cycles on the other end, with more iterative or incremental cycles in the middle.
Figure X3-1 of Appendix X3 of the PMBOK® Guide – Sixth Edition displays the continuum as a flat line. This view
emphasizes the shifting of project characteristics from one end to the other. Another way to visualize the continuum is
with a two-dimensional square, as shown in Figure 3-1.
Section 3
18
High
Incremental Agile
Frequency of Delivery
Predictive Iterative
Low
Low High
Degree of Change
Figure 3-1. The Continuum of Life Cycles
No life cycle can be perfect for all projects. Instead, each project finds a spot on the continuum that provides an
optimum balance of characteristics for its context. Specifically,
Predictive life cycles. Take advantage of things that are known and proven. This reduced uncertainty and
uu
complexity allows teams to segment work into a sequence of predictable groupings.
Iterative life cycles. Allow feedback on partially completed or unfinished work to improve and modify that work.
uu
Incremental life cycles. Provide finished deliverables that the customer may be able to use immediately.
uu
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Agile life cycles. Leverage both the aspects of iterative and incremental characteristics. When teams use agile
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approaches, they iterate over the product to create finished deliverables. The team gains early feedback and
provides customer visibility, confidence, and control of the product. Because the team can release earlier, the
project may provide an earlier return on investment because the team delivers the highest value work first.
19
PLANNING IS ALWAYS THERE 3.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF PREDICTIVE LIFE CYCLES
A key thing to remember about Predictive life cycles expect to take advantage of high certainty around
life cycles is that each of them firm requirements, a stable team, and low risk. As a result, project activities
share the element of planning. often execute in a serial manner, as shown in Figure 3-2.
What differentiates a life cycle is
In order to achieve this approach, the team requires detailed plans to
not whether planning is done, but
know what to deliver and how. These projects succeed when other potential
rather how much planning is done
changes are restricted (e.g., requirements changes; project team members
and when.
change what the team delivers). Team leaders aim to minimize change for
At the predictive end of the the predictive project.
continuum, the plan drives the work.
When the team creates detailed requirements and plans at the beginning
As much planning as is possible is
of the project, they can articulate the constraints. The team can then use
performed upfront. Requirements
those constraints to manage risk and cost. As the team progresses through
are identified in as much detail as
the detailed plan, they monitor and control changes that might affect the
possible. The team estimates when
scope, schedule, or budget.
they can deliver which deliverables
and performs comprehensive By emphasizing a departmentally efficient, serialized sequence of work,
procurement activities. predictive projects do not typically deliver business value until the end of
the project. If the predictive project encounters changes or disagreements
In iterative approaches, prototypes
with the requirements, or if the technological solution is no longer
and proofs are also planned, but
straightforward, the predictive project will incur unanticipated costs.
the outputs are intended to modify
the plans created in the beginning.
Earlier reviews of unfinished work
help inform future project work.
Meanwhile, incremental initiatives
plan to deliver successive subsets
of the overall project. Teams may
plan several successive deliveries
in advance or only one at a time.
The deliveries inform the future
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project work.
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Agile projects also plan. The key

difference is that the team plans
and replans as more information
becomes available from review of
frequent deliveries. Regardless of
the project life cycle, the project
requires planning.
Section 3
20
Analyze Design Build Test Deliver
Figure 3-2. Predictive Life Cycle
3.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ITERATIVE LIFE CYCLES

Iterative life cycles improve the product or result through successive prototypes or proofs of concept. Each new
prototype yields new stakeholder feedback and team insights. Then, the team incorporates the new information by
repeating one or more project activities in the next cycle. Teams may use timeboxing on a given iteration for a few
weeks, gather insights, and then rework the activity based on those insights. In that way, iterations help identify and
reduce uncertainty in the project.
Projects benefit from iterative life cycles when complexity is high, when the project incurs frequent changes, or when
the scope is subject to differing stakeholders’ views of the desired final product. Iterative life cycles may take longer
because they are optimized for learning rather than speed of delivery.
Figure 3-3 illustrates some elements of an iterative project life cycle for a single product delivery.
Prototype Refine
Analyze Build
Analyze Deliver
Design Test
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Figure 3-3. Iterative Life Cycle
21
Have you ever been involved on 3.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INCREMENTAL LIFE CYCLES
a project where the requirements
seemed to change daily and thought, Some projects optimize for speed of delivery. Many businesses and
“We will know the requirements initiatives cannot afford to wait for everything to be completed; in these
when we deliver a prototype that the cases, customers are willing to receive a subset of the overall solution. This
business approves.” If so, this was frequent delivery of smaller deliverables is called an incremental life cycle
a project where agile approaches (see Figure 3-4).
could have helped. A prototype
encourages feedback and a better
understanding of the requirements
that can be incorporated into
each deliverable.
Analyze Analyze Analyze

Design Design Design
Build Build Build
Test Test Test
Deliver Deliver Deliver
Figure 3-4. A Life Cycle of Varying-Sized Increments
Are you unsure of how a new business service might work in practice? Create a proof of concept
T IP
with evaluation criteria to explore desired outcomes. Use iterative approaches when you suspect the
requirements will change based on customer feedback.
Section 3
22
Incremental life cycles optimize work for delivering value to sponsors Completeness and delivery are
or customers more often than a single, final product. Teams plan initial subjective. The team may need
deliverables before beginning their work, and they begin working on that feedback on a prototype and may
first delivery as soon as possible. Some agile projects deliver value within then choose to deliver a minimum
days of project initiation. Others could take longer, ranging from 1 week to viable product (MVP) to a subset of
several weeks. customers. The customers’ feedback
helps the team to learn what they
As the project continues, the team may deviate from the original vision.
need to provide for subsequent
The team can manage the deviations, because the team delivers value
delivery of the final finished feature.
sooner. The degree of change and variation is less important than ensuring
customers get value sooner than at the end of the project. Agile teams, as a key differentiator,
deliver business value often. As the
product adds a broader set of features
Providing a customer a single feature or a finished piece of work is an and a broader range of consumers,
example of the incremental approach. we say it is delivered incrementally.
For example, builders may want to show a finished room or floor of a
building before they continue with the remainder of the building. In that case,
they may complete a floor with fixtures, paint, and everything else intended
for the finished floor before proceeding to the next floor. The customer
is able to see and approve of the style, color, and other details, allowing
adjustments to be made before further investments of time and money are
made. This reduces potential rework and/or customer dissatisfaction.
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23
3.1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF AGILE LIFE CYCLES
In an agile environment, the team expects requirements to change. The iterative and incremental approaches provide
feedback to better plan the next part of the project. However, in agile projects, incremental delivery uncovers hidden
or misunderstood requirements. Figure 3-5 illustrates two possible ways to achieve incremental delivery so the project
aligns with customer needs and can be adapted as necessary.
Iteration-Based Agile
Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements

Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis
Repeat
Design Design Design Design Design Design
as needed
Build Build Build Build ... Build Build
Test Test Test Test Test Test
NOTE: Each timebox is the same size. Each timebox results in working tested features.
Flow-Based Agile
Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements

Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis
Design Design Design Design Design
Repeat
Build Build Build as needed Build Build
Test Test Test ... Test Test
the number of the number of the number of features the number of the number of
features in the features in the in the WIP limit features in the features in the
WIP limit WIP limit WIP limit WIP limit
NOTE: In flow, the time it takes to complete a feature is not the same for each feature.
Figure 3-5. Iteration-Based and Flow-Based Agile Life Cycles
Section 3
24
In iteration-based agile, the team works in iterations (timeboxes of equal duration) to deliver completed features.
The team works on the most important feature, collaborating as a team to finish it. Then the team works on the next
most important feature and finishes it. The team may decide to work on a few features at a time, but the team does
not address all of the work for the iteration at once (i.e., does not address all of the requirements, followed by all of the
analyses, etc.).
In flow-based agile, the team pulls features from the backlog based on its capacity to start work rather than on
an iteration-based schedule. The team defines its workflow with columns on a task board and manages the work in
progress for each column. Each feature may take a different amount of time to finish. Teams keep work-in-progress
sizes small to better identify issues early and reduce rework should changes be required. Without iterations to define
planning and review points, the team and business stakeholders determine the most appropriate schedule for planning,
product reviews, and retrospectives.
Agile life cycles are those that fulfill the principles of the Agile Manifesto. In particular, customer satisfaction increases
with early and continuous delivery of valuable products. Moreover, an incremental deliverable that is functional and
provides value is the primary measure of progress. Agile life cycles combine both iterative and incremental approaches
in order to adapt to high degrees of change and deliver project value more often.
3.1.5 AGILE SUITABILITY FILTERS

Various assessment models exist to help determine the likely fit or gaps for using agile approaches. These models
assess project and organizational factors associated with adoption and suitability and then provide scores indicating
alignment or potential risk areas. Appendix X3 provides a synthesis of popular assessment models for use as an agile
suitability filter.
25
EXAMPLE OF A HYBRID LIFE 3.1.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYBRID LIFE CYCLES
CYCLE PROJECT
It is not necessary to use a single approach for an entire project. Projects
A pharmaceutical company that often combine elements of different life cycles in order to achieve certain
had a time-consuming U.S. Food and goals. A combination of predictive, iterative, incremental, and/or agile
Drug Administration (FDA) approval approaches is a hybrid approach.
process tagged onto the end of its
Figure 3-6 depicts the basic, pure approaches to project types that
development process and its entire
combine to form a hybrid model. The early processes utilize an agile
life cycle looked like Figure 3-6.
development life cycle, which is then followed by a predictive rollout phase.
While project teams undertook drug
This approach can be used when there is uncertainty, complexity, and risk
trials in an agile fashion, they had
in the development portion of the project that would benefit from an agile
to present the drugs to an external
approach, followed by a defined, repeatable rollout phase that is appropriate
group to perform the FDA approval
to undertake in a predictive way, perhaps by a different team. An example
process. A consultant helped to
of this approach is the development of a new high-tech product followed by
integrate the FDA approval process
rollout and training to thousands of users.
portion into the agile development
process to create a more streamlined
hybrid approach.
The short version of the story
is that because FDA approval is
required to be completed at the
end of the development process
or repeated after any change
(this includes even after the most
minor change), the process had
to remain at the end as a separate
phase. Integration using the
iterative process was unsuccessful.
However, the consultant created
some useful quick-start guides and
testing protocols that shortened the
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final FDA approval process.

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Section 3
26
Agile Agile Agile Predictive Predictive Predictive
Figure 3-6. Agile Development Followed by a Predictive Rollout
3.1.7 COMBINED AGILE AND PREDICTIVE APPROACHES

Another approach is to use a combination of agile and predictive approaches throughout the life cycle.
Agile Agile Agile

Predictive Predictive Predictive
Figure 3-7. A Combined Agile and Predictive Approach Used Simultaneously
In Figure 3-7, a combination of both predictive and agile approaches are used in the same project. Perhaps the team is
incrementally transitioning to agile and using some approaches like short iterations, daily standups, and retrospectives,
but other aspects of the project such as upfront estimation, work assignment, and progress tracking are still following
predictive approaches.
Using both predictive and agile approaches is a common scenario. It would be misleading to call the approach agile
since it clearly does not fully embody the agile mindset, values, and principles. However, it would also be inaccurate to
call it predictive since it is a hybrid approach.
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27
3.1.8 PREDOMINANTLY PREDICTIVE APPROACH WITH SOME AGILE COMPONENTS
Figure 3-8 shows a small agile element within a chiefly predictive project. In this case, a portion of the project with
uncertainty, complexity, or opportunity for scope creep is being tackled in an agile way, but the remainder of the project
is being managed using predictive approaches. An example of this approach would be an engineering firm that is
building a facility with a new component.
Agile Agile Agile

Predictive
tive Predictive
Predic Predictive
Figure 3-8. A Largely Predictive Approach with Agile Components
While the majority of the project may be routine and predictable, like many other facility projects the organization
has undertaken before, this project incorporates a new roofing material. The contractor may plan for some small-scale
installation trials on the ground first to determine the best installation method and to uncover issues early while there is
plenty of time to solve them and incrementally improve processes through experimentation and adaptation.
3.1.9 A LARGELY AGILE APPROACH WITH A PREDICTIVE COMPONENT

Figure 3-9 depicts a largely agile approach with a predictive component. This approach might be used when a
particular element is non-negotiable or not executable using an agile approach. Examples include integrating an external
component developed by a different vendor that cannot or will not partner in a collaborative or incremental way. A single
integration is required after the component is delivered.
Agile Agile Agile

Predictive Predictive Predictive
Figure 3-9. A Largely Agile Approach with a Predictive Component
Section 3
28
A government department had 3.1.10 HYBRID LIFE CYCLES AS FIT-FOR-PURPOSE
a credit insurance application
development project. The multi- Project teams may design a hybrid life cycle based on project risks. For
year project was to replace its aging example, a campus construction project may have multiple buildings to
underwriting system with a new, improve and build. An incremental approach would focus resources on
more responsive user interface and completing some buildings earlier than others, accelerating the return
system integrations. The bulk of on investment. Each individual delivery may be sufficiently well known to
the project was undertaken using benefit from a predictive life cycle for that building alone.
an agile approach with continual The goal of project management is to produce business value in the
business input. best possible way given the current environment. It does not matter if
The premium rate calculations that way is agile or predictive. The question to ask is: “How can we be
were handed down from the most successful?”
Organisation for Economic Co- Is feedback needed as the team produces value? If so, increments will
operation and Development (OECD) help. Is it necessary to manage risk as ideas are explored? If so, iterations
as a 200-page specification. The or agile will help.
steps were very clearly explained
When the organization cannot deliver intermediate value, agile
with little opportunity for confusion
approaches may not be useful. That is okay—agile for the sake of agile is
(or interim result confirmation by
not the goal. The point is to select a life cycle or a combination of life cycles
the business) and were coded up
that work for the project, the risks, and the culture.
by a separate team working its way
through the calculation steps. The Agile is about customer-based delivery on a frequent basis. That delivery
two teams collaborated on the input creates feedback for the team. The team uses that feedback to plan and
variables required for the calculation replan the next chunk of work.
and how to consume and display the
output values, but beyond that, the
calculation team worked in a largely
predictive manner.
When the calculation team’s
portion was complete, the outputs
from the premium rate calculations
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were displayed on the screens and in

the reports. Then the business users
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provided feedback on the appearance

and use of the information. The two
teams ran concurrently, but had little
need for interaction. Having them
physically close to each other made
it easier to check in on development
progress, but largely they were
separate subprojects.
29
3.1.11 HYBRID LIFE CYCLES AS TRANSITION STRATEGY
Many teams are not able to make the switch to agile ways of working overnight. Agile techniques look and feel
very different to those who are accustomed to and have been successful in a predictive environment. The larger the
organization and the more moving parts, the longer it will take to transition. For that reason, it makes sense to plan a
gradual transition.
A gradual transition involves adding more iterative techniques to improve learning and alignment among teams and
stakeholders. Later, consider adding more incremental techniques to accelerate value and return on investment to
sponsors. This combination of various approaches is considered a hybrid approach.
Try these new techniques on a less risky project with a medium- to low-degree of uncertainty. Then, when the
organization is successful with a hybrid approach, try more complex projects that require more of those techniques to
be added. This is a way to tailor the progressive hybrid transition to the organization’s situation and specific risks and
the team’s readiness to adapt and embrace the changes.
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Section 3
30
3.2 MIXING AGILE APPROACHES BLENDING APPROACHES
Agile teams rarely limit their practices to one agile approach. Each project As an example of tailoring agile
context has its own peculiarities, such as the varied mix of team member frameworks, one of the most
skills and backgrounds; the various components of the product under common blends in widespread
development; and the age, scale, criticality, complexity, and regulatory use involves a coordinated use of
constraints of the environment in which the work takes place. the Scrum framework, the Kanban
Method, and elements of the eXtreme
Agile frameworks are not customized for the team. The team may need Programming (XP) method. Scrum
to tailor practices to deliver value on a regular basis. Often, teams practice provides guidance on the use of a
their own special blend of agile, even if they use a particular framework as product backlog, a product owner,
a starting point. scrum master, and a cross-functional
development team, including sprint
planning, daily scrum, sprint review,
and sprint retrospective sessions.
A kanban board helps the team to
further improve its effectiveness
by visualizing the flow of work,
making impediments easily visible,
and allowing flow to be managed
by adjusting work in process limits.
In addition, XP-inspired engineering
practices such as use of story cards,
continuous integration, refactoring,
automated testing, and test-driven
development further increase the
effectiveness of the agile team. In
summary, the blend of practices
from these various sources produces
a synergistic result of higher
performance than each individual
component in isolation.
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31
3.3 PROJECT FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TAILORING
Sometimes project attributes require tailoring an approach for a better fit. Table 3-2 identifies some project factors
and tailoring options to consider.
Table 3-2. Tailoring Options to Improve Fit
Project Factor Tailoring Options
Demand pattern: steady or sporadic Many teams find that using a cadence (in the form of a
regular timebox) helps them demo, retrospect, and take
in new work. In addition, some teams need more
flexibility in their acceptance of more work. Teams can
use flow-based agile with a cadence to get the best of
both worlds.
Rate of process improvement required by the level of Retrospect more often and select improvements.
team experience
The flow of work is often interrupted by various delays or Consider making work visible using kanban boards and
impediments experimenting with limits for the various areas of the
work process in order to improve flow.
The quality of the product increments is poor Consider using the various test-driven development
practices. This mistake-proofing discipline makes it
difficult for defects to remain undetected.
More than one team is needed to build a product To scale from one to several agile teams, with minimal
disruption, first learn about agile program management
or formal scaling frameworks. Then, craft an approach
that fits the project context.
The project team members are inexperienced in the use Consider starting by training team members in the
of agile approaches fundamentals of the agile mindset and principles. If the
team decides to use a specific approach such as Scrum
or Kanban, provide a workshop on that approach so the
team members can learn how to use it.
For additional guidance on factors that influence tailoring see Appendix X2 on Attributes that Influence Tailoring.
Section 3
32
4
IMPLEMENTING AG I LE:
C RE AT ING A N AG I LE ENV I RONM ENT
4.1 START WITH AN AGILE MINDSET

Managing a project using an agile approach requires that the project team adopt an agile mindset. The answers to
the following questions will help to develop an implementation strategy:
How can the project team act in an agile manner?
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What can the team deliver quickly and obtain early feedback to benefit the next delivery cycle?
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How can the team act in a transparent manner?

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What work can be avoided in order to focus on high-priority items?

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How can a servant-leadership approach benefit the achievement of the team’s goals?
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4.2 SERVANT LEADERSHIP EMPOWERS THE TEAM

Agile approaches emphasize servant leadership as a way to empower teams. Servant leadership is the practice of
leading through service to the team, by focusing on understanding and addressing the needs and development of team
members in order to enable the highest possible team performance.
The role of a servant leader is to facilitate the team’s discovery and definition of agile. Servant leaders practice and
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radiate agile. Servant leaders approach project work in this order:

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Purpose. Work with the team to define the “why” or purpose so they can engage and coalesce around the goal
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for the project. The entire team optimizes at the project level, not the person level.
People. Once the purpose is established, encourage the team to create an environment where everyone can
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succeed. Ask each team member to contribute across the project work.
Process. Do not plan on following the “perfect” agile process, but instead look for the results. When a cross-
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functional team delivers finished value often and reflects on the product and process, the teams are agile. It does
not matter what the team calls its process.
33
The following characteristics of servant leadership enable project leaders to become more agile and facilitate the
team’s success:
Promoting self-awareness;
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Listening;
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Serving those on the team;

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Helping people grow;

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Coaching vs. controlling;

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Promoting safety, respect, and trust; and

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Promoting the energy and intelligence of others.

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Servant leadership is not unique to agile. But once having practiced it, servant leaders can usually see how well
servant leadership integrates into the agile mindset and value.
When leaders develop their servant leadership or facilitative skills, they are more likely to become agile. As a result,
servant leaders can help their teams collaborate to deliver value faster.
Successful agile teams embrace the growth mindset, where people believe they can learn new skills. When the team
and the servant leaders believe they can all learn, everyone becomes more capable.
4.2.1 SERVANT LEADER RESPONSIBILITIES

Servant leaders manage relationships to build communication and coordination within the team and across the
organization. These relationships help the leaders navigate the organization to support the team. This kind of support
helps to remove impediments and facilitates the team to streamline its processes. Because servant leaders understand
agile and practice a specific approach to agile, they can assist in fulfilling the team’s needs.
Section 4
34
4.2.1.1 SERVANT LEADERS FACILITATE
When project managers act as servant leaders, the emphasis shifts from “managing coordination” to “facilitating
collaboration.” Facilitators help everyone do their best thinking and work. Facilitators encourage the team’s participation,
understanding, and shared responsibility for the team’s output. Facilitators help the team create acceptable solutions.
Servant leaders promote collaboration and conversation within the team and between teams. For example, a
servant leader helps to expose and communicate bottlenecks inside and between teams. Then the teams resolve
those bottlenecks.
Additionally, a facilitator encourages collaboration through interactive meetings, informal dialog, and knowledge
sharing. Servant leaders do this by becoming impartial bridge-builders and coaches, rather than by making decisions
for which others should be responsible.
4.2.1.2 SERVANT LEADERS REMOVE ORGANIZATIONAL IMPEDIMENTS
The first value of the Agile Manifesto is individuals and interactions over processes and tools. What better responsibility
for a servant leader to take on than to take a hard look at processes that are impeding a team’s or organization’s
agility and work to streamline them? For example, if a department requires extensive documentation, the role of the
servant leader could be to work with that department to review required documentation, assist with creating a shared
understanding of how agile deliverables meet those requirements, and evaluate the amount of documentation required
so teams are spending more time delivering a valuable product instead of producing exhaustive documentation.
Servant leaders should also look at other processes that are lengthy, causing bottlenecks and impeding a team’s or
organization’s agility. Examples of processes or departments that may need to be addressed include finance, change
control boards, or audits. Servant leaders can partner and work with others to challenge them to review their processes
to support agile teams and leaders. For example, what good is it for the team to deliver working product every 2 weeks
only to have the product fall into a queue or process that could take 6 or more weeks to release due to lengthy release
processes? Far too many organizations have these “bottleneck” processes that prevent teams from quickly delivering
valuable products or services. The servant leader has the ability to change or remove these organizational impediments
to support delivery teams.
35
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS VERSUS 4.2.1.3 SERVANT LEADERS PAVE THE WAY FOR OTHERS’
TECHNICAL SKILLS CONTRIBUTION
In addition to servant leadership, In agile, the team manages its work process and its work product. That
team members emphasize their self-management and self-organization applies to everyone serving and
interpersonal and emotional supporting the organization and project. Servant leaders work to fulfill
intelligence skills—not just the needs of the teams, projects, and organization. Servant leaders may
technical skills. Everyone on the work with facilities for a team space, work with management to enable the
team works to exhibit more initiative, team to focus on one project at a time, or work with the product owner to
integrity, emotional intelligence, develop stories with the team. Some servant leaders work with auditors to
honesty, collaboration, humility, refine the processes needed in regulatory environments, and some servant
and willingness to communicate in leaders work with the finance department to transition the organization to
various ways so that the entire team incremental budgeting.
can work together well.
The servant leader focuses on paving the way for the team to do its
The team needs these skills so best work. The servant leader influences projects and encourages the
they can respond well to changes organization to think differently.
in project direction and technical
product changes. When everyone 4.2.1.4 CONSIDER THESE SERVANT LEADER RESPONSIBILITIES
can adapt to the work and to each
other, the entire team is more likely Servant leaders can have many possible titles, but what is most important
to succeed. is what they do. Here are some examples of the responsibilities a servant
leader may have:
Section 4
36
Educate stakeholders around why and how to be agile. Explain the benefits of business value based on
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prioritization, greater accountability and productivity of empowered teams, and improved quality from more
frequent reviews, etc.
Support the team through mentoring, encouragement, and support. Advocate for team members training and
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career development. The oxymoronic quote “We lead teams by standing behind them” speaks to the role of the
leader in developing their team members. Through support, encouragement, and professional development,
team members gain confidence, take on larger roles, and contribute at higher levels within their organizations. A
key role of the servant leader is to nurture and grow team members through and beyond their current roles, even
if that means losing them from the team.
Help the team with technical project management activities like quantitative risk analysis. Sometimes team
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members may not have knowledge or experience in roles or functions. Servant leaders who may have more
exposure or training in techniques can support the team by providing training or undertaking these activities.
Celebrate team successes and support and bridge building activities with external groups. Create upward spirals
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of appreciation and good will for increased collaboration.
4.2.2 ROLE OF THE PROJECT MANAGER IN AN AGILE ENVIRONMENT

The role of the project manager in an agile project is somewhat of an unknown, because many agile frameworks
and approaches do not address the role of the project manager. Some agile practitioners think the role of a project
manager is not needed, due to self-organizing teams taking on the former responsibilities of the project manager.
However, pragmatic agile practitioners and organizations realize that project managers can add significant value in
many situations. The key difference is that their roles and responsibilities look somewhat different.
TIP
The value of project managers is not in their position, but in their ability to make everyone else better.
37
4.2.3 PROJECT MANAGERS USE SERVANT LEADERSHIP
The PMBOK® Guide – Sixth Edition, defines the project manager as “the person assigned by the performing
organization to lead the team that is responsible for achieving the project objectives.”
Many project managers are accustomed to being at the center of coordination for the project, tracking and
representing the team’s status to the rest of the organization. This approach was fine when projects were decomposed
into siloed functions.
However, in high-change projects, there is more complexity than one person can manage. Instead, cross-functional
teams coordinate their own work and collaborate with the business representative (the product owner).
When working on an agile project, project managers shift from being the center to serving the team and the
management. In an agile environment, project managers are servant leaders, changing their emphasis to coaching
people who want help, fostering greater collaboration on the team, and aligning stakeholder needs. As a servant leader,
project managers encourage the distribution of responsibility to the team: to those people who have the knowledge to
get work done.
4.3 TEAM COMPOSITION

A core tenet in both the values and the principles of the Agile Manifesto is the importance of individuals and
interactions. Agile optimizes the flow of value, emphasizing rapid feature delivery to the customer, rather than on how
people are “utilized.”
Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and support they need and
T IP
trust them to get the job done.
Section 4
38
When teams think about how to optimize the flow of value, the following benefits become apparent:
People are more likely to collaborate.
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Teams finish valuable work faster.

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Teams waste much less time because they do not multitask and have to re-establish context.
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4.3.1 AGILE TEAMS

Agile teams focus on rapid product development so they can obtain feedback. In practice, the most effective agile
teams tend to range in size from three to nine members. Ideally, agile teams are colocated in a team space. Team
members are 100% dedicated to the teams. Agile encourages self-managing teams, where team members decide who
will perform the work within the next period’s defined scope. Agile teams thrive with servant leadership. The leaders
support the teams’ approach to their work.
Cross-functional agile teams produce functional product increments frequently. That is because the teams collectively
own the work and together have all of the necessary skills to deliver completed work.
Regardless of the overall agile approach, the more a team limits its work in progress, the more likely its members
can collaborate to expedite work across the board. Team members in successful agile teams work to collaborate in
various ways (such as pairing, swarming, and mobbing) so they do not fall into the trap of mini-waterfalls instead of
collaborative work. Mini-waterfalls occur when the team addresses all of the requirements in a given period, then
attempts to do all of the design, then moves on to do all of the building. Using this scenario, at some point in the building
or the testing following the building, the team may realize it had assumptions that are no longer valid. In this case, the
team wasted time in addressing all of the requirements. Instead, when team members collaborate to produce a small
number of features across the board, they learn as they proceed and deliver smaller finished features.
Agile projects benefit from project team structures that improve collaboration within and among the teams. Table 4-1
shows how collaborative team members boost productivity and facilitate innovative problem solving.
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Table 4-1. Attributes of Successful Agile Teams
Attribute Goal
Dedicated people • Increased focus and productivity

• Small team, fewer than ten people
Cross-functional team members • Develop and deliver often

• Deliver finished value as an independent team
• Integrate all the work activities to deliver finished work
• Provide feedback from inside the team and from others, such as the
product owner
Colocation or ability to manage • Better communication

any location challenges • Improved team dynamics
• Knowledge sharing
• Reduced cost of learning
• Able to commit to working with each other
Mixed team of generalists and • Specialists provide dedicated expertise and generalists provide flexibility
specialists of who does what
• Team brings their specialist capabilities and often become generalizing
specialists, with a focus specialty plus breadth of experience across
multiple skills
Stable work environment • Depend on each other to deliver

• Agreed-upon approach to the work
• Simplified team cost calculations (run rate)
• Preservation and expansion of intellectual capital
4.3.2 AGILE ROLES

In agile, three common roles are used:
Cross-functional team members,
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Product owner, and

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Team facilitator.
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Table 4-2 describes these team roles.
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Table 4-2. Agile Team Roles
Role Description
Cross-functional team member Cross-functional teams consist of team members with all the skills necessary to
produce a working product. In software development, cross-functional teams
are typically comprised of designers, developers, testers, and any other required
roles. The cross-functional development teams consist of professionals who
deliver potentially releasable product on a regular cadence. Cross-functional
teams are critical because they can deliver finished work in the shortest
possible time, with higher quality, without external dependencies.
Product owner The product owner is responsible for guiding the direction of the product.
Product owners rank the work based on its business value. Product owners work
with their teams daily by providing product feedback and setting direction on
the next piece of functionality to be developed/delivered. That means the work
is small, often small enough to be described on one index card.
The product owner works with stakeholders, customers, and the teams to define
the product direction. Typically, product owners have a business background
and bring deep subject matter expertise to the decisions. Sometimes, the
product owner requests help from people with deep domain expertise, such as
architects, or deep customer expertise, such as product managers. Product
owners need training on how to organize and manage the flow of work through
the team.
In agile, the product owners create the backlog for and with the team. The
backlog helps the teams see how to deliver the highest value without
creating waste.
A critical success factor for agile teams is strong product ownership. Without
attention to the highest value for the customer, the agile team may create
features that are not appreciated, or otherwise insufficiently valuable, therefore
wasting effort.
Team facilitator The third role typically seen on agile teams is of a team facilitator, a servant
leader. This role may be called a project manager, scrum master, project team
lead, team coach, or team facilitator.
All agile teams need servant leadership on the team. People need time to build
their servant leadership skills of facilitation, coaching, and impediment removal.
Initially, many organizations invite external agile coaches to help them when
their internal coaching capability is not yet fully developed.
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External coaches have the advantage of experience, but the disadvantage of

weak relationships in the client organization. Internal coaches, on the other
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hand, have strong relationships in their organization, but may lack the breadth
of experience that would make them highly effective.
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“I-SHAPED PEOPLE AND 4.3.3 GENERALIZING SPECIALISTS
T-SHAPED PEOPLE”
Agile teams are cross-functional, but the people often do not start off that
Some people have deep way. However, many successful agile teams are made up of generalizing
specializations in one domain, but specialists, or “T-shaped” people.
rarely contribute outside of that
This means team members have both a focus specialty plus a breadth
domain. These people are known
of experience across multiple skills, rather than a single specialization.
in agile communities as “I-shaped
Agile team members work to develop such characteristics due to intense
people” since, like the letter “I,”
collaboration and self-organization to swarm and get work done quickly,
they have depth, but not much
which requires them to routinely help each other.
breadth. By contrast “T-shaped
people” supplement their expertise A single person’s throughput is not relevant. Focusing on a single
in one area with supporting, but person’s throughput may even be harmful if it creates a bottleneck for the
less-developed skills in associated rest of the team. The goal is for the team to optimize the delivery of finished
areas and good collaboration skills. work to get feedback.
As an example, a person who can
If the customer desires great results, such as rapid feature delivery with
test some areas of the product
excellent quality, the team cannot be structured just with specialist roles
and develop different areas of
in an attempt to maximize resource efficiency. The team’s objective is flow
the product is considered to be a
efficiency, optimizing the throughput of the entire team. Small batch sizes
T-shaped person.
promote working together as a team. The product owner’s job is to make
A T-shaped person has a sure the team works on the highest-value work.
defined, recognized specialization
and primary role, but has the
skills, versatility, and aptitude for
collaboration to help other people
when and where necessary. This
collaboration reduces hand-offs and
the constraints of only one person
being able to do the job.
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4.3.4 TEAM STRUCTURES
Teams have adopted agile principles and practices across many industries. They organize people into cross-functional
teams to iteratively develop working products.
The core team assembled to write this practice guide had varied backgrounds—some
represented PMI and some represented Agile Alliance. They were self-organizing and worked in
CASE
increments to complete the work. PMI assembled a group of subject matter experts to inspect
the work, and this allowed the team to incorporate feedback and improve the product as it was
developed. However the core team was not representative of a typical agile team because its
members’ time was not 100% dedicated to this endeavor.
Some organizations have been able to create colocated, cross-functional teams; others have a different situation.
Instead of having all team members colocated, some organizations have distributed or dispersed teams. Distributed
teams have cross-functional teams in different locations. Dispersed teams may have each team member working in a
completely different location, either in an office or from home. While these arrangements are not ideal due to increased
communication costs, they may still be workable.
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In one large, U.S.-based financial institution there was a program with a set of teams where the team members
were based on the East Coast of the United States and several locations throughout India. When the team first started,
it was one large dispersed team (UX, analysts, developers, and testers) doing a “follow the sun”2 development practice
where some working time overlapped across the team members to do warm hand-offs with the work. Team members
conducted daily standups together and used webcams to include all team members. Key roles (analysts, product owners,
UX designers, and development leads) in the U.S. would come in early to answer any questions from their India-based
team members and help to resolve impediments.
As the product started getting larger, and more funding came through, they decided to break into five smaller teams.
To do this, they decided to build colocated, distributed teams in various locations. They made the decision to build cross-
functional, colocated teams in each of these locations consisting of developers and testers.
They also had a core set of analysts, based in the two U.S. locations, who worked with their U.S.-based product
manager and product owners and then worked with each of the teams, respectively. Although they had some structure
in place where they conducted product reviews as an entire program, most of the other activities were conducted at a
team level, based on what worked best for each team, to allow them to self-organize.
4.3.5 DEDICATED TEAM MEMBERS

What happens when the team members’ time is not 100% dedicated to the team? While this condition is not ideal,
unfortunately, it sometimes cannot be avoided.
The key problem with having someone invest only a capacity of 25% or 50% on the team is that they will multitask
and task switch. Multitasking reduces the throughput of the team’s work and impacts the team’s ability to predict
delivery consistently.
Multitasking slows the progress of the entire team, because team members waste time context
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switching and/or waiting for each other to finish other work. When people are 100% dedicated to the
team, the team has the fastest possible throughput.
A follow-the-sun development process is one where work is handed off at the end of every day from one site to the
2
next, many time zones away in order to speed up product development.
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People experience productivity losses somewhere between 20% and 40% when task switching. The loss increases
exponentially with the number of tasks.
When a person multitasks between two projects, that person is not 50% on each project. Instead, due to the cost of
task switching, the person is somewhere between 20% and 40% on each project.
People are more likely to make mistakes when they multitask. Task-switching consumes working memory and
people are less likely to remember their context when they multitask.
When everyone on the team is 100% allocated to one project, they can continuously collaborate as a team, making
everyone’s work more effective.
Since core team members developing this practice guide cannot dedicate 100% of their
capacity to the team’s efforts, their throughput is substantially lower than what it might be
if they could afford to collocate and invest their attention full-time to the project. However,
CASE
while it is economically viable to collaborate, even if dispersed and operating at a fraction of

their full capacity, it is not feasible to colocate and focus at full capacity. Therefore, the team
identified their dispersion as a potential risk. The team tracks and monitors the progress of
their work through the use of collaborative tools and adjusts assignments based on individual
capacity accordingly.
See Table A1-2 on Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping for more tips on teams in agile
environments, specifically the processes in the Project Resource Management Knowledge Area.
Not all teams have all the roles that they need. For example, some teams need support from database
administrators or research analysts. When a team has temporarily assigned specialists, it is important
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to ensure that everyone has the same set of expectations. Is this specialist 100% allocated to the team
and for how long? Set expectations with everyone (the specialist and the team) to clarify the level of
commitment so the team can deliver. Part-time assignments create risks for the project.
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4.3.6 TEAM WORKSPACES
Teams need a space in which they can work together, to understand their state as a team, and to collaborate. Some
agile teams all work in one room together. Some teams have a team workspace for their standups and charts, and work
on their own in cubicles or offices.
While companies are moving toward open, collaborative work environments, organizations also need to create quiet
spaces for workers who need uninterrupted time to think and work. Therefore, companies are designing their offices to
balance common and social areas (sometimes called “caves and common”) with quiet areas or private spaces where
individuals can work without being interrupted.
When teams have geographically distributed members, the team decides how much of their workplace is virtual and
how much is physical. Technology such as document sharing, video conferencing, and other virtual collaboration tools
help people collaborate remotely.
Geographically distributed teams need virtual workspaces. In addition, consider getting the team together in person
at regular intervals so the team can build trust and learn how to work together.
Some techniques to consider for managing communication in dispersed teams are fishbowl windows and
remote pairing:
Create a fishbowl window by setting up long-lived video conferencing links between the various locations in
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which the team is dispersed. People start the link at the beginning of a workday, and close it at the end. In
this way, people can see and engage spontaneously with each other, reducing the collaboration lag otherwise
inherent in the geographical separation.
Set up remote pairing by using virtual conferencing tools to share screens, including voice and video links. As
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long as the time zone differences are accounted for, this may prove almost as effective as face-to-face pairing.
Form teams by bringing people with different skills from different functions together. Educate managers
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and leaders about the agile mindset and engage them early in the agile transformation.
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4.3.7 OVERCOMING ORGANIZATIONAL SILOS
The best place to start when forming agile teams is by building a foundational trust and a safe work environment to
ensure that all team members have an equal voice and can be heard and considered. This, along with building the agile
mindset is the underlying success factor—all other challenges and risks can be mitigated.
Often, siloed organizations create impediments for forming cross-functional agile teams. The team members
needed to build the cross-functional teams typically report to different managers and have different metrics by which
managers measure their performance. Managers need to focus on flow efficiency (and team-based metrics) rather
than resource efficiency.
To overcome organizational silos, work with the various managers of these team members and have them dedicate the
necessary individuals to the cross-functional team. This not only creates team synergy but also allows the organization
to see how leveraging its people will optimize the project or product being built.
For more information about teams see Appendix X2 on Attributes that Influence Tailoring.
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As an agile project leader, first focus on how you can create a team that is cross-functional and 100%
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dedicated to one team. Even if it means just getting key team members, such as the developers and testers,
to work and communicate together on a daily basis, that is a step in the right direction toward agility.
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5
IMPLEMENTING AG I LE:
D E LIVER I NG IN A N AG I LE ENV I RONM ENT
5.1 CHARTER THE PROJECT AND THE TEAM

Every project needs a project charter so the project team knows why this project matters, where the team is headed
and what the project objective is. However, the project charter itself may not be enough for the team. Agile teams
require team norms and an understanding of how to work together. In that case, the team might need a team charter.
The chartering process helps the team learn how to work together and coalesce around the project.
At a minimum, for an agile project, the team needs the project vision or purpose and a clear set of working agreements.
An agile project charter answers these questions:
Why are we doing this project? This is the project vision.
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Who benefits and how? This may be part of the project vision and/or project purpose.
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What does done mean for the project? These are the project’s release criteria.
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How are we going to work together? This explains the intended flow of work.
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A servant leader may facilitate the chartering process. A team can coalesce by working together, and the project
charter is a great way to start working. In addition, team members may want to collaborate to understand how they will
work together.
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Teams do not need a formal process for chartering as long as the teams understand how to work together. Some
teams benefit from a team chartering process. Here are some chartering ideas for team members to use as a basis for
their social contract:
Team values, such as sustainable pace and core hours;
uu
Working agreements, such as what “ready” means so the team can take in work; what “done” means so the
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team can judge completeness consistently; respecting the timebox; or the use of work-in-process limits;
Ground rules, such as one person talking in a meeting; and
uu
Group norms, such as how the team treats meeting times.

uu
The servant leader together with the team may decide to address other behaviors.
Remember that the team’s social contract—its team charter—is how the team members interact with each other.
The goal of the team charter is to create an agile environment in which team members can work to the best of their
ability as a team.
5.2 COMMON AGILE PRACTICES

Sections 5.2.1 through 5.2.8 describe a few of the most common agile project practices.
5.2.1 RETROSPECTIVES
The single most important practice is the retrospective because it allows the team to learn about, improve, and adapt
its process.
Retrospectives help the team learn from its previous work on the product and its process. One of the principles
behind the Agile Manifesto is: “At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes and
adjusts its behavior accordingly.”
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Many teams use iterations—especially 2-week iterations—because the iteration prompts a demonstration and a
retrospective at the end. However, the team does not need iterations in order to retrospect. Team members may decide
to retrospect at these key times:
When the team completes a release or ships something. It does not have to be a monumental increment. It can
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be any release, no matter how small.
When more than a few weeks have passed since the previous retrospective.
uu
When the team appears to be stuck and completed work is not flowing through the team.
uu
When the team reaches any other milestone.

uu
Teams benefit from allocating enough time to learn, either from an interim retrospective or an end-of-the-project
retrospective. Teams need to learn about their work product and work process. For example, some teams have trouble
finishing work. When teams plan enough time, they can structure their retrospective to gather data, process that data,
and decide what to try later as an experiment.
First and foremost, a retrospective is not about blame; the retrospective is a time for the team to learn from previous
work and make small improvements.
The retrospective is about looking at the qualitative (people’s feelings) and quantitative (measurements) data, then
using that data to find root causes, designing countermeasures, and developing action plans. The project team may end
up with many action items to remove impediments.
Consider limiting the number of action items to the team’s capacity to address improvement in the upcoming iteration
or work period. Trying to improve too many things at once and not finishing any of them is much worse than planning to
complete fewer items and successfully completing all of them. Then, when time allows, the team can work on the next
improvement opportunity on the list. When the team selects the improvements, decide how to measure the outcomes.
Then, in the next time period, measure the outcomes to validate success or failure of each improvement.
A facilitator from the team leads them through an activity to rank the importance of each improvement item. Once the
improvement items are ranked by the team, the team chooses the appropriate number to work on for the next iteration
(or adds work to the flow if flow-based).
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5.2.2 BACKLOG PREPARATION
The backlog is the ordered list of all the work, presented in story form, for a team. There is no need to create all of the
stories for the entire project before the work starts—only enough to understand the first release in broad brushstrokes
and then sufficient items for the next iteration.
Product owners (or a product owner value team that includes the product manager and all relevant product owners
for that area of the product,) might produce a product roadmap to show the anticipated sequence of deliverables over
time. The product owner replans the roadmap based on what the team produces. (See Appendix X3 on Agile Suitability
Filter Tools for examples of roadmaps.)
5.2.3 BACKLOG REFINEMENT

In iteration-based agile, the product owner often works with the team to prepare some stories for the upcoming
iteration during one or more sessions in the middle of the iteration. The purpose of these meetings is to refine enough
stories so the team understands what the stories are and how large the stories are in relation to each other.
There is no consensus on how long the refinement should be. There is a continuum of:
Just-in-time refinement for flow-based agile. The team takes the next card off the to-do column and discusses it.
uu
Many iteration-based agile teams use a timeboxed 1-hour discussion midway through a 2-week iteration. (The
uu
team selects an iteration duration that provides them frequent-enough feedback.)
Multiple refinement discussions for iteration-based agile teams. Teams can use this when they are new to the
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product, the product area, or the problem domain.
Consider using impact mapping to see how the product fits together. Under normal circumstances,
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the product owner leads this work. A servant leader can facilitate any necessary meetings as a way of
serving the project.
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Refinement meetings allow the product owner to present story ideas to the team and for the team to learn about the
potential challenges or problems in the stories. If the product owner is unsure of the dependencies, the product owner
can request the team to spike the feature in order to understand the risks.
There are many ways for the product owner to conduct backlog preparation and refinement meetings, including
for example:
Encourage the team to work as triads of developer, tester, business analyst/product owner to discuss and write
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the story.
Present the overall story concept to the team. The team discusses and refines it into as many stories as required.
uu
Work with the team to find various ways to explore and write the stories together, making sure all of the stories
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are small enough so the team can produce a steady flow of completed work. Consider becoming able to complete
a story at least once a day.
Teams often have a goal of spending not more than 1 hour per week refining stories for the next batch of work.
Teams want to maximize the time spent doing work as opposed to planning work. If the team needs to spend more than
1 hour per week refining stories, the product owner could be overpreparing, or the team may be lacking some critical
skills needed to evaluate and refine the work.
5.2.4 DAILY STANDUPS

Teams use standups to microcommit to each other, uncover problems, and ensure the work flows smoothly through
the team.
Timebox the standup to no longer than 15 minutes. The team “walks” the Kanban or task board in some way, and
anyone from the team can facilitate the standup.
In iteration-based agile, everyone answers the following questions in a round-robin fashion:
What did I complete since the last standup?
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What am I planning to complete between now and the next standup?

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What are my impediments (or risks or problems)?

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Questions like these generate answers that allow the team to self-organize and hold each other accountable for
completing the work they committed to the day before and throughout the iteration.
Flow-based agile has a different approach to standups, focusing on the team’s throughput. The team assesses the
board from right to left. The questions are:
What do we need to do to advance this piece of work?
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Is anyone working on anything that is not on the board?

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What do we need to finish as a team?

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Are there any bottlenecks or blockers to the flow of work?

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One of the antipatterns typically seen in standups is they become status meetings. Teams who have traditionally
worked in a predictive environment may tend to fall into this antipattern since they are used to providing a status.
Another antipattern typically seen in standups is that the team begins to solve problems as they become apparent.
Standups are for realizing there are problems—not for solving them. Add the issues to a parking lot, and then create
another meeting, which might be right after the standup, and solve problems there.
Teams run their own standups. When run well, standups can be very useful, provided the nature of the team’s
work requires intense collaboration. Make a conscious decision about when the team needs, or can effectively
use, standups.
Encourage any team member to facilitate the standup instead of a project manager or leader to ensure
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it does not turn into a status meeting, but instead is used as a time for the team to self-organize and make
commitments to each other.
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5.2.5 DEMONSTRATIONS/REVIEWS
As the team completes the features usually in the form of user stories, the team periodically demonstrates the
working product. The product owner sees the demonstration and accepts or declines stories.
In iteration-based agile, the team demonstrates all completed work items at the end of the iteration. In flow-
based agile, the team demonstrates completed work when it is time to do so, usually when enough features have
accumulated into a set that is coherent. Teams, including the product owner, need feedback to decide how early to
ask for product feedback.
As a general guideline, demonstrate whatever the team has as a working product at least once every 2 weeks. That
frequency is enough for most teams, so team members can get feedback that prevents them from heading in a wrong
direction. That is also frequent enough so that the teams can keep the product development clean enough to build a
complete product as often as they want or need to.
A fundamental part of what makes a project agile is the frequent delivery of a working product. A team that does
not demonstrate or release cannot learn fast enough and is likely not adopting agile techniques. The team may require
additional coaching to enable frequent delivery.
5.2.6 PLANNING FOR ITERATION-BASED AGILE

Each team’s capacity is different. Each product owner’s typical story size is different. Teams consider their story size
so they do not try to commit to more stories than there is team capacity to complete within one iteration.
When people are unavailable (e.g., holidays, vacations, or anything that prevents people from participating in the next
set of work), the product owner understands that the team has reduced capacity. The team will not be able to finish the
same amount of work as it finished in the previous time period. When teams have a reduced capacity, they will only
plan for work that meets that capacity.
Teams estimate what they can complete, which is a measure of capacity (see Section 4.10 for examples). Teams
cannot predict with 100% certainty what they can deliver, as they cannot know the unexpected. When product owners
make the stories smaller and teams see progress in the form of a finished product, teams learn what they are able to
do for the future.
Agile teams do not plan just once in one single chunk. Instead, agile teams plan a little, deliver, learn, and then replan
a little more in an ongoing cycle.
TIP
Draw the team’s attention to the antipattern and help the team to discover how to improve its standups.
55
5.2.7 EXECUTION PRACTICES THAT HELP TEAMS DELIVER VALUE
If the team does not pay attention to quality, it will soon become impossible to release anything rapidly.
The following technical practices, many of which come from eXtreme Programming, may help the team to deliver at
their maximum speed:
Continuous integration. Perform frequent incorporation of work into the whole, no matter the product, and then
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retest to determine that the entire product still works as intended.
Test at all levels. Employ system-level testing for end-to-end information and unit testing for the building
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blocks. In between, understand if there is a need for integration testing and where. Teams find smoke testing
helpful as a first look at whether the work product is any good. Teams have found that deciding when to run
regression tests and which ones helps them maintain product quality with good build performance. Agile teams
have a strong preference for automated tests so they can build and maintain a momentum of delivery.
Acceptance Test-Driven Development (ATDD). In ATDD, the entire team gets together and discusses the
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acceptance criteria for a work product. Then the team creates the tests, which allows the team to write just
enough code and automated tests to meet the criteria. For non-software projects, consider how to test the work
as the team completes chunks of value.
Test-Driven Development (TDD) and Behavior-Driven Development (BDD). Writing automated tests before
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writing/creating the product actually helps people design and mistake-proof the product. For non-software
projects, consider how to “test-drive” the team’s designs. Hardware and mechanical projects often use
simulations for interim tests of their designs.
Spikes (timeboxed research or experiments). Spikes are useful for learning and may be used in circumstances
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such as: estimation, acceptance criteria definition, and understanding the flow of a user’s action through the
product. Spikes are helpful when the team needs to learn some critical technical or functional element.
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5.2.8 HOW ITERATIONS AND INCREMENTS HELP DELIVER WORKING PRODUCT
Iterations help a team create a cadence for delivery and many kinds of feedback. Teams produce increments of
value for delivery and feedback. The first part of this delivery is a demonstration. Teams receive feedback about how
the product looks and operates through a demo. Team members retrospect to see how they can inspect and adapt their
process to succeed.
Demonstrations or reviews are a necessary part of the agile project flow. Schedule the demonstration as appropriate
for the team’s delivery cadence.
5.3 TROUBLESHOOTING AGILE PROJECT CHALLENGES

Agile approaches were born out of the need to solve issues associated with high rates of change, uncertainty, and
complexity on projects. Due to these origins, they contain a variety of tools and techniques for dealing with issues that
present problems in predictive approaches. Refer to Table 5-1.
Teams should demo often for feedback and to show progress. Encourage the PMO and other interested
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parties to watch demonstrations so the people deciding on the project portfolio can see the actual progress.
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Table 5-1. Agile Pain Points and Troubleshooting Possibilities
Pain Point Troubleshooting Possibilities
Unclear purpose or mission for the team Agile chartering for purpose—vision, mission, and mission tests
Unclear working agreements for the team Agile chartering for alignment—values, principles, and working
agreements
Unclear team context Agile chartering for context—boundaries, committed assets,

and prospective analysis
Unclear requirements Help sponsors and stakeholders craft a product vision. Consider
building a product roadmap using specification by example, user
story mapping, and impact mapping. Bring the team and product
owner together to clarify the expectations and value of a
requirement. Progressively decompose roadmap into backlog of
smaller, concrete requirements.
Poor user experience User experience design practices included in the development
team involve users early and often.
Inaccurate estimation Reduce story size by splitting stories. Use relative estimation with
the entire team to estimate. Consider agile modeling or spiking
to understand what the story is.
Unclear work assignments or work progress Help the team learn that they self-manage their work. Consider
kanban boards to see the flow of work. Consider a daily standup
to walk the board and see what work is where.
Team struggles with obstacles A servant leader can help clear these obstacles. If the team
doesn’t know the options they have, consider a coach.
Sometimes, the team needs to escalate stories the team
or servant leader has not been able to remove.
Work delays/overruns due to insufficiently Product owner and team workshop stories together. Create
refined product backlog items a definition of ready for the stories. Consider splitting stories
to use smaller stories.
Defects Consider the technical practices that work for the environment.
Some possibilities are: pair work, collective product ownership,
pervasive testing (test-driven and automated testing
approaches) and a robust definition of done.
Work is not complete Team defines definition of done for stories including acceptance
criteria. Also add release criteria for projects.
Technical debt (degraded code quality) Refactoring, agile modeling, pervasive testing, automated code
quality analysis, definition of done
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Table 5-1. Agile Pain Points and Troubleshooting Possibilities (cont.)
Pain Point Troubleshooting Possibilities
Too much product complexity For software and non-software encourage the team always to be
thinking “What is the simplest thing that would work?” and apply
the agile principle of “Simplicity--the art of maximizing the
amount of work not done”. These help reduce complexity.
Slow or no improvement in the Capture no more than three items to improve at each
teamwork process retrospective. Ask the servant leader to help the team learn
how to integrate those items.
Too much upfront work leading to rework Instead of much upfront work, consider team spikes to learn.
In addition, measure the WIP during the beginning of the project
and see what the team’s options are to deliver value instead
of designs. Shorten iterations and create a robust definition
of done.
False starts, wasted efforts Ask the product owner to become an integral part of the team.
Inefficiently ordered product backlog items Rank with value including cost of delay divided by duration
(CD3) and other value models
Rush/wait uneven flow of work Plan to the team’s capacity and not more. Ask people to stop
multitasking and be dedicated to one team. Ask the team
to work as pairs, a swarm, or mob to even out the capabilities
across the entire team.
Impossible stakeholder demands Servant leadership to work with this stakeholder (and possibly
product owner).
Unexpected or unforeseen delays Ask the team to check in more often, use kanban boards to see
the flow of work and work in progress limits to understand the
impact of the demands on the team or product. Also track
impediments and impediment removal on an impediment board.
Siloed teams, instead of cross-functional Ask the people who are part of projects to self-organize as
teams cross-functional teams. Use servant leadership skills to help the
managers understand why agile needs cross-functional teams.
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5.4 MEASUREMENTS IN AGILE PROJECTS
Transitioning to agile means using different measurements. Using agile means looking at new metrics that matter to
the team and to management. These metrics matter because they focus on customer value.
One problem with status reporting is the team’s ability to predict completion or to use traffic light status to describe
the project. For instance, project leaders describe the project as “90% done.” At that point the team tries to integrate the
pieces into a product. The team discovers missing requirements or surprises, or finds that the product doesn’t integrate
the way they thought it would.
The project is only partway done, and the traffic light status reporting does not reflect the real state. Too often, the
project team realizes it will need just as much time to complete the remainder of the project. For too many projects, the
team realizes they are—at most—10% done because of issues the team discovered.
The problem with predictive measurements is that they often do not reflect reality. It often happens that a project
status light is green up until 1 month before the release date; this is sometimes referred to as a watermelon project
(green on the outside, red on the inside). Oftentimes project status lights turn red with seemingly no warnings, because
there is no empirical data about the project until 1 month before the release date.
Metrics for agile projects contain meaningful information that provide a historical track record, because agile
projects deliver value (finished work) on a regular basis. Project teams can use such data for improved forecasts and
decision making.
Surrogate measurements such as percent done are less useful than empirical measurements such as finished
features. See Section 4.10 for more information on value management. Agile helps teams see problems and issues so
the team can diagnose and address them.
In addition to quantitative measures, the team can consider collecting qualitative measures. Some of these qualitative
measures focus on practices the team has chosen and assess how well the team uses those practices, for example,
the business satisfaction with delivered features, the morale of the team; and anything else the team wants to track as
a qualitative measure.
�
�
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60
5.4.1 AGILE TEAMS MEASURE RESULTS Sponsors usually want to know
when the project will be done. Once
Agile favors empirical and value-based measurements instead of the team establishes a reliable
predictive measurements. Agile measures what the team delivers, not what velocity (average stories or story
the team predicts it will deliver. points per iteration) or the average
A team that is accustomed to having project baselines and estimates of cycle time, the team can predict how
earned value and ROI might be puzzled about working on a project and not much longer the project will take.
managing to a baseline. Agile is based on working products of demonstrable As an example, if the team
value to customers. averages 50 story points per
Baselines are often an artifact of attempted prediction. In agile, the team iteration, and the team estimates
limits its estimation to the next few weeks at most. In agile, if there is low there are about another 500 points
variability in the team’s work and if the team members are not multitasking, remaining, the team estimates it has
the team’s capacity can become stable. This allows better prediction for the about 10 iterations remaining. As
next couple of weeks. the product owner refines the stories
remaining and as the team refines
After the team completes work in iteration or flow, the team can replan.
its estimates, the project estimate
Agile does not create the ability to do more work. However, there is evidence
could go up or down, but the team
that the smaller the chunk of work, the more likely people are to deliver it.
can provide an estimate.
Software product development, like other knowledge work, is about
If the team averages a cycle time
learning—learning while delivering value. Hardware development and
of three days per story and there are
mechanical development are similar in the design parts of the project.
30 remaining stories, the team would
Learning takes place by experimenting, delivering small increments of
have 90 business days remaining,
value, and getting feedback on what has been accomplished thus far. Many
approximately 4 to 5 months.
other product development projects incorporate learning also.
Reflect the estimate variability
with hurricane-style charts, or some
other variability measure that the
sponsors will understand.
�
�
61
Because learning is such a large part of the project, the team needs to balance uncertainty and provide value to the
customers. The team plans the next small part of the project. The team reports empirical data and replans further small
increments to manage the project uncertainty.
Some iteration-based projects use burndown charts to see where the project is going over time. Figure 5-1 shows an
example of a burndown chart where the team planned to deliver 37 story points. Story points rate the relative work, risk,
and complexity of a requirement or story. Many agile teams use story points to estimate effort. The dotted burndown
line is the plan. In Figure 5-1, the team can see by Day 3 that they are at risk for that delivery.
Story Points Remaining

40
35
30
25 LEGEND
Story
20 Points
Remaining
15
10
0
Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 5-1. Burndown Chart for Remaining Story Points
Section 5
62
Some project teams prefer burnup charts. The same data used in Figure 5-1 is shown in Figure 5-2 in a burnup chart.
Story Points Done

35
30
25
LEGEND
20
Story
Points
15 Done
10
0
Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 5-2. Burnup Chart for Showing Story Points Completed
Burnup charts show the work completed. The two charts in Figures 5-1 and 5-2 are based on the same data, but
displayed in two different ways. Teams may prefer how to see their data.
When a team sees what it has not yet completed as it works through an iteration, the team may become dispirited and
possibly rush to complete the work without meeting the acceptance criteria. However, the team could have any number
of good reasons for not completing work as it expected. Burndowns show the effect of team members multitasking,
stories that are too large, or team members out of the office.
�
�
63
Especially with teams new to agile, the burnup will show changes in scope during the iteration. Burnups allow teams
to see what they have accomplished, which helps the team proceed to the next piece of work.
Whether teams use burndown or burnup charts, they see what they have completed as the iteration progresses. At
the end of the iteration, they might base their next measure of capacity (how many stories or story points) on what they
completed in this iteration. That allows the product owner along with the team to replan what the team is more likely to
succeed in delivering in the next iteration.
Velocity, the sum of the story point sizes for the features actually completed in this iteration, allows the team to plan
its next capacity more accurately by looking at its historical performance.
Flow-based agile teams use different measurements: lead time (the total time it takes to deliver an item, measured
from the time it is added to the board to the moment it is completed), cycle time (the time required to process an item),
and response time (the time that an item waits until work starts). Teams measure cycle time to see bottlenecks and
delays, not necessarily inside the team.
�
�
Teams might discover it can take four to eight iterations to achieve a stable velocity. The teams need
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the feedback from each iteration to learn about how they work and how to improve.
Section 5
64
Kanban Board
Ready Develop and Dev-Done System Done

Unit Test Test
8 3 2 Cycle time: from

the time you start
a task until you
complete it.
Deliver to Customer
Lead time: from the time you

put it on the board until you
deliver it. Because you can
change the order of the items
in the Ready column, this can
be unpredictable.
There is a limit
on this column.
You can swap
out something
and swap some-
thing else in at
�
any time.
�
Figure 5-3. Example of a Kanban Board
65
Lead time is useful to understand cycle time from the first look at a particular feature to the length of time it took to
release it to the customer. The work in progress (WIP) limits at the top of each column, shown in boxes here, allows the
team to see how to pull work across the board. When the team has met its WIP limits, the team cannot pull work from
the left into the next column. Instead, the team works from the right-most full column and asks, “What do we do as a
team to move this work into the next column?”
Each feature is unique, so its cycle time is unique. However, a product owner might notice that smaller features
have smaller cycle times. The product owner wants to see throughput, so the product owner creates smaller features
or works with the team to do so.
Burnups, burndowns (capacity measures) and lead time, and cycle time (predictability measures) are useful for in-
the-moment measurements. They help a team understand how much more work they have and whether the team might
finish on time.
Measuring story points is not the same as measuring completed stories or features. Some teams attempt to measure
story points without completing the actual feature or story. When teams measure only story points, they measure
capacity, not finished work, which violates the principle of “the primary measure of progress is working software” (or,
other product if not software).
Each team has its own capacity. When a team uses story points, be aware that the number of story points a team can
complete in a given time is unique to that team.
When teams depend on external people or groups, measure cycle time to see how long it takes for the
team to complete the work. Measure lead time to see the external dependencies after the team completes
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its work. Teams can also measure the reaction time, the time from ready to the first column, to see how
long it takes them—on average—to respond to new requests.
Section 5
66
When teams provide their own units of measure, teams are better able to assess and estimate and deliver their work.
The downside of relative estimation is that there is no way to compare teams or add velocity across teams.
The team can measure completed work in a feature burnup/burndown chart and in a product backlog burnup chart.
These charts provide trends of completion over time, as shown in Figure 5-4.
Features Complete, Remaining and Total

700
600 LEGEND
Number of
500 Features
Remaining
Features
400
Number of
300 Features
Complete
200 Total
Number of
100 Features
0
Time
Figure 5-4. Feature Chart
Feature burnup/burndown charts may show that requirements grew during the project. The features complete line
shows that the team completes features at a regular pace. The total features line shows how the project’s total features
changed over time. The features remaining burndown line shows that the rate of feature completion varies. Every time
features are added to the project, the burndown line changes.
Earned value in agile is based on finished features, as shown in Figure 5-5. The product backlog burnup chart shows
�
completed work compared to total expected work at interval milestones or iterations.

�
67
FS 3
Cumulative Features
FS 3 FS 3 FS 3 FS 3
FS 2
FS 2 FS 2 FS 2 FS 2
FS 1 FS 1 FS 1 FS 1 FS 1
Iteration or Interim Date
Figure 5-5. Product Backlog Burnup Chart
A team can only finish one story at a time. To complete a large feature that contains several stories, the team will
have remaining stories to complete and may not complete that entire feature until several more time periods have
passed. The team can show its completed value with a product backlog burnup chart as shown in Figure 5-5.
If a team needs to measure earned value, it can consider using this burnup chart in Figure 5-6 as an example: Note
that the left Y axis represents story points as scope, and the right Y axis represents the project spend.
Section 5
68
ABC Project Progress
$6,000,000
3,000
REPORTING
SAP INTERFACE $5,000,000

2,500
FORECASTING
Earned Value (EV) $4,000,000
2,000
Scope (Points)
BILLING
Planned Value (PV)
Spend
$3,000,000
1,500 Actual Cost (AC) CONTRACTS
1,000 Cost Variance (CV) SALES $2,000,000
Schedule Variance (SV)

500 STOCK $1,000,000
CONFIGURATION
0 $0
1/10/13 1/2/14 1/5/14 1/10/14 1/2/15 1/5/15 1/10/15 1/2/16 1/5/16 1/10/16 1/2/17 1/5/17
Completed Features Earned Value

SPI = CPI =
Planned Features Actual Costs
LEGEND
Projected Progress Scope Built Projected Spend Spend
Figure 5-6. Earned Value in an Agile Context
Traditional EVM metrics like schedule performance index (SPI) and cost performance index (CPI) can be easily
translated into agile terms. For example, if the team planned to complete 30 story points in an iteration, but only
completed 25 then the SPI is 25/30 or 0.83 (the team is working at only 83% of the rate planned). Likewise, CPI is
the earned value (completed features value) to date divided by the actual costs to date or, as shown in Figure 5-6,
�
$2.2M / $2.8M = 0.79. This means a result of only 79 cents on the dollar compared to plan (but of course this
assumes that the prediction is still correct.)
�
69
A cumulative flow diagram, illustrated in Figure 5-7, shows the work in progress across a board. If a team has many
stories waiting for test, the testing band will swell. Work accumulation can be seen at a glance.
Teams have trouble with accumulating work: the team has work in progress instead of work completed. When teams
have a lot of work in progress, they delay their overall feature delivery. The longer it takes for a team to deliver, the more
pressure a team will have for yet more features in the same period of time.
20
18
16
14
Work in Queue
12
Remaining Work
Features
10
Response Time
8
Lead Time
6
Completed
Cycle Time
Work
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Months
LEGEND
Queue Analysis Development Test Deploy
Figure 5-7. Cumulative Flow Diagram of Completed Features
Adapt this cumulative flow to the project task board.
Section 5
70
6
ORGAN IZATI ONA L CO NSI DERATI ONS
FOR PROJ ECT A GIL I TY
Every project exists in an organizational context. Cultures, structures, Project agility is more effective
and policies can influence both the direction and the outcome of any and sustained as the organization
project. These dynamics can challenge project leaders. adjusts to support it.
While project leaders may not have the ability to change
organizational dynamics as they see fit, they are expected to navigate
those dynamics skillfully.
This section explores the way the organization and in some circumstances,
the project context, influences projects. Leaders can explore options for
change, to increase project success.
6.1 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE MANAGEMENT

Organizational change management covers the skills and techniques for
influencing changes that support agility.
The PMI publication, Managing Change in Organizations: A Practice
Guide [2], describes a comprehensive and holistic approach for successfully
introducing meaningful change. The recommendations offered there include:
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Models for describing change dynamics,

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Framework for achieving change, and

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Application of change management practices at the project,

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program, and portfolio levels.
Sections 6.1.1 and 6.1.2 explore the considerations of change
management specific to an agile context.
Figure 6-1 shows the relationship between these two topics.
71
Concepts described in
the Agile Practice Guide
Agile Change
Considerations Management
Concepts described in
Managing Change in Organizations:
A Practice Guide
Figure 6-1. The Relationship Between Change Management and Agile Approaches
Section 6
72
6.1.1 DRIVERS FOR CHANGE MANAGEMENT
All projects are about change. However, there are two key factors that further motivate the use of change management
practices in an agile context:
Changes associated with accelerated delivery. Agile approaches emphasize delivering project outputs
uu
early and often. However, the receiving organization may not be fully prepared to incorporate those outputs
at an increased pace. Accelerating delivery will test the organization’s ability to accommodate that delivery.
Successfully discovering and delivering a project’s features is not enough. If the organization resists the project’s
output, then the targeted return on investment is delayed. Customer acceptance of and alignment with project
outputs becomes even more prevalent in an agile environment.
Changes associated with agile approaches. Organizations just beginning to use agile approaches also
uu
experience high degrees of change. Higher degrees of collaboration may require more frequent handoffs
between teams, departments, or vendors. Decomposing work into iterative prototypes involves rework that
could be viewed negatively. Leaders should consider change management techniques to address the hurdles of
transitioning to the use of agile approaches.
6.1.2 READINESS FOR CHANGE

Organizations beginning to use agile approaches should understand the relative compatibility of those methods
with their current approaches. Some organizations will have characteristics that more easily support agile principles
of cross-department collaboration, continuous learning, and evolving internal processes. Examples of these change-
friendly characteristics include:
Executive management’s willingness to change;
uu
Organization’s willingness to shift the way it views, reviews, and assesses employees;
uu
Centralization or decentralization of project, program, and portfolio management functions;

uu
Focus on short-term budgeting and metrics versus long-term goals; and

uu
Talent management maturity and capabilities.

uu
73
Conversely, there are other institutional characteristics that may be roadblocks to achieving the changes associated
with organizational agility. Examples of these include:
Work is decomposed into departmental silos, creating dependencies that prevent accelerated delivery instead of
uu
building cross-functional teams with guidance from centers of competencies.
Procurement strategies are based on short-term pricing strategies, rather than long-term competencies.
uu
Leaders are rewarded for local efficiencies rather than end-to-end flow of project delivery or optimizing the whole
uu
(in regard to the organization).
Employees are specialized contributors with limited tools or incentives to diversify their skills instead of building
uu
T-shaped specialists.
Decentralized portfolios pull employees simultaneously onto too many projects at once instead of keeping them
uu
focused on one project at a time.
The degree to which an organization is willing to review and modify these practices will determine how quickly
and effectively agile approaches can be adopted. However, in response to these organizational impediments to agility,
project leaders can try various approaches to accelerate a cultural compatibility for:
Visible and active executive sponsorship,
uu
Change management practices, including communication and coaching,

uu
Progressively pacing the adoption of agile practices on a project-by-project basis

uu
Incremental introduction of agile practices to the team; and

uu
Leading by example by using agile techniques and practices where possible.

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Section 6
74
6.2 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE “Culture eats strategy for
breakfast” —Peter Drucker
An organization’s culture is its DNA—its core identity. Culture will always
influence the use of agile approaches. Organizational culture runs along a This statement stresses the
continuum, from highly predictive plans to lean startup where everything is an importance of people’s commitment
experiment. Although agile approaches fit well with the lean startup culture, a and passion for a cause. No matter
highly predictive organization can encourage empirical measurements, small what strategy or plan you implement
experiments, and learning so they can move toward agility. with your team, its success is
going to be governed by the people
implementing the plan. If the people
6.2.1 CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT OF SAFETY who are driving the strategy aren’t
passionate about the change, or
Organizational culture is difficult to change, but the most important worse, are apathetic about their
cultural norm in an organization willing to try any new method or technique job and their organization, then you
is enabling a safe work environment. stand little chance of implementing
Only in a safe, honest, and transparent environment can team members the change.
and leaders truly reflect on their successes to ensure their projects continue
to advance, or apply lessons learned on failed projects so they do not fall
back into the same patterns.
6.2.2 ASSESSING CULTURE

Every project finds itself in tension with competing aspirations. How can
the team go fast without compromising quality? How can the team preserve
flexibility while also hitting a firm date? Most importantly, how does the
team satisfy and meet the requirements of the customer?
Project leaders may feel their job is to meet every expectation of every
stakeholder; but, when compelled to make a choice, there is often a priority
depending on the culture and requirements of the organization’s business
environment. For example, a mobile telecom project has a greater bias
�
for speed, where a government program may have a greater bias for
generalization and stability.
�
75
To navigate these dynamics, project leaders should take the time to assess where emphasis is most often applied
in the organization. Figure 6-2 illustrates what an assessment might look like. In this example, a project leader initiates
a conversation about organizational priorities with stakeholders, team members, and senior management. Those
priorities are then recorded as positions on a sliding scale between two extremes. The results are then used to find agile
techniques that best fit with those priorities.
Exploration Execution
Speed Stability
Quantity Quality
{Other Factors}
Flexibility Predictability
Figure 6-2. Example of Assessing Organizational Culture
Several models exist for assessing such dynamics; however, the model or method used is not that important. It is
more critical that project leaders invest the effort to understand the forces that shape their context. Understanding
the organization and the industry requirements that an organization needs to satisfy allows for choosing the right
conversations, the right tradeoffs, and, especially, the right techniques.
Section 6
76
6.3 PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTS
As mentioned earlier in this practice guide, the Agile Manifesto values “customer collaboration over contract
negotiation.” Many project failures stem from breakdowns in the customer–supplier relationship. Projects incur more
risk when those involved in the contract take the perspective of winners vs. losers. A collaborative approach is one that
pursues a shared-risk-reward relationship, where all sides win. Some contracting techniques that can formalize this
dynamic include the following:
Multi-tiered structure. Rather than formalizing an entire contracting relationship in a single document, project
uu
parties can achieve more flexibility by describing different aspects in different documents. Mostly fixed items
(e.g., warranties, arbitration) can be locked in a master agreement. Meanwhile, all parties list other items subject
to change (e.g., services rates, product descriptions) in a schedule of services. The contract can reference them
in the master services agreement. Finally, more dynamic items such as scope, schedule, and budget can be
formalized in a lightweight statement of work. Isolating the more changing elements of a contract into a single
document simplifies modifications and thus flexibility.
Emphasize value delivered. Many vendor relationships are governed by fixed milestones or “phase gates”
uu
focused on intermediate artifacts, rather than a full deliverable of incremental business value. Often, these
controls limit the use of feedback to improve the product. Instead, milestones and payment terms can be
structured based on value-driven deliverables in order to enhance the project’s agility.
Fixed-price increments. Rather than lock an entire project scope and budget into a single agreement, a project
uu
can decompose the scope into fixed-price microdeliverables, such as user stories. For the customer, this gives
more control over how the money is spent. For the supplier, it limits the financial risk of over-commitment to a
single feature or deliverable.
Culture versus Structure
Some people insist new organizational structures be installed before any cultural shift can begin.
Others maintain the opposite—those new organizational structures are only superficial adjustments until
T IP
the collective culture moves in a meaningful direction. In reality, one cannot progress without the other.
Project leaders wanting to achieve agility should consider the current and future states of both of these
aspects in their organization.
77
Not-to-exceed time and materials. Customers incur unwanted risk from a traditional time and materials
uu
approach. One alternative is to limit the overall budget to a fixed amount. This allows the customer to incorporate
new ideas and innovations into the project not originally planned. When customers want to incorporate new
ideas, they will have to manage to a given capacity, replacing original work with new work. Work should be
closely monitored as hours allocated reach their limit. Also, additional contingency hours could be planned into
the maximum budget if considered helpful.
Graduated time and materials. Another alternative is a shared financial risk approach. In agile, the quality criteria
uu
are part of what done means. Therefore, the supplier can be rewarded with a higher hourly rate when delivery is
earlier than the contracted deadline. Conversely, the supplier would suffer a rate reduction for late delivery.
Early cancellation option. When an agile supplier delivers sufficient value with only half of the scope completed,
uu
the customer should not be bound to pay the remaining half if the customer no longer needs it. Instead, a contract
can offer the customer to buy the remainder of the project for a cancellation fee. The customer limits budget
exposure and the supplier earns positive revenue for services no longer required.
Dynamic scope option. For those contracts with a fixed budget, a supplier may offer the customer the option
uu
to vary the project scope at specified points in the project. The customer can adjust features to fit the capacity.
Then the customer can leverage innovation opportunities, while limiting the supplier’s risk of over commitment.
Team augmentation. Arguably the most collaborative contracting approach is to embed the supplier’s services
uu
directly into the customer organization. Funding teams instead of a specific scope preserves the customer’s
strategic discretion on what work should actually be done.
Section 6
78
Favor full-service suppliers. In order to diversify risk, customers may seek a multisupplier strategy. However,
uu
the temptation will be to contract the work such that each supplier does only one thing, which creates a web of
dependencies before any usable service or product emerges. Instead, place an emphasis on engagements that
deliver full value (as in the idea of completed independent feature sets).
It is possible to create agile contracts. Agile is built on a synergy of collaboration and trust. The supplier can help by
delivering value early and often. The customer can help by providing timely feedback.
6.4 BUSINESS PRACTICES

The willingness and ability to create new competences within an organization when the need arises is a mark of
organizational agility. These do not have to be earth-shattering changes and could be less disruptive in an organization
that is focused on agility and the results it provides. Transparency and open collaboration are absolutely key.
As cross-functional teams deliver value, the teams and individuals might encounter problems with various support
functions in the organization.
As team delivers value on a regular basis, finance departments may have the opportunity to capitalize the product
differently. If the team has contracts with other organizations, procurement departments may need to change those
contracts to help the other organizations deliver value frequently and synchronize with the team.
Once teams start to work in a cohesive and cooperative manner, they will challenge internal management policies.
Human resources may notice individual incentives make less sense, and managers may struggle with the performance
appraisals of self-organizing employees. In each case, these are opportunities to review the degree to which existing
practices support agile ways of working.
As organizations progress to greater agility, there will be obvious needs for additional business units to change the
way they interact and perform their responsibilities. The changes that have benefited other areas of the organization
should now be embraced so the effectiveness of the entire organization can be realized.
79
6.5 MULTITEAM COORDINATION AND DEPENDENCIES (SCALING)
Many projects incur dependencies, even when they are not managed within a given program. For this reason, it is
necessary to have an understanding of how agile works within an existing program and portfolio management context.
6.5.1 FRAMEWORKS
The guidance of the most widespread agile methods such as Scrum and eXtreme Programming focus on the activities
of a single, small, usually colocated, cross-functional team. While this is very useful for efforts that require a single
team, it may provide insufficient guidance for initiatives that require the collaboration of multiple agile teams in a
program or portfolio.
A range of frameworks (such as the Scaled Agile Framework, Large Scale Scrum, and Disciplined Agile) and approaches
(e.g., Scrum of Scrums) have emerged to cater to just such circumstances. More details on these can be found in Annex A3.
6.5.2 CONSIDERATIONS
There is more than one way to scale work. The team might need to scale the work of several agile projects into a
single agile program. Alternatively, the organization can design a structure that supports agile approaches across the
entire portfolio.
For example, it is helpful to start small and learn as rapidly as possible what works well in the organizational context.
Teams can achieve successful outcomes even when everything is not completely transformed into an agile approach.
Regardless of the approach, a critical success factor is the healthy agile team. If using an agile approach for a single
team is not successful, do not try to scale up to using it more broadly; instead, address the organizational impediments
that prevent teams from working in an agile way.
The goal of large-scale agile projects is to coordinate the efforts of different teams to bring value to customers. There
is more than one way to do that. Teams may use a formal framework or apply agile thinking to adjust existing program
management practices.
Section 6
80
6.6 AGILE AND THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT OFFICE (PMO)
The PMO exists to shepherd business value throughout the organization. It might do this by helping projects achieve
their goals. Sometimes, the PMO educates teams (or arranges for training) and supports projects. Sometimes, the PMO
advises management about the relative business value for a given project or set of projects.
Because agile creates cultural change, over time, the organization might need to change, including the PMO. For
example, managers make decisions about which projects to fund and when, and teams decide what they need for
training or advice.
6.6.1 AN AGILE PMO IS VALUE-DRIVEN

Any project should deliver the right value, to the right audience, at the right time. The PMO’s objective is to facilitate
and enable this goal. An agile-based PMO approach is based on a customer-collaboration mindset and is present in
all PMO programs. In many cases, this means the PMO operates as if it were a consulting business, tailoring its efforts
to meet specific needs requested by a given project. Some projects may need tools and templates, while others may
benefit from executive coaching. The PMO should strive to deliver what is needed and keep the pulse on its customers
to ensure that it knows and is able to adapt to their needs. This intrapreneur approach focuses on the PMO activities
that are perceived as the most valuable to the projects it supports.
6.6.2 AN AGILE PMO IS INVITATION-ORIENTED

In order to accelerate progress on a value-based charter, a PMO may be tempted to mandate certain solutions or
approaches, for example, to make everyone do it the same way to get some quick wins. However, a more deliberate
perspective incorporates the desire for employee engagement. This is achieved by inviting only those interested to
engage with PMO services. Higher engagement with PMO practices makes it easier for those practices to be “sticky.”
If the PMO is delivering value to its clients, it is more likely that clients will request its services and adopt its practices.
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6.6.3 AN AGILE PMO IS MULTIDISCIPLINARY
In order to support project-specific needs, the PMO needs to be conversant in several competencies beyond
project management itself, because different projects require distinct capabilities. For instance, one project may need
organizational design to address staffing challenges while another may require organizational change management
techniques for stakeholder engagement or unique business models to support customer goals.
Some organizations have been transforming their PMOs into agile centers of excellence that provide such services as:
Developing and implementing standards. Provide templates for user stories, test cases, cumulative flow
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diagrams, etc. Provide agile tools and educate supporting groups on iterative development concepts.
Developing personnel through training and mentoring. Coordinate agile training courses, coaches, and
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mentors to help people transition to an agile mindset and upgrade their skills. Encourage and support people to
attend local agile events.
Multiproject management. Coordinate between agile teams by communicating between projects. Consider
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sharing items such as progress, issues, and retrospective findings and improvement experiments. Help
manage major customer releases at the program level and investment themes at the portfolio level using an
appropriate framework.
Facilitating organizational learning. Gather project velocity profiles and capture, store, and index
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retrospective findings.
Managing stakeholders. Provide product owner training, guidance on acceptance testing, and how to evaluate
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and give feedback on systems. Champion the importance of subject matter experts (SMEs) to projects.
Recruiting, selecting, and evaluating team leaders. Develop guidelines for interviewing agile practitioners.
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Executing specialized tasks for projects. Train and provide retrospective facilitators, create agreements with
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agile project troubleshooters, and provide mentors and coaches.
Section 6
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6.7 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
The structure of an organization strongly influences its ability to pivot to new information or shifting market needs.
Here is a listing of key characteristics:
Geography. Geographically distributed and dispersed project organizations may find several challenges impeding
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their work on any project. Project leaders and regional managers may have alternative or even competing goals.
Additionally, cultural differences, language barriers, and lower visibility can slow down productivity. Fortunately,
the use of agile approaches can encourage more collaboration and confidence than would otherwise exist.
Project leaders in these contexts should encourage dialog at the team and executive level to tailor techniques for
the context and to manage expectations about the effort required to do so.
Functionalized structures. Some organizations are structured on a spectrum ranging from highly projectized
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to matrixed to highly functionalized. Projects with highly functionalized structures may find general resistance to
collaboration across its organization.
Size of project deliverable. Reducing the size of a project deliverable will motivate more frequent handoffs
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across departments, and thus more frequent interactions and a faster flow of value across the organization.
Allocation of people to projects. Another approach is to ask for a single person from each department to be
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temporarily, yet fully allocated, to the highest priority project.
Procurement-heavy organizations. Some organizations choose to implement projects primarily through
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vendors. Although project goals may be clear, vendors have a responsibility to look after their own financial
viability. Moreover, once vendors complete their obligations and leave the engagement, the associated project
knowledge goes with them. This limits the internal competencies needed for sustained flexibility and speed. Agile
techniques such as retrospectives and follow up on possible improvement areas when the vendor is still engaged
can help mitigate loss of product knowledge.
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6.8 EVOLVING THE ORGANIZATION
When addressing an individual challenge area or implementing a new hybrid or agile approach, it is recommended
to undertake the work incrementally. A common practice is to treat the change process as an agile project with its
own backlog of changes that could be introduced and prioritized by the team, based on perceived value or other
considerations. Each of the changes can be treated as an experiment, which is tested for a short period of time to
determine suitability as-is or the need for further refinement/consideration.
Use kanban boards to track progress, showing the new approaches already in use as “done,” those being tried as “in
progress,” and those still waiting to be introduced as “to do.” See Figure 6-3 for the initial board with a ranked backlog.
Figure 6-4 shows an example of what a board might have as work progresses.
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Section 6
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In Progress
Risk Decision
Ranked Action Item Action Item Waiting:
Management Needed Done
Backlog Analysis Resolution Stuck Items
or Mitigation Post-Action
Change 1
Change 2
Change 3
Change 4
Change 5
Change 6
Change 7
Change 8
Change 9
Change 10
Figure 6-3. Initial Ranked Backlog for Changes

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In Progress
Risk Decision
Ranked Action Item Action Item Waiting:
Management Needed Done
Backlog Analysis Resolution Stuck Items
or Mitigation Post-Action
Change 7 Change 6 Change 5 Change 4 Change 1

Change 3
Change 8 Change 2
Change 9
Change 10
Figure 6-4. Using Backlogs and Kanban Boards to Organize and Track Change Work
Using these tools to organize and manage the change implementation provides visibility into progress and also
models the approaches being implemented. Rolling out changes in a transparent and appealing way improves the
likelihood of their success.
Section 6
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7
A CALL TO ACTI ON
The adoption of agile and its approaches for managing projects has increased dramatically since the Agile Manifesto
was first published in 2001. Adoption and the desire to operate with an agile mindset is no longer limited to a certain sized
organization or those specializing only in information technology. The mindset applies universally and the approaches
are successful in many settings.
Today, the demand for “being agile” is higher than ever. The debate over the best path to agility continues to keep
the conversation and innovation evolving. One truth remains constant—inspection, adaptation, and transparency are
critical to successfully delivering value.
You may not see everything you expected to see in this practice guide. Our core team realizes you may disagree with
some elements or approaches we did choose to present—and passionately so. We call on your passion to continue
the conversation and improve the next iteration of this practice guide. This is your journey—learn, experiment, gain
feedback, and experiment again. Then help us retrospect; give us feedback on the guidance and contribute to future
editions of this practice guide. After all, inspection without adaptation is wasted effort.
Lastly, we want to encourage you to be engaged in the broader communities of project management and agile to
further conversations on these topics. Look for representatives from both PMI and Agile Alliance® at conferences and
meetings and engage them in discussion. Use social media and blog your thoughts and opinions.
You can provide feedback and engage in conversation regarding the contents of this practice guide at the blog called
“Agile in Practice” at https://www.projectmanagement.com/blogs/347350/Agile-in-Practice.
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Section 7
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AN N E X A1
PMBOK ® GUI DE MAPPING
Table A1-1 illustrates the mapping of Project Management Process Groups to the Knowledge Areas defined in the
PMBOK® Guide – Sixth Edition.
This annex describes how hybrid and agile approaches address the attributes described in the PMBOK® Guide
Knowledge Areas (see Table A1-2). It covers what stays the same and what may be different along with some guidelines
to consider for increasing the likelihood of success.
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Table A1-1. Project Management Process Group and Knowledge Area Mapping

Control

5.2 Collect
Requirements
5.3 Define Scope
5.4 Create WBS

6.2 Define
Activities
6.3 Sequence
Activities
6.4 Estimate
Activity Durations
6.5 Develop
Schedule

7.2 Estimate Costs
7.3 Determine
Budget
Quality Management
Management

11.2 Identify Risks
11.3 Perform
Qualitative Risk
Analysis
11.4 Perform
Quantitative Risk
Analysis
11.5 Plan Risk
Responses

Annex A1
90
Table A1-2. Application of Agile in PMBOK® Guide Knowledge Areas
PMBOK® Guide Knowledge Area Application in an Agile Work Process
Section 4 Iterative and agile approaches promote the engagement of team

Project Integration Management members as local domain experts in integration management.
The team members determine how plans and components
should integrate.
The expectations of the project manager as noted in the Key
Concepts for Integration Management sections in the PMBOK®
Guide do not change in an adaptive environment, but control of
the detailed product planning and delivery is delegated to the
team. The project manager’s focus is on building a collaborative
decision-making environment and ensuring the team has the
ability to respond to changes. This collaborative approach can
be further enhanced when team members possess a broad skill
base rather than a narrow specialization.
Section 5 In projects with evolving requirements, high risk, or significant

Project Scope Management uncertainty, the scope is often not understood at the beginning
of the project or it evolves during the project. Agile methods
deliberately spend less time trying to define and agree on scope
in the early stage of the project and spend more time
establishing the process for its ongoing discovery and
refinement. Many environments with emerging requirements find
that there is often a gap between the real business requirements
and the business requirements that were originally stated.
Therefore, agile methods purposefully build and review
prototypes and release versions in order to refine the
requirements. As a result, scope is defined and redefined
throughout the project. In agile approaches, the requirements
constitute the backlog.
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Table A1-2. Application of Agile in PMBOK® Guide Knowledge Areas (cont.)
Section 6 Adaptive approaches use short cycles to undertake work, review

Project Schedule Management the results, and adapt as necessary. These cycles provide rapid
feedback on the approaches and suitability of deliverables, and
generally manifest as iterative scheduling and on-demand,
pull-based scheduling, as discussed in the Key Trends and
Emerging Practices section for Project Schedule Management in
the PMBOK® Guide.
In large organizations, there may be a mixture of small projects
and large initiatives requiring long-term roadmaps to manage the
development of these programs using scaling factors (e.g., team
size, geographical distribution, regulatory compliance,
organizational complexity, and technical complexity). To address
the full delivery life cycle for larger, enterprise-wide systems,
a range of techniques utilizing a predictive approach, adaptive
approach, or a hybrid of both, may need to be adopted. The
organization may need to combine practices from several core
methods, or adopt a method that has already done so, and adopt
a few principles and practices of more traditional techniques.
The role of the project manager does not change based on
managing projects using a predictive development life cycle or
managing projects in adaptive environments. However, to be
successful in using adaptive approaches, the project manager will
need to be familiar with the tools and techniques to understand
how to apply them effectively.
Section 7 Projects with high degrees of uncertainty or those where the

Project Cost Management scope is not yet fully defined may not benefit from detailed cost
calculations due to frequent changes. Instead, lightweight
estimation methods can be used to generate a fast, high-level
forecast of project labor costs, which can then be easily adjusted
as changes arise. Detailed estimates are reserved for short-term
planning horizons in a just-in-time fashion.
In cases where high-variability projects are also subject to strict
budgets, the scope and schedule are more often adjusted to stay
within cost constraints.
Annex A1
92
Section 8 In order to navigate changes, agile methods call for frequent

Project Quality Management quality and review steps built in throughout the project rather
than toward the end of the project.
Recurring retrospectives regularly check on the effectiveness of
the quality processes. They look for the root cause of issues then
suggest trials of new approaches to improve quality. Subsequent
retrospectives evaluate any trial processes to determine if they
are working and should be continued or new adjusting or should
be dropped from use.
In order to facilitate frequent, incremental delivery, agile methods
focus on small batches of work, incorporating as many elements
of project deliverables as possible. Small batch systems aim to
uncover inconsistencies and quality issues earlier in the project
life cycle when the overall costs of change are lower.
Section 9 Projects with high variability benefit from team structures that
Project Resource Management maximize focus and collaboration, such as self-organizing teams
with generalizing specialists.
Collaboration is intended to boost productivity and facilitate
innovative problem solving. Collaborative teams may facilitate
accelerated integration of distinct work activities, improve
communication, increase knowledge sharing, and provide
flexibility of work assignments in addition to other advantages.
Although the benefits of collaboration also apply to other project
environments, collaborative teams are often critical to the
success of projects with a high degree of variability and rapid
changes, because there is less time for centralized tasking and
decision making.
Planning for physical and human resources is much less
predictable in projects with high variability. In these environments,
agreements for fast supply and lean methods are critical to
controlling costs and achieving the schedule.
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Section 10 Project environments subject to various elements of ambiguity

Project Communications Management and change have an inherent need to communicate evolving and
emerging details more frequently and quickly. This motivates
streamlining team member access to information, frequent team
checkpoints, and colocating team members as much as possible.
In addition, posting project artifacts in a transparent fashion,
and holding regular stakeholder reviews are intended to promote
communication with management and stakeholders.
Section 11 High-variability environments, by definition, incur more

Project Risk Management uncertainty and risk. To address this, projects managed using
adaptive approaches make use of frequent reviews of
incremental work products and cross-functional project teams to
accelerate knowledge sharing and ensure that risk is understood
and managed. Risk is considered when selecting the content of
each iteration, and risks will also be identified, analyzed, and
managed during each iteration.
Additionally, the requirements are kept as a living document
that is updated regularly, and work may be reprioritized as the
project progresses, based on an improved understanding of
current risk exposure.
Annex A1
94
Section 12 In agile environments, specific sellers may be used to extend the

Project Procurement Management team. This collaborative working relationship can lead to a
shared risk procurement model where both the buyer and the
seller share in the risk and rewards associated with a project.
Larger projects may use an adaptive approach for some
deliverables and a more stable approach for other parts. In these
cases, a governing agreement such as a master services
agreement (MSA) may be used for the overall engagement, with
the adaptive work being placed in an appendix or supplement.
This allows changes to occur on the adaptive scope without
impacting the overall contract.
Section 13 Projects experiencing a high degree of change require active

Project Stakeholder Management engagement and participation with project stakeholders. To
facilitate timely, productive discussion and decision making,
adaptive teams engage with stakeholders directly rather than
going through layers of management. Often the client, user, and
developer exchange information in a dynamic co-creative
process that leads to more stakeholder involvement and higher
satisfaction. Regular interactions with the stakeholder community
throughout the project mitigate risk, build trust, and support
adjustments earlier in the project cycle, thus reducing costs and
increasing the likelihood of success for the project.
In order to accelerate the sharing of information within and
across the organization, agile methods promote aggressive
transparency. The intent of inviting any stakeholders to project
meetings and reviews or posting project artifacts in public
spaces is to surface as quickly as possible any misalignment,
dependency, or other issue related to the changing project.
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Annex A1
96
AN N E X A2
AGILE MA NI FESTO MA PP I NG
This annex describes how the elements of the Agile Manifesto are covered in the Agile Practice Guide.
Table A2-1. Agile Manifesto Values Covered in the Agile Practice Guide
Value Agile Practice Guide Coverage by Section and Title
Individuals and interactions over processes 4.2 Servant Leadership Empowers the Team
and tools 4.3 Team Composition
5.1 Charter the Project and the Team
5.2.4 Daily Standups
6.2 Organizational Culture
Working software over comprehensive 5.2.2 Backlog Preparation

documentation 5.2.3 Backlog Refinement
5.2.5 Demonstrations/Reviews
5.2.7 Execution Practices that Help Teams Deliver Value
Customer collaboration over contract 4.3 Team Composition

negotiation 5.4 Measurements in Agile Projects
6.2 Organizational Culture
6.3 Procurement and Contracts
6.7 Organizational Structure
Responding to change over following a plan 5.2.1 Retrospectives

5.2.3 Backlog Refinement
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5.2.5 Demonstrations/Reviews
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Table A2-2. Agile Practice Guide Mapping of Principles Behind the Agile Manifesto
Principle Agile Practice Guide Coverage
Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer 3.1 Characteristics of Project Life Cycles
through early and continuous delivery of 5.2.7 Execution Practices that Help Teams Deliver Value
valuable software.
Welcome changing requirements, even late 5.2.3 Backlog Refinement

in development. Agile processes harness
change for the customer’s competitive
advantage.
Deliver working software frequently, from a 5.2 Common Agile Practices

couple of weeks to a couple of months, with
a preference to the shorter timescale.
Business people and developers must work 4.2 Servant Leadership Empowers the Team
together daily throughout the project. 5.2.2 Backlog Preparation
5.2.3 Backlog Refinement
Build projects around motivated individuals. 4.3 Team Composition

Give them the environment and support they 5.1 Charter the Project and the Team
need, and trust them to get the job done. 5.2.1 Retrospectives
The most efficient and effective method 4.3.4 Team Structures

of conveying information to and within a 5.2.4 Daily Standups
development team is face-to-face
conversation.
Working software is the primary measure of 5.2.7 Execution Practices that Help Teams Deliver Value
progress. 5.2.8 How Iterations and Increments Help Delivery Working
Product
Agile processes promote sustainable 5.1 Charter the Project and the Team
development. The sponsors, developers, and
users should be able to maintain a constant
pace indefinitely.
Continuous attention to technical excellence 5.2 Common Agile Practices

and good design enhances agility.
Simplicity—the art of maximizing the amount 5.2.2 Backlog Preparation

of work not done is essential. 5.2.3 Backlog Refinement
The best architectures, requirements, and 4.3 Team Composition

designs emerge from self-organizing teams.
At regular intervals, the team reflects on how 5.2.1 Retrospectives

to become more effective, then tunes and
adjusts its behavior accordingly.
Annex A2
98
AN N E X A3
OVE RVIEW O F A GIL E AND LEAN FRAM EWORK S
This annex describes some of the commonly used agile approaches. These approaches can be used as is or combined
to adapt to what works best for a given environment or situation. It is not necessary to use any of these; an agile approach
can be developed from scratch as long as it adheres to the mindset, values, and principles of the Agile Manifesto. If the
agile principles are followed to deliver value at a sustainable pace, and the developed approach promotes collaboration
with the customer, a specific approach is not required. A link to more information regarding each approach can be found
in the Bibliography section of this guide.
A3.1 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR THE AGILE PRACTICE GUIDE

There are too many agile approaches and techniques to be explicitly included in this practice guide. Figure A3-1
depicts a sample of agile approaches based on their depth of guidance and breadth of their life cycles. The specific
approaches selected for discussion are popular examples that are:
Designed for holistic use. Some agile approaches are centered on a single project activity, such as estimation
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or reflecting. The listed examples include only the more holistic agile frameworks. Some are more full-featured
than others, but all of the selected approaches are those intended to guide a broad set of project activities.
Formalized for common use. Some agile frameworks are proprietary in nature and designed for specific use by
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a single organization or within a single context. The frameworks described in Sections A3.2 through A3.14 focus
on those intended for common use in a variety of contexts.
Popular in modern use. Some agile frameworks are holistically designed and well formalized, but are simply not
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commonly being used in most projects or organizations. The agile frameworks described in this annex have been
adopted by a significant number of industries, as measured by a collection of recent industry surveys.
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SAFe®
Lean
DSDM Disciplined
Agile
LeSS
Breadth of Life Cycle Coverage
LEGEND
Scrum of Agile UP
Scrums
Crystal
Scaled
Methods Approach
XP
Kanban Team Method
FDD
Scrum
Depth of Guidance Detail
Figure A3-1. Agile Approaches Plotted by Breadth and Detail
Annex A3
100
A3.2 SCRUM
Scrum is a single-team process framework used to manage product development. The framework consists of Scrum
roles, events, artifacts, and rules, and uses an iterative approach to deliver working product. Scrum is run on timeboxes
of 1 month or less with consistent durations called sprints where a potentially releasable increment of product is
produced. Table A3-1 lists Scrum events and artifacts utilized for project execution.
The Scrum team consists of a product owner, development team, and scrum master.
The product owner is responsible for maximizing the value of the product.
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The development team is a cross-functional, self-organizing team consisting of team members who have
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everything they need within the team to deliver working product without depending on others outside of the team.
The scrum master is responsible for ensuring the Scrum process is upheld and works to ensure the Scrum team
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adheres to the practices and rules as well as coaches the team on removing impediments.
Table A3-1. Scrum Events and Artifacts
Events Artifacts
Sprint Product backlog

Sprint planning Sprint backlog
Daily scrum Increments
Sprint review
Sprint retrospective
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A3.3 EXTREME PROGRAMMING
eXtreme Programming (XP) is a software development method based on frequent cycles. The name is based on
the philosophy of distilling a given best practice to its purest, simplest form, and applying that practice continuously
throughout the project.
XP is most known for popularizing a holistic set of practices intended to improve the results of software projects.
The method was first formalized as a set of twelve primary practices, but then gradually evolved to adopt several other
corollary practices. These are listed in Table A3-2.
Table A3-2. The Practices of eXtreme Programming
XP Practice Area Primary Secondary

Organizational • Sit together • Real customer involvement
• Whole team • Team continuity
• Informative workspace • Sustainable pace
Technical • Pair programming • Shared code/collective ownership

• Test-first programming • Documentation from code and tests
• Incremental design • Refactoring
Planning • User stories • Root cause analysis

• Weekly cycle • Shrinking teams
• Quarterly cycle • Pay per use
• Slack • Negotiated scope contract
• Daily standups
Integration • 10-minute build • Single code base

• Continuous integration • Incremental deployment
• Test-first • Daily deployment
This evolution was the result of designing and adopting techniques through the filter of core values
(communication, simplicity, feedback, courage, respect), and informed by key principles (humanity, economics,
mutual benefit, self-similarity, improvement, diversity, reflection, flow, opportunity, redundancy, failure, quality,
baby steps, accepted responsibility).
Annex A3
102
A3.4 KANBAN METHOD
Kanban in lean manufacturing is a system for scheduling inventory control and replenishment. This process of “just-
in-time” inventory replenishment was originally seen in grocery stores when shelves were restocked based on the gaps
in the shelves and not supplier inventory. Inspired by these just-in-time inventory systems, Taiichi Ohno developed
Kanban and it was applied at the main Toyota manufacturing facility in 1953.
The word kanban is literally translated as “visual sign” or “card.” Physical kanban boards with cards enable and
promote the visualization and flow of the work through the system for everyone to see. This information radiator (large
display) is made up of columns that represent the states the work needs to flow through in order to get to done. The
simplest of boards could have three columns (i.e., to do, doing, and done), but it is adaptable to whatever states are
deemed needed by the team utilizing it.
The Kanban Method is utilized and applicable in many settings and allows for a continuous flow of work and value
to the customer. The Kanban Method is less prescriptive than some agile approaches and thus less disruptive to begin
implementing as it is the original “start where you are” method. Organizations can begin applying Kanban Methods with
relative ease and progress toward fully implementing the method if that is what they deem necessary or appropriate.
Unlike most agile approaches, the Kanban Method does not prescribe the use of timeboxed iterations. Iterations
can be used within the Kanban Method, but the principle of pulling single items through the process continuously and
limiting work in progress to optimize flow should always remain intact. The Kanban Method may be best used when a
team or organization is in need of the following conditions:
Flexibility. Teams are typically not bound by timeboxes and will work on the highest priority item in the backlog
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of work.
Focus on continuous delivery. Teams are focused on flowing work through the system to completion and not
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beginning new work until work in progress is completed.
Increased productivity and quality. Productivity and quality are increased by limiting work in progress.
uu
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Increased efficiency. Checking each task for value adding or non-value-added activities and removing the non-
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value adding activities.
Team member focus. Limited work in progress allows the team to focus on the current work.
uu
Variability in the workload. When there is unpredictability in the way that work arrives, and it becomes
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impossible for teams to make predictable commitments; even for short periods of time.
Reduction of waste. Transparency makes waste visible so it can be removed.
uu
The Kanban Method is derived from lean thinking principles. The defining principles and the core properties of the
Kanban Method are listed in Table A3-3.
The Kanban Method is a holistic framework for incremental, evolutionary process and systems change for
organizations. The method uses a “pull system” to move the work through the process. When the team completes an
item, the team can pull an item into that step.
Table A3-3. Defining Principles and Properties of the Kanban Method
Defining Principles Core Properties
Start with current state Visualize the workflow

Agree to pursue incremental, evolutionary Limit work in progress
change
Manage flow
Respect the current process, roles,
Make process policies explicit
responsibilities, and titles
Implement feedback loops
Encourage acts of leadership at all levels
Improve collaboratively
Annex A3
104
Kanban boards, such as the one shown in Figure A3-2, are a low-tech, high-touch technology that may seem overly
simplistic at first, but those using them soon realize their power. Utilizing policies for entry and exit to columns, as well
as constraints such as limiting work in process, kanban boards provide clear insight to workflow, bottlenecks, blockers,
and overall status. Additionally the board acts as an information radiator to anyone who sees it, providing up-to-date
information on the status of the work of the team.
6 4 5 3 4
To Do Analysis Development Test Deploy
Doing Done Doing Done
Figure A3-2. Kanban Board Demonstrating Work in Progress Limits, and a Pull System to Optimize the Flow of Work
In the Kanban Method, it is more important to complete work than it is to start new work. There is no value derived
from work that is not completed so the team works together to implement and adhere to the work in progress (WIP)
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limits and get each piece of work through the system to “done.”
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A3.5 CRYSTAL METHODS
Crystal is a family of methodologies. Crystal methodologies are designed to scale, and provide a selection of
methodology rigor based on project size (number of people involved in the project) and the criticality of the project.
Life
(L) L3 L10 L30 L80 L150 L300 L600
Essential
(Defects cause loss of...)
Money E3 E10 E30 E80 E150 E300 E600

(E)
Criticality
Discretionary
Money D3 D10 D30 D80 D150 D300 D600
(D)
Comfort
(C)
C3 C10 C30 C80 C150 C300 C600
1-4 6-20 20-40 5-100 100-200 200-500 500
Number of People Involved

(Total staffing sizes +–20%)
LEGEND
Crystal Clear Crystal Yellow Crystal Orange Crystal Red
Figure A3-3. The Crystal Family of Methods
Annex A3
106
Crystal Methodology realizes that each project may require a slightly tailored set of policies, practices, and processes
in order to meet the project’s unique characteristics. The family of methodologies use different colors based on “weight”
to determine which methodology to use. The use of the word crystal comes from the gemstone where the various
“faces” represent underlying core principles and values. The faces are a representation of techniques, tools, standards,
and roles listed in Table A3-4.
Table A3-4. The Core Values and Common Properties of Crystal
Core Values Common PropertiesA
People Frequent delivery

Interaction Reflective improvement
Community Close or osmotic communication
Skills Personal safety
Talents Focus
Communications Easy access to expert users
Technical environment with automated
tests, configuration management, and
frequent integration
A The more these properties are in a project, the more likely it is to succeed.
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A3.6 SCRUMBAN
Scrumban is an agile approach originally designed as a way to transition from Scrum to Kanban. As additional agile
frameworks and methodologies emerged, it became an evolving hybrid framework in and of itself where teams use
Scrum as a framework and Kanban for process improvement.
In Scrumban, the work is organized into small “sprints” and leverages the use of kanban boards to visualize and
monitor the work. The stories are placed on the kanban board and the team manages its work by using work-in-
progress limits. Daily meetings are held to maintain the collaboration between the team and to remove impediments.
A planning trigger is set in place for the team to know when to plan next, typically when the work-in-progress level is
lower than a predetermined limit. There are no predefined roles in Scrumban—the team retains their current roles.
A3.7 FEATURE-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT

Feature-Driven Development (FDD) was developed to meet the specific needs of a large software development
project. Features relate to a small business value capability.
There are six primary roles on a Feature-Driven Development project where individuals can take on one or more of
the following roles:
Project manager,
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Chief architect,
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Development manager,
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Chief programmer,
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Class owner, and/or

uu
Domain expert.
uu
Annex A3
108
A Feature-Driven Development project is organized around five processes or activities, which are performed iteratively:
Develop an overall model,
uu
Build a features list,

uu
Plan by feature,
uu
Design by feature, and

uu
Build by features.
uu
The life cycle flow and interaction of these five processes is illustrated in Figure A3-4.
Feature-Driven Development activities are supported by a core set of software engineering best practices:
Domain object modeling,
uu
Developing by feature,
uu
Individual class ownership,

uu
Feature teams,
uu
Inspections,
uu
Configuration management,
uu
Regular builds, and

uu
Visibility of progress and results.

uu
Develop Develop Plan Design Build

High-Level Features by by by
Model List Feature Feature Feature
�
Revise Model
�
Figure A3-4. Feature-Driven Development Project Life Cycle
109
A3.8 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT METHOD
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM) is an agile project delivery framework initially designed to add more
rigor to existing iterative methods popular in the 1990s. It was developed as a noncommercial collaboration among
industry leaders.
DSDM is known best for its emphasis on constraint-driven delivery. The framework will set cost, quality, and time at
the outset, and then use formalized prioritization of scope to meet those constraints as shown in Figure A3-5.
Traditional Approach DSDM Approach

Features Cost Time
Fixed
Quality
Quality
Variable
Time Cost Functionality
Figure A3-5. DSDM Approach to Constraint-Driven Agility
Eight principles guide the use of the DSDM framework:

Focus on the business need.
uu
Deliver on time.
uu
Collaborate.
uu
Never compromise quality.

uu
Build incrementally from firm foundations.

uu
Develop iteratively.
uu
Communicate continuously and clearly.

uu
Demonstrate control (use appropriate techniques).

uu
Annex A3
110
A3.9 AGILE UNIFIED PROCESS
The Agile Unified Process (AgileUP) is an offshoot of the Unified Process (UP) for software projects. It features more
accelerated cycles and less heavyweight processes than its Unified Process predecessor. The intent is to perform more
iterative cycles across seven key disciplines, and incorporate the associated feedback before formal delivery. The
disciplines along with guiding principles are listed in Table A3-5.
Table A3-5. The Key Elements of the Agile Unified Process
Disciplines within a Release Principles Guiding the Disciplines
Model The team knows what it’s doing

Implementation Simplicity
Test Agility
Deployment Focus on high-value activities
Configuration management Tool independence
Project management Tailoring to fit
Environment Situationally specific
A3.10 SCALING FRAMEWORKS
A3.10.1 SCRUM OF SCRUMS

Scrum of Scrums (SoS), also known as “meta Scrum,” is a technique used when two or more Scrum teams consisting
of three to nine members each need to coordinate their work instead of one large Scrum team. A representative
from each team attends a meeting with the other team representative(s), potentially daily but typically two to three
times a week. The daily meeting is conducted similar to the daily standup in Scrum where the representative reports
completed work, next set of work, any current impediments, and potential upcoming impediments that might block
the other team(s). The goal is to ensure the teams are coordinating work and removing impediments to optimize the
efficiency of all the teams.
�
Large projects with several teams may result in conducting a Scrum of Scrum of Scrums, which follows the same
�
pattern as SoS with a representative from each SoS reporting into a larger group of representatives as shown in
Figure A3-6.
111
Scrum of
Scrums of
Scrums
Scrum
of
Scrums
Scrum
Teams
Figure A3-6. Representatives of Scrum Teams Participating in SoS teams
A3.11 SCALED AGILE FRAMEWORK

The Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe®) focuses on providing a knowledge base of patterns for scaling development
work across all levels of the enterprise.
SAFe® is focused on the following principles:
Take an economic view.
uu
Apply systems thinking.

uu
Assume variability; preserve options.

uu
Build incrementally with fast, integrated learning cycles.

uu
Base milestones on objective evaluation of working systems.

uu
Annex A3
112
Visualize and limit work in progress, reduce batch sizes, and manage queue lengths.
uu
Apply cadence; synchronize with cross-domain planning.

uu
Unlock the intrinsic motivation of knowledge workers.

uu
Decentralize decision making.

uu
SAFe® focuses on detailing practices, roles, and activities at the portfolio, program, and team levels with an emphasis
on organizing the enterprise around value streams that focus on providing continuous value to the customer.
A3.12 LARGE SCALE SCRUM (LeSS)

Large Scale Scrum (LeSS) is a framework for organizing several development teams toward a common goal extending
the Scrum method shown in Figure A3-6. The core organizing principle is to retain as much as possible of the elements
of the conventional single-team Scrum model. This helps minimize any extensions to the model that might create
unnecessary confusion or complexity. Table A3-6 shows a comparison of LeSS and Scrum.
Table A3-6. Comparison of LeSS and Scrum
Similarities of LeSS and Scrum LeSS Techniques Added to Scrum
One single product backlog Sprint planning is more formally divided into
two parts of what and how
One definition of done for all teams
Organic cross-team coordination
One potentially shippable product increment
at the end of each sprint Overall cross-team refinement
One product owner Overall retrospective focused on cross-team
improvements
Complete, cross-functional teams
One sprint
In order to extend Scrum without losing its essence, LeSS promotes the use of certain discerning principles, such as
systems thinking, whole product focus, transparency, and others.
113
A3.13 ENTERPRISE SCRUM
Enterprise Scrum is a framework designed to apply the Scrum method on a more holistic organizational level rather
than a single product development effort. Specifically, the framework advises organization leaders to:
Extend the use of Scrum across all aspects of the organization;
uu
Generalize the Scrum techniques to apply easily at those various aspects; and
uu
Scale the Scrum method with supplemental techniques as necessary.

uu
The intent is to use agile approaches beyond project execution by enabling disruptive innovation.
A3.14 DISCIPLINED AGILE (DA)

Disciplined Agile (DA) is a process decision framework that integrates several agile best practices into a comprehensive
model. DA was designed to offer a balance between those popular methods deemed to be either too narrow in focus
(e.g., Scrum) or too prescriptive in detail (e.g., AgileUP). To achieve that balance, it blends various agile techniques
according to the following principles:
People-first. Enumerating roles and organization elements at various levels.
uu
Learning-oriented. Encouraging collaborative improvement.

uu
Full delivery life cycle. Promoting several fit-for-purpose life cycles.

uu
Goal-driven. Tailoring processes to achieve specific outcomes.

uu
Enterprise awareness. Offering guidance on cross-departmental governance.

uu
Scalable. Covering multiple dimensions of program complexity.

uu
Annex A3
114
APPE N DI X X1
C ON TRIBUTO RS A ND REV I EWERS
X1.1 AGILE PRACTICE GUIDE CORE COMMITTEE

The following individuals were members of the project Core Committee responsible for drafting the guide, including
review and adjudication of reviewer recommendations.
X1.1.1 REPRESENTING THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE:

Mike Griffiths, PMP, PMI-ACP, (Committee Chair)
Jesse Fewell, CST, PMI-ACP
Horia Slușanschi, PhD, CSM
Stephen Matola, BA, PMP
X1.1.2 REPRESENTING AGILE ALLIANCE:

Johanna Rothman, MS (Committee Vice Chair)
Becky Hartman, PMI-ACP, CSP
Betsy Kauffman, ICP-ACC, PMI-ACP
�
�
115
X1.2 AGILE PRACTICE GUIDE SUBJECT MATTER EXPERT REVIEWERS
The following individuals were invited subject matter experts who reviewed the draft and provided
recommendations through the SME Review.
Joe Astolfi, PMP, PSM Laura Paton, MBA, PMP
Maria Cristina Barbero, PMI-ACP, PMP Yvan Petit, PhD, PMP
Michel Biedermann, PhD, PMI-ACP Dwayne Phillips, PhD, PMP
Zach Bonaker Piyush Prakash, PMP, Prince2
Robert Bulger, PfMP, CSM Dave Prior, PMP, CST
Sue Burk Daniel Rawsthorne, PhD, PMP
Shika Carter, PMP, PMI-ACP Annette D. Reilly, PMP, PhD
Lauren Clark, PMP, CSM Stephan Reindl, PMI-ACP, PMP
Linda M Cook, CSM, CSPO Reed D. Shell, PMP, CSP
Pamela Corbin-Jones, PMI-ACP, CSM Cindy Shelton, PMP, PMI-ACP
Jeff Covert Teresa Short
Alberto Dominguez, MSc, PMP Lisa K. Sieverts, PMP, PMI-ACP
Scott P. Duncan, CSM, ICP-ACC Christopher M. Simonek, PMP, CSM
Sally Elatta, PMI-ACP, EBAC Robert “Sellers” Smith, PMP, PMI-ACP
Frank R. Hendriks, PMP, PMI-ACP Ram Srinivasan, PMP, CST
Derek Huether Chris Stevens, PhD
Ron Jeffries Karen Strichartz, PMP, PMI-ACP
Fred Koos Rahul Sudame, PMI-ACP
Philippe B. Kruchten, PhD, PEng Joanna L. Vahlsing, PMP
Steve Mayner, SPCT4, PMP Erik L. van Daalen
Michael S. McCalla, PMI-ACP, CSP Annette Vendelbo, PMP, PMI-ACP
Don B. McClure, PMP, PMI-ACP Dave Violette, MPM, PMP
Anthony C. Mersino, PMI-ACP, CSP Anton Vishnyak, PMI-ACP, CSM
Kenneth E. Nidiffer, PhD, PMP Chuck Walrad, MA, MS
Michael C. Nollet, PMP, PMI-ACP
Appendix X1
116
X1.3 FORMAT FOCUS GROUP
The following individuals assisting in the development of new content style and formatting elements for the Agile
Practice Guide.
Goran Banjanin, PgMP, PMP
Andrew Craig
Cătălin-Teodor Dogaru, PhD, PMP
Jorge Espinoza, PMP
Jennifer M. Forrest, CSM, PMP
Helen Fotos, PMP, PMI-ACP
Dave Hatter, PMP, PMI-ACP
Christopher Healy, PMP
Mike Hoffmann, MBA, PMP
Chadi Kahwaji, PMP
Rajaraman Kannan, PMP, MACS CP
Amit Khanna PMP, PMI–ACP
Ariel Kirshbom, PMI-ACP, CSP
Bernardo Marques, PMP
Noura Saad, PMI-ACP, CSPO
Kurt Schuler, PMP
Demetrius L. Williams, MBA, PMP
Liza Wood
Melody Yale, CSP, SPC4
X1.4 PMI STANDARDS MEMBER ADVISORY GROUP (MAG)

The following individuals are members of the PMI Standards Member Advisory Group, who provided direction to and
final approval on behalf of PMI for the Agile Practice Guide.
Maria Cristina Barbero, PMI-ACP, PMP
�

Yvan Petit PhD, PMP
�
Chris Stevens, PhD

John Zlockie, MBA, PMP, PMI Standards Manager
117
X1.5 AGILE ALLIANCE® BOARD
The following individuals are members of Agile Alliance Board of Directors, who provided direction to and final
approval on behalf of Agile Alliance for the Agile Practice Guide.
Juan Banda
Phil Brock (Managing Director)
Linda Cook
Stephanie Davis
Ellen Grove
Paul Hammond (Chair)
Victor Hugo Germano
Rebecca Parsons (Secretary)
Craig Smith
Declan Whelan
X1.6 PMI SUPPORT STAFF AND ACADEMIC RESEARCH SUPPORT

The following individuals worked to support the core committee in the development and approval of the draft,
in support of the Format Focus Group, and in PMI marketing efforts.
Melissa M. Abel, Marketing Communications Specialist
Karl F. Best, PMP, CStd, Standards Specialist
Alicia C. Burke, MBA, CSM, Product Manager, Credentials
Edivandro C. Conforto, PhD, PMI Consultant on Agile Research
Dave Garrett, CSPO, Vice President, Transformation
Erica Grenfell, Administrative Assistant to VP, Organization Relations
M. Elaine Lazar, MA, MA, AStd, Project Specialist
Andrew Levin, PMP, Project Manager
Tim E. Ogline, User Experience Designer
Stephen A. Townsend, Director of Network Programs
Michael Zarro, PhD, UX Researcher
X1.7 PMI PRODUCTION STAFF

Donn Greenberg, Manager, Publications
Kim Shinners, Publications Production Associate
Roberta Storer, Product Editor
Barbara Walsh, Production Supervisor
Appendix X1
118
APPE N DI X X2
AT T RIBUTES THA T INF LU ENC E TAI LORI NG
X2.1 INTRODUCTION The Shu-Ha-Ri model of skills

acquisition describes progression
This appendix provides high-level guidance on when and how to tailor from obeying the rules (Shu 守,
agile approaches. It can be used to determine circumstances that might means to obey and protect), through
warrant changing or introducing new techniques, and then offers some consciously moving away from the
recommendations to consider. rules (Ha 破, means to change or
digress), and finally through steady
practice and improvement finding
X2.2 FIRST SOME CAUTIONS an individual path (Ri 離, means to
separate or leave). We need to start
Tailoring is an advanced topic that should be undertaken by experienced and practice at the Shu level before
practitioners who have been successful using agile approaches as originally we are ready to move to the Ha level
described in multiple environments before they consider tailoring them. In to tailor the process or the Ri level to
other words, gain experience and be successful with one approach before invent a new custom process.
attempting to tailor the approach.
A common response when struggling to adopt an agile practice is to

consider whether to do it or not. A statement like “Retrospectives were
�
unpopular so we decided to drop them” illustrates this issue and indicates

a more fundamental problem on the team that is unlikely to be addressed
�
by tailoring the method. The situation will be made worse by omitting the
retrospective activity that aims to improve the process.
119
Finally, tailoring should be undertaken in collaboration with the teammates or whoever the change is likely to impact.
People need to be engaged in the thinking and decision-making process about changing processes in order for them to
commit and buy-in to the changes in order to have a successful transition. Omitting people from tailoring a process is
likely to result in resistance and resentment to the change, even if it makes good sense technically. Often, experienced
coaches or leaders can help to engage people effectively.
X2.3 HOW TO USE THIS APPENDIX

To benefit from the guidance listed in this appendix, we recommend first successfully using the agile approaches
as designed. Then review the tailoring guidelines in Table X2-1 that match the situation and read the associated
recommendations. Next, discuss the change with the people it will impact and agree on a course of action.
As discussed in Section 5, a good way to evaluate a change is try it for an iteration or two first before adopting it
permanently. Or, consider a flow-based approach to try to deliver several features. Then, reflect with a retrospective
and reassess.
When people know they can experiment and provide feedback on the experiment, they are more likely to try something
new. Having tried it for a timeboxed period, the team should review its effectiveness at a retrospective to determine
whether it should be continued as-is, modified to improve it, or dropped from use.
Finally, successfully adopted, tailored approaches can be institutionalized into the standard processes used for
projects that share these characteristics. It is also recommended that guidelines from Section 5 be followed that
describe adopting (or tailoring) new approaches.
X2.4 TAILORING RECOMMENDATIONS

Listed below are some good practices to consider before tailoring an approach.
Appendix X2
120
X2.4.1 BEWARE OF TAKING THINGS AWAY
Many of the agile practices act as self-supporting pairs. For instance, colocation and frequent business conversations
allow for lightweight requirements since gaps in understanding can be filled quickly. Likewise, XP’s ruthless testing
allows for courageous refactoring as one practice supports the other. Removing something without understanding or
addressing its counterbalanced practice will likely create more problems than it solves.
X2.4.2 USE THE TAILORING GUIDELINES TABLE

Using Table X2-1, find the circumstances that match a given situation and consider recommendations for tailoring.
Discuss any changes with those who will be impacted by the change and plan a short trial first, along with an honest
follow-up review before committing to the change.
Table X2-1. Tailoring Guidelines
Situation Tailoring Recommendation
Very large project teams Restructure large projects as multiple smaller projects. Try a technology trial
project first and then an implementation project.
Consider more frequent releases of fewer features each, which allows for the
creation of smaller project teams.
Consider reducing the team down to its critical core members. Often too many
people hinder a process, not help it. Reducing a team size can reduce churn as
well as costs.
Break large teams into multiple smaller teams and use program management to
synchronize and coordinate.
Use agile and lean program management to organize the larger effort.
Consider a scaled agile or lean framework such as DA, SAFe®, or LeSS. Each
offers some useful ideas, and each carries implementation risks and process
weight/cost.
121
Table X2-1. Tailoring Guidelines (cont.)
Dispersed teams Many projects have (some) dispersed team members. Tools like instant
messaging, video conferencing, and electronic team boards help bridge many
of the communication gaps.
When teams are likely to remain stable, set up face-to-face meetings as soon as
possible to make future remote conversations more effective. People who have
met face-to-face are more likely to enter unfiltered debate because of higher trust.
When conducting meetings with remote participants where there is a loss of
facial and body-language cues, consider round-robin check-ins to ensure
participation and check consensus for decisions.
Also, consider the use of iteration-based agile approaches. When team members
are many time zones apart, consider using whole-project interactions less
frequently, while encouraging more personal meetings (two or three people
at a time) more frequently.
Some safety critical products Agile approaches can still be used in these environments, but they need to have
may require additional the appropriate additional layers of conformance review, documentation, and
documentation and certification that is required by the domain. In that case, documentation could
conformance checks beyond be part of what the team delivers along with finished features. Features may not
what agile processes suggest be done until the documentation is completed.
out-of-the-box Consider using a hybrid approach (multiple agile approaches) to get the benefits
of improved collaboration and communication brought by agile with the added
rigor required by the product environment. Aircraft flight system developers and
drug companies use agile approaches coupled with their own additional
processes to leverage the benefits and retain appropriate controls.
Stable requirements and Is agile really needed? If uncertainty in requirements is low, low rates of change,
execution process or minimal execution risk, the full suite of agile approaches may not be needed.
While any project benefits from increased collaboration and transparency; some
of the iterative build and review cycles might be overkill.
If build/feedback cycles do not routinely uncover or refine requirements,
consider extending their durations to minimize the cost impact of review time.
If the project has high rates of change during design and development, but
rolling it out to customers is a defined and repeatable process, hybrid
approaches that use the appropriate life cycle model for each project phase
may make more sense.
Teams are in functional Agile is built on the idea of cross-functional teams. Consider asking people to
silos inside functional create cross-functional teams themselves, without management involvement and
organizations see what happens.
If the compensation system is organized to recognize and reward functional
areas, consider changing that first. People might not act in the interest of the
product or the team until it affects their compensation in some way.
Appendix X2
122
Table X2-1. Tailoring Guidelines (cont.)
Transparency can cause fear Agile creates a culture of transparency: people show and share their work
throughout development. This sharing of interim deliverables and being open and
honest about successes, failures, and current state is transparency. Transparency
requires courage.
Lead by example and demonstrate transparency in decision-making processes
by using a status board or whiteboard.
Many of the team members Agile approaches encourage and make use of self-directing teams to make local
have little technical domain decisions about work items, such as task sequencing and which approach to use
knowledge when solving a problem. When the majority of team members are inexperienced,
consensus-based approaches may lead to problems and rework. So, for these
teams, additional help “assigning” and “directing” may be necessary until the
team gains the necessary skills. In other words, do not just declare that agile will
be used and let an inexperienced team try to figure everything out because they
are empowered and self-directing. Consider building centers of competencies
to help provide guidance and build domain knowledge.
Lack of executive buy-in When executive buy-in is missing, teams will encounter a clash between the
agile mindset and approaches and the more predictive mindset and approaches.
Find common ground, areas for improvement based on the organization’s needs,
and then use experiments and retrospectives to progress.
Consider education/training for executives. Consider explaining agile in terms of
lean thinking: short cycles, small batch sizes, frequent reviews, and retrospectives
with small improvements.
Agile terms and language do Modify the terms so people will understand and agree to the activities, if not the
not fit the organizational agile language. Be specific about what each term means.
culture For example, if the organization finds the word “game” unprofessional, don’t
use terms such as “planning game.” Instead, consider using the term “planning
workshop.”
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123
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Appendix X2
124
APPE N DI X X3
AGILE SUI TA BIL I TY FIL TE R TOOLS
X3.1 INTRODUCTION
Agile literature contains many agile suitability filter tools to help assess under what circumstances an agile approach
is appropriate to use. In 1994, the Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM) developed an Agile Project Suitability
Questionnaire and an Organizational Suitability Questionnaire to help gauge likely fit and potential problem areas.
The Crystal family of approaches also employed suitability criteria, ranking projects by team size and the criticality
of the product or service being developed. Crystal recommends that smaller, less critical projects be undertaken with
lighter controls and simpler approaches. Large, mission or life critical projects were recommended to use more rigor
and validation.
Since the development of these approaches, there have been many more models created to help determine
where and when to employ agile approaches. Boehm and Turner adopted some of the elements from DSDM and
Crystal to develop a popular assessment model to help determine if projects should be undertaken with agile or more
traditional approaches.
Based on these previous models and expanded to consider the middle ground of hybrid approaches, the following
model is proposed. It represents a synthesis of several suitability filter attributes to help organizations assess and
discuss whether projects should be undertaken using predictive, hybrid, or agile approaches.
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125
X3.2 OVERVIEW OF THE MODEL
Organizational and project attributes are assessed under three main categories:
Culture. Is there a supportive environment with buy-in for the approach and trust in the team?
uu
Team. Is the team of a suitable size to be successful in adopting agile, do its members have the necessary
uu
experience and access to business representatives to be successful?
Project. Are there high rates of change? Is incremental delivery possible? How critical is the project?
uu
Questions in each of these categories are answered and the results plotted on a radar chart. Clusters of values
around the center of the chart indicate a good fit for agile approaches. Results around the outside indicate a predictive
approach may be more suitable. Values in the middle portion (between agile and predictive) indicate a hybrid approach
could work well. An example is shown in Figure X3-1.
Appendix X3
126
Access
m
Tea ce 10
Bu
y-I
n 9
rie 8
n
pe 7
Ex
6
5
4
Culture
3
Team Size
Trust
2
1
0 Agile
Hybrid
Predic-
tive
Decision
Cha
Ma
ng
kin
es
g
C rit er y
i c a li t y D e li v
Proje
ct
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Figure X3-1. Model for Suitability of Agile Approach

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127
X3.3 INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE
X3.3.1 COMPLETE THE QUESTIONNAIRE AS A GROUP

For small projects, this group may simply be the sponsor, technical lead, and a customer. For large projects, this
may include representatives from the sponsoring group, project execution team, impacted business group(s), project
governance group(s), and customer community. The idea is that just as no single stakeholder should estimate or plan a
project because of representing only one viewpoint and having personal bias; so too should no single person assess the
suitability of an approach since any one person will also have a limited view with a bias.
Instead, the value of the tool is the conversation it encourages with the invested parties of the project. Even if the
results point to a hybrid approach, but the stakeholders want to proceed with a largely agile or predictive approach,
follow the stakeholder consensus. This tool is a high-level diagnostic only, the final decision should rest and be supported
by the people involved.
X3.3.2 SCORE THE QUESTIONS FROM 1 TO 10

As a group, discuss and agree (or compromise) on a score that most accurately reflects the subjective evaluation
of the question. While definitive options are only provided for the start, middle, and end points of the answer spectrum
representing scores of 1, 5, and 10, it is fine (and desirable) to use scores such as 2 for “almost a 1, but not quite,”
or 7 for “somewhere between a 5 and a 10.” Again, the assessment is a discussion tool—views will be subjective
and shades of gray are to be expected.
When the group cannot agree on a score, discuss the issues openly and honestly. Before suggesting compromises
(i.e., using average scores or marking PMO scores with a blue “X” and the development team with a green “O”), consider
how successful is the project likely to be when the participants cannot agree on completing a simple assessment?
When discussing the issues, if the differences of opinion can be identified—then great, it is working; now come to an
agreement. Likewise, if the assessment indicates a predictive approach but everyone wants to try an agile approach (or
vice versa) that is fine too, just understand the issues and discuss how the impacts of the approach will be handled.
Appendix X3
128
X3.3.3 INTERPRET THE RESULTS
Mark the answers from the questions on a blank suitability assessment chart and connect the points. Results clustered
around the center in the agile zone indicate a good fit for a purely agile approach.
Results predominantly in the hybrid zone indicate some combination of agile and predictive approaches might work
best. However, it is also possible that an agile approach with some additional risk reduction steps such as extra
education and training or extra validation and documentation rigor in the case of high criticality projects may suffice.
Alternatively, a predictive approach with some proof-of-concept work or extra processes could also work.
Results predominantly in the predictive zone indicate a good fit for a purely predictive approach. As mentioned in
Section X3.3.2 (Score the Questions step), this diagnostic tool is aimed at starting meaningful conversations with the
impacted parties about the most appropriate approach to use. If the approach suggested by the tool is not acceptable it
is allowed to use a different approach. Use the results as inputs to the risk management process, since the tool indicates
mismatches that will need to be managed.
X3.4 SUITABILITY FILTER QUESTIONS
X3.4.1 CATEGORY: CULTURE
X3.4.1.1 BUY-IN TO APPROACH
Is there senior sponsor understanding and support for using an agile approach for this project? See Figure X3-2.
Yes Partial No
1 5 10
Assessment = _______
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Figure X3-2. Buy-In to Approach Assessment
129
X3.4.1.2 TRUST IN TEAM
Considering the sponsors and the business representatives who will be working with the team. Do these stakeholders
have confidence that the team can transform their vision and needs into a successful product or service—with ongoing
support and feedback going both directions? See Figure X3-3.
Yes Probably Unlikely

1 5 10
Figure X3-3. Trust in Team Assessment
X3.4.1.3 DECISION-MAKING POWERS OF TEAM
Will the team be given autonomy to make their own local decisions about how to undertake work? See Figure X3-4.
Yes Probably Unlikely

1 5 10
Figure X3-4. Assessment for Decision-Making Powers of Team
Appendix X3
130
X3.4.2 CATEGORY: TEAM
X3.4.2.1 TEAM SIZE
What is the size of the core team? Use this scale: 1-9 = 1, 10-20 = 2, 21-30 = 3, 31-45 = 4, 46-60 = 5, 61-80 = 6,
81-110 = 7, 111-150 = 8, 151 – 200 = 9, 201+ = 10. See Figure X3-5.
1 5 10
Figure X3-5. Team Size Assessment
X3.4.2.2 EXPERIENCE LEVELS
Considering the experience and skill levels of the core team roles. While it is normal to have a mix of experienced and
inexperienced people in roles, for agile projects to go smoothly; it is easier when each role has at least one experienced
member. See Figure X3-6.
Yes Partial No
1 5 10
�
Figure X3-6. Experience Level Assessment

�
131
X3.4.2.3 ACCESS TO THE CUSTOMER/BUSINESS
Will the team have daily access to at least one business/customer representative to ask questions and get feedback?
See Figure X3-7.
Yes Partial No
1 5 10
Figure X3-7. Assessment for Access to the Customer/Business
X3.4.3 CATEGORY: PROJECT
X3.4.3.1 LIKELIHOOD OF CHANGE
What percentage of requirements are likely to change or be discovered on a monthly basis? See Figure X3-8.
50% 25% 5%
1 5 10
Figure X3-8. Likelihood of Change Assessment
Appendix X3
132
X3.4.3.2 CRITICALITY OF PRODUCT OR SERVICE
To help determine likely levels of additional verification and documentation rigor that may be required, assess the
criticality of the product or service being built. Using an assessment that considers loss due to possible impact of
defects, determine what a failure could result in. See Figure X3-9.
Time Discretionary Funds Essential Funds Single Life Many Lives

1 5 10
Figure X3-9. Assessment for Criticality of Product or Service
X3.4.3.3 INCREMENTAL DELIVERY
Can the product or service be built and evaluated in portions? Also, will business or customer representatives be
available to provide timely feedback on increments delivered? See Figure X3-10.
Yes Maybe/Sometimes Unlikely

1 5 10
Figure X3-10. Incremental Delivery Assessment

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X3.5 SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT CHART
Figure X3-11 is the radar chart used for the suitability assessment.
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Figure X3-11. Suitability Assessment Radar Chart
Appendix X3
134
X3.5.1 CASE STUDIES
To illustrate how the radar chart works, here are two examples of using the model to score very different types of
projects. The first is an example of an online drug store project (see Figure X3-12) and the second (Figure X3-13) is
an example of a military messaging system. These two case studies illustrate some of the variances seen on projects.
Central clustering indicates a good fit for agile approaches, peripheral scores indicate predictive approaches might be
more suitable. Some projects are centered around the middle but then spike out on one or two axes. These projects may
be best solved with a hybrid approach.
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Figure X3-12. Drug Store Project
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X3.5.1.1 DRUG STORE EXAMPLE
The project was to develop an online drug store to sell cheaper Canadian prescription drugs to (primarily) U.S.
customers. The sale of these drugs is a contentious subject in Canada as well as the U.S. and as a result the industry
is characterized by swift regulation changes and fierce competition. The project faced extremely volatile requirements
with major changes week on week. It used very short (2-day) iterations and weekly releases to tackle the high rates
of change.
As shown in Figure X3-12, high levels of buy-in and trust are evident for those who worked in an empowered way.
The visual nature of the website made it easy to show new increments of functionality, but the system criticality was
fairly high with essential funds for the pharmacy at stake. As mentioned, there were very high rates of change, but
the small experienced team handled them well and had easy access to a knowledgeable business representative. The
approach was very successful and extremely agile.
X3.5.1.2 MILITARY MESSAGING SYSTEM EXAMPLE
Contrast the first example with a large project to develop military messaging system that had already been running
for 5 years when the assessment was made. See Figure X3-13.
Appendix X3
136
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Figure X3-13. Military Messaging Example

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Buy-in for an agile approach was lacking because an agile approach was not being considered. Trust in the vendors
was mixed but generally respected. Decision making was not local, but instead made by architecture and requirements
committees. While elements of the design could be tested incrementally in a laboratory, they could not be gathered
together for an end to end demonstration of functionality. Many lives were potentially at risk, so criticality was very
high. Requirements were locked down because changes impacted so many subcontractor organizations.
The project was large with more than 300 people from one vendor alone, but each role had many experienced
practitioners. Finally, access to the business/customer was not possible, but contract analysts were available to ask
specification questions to and they usually replied or asked clarifying questions within 10 days. Parts of the project
could have been carved off and run as agile projects, but at the heart of the initiative was a single large project.
X3.6 SUMMARY
Agile suitability filters are useful tools for identifying potential fits and gaps for agile approaches. They should not be
used as definitive inclusion or exclusion gates, but instead as topics for objective discussion with all interested parties.
Appendix X3
138
RE FE RE NCES
[1] Manifesto for Agile Software Development. (2001). Retrieved from http://agilemanifesto.org/
[2] Project Management Institute. 2013. Managing Change in Organizations: A Practice Guide. Newtown Square,
PA: Author.
[3] Project Management Institute. 2017. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) –
Sixth Edition. Newtown Square, PA: Author.
[4] Project Management Institute. 2013. Software Extension to the PMBOK® Guide Fifth Edition. Newtown Square,
PA: Author.
139
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References
140
BIBLIOG RA PHY
The following are suggested additional reading materials, subdivided by section and/or topic:
SECTION 2—AN INTRODUCTION TO AGILE

Briggs, Sara. “Agile Based Learning: What Is It and How Can It Change Education?” Opencolleges.edu.au
February 22, 2014, retrieved from http://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/features/agile-based-learning-
what-is-it-and-how-can-it-change-education/.
Manifesto for Agile Software Development, 2001, http://agilemanifesto.org/.
Peha, Steve. “Agile Schools: How Technology Saves Education (Just Not the Way We Thought it Would).” InfoQ.
June 28, 2011, retrieved from https://www.infoq.com/articles/agile-schools-education.
Principles behind the Agile Manifesto, 2001, http://agilemanifesto.org/principles.html.
Rothman, Johanna. 2007. Manage It! Your Guide to Modern, Pragmatic Project Management. Raleigh: Pragmatic
Bookshelf.
Sidky, Ahmed (Keynote). 2015. https://www.slideshare.net/AgileNZ/ahmed-sidky-keynote-agilenz.
Stacey Complexity Model. 2016. http://www.scrum-tips.com/2016/02/17/stacey-complexity-model/.
SECTION 3—LIFE CYCLE SELECTION

�
“Agile Modeling (AM) Home Page: Effective Practices for Modeling and Documentation,” Agile Modeling, (n.d.),
�
http://www.agilemodeling.com/
Anderson, David, and Andy Carmichael. 2016. Essential Kanban Condensed. Seattle: Blue Hole Press.
Anderson, David. 2010. Kanban: Successful Evolutionary Change for Your Technology Business. Seattle: Blue
Hole Press.
141
Benson, Jim, and Tonianne DeMaria Barry. 2011. Personal Kanban: Mapping Work | Navigating Life. Seattle:
Modus Cooperandi Press.
Burrows, Mike. 2014. Kanban from the Inside: Understand the Kanban Method, connect it to what you already
know, introduce it with impact. Seattle: Blue Hole Press.
Domain Driven Design Community. 2016. http://dddcommunity.org/.
Gothelf, Jeff, and Josh Seiden. 2016. Lean UX: Designing Great Products with Agile Teams. Sebastopol:
O’Reilly Media.
Hammarberg, Marcus, and Joakim Sunden. 2014. Kanban in Action. Shelter Island: Manning Publications.
“Kanban,” Wikipedia, last modified May 4, 2017, retrieved on November 22, 2016 from https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Kanban.
“Kanban (development),” Wikipedia, last modified May 4, 2017, retrieved on November 29, 2016 from https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanban_(development).
Larsen, Diana, and Ainsley Nies. 2016. Liftoff: Start and Sustain Successful Agile Teams. Raleigh: Pragmatic
Bookshelf.
“Learning Kanban,” Leankit, (n.d.), https://leankit.com/learn/learning-kanban/.
Leopold, Klaus, and Siegrfried Kaltenecker. 2015. Kanban Change Leadership: Creating a Culture of Continuous
Improvement. Hoboken: Wiley.
“Make a big impact with software products and projects!” Impact Mapping, (n.d.), https://www.impactmapping.org/.
Patton, Jeff, and Peter Economy. 2014. User Story Mapping: Discover the Whole Story, Build the Right Product.
Sebastopol: O’Reilly Media.
Reinertsen, Donald. 2009. The Principles of Product Development Flow: Second Generation Lean Product
Development. Redondo Beach: Celeritas Publishing.
Rothman, Johanna. “Dispersed vs. Distributed Teams,” Rothman Consulting Group, Inc., October 25, 2010,
http://www.jrothman.com/mpd/2010/10/dispersed-vs-distributed-teams/.
Schwaber, Ken, and Jeff Sutherland. “The Scrum Guide™,” Scrum.org, July 2016, http://www.scrumguides.org/
�
scrum-guide.html and http://www.scrumguides.org/docs/scrumguide/v2016/2016-Scrum-Guide-US.pdf#zoom=100.

�
Skarin, Mattias. 2015. Real-World Kanban: Do Less, Accomplish More with Lean Thinking. Raleigh: Pragmatic
Bookshelf.
“The High Cost of Multitasking: 40% of Productivity Lost by Task Switching,” Wrike.com, September 24, 2015,
https://www.wrike.com/blog/high-cost-of-multitasking-for-productivity/.
Wells, Don. “Extreme Programming: A Gentle Introduction,” Extreme Programming, October 8, 2013, http://
www.extremeprogramming.org/.
Bibliography
142
SECTION 4—IMPLEMENTING AGILE:
Amabile, Teresa, and Steven Kramer. 2011. The Progress Principle: Using Small Wins to Ignite Joy, Engagement,
and Creativity at Work. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press.
“Early Warning Signs of Project Trouble—Cheat Sheet, 2017, https://agilevideos.com/wp-content/
uploads/2017/02/WarningSignsOfProjectTrouble-CheatSheet.pdf.
Dweck, Carol. 2006. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Penguin Random House.
Kaner, Sam. Facilitator’s Guide to Participatory Decision-Making. 3rd ed. 2014. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Keith, Kent. The Case for Servant Leadership. 2008. Westfield: Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership.
Rothman, Johanna. 2016. Agile and Lean Program Management: Scaling Collaboration Across the Organization.
Victoria, British Columbia: Practical Ink.
Rothman, Johanna. “Dispersed vs. Distributed Teams,” Rothman Consulting Group, Inc., October 25, 2010,
http://www.jrothman.com/mpd/2010/10/dispersed-vs-distributed-teams/.
Rothman, Johanna. 2007. Manage It! Your Guide to Modern, Pragmatic Project Management. Raleigh: Pragmatic
Bookshelf.
Rothman, Johanna. 2016. Manage Your Project Portfolio: Increase Your Capacity and Finish More Projects.
Raleigh: Pragmatic Bookshelf.
Sinek, Simon. 2011. Start with Why: How Great Leaders Inspire Everyone to Take Action. New York: Portfolio,
Penguin Random House.
“The High Cost of Multitasking: 40% of Productivity Lost by Task Switching,” Wrike.com, September 24, 2015,
https://www.wrike.com/blog/high-cost-of-multitasking-for-productivity/.
EXPERIENCE REPORTS:
�
“Experience Reports,” Agile Alliance, (n.d.), https://www.agilealliance.org/resources/experience-reports/.

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PROJECT AND TEAM HEALTH:
“Early Warning Signs of Project Trouble—Cheat Sheet.” 2017. https://agilevideos.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/

WarningSignsOfProjectTrouble-CheatSheet.pdf
“TeamHealth Radar – Summary View,” Agilehealth. 2014. http://agilityhealthradar.com/wp-content/
uploads/2014/11/bigradar.gif.
143
RESOURCE EFFICIENCY:
Modig, Niklas, and Pär Åhlström. 2015. This is Lean: Resolving the Efficiency Paradox. London: Rheologica
Publishing.
Rothman, Johanna. “Resource Efficiency vs. Flow Efficiency, Part 5: How Flow Changes Everything,” Rothman
Consulting Group, Inc., September 20, 2015, http://www.jrothman.com/mpd/agile/2015/09/resource-efficiency-
vs-flow-efficiency-part-5-how-flow-changes-everything/.
SCALING:
Disciplined Agile 2.X—A Process Decision Framework. 2016. http://www.disciplinedagiledelivery.com/.

Kniberg, Henrik. “Scaling Agile @ Spotify with Tribes, Squads, Chapters & Guilds,” Crisp, November 14, 2012,
http://blog.crisp.se/2012/11/14/henrikkniberg/scaling-agile-at-spotify.
“Overview—Large Scale Scrum,” LeSS. 2016. http://less.works/.
“SAFe® for Lean Software and System Engineering,” SAFe®. 2016. http://www.scaledagileframework.com/.
SKILLS:
Beck, Kent. Paint Drip People, August 4, 2016, https://www.facebook.com/notes/kent-beck/paint-drip-

people/1226700000696195/.
“Generalizing Specialists: Improving Your IT Career Skills,” Agile Modeling, (n.d.), http://www.agilemodeling.
com/essays/generalizingSpecialists.htm.
Hunter, Brittany. “Of Software Designers & Broken Combs,” Atomic Object, June 27, 2013, https://spin.
atomicobject.com/2013/06/27/broken-comb-people/.
SECTION 5—IMPLEMENTING AGILE: DELIVERING IN AN AGILE ENVIRONMENT

Larsen, Diana, and Ainsley Nies. 2016. Liftoff: Start and Sustain Successful Agile Teams. Raleigh: Pragmatic
Bookshelf.
RETROSPECTIVES:
Derby, Esther, and Diana Larsen. 2006. Agile Retrospectives: Making Good Teams Great. Raleigh: Pragmatic
Bookshelf.
Gonçalves, Luis, and Ben Linders. 2015. Getting Value out of Agile Retrospectives: A Toolbox of Retrospective
Exercises. Victoria, British Columbia: Leanpub.
Bibliography
144
BACKLOG:
Adzic, Gojko, Marjory Bissett, and Tom Poppendieck. 2012. Impact Mapping: Making a Big Impact with Software
Products and Projects. Woking, Surrey: Provoking Thoughts.
Patton, Jeff, and Peter Economy. 2014. User Story Mapping: Discover the Whole Story, Build the Right Product.
Sebastopol: O’Reilly Media.
Rothman, Johanna. “We Need Planning; Do We Need Estimation?” Rothman Consulting Group, Inc., January 21,
2015, http://www.jrothman.com/mpd/project-management/2015/01/we-need-planning-do-we-need-estimation/.
STANDUPS:
Brodzinski, Pawel. “Effective Standups around Kanban Board,” Brodzinski.com, December 30, 2011, http://
brodzinski.com/2011/12/effective-standups.html.
Fowler, Martin. “It’s Not Just Standing Up: Patterns for Daily Standup Meetings,” Martinfowler.com, February 21,
2016, http://martinfowler.com/articles/itsNotJustStandingUp.html.
Hefley, Chris. “How to Run Effective Standups and Retrospectives,” Leankit, September 15, 2014, https://leankit.
com/blog/2014/09/run-effective-standups-retrospectives/.
EARNED VALUE:
Griffiths, Mike. “A Better S Curve and Simplified EVM,” Leading Answers, June 6, 2008, http://leadinganswers.
typepad.com/leading_answers/2008/06/a-better-s-curve-and-simplified-evm.html.
SECTION 6—ORGANIZATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR AGILE PROJECTS

Bankston, Arlen, and Sanjiv Augustine. Agile Team Performance Management: Realizing the Human Potential of
Teams, June 14, 2010, www.lithespeed.com/transfer/Agile-Performance-Management.pptx.
Browder, Justin, and Brian Schoeff. Perfect Strangers: How Project Managers and Developers Relate and
Succeed. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016, https://www.createspace.com/.
Griffiths, Mike. “Agile Talent Management,” Leading Answers, October 14, 2015, http://leadinganswers.typepad.
com/leading_answers/2015/10/agile-talent-management.html.
Kohn, Alfie. 1999. Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise, and Other
Bribes. New York: Mariner Books.
Mar, Kane. “How to do Agile Performance Reviews,” Scrumology, (n.d.), https://scrumology.com/how-to-do-
agile-performance-reviews/.
McChrystal, Stanley, Tantum Collins, David Silverman, and Chris Fussell. 2015. Team of Teams: New Rules of
Engagement for a Complex World. New York: Portfolio, Penguin Random House.
Pink, Daniel. 2011. Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us. New York: Riverhead Books.
145
SECTION 7—A CALL TO ACTION (INSPECTION WITHOUT ADAPTATION IS FUTILE)
Dennis, Pascal. 2006. Getting the Right Things Done: A Leader’s Guide to Planning and Execution. Cambridge:
Lean Enterprise Institute.
Griffiths, Mike. “Introducing Agile Methods: Mistakes to Avoid—Part 3,” Leading Answers, March 15, 2007,
http://leadinganswers.typepad.com/leading_answers/2007/03/introducing_agi_2.html.
Little, Jason. Lean Change Management: Innovative Practices for Managing Organizational Change. Happy Melly
Express, 2014, http://www.happymelly.com/category/hm-express/.
Rising, Linda, and Mary Lynne Manns. 2004. Fearless Change: Patterns for Introducing New Ideas. Upper Saddle
River: Addison-Wesley Professional.
“The IDEAL Model,” Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon, 2006, http://www.sei.cmu.edu/library/
assets/idealmodel.pdf.
ANNEX A1—PMBOK® GUIDE MAPPING

Larsen, Diana and Ainsley Nies. 2016. Liftoff: Start and Sustain Successful Agile Teams. Raleigh: Pragmatic
Bookshelf.
ANNEX A2—AGILE MANIFESTO MAPPING

Manifesto for Agile Software Development, 2001, http://agilemanifesto.org/.
Principles behind the Agile Manifesto, 2001, http://agilemanifesto.org/principles.html.
ANNEX A3—OVERVIEW OF AGILE AND LEAN FRAMEWORKS

Agile Business Consortium, 2014, https://www.agilebusiness.org/what-is-dsdm.
Ambler, Scott. “The Agile Unified Process,” Ambysoft, May 13, 2006, http://www.ambysoft.com/unifiedprocess/
agileUP.html.
Anderson, David. 2010. Kanban: Successful Evolutionary Change for Your Technology Business. Seattle: Blue
Hole Press.
Beedle, Mike. Enterprise Scrum: Executive Summary: Business Agility for the 21st Century, January 7, 2017,
http://www.enterprisescrum.com/enterprise-scrum/.
Bibliography
146
Cockburn, Alistair. 2004. Crystal Clear: A Human-Powered Methodology for Small Teams. Upper Saddle River:
Pearson Education.
Cockburn, Alistair. “Crystal Methodologies,” alistair.cockburn.us, March 28, 2014, http://alistair.cockburn.us/
Crystal+methodologies.
Disciplined Agile 2.X—A Process Decision Framework, 2016, http://www.disciplinedagiledelivery.com/.
Joint MIT-PMI-INCOSE Community of Practice on Lean in Program Management. 2012. The Guide to Lean
Enablers for Managing Engineering Programs. Newtown Square, PA: Author.
“Kanban,” Wikipedia, last modified May 4, 2017, retrieved on November 22, 2016 from https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Kanban.
“Kanban (development),” Wikipedia, last modified May 4, 2017, retrieved on November 29, 2016 from https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanban_(development).
Reddy, Ajay, and Jack Speranza. 2015. The Scrumban [R]Evolution: Getting the Most Out of Agile, Scrum, and
Lean Kanban. Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional.
“Overview—Large Scale Scrum,” LeSS, 2016, http://less.works/.
“SAFe® for Lean Software and System Engineering,” SAFe®, 2016, http://www.scaledagileframework.com/.
“Scrum of Scrums,” Agile Alliance, (n.d.), https://www.agilealliance.org/glossary/scrum-of-scrums/.
“Scrumban,” Wikipedia, March 2, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrumban.
“State of Agile Report: Agile Trends,” VersionOne, 2017, http://stateofagile.versionone.com/.
Sutherland Jeff. “Agile Can Scale: Inventing and Reinventing SCRUM in Five Companies.” Cutter IT Journal 14,
no. 12 (2001): 5–11. http://www.controlchaos.com/storage/scrum-articles/Sutherland 200111 proof.pdf.
“The 2015 State of Agile Development,” Scrum Alliance®, 2015, https://www.forrester.com/report/The+2015+
State+Of+Agile+Development/-/E-RES122910
�
Wells, Don. “Extreme Programming: A Gentle Introduction,” Extreme Programming, October 8, 2013, http://
�
www.extremeprogramming.org/.
Why Scrum? State of Scrum Report, 2016, https://www.scrumalliance.org/why-scrum/state-of-scrum-
report/2016-state-of-scrum.
147
APPENDIX X2—ATTRIBUTES THAT INFLUENCE TAILORING
Griffiths, Mike. “Agile Suitability Filters,” Leading Answers, 2007, http://leadinganswers.typepad.com/leading_
answers/files/agile_suitability_filters.pdf.
Jeffries, Ron. “We Tried Baseball and It Didn’t Work,” ronjeffries.com, May 2, 2006, http://ronjeffries.com/xprog/
articles/jatbaseball/.
Rothman, Johanna. “One Experimental Possibility: Self-Organization from Component Teams to Feature Teams,”
Rothman Consulting Group, Inc., September 23, 2014, http://www.jrothman.com/mpd/agile/2014/09/one-
experimental-possibility-self-organization-from-component-teams-to-feature-teams/.
Bibliography
148
GLOSSARY
1. ACRONYMS
ATDD acceptance test-driven development
BDD behavior-driven development
BRD business requirement documents
DA Disciplined Agile
DoD definition of done
DoR definition of ready
DSDM Dynamic Systems Development Method
Evo evolutionary value delivery
LeSS Large-Scale Scrum
LSD Lean Software Development
PDCA Plan-Do-Check-Act
PMO project management office
ROI return on investment
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RUP rational unified process

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SAFe® Scaled Agile Framework®

SBE specification by example
XP eXtreme Programming
149
2. DEFINITIONS
A3. A way of thinking and a systematic problem-solving process that collects the pertinent information on a single
A3-size sheet of paper.
Acceptance Test-Driven Development (ATDD). A method of collaboratively creating acceptance test criteria that are
used to create acceptance tests before delivery begins.
Agile. A term used to describe a mindset of values and principles as set forth in the Agile Manifesto.
Agile Coach. An individual with knowledge and experience in agile who can train, mentor, and guide organizations and
teams through their transformation.
Agile Life Cycle. An approach that is both iterative and incremental to refine work items and deliver frequently.
Agile Manifesto. The original and official definition of agile values and principles.
Agile Mindset. A way of thinking and behaving underpinned by the four values and twelve principles of the Agile
Manifesto.
Agile Practitioner. A person embracing the agile mindset who collaborates with like-minded colleagues in cross-
functional teams. Also referred to as agilist.
Agile Principles. The twelve principles of agile project delivery as embodied in the Agile Manifesto.
Agile Unified Process. A simplistic and understandable approach to developing business application software using
agile techniques and concepts. It is a simplified version of the Rational Unified Process (RUP).
Agilist. See Agile Practitioner.
Anti-Pattern. A known, flawed pattern of work that is not advisable.
Automated Code Quality Analysis. The scripted testing of code base for bugs and vulnerabilities.
Backlog. See Product Backlog.
Backlog Refinement. The progressive elaboration of project requirements and/or the ongoing activity in which the
team collaboratively reviews, updates, and writes requirements to satisfy the need of the customer request.
Behavior-Driven Development (BDD). A system design and validation practice that uses test-first principles and
English-like scripts.
Blended Agile. Two or more agile frameworks, methods, elements, or practices used together such as Scrum practiced
in combination with XP and Kanban Method.
Blocker. See Impediment.
Broken Comb. Refers to a person with various depths of specialization in multiple skills required by the team. Also
known as Paint Drip. See also T-shaped and I-shaped.
Burndown Chart. A graphical representation of the work remaining versus the time left in a timebox.
Burnup Chart. A graphical representation of the work completed toward the release of a product.
Business Requirement Documents (BRD). Listing of all requirements for a specific project.
Glossary
150
Cadence. A rhythm of execution. See also Timebox.
Collective Code Ownership. A project acceleration and collaboration technique whereby any team member is authorized
to modify any project work product or deliverable, thus emphasizing team-wide ownership and accountability.
Continuous Delivery. The practice of delivering feature increments immediately to customers, often through the use of
small batches of work and automation technology.
Continuous Integration. A practice in which each team member’s work products are frequently integrated and validated
with one another.
Cross-Functional Team. A team that includes practitioners with all the skills necessary to deliver valuable
product increments.
Crystal Family of Methodologies. A collection of lightweight agile software development methods focused on
adaptability to a particular circumstance.
Daily Scrum. A brief, daily collaboration meeting in which the team reviews progress from the previous day, declares
intentions for the current day, and highlights any obstacles encountered or anticipated. Also known as daily standup.
Definition of Done (DoD). A team’s checklist of all the criteria required to be met so that a deliverable can be considered
ready for customer use.
Definition of Ready (DoR). A team’s checklist for a user-centric requirement that has all the information the team
needs to be able to begin working on it.
DevOps. A collection of practices for creating a smooth flow of delivery by improving collaboration between
development and operations staff.
Disciplined Agile (DA). A process decision framework that enables simplified process decisions around incremental
and iterative solution delivery.
Double Loop Learning. A process that challenges underlying values and assumptions in order to better elaborate root
causes and devise improved countermeasures rather than focusing only on symptoms.
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM). An agile project delivery framework.
Evolutionary Value Delivery (EVO). Openly credited as the first agile method that contains a specific component no
�
other methods have: the focus on delivering multiple measurable value requirements to stakeholders.
�
eXtreme Programming. An agile software development method that leads to higher quality software, a greater
responsiveness to changing customer requirements, and more frequent releases in shorter cycles.
Feature-Driven Development. A lightweight agile software development method driven from the perspective of
features valued by clients.
Fit for Purpose. A product that is suitable for its intended purpose.
Fit for Use. A product that is usable in its current form to achieve its intended purpose.
Flow Master. The coach for a team and service request manager working in a continuous flow or Kanban context.
Equivalent to Scrum Master.
Framework. A basic system or structure of ideas or facts that support an approach.
151
Functional Requirement. A specific behavior that a product or service should perform.
Functional Specification. A specific function that a system or application is required to perform. Typically represented
in a functional specifications document.
Hoshin Kanri. A strategy or policy deployment method.
Hybrid Approach. A combination of two or more agile and non-agile elements, having a non-agile end result.
IDEAL. An organizational improvement model that is named for the five phases it describes: initiating, diagnosing,
establishing, acting, and learning.
Impact Mapping. A strategic planning technique that acts as a roadmap to the organization while building new products.
Impediment. An obstacle that prevents the team from achieving its objectives. Also known as a blocker.
Increment. A functional, tested, and accepted deliverable that is a subset of the overall project outcome.
Incremental Life Cycle. An approach that provides finished deliverables that the customer may be able to use
immediately.
Information Radiator. A visible, physical display that provides information to the rest of the organization enabling up-
to-the-minute knowledge sharing without having to disturb the team.
I-shaped. Refers to a person with a single deep area of specialization and no interest or skill in the rest of the skills
required by the team. See also T-Shaped and Broken Comb.
Iteration. A timeboxed cycle of development on a product or deliverable in which all of the work that is needed to deliver
value is performed.
Iterative Life Cycle. An approach that allows feedback for unfinished work to improve and modify that work.
Kaizen Events. Events aimed at improvement of the system.
Kanban Board. A visualization tool that enables improvements to the flow of work by making bottlenecks and work
quantities visible.
Kanban Method. An agile method inspired by the original Kanban inventory control system and used specifically for
knowledge work.
�
Large Scale Scrum (LeSS). Large-Scale Scrum is a product development framework that extends Scrum with scaling
�
guidelines while preserving the original purposes of Scrum.

Lean Software Development (LSD). Lean software development is an adaptation of lean manufacturing principles and
practices to the software development domain and is based on a set of principles and practices for achieving quality,
speed, and customer alignment.
Life Cycle. The process through which a product is imagined, created, and put into use.
Mobbing. A technique in which multiple team members focus simultaneously and coordinate their contributions on a
particular work item.
Organizational Bias. The preferences of an organization on a set of scales characterized by the following core values:
exploration versus execution, speed versus stability, quantity versus quality, and flexibility versus predictability.
Glossary
152
Organizational Change Management. A comprehensive, cyclic, and structured approach for transitioning individuals,
groups, and organizations from the current state to a future state with intended business benefits.
Paint-Drip. See Broken Comb.
Pairing. See Pair Work.
Pair Programming. Pair work that is focused on programming.
Pair Work. A technique of pairing two team members to work simultaneously on the same work item.
Personas. An archetype user representing a set of similar end users described with their goals, motivations, and
representative personal characteristics.
Pivot. A planned course correction designed to test a new hypothesis about the product or strategy.
Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA). An iterative management method used in organizations to facilitate the control and
continual improvement of processes and products.
Plan-Driven Approach. See Predictive Approach.
Predictive Approach. An approach to work management that utilizes a work plan and management of that work plan
throughout the life cycle of a project.
Predictive Life Cycle. A more traditional approach, with the bulk of planning occurring up-front, then executing in a
single pass; a sequential process.
Project Management Office (PMO). A management structure that standardizes the project-related governance
processes and facilitates the sharing of resources, methodologies, tools, and techniques.
Product Backlog. An ordered list of user-centric requirements that a team maintains for a product.
Product Owner. A person responsible for maximizing the value of the product and who is ultimately responsible and
accountable for the end product that is built. See also Service Request Manager.
Progressive Elaboration. The iterative process of increasing the level of detail in a project management plan as greater
amounts of information and more accurate estimates become available.
Refactoring. A product quality technique whereby the design of a product is improved by enhancing its maintainability
�
and other desired attributes without altering its expected behavior.

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Retrospective. A regularly occurring workshop in which participants explore their work and results in order to improve
both process and product.
Rolling Wave Planning. An iterative planning technique in which the work to be accomplished in the near term is
planned in detail, while the work in the future is planned at a higher level.
Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe®). A knowledge base of integrated patterns for enterprise-scale lean–agile development.
Scrum. An agile framework for developing and sustaining complex products, with specific roles, events, and artifacts.
Scrumban. A management framework that emerges when teams employ Scrum as the chosen way of working and use
the Kanban Method as a lens through which to view, understand, and continuously improve how they work.
153
Scrum Board. An information radiator that is utilized to manage the product and sprint backlogs and show the flow of
work and its bottlenecks.
Scrum Master. The coach of the development team and process owner in the Scrum framework. Removes obstacles,
facilitates productive events and defends the team from disruptions. See also Flow Master.
Scrum of Scrums. A technique to operate Scrum at scale for multiple teams working on the same product, coordinating
discussions of progress on their interdependencies, and focusing on how to integrate the delivery of software, especially
in areas of overlap.
Scrum Team. Describes the combination of development team, scrum master, and process owner used in Scrum.
Self-Organizing Team. A cross-functional team in which people fluidly assume leadership as needed to achieve the
team’s objectives.
Servant Leadership. The practice of leading through service to the team, by focusing on understanding and addressing
the needs and development of team members in order to enable the highest possible team performance.
Service Request Manager. The person responsible for ordering service requests to maximize value in a continuous
flow or Kanban environment. Equivalent to product owner.
Siloed Organization. An organization structured in such a way that it only manages to contribute a subset of the
aspects required for delivering value to customers. For contrast, see Value Stream.
Single Loop Learning. The practice of attempting to solve problems by just using specific predefined methods, without
challenging the methods in light of experience.
Smoke Testing. The practice of using a lightweight set of tests to ensure that the most important functions of the
system under development work as intended.
Specification by Example (SBE). A collaborative approach to defining requirements and business-oriented functional
tests for software products based on capturing and illustrating requirements using realistic examples instead of
abstract statements.
Spike. A short time interval within a project, usually of fixed length, during which a team conducts research or prototypes
an aspect of a solution to prove its viability.
Sprint. Describes a timeboxed iteration in Scrum.
�
Sprint Backlog. A list of work items identified by the Scrum team to be completed during the Scrum sprint.
�
Sprint Planning. A collaborative event in Scrum in which the Scrum team plans the work for the current sprint.
Story Point. A unit-less measure used in relative user story estimation techniques.
Swarming. A technique in which multiple team members focus collectively on resolving a specific impediment.
Technical Debt. The deferred cost of work not done at an earlier point in the product life cycle.
Test-Driven Development. A technique where tests are defined before work is begun, so that work in progress is
validated continuously, enabling work with a zero defect mindset.
Timebox. A fixed period of time, for example, 1 week, 1 fortnight, 3 weeks, or 1 month. See also Iteration.
Glossary
154
T-shaped. Refers to a person with one deep area of specialization and broad ability in the rest of the skills required by
the team. See also I-Shaped and Broken Comb.
User Story. A brief description of deliverable value for a specific user. It is a promise for a conversation to clarify details.
User Story Mapping. A visual practice for organizing work into a useful model to help understand the sets of high-
value features to be created over time, identify omissions in the backlog, and effectively plan releases that deliver
value to users.
UX Design. The process of enhancing the user experience by focusing on improving the usability and accessibility to be
found in the interaction between the user and the product.
Value Stream. An organizational construct that focuses on the flow of value to customers through the delivery of
specific products or services.
Value Stream Mapping. A lean enterprise technique used to document, analyze, and improve the flow of information
or materials required to produce a product or service for a customer.
155
�
�
Glossary
156
IN D E X
A Agile Manifesto and, 25

characteristics of, 24–25
A3, 150
continuum of life cycles and, 19
Accelerated delivery, changes associated with, 73
defined, 150
Acceptance criteria
flow-based, 24
execution practices and, 56
iteration-based, 24
iterations and, 63
Agile Manifesto
Acceptance test-driven development (ATDD)
agile life cycles and, 25
defined, 150
core tenets, 38
value delivery and, 56
defined, 150
Acceptance testing, 82
mindset and, 8–12
Accumulating work, 70
practices and, 10
Action items, 51
principles of, 9, 10, 50
Adaptation
publication of, 87
delivering value and, 87
values of, 2, 8, 10, 35, 77
processes and, 15, 28
Agile methods
Agile
frameworks and, 11, 80
adoption of, 87
Kanban Method and, 12
defined, 150
Agile mindset
implementation of, 33–47
Agile Manifesto and, 8–12, 10
popularization of term, 10
�
customer-collaboration, 81
various approaches and, 11
defined, 150
�
Agile Alliance, 1, 43
siloed organizations and, 47
Agile approach(es)
speed of change and, 3
components of, 10
starting with, 33
mixing, 31
universal application of, 87
predictive approach combined with, 27
Agile PMO. See Project management office
predictive component and, 28
Agile practices, 50–57
transitioning to, 73
Agile practitioner
Agile-based learning, 2
defined, 150
Agile coach, 150
project manager role and, 37
Agile environment, creation of, 33–47
Agile life cycle(s)
157
Agile principles Blending of approaches, 31
agile-based learning and, 2 Blocker. See Impediment
cross-functional teams and, 43 Boston Big Dig, 15
defined, 150 Bottlenecks, 35, 42, 64
readiness for change and, 73 BRD. See Business requirement documents
Agile roles, 40–41 Broken comb, 150
Agile suitability filters, 25 Budgeting, incremental, 36
Agile teams Burndown chart
attributes of successful, 39–40 defined, 150
roles in, 40–41 feature charts and, 67
Agile unified process, 150 story points and, 62
Agilist. See Agile practitioner Burnup chart
Anti-pattern(s) defined, 150
defined, 150 earned value and, 68–69
standups and, 55 feature charts and, 67
Approach(es) product backlog, 68
blending of, 31 scope changes and, 64
term use in guide, 11 story points and, 63
ATDD. See Acceptance test-driven development Business practices, 79
Automated code quality analysis, 150 Business requirement documents (BRD), 150
Automated testing, 31, 56 Business satisfaction, 60
Automation, 7 Business service. See Service(s)
Business value delivery, 16, 23, 29
B
Backlog. See Product backlog C
Backlog refinement, 52–53 Cadence
conducting meetings for, 53 defined, 151
defined, 150 working product delivery and, 57
refinement length and, 52 Call to action, 87
Baselines, 61 Cancellation option, contracts and, 78
Basics, 1–5 Capacity measures
�
agile-based learning and, 2 iteration-based agile and, 55

�
development of guide, 1 in-the-moment measurements and, 66

disruptive technologies and, 3 story points and, 66
organization of guide, 5 Change(s). See also Uncertainty
reason for guide, 2 accelerated delivery and, 73
in-scope/out-of-scope items, 4 agile approaches and, 73
Batch sizes, 42 kanban board and, 85
BDD. See Behavior-driven development readiness for, 73–74
Behavior-driven development (BDD) requirements and, 24
defined, 150 roadblocks to, 74
value delivery and, 56 safety and, 75
Big Dig, Boston, 15 speed of, agile mindset and, 3
Blended agile, 150 Change control boards, 35
Index
158
Change management. See Organizational change full-service suppliers, 79
management graduated time and materials, 78
Change request process, 7, 8–12 multi-tiered structure, 77
Charter, project, 49–50 not-to-exceed time and materials, 78
Cloud computing, 3 team augmentation, 76
Coaching, 38, 55 value delivered and, 77
Collaboration Coordination
chartering process and, 49 multi-team, 80
cross-department, 73 servant leadership and, 35
customer-collaboration mindset, 81 Cost performance index (CPI), 69
expedited work and, 39 CPI. See Cost performance index
facilitation of, 35, 38 Cross-functional team(s)
good will and, 37 agile principles and, 43
shared risk-reward relationship, 77 business practices and, 79
transparency and, 79 defined, 151
Collective code ownership, 151 functional product increments and, 39
Collocated teams, 39, 43, 44, 45 high-change projects and, 38
Communication product development and, 43
dispersed teams and, 46 project leadership and, 47
facilitators and, 35 role, agile team member, 41
Competencies Scrum framework and, 31
internal, 83 servant leadership and, 33
PMO and, 82 Crystal family of methodologies, 151
roadblocks and, 74 Culture. See Organizational culture
Completeness Cumulative flow diagram, 70, 82
subjective nature of, 23 Customer-collaboration mindset, 81
working agreements and, 50 Customer feedback loops, 2
Complexity. See also Stacey Complexity Model Customer requirements. See Requirements
high-change projects and, 38 Customer satisfaction, 2, 25
hybrid life cycles and, 26 Customer-supplier relationship, breakdowns in, 77
iterative life cycles and, 21 Customer value. See Value
�
troubleshooting and, 57 Cycle time

uncertainty and, 7, 13 external dependencies and, 66
�
Constraints, 20, 31, 42 flow-based agile teams and, 64

Context switching, 44, 45 lead time and, 66
Continuous delivery, 151
Continuous integration D
blending approaches and, 31
DA. See Disciplined Agile
defined, 151
Daily Scrum, 151
Daily standups, 27, 44, 53–54
Continuous learning, 73
antipatterns and, 54
Contracting techniques, 77–79
flow-based agile, 54
dynamic scope option, 78
iteration-based agile, 53
early cancellation option, 78
Dedicated team members, 44–45
fixed-price increments, 77
159
Definable work projects, 7 EVM metrics, traditional, 69
Definition of done (DoD), 151 EVO. See Evolutionary value delivery
Definition of ready (DoR), 151 Evolutionary value delivery (EVO), 151
Delays, 64 Execution practices, 56
Deliverables. See also Service(s) Expectations, setting, 45
interim, 15 eXtreme Programming (XP)
microdeliverables, 77 blending approaches and, 31
reduction of project size, 83 collaboration and, 80
requirements and defined, 151
value-driven, 77 value delivery and, 56
Deliveries. See also Business value delivery
accelerated, 73 F
customer-based, 29
Face-to-face pairing, 46
frequent, 55
Facilitators, 35, 51
iterations, increments and, 57
Failures, project, 77
subjective nature of, 23
FDA approval process, 26
work in progress and, 70
Feature burnup/burndown charts, 67
Delivery teams, 35
Feature charts, 67
Demonstrations
Feature delivery. See Deliveries
deliveries and, 57
Feature-Driven Development, 151
reviews and, 55
Feedback
Dependencies, multi-team coordination and, 80
agile teams and, 39, 42
DevOps, 151
demonstrations and, 55
Disciplined Agile (DA), 151
incorporation of, 43
Dispersed teams, 43, 44, 45
iterations and, 57
Disruptive technologies, 2, 3
planning and, 29
Distributed teams, 43
prototypes and, 22, 23
DoD. See Definition of done
waste, rework and, 15
DoR. See Definition of ready
Feedback loops, 2, 15
Double loop learning, 151
Finished work. See Value
DSDM. See Dynamic Systems Development Method
Fishbowl windows, 46
�
Dynamic scope contracting approach, 78

Fit, tailoring options to improve, 32
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM), 151
�
Fit for purpose

defined, 151
E hybrid life cycles and, 29
Early cancellation option, contracts and, 78 Fit for use, 151
Earned value (EV), 61 Fixed-price microdeliverables, 77
finished features and, 67–68 Flow-based agile life cycle
measurement of, 68–69 iteration-based agile compared to, 24, 25
Emotional intelligence, 36 standups and, 54
Estimation Flow diagram, cumulative, 70, 82
relative, 67 Flow efficiency, 42
upfront, 27 Flow master, 151
EV. See Earned Value “Follow the sun” development practice, 44
Index
160
Framework(s) Information radiator, 152
agile methods, 80 In-scope items, 4
defined, 151 Inspection, delivering value and, 87
Functionalized structures, 83 Insurance underwriting system, 29
Functional requirement, 152 Integration. See Continuous integration
Functional specification, 152 Interim deliverables, 15
Internal processes, evolving, 73
G Interpersonal skills, 36
Intrapreneur approach, PMO and, 81
Generalizing specialists, 42
I-shaped, 42, 152
Geographically distributed project organizations, 83
Iteration(s)
Geographically distributed teams, 46
defined, 152
Ground rules, 50
story points and, 61, 64
Group norms, 50
velocity and, 64
Guide basics. See Basics
working product delivery and, 57
Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, A.
See PMBOK Guide Iteration-based agile
burndown charts and, 62
flow-based agile compared to, 24, 25
H planning for, 55
High-change projects, 38 standups and, 53
High-uncertainty projects, 7 Iterative life cycle(s)
Hoshin Kanri, 152 characteristics of, 21–22
Human resources, 79, 82 continuum of life cycles and, 19
Hybrid approach, 27, 152 defined, 152
Hybrid life cycle(s) single product delivery, 21
example of, 26
K
as fit-for-purpose, 29
as transition strategy, 30 Kaizen events, 152
Kanban, “walking” the, 53
Kanban board
I
backlog for changes, ranked, 85
�
IDEAL, 152 blending approaches and, 31

�
Impact mapping defined, 152

defined, 152 example of, 65
product owner and, 52 progress of work and, 86
Impediment(s) Kanban Method, 16, 152
defined, 152 blending approaches and, 31
servant leaders and, 35 emergence of, 12
Increment(s), working product delivery and, 57 Lean and, 12–13
Incremental initiatives, 20
lean approach and, 11
Incremental life cycle(s)
Knowledge, product, 83
continuum of life cycles and, 19
defined, 152
varying-sized increments and, 22
161
L Meetings. See Daily standups
Mentoring, 37, 82
Large-Scale Scrum (LeSS), 152
Metrics. See Measurements
Leadership. See Servant leadership
Microdeliverables, fixed-price, 77
Lead time
Mindset. See Agile mindset
cycle time and, 66
Minimum viable product (MVP), 23
external dependencies and, 66
Mini-waterfalls, 39
flow-based agile teams and, 64
Mobbing, 39, 152
Lean
Multiproject management, 82
Agile approach and, 11
Multitasking
Kanban Method and, 12–13
burndowns and, 63
Lean Software Development (LSD), 152
productivity and, 44–45
Lean thinking, 11, 12
Multiteam coordination, scaling and
Learning
MVP. See Minimum viable product
continuous, 73
organizational, 82
value and, 61–62 N
LeSS. See Large-Scale Scrum Non-agile approaches, 17
Life cycle(s). See also Agile life cycle(s); Hybrid life Norms, group, 50
cycle(s); Incremental life cycle(s); Iterative life cycle(s); Not-to-exceed time and materials approach, 78
Predictive life cycle(s)
characteristics of, 18
O
continuum of, 19
defined, 152 OCM. See Organizational change management
planning and, 20 Organization(s)
selection of evolving the, 84–86
types of, 17 procurement-heavy, 83
LSD. See Lean Software Development siloed, 47, 154
Organizational agility, roadblocks to, 74
Organizational bias, 152
M Organizational change management, 71–74
Managing Change in Organizations: A Practice Guide, agile approaches and, 71–72
3, 71 drivers for, 73
�
Manifesto. See Agile Manifesto readiness for change and, 73–74

�
Manifesto for Agile Software Development, 8 Organizational change management (OCM), 3, 153
Measurements Organizational culture, 75–77
Agile projects and, 60–70 assessment, example of, 76
baselines and, 61 assessment of, 74–75
capacity, 66 organizational structure versus, 77
earned value and, 68–69 PMO and, 81
EVM, 69 safe environment and, 75
flow-based agile teams and, 64 Organizational impediments, 35
predictability, 66 Organizational learning, 82
qualitative, 60 Organizational silos. See Siloed organization
results and, 61–70 Organizational structure, 83
story points and, 66 Out-of-scope items, 4
variability and, 61
Index
162
P Product backlog. See also Backlog refinement
defined, 153
Pain points, troubleshooting and, 57–59
initial, ranked for changes, 85
Paint-drip. See Broken comb
preparation of, 52
Pairing. See Pair work
Scrum framework and, 31
Pair programming, 102, 153
Product backlog burnup chart, 68
Pair work, 39
Product delivery. See Deliveries
Parking lot, problems and, 54
Productivity
Part-time assignments, risk and, 45
boosting, 39–40
Pay-as-you-go or pay-what-you-use model, 3
task switching and, 44–45
PDCA. See Plan-Do-Check-Act Product owner
Personas, 153 cross-functional teams and, 38
Personnel, development of, 82 defined, 153
“Phase gates,” 77 product roadmap and, 52
Pivot, 153 role, agile team member, 41
Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA), 153 Scrum framework and, 31
Plan-driven approach, 153 throughput and, 66
Planning Product roadmap, 52
feedback and, 29 Progressive elaboration, 153. See also Backlog refinement
iteration-based agile and, 55 Progress tracking, 27. See also Kanban board
life cycles and, 20 Project(s)
replanning and, 61 inherent characteristics and, 18
PMBOK Guide, 17, 38 large, 15
PMO. See Project management office Project charter, 49–50
Predictive approaches Project factors, tailoring options and, 32
agile approach combined with, 27 Project knowledge, vendors and, 83
with agile components, 28 Project leaders, stakeholders and, 75
measurements and, 60 Project life cycles. See Life cycle(s)
Predictive component, agile approach with, 28 Project management, goal of, 29
Predictive life cycle(s) Project Management Institute (PMI®), 1, 43
characteristics of, 20–21 Project management office (PMO), 81–82
continuum of life cycles and, 19 defined, 153
�
defined, 153 demonstrations and, 57

�
Predictive rollout, following agile development, 26–27 invitation-oriented, 81

Problems multidisciplinary, 82
standups and, 54 value-driven, 81
troubleshooting, 57–59 Project manager(s)
Problem solving, facilitation of, 39–40 agile environment and
Procurement defined, 38
business practices and, 79 role of, 37
contracts and, 77–79 servant leadership and, 38
Procurement-heavy organizations, 83 Project risks, hybrid life cycle and, 29
Product, minimum viable, 23 Project task board
cumulative flow diagram and, 70
“walking the,” 53
work in progress and, 25
163
Project vision, 49 Roadblocks, organizational agility and, 74
Project work, 7 Roadmap, product, 52
Proof of concept, 22 ROI. See Return on investment
Prototyping, 15, 22 Role(s)
agile teams and, 40–41
Q project manager, 37
temporary specialists and, 45
Qualitative measures, 60
Rolling wave planning, defined, 153
Quantitative risk analysis, 37
RUP. See Rational unified process
R S
Rational unified process (RUP), 149
SAFe®. See Scaled Agile Framework®
Reaction time, 66
Safety, environment of, 75
Refactoring
SBE. See Specification by example
Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe®), 153
defined, 153
Scaling, 80
Regulatory environments, 36
Schedule performance index (SPI), 69
Relative estimation, 67
Scope creep, 28
Remote pairing, 46
Scope items, in- and out-of, 4
Requirements
Scrum
addressing all, 39
collaboration and, 80
culture and, 75
defined, 153
feature burnup/burndown charts and, 67
framework for, 31
iterative exploration of, 15
Scrumban, 153
missing, 60
Scrum board, 154
predictive life cycles and, 20
Scrum Master
prototypes and, 22
defined, 154
uncertainty and, 13, 14, 16, 22, 24
Response time, 64
Scrum of Scrums, 154
Retrospectives, 27, 50–51
Scrum team, 154
defined, 153
Self-management, 36
key times for, 51
Self-managing teams, 39
product knowledge and, 83
Self-organizing team(s)
Return on investment (ROI), 30, 61
case example, 43
Reviews, demonstrations and, 55
defined, 154
Rework
financial institution example, 44
reduction of potential, 23
project managers and, 37
risk of, 13, 14
standups and, 54
Risk(s)
Serial life cycle, 17. See also Predictive life cycle
customer-supplier relationship and, 77
Servant leader(s)
fixed-price increments and, 77
characteristics of, 34
high-uncertainty projects and, 7
chartering process and, 49, 50
hybrid life cycle and, 29
facilitation and, 35, 52
part-time assignments and, 45
organizational impediments and, 35
uncertainty, life cycle selection and, 13–16
Index
164
project managers using, 38 Stakeholders
responsibilities of, 34, 36–37 education of, 37
role of, 33 management of, 82
Servant leadership project leaders and, 75
agile teams and, 39 Standups. See Daily standups
defined, 154 “Start-where-you-are” approach, 13, 16
project managers and, 38 Status meetings, 54
team empowerment and, 33–38 Status reporting, traffic light, 60
Service(s) Stories. See also User Story
delivery of, 35 backlog refinement and, 52, 53
PMO and, 82 finishing one at a time, 68
Service request manager, 154 reliable velocity and, 61
Siloed organization Story cards, 31
cross-functional teams and, 47 Story point
defined, 154 burndown chart and, 62
Single loop learning, 154 burnup chart and, 63
Skills, interpersonal versus technical, 36 completed, 63
SMEs. See Subject matter experts defined, 154
Smoke testing iterations and, 61, 64
defined, 154 measurement and, 66
value delivery and, 56 measuring, 66
Social contract. See Project charter velocity and, 64
Social media, 2 Strategy
Software development culture and, 75
Agile Manifesto and, 8 passion for a cause and, 75
agile practices and, 2 Subject matter experts (SMEs), 43, 82
learning and, 61 Suitability, filters for, 25
thought leaders in, 8 Suppliers, full-service, 79
Software Extension to the PMBOK® Guide Fifth Edition, 17 Swarming, 39, 154
Specialists, generalizing, 42 System-level testing, 56
Specification by example (SBE), 154
�
SPI. See Schedule performance index T

Spike(s)
�
Tailoring
backlog refinement and, 52
hybrid transition and, 30
defined, 154
PMO and, 81
premature or haphazard, 12
Sponsor, project completion and, 61
project factors influencing, 32
Sprint, 154
Task board. See also Kanban board; Project task board
Sprint backlog, 154
“walking” the, 53
Sprint planning
Task switching, productivity and, 44–45
defined, 154
TDD. See Test-Driven Development
Stacey Complexity Model, 14, 15
165
Team(s). See also Agile teams; Cross-functional team(s); Timebox(es). See also Spike(s)
Self-organizing team(s) defined, 154
accumulating work and, 70 standups and, 53
business practices and, 79 use of, 12
chartering project and, 49–50 Tradeoffs, 76
collocated, 39, 43, 44, 45 Traffic light status reporting, 60
composition of, 38–47 Training, 82
coordination, multi-team, 80 Transition strategy, hybrid life cycles as, 30
core members of, 45 Transparency
core writing, guide and, 1 collaboration and, 79
delivery, 35 delivering value and, 87
dispersed, 43, 44, 45 success and, 85
distributed, 43, 46 Troubleshooting, 57–59, 82
facilitator, role of, 41 T-shaped, 42, 155
self-managing, 39
Team augmentation contracting approach, 76 U
Team charter, 49–50
Uncertainty. See also Change(s)
Team facilitator, role of, 41
complexity and, 7, 13
Team leaders, 82
exploration of, 16
Team members, dedicated, 44–45
medium- to low- degree of, 30
Team roles, agile, 40–41
requirements and, 13, 14, 16, 22, 24
Team structures, 43
risk, life cycle selection and, 13–16
Team values, 50
technical degree of, 14
Team workspaces, 46
Uncertainty and Complexity Model, 14
Technical debt, 154
Unit testing, 56
Technical skills, 36
Upfront estimation, 27
Technologies, disruptive, 2, 3
User Story
Temporary specialists, 45, 83
defined, 155
Test-Driven Development (TDD)
demonstrations and, 55
as microdeliverable, 77
defined, 154
User story mapping, 155
U.S. FDA approval process, 26
Testing
UX design, 155
acceptance, 82
at all levels, 56
automated, 31, 56 V
uncertainty and, 16 Value. See also Business value delivery; Deliverables
Thought processes. See Agile mindset acceleration of, 30
Throughput, 42 contracting techniques and, 77
multitasking and, 44 delivering, 16, 23, 56
product owner and, 66 intermediate, 29
standups and, 54 learning and, 61–62
Time and materials approach metrics and, 60
graduated, 78 optimizing flow of, 38–39
not-to-exceed, 78
Index
166
Value stream, 155
Value stream mapping, 155
Variability, measures of, 61
Velocity
defined, 64
relative estimation and, 67
Vendors, project knowledge and, 83
Video conferencing, 46
Virtual workspaces, 46
Vision, project, 49
Visual tool. See Kanban board
W
Wasted work, 14
Waste reduction, 15
Waterfall life cycle, 17. See also Predictive life cycle
WIP. See Work in progress
Work
accumulating, 70
wasted, 14
Work assignment, 27
Working agreements, 50
Work in process, 31
Work in progress (WIP), 39
cumulative flow diagram and, 70
Kanban board and, 66
task board and, 25
Workspaces, team, 46
X
�
XP. See eXtreme Programming

XP-inspired engineering practices, 31
�
167
�
�
Index
168

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INCLUDES: THE STANDARD

2.2 Enterprise Environmental Factors.................................................................................. 38

2.2.1 EEFs Internal to the Organization ...................................................................... 38

VIII Table of Contents

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 537

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 541

XII Table of Contents

XIV Table of Contents

XVI Table of Contents

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................. 695

XVIII Table of Contents

Figure 1-1. Organizational State Transition via a Project ..................................................... 6

Figure 4-3. Develop Project Charter: Data Flow Diagram ................................................... 76

XX List of Tables and Figures

Figure 8-5. Cost of Quality.................................................................................................. 283

Figure 8-6. The SIPOC Model.............................................................................................. 285

XXII List of Tables and Figures

XXIV List of Tables and Figures

XXVI List of Tables and Figures

Figure 4-5. Acquire Resources: Inputs and Outputs ......................................................... 601

Figure 4-6. Develop Team: Inputs and Outputs ................................................................. 602

XXVIII List of Tables and Figures

Figure X3-1. The Continuum of Project Life Cycles ............................................................. 666

Table X1-1. Section 4 Changes ........................................................................................... 645

1.1 OVERVIEW AND PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE

Great Wall of China,

Publication of a children’s book,

Development of commercial jet airplanes,

Human beings landing on the moon,

Commercial software applications,

Portable devices to use the global positioning system (GPS), and

Placement of the International Space Station into Earth’s orbit.

1.1.1 THE STANDARD FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The Standard for Program Management [3].

1.1.2 COMMON VOCABULARY

1.1.3 CODE OF ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT

Figure 1-1. Organizational State Transition via a Project

Examples of intangible elements include:

Create, Improve, Implement or

Figure 1-2. Project Initiation Context

Create, Improve, or Fix Products,

Implement or Change Business

Satisfy stakeholder expectations;

Increase chances of success;

Deliver the right products at the right time;

Resolve problems and issues;

Respond to risks in a timely manner;

Optimize the use of organizational resources;

Identify, recover, or terminate failing projects;

Manage constraints (e.g., scope, quality, schedule, costs, resources);

Manage change in a better manner.

Uncontrolled expansion of the project,

Loss of reputation for the organization,

Unsatisfied stakeholders, and