Compass Surveying

UNIT 3 COMPASS SURVEYING

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Definitions and Important Terms
3.2.1 Bearing
3.2.2 Magnetic Declination
3.2.3 Magnetic Dip
3.3 Instruments and Procedures
3.3.1 Compass
3.3.2 Procedure of Measuring Bearing with Prismatic Compass
3.4 Calculations of Bearing and Included Angles
3.4.1 Calculation of Included Angles
3.4.2 Calculation of Bearing from Angles
3.5 Precautions and Errors in Compass Survey
3.5.1 Precautions
3.5.2 Sources of Error
3.5.3 Error Prevention
3.6 Summary
3.7 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Units l and 2, you have learnt that the general objective of surveying is to
determine the relative positions of distinctive features on ground (in the area
under study) in order to prepare maps which can be used in future for various
engineering applications, e.g. planning, designing and executing civil engineering
projects. This, in general, will consist of measuring distances, both horizontal and
vertical, and angles. In Unit 2, you have studied different methods of measuring
horizontal distance along the survey lines and offset distances of ground features
from survey lines.
However, if the area to be surveyed is comparatively large it is rather difficult and
inaccurate to obtain all the required distances by measuring horizontal distances
only. In real life situations, there are many obstructions and difficulties in direct
ranging the survey lines. It becomes very tedious and inconvenient, even
impossible, to fix the directions of survey lines by linear horizontal measurements
alone. These problems can be conveniently solved by making angular
measurements. The directions of survey lines can be easily fixed by measuring
the angles between two survey lines meeting at a station or angle of a line with
reference to some fixed axis. The direction of a line relative to a given fixed axis
(or meridian) is called its bearing. Traversing becomes quite convenient by
carrying out the measurements along a series of interconnected survey lines either
to form a closed or an open traverse. The lengths and offsets are measured by
chain or tape while directions of survey lines are measured using compass or any
angle measuring instrument. This process is termed as chain and compass survey.

41
Elements of Survey Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• understand various important terms and instruments used in compass
surveying,
• understand the procedure of compass surveying,
• measure bearing of survey lines and find the angle between these
lines, and
• know various types of error involved in compass surveying, their
source and methods of correction.

3.2 DEFINITIONS AND IMPORTANT TERMS

The instruments commonly used for angular measurements are the compass and
theodolite. Before the study of instrument and procedures used for compass
surveying, it is necessary to define some important terms commonly used in this
context.
3.2.1 Bearing
The horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the survey line is termed
as bearing of the survey line.
Magnetic Bearing
The magnetic needle of the compass always points towards the magnetic
north-south (N-S) direction indicating earth’s magnetic axis. Since this
direction is same at all the places on the earth’s surface, it is universally
used as the reference direction. The angle made by survey line in a
clockwise direction with reference to magnetic N-S line is termed as
magnetic bearing of the line. The value of magnetic bearing ranges from
0o to 360o.
True Bearing
The geographical north of earth is different from the magnetic north. Hence,
the angle which the survey line makes with the true geographical north is
termed as true bearing of the survey line.
Arbitrary Bearing
It is the horizontal angle which a survey line makes with any arbitrary
meridian, which is any convenient direction towards a permanent and
prominent mark or signal, such as a church spire or top of a chimney. Such
bearings are used to determine the relative position of line in a small area.
Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)
The complete circle of angular measurement starts with north as 0o and ends
at north at 360o. The bearing of line directly obtained by magnetic needle
ranging from 0o to 360o is called whole circle bearing as shown in
Figure 3.1(a).
Reduced Bearing (RB)
The more convenient way to comprehend the direction of a survey line is to
represent the bearing on a quadrantal system. The angle is measured with
42
 respect to N–S line towards east or west as shown in Figure 3.1(b). The Compass Surveying
relationship between WCB and RB is shown in Figure 3.1(c).
Fore Bearing (FB)
The angle measured in the direction of survey line from starting survey
station to the next station is called fore bearing. In Figure 3.1(d), if the
bearing of line AB is measured from A towards B, it is known as forward
bearing or fore bearing.
Back Bearing (BB)
It is the bearing of the survey line taken from the forward survey station to
the preceding station from which the fore bearing was taken earlier. In
Figure 3.1(d), if the bearing of same line AB is measured from B towards
A, it is known as backward bearing or back bearing.
N N

B D B

α
D δ
W E W E
γ O
β

A C
A
S S

(a) Whole Circle Bearing (b) Reduced Bearing

N
N-W D A
WCB = θº, 270º < θº < 360º α N-E
RB = α = 360º − θº θ
α WCB = θº, 0º < θº < 90º
NαW RB = α = θº N α E

W E
θ
θ WCB = θº, 90º < θº < 180º
θ
RB = α = 180º − θº
WCB = θº, 180º < θº < 270º α
α SαE
RB = α = θº − 180º
SαW C B
S−W S-E
S

(c) Relationship between WCB and RB

N
N

B
β
α

∠NAB = α = Fore Bearing

∠NBA = β = Back Bearing
∴Fore Bearing − Back Bearing = 180º

(d) Fore Bearing and Back Bearing

Figure 3.1 : Bearing of a Survey Line
43
Elements of Survey 3.2.2 Magnetic Declination
The direction of magnetic meridian varies from place to place across the globe.
Hence, the bearings taken with reference to magnetic meridian of the survey lines
will not represent true relative angles between them. The errors can be negligible
for smaller area surveys but will be quite significant for large surveys particularly
geodetic and astronomical surveys. A more accurate method of denoting the
bearing of a survey line will be to obtain the true bearing of the line. The
difference between true bearing and magnetic bearing of a survey line at a survey
station is called magnetic declination of that place.
Hence, the horizontal angle made by magnetic meridian and true meridian at a
place is termed as magnetic declination of that place as depicted in Figure 3.2.
The magnetic declination could be East declination Figure 3.2(a) or West
declination as in Figure 3.2(b) indicating whether magnetic North is toward East
or towards West of true North.
True North
True North
Magnetic North Magnetic North

δE δW

(a) East Declination δE (b) West Declination δW

Figure 3.2 : Magnetic Declination
It may also be noted here that position of magnetic North may change even at a
station due to several factors. Hence, it may be necessary to record the date of
survey and time to obtain the true bearing of a survey line at a place.
Astronomical observations are required to be taken to determine the direction of
true North at a place and hence to obtain the true bearing of a survey line at that
place. Magnetic bearing can be easily obtained for the same line by compass
survey. The difference between true bearing and magnetic bearing of the survey
line so obtained will give the magnetic declination at that place, i.e.
Magnetic Declination = (True Bearing – Magnetic Bearing)
The magnetic declination will be positive if magnetic meridian is towards east of
true meridian and negative if magnetic meridian is westward of true meridian.
Isogonic Lines
If the points on the globe which have same magnetic declination at a point
of time are joined, the imaginary lines so obtained are called isogonic lines.
Agonic Lines
These are imaginary lines constructed by joining the points at which the
magnetic declination is zero, and hence have the same value of magnetic
bearing and true bearings.
For reference to geodetic and other important surveys, isogonic charts are
published by agencies like Survey of India, on which isogonic and agonic
lines are drawn on earth maps.
44
 Compass Surveying
3.2.3 Magnetic Dip
The magnetic bearing of a survey line at a place is obtained by using a magnetic
compass. The needle of this compass will not remain horizontal due to magnetic
influence of the earth. This deflection of the needle from the horizontal position is
called dip of the needle. Apart from local effects due to presence of magnetic ores
in ground or such other localised influences, the magnetic dip of the compass
needle will vary from place to place on the surface of earth. It will be horizontal
at equator, i.e. zero dip at a place equidistant from both the poles. The deviation
from horizontal position will gradually increase as survey lines moves toward the
poles. This dip will influence the accurate recording of the bearings. A sliding
weight or an aluminium coil can be placed on the higher side of the needle to
counter balance this dip and make the needle perfectly horizontal during bearing
measurements.

SAQ 1

(a) Define the terms True and Magnetic bearing, Fore and Back bearing,
Magnetic dip and Magnetic declination.
(b) In an old survey, the value of magnetic declination was 4oW at the
time it was made and the magnetic bearing of a given line was 210o.
The declination in the same locality is 10oE now. What are true and
present magnetic bearing of the line.

3.3 INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

3.3.1 Compass
The compass essentially consists of a freely suspended magnetic needle mounted
on a smooth pointed pivot. The needle can freely move over a graduated scale.
Two slit vanes are provided on the frame – one as the object vane and other as
eye vane – placed at 180o to provide the line of sight. A tripod stand is provided
on which the compass can be mounted and positioned over the survey station,
while taking observations.
A circular metal box, approximately 100 mm diameter, is used with a hardened
steel pivot at the centre. The magnetic needle, graduated aluminium ring and
vanes etc. are other parts of the compass. Design of these parts and their
placement vary in different types of compass.
The two types of compass – prismatic compass and surveyors compass – are
currently used in practice.
Prismatic Compass
It is the commonly used compass for engineering surveys and is suitable for
surveys where speed is more important than accuracy, for example, the
preliminary surveys of road, railway line or pipe line alignments and rough
traversing etc. Figure 3.3 shows the different constituents of a prismatic
compass in their final assembled form.
45
Elements of Survey Hinged Mirror
Sun Glasses

Object Vane Prism

Eye Vane
Lifting Pin Agate Cap
Glass Lid
Aluminum Ring Hinge
Prism Cap

Needle Pivot Point Focusing

Lifting Lever Stud

Brake Pin
Spring Brake
Compass Box

Figure 3.3 : Prismatic Compass

The aluminium ring of prismatic compass has a magnetic needle marked with N-S
along the diameter of the ring. The graduations are itched from 0o to 360o in
clockwise direction with zero marked at south end of needle and 180o at the north
end (Figure 3.4(a)). The itching is marked in inverted fashion so that they are read
in correct way when viewed through the reflecting prism. Each degree in
graduation is divided into half to give a least count of 30'.
The object vane has a vertical hair thin wire bisecting the object under
observation. The observation vane (or eye vane) consists of a reflecting prism.
Both the vanes are collapsible to be folded to lie on compass cover when not in
use. A plane mirror is hinged to object vane to sight the object which is too high
or too low to be sighted directly. The indication of mirror can be adjusted to
facilitate this process. In case of sun glare, when making the measurements
become difficult, sun screen of tinted glasses can be used by placing them in the
line of sight between prism and object vane.
To dampen the oscillation of magnetic needle and providing stability to
measurement process, a brake pin is provided on the side of the compass box. A
lifting pin is also provided to lift the needle and to keep it pressed against glass
cover when the object vane is folded and the compass is not in use. This prevents
the pivot from excessive wear and tear.

180º 0º
N N

W E 90º E
90º 270º W 90º

S S
0º 0º

(a) Prismatic Compass (b) Surveyor’s Compass

Figure 3.4 : System of Graduation
46
Surveyor Compass Compass Surveying

This instrument is more or less obsolete these days and not often used for
land surveying. Its construction is somewhat similar to prismatic compass
except that it has plane sight vane with a narrow vertical slit in place in
prism. The graduations on scale vary from 0o to 90o with 0o at North and
South and 90o at East and West positions marked (Figure 3.4(b)). The
magnetic needle is edge bar type while the circular graduated scale is fixed
with the box. Thus, here, instead of whole circle bearing, reduced bearings
are recorded.
3.3.2 Procedure of Measuring Bearing with Prismatic Compass
The procedure of measuring bearing with the compass is discussed in this section
along with some related issues like compass traversing, local attraction and
correction due to local attraction.
Setting the Compass at Station
The prismatic compass is required to be temporarily set over the station at
which the bearing of survey line required to be measured. It is basically a
two-step procedure. This is also called the temporary adjustments of
compass.
Centering
The compass is set so that its centre lies exactly above the station under
consideration. This is achieved by suspending a plumb bob from the centre
hook provided. If the conical end of plumb bob lie exactly over the station
(X is marked over station for accuracy), the compass is considered to be
exactly centered. If not, the legs of the tripod are adjusted in position by
moving one leg first and then simultaneously moving other two legs in
perpendicular direction to first movement. Several trials can be needed for
obtaining the correct centering of the compass. In real life situations, when
plumb bob is not available, a small piece of stone or pebble can be taken, by
holding this stone by fingers in line of centre of compass and allowing it to
drop freely on the station. If the stone falls on the top of peg then centering
is correct, otherwise the adjustment of tripod is done as explained earlier.
Levelling
The compass is required to be levelled so that the aluminium ring is in
horizontal plane and hence free to rotate on pivot. The levelling can be
checked by a spirit level or by rolling a pin on compass box. If the round
pin does not roll, the level is correct. If not levelled correctly, the level can
be adjusted by moving the legs of tripod. Some instruments are provided
with a ball and socket arrangement at box base to achieve rapid levelling till
the graduated ring moves freely inside the compass box.
Observing the Bearing
Once the compass is centered over the station and levelled, the process of
bearing measurement can start. Let AB be the survey line as shown in
Figure 3.5(a), the bearing of which is required to be measured. The
instrument is set at A and a ranging rod is fixed at B.
The compass is turned so that line of sight is aligned in the direction of AB
by making eye slit of observation vane, vertical hair of object vane and
ranging rod at B in same horizontal line. Wait for oscillation of graduation
ring to dampen, with the use of brake pin if necessary. The viewing prism is
focused by moving it vertically with the help of focusing stud. The reading
of the image of hair line as observed through prism is noted indicating the 47
Elements of Survey whole circle bearing of survey line. The process is repeated to check the
repeatability of measurements. This bearing is called fore bearing of
line AB.

A B

(a) Survey Line AB (b) Compass Set at A

Vertical Hair of
Object Vane

0 71 72 73 74
69 7 75 76

(c) Reading on Compass

Figure 3.5 : Recording of Bearing
Traversing
The instrument is successively set at each station of the traverse and the
fore bearing and back bearing of each line is taken and recorded in the field
notebook. The observational errors in this survey tend to compensate as
each bearing is observed independently. Distances between each survey
stations are measured using a chain/tape. The offset points are located either
by procedure followed in chain surveying or by angular measurement with
compass.
The bearings of survey lines in a traverse are observed in progressive way.
The bearing recorded in the direction of progress of survey is called the fore
bearing while the bearing of the same survey line from the end station
(station B on line AB) is termed back bearing (Figure 3.1(d)).
It can be noted that back bearing of a line is equal to its fore bearing
± 180o. Plus sign is used when fore bearing is less than 180o and minus sign
is used when it is more than 180o.
Local Attraction
The bearings measured by prismatic compass are magnetic bearings
measured with reference to magnetic north of the earth. Apart from the fact
that magnetic meridian changes from place to place on earth and with time
of observation, external magnetic influence existing locally at a place can
influence the readings seriously. The local presence of magnetic rocks, iron
ore deposits, steel structures, railway lines, iron electric poles etc. can
seriously deflect the magnetic needle of compass from its normal positions.
Such disturbances in accuracy of measurements are termed local attraction.
The actual measurements of bearings can also be disturbed if the surveyors,
carelessly keeps bunch of iron keys, iron knives or buttons, steel framed
spectacles. Even the chains and arrows, used in surveying, near the compass
can also affect bearings. Proximity of such objects should be avoided as far
48 as possible during compass surveying.
 The existence of local attraction can be detected by recording the fore Compass Surveying
bearing and back bearing of the survey line from both end stations. Any
difference between back bearing and fore bearing other than 180o will
indicate the presence of local attraction if no instrumental and observational
error is involved in the measurement process.
Adjustments and Corrections
It may be noted that the presence of local attraction will affect all the
bearings taken at a particular station in the same way. Hence, the difference
between the bearings of lines recorded at a particular station, giving the
included angle between the survey lines will have the correct value even
when the station is observed to have the local attraction disturbances.
The corrections in the recorded bearings at a station influenced by local
attraction can be made by either of the following methods.
(a) The difference between fore bearings and back bearings of all the
survey lines are determined. The line having a difference of exactly
180o is selected as unaffected line. The magnitude and direction of
error, i.e. the deviation from 180o and its sign (+ ve if more than 180o
and – ve if less than 180o) at other stations is determined. The
corrections are thus applied to other survey lines with reference to
unaffected line.
(b) Included angles of all the survey lines are computed for closed
traverses. The sum of these included angles shall be equal to (2n – 4)
right angles, where n is number of survey lines in the traverse. The
error if any in the sum of included angles is then distributed either
equally or in proportion to the magnitude of angle, to all the angles
once again starting from the unaffected line. The bearings of other
lines are corrected by taking the corrected values of included angles.
(c) If no line can be located which has a 180o difference between its fore
and back bearing, the survey line with minimum deviation is selected
and the error is equally applied in fore bearing and back bearing to
bring the difference to exactly 180o. The bearing of other lines are
then corrected following the procedure discussed above.

SAQ 2

(a) Describe the procedure of measuring magnetic bearing of a survey

line.
(b) What is local attraction? How is it detected and eliminated?

3.4 CALCULATIONS OF BEARING AND INCLUDED

ANGLES
3.4.1 Calculation of Included Angles
Having conducted the compass survey as described in Section 3.3, next step in
plotting the survey results on maps is to calculate the included angle between two
consecutive survey lines of the traverse.
(a) If the whole circle bearings of two lines at a station where these lines
intersect are recorded, then the included angle between these lines
49
Elements of Survey would be equal to the difference between the whole circle bearings of
two lines. If the difference is less than 180o the included angle would
be interior angle and if it is more that 180o it will be the exterior angle
between the two lines forming the traverse (Figure 3.6).
In Figure 3.6(a), it is given that back bearing (BB) of line AB, i.e.
(α) = 240o and fore bearing (FB) of line BC, (β) = 120o. Then the
included angle ABC, θ = α – β = 240o – 120o = 120o. Therefore, it can
be said that if both the bearings are measured from a common point
(B) then included angle can be obtained by subtracting FB of next line
(BC) from the BB of previous line (AB).
In Figure 3.6(b), if α is given as 330o and β as 40o then
θ1 = 330o – 40o = 290o is the exterior angle. In this case, included
angle θ would be 360o – (difference between WCB of lines BA
and BC).
Hence, included angle θ = 360o – θ1 = 360o – 290o = 70o.
N
A
N

β
C
θ
B
β

θ B α
Included Angle
A C
θ1

(a) (b)
Figure 3.6 : Included Angle from WCB
(b) If the WCB at point of intersection of survey lines AB and BC (i.e. at
station B) are not given but rather fore bearing of line AB (i.e. WCB of
line AB at A) and back bearing of line BC (i.e. WCB of line BC at C)
are known, then the included angle at station B between survey lines
AB and BC (Figure 3.7) can be obtained as follows.
N
N
N

A α = 150º C β= 220º0º

θ1
B

Figure 3.7
WCB of AB at B = Back bearing of line AB at B = 150o + 180o = 330o.
Back bearing of line BC at C = 220o.
50
 WCB of BC at B = Fore bearing of line BC at B = 220o – 180o = 40o. Compass Surveying

Included angle θ1 = 340o – 40o = 290o = Exterior angle.

Hence, Interior angle θ = 360o – θ1 = 360o – 290o = 70o.
3.4.2 Calculation of Bearing from Angles
If included angles measured clockwise between survey lines at stations and
bearing of any one line are known, bearings of all other lines can be calculated as
follows :
Bearing of a line = Given bearing of adjacent line + Included angle (measured
clockwise) between the lines.
If the sum is more than 360o, then deduct 360o to obtain the bearing of the line.
The process is explained with the help of following examples.
(a) Let fore bearing of line AB, α and included angle θ between AB and
BC are given.
α = 150º
(FB of line AB at A)

A
θ = 70º

B
θ1 = – 290º
α1

Figure 3.8 : Bearing from Included Angle

Then back bearing of line AB at B would be
α1 = 150o + 180o = 330o
Included angle θ = 70o
Then fore bearing of line BC = 330o + 70o = 400o > 360o.
∴ Fore bearing of line BC = 400o – 360o = 40o.
(b) Let fore bearing of line BC and included angle θ is given. Included
angle θ measured from BC to BA = 70o measured counterclockwise or
will be 360o – 70o = 290o measured clockwise. Hence the back
bearing of line AB, i.e. WCB of line AB at B would be
40o + 290o = 330o measured clock wise.

3.5 PRECAUTIONS AND ERRORS IN COMPASS

SURVEY
3.5.1 Precautions
While undertaking the compass traversing, following precautions should normally
be observed.
Bearing
If it is difficult to observe the location of the ranging rod at station B from
compass set at station A for obtaining the bearing of survey line AB, locate
an intermediate station C on line AB, which can be sighted from both
stations A and B. The compass can then be set over the intermediate 51
Elements of Survey station C. When there is an optical obstruction in the line AB, a parallel line
C1 D1 is set out by means of offsets as nearly as possible (Figure 3.9(b)) and
get the bearing of the survey line.

A C B

(a)

C D
A B

p p

C1 D1

(b) Line Parallel to Survey Line AB

Figure 3.9 : Bearings when Two Stations are not Intervisible
Freeing the Needle
The magnetic needle has to rotate freely over the pivot to get accurate
measurement of bearing of the survey line. Tap the compass box after the
needle has come to rest. This helps in overcoming the pivot friction, if any.
The cover glass may also have gathered static electric charge, when rubbed
with cloth while dusting and thus attract and jam the magnetic needle of
compass. The glass has to be discharged by applying moist finger on its
surface.
Damping
The vibration of compass needle are damped by gently pressing the braking
knob. To reduce vibrations and to minimize wear and tear of pivot point,
the needle shall be released only when the compass is aligned
approximately in the direction of magnetic meridian at site.
It is always advisable to take duplicate reading of the needle for each
bearing measurements. After noting down the first reading the compass is
rotated to displace the needle. Readjust the needle before taking the
duplicate reading. This reduces observational errors.
3.5.2 Sources of Error
Various errors observed during a compass survey can be broadly classified as
Instrumental errors, Observational errors and External influences.
Instrumental Errors
These could be due to defective manufacture or due to damage to
instrument during rough handling, transportation and use. For example,
(a) The needle may not be perfectly straight or balanced.
(b) Needle loosing its magnetic property.
(c) The pivot may become blunt or bent.
(d) The plane of sight loosing its verticality and/or twisted so that it
is not passing through the centre of compass.
52
 (e) The graduated circle may loose its shape or horizontality. Compass Surveying

Observational Errors
Even when the instrument is in perfect order, some errors may occur during
bearing measurements. These can be due to
(a) Setting and levelling inaccuracies, i.e. the compass center may
not coincide the center point of survey station, or it may not be
levelled accurately so that it does not lie in a horizontal plane.
(b) Ranging inaccuracies, i.e. the ranging rods at other object
stations may not be fixed in vertical position or these may not
be perfectly bisected by line of sight.
(c) Reading and recording inaccuracies, i.e. due to carelessness, the
position of line of sight may either be not read properly or
accurately or wrongly recorded in field notebook.
External Influences
Perfect instruments and their perfect use may not make the measurements
error free because of the following reasons :
(a) Magnetic storms, sunspots, lunar perturbations or minor tremors
in earth may cause irregular variations in bearing
measurements.
(b) Secular, annual and/or diurnal variations in declination affect
the bearing accuracy due to variation in magnetic meridian.
(c) The local attraction due to presence of iron ore in ground, or
steel structures, electric lines etc. in the vicinity of survey
stations.
3.5.3 Error Prevention
Having observed various types of possible errors during compass surveying, the
surveyor has to take adequate measures during actual use of instrument to
minimize the effects of these errors. Some of these are given below.
Ensure Horizontality of Needle and Scale
If the needle is not horizontal even when the compass is levelled properly, a
small coil of brass rider is used by sliding it on needle towards the higher
end of needle. Proper adjustment of rider will make the needle and scale
horizontal.
Ensure that Pivot is Central to Scale
Readings at both, North and South, end of needle are recorded. The
difference shall be exactly 180o. Any deviation from this will indicate that
either the needle is not straight or the pivot is bent. If the difference
between N- and S-readings is constant for different positions of compass,
though it may not be 180o, it will indicate that needle is not straight while
pivot is in centre. The needle is carefully observed and straightened to
remove this deviation. If the deviation is not same for different compass
position, pivot bending is indicated. Pivot is bent and needle straightened to
remove this error.
Ensure Verticality of Plane of Sight
53
Elements of Survey A plumb bob is suspended in front of the compass set in position and is
observed through the instrument. The eye vane, the object vane and the
string of plumb bob shall be in same vertical plane. Any deviation will
indicate the loss of verticality of either the eye vane or object vane which
are then adjusted accordingly.
Closing Error
When a closed traverse survey is conducted and the results plotted, it may
be observed that traverse fails to close. Actual distance by which traverse
fail to close is called the closing error. These could be either due to
(a) error in measuring angles, or
(b) error in measuring distances.
All the included angles of the traverse are computed from the recorded
bearings and aggregated. If the aggregated included angle is equal to
(2n – 4) right angles, the angle measurements are correct provided there is
no local attraction influence or observational error. Any difference will
indicate error in angular measurement. If the closing error is large, the
survey is rejected and repeated. If it is small, the error can be corrected by
making small adjustments in bearings as explained in Section 3.3.2 under
“Adjustments and Corrections”.
Errors in Chaining
The traverse may fail to close even when angles are error free. For example
the traverse starting from A is plotted as A B1 C1 D1 E1 A1 in Figure 3.10(a).
The end point A1 does not coincide with A indicating closing error. If error
AA1 is large, the survey has to be repeated. However, if it is small, it can be
adjusted as described below.
D1 DD1 = d1d2

EE1 = e1e2
D

E1 C1
E
C
CC1 = c1c2

A1 B1
AA1 = a1a2 BB1 = b1b2
A B

(a) Closing Error

a2
e2
d2
c2
b2
a
b1 c1 d1 e1 a1

(b) Error Adjustment

Figure 3.10 : Errors in Chaining

54
 Plot a straight line a b1 c1 d1 e1 a1 (ab1 = AB1, b1 c1 = B1 C1 and so on) on
B
Compass Surveying
any suitable scale. At end a1, draw a line a1 a2 parallel to and equal to
closing error AA1 and join a – a2. Draw lines parallel to a1 a2 from e1, d1, c1
and b1 (Figure 3.10(b)) to intersect aa2 at e2, d2, c2 and b2 respectively. The
distances b1 b2, c1 c2, d1 d2, e1 e2 will represent the corresponding corrections
by which station B1, C1, D1 and E1 are required to be shifted as in
B

Figure 3.10(a) for traverse to close. ABCDE will then represent the
corrected closed traverse.

Example 3.1

Convert the following whole circle bearings to reduced bearings

(a) 42o 58′
(b) 156o 12′
(c) 219o 47′
(d) 327o 34′
N N
WCB = RB

8′
º5
42 WCB = 156º 12′
W E W E
O O

RB

S S

(a) (b)

N N

RB

WCB = 219º 47′ WCB = 327º 34′

W E W E

RB

S S

(c) (d)
Figure 3.11 : RB from WCB

Solution
The conversion can be conveniently achieved with the help of sketches as
shown below :
(a) WCB = 42o 58′
The survey line lies in 1st quadrant
Hence RB = WCB, i.e. RB = N 42o 58′ E
55
Elements of Survey (b) WCB = 156o 12′
In second quadrant RB = 180o – WCB
= 180o – 156o 12′ = S 33o 48′ E
(c) WCB = 219o 47′
In third quadrant
RB = WCB – 180o
= 219o 47′ – 180o = S 39o 47′ W
(d) WCB = 327o 34′
In fourth quadrant
RB = 360o – WCB
= 360o – 327o34′ = N 32o 26′ W

Example 3.2

Convert the following reduced bearings to whole circle bearings

(a) N 68o 32′ E
(b) S 37o16′ E
(c) S 54o32′ W
(d) N 39o52′ W.
N N

WCB

RB
WCB
W E W O
E

RB

S S

(a) (b)

N
N
RB

W E
W E WCB
WCB
RB

S S

(c) (d)
Figure 3.12 : WCB from RB

56 Solution
 (a) RB = N 68o 32′ E Compass Surveying

First Quadrant WCB = RB

= 68o 32′
(b) RB = S 37o 16′ E
Second Quadrant
WCB = 180o – RB
= 180o – 37o16′
= 142o 44′
(c) RB = S 54o 32′ W
Third Quadrant
WCB = 180o + RB
= 180o + 54o 32′
= 234o 32′
(d) RB = N 39o 52′ W
Fourth Quadrant
WCB = 360o – 39o 52′
= 320o 08′

Example 3.3

Following are the observed fore bearings of the lines. Find their back
bearings :
AB 42o 34′, BC 163o 46′
CD 204o 29′, DE 337o 52′
A

B
FB
BB B
N

FB

BB
C
A

(a) (b)

C FB BB

BB

FB
D
D

(c) (d)
Figure 3.13 : BB from FB
Solution
57
Elements of Survey (a) FB of AB = 42o 34′
Back bearing of line AB
= Fore bearing of AB + 180o
= 42o 34′ + 180o
= 222o 34′
(b) FB of BC = 163o 46′
Back bearing of line BC
= Fore bearing of BC + 180o
= 163o 46′ + 180o
= 343o 46′
(c) FB of CD = 204o 29′
Back bearing of line CD
= Fore bearing of BC – 180o
= 204o 29′ – 180o
= 24o 29′
(d) FB of DE = 337o 52′
Back bearing of line DE
= Fore bearing of DE – 180o
= 337o 52′ – 180o
= 157o 52′

Example 3.4

Find the angle between lines OA and OB in following cases where the
respective bearings are :
(a) 37o 10′ and 316o 28′
(b) 16o 34′ and 139o 43′
(c) 118o 12′ and 287o 54′
Solution
[Rule : When bearing of two lines as measured from point of intersection
of lines, i.e. from O, and lines OA and OB are given, subtract
smaller from greater. The difference will be interior angle if it is
less than 180o and exterior angle if it is more. Interior angle will
then be (360o – exterior angle).]
(a) OA = 37o 10′, OB = 316o 28′
Included angle = 316o 28′ – 37o 10′
= 279o 18′ > 180o ⇒ Exterior angle
Interior angle AOB = 360o – 279o 18′
= 80o 42′
(b) OA = 16o 34′, OB = 139o 43′
58
 Included angle = 139o 43′ – 16o 34′ Compass Surveying

= 123o 09′ < 180o ⇒ Interior angle

Interior angle = 123o 09′
(c) OA = 118o 12′, OB = 280o 54′
Included angle = 280o 54′ – 118o 12′
= 162o 42′< 180o ⇒ Interior angle.
Interior angle = 162o 42′.

Inerior N
Angle = 80º 42'

B A

37º
10'

O
316º 28'
Exterior Angle = 279º 18'

(a)

N A
16º 34’

Interior Angle = 123º 09'

139º 43’

(b)

118º 12’

O
B
280º 54’

A
Interior Angle = 162º 42’

(c)
Figure 3.14 : Included Angles

Example 3.5 59
Elements of Survey

The fore bearings of line AB and BC are given. Calculate the included angle
between them.
(a) FB of AB = 108o 24′, FB of BC = 210o 18′
(b) FB of AB = 16o 36′, FB of BC = 323o 43′
(c) FB of AB = 196o 37′, FB of BC = 263o 19′
Solution
(a) Included angle ABC = ± (FB of BC – BB of AB)
Back bearing of AB = 108o 24′ + 180o = 288o 24′
∠ ABC = 288o 24′ – 210o 18′ = 78o 06′
(b) FB of BC = 323o 43′
BB of AB = 16o 36′ + 180o = 196o 36′
Included angle ABC = 323o 43′ – 196o 36′
= 127o 07′

108º 24' = FB of AB
A

Included Angle = 78º 06'

B

BB of AB = 288º 24'
210º 18' = FB of BC

(a)

FB of BC = 323º 43'
∠ ABC = 127º 07' B
BB of AB

FB of AB = 16º 36'

Figure 3.15 (b)

60
 Compass Surveying

A
196º 37'

Interior Angle = 113º 18'

263º 19''

Exterior Angle = 246º 42'

B
C

Figure 3.15 (c)

(c) FB of AB = 196o 37′, FB of BC = 263o 19′

BB of AB = 196o 37′ – 180o
= 16o 37′
Included angle ABC = 263o 19′ – 16o 37′ = 246o 42′ >180o exterior
angle.
Interior angle ABC = 360o – 246 o 42′
= 113o 18′.

Example 3.6

During the compass survey a traverse ABCDE was run. The bearings as
measured are recorded in table given below. Compute the interior angle of
traverse. Also calculate closing error if any.
Side AB BC CD DE EA
o o o o
FB 106 19′ 27 06′ 279 42′ 193 17′ 126o 32′
BB 286o 19′ 207o 06′ 99o 42′ 13o 17′ 306o 32′

Solution
(a) Back bearing of AB = 286o 19′
Fore bearing of BC = 27o 06′
Included angle ABC = 286o 19′ – 27o 06′ = 259o 13′ > 180o Exterior
angle.
∠ B = 360o – 259o13′ = 1000 47′ Interior angle.
(b) Back bearing of BC = 207o 06′
Fore bearing of CD = 279o 42′
Included angle = Difference of bearings; ∠ C = 72o 36′ < 180o
Interior angle.
(c) Back bearing of CD = 99o 42′
Fore bearing of DE = 193o 17′
Included angle = Difference of bearing; ∠ D = 93o 35′ < 180o Interior
angle.
61
Elements of Survey

D
93º 35'

E 113º 15'

159º 47' 72º 36'

C
A
100º 47'

Figure 3.16

(d) Back bearing of DE = 13o 17′

Fore bearing of EA = 126o 32′
Included angle = ∠ E = Difference of bearings
= 113o 15′ < 180o (Interior angle).
(e) Back bearing of EA = 306o 32′
Fore bearing of AB = 106o 19′
Included angle = ∠ A = Difference of bearings
= 200o 13′ > 180o (Exterior angle).
= 360o – 200o 13 ′ = 159o 47′ (Interior angle)
Check Σ ∠ = ∠ A +∠ B +∠ C + ∠ D + ∠ E
= 159o 47′ + 100o 47′ + 72o 36′ + 93o 35′ + 113o 15′ = 540o 00′
(2N – 4) × 90 o = (10 – 4) × 90 = 540o
∴ There is no closing error in the traverse.

Example 3.7

Measurements of bearings, while running a traverse ABCDE are recorded in

table given below.
Side AB BC CD DE EA
FB 191o 45′ 39o 30′ 22o 15′ 242o 45′ 330o 15′
BB 13o 0′ 222o 30′ 200o 30′ 62o 45′ 147o 45′

It is suspected that reading at some survey stations were effected by local

attraction. Locate the stations affected by local attraction and find the
corrected bearing of the lines.
62
Solution Compass Surveying

The first step is to obtain the difference between FB and BB of every line
and obtain its deviation from 180o.
Line AB BC CD DE EA
o o o o
Difference between 178 45′ 183 00′ 178 15′ 180 00′ 182o 30′
FB and BB
Deviation – 1o 15′ + 3o 00′ – 1o 45′ 0o 0′ 2o 30′

It is thus found that line DE has a perfect difference of 180o between fore
bearing and back bearing. It can be concluded that station D and station E
are free from local attraction.
Observed fore bearing EA and back bearing CD, are assumed to be correct.
Since deviation at A is + 2o 30′. The needle is deflecting to an amount of
2o 30′ from true north towards east.
Correction to all readings of bearing taken at station A, therefore, shall be
+ 2o 30′, i.e. fore bearing of AB at A is corrected to
191o 45′ + 2o 30′ = 194o 15′ and the back bearing of line EA at
A = 147o 45′ + 2o 30′ = 150o 15′.
The corrected back bearing of line AB would be = Corrected FB of AB at
A – 180o = 194o 15′ – 180o = 14o 15′.
However, the observed back bearing of line AB at station B is 13o. This
indicate that station B is also affected by local attraction needle deflecting
east wards by an amount 1o15′ from true north. (14o 5′ – 13o = + 1o15′)
Bearings at B are required to be corrected by + 1o15′.
Hence the fore bearing of BC as corrected would be
39o 30′ + 1o 15′ = 40o 45′.
The corrected back bearing of BC at C would be 40o 45′ +180o = 220o 45′.
The observed back bearing of line BC at C is however 222o 30′. This
concludes that needle at C is deflected (220o 45′ – 222o 30′) = – 1o 45′ from
true north. Negative sign indicting deflection towards west.
The corrected fore bearing of line CD would be 22o 15′ – 1o 45′ = 20o 30′
Corrected back bearing at CD at station D would be
20o 30 ′ + 180o = 200o 30′.
The observed back bearing of DC at D = 200o 30′ giving a zero deviation at
D indicating station D is free from local attraction. Similarly station E will
also be free from local attraction.
The results can be tabulated as follows :
Line Observed Deviation/ Corrected Remarks
FB BB Correction FB BB
AB o
191 45′ 13 0′o o
+ 2 30′ at A o
194 15′ 14o 15 A, B and C
o o o o o stations are
BC 39 30′ 222 30′ + 1 15′ at B 40 45′ 220 45′
affected by
o o o o
CD 22 15′ 200 30′ – 1 45′ at C 20 30′ 200o 30′ local
DE 242o 45′ 62o 45′ 0 at D 242o 45′ 62o 45′ attraction
while
EA 330o 45′ 147o 45′ 0 at E 330o 15′ 150o 15′ station D
and E are
free.
63
Elements of Survey
SAQ 3

The following fore and back bearings were observed in an open traverse.
Line FB BB
o
1-2 02 15′ 182o 15′
2-3 174o 15′ 354o 00′
3-4 223o 00′ 42o 45′
4-5 166o 30′ 346o 45′

Which stations are affected by local attraction and how much? Determine
the true bearings of the line if the magnetic declination in the survey area is
02o10′ E.

3.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied about the compass and its use for bearings of
measuring survey lines. The angular measurements are carried out with prismatic
compass that uses a magnetic needle and the bearings of survey lines are
measured with reference to magnetic meridian. Such bearings are called magnetic
bearings. However, on earth the true north (geographical north) is different from
magnetic north. The difference between true N-S axis and magnetic N-S axis is
called declination. This declination varies from place to place on surface of earth
and also on time of observation. Hence, the correct measurements of angles
would be to obtain bearing of survey lines with reference to true N-S axis. Such
bearings are termed as true bearings. However, true bearing can only be made
with the help of astronomical surveying which is tedious, time consuming and
costly for engineering applications. Magnetic bearings which can be obtained
easily at very reduced cost with the help of simple instruments like magnetic
compass are considered accurate enough for survey of small areas.
Procedures of making angular measurements, the errors involved and method of
corrections are also discussed in detail. You can now conduct a simple chain and
compass survey of the area, which is fast and sufficiently accurate method of
surveying for most of the engineering applications.

3.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(b) True bearing = Magnetic bearing + Declination
= 210o + (− 4o) = 206o
(−ve sign as declination is westward)
Present magnetic bearing = True bearing – Declination
= 206o – 10o = 196o
True bearing = 206o, Present magnetic bearing = 196o
SAQ 3
Stations 3, 4 and 5 are affected by the local attraction, Error at 3 is + 15′
and at 4 is + 30′, True bearings are : 04o 25′, 176o 25′, 225o 25′, 169o 10′.
64