Wind Energy

6.1. Introduction
thermal energy or
dealt with the conversion of solar energy into wLnd
Chapter 5, indirect solar electric
technology,
now deal with an
energy. We
electrical
a pressure
power
Air in motion arises from
from air in motion. surface winds
Wind results function causing
On a global basis
one primary forcing heats
oradient. convective circulation.
Solar radiation
the equator is the
from the poles
toward
heated air is buoyed up. At
and this low density the
near the equator, air flowing from
the air cooler more dense higher pressure
by flow back
Surface it is displaced near the equator the air thus tend to
atmosphere convective
Doles. In the upper from the equator. The net
results is a global
and away
toward the poles north to south in the northern
hemisphere.
surface winds from
circulation with the wind is basically
clear from the above over simplified model that
It is utilization is
irradiating the earth. This is why wind
caused by the solar energy
considereda part ofsolar technology. model ignores the
the wind is much more complex. The above
In actuality wind velocity
coriolis force resulting in an easterly
earth's rotation which causes a
component in the northern hemisphere.
frictional effects between
There is the further complication of boundary layer
surface. Mountains, trees, buildings, and
the moving air and the earth's rough
similar obstructions impair stream line air
flow. Turbulence results, and the wind
increases with altitude near the surface.
velocity in a horizontal direction markedly
their unequal solar
Then there is the obvious fact of land and water with
the land heats up
absorptivities and thermal time constants. During day light
there tends to be a surface
rapidly compared to nearby sea or water bodies, and
flow from the water to the land. At night the wind reverses, because
the land
wind
surface cools faster than the water.
Loeal winds are caused by two mechanisms. The first is differential heating
0f land and water. Solar insolation during the day is readily converted to sensible
energy of the land surface but is partly absorbed in layers below the water surface
d partly consumed in evaporating some of that water. The land mass becomes
e r than the water, which causes the air above the land to heat up and become
mer than the air above water. The warmer lighter air above the land rises, and
e cooler heavier air above the water moves into replace it. This is the mechanism
Shore breezes. At night, the direction ofthe breezes is reversed because the land
S Cools to the sky more rapidly than the water, assuming a clear sky. The

175
 Non-Conventional Sources of 177
176 and mountain sides
Energy Wind
BnerEy
be that wind, India are in
relatively low and
caused by hills TH vary appreciabiy
of local winds is a t night, mora he a nergy s . Data quoted by some scientists that for India wind
second mechanism
and cools down ght, more speed value
above the slopes
heats up during the day
heated air
the rapidly
rise along
day to rise: winthe se km/hr to 15-20 km/hr. These low and seasonal winds imply hign a
than the air
above the low lands.
This causes
at night. the of wind energy. Calculations based on the
performance or
cool heavy air to flow down of expmill have indicatea that a unit of energy derived from windmill will
slopes and relatively all solar radiation falling on t
a
that 2 percent of 30 peroce
cO winureral times more expensive than energy derivable from electric
It has ben estimated in the atmosphereand that
st
rates, provided such electrical energy is at all
of the earth is
converted to kinetic energy is thus said thaof lea lines at the standard
of elevation. It site.
e
in the lowest 1000
m windmill
this kinetic energy occurs
kilometer, i f harnessed, can ohe distri1 at the
wind in this lowest argument is
not fully applicable in rural areas for several reasons.
total kinetic energy of the that the y 9va. above
demand of acountry. lt 1s also claimed The
rer is not and will not be available in many such areas due to the
several times the energy free. Such are the Seem:hd
power is pollution free
and that its source of energy is solar power. Althoy
cirst electreneration and distribution to small dispersed users. Secondly there is
unlike those for
compelling arguments
for wind power, not
dependable in some parts afh
h cost oreducing tthe
high.

he
reducingcost of the windmills by suitable design. Lastly, on small
or tal first cost for serving a felt need and low maintenance costs are
and predictable, and
even
solar energy is cyclic not reliable, excent
Dossibility
unsteady, and often Ples, the n t than the unit cost of energy. The last point is illustrated easily:
wind energy, however, is erratic,
very few
globe, areas. It does, however, have a place in the total energy picture, particular. noved at the astronomical cost of about 7 300 per kWh and yet
nore impvide energy
with more, o r less steady winds, especially those that are tar remov. on use in both rural and urban areas. This raises the question
of
for those a r e a s remote domestic
and tarm needs. that
needs are that a windmill might satisfy large
while scale energy
trom central power grids, and for small, they afolt needs
are
of motion,) of the wind into telt some favourable sites in Indiais a possibility that needs to be explored
the
Conversion of the kinetic energy (i.e., energy that
or to generat small sources of mechanical energy in rura
utilized to perform useful work, to be a definite need for
mechanical energy that c a n be ea
polls among villagers quickly reveal and that their
electricity. Most machines for converting
wind energy into nmechanical energ there a example, even casual for
o r blades radiating
trom a hub or
e r n iis invariably water
drinking, washing and irrigation; lifting
consist basically of a number of sails, vanes,
in the m o r e tamiliar Windmills, or windmill c a n perform. For such a task, a windmill should
central axis. The axis may be horizontal, a s first coi s a task
t a s k which
a
the vanes or sails pair of bullocks, often used for lifting
about 100 W, considerin8 that 250 W
a
the wind blows against water
vertical, a s it is in s o m e c a s e s . When
motion c a n be made to perform useful about power. Many projects o n windmil
they rotate about the axis and the rotational pron Villages, typically provides amount of electrical power
Work. Wind energy conversion devices a r e commonly
knoWn a s
wna turbines ana ror
production of small
into energy of rotation: the etems for water pumping organisers, such a s
National aeronautical laboratory
because they convert the energy of the windstream
e been taken up varlous
by
The terms turbine and rotor are, Research Institute Bhavnagar,
component which rotates is called the rotor. aluru, central salt and Marine Chemicals
Research Institute (CAZRI) Jodhpur
etc.
however, often regarded as being synonymous.
wind energy is readily ontral Arid Zone offers another s o u r c e for pumping a s well a s electric power
Because wind turbines produce rotational motion, Wind energy ranks
the turbine to a n electric generator, MW for power generation and
has potential of over 20,000
converted into electrical energy by connecting eneration. India tapping this s o u r c e .
The cost of power
The combination of wind turbine and generator is sometimes reterred to as
an
A step-up transmission is usually required to match
the relatively as one of the promising countries for
wina farms h a s now
become lower than diesel power
and compable
Wind
aero generator.
slow speed of the wind rotor to the higher speed of an electric generator. generation from of o u r country especially
n e a r the coasts.
in s e v e r a l a r e a s of
dozen centuries for to thermal power MW including 7 wind farms projects
Although windmills have been used for m o r e than aggregate capacity of 8 in diffrent parts of the country of which
a
electric power generation power projects of been established
grinding grain and pumping water, interest in large scale capacity 6.85 MW
have a r e operating
has developed o v e r the past 50 yrs. A largest wind generator built in recent times 1989 by DNES. Wind farms
has been completed in to the respective
3 MW capacity 150 lakh units of electricity
the 800 kWe unit operated in France from 1958-1960. The flexible 3 blades fed o v e r
successfully and have already from wind is under
was
rated a d d i t i o n a l power capacity
propeller was about 35 m in diameter and produced the power in
60 km/hour wind witha rotation speed of 47 rpm. The maximum power developed state grids.
Over 25 MW of
demonstration programme
271 wind pumps
have been
implementation. Under of capacities 300
was 12 MWe. 1989. Sixty small
wind battery chargers
installed upto February alone wind electric
Likewise to stand
Wind energy is one of America's
greatest natural
resources. The U.S. under installation.
watts to 4 kW a r e
government could plan for installation of wind turbine generators with a total kW a r e under
installation.
generators of 10 to 25
capacity of 1 GW by 1985. Windmills have been used for several centuries in
Conversion
6.2. Basic Principles of Wind Energy
countries like Netherland and Denmark where high velocity wind is available in
abundent quantity. Nearly, 30,000 house mills capable of producing 100 MW and
3000 industrial windmills generating another 100 MW were operating in Denmark 6.2.1. The Nature of the Wind non-uniform heating
is caused by the
at the turn of this century. The circulation of air in the atmosphere above a warm
area
expands,
the s u n . The air immediately
In India the interest in the windmills was shown in the last fifties and early surface by in from surrounding areas
0T the earth's cool, denser air which
flows
and the angle
of
Is torced upwards by
sixties. Apart from importing a few from outside, new designs were also developed, cloud ever
the degree of
but it was not sustained. It is only in the last few years that development work is n a t u r e of the terrain, durng
SIng a wind. Thea r e all factors which influence this process.rapidly In general,
t h a n the air
going on in many institutions. An important reason for this lack of interest in
in the sky
more
sun tends to heat up
he the a i r above the
land m a s s
 Non-Conventional Sources of Energ
179
178 in a strong onch. ergy
Wind
BnerEy
manifests itself re wind.
coastal regions this pAV watts ...(6.2)
o v e r water. In
reversed because
the air cools
down more rapidly.
ly over At
night the process is the
and the breeze
therefore blows off
shore. lana n (6.2) tells us that the maximum wind available the actual amount
the same wav. Bquaht less because all the available energy is not extractable-is
caused in much Cool
The main planetary winds
are
air over the tropies +Surfa
air sweeps down from the poles
forcing the warm face he some the cube of the wind speed. It is thus evident that small increase in
is affected by the rotatise. B wilrtionahave a marked effect on the power in the wind.
the direction of these massive
air movements hav
countries-clockwise circulation of air aof
th can
(6.2) also tell us that the power available is proportional to air
speed
earth and the net effect is a large
and clockwise circulationd lo
wind
northern hemisphere,
Equaams at sea level). It may vary 10-15 % during the year because of
pressure areas in the in
direction these planetary winds the change. It changes negligibly with water content.
d e n s i t y( 1 . 2 2 5 .
southern hemispher The strength and of
with the seasons as the solar input
varies. change pressure d temper
us that the wind power is proportional to the intercept area.
and
so tells
wind patterns at any Dar ationtrbine C with a large swept area has higher power than a smaller
Despite the wind's intermittent nature, wind speeds are greatar articul; aero
there are added implications. Since the area is normally
circular
b u t there
n
site remain remarkably constant year by year. Average Thus
machine;
inland. The winds also tend to L
hilly and coastal areas than they are well area
more consistently and with greater strength over the surtace of the water wh
nD in
in horizontal axis aeroturbines, then A
horizontal
=
D2, (sq. m.), which when
where
there is a less surface drag. afdiameter gives,
(6.2)
Wind speeds increase with height. They have traditionaly been
measure put
in
equation
at a standard height of ten metres where they are
found to be 20-25% greater than
close to the surface. At a height of 60 m they may be 30-60% higher because of the Available
wind power P.- DPV watts
reduction in the drag effect of the earth's surface. ..(6.3)
6.2.2. The Power in the Wind
prDey3
Wind possessesenergyby virtue ofits motion. Any device capable of slowing tells us that the
The equation
down the mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of the energy available from the
power
and convert is into useful work. Three factors determine the maximum of
output from a wind according
to the square
energy converter: wind varies of the intercept area (or Rotor
diameter
i) the wind speed; the diameter), normally
of the rotor diameter/
(i) the cross-section of wind swept by rotor; and square area of the 60 m/
to be swept
taken
(ii) the overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission Thus doubting the
generator or pump. system and aeroturbine.
will result i n a
rotor
No diameter of the 40 m
device, however well-designed, can extract all of the wind's energy in the available wind 2
becausethe wind would have to be four-fold increase
brought to a halt and this would (6.3) gives us in sight
passage of more air through the rotor. The prevent the power. Equation
most that is possible of an aeroturbine
is for into why the designer
the rotor 201m
decelerate the whole horizontal column of to
intercepted air to about use would place such
free velocity. A 100%o efficient one-third of its for wind electric
aerogenerator would therefore only be able to on the turbine
up to a maximum of around 60% of the
available energy in wind into
convert great emphasis 5 10
diameter. The combined
effects of wind
energy. Well-designed blades will
but losses incurred in the typically extract 70% of the theretical mechanical variations are
Wind speed (Meters/sec)
gearbox, maximum, speed and rotor diameter
could decrease overall wind turbine transmission system and generator or pump shown in. Fig. 6.1. Wind
machines
Fig. 6.1. Dependence of
wind-rotor power on
efficiency to 35% or loss. intended for generating substantial wind speed and rotor diamete
The power in the wind can
The wind mill works on the
be computed by using the amounts of power should have large
of converting kinetic concept of kinetics.
mechanical energy. We knowprinciple
moderate powers
energy of rotors and be located in areas of high
wind speed s. Where low or
that power 1s the wind to
energy available is the kinetic energy of the equal
to be relaxed.
energy per unit are adequate, these requirements can
is equal to one half its
mass times the
wind. The kinetic energy of time. any
The
particle The physical conditions in a wind
turbine are such that only fraction,
a of
square of its velocity, or % free wind
of air passing in unit time, mV2. The amount into useful power. As the
through an A, the available wind power can be converted
equal to its volume multiplied by area
with
its density p velocity
m is V, is A.V, and some of its energy
its mass rotor, the wind transfer
Stream encounters and passes through
of air, or a
m = pAV to a minimum in the rotor wake. Subsequently,
(m is the mass of air the rotor and its speed decreases the surrounding air and at a sutficient distance
wind mill type transversing the area A swept by the 6.1) ne wind stream regains energy
from
curve). While the
generator). rotating blades of is restored (Fig. 6.2 upper
Substituting this value of the mass in the expression for the
a
Om the rotor the free wind speed in the windstream
described, the air pressure
we obtain, kinetic energy 1/2 pAV.V2watts kinetic $peed is decreasing, as just lower curve). It first
increases as the wind
manner (Fig. 6.2,
= an
energy, different
.
nges in a amount Ap as it passes through
proaches the rotor and then drops sharply by an
 ces of Energy
and energy is transferred to the rotor. Finally
the pressure increases
ses t
WindB n e r
181
the ation (6.5)
tells us that for a
non-steady state:wind, it is
atmospheric pressure.
Rotor
ambient measured wind
cube the measure
available. It is i
speeds and th
then take the
obvious that average
immediately to
necessar.
find the erage
ave
t
wer
than the ssimple steady state
this sti
state non-steady
case is
inmplehasis
more

plex
is placed on
case, and it is
anemometry data at awhy
for the former case
(WECS) site.
conversion system (WEC
proposed wind energy
nsposing equation (6.5) results in
Free wind
Wind
Wake
direction
Free wind
PatA PlVowatts/m?
..6.6)
rage available wind power per unit
that the avera;
area is
p
says
ofthewind speed cubed. This is one
useful method of
directly related
Ambient the
average
wer
power in the wi
wind over characterizing
pressure
to
potential
the pote
specine
geographic area.
are clear advantages in selecting sites with annual
mean wind speeds
building
rather than
larger rathe smaller wind
generators since:
and in
the wind creases as
availa
Fig. 6.2. Conditions in traversing a wind rotor. (a) the power cube of the wind speed:
wind speed iincreases the power
The power extracted ing the available by and eight-fold;
by the rotor is equal to the product of the
doub.
6) daubling
the diameter the turbine's
of rotor
as passes through the rotor (i.e.,
V, in Fig. 6.2) and the pressure wind snead he power output from the device (this law
quadruples
the swept area
order to maximize the only applies to horizontal
rotor power it would therefore be desirable todrop Ap.In and nenes, for vertical axis machines the in change
wind speed and
pressure drop as large as possible. have both axis m a c h i n e s ,
power output with diam-
However, as V be determined by the geometry of the rotor).
air density), Ap increasesis increased or
a
given value of the free wind speed (and eter
will
through a at first, The way rotor diameter and wind speed affect power output can be seen in
maximum, and then decreases. Hence for the specified passes
there is a maximum free-wind speed,
value of the rotor power. Fig.6.1.
The fraction of the Tn Dractice a wind turbine's
output will vary. There will be periods when
called the
free-flow wind power that can be ex
power-coefficient; thus tracted by a rotor is there i insufficient wind for the machine to generate any power at all, and times
on the wind speeds are so high that the machine has to be shut down to prevent
when
Power coefficient = - Power of wind rotor
damage.
Power available in the wind Maximum Power. As
where power available is Turbine wheel
wind calculated from the air stated above, that the total
speed as shown
to 16/27 or above. The density, rotor
maximum theoretical diameter, and free not be converted to
0.593. This value power coefficient is power can
stream. (It can be cannot be exceeded by a rotor in equal mechanical power. Consider a
exceeded under a free-flow
specific conditions, as will be seen wind-
As an ideal horizontal-axis, propeller-type
would have a rotor, with
propeller-type later). Pe
blades of proper windmill, henceforth to be
strong enough to coefficient approaching 0.59. But such aareodynamic
power
design, called a wind turbine, which is P,
high rate in a withstand the stresses to which it is rotor would not be
coefficient is high-speed wind stream. For the subjected when rotating at a the most common type used
about 0.4 to 0.45, so that the rotors best practical rotors, the power today. Assume that the wheel
the available wind cannot use more
power. In the than 40 to 45% of of such a turbine has thickness
energy is lost and the overall conversion into electric
electric power electric power, some of the rotor ab, as shown in Fig. 6.3. Let P
Returning to generated/available windpower, coefficient of an
power) in aerogenerator (i.e.,
practice is about 0.35 (35 %).
and V, are the wind pressure
V VT
constant but is equation (6.2), but now
and velocity at the upstream of
then the represented by a
statisticallyrecognizing
instantaneous power, in the
that V, in
'noisy' wind speed actuality, is not
time curve,
the turbine, and and P,are V, -Ve
wind would be V» pressure and velocity at
downstream of the turbine. Ve
Since we are
PatnpAIVe)®watts 1s less
than V, because kinetic
Distance X
Pressure and velocity profiles of wind
normally more interested ...6.4) energy is extracted by the Fig. 6.3.
both sides of in
equation (6.4), signified by the baraverage power, we must time turbine. moving through, a horizontal-axis
below average propeller-type wind turbine.
Pat)PAIV wats onsidering the incoming air between i and as a thermodynamie system, a
...(6.5)
assuming that the air density remains constant (since changes in pressure
and t that the potential energy
uperature are very small compared to ambient),
 182
Non-Conventional Sources of Wind
bnergy
183
zero, and no heat or removed between i and
or work are added flow energy-terms only: ,
Energy
the ergy
F, = Am VWg.
is
energy equation reduces to the kinetic and
genera m
=
=
mass
mass
fflow
lov rate =
pAV,

Thus, Pp+=P,o+
where,

F PAVV, -V) .6.14)

28
state flow for unit mass
. K6.1 a Thus

(6.13) and (6.14),

The general energy equation for steady
(e.
(for a control 1ating equations
volume) is: pA(V?-V 1
V 28c AV{V,pAVV-V
Z,+ u
+Piv, + ag =Z+ 2g +Pgpa +AW,
= kinetic energy, u = internal energy
V,,V .6.15)
where, Z, = potential energy,
ring the total
siderin, thermodynamic system bounded by i ande, there are
2g Co energy is there from T, to T, and flow
0otential energy, the internalthe.
Pu = flow energy, Aq net heat added
= n oc h a n g ere
change is there from Pp to .Py.
In In the system no heat is added or rejected
gener
net steady flovw mechanical workdone of the system energy cnie flow. general
The
The energy equation how reduces to the steady filow
AW adiabatic
flow.

terms,
ie, kineti energy
Wand

Or
P+P=P
2g *P2 6.7 b)
work

W kE-E, = -VE ...(6.16)

where v and p are the specifie volume and its reciprocal, the density, respectively
vely, 2g
both considered to be constant.
Ower P is
defined as the rate of work, from mass flow rate equation
The
Similarly for the exit region be,

P+ p P+p ...6.8) P mV
m
28
AVV-V ..6.17)

28c 28
with equation (6.15),
The wind velocity across the turbine decreases from
to b since kinetic a Combining this
energy is converted to mechanical work there. The incoming velocity V, does not ..6.18)
decrease abruptlybut gradually as it approaches the turbine to V, and as it leaves P=pA (V; +V,XV - V)
it to V The V, > V, and 4s
V,> V» and therefore, from equations (6.7) and (6.8), P,> reverts to equation (6.2) for Ptotal when
P and P,> P; ; that is, the wind pressure rises as it approaches, then as it leaves Eauation (6.17) after leaving the
the wheel. that is, the wind velocity reduces to zero
Combining these equations, V, and V, 0;
=

V
because the wind can not accumulate at turbine exit
turbine. This is not possible in one term and negative
P-P,p 28
-28 ...(6.9) It can be seen
in other, that
from equation (6.18), where V, is positive
too low or too high a value for V, results in
reduced power. There
maximum power Pmar
exit velocity V, opt, that results in
It be assumed that wind pressure ate thus is an optimum
can
can be assumed to ambient, i.e., the derivative to zero, i.e.,
P= P which can be obtained by differenting P, and equating
..6.10)
As the blade width a. b is very thin as
compared to total distance considered,
it can be assumed that velocity within the turbine
does not change much.
dp
dVe
-0
V= V, = V
...6.11)
Combining equation (6.9) to (6.11) yields,
Or
d-3v+ 2V,V. -V? =0
dVe
(The quadratic has two solutions,
P,-P =p- This is solved for a positive V, to give V, opt.
...6.12)
The axial force F, in the direction of wind stream, on a second solution is physically acceptable).
projected turbine wheel with Le, V= Vi and V, =V, only
area, perpendicular to the stream A, is given by
...6.19)

F =P-P A =pA Thus V,optV

..(6.13) with horizontal axis.
28 USing the equation (6.18),
for an ideal wind machine,
This force is also equal to change in momentum of the wind (from .6.20 a)
second law). Newton's 8
mas270pAV?
 Non-Conventional Sources
rces of Energy 185
184 Wind
Bnergy

1 pVA 2 pDV3
16oAV=0.5952
27g
Tmax27g N
arial force or thrust by equation (6.13)
..(6.23)

= 0.595 Pttal
theoretical efficiency TImau (als0 called t h 0
6.20 The

The ideal, or maximum,

ratio of the maximum power obtained e. PoWer
2DACV- V})
coefficient) of a wind turbine is the n
tha
the wind. The factor 0.593 is kno
wind, to the total power available in
Betz coefficient (from the name of the man who first derived it). It is the ma the D(V-v3)
88 ...6.24)
extract.
traction of the in a wind stream that can be
power force on a turbine wheel operating at maximum efficiency where
The axial
machine
Power coeficient = C, = Power outputfrom wind
Power available in wind by
V ,isgiven
Thus C can not exceed 0.593 for a horizontal axis wind machine.

6.2.3. Forces on the Blades and Thrust on Turbines

F max pAV=pAV?
9ge 98c
As stated earlier, here blades of propeller-type wind turbine is considered
There are two types of forces which are acting on theblades. One is circumferentil pDV?
9g
.6.25)
force acting in the direction of wheel rotation that provides the torque and other is
the axial force acting in the direction of the wind stream that provides an atiol a see that axial forces are proportional to the square of the diameter of the
ial eelthis limits turbine wheel diameter of large size.
thrust that must be counteracted by proper mechanical design. turbine w h

The Circumferential force, or torque T can be obtained from Conversion

2
Wind Energy
Teaditional windmills were used extensively in the middle ages to mill grain
TDN ...(6.21) nd lift
water1
land drainage and watering cattle. Wind energy converters are
for lan.
where, T= torque kgf or Newton (N) for these purposes today in some parts of the world, but the main focus of
used
still ion now lies with their use to generate electricity. There is also growing
st
angular velocity ofturbine wheel, m/s
D erest in generating heat from the wind for space and water heating and for
=diameter of turbine wheel s houses but the potential market is much smaller than for electricity
- A,m generation.

The term "wind mill" is still widely used to describe wind energy conversion
T

N =wheel revolutions sstems, however it is hardly an opt. description any more. Modern wind energy
per unit time, sl
'wind
P conversion systems are more correctly referred to as "WECS', 'aerogenerators',
The real efficiency n= turbine generators, or simply 'wind turbines
total
The fact that the wind is variable and intermittent source of energy is
Or
for some applications such as pumping water for land drainage-
P=n. Pmal 2AV immaterial
provided, of course, that there is a broad mateh between the energy supplied if
over
For a turbine operating at power P, the expression for the done;
any critical period and the energy required. f the wind blows, job gets
torque becomes
1.p AVs it does not, the job waits.
T 2g, nDN However, for many of the uses to which electricity is put, the interruption of
must ensure
supply may be highly inconvenient. Operators or users of wind turbines
that there is some form of back-up to cover periods when there is insufficient (or
2 4 TDN too much) wind available. For small producers, backup can take the form of

1pDV ) battery storage;

..6.22) () connection with the local electricity distribution system; or

fuels.
At maximum efficiency |
) a stand-by generator powered by liquid or gaseous
the of medium-sized
maxo7 torque has maximum value T max For utilites responsible for public supply, the integration
work could require some
which is equal to arge wind turbines into their distribution net meet fluctuating demand.
uLOnal plant which is capable of responding quickly to
countries have won the right
Small producers, Private citizens in several
systems and to export
C wind generators and other renewable energy
 186
Non-Conventional
this requires tha
Sources of Energy Windbnergy
187
small wind
generators T aach wind turbine specifies the angle at which the airfoil should be
and phase of t h e h e
on
ower to the grid.For most
so that it
conforms to the
frequeney
rotatinains output i dhe deslwe the maximum lift to drag ratio.
conditioned'

few small units

a r e designed
to maintain a
constant

reed electricity dinateSuppy 0

.to acn1:4ion to airfoils, there
s e tte
addit.
other mechanisms for are two
creating lift. One
ct, caused by spinning a cylinder in an air
nating currentintoththa
Only a
to the mains frequency
and alternatintlyi so-called
Magnu

stream at a
can be synchronized
direct current (DC) variable output
or the
the soof rotation. The spinning slows down the air speed on the side where
is
gTid. Most produce
readily achieved using
an electronic blacl
Cal
(AC high
speed

S
moving into wind and increases it on the other side; the result is
Power conditioning is
inder

this is an expensive itemn of0x

the cylind

s i m i l a rt o .an
airfoil. This inciple has been put to practical use in one or two cases
prin
and although The second way is to blow air
synchronous' inverter, of me apnlipmen
home emp
through narrow slots
for
appliances to Tunn
converS1on

for batteries and

generally

does eliminate the need is not so that it emerges tangentially; this 1s known as a Thwaits slot. This
but
DC. r o t a t i o n (or circulation) of the air flow, which in
on
that is
ates a
turn generates lift.
surplus to
grid connection, electricity batteries. It o imna t e
Where there is no leQ Creat 1if drag ratio of airfoils is generally much better than those of rotating
stored on site using heavy duty can ha Becauseinders, the latter techniques probably have little practical potential.
requirements must be
the supply. An alternative is to dCOVere
later when the demand exceeds
or better, to
convert it into heat that canPIt h
generating and dissipating heat) tank.
well insulated red,
Symbols
tor example as hot water in a V free wind velocity

to
Largeproducers. Large and medium-sized wind generators are 8ned
give a stable and constant electrical output over a wide range of winddesig A V velocity of airfoil element (| V,| = o)
resultant wind as 'seen by airfoil
and to feed current directy into the grid. They operate primarily as fuel e d
savers, element
reducing the utility's total fuel burn. FL lilt force (perpendicular to V)
The choice of generator type depends on the size of the local distributs
Fp drag force
grid and its associated generating capacity. An induction generator would
be mally angle of twist
used where there is a significant amount. other generating capacity (whio
could angle of incidence
provide the necessary reactive power
are robust and reliable and
for exeitation). Induction generatore angular speed of rotor
squire minimal control equipment. For isolato
networks where other local generating capacity is limited, and where a distance of airfoil element from its
of autonomous control is
high degree
required, a synchronous generator is more appropriate axis of rotation.
Synchronous generators are more complex and theretore more expensive than
induction machines.
Lift and drag: The basis for wind Fig. 6.4(a)
energy conversion. The extraction
of power, and hence
energy, from the wind depends on creating certain forces
and The windmill blade 'sees' the resultant vector V, The blades need to be
applying them to rotate (or to translate) a mechanism. There are two twisted because r varies in proportion to radius.
mechanisms for producing forces from the primary
wind, lift and drag.
By definition lift forces act
perpendicular to the air flow, while drag forces
D
act in the direction of
flow. Lift forces are produced by
air stream changing the velocity of the
flowing over either side of the lifting surface
causes the
pressure drop, while slowing the air stream down
to speeding up the air flow
pressure. In other words, any leads to increase in
change in velocity generates a
across the lifting surface.
This pressure difference pressure difference
act on the high pressure side and moves produces a force that begins to
surface which is called an towards the low side of the lifting
airfoil. A good airfoil has a pressure
cases it can
generate lift forces high lift/drag ratio, in some
30 times as perpendicular to the air stream direction that
great as the drag force parallel to the
angle formed at the junction of the airfoil flow. The lift increases as are
becomes less and less actute, and the air-stream the
upto the point where the (the angle of attack)
low pressure side angle of the air flow on the
from the low becomes excessive. When this
pressure side. A lot of turbulence happens, the air flow breaks away
drag increases quite substantially; this ensues, the lift decreases and
efficient operation, a wind phenomenon is known as stalling. For the (b) Cross-section across AA Fig. (a).
little drag as turbine blade needs to function horizontal axis, wind turbine rotor blade.
possible because drag with as much lift
and as Fig. 6.4. Shape of a
anything more complex than dellecting dissipates
the air energy. As lift does not involve
itflovw, is Example 6.1. Wind at 1 standard atmospheric pressure and 15°C
has
usually an efficient process. velocity of 15 m/s calculate:
 W i n d

in the wind
stream, nd DataandEnergy stimation
() the total power density
maximum obtainable power
density, 6.31

easonal as well as instantaneous changes in winds both with

u) the
density, The sand irection neec
need
direction to be well
understood to make the best use of them
regard to
(üi) reasonally obtainable power
a mitude designs.
magnit are
15. Winds are Winds known to tluctuate
by a factor of 2 or
sing the power to fluctuate by a factor of 8 more withinn
windmil
(iv) the total power, and (and thus causin

or more). This
() the torque and axial thrust. seconds a proper recordin
ding and analysis of the wind
sneed 40 r.p.m. characteristics.
120 m, and turbineoperating speede Various ways the data on wind behaviour is collected
for a
Given: turbine diameter There a r e various
wind turbine is con-sidered. depending
c a l

at maximum efficiency. Propeller type intended d to be put into. The hourly mean wind velocity as collected
e it is
onthe use

eteorological observations is the basic data used in a windmill

Solution. is the one averaged over a particular hour of the day, designs.
For air, the value of gas constant rlymean
ar and over the
The.
years. The factors which affect the nature of the wind close to
R 0.287 kJ/kg K day, m o
of the earth, they
are:
1 atm. = 1.01325 x10 Pa surtace

place, ii) altitude of the place,

the
)latitude of the
P
101325 x10
1.226 kg/m* uti)
nagraphy of the place, (iv) scale of the hours, month or year.
Air density p= P 287(288) Vinds being an steady phenomenon, the scale of the periods considered
RT Win
ant set of data required in the design. The hourly mean velocity (for
pA is an 1 ) orovides the data tor establishing the potential of the place for
() Total power Ptotal28 many
tapping
nergy. The scale of the month is useful to indicate whether it is going to
1 the w uring particular periods of the year and what storage if necessary is to
Power density Protal 1226x153 dataa ibased on scale of the hour is useful for mechanical aspects
A
=2068.87 W/m. Ans.
2PV
bevid
b ep r o v

'design.
of de
ided for. The

the winds nearthe surface of the earth are derived from

ü) Maximum power density
ee
c
large scale
movem
ment of atmospher ic winds, the location height above ground level at which
is m e a s u r e d and the
Fnas AV
A 27P the wind
the surface on earth have
B.L. Limit
nature of
- ~ - ~ - ~ - *

the velocity of
an
influence on
time. The winds
27x1 .226 x
153=1226 W/m2. Ans, wind at any given
surface of the earth are
the
(ii)Assuming n =35% near
in terms of boundary
ng
interpreted
layer concept, keeping in mind the
A factors that influence its
The wind velocity at
77 7TT77
0.35 x 2068.87 724 W/m2. Ans. = development. Ground
(iv) Total Power P Power density x Area can be represented
=
a given height Fig. 6.5. Representation of gradient
in terms of gradient height and height and velocity.
=724 xD? watt velocity:

0.724 x
x 120kW (refer Fig. 6.5)
=
8184 kW. Ans.
(u) Torque at maximum efficiency
The values of V, h, and n depends on the nature of the terrain, which are
max
2 pDV classified as
21g N
() Open terrain with few obstacles (open land, lake, shores, deserts, prai-
1226 x 120 x 15 ries, etc.)
27 x1 40/60
-=
55170 Nowton.
Ans. () Terrain with uniformly covered obstacles (wood lands, small towns, sub-
and maximum axial thrust urbs, etc.)
with
x max 98 =pD*v?= u) Terrain with large and irregular objects (large city centres, country
9x1 1.226 x1204 x15 breaks of large trees etc.).
the design wind
1385,870 Newton. Ans. in as much as the height of the windmill rotor depends
on

CLUy and cost of supporting structure. The above factors have a bearing on the
 190
Non-Conventional ources of Energy W i n dE n e r g y

20
191
the scale
winds being an unsteady phenomenon,month and Depi 18
1. Gujarat
design. Similarly, (scale of hour, 10ds 2. Kerala, Tamilnadu,
considered for the temporal
this
required
parameters
in the design.
While the hourly mean- e year) 1s an 16 Karnataka, A.P.
of data place Cty 14 Maharashtra,
for establishing the potential of the
mportant set
provides the data useful to indicate whether it
appi 12 Rajasthan, Orissa
many years) scale of the month is
3. M.P., Bihar,
the wind energy. The
of the year and what
storage if neceseOlng t 10
W. Bengal.,
be useful during particular periods The data based on scale ofth
is t U.P., Punjab
mentioned above.
be provided for a s already addition to the data on the houri.Or is
6

useful for mechanical aspects

of design. In
are: meanhourly
informations required
velocity, two other
and D
Spells of low wind speeds, F MA M Months
J JASON
Gusts
alternatives. The latter is (b) Wind speeds in India Average over 30
The former again for providing storage
or rer
years)
a ed
a s well a s to provide safety measures Fig. 6.6. Wind map of india.
for structural design of the windmill against
damage. ood velocity (i.e., from the point of view of wind mill
A number of criteria c a n be applied
in estimating the importance of w
oa 5onabi with lo
low wind velocity one can
operation).
is importo
ea
marked with
marked always find 'spots high
First of all careful siting
have i
and location. z0nes
potential a s a function of height
trees and simil Eyen at other on tthe topography.
wind speed near the ground is greatly affected by houses,
of constant wind Doower (watts/m*
depending

because as stated above. Wind speed increases with height above ground, the if
features of
Isodynes are contours
area
winds

G) to know the averaging period. An

perpen-
rate of increase being about the s a m e
at all locations. Therefore, if the wind spe he wind flow). Again itFig.
l1s important
(6.7).
1s s h o w n i n
other height may be calculated. map
at a given height is known, the speed at any dheunle of this
Surface wind data on a national or regional basis is usually presented in exampie Surveys. Typical wind measurements at potential sites for wind
require
t h e followi wing.
usually
the forms of: machines
wind velocity (m/sec or km/hr (1) Instrumentation:

() Isovents or contours of constant average

direction sensors.
The averaging period seen in the literature varies widely, but monthly, quarterly. anemometer
and wind
3 cup
and yearly averages are commonly seen. It is important to know what the data 10 m (30 feet) for preliminary data; 15 m to 45 m (50
isovent contour map, for the winds
oioht of instruments;
data.
averaging period is when examining given
a time
for long
(6.6) shows the wind map of India, in which the mean 150 feet)
change seasonally. Fig. to recording systems:
annual wind velocity zones are marked. It is seen that only some parts of the country (2) Data
Strip c h a r t

36 <5 KMPHI Magnetic tap

5 - 10 KMPH data:
(3) Type of
10-15KMPH Wind speed and directional-hourly
averages
-32 <15 KMPH

28 200
2009

20
200

16 600
12° 00
5001000
00
100°
68° 72 84 85 92 96
average.
(watts/m) yearly
Longitude available wind power
ig. 6.7. A typical plot of
(a)
 Non-Conventional Soureces of Ënerg W i n dB n e r
193
192 the
speed for which the
lesign speed,

4) Data reporting. Speed, speed at which the rotor s designed.

V-furling speed the
Wind frequency curves stopped wise with a view to rotor is turned away from facing
otherwi

wind
or
have protect the windmill.
these speeds bearing
a
Daily, weekly, monthly. the

All
basic wind data of hourly mean wi wind velocity oftheplace
EnergyEstimation, Thein the year for which the speed eamaleloei mean

speed is the rated P

\octty s
the

reference
recost into-number of hours r exceeds ther at which the plant output
each particular value.
of various wind speed.
velocit

jsmaximum.
annual hours of duration
t h r e e speeds are marked on
the hours the year is called tho.
in
The first of these plotted amongst
The
6.10). The hatche« area abcde,
V° basis is called the power durat
duration curve. The replot of this on

being proportional to P.
These curves are useful for establishing the wind energy potential.
Curve( sents the annual
energy output
leal plant. Area A BCD
A

al ofa placs epresents

the output obtainable from
and the design wind speed. ifthe windmill were to
The plot of the second form of data of number of hours for which s leal plant,
design speed all the tin
DL
peratea tthe
called the frequency duratmear wina
an

velocity of a particular value is available is areas a cdelA B C D is Fig. 6.10. Ideal plant output.
(Pig. 6.9). This curve is useful deciding
in the design wind speed for a u e he rao load factor of the plant. In
once the type of windmill is decided and its pertormance is known, the dat site the actual output will be
e data is also the
practice, the
useful in estimating the actual energy output of the plant.
than that represent by area 0.6
Smalle the inability of the rotor C.
due to pmax. 0.5
a b c d e

the entire kinetic energ

P t oconvert

wind. This is
in the 0.4
lable
sented by Cp which varies as a
0.3
velocity having the
80 function of
funm value at the design wind 0.2
shoWs a typical
60 speed
Fig. (6.11) 0.1
variation.

40 Taking this into consideration,

Ve V
20 the
annua output from a plant is given Fig. 6.11. Variation of C, as a function of V.
by
Hours 8760 Hours 8760 E- C , pAvo .6.26)
(a) Velocity duration curve 6) Power duration curve
o i s the time increment since the data is usually available in the form of
Fig. 6.8
mher of hours for which each mean wind velocity is available, the expression
takes the form

600

E- n C,PAV- ...6.27)
E
400 As such the detailed knowledge of wind data, the type of windmillintended
to be used and its performance characteristies are all required to establish the
200 energy delivered by the plant at a given site.

6.4. Site Selection Considerations

The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence
20 0 60
Duration wind energy conversion machines should be located preferable in areas where the
Fig. 6.9. winds are strong and persistent. Although daily winds at a given site may be highly
Frequency duration curve. variable, the monthly and especially annual average speeds are remarkably
The three speeds associated with the of a windmill constant from year to year. The major contribution to the wind power available at
design are:
Vcut in speed, the speed below which the wind mill does agiven site is actually made by winds with speeds above the average. Nevertheless,
not operate.
 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy WindBnerw 195
eas where t rs 'cut in'
'cut
start in i.e.,
i.e.,
would be found
he annual S
generators
the delivered WECS turning.
CS generator
The Vcurve also determines
194
turbines

rately high or high. uherelnability power, for if the V curve

torwind generated
moderat
stale,
suitable
sites
known
to be
spatial array of WECS (wind vill be no power during that time. If there are goes to
the
most
speeds
are
or a
spatial zero
tiherewill

will be lower th.

reliability will than if long periods of
atenergy
wind
for a
single
whe trics is looke ECS the calm
average

site
choice
important
matter
feeding
calnthe

making
reliability estima tes it is
W e

suchreliabi
desirable to periods are short. In
have
conversion syster
stem) is
an
of aeroturbine
generators
power int measured V curve over
ighest confidence level in the
period for the high
view
of view
oint of p0orlu
rly chosen the
point

ctric grid. If the

grid. Ifi
WECS sites are
wrongly or e abouta v e a r
eture at the proposed stte.
4)Wind
structure a reliability estimate.
ssub optimal with r The ideal case for the WECS
systems

the be
year may et
electric

conventional

energy per
high costs for wind
generatod1Sultine

high at the V was flat, curve

i.e., smooth
a would
site is always less than ideal. Windsteady wind that blows all
generated
etric
r the WECS
apparatus,
1s to
the WECS is
en itif the to be a small
thao
such

typical
s

generato~E, gusty, and changes rapidly in direction specially

site

Even
near the
ground
a

tied to the electric

on grid, the siting must be carefully chosen if nordinately
eratorlong a Dut
investment.
be
returns
not time; and in
velocity.
collectively referred to as "the structureThisof the
and low urbulent
the
r e from neous flow is
homogeneous de-
even times are to be avoided.
bef
Technical,

a
economic,
environmental, social,
decision is made to erect
siderations are discussed generati
break examined a

belowerating
and other
factors a r e
the main consideration Cthe proposed site. It affects the air density
plant on a specific site. Some of
wind speed. Afundamental
( 5 )A l t i t u e

the useful WECS electric and thus the power

requirements power output. Also, as is well
High
annual average
ments to the the winda n d
tend
have higher velocities at
successful use ofWECS,
obviously, is an of
adeguatepower
supplyin
wind as stated winds

higher altitudes.
above
the

velocity is the critical parameter. Ine the wind p known,

ust be careful
to distinguish altitude from height above
The wind
cross-sectional
a r e a for a
uniform wind velocity
V, is ough a One.

except for a sea level WECS site. ground. They

the.

given
P KV3 re
e
not
6) Terr
rain and its odynamic. One should know about terrain of the site
constant. It is evident, because of the cubic dependence on ..6.28) WECS is to be
is to placed near the top but not on the
ic a

wind
lf the
t hillfacing
chosen. top aof'speed
the prevailing wind, then it may be possible to obtain a not too
up
velocity that small increases
in V
markedly affect the power in the to be
whatt iit would otherwise be.
doubling V, inareases P, by a factor of 8. It is obviously desirable to select ac wind
elocity o v e r Also the wind here may not
WECS with high wind velocity. 'Thus a high average wind velocity is the nrin e
making necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the
it
fundamental parameter of concernininitially appraising a WECS site. For a incipal
lowhorizontalm

nerpendicular to the actual wind flow aeroturbine

ore
detailed estimate value, one would hke to have the average of the velocity cuhad he DoSsible to make use of hills or
mountains which channel the
Anemometer data is normally based on wind speed measurements from a nds into a pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.
height of 10 m. For the most accurate assessment of wind power
prevail1ng

potential it (7) LocalEcology. If the surface is bare rock it may mean lower hub
absolutely essential that anemometer data be obtained at the precise site and is etructure cost. If trees or grass or vegetation are present, all ofheights
hence lower s t r u c t u r e «
height for any proposed WECS. huh which
ind, then higher hub heights will be needed
destructure the wind
Strategy for siting is generally recognized to consists of tendto.
costs tha the bare ground case.
resulting in
system
larger
) Survey of historical wind data, 8)4Distance, to Roads
(i) Contour maps of terrain and wind
or
Railways. "This is another factor the system engineer
are consulted. ansider for heavy machinery, structures, materials, blades and other
must
(ii) Potential sites are visited. naratus will have to be moved into any chosen WECS site.
(iv) Best sites are instrumented for 9 Nearness of site to local centre l users. This obvious criterion minimizes
(v) Choose optimal site.
approximately one year.
ansmjssion line length and hence losses and costs. After applying all the previous
2)Availability of anemometry data. It is tin criteria, hope fully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to one or two
The
principal object is to measure the wind speedanother important siting factor. rheywould be relatively near to the users of the generated electric energy.
WECS output power, but there are which basically determines the
many practical difficulties with the 10)Nature of ground. Ground condition should be sueh that the foundations
instrumentation and measurement methods. The anemometer height above boraWBCS are secured. Ground surface should be stable. Erosion problem should
accuracy, linearity, location on the
support ground, not be there, as it could possibly later wash out the foundations of a WECS,
readings therefrom, icing inertia of rotor whethertower, shadowing and inaccurate
it measures the destroying the whole system.
component or vertical, and horizontal velocity
temperature effects are a few of the (11) Favourable land cost. Laud cost should be favourable
encountered. The anemometry data should many difficulties
be available over some time
as this along with
the precise
spot where any proposed WECS is to be built period at ather siting costs, enters into the total WECS system cost.
and that this should be
accomplished before a siting decision is made. 12) Other conditions such asicing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should
(3) nat present at the site, as they may affect aeroturbine blades, or environmental is
Availability of wind V curve at the
proposed site. This important curve
determines the maximum generaly adverse to machinery and electrical apparatus.
energy in the wind and hence is the
controlling factor in predicting the electrical principal initially The
the WECS machine. It
is desirable to have
output and hence revenue return of followingg guide lines may be useful (all figures are for a height of 20 m,
which seems to be
-16 km/hr (3.5- 4.5 average wind speed Vsuch a reasonable minimum)
m/sec) which is about the lower limit at which that V2 12
present large 1.The best sites, for wind energy are found offshore and the sea coast. An
verage value on the coast is 2400 kWh/m* per year.
 Non-Conuentional ources of
verage value Enernergy
i n dBner

A typical
Mechanical interface
avos
mountains.

196
second best
sites a r e in W i n dd i r e c t i o n
197
2. The ( Y a wc o n t r o l )

is found in nla:
kWh/m peryear.
3. The
lowest
level of the
four times
wind energy

lower than that at the

lower than tha
whereaalue
coast. A typical
generally
three or
age is 750
kWh/m peryear other criteria interact vith those
Gearing To load or
Coupling
Vin Aero turbine

zards climates, discussed for: Electrical Utility grid

egion, there is virtually no wind generator
1. Int enero
at sea, along the
coast or in the mountains.

wind energy is fair

whether Control
2. The amount of convertible good Pitch Control
or Signal
in
Wind
Speed
in temperature
and cold elimates day control and s1gnal
Generator
hot
speed

well as
climates, as temperature
Tn some warm, windy countries, wind energy may not be torque
of cyclones (eg, Japan, Caribbean aresa)
ble ecause
of the frequency
Controller
Care should be exercised in chooSing suitable site for a wind
a

since there
is a significant amount
OI Snear and
compression in:
machine Output
wind stream
it passes over the topographical contours and th
as

the earth. Thi shear results inlower wind speeds near the
hoririace
zontalof Eia. 6.12. Basic cormponents ot a wind electric
svstem.
power

for free wind to occur.

surface than
an at the oll turbines, yaw action is controlled by tail
heightsgreat enough to be In particular In the small

the free flow a

heights large enough unaffect by the surface shear, is velocity, at ypical

pumping wind windmill. In larger machines, vane, similar to that
usually 5or controls the yaw motor servomechanism
a
operated by
an that of the winds either at the surface or at

heights of 20 to 30 feet (- 7 to 10 m) where the wind is

standard ignificantl
Ometer
i na y p
gwind-direction sens
that keeps the turbine
properly
normally measurel orented.
of the contr
is to sense wind
However, the wind shear, and consequently the available wind powWer se
speed, wind direction, shafts
The pu s at
at one oor more
one
points, output power and generator
given altitude, is also affected by the roughness of the earth's
in s at a
torques
d
location. If the area contains buldings, trees, wind machines, orsurface ssarya input.
iate control signals for
nt and protect the system from
temperature
matching the electrical
the variation of the wind speed with altitude above ground level isother ohsta ckles, 2 8n e c e

energy
output to
extreme conditions brought
usually grear wind
electrical faults,
strongwinds
for these obstructed areas than for the case of and the like.
open water and flat plains.reater
the

Th ponby rsical embodiment for such an

characteristics of a good wind
power site may be summarized as follows: The
areo-generator is shown in a
1. A site should have a high annual wind rM in Fig. (6.13). The sub components of the windmill
speed. generalized
are
2. There should be no tall obstructions for a
radius of 3 km. wind turbine or rotor wind mill head
3. An open plain or an open shore line
may be a good location.
4. The top of a smooth, well rounded hill with Wind
gentle slopes lying on a flat
plain or located on an island in a lake or sea is a good site.
5. A mountain gap which
produces to wind funneling is good. Wind turbine

Blade
6.5. Basic Components of a WECS (Wind Energy
Conversion System) 2. Hub
The main components of a WECS are shown in 3. Pitch change
Fig. (6.12), in block diagram 4. Mounting
form. Summary of the system operation is as
follows 5 Structure
Aeroturbines convert energy in moving air to rotary mechanical
energy. In 5. Nacelle
general, they require pitch control and yaw control (only in the case of horizontal . Pintle
or wind axis machines) for
proper operation. A mechanical interface consisting of a and drive
step up gear and a suitable coupling transmits the rotary mechanical energy to an 7.Tower
electrical generator. The output of this generator is connected to the load or 8. Foundation
power 9. Control
grid as the application warrants.
8 building
Yaw control. For localities with the prevailing wind in one direction, the
design of a turbine can be greatly simplified. The rotor can be in a fixed orientation
A-Transmissin B-Electrical
with the swept area perpendicular the
to
predominant wind direction. Such a
machine is said to be yaw fixed. Most wind turbines, however, are yaw active, that Speed increaser driver shaft
add bearing brake clutech and coulping
Generator control and
indicators (at ground level)
is to say, as the wind direction changes, a motor rotates the turbine slowly about station.
embodiment of wind-electric generating
Fig. 6.13. Physical
the vertical (or yaw) axis so as to face the blades into the wind. The area of the
wind stream swept by the wind rotor is then a maximum.
 Non-Conventional Sourrces
of
Wind
Bnergy

198
Enerergy (1) sensor- anical, electrrical, or
199
transmission and control
pneum
elementsrelays, logic modules, analog circuits,
(2) decision e l e m e n t s -

mechanical unit, and

supporting structure
or a
1s a large
impresSive structuro
e. uidics, units, micropro- a
and
Such a
machine
typically
( 3 )a c t u a t o -hydraulic, electric, pneumatic.
or
nsducers feeding into
s a Arecommended combination
provides protectionmicro-processor which, in turn, signals
Rotors types:
of two
Rotors are mainly
axis rotor and (ii) Vertical axis rotor. electrical
ofele

be required. through electronic circuits, although a

)
Horizontal
achines
machines is that thev
they slip clutch may
of vertical axis operate in all win
in all mate Four types of
One advantage
and thus
need no yaW
adjustment. supporting towers deserve consideration, these are:
directions
one of the important components.
For an effes th reinforced concrete tower,
The rotor is only
properly ed
designe and matched with
fective utiliza (1)
pole tower,
need to he the reston (2) the
all the components
the
built up l-tube tower, and
components. (3)
tower.
head supports the rotor, housing the rotor
rotor bearings.
beas truss
The windmill
like changing the piteh t (4) the
any control
mechanism incorporated these, the truss tower is tavoured because it is
the rotor to face the win
Among
proved and widely
for safety devices
and tail to
vane orient
it on the top of the
The rind. blades
latter i
is ilow, parts are
iscost
readily available,
-tube towers also have
it is
readily transported, and it
facilitated by mounting supporting
structure on suitable
bearin
aptable,
tially stiff. Shell-t
attractive features and may prove
ings with truss towers.
I Sp o t e r

Transmissions. The rate ot rotation of large wind turbine ger competitive

ted capacity or below, is conveniently controlled by va enerators n e Of the supporting structure and its
The ytem incorporated. It is designed to height
is related to cost and the
of the rotor blades, but
it is low, about 40 to 50 revolutions he withstand the wind load
pitch ne
during
Because optimum generator output requires much greater rates of rotati ransms
gusts (even
fthey occur frequently and for very short periods). Horizontal axis
as 1800 r.p.m, it is necessary to increase greatly the low rotor rate of ch are mounted on towers so as to be above the level of
turbulence and
Among the transmission options are mechanical systems involving fixed rating. wind tur related effects. The minimum tower height for a small WECS is
belts, and chains, singly or in combination or hydraulic systems involvins other g 10 1
and the maximum practical height is estimated to be roughly 60 m.
fluid
pumps and motors. Pixed ratio gears are recommended for top mounted eauinm about turbine may be located either unwind or downwind of the tower. In the
pment
hecause of their high efficiency, known cOst, and minimum sys:em risk. For botto cation (i.e., the ind encounters the turbine before
wino
the tower), reaching
mounted equipment which requires a right angle drive, transmission costs might
unwind

iuake of the passing rotor Dlades causes repeated changes in the wind forces on
be reduced substantially by using large diameter bearings with ring gears th wet. As a result,the tower will tend to vibrate and may eventually be damaged.
the hub to serve as a transmission to increase rotor speed to mounted the tow
on
generator sneed hand, if the turbine is downwind from the tower as shown in figure,
On the
Such a combination offers a high degree of design flexibility as well as are less but the blades are now subjected to severe alternating
large potential tower vibrations a
savings. pass through the tower wake.
forces as they
Generator.
Either constant or variable speed
generators are a possibility, Both unwind and downwind locations have been used in WRC devices.
but variablespeed units are expensive and/or unproved. Among the constant speed Darnwind rotors are generally preferred especially for the large aerogenerators.
generator candidates for use are synchronous induction and permanent blades of these large machines are significant,
magnet
types. The generator of choice is the synchronous unit for large aerogenerator Although other forces acting on theand tower design is an essential aspect of the
still important
systems because it is very versatile and has an extensive data base. Other electrical tower effects are
overall system design.
components and systems are, however, under development.
Controls. The modern large wind turbine
and reliable control system to
generator requires a versatile 6.6. Classification of WEC Systems
perform the following functions: 1. First, there are two broad classifications:
(1) the orientation of the rotor into the wind (azimuth of yaw); The axis of rotation is horizontal and the
(2) start up and cut-in of the ) Horizontal Axis Machines.
equipment; aeroturbine plane is vertical facing the
wind.
(3) power control of the rotor by varying the pitch of the The axis of rotation is vertical. The sails or
blades
blades; ii) Vertical Axis Machines.
4) generator output monitoring-status, data or nearly so, as on
the
computation, and storage; as on the ancient Persian windmills,
may also be vertical,
(6) shutdown and cut out owing to malfunction or modern Darrievs rotor machine.
very high winds;
their useful
(6) protection for the generator, the utility to size as determined by
accepting the power and the prime 2. Then, they be classified according
mover;
electrical power output.
(7) auxiliary and/ or emergency power; and be used on farms, remote applica-
) Small Scale (upto 2 kW). These might
(8) maintenance mode. low power.
tions, and other places requiring relatively turbines may be used to
Many combinations are possible in terms of the control system and may kW). These wind
ü) Medium Size Machines (2-100 residences or local u s e .
involve the following components: to several
Supply less than 100 kW rated capacity,
 Non-Conventional Soures
ces of Energy
andun

200
Size
Machines
(100 kW

greater.
Thevva
used
arge wind ty Wind
Bnerg
Unlike water ener
ergy wind energy needs
201
ScaleorLarge
or
capacity
two. storage capacity because
bines
(ai)

are

for
Large
those
of 100
distribution
in
k\W rated
central powergrids.
single
site.
There are o sub classes:
generate irregularity
(ii)Wind energy systems are
noisy in
operation; a large
bed

unit
of its

can be heard
at a over an: ilometres a way.
power generator
several places area.
(a) Single at many
kilo

sited
stems
power syster have a relatively
generators wind. aeroger rators are Win
high overall
tower and include also weight, because they
6) Multiple
3. As per
the type of output
power,
classified as.
.
involve
(iv)
the construction of a high a
gearbox, a hub and
changer, a generat. or coupling shaft etc. For large
(i) DC output has been estimated. systems
a weight
of 110
(a) DC generator kg/kW ( r a t e
prte

6) Alternator rectifier areas are needed,

(v) L a r g
dee area
typically, propellers 1 to 3min diameter, deliver
30 to 300 W range.
(ii) AC output in the
variable or constant voltage AC ensent systems are neither maintenance free
pow

(a) Variable
frequency, not-practically reliable.
(Oe fact that highly reliable propeller engines are built
variable or constant voltage AC. However, th for aircraft suggest
(6) Constant frequeney, les could be could
overcome by industrial
troubles

rotational speed of the aeroturbines,

these are cl. the
present
development work.
4. As per the
pitch blades. This made imnl
assified as that
variable Collectors
Constant Speed with constant frequency output. ies use of
68. Wind Energy
with its a
generator A windmill is a machine for
synchronous
fixed blades. This
8.1. Introduction.
wind energy conversion.
Constant Speed with pitch moda.
de implies hine converts the kinetiC energy of the wind's motion to mechanical
()Nearly an
A wind turbir

induction generator. shaft. A generator further converts it to electrical energy,

nsmitted by the sB
(i) VariableSpeed with fixed pitch blades. This mode could imni.
for con-
erating electricity. The term 'windmill' which originally implied a mill
stant frequency output thernding grain becomes an obvious misnomer when applied to electric power
(a) Field modulated system for gT The term is still widely used however, Aerogenerators avoids the
6) AC-DC-AC link elty,
difficulty.
Only in the last century have windmills been used to generate electric
(c) Double output induction generator wer.

W i n d aerogenerators or wind turbine generators of WECS are generally

d) AC commutator generators
classified a s
(e) Other variable speed constant frequency generating systems. horizontal axis type, and
5. Wind turbines are also classified as per how the utilization
of output is vertical axis type
made:
onending their axis of rotation, relative to the wind stream.
on
() Battery storage. depene
Some authors refer to them also as wind axis rotors and cross wind axis
i) Direct connection to an electromagnetic energy converter.
i ) Other forms (thermal potential etc.) of storage. ors respectively. In
rotors
the
former types, the rotors are oriented normal to the
iv) Interconnection with conventional electric
utility grids.
direction of wind, while in the latter types, the effective surface of the rotor moves
direction as the wind.
The in the same
system engineer seeking
to integrate WECS will,
naturally be most Horizontal axis wind machines are further subclassified as single bladed,
interested in the latter case but should be aware that WECS offer multibladed and by cycle multiblades type. Sail, wind, multibladed are example of
wel. other options as
horizontal axis wind machines, Savonius and Darrius rotor are example of vertical
axis machines.
6.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of WECS
The vertical axis windmill or machine is again subdivided into two major
Advantages of wind energy are:
i) It is a renewable source of types
energy. ) Savonius or 'S' type rotor mil (low velocity wind).
i) Like all forms of solar
energy, wind power systems i) Darrieus type rotor mill (high velocity wind) based on the working speed
it has no adverse
influence on the environment. non-polluting, so are
of the machine and the velocity ranges required by the machine for operation.
iü) Wind energy
systems avoid fuel provision and of simple design compared to the horizontal
(v) On a small scale transport. Vertical axis machines are as

Scale costs can be upto a few kilowatt system is less axis type.
costly. On a
be achieved competitive with conventional electricity and lower costs large-
by mass production. could 6.8.2. Horizontal-Axial Machines
is
Disadvantages of wind energy are: The common wind turbine with a horizontal (or almost horizontal) axis,
large one that
Simple in principle, but the desigm of a complete system,Notespecially
a
) Wind
energy available in dilute and only must be individual
fluctuating in nature. wIl produce electric
power economically, is complex.
Omponents, such as the rotor, transmission, generator,
and tower, be as efficient
6.12. Energy Storage
Operation of a wind turbine is not practical at very high or very low win
speeds. Consequently, if other sources, such as electric utility power, are not
available, some form of energy storage is required. When the power generated
exceeds the demand, the excess energy would be stored for use at other times. For
WEC machines of low and intermediate electric power, battery storage is convenient
Storage adds flexibility to use of WECS in that it permits peak shaving and
capacity saving as well as fuel saving. However, it can be expensive, and each
utility will have to evaluate whether or not to instal it. Storage makes it possible
to deliver electric load power demand during times when wind is below normalor
non-existent. Storage also makes it possible to deliver short peaks of power for
exceeding the rated power capacity of the plant. It improves the reliability of the
wind electric system over what it would be without storage. The energy may be
 Wind
Bneray
229
of forms, e.g., as heat, mechanical, electrical and
iety of
ariety
v a r i e
chemical
a
a
n
m

sed
peed
magmetie with power outputs upto about 20 kW, direct-current
turbines
wind

can
For

an be used to ccharge batteries directly. For higher powers, alternating

be used
pnerators
ratoerators are required and the current must be rectified for battery
rent, generat

ent. e chemical reaction taking place in the cell or battery when it is charged
eurrer The chemical reac
eharging.T
ingwhenthe
when
cell is discharged. Thus in the charged cell, electrical energy
thee ce
s8 rererse
ehemical energy, which can be recovered as electrical energy when the
ersed

Terer
a s chemical.

redarged. Direct current from the batteries can be utilized to heat water
d i s c h a r g e d .

is disating
ellis heatingand for domestic hot. water, and to
and fo and small tools
operate lights
f osrp a c e

onversion into alternating current by means of an inverter, may

andapplianc

and app ry for large tools and appliances and for television sets.
be
necessary

he nehor kinds of storage may be more desirable in agricultural operations.

if the wind energy 1s to be used for heating green houses or drying
mple, if
example,
forexan be be sstored
can
tore as hot water (Heat storage). Either direct or alternating8
it heaters without the need for batteries.
used in resistance
crops,

rent n may then be

Alternative e, the mechanical motion produced by the wind turbine can be converted
into heat by tional effects, such as by churning water.
irectly

In water power storage or mechanical storage, high-power aerogenerators

with an
areintegrated wit electric utility, a favourable situation would be operation of
eintegrated the total
a l
reral wind turbines in connection with a hydroelectric power plant. If
wind turb
Sever the
wind and hydroelectric being generated should exceed the demand,
excess power could
can be partly shutdown; alternatively, the
DOwer
hvdroelectric plant back
an auxiliary reservoir at the bottom of the dam
he 1sed to pump water from
into the main
reservoir. In this way, the overall capacity of the hydroelectric system
would be increased.
is to store the energy in1a
Another alternative; for possibly storing energy,
created which
volume of compressed air. A wind turbine for example, could be
tank. Then later when
would directly pump air into a suitable pressurized storage
the wind is not blowing the energy stored in the
air could be utilized to drive an air
tarbine whose shaft would then drive a generator,
thus supplying the needed electric
with a d.c. output the power
power when the wind is not blowing. Wind energy,
and oxygen
be fed directly into an electrolyzer tank which produces hydrogen
can be stored either
Ordinary water. The hydrogen and oxygen gases produced can
FOIL converted again
or lhquid
forms, and when needed, be quickly and easily
45 can also be
electric via the well known fuel cell. Hydrogen
nto energy
&s a fuel to drive automobiles and other useful engines.