Theory Physics

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MODERN PHYSICS - I
THEORY AND EXERCISE BOOKLET
CONTENTS
S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. Nature of Light .................................................................... 3 – 15
2. Force due to Radiation ......................................................... 16 – 20
3. De-Brogli Wavelength of matter wave ..................................... 20 – 21
4. Atomic Model ....................................................................... 21 –24
5. Bohr's Model of an Atom ....................................................... 25 – 30
6. Excitation and Ionization of an Atom ...................................... 31 – 33
7. Spectral Series of H-atom .................................................... 33 – 34
8. Aplication of Nucleus Motion ................................................ 34 – 36
9. Atomic collision ................................................................... 36 – 38
10. X-Rays ............................................................................ 39 – 41
11. Exercise -I ....................................................................... 42 – 55
12. Exercise - II ..................................................................... 56 – 60
13. Exercise - III .................................................................... 61 – 68
14. Exercise - IV ..................................................................... 69 – 70
15. Exercise - V ...................................................................... 71 – 82
16. Answer key ...................................................................... 83 – 84
394 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. 0744-2209671, 93141-87482, 93527-21564
www. motioniitjee.com , [email protected]
Page # 2 MODERN PHYSICS - I
SYLLABUS
Photoelectric effect; Bohr’s theory of hydrogen-like atoms;
Characteristic and continuous X-rays, Moseley’s law; de Broglie
wavelength of matter waves.
394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

IVRS No : 0744-2439051, 52, 53, www. motioniitjee.com, [email protected]
MODERN PHYSICS - I Page # 3
1. NATURE OF LIGHT
It was a matter of great interest for scientists of know that what exactly from the light is
made up of or how the light behaves. This is briefly described over here
1.1 Newton's Corpuscular theory :
Newton was the first scientist who said that light is made 0 up tiny elastic particles called
"Corpuscles" which travels with the velocity of light. So according to Newtons, light is a
particle.
1.2 Hugen's wave theory :

Huygen was a scientist working parallel to Newton who come with a drastically different idea
for nature of light & said that light is not a particle but a wave.
1.3 Maxwell's electromagnetic wave theory :

During the time of Hygen, his views regarding nature of light were not accepted as newton
was a popular scientist of his time. but, when maxwell asserted that light is a electromagnetic
wave, scientists started believing that light is a wave.
1.4 Max Planck's quantum theory of light :

Once again when scientists started believing that the light is a wave max plank came with
different idea & asserted that light is not a wave but a photon (i.e. a particle) which he
proved through balck body radiation spectrum. At this time there was a great confusion
about the nature of light which was solved by de-broglie from where origin of theory of
matter wave come into picture.
1.5 Debroglie Hypothesis

It supports dual nature of light (wave nature and particle nature). According to him the light
consists of particles associated with definite amount of energy and momemtum. These par-
ticles were later named as photons.
The photon posses momentum and is given by
h
P ...(1)

P = momentum of one photon
 = wavelength of wave.
h = Plank's constant = 6.62 × 10–34 Js.
A photon is a packet of energy. It posses energy given by
hc
E ...(2)

where c = speed of light
Debroglie relates particle property (momentum) with wave property (wavelength) i.e. he
favours dual nature of light.
Electron volt : It is the energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a
potential difference of one volt.
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 Joule.
Now from eq. (2)
6.62  10–34  3  108
E in Joule.

6.62  10–34  3  108
E eV
  1.6  10–19
12400
E ev

where  is in Å

Properties of Photon :
1. Photon travels with speed of light.
2. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
3. There is no concept of photon conservation.
4. All the photons of a particular frequency or wavelength posses the same energy irrespective
of the intensity of the radiation.
5. The increase in the intensity of the radiation imply an increase in the number of photon's
crossing a given area per second.
When light travels from one medium to another medium then
frequency = const (because it is the property of source)
but v,  changes light
Ex.1 A beam of light having wavelength  and

intensity 1 falls normally on an area A of a
clean surface then
find out the number of photon incident on the surface. I
Sol. Total energy incident in time t = I A t
hc
Energy of one photon E 
 A
Total energy incident I A t 

Then number of photon incident in time t 
energy of one photon  hc
Electron Emission Process :
light f , ,I
e– e– (Photoelectron)
When light is incident on a metal surface it was observed that electrons are ejected from a
metal surface some times even when incredicely dim light such as that from starts and
distance galaxies incident on it and some time electrons not comes out from the metal
surface even high energetic or high intensity light falling on the metal surface.
This shows that the electron emission from a metal surface is not depends on the intensity of
incident light but it is basically depends on the energy of the incident.
Photons no matters in number of photons are very less in a dim light, photo electric effect
can be seen.
During the phenomenon of photoelectric effect one incident photon on metal surface can
eject at most only one electron.
A photon is an energy packet which is fully absorbed not partially. Thus one photon can not
be absorbed by more than one electron.
The minimum amount of energy of photon required to eject an electron out of a metal surface
is called work function It is denoted by .
The work function depends on the nature of the metal.
1. The electron emission from a metal is only depends on the work function or energy of
one photons.
2. But how many electrons comes out from the metal is depends on intensity of the
falling light on energy of the light.
3. Energy of photon incident on metal will not necessarily cause emission of an electron
even if its energy is more than work function. The electron after absorption may be
involved in many other process like collision etc in which it can lose energy hence the
ratio of no. of electrons emitted to the no. of photons incident on metal surface is less
than unity.
1.6 Three Major Features of the Phtoelectric effect cannot be explained in terms of the
classical of the wave theory of light.
(a) The intensity problem : Wave theory requires that the oscillating electric field vector E of
the light wave increases in amplitude as the intensity of the light beam is increased. Since
the force applied to the electron is eE, this suggests that the kinetic energy of the photo-
electrons should also increased the light beam is made more intense. However observation
shows that maximum kinetic energy is independent of the light intensity.
(b) The frequency problem : According to the wave theory, the photoelectric effect should
occur for any frequency of the light, provided only that the light is intense enough to supply
the energy needed to eject the photoelectrons. However observations shows that there
exists for each surface a characterstic cutoff frequency th, for frequency less than th, the
photoelectric effect does not occur, no matter how intense is light beam.
(c) The time delay problem : If the energy acquired by a photoelectron is absorbed directly
from the wave incident on the metal plate, the "effective target area" for an electron in the
metal is limited and probably not much more than that of a circle of diameter roughly equal to
that of an atom. In the classical theory, the light energy is uniformly distributed over the
wavefront. Thus, if the light is feeble enough, there should be a measurable time lag, be-
tween the impinging of the light on the surface and the ejection of the photoelectron. During
this interval the electron should be absorbing energy from the beam until it had accumulated
enough to escape. However, no detectable time lag has ever been measured.
Now, quantum theory solves these problems in providing the correct interpretation of the
photoelectric effect.
1.7 Threshold frequency and Threshold wavelength

We have discussed that to start photoelectric emission the energy of incident photon on
metal surface must be more than the work function of the metal. If  is the work function of
the metal then there must be a minimum frequency of the incident light photon which is just
able to eject the electron from the metal surface. This minimum frequency or threshold
frequency vth can be given as
h th  
Threshold frequency th is a characteristic property of a metal as it is the minimum frequency
of the light radiation required to eject a free electron from the metal surface.
As the threshold frequency is defined, we can also define threshold wavelength  th for a
metal surface. Threshold wavelength is also called cut off wavelength. For a given metal
surface threshold wavelength is the longest wavelength at which photo electric effect is
possible. Thus we have
hc

 th
So for wavelength of incident light    th , the energy of incident photons will become less
then the work function of the metal and hence photoelectric effect will not start.
Thus for a given metal surface photoelectric emission will start at    th or    th .
1.7 EINSTEIN RELATION:
Einstein suggested that the energy of photon (h  ) which is more than work function of a
metal when incident on the metal surface is used by the electron after absorption in two
parts.
(i) A part of energy of absorbed photon is used by the free electron in work done in coming
out from the metal surface as work function.

(ii) The remaining part of the photon energy will be gained by the electron in the form of
kinetic energy after ejection from the metal surface.
 

e
e
–
Work function = 
If a light beam of frequency  (each photon energy = h) is incident on a metal surface
having work function  then for h   , we have
1
h    mv2max ...(1)
2
1 2
In equation (1) the second terms on right hand side of equation is mv max , which is the
2
maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
In practical cases whenever an electron absorbs a photon from incident light, it comes out
from the metal surface if h   but in process of ejection it may collide with the neighbouring
electrons and before ejection it may loose some energy during collisions with the neighbouring
electrons. In this case after ejection the kinetic energy of ejected electrons will be certainly
less then (h – ) . If we assume there are some electrons which do not loose any energy in
the process of ejection, will come out from the metal surface with the maximum kinetic
energy given as
1
mv2max  h  
2
Thus all the ejected electrons from the metal surface may have different kinetic energies,
1 2
distributed from 0 to mv max .
2
Graph between Kmax and f
1 2
Kmax
f
f(0)1 f(0)2
W1
W2

Let us plot a graph between maximum kinetic energy Kmax of photoelectrons and frequency f
of incident light. The equation between Kmax and f is,
K max  h f – W
comparing it with y = mx + c, the graph between Kmax and f is a straight line with positive
slope and negative intercept.
From the graph we can note the following points.
(i) Kmax = 0 at f = f 0
(ii) Slope of the straight line is h, a universal constant. i.e., if graph is plotted for two
different metals 1 and 2, slope of both the lines is same.
(iii) The negative intercept of the line is W, the work function, which is characteristic of a
metal, i.e., intercepts for two different metals will be different. Further,
W2 > W1  (f0)2 > (f 0)1
Here f 0 = threshold frequency as W = h f0
Ex.2 The photoelectric threshold of the photo electric effect of a certain metal is 2750 Å.
Find
(i) The work function of emission of an electron from this metal,
(ii) Maximum kinetic energy of these electrons,
(iii) The maximum velocity of the electrons ejected from the metal by light with a
wavelength 1800 Å.
Sol. (i) Given that the threshold wavelength of a metal is  th  2750 Å . Thus work function of
metal can be given as
hc 12431
  eV  4.52 eV
 th 2750
(ii) The energy of incident photon of wavelength 1800 Å on metal in eV is
12431
E eV  6.9 eV
1800
Thus maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons is
K Emax  E   = 6.9 – 4.52 eV = 2.38 eV
(iii) If the maximum speed of ejected electrons is vmax then we have
1
mv2max  2.38 eV
2
2  2.38  1.6  1019
or vmax   9.15  10 5 m / s
9.1  1031
Ex.3 Light quanta with a energy 4.9 eV eject photoelectrons from metal with work function
4.5 eV. Find the maximum impulse transmitted to the surface of the metal when each
electrons flies out.
Sol. According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation
1
mv2max  hv    4.9  4.5  0.4 eV
E
2
If E be the energy of each ejected photo electron
momentum of electrons is P 2mE
We know that change of momentum is impulse. Here the whole momentum of electron is
gained when it is ejected out thus impulse on surface is
Impulse  2mE
Substituting the values, we get
25
Maximum impulse  2  9.1  1031  0.4  1.6  1019  3.45  10 kg m / sec

Ex.4 In a experiment tungsten cathode which has a threshold 2300 Å is irradiated by ultra-
violet light of wavelength 1800 Å. Calculate
(i) Maximum energy of emitted photoelectron and
(ii) Work function for tungsten
(Mention both the results in electron-volts)
Given Plank’s constant h  6.6  10 34 joule-sec, 1 eV  1.6  10 19 joule and velocity of light
c  3  10 8 m/sec
Sol. The work function of tungsten cathode is
hc 12431
  eV = 5.4 eV
 th 2300
The energy in eV of incident photons is
hc 12431
E  eV
 1800
The maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons can be given as
KEmax  E    6.9  5.4 eV  1.5 eV
Ex.5 Light of wavelength 1800 Å ejects photoelectrons from a plate of a metal whose work
functions is
2 eV. If a uniform magnetic field of 5  10 5 tesla is applied parallel to plate, what would
be the radius of the path followed by electrons ejected normally from the plate with
maximum energy.
Sol. Energy of incident photons in eV is given as
12431
E eV
1800
As work function of metal is 2 eV, the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons is
KEmax  E  
= 6.9 – eV = 4.9 eV
If vmax be the speed of fasted electrons then we have
1
mv2max  4.9  1.6  1019 joule
2
2  4.9  1.6  1019

or vmax   1.31 10 6 m / s
9.1  1031
When an electron with this speed enters a uniform magnetic field normally it follows a circular
path whose radius can be given by
mv mv 2
r [As qv B  ]
qB r
9.1  1031  1.31  106

or r or r = 0.149 m
1.6  1019  5  105

1.8 Experimental Study of Photo Electric Effect :

Experiments with the photoelectric effect are performed in a discharge tube apparatus as
illustrated in figure shown. The cathode of discharge tube is made up of a metal which shows
photoelectric effect on which experiment is being carried out.
Incident light
p > pth
Cathode Anode
e–
e–
A
– +
S V
A high potential is applied to a discharge tube through a variable voltage source and a
voltmeter and an ammeter are connected a measure the potential difference across the
electrodes and to measure photoelectric current. Light with frequency more than threshold
frequency of cathode metal is incident on it, due to which photoelectrons are emitted from
the cathode. These electrons will reach the anode and constitute the photoelectric current
which the ammeter will show.
Now we start the experiment by closing the switch S. Initially the variable battery source is
set at zero potential. Even at zero potential variable source, ammeter will show some current
because due to the initial kinetic energy some electrons will reach the anode and cause some
small current will flow. But as we know majority of ejected electrons have low values of
kinetic energies which are collected outside the cathode and create a could of negative
charge, we call space charge, as shown in figure shown.
Incident light
Space charge
Cathode e– Anode
e–
A
– +
S V (small potential difference)
i
If the potential difference applied across the discharge
tube is gradually increased from the variable source,
positive potential of anode starts pulling electrons from
the space charge. As potential difference increases, is1
space charge decrease and simultaneously the
photoelectric current in circuit also increases. This we
can also see in the variation graph of current with potential
difference as shown in figure shown. V
VP1

A shown in graph, we can see as potential difference increases, current in circuit increases.
But at a higher voltage VP1 space charge vanishes and at this voltage anode is able to pull the
slowest electron (zero kinetic energy) ejected by the cathode. Now as all the ejected
electrons from cathode start reading anode. If further potential difference is increased, it will
not make any difference in the number of electrons reaching the anode hence, further
increases in potential difference will not increases the current. This we can see in figure
shown that beyond VP1 current in circuit becomes constant. This current is1 is called satura-
tion current. This potential difference VP1 at which current becomes saturated is called “pinch
off voltage”.
Now if the frequency of incident light is kept constant and its intensity is further increased,
then the number of incident photons will increase which increases the number of ejected
photo electrons so current in circuit increases and now in this case at higher intensity of
incident light, current will not get saturated at potential difference VP1 as now due to more
electron emission, space charge will be more and it will not vanish at VP1. To pull all the
electrons emitted from cathode more potential difference is required. This we can se from
figure shown, that at higher intensity I2 (I2 > I1) current becomes saturated at higher value of
potential difference VP2.
i
is2 I2
Intensity I2 > I1
is1 I1
V
VP1 VP2
Beyond VP2, we can see that all the electrons ejected from cathode are reaching the anode
are current become saturated at is2 because of more electrons. Another point we can see
from figure shown that when V = 0 then also current is more at high intensity incident
radiation as the number of electrons of high kinetic energy are also more in the beginning
which will reach anode by penetrating the space charge.
1.9. Kinetic Energies of Electrons Reaching Anode
We know that when electrons are ejected from cathode then kinetic energies may vary from
1 2
0 to mv max . If V is the potential difference applied across the discharge tube then it will
2
accelerates the electron while reaching the anode. the electron which is ejected from cath-
ode with zero kinetic energy will be the slowest one reaching the anode if its speed is v1 at
anode then we have
1
0  ve  mv12
2
1 2
Similarly the electron ejected from cathode with maximum kinetic energy mv max will be the
2
fastest one when it will reach anode. If its speed is v2 at anode then we have
1 1
mv2max  eV  mv22
2 2
Thus we can say that all the electrons reaching anode will have their speeds distributed from
v1 to v2.
1.10 Reversed Potential Across Discharge Tube :
Now the experiment is repeated with charging the polarity of source across the discharge
tube. Now positive terminal of source is connected to the cathode of discharge tube. When a
light beam incident on the cathode with (h  ) , photoelectrons are ejected and move
towards anode with negative polarity.

Incident light
v > vth
Cathode Anode
e–
+ e–
–
– +
V
Now the electrons which are ejected with very low kinetic energy are attracted back to the
cathode because of its positive polarity. Those electrons which have high kinetic energies will
rush toward, anode and may constitute the current in circuit.
In this case the fastest electron ejected from cathode will be retarded during its journey to
1 2
anode. As the maximum kinetic energy just after emission at cathode is mv max , if potential
2
difference across the discharge tube is V then the seed vf with which electrons will reach
anode can be given as
1 1
mv2max  eV  mv2f ....(1)
2 2
Thus all the electrons which are reaching anode will have speed less then or equal to
vf. Remaining electrons which have relatively low kinetic energy will either be attracted to
cathode just after ejection or will return during their journey from cathode to anode. Only
those electrons will case current of flow in circuit which have high kinetic energies more then
eV which can overcome the electric work against electric forces on electron due to opposite
polarity of source.
1.11 Cut off Potential or Stopping Potential :

We have seen with reverse polarity electrons are retarded in the discharge tube. If the
potential difference is increased with reverse polarity, the number of electrons reaching
anode will decrease hence photo electric current in circuit also decreases, this we can see
from figure shown which shows variation of current with increase in voltage across discharge
tube in opposite direction. Here we can see that at a particular reverse voltage V0, current in
circuit becomes zero. This is the voltage at which the faster electron from cathode will be
retarded and stopped just before reaching the anode.
i
I2
Intensity I2 > I1
I1 Frequency v (same for both radiation)
V
V0 0 VP1 VP2
Reverse voltage
This voltage V0, we can calculate from equation (1) by substituting vf = 0 hence
1
mv2max  eV0  0
2
1 2
or eV0  mvmax
2

1
mv2max
or V0  2 ...(2)
e
hv  
or V0  ...(3)
e
We can see one more thing in figure shown that the graphs plotted for two different intensi-
ties I1 and I2, V0 is same. Current in both the cases in cut off at same reverse potential V0.
The reason for this is equation-(2) and (3). It is clear that the value of V0 depends only on
the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons which depends only on frequency of
light and not on intensity of light. Thus in above two graphs as frequency of incident light is
same, the value of V0 is also same. This reverse potential difference V0 at which the fastest
photoelectron is stopped and current in he circuit becomes zero is called cut off potential or
stopping potential.
1.12 Effect of Change in Frequency of Light on Stopping Potential :

i
If we repeat the experiment by increasing
the frequency of incident light with number Frequency (v2 > v1)
is1
of incident photons constant, the variation
graph of current with voltage will be v2
plotted as shown in figure shown. (II)
(I) v1
V
V02 V01 VP1
This graph is plotted for two incident light beams of different frequency v1 and v2 and having
same photon flux. As the number of ejected photoelectrons are same in the two cases of
incident light here we can see that the pinch off voltage V01 as well as saturation current is1
are same. But as in the two cases the kinetic energy of fastest electron are different as
frequencies are different, the stopping potential for the two cases will be different. In graph
II as frequency of incident light is more, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons will
also be high and to stop it high value of stopping potential is needed. These here V01 and V02
can be given as
hv1  
V01  ...(4)
e
hv2  
and V02  ...(5)
e
In general for a given metal with work function , if Vo is the stopping potential for an incident
light of frequency v then we have
eV0  hv  
or eV0  hv  hvth ...(6)
 h hv th
or V0    v  ...(7)
 e e
Equation (7) shows that stopping potential V0 is V0
linearly proportional to the frequency v of incident
light. The variation of stopping potential with
frequency v can be shown in figure shown.
Here equation .(6) can be written as
h
tan  
1 2 e
mv max  eV0  h ( v  v th ) ...(8)
2 
This equation (8) is called Einstein’s Photo Electric v = vth V
hv th
Effect equation which gives a direction relationship e
between the maximum kinetic energy stopping
potential frequency of incident light and the
threshold frequency.
Ex.6 Find the frequency of light which ejects electrons from a metal surface fully stopped
by a retarding potential of 3 V. The photo electric effect begins in this metal at fre-
quency of 6  10 14 sec 1 . Find the work function for this metal.
Sol. The threshold frequency for the given metal surface is
v th  6  1014 Hz
Thus the work function for metal surface is
  h v th  6.63  10 34  6  1014  3.978  10 19 J

As stopping potential for the ejected electrons is 3V, the maximum kinetic energy of ejected
electrons will be
KEmax  3 eV  3  1.6  10 19 J  4.8  10 19 J
According to photo electric effect equation, we have
hv  hv th  KEmax
or frequency of incident light is
  KEmax 3.978  1019  4.8  1019
v   1.32  1015 Hz
h 6.63  1034
Ex.7 Electrons with maximum kinetic energy 3eV are ejected from a metal surface by ultra-
violet radiation of wavelength 1500 Å. Determine the work function of the metal, the
threshold wavelength of metal and the stopping potential difference required to stop
the emission of electrons.
Sol. Energy of incident photon in eV is
12431
E eV
1500
According to photo electric effect equation, we have
E    KEmax  or   E  KEmax
or = 8.29 – 3 eV or = 5.29 eV
Threshold wavelength for the metal surface corresponding to work function 5.29 eV is given
as
12431
 th  Å = 2349.9 Å
5.29
Stopping potential for the ejected electrons can be given as
KEmax 3eV
V0    3 volt
e e
Ex.8 Calculate the velocity of a photo-electron, if the work function of the target material is
1.24 eV and the wavelength of incident light is 4360 Å. What retarding potential is
necessary to stop the emission of the electrons ?
Sol. Energy of incident photons in eV on metal surface is
12431
E eV = 2.85 eV
4360
According to photo electric effect equation we have
1 1
E mv2max or mv2max  E – 
2 2
= 2.85 – 1.24 eV = 1.61 eV
The stopping potential for these ejected electrons can be given as
1 / 2 mv2max 1.61 eV
V0    1.61 volts
e e

Ex.9 Determine the Planck’s constant h if photoelectrons emitted from a surface of a cer-
tain metal by light of frequency 2.2 × 1015 Hz are fully retarded by a reverse potential
of 6.6 V and those ejected by light of frequency 4.6 × 1015 Hz by a reverse potential of
16.5 eV.
Sol. From photo electric effect equation, we have
Here hv1    eV01 ...(1)
and hv2    2 eV02 ...(2)
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2), we get
h(v2  v1 )  e (v02  v01 )
(v02  v01 )(1.6  10–19 )

or h
(v2  v1 )
(16.5  6.6)(1.6  1019 )

or h or = 6.6 × 10–34 J-s
(4.6  2.2)  1015
Ex.10 When a surface is irradiated with light of wavelength 4950 Å, a photo current appears
which vanishes if a retarding potential greater than 0.6 volt is applied across the photo
tube. When a different source of light is used, it is found that the critical retarding
potential is changed to 1.1 volt. Find the work function of the emitting surface and the
wavelength of second source. If the photo electrons (after emission from the surface)
are subjected to a magnetic field of 10 tesla, what changes will be observed in the
above two retarding potentials.
Sol. In first case the energy of incident photon in eV is
12431
E1  eV = 2.51 eV
4950
The maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons is
KEmax 1  eV01 = 0.6 eV
Thus work function of metal surface is given as
  E1  KEmax 1 = 2.51 – 0.6 eV = 1.91 eV
In second case the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons will become
KEmax 2  eV02 = 1.1 eV
Thus the incident energy of photons can be given as
E2    KEmax 2
E2 = 1.91 + 1.1 eV = 3.01 eV
Thus the wavelength of incident photons in second case will be
12431
  Å = 4129.9 Å
3.01
When magnetic field is present there will be no effect on the stopping potential as magnetic
force can not change the kinetic energy of ejected electrons.
Ex.11 (a) If the wavelength of the light incident on a photoelectric cell be reduced from 1 to
2 Å, then what will be the change in the cut-off potential ?
(b) Light is incident on the cathode of a photocell and the stopping voltages are mea-
sured from light of two difference wavelengths. From the data given below, determine
the work function of the metal of the cathode in eV and the value of the universal
constant hc/e.
Wavelength (Å) Stopping voltage (volt)
4000 1.3
4500 0.9
Sol. (a) Let the work function of the surface be . If v be the frequency of the light falling on the
surface, then according to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the maximum kinetic energy
KEmax of emitted electron is given by
hc
KEmax  hv    

We know that, KEmax  eV0
Where V0= cut-off potential.
hc hc 
or eV0    or V0  
 e e
Now, V0  V02  V01
 hc    hc 
     
 e 2 e   e1 e 
hc  1 1  hc  1   2 
   ...(1)
e   2 1  e  1 2 

(b) From equation (1), we have

hc V0 (12 )

e 1   2
(1.3  0.9)[(4000  1010 )  (4500  1010 )]

 = 1.44 × 10–6 V/m
500  1010
hc 
Now, V0  
e e
 hc 1.44  106
or   V0   1.3  2.3 V
e e 4000  1010
or   2.3 eV
Ex.12 A low intensity ultraviolet light of wavelength 2271 Å irradiates a photocell made of
molybdenum metal. If the stopping potential is 1.3 V, find the work function of the
metal. Will the photocell work if it is irradiated by a high intensity red light of wave-
length 6328 Å ?
Sol. The energy in eV of incident photons is
12431
E eV  5.47 eV
2271
As stopping potential for ejected electrons is 1.3 V, the maximum kinetic energy of ejected
electrons will be
KEmax  eV0  1.3 eV
Now from photoelectric effect equation, we have
E    KEmax
or   E  KEmax
or   5.47  1.3 eV = 4.17 eV
Energy in eV for photons for red light of wavelength 6328 Å is
12431
E  eV  1.96 eV
6328
As E   , photocell will not work if irradiated by this red light no matter however intense the
light will be.

2. FORCE DUE TO RADIATION (PHOTON)

Each photon has a definite energy and a definite linear momentum. All photons of light of a
h
particular wavelength  have the same energy E  hc and the same momentum p =
 
When light of intensity I falls on a surface, it exerts force on that surface. Assume absorption
and reflection coefficient of surface be 'a' and 'r' and assuming no transmission.
Assume light beam falls on surface of surface area 'A' perpendicularly as shown in figure.
For calculating the force exerted by beam on surface, we consider following cases.
Case (I) :
a = 1, r = 0
h
initial momentum of the photon =

final momentum of photon = 0
h
change in momentum of photon = (upward)

h
P 

energy incident per unit time = IA
IA IA
no. of photons incident per unit time  
h hc
IA h IA
 total change in momentum per unit time = n P    (upward )
hc  c
force on photons = total change in momentum per unit time
IA
 (upward )
c
IA
 force on plate due to photon(F) =  (downward)
c
F IA I
pressure = = =
A cA c
Case : (II)
when r = 1, a = 0
h
initial momentum of the photon = (downward)

h
final momentum of photon = (upward)

h h 2h
change in momentum   
  
 energy incident per unit time = I A
IA
no. of photons incident per unit time =
hc

IA 2h 2IA
 total change in momentum per unit time = n. P  . 
hc  C
force = total change in momentum per unit time
2IA
F (upward on photons and downward on the plate)
c
F 2IA 2I
pressure P  
A cA c
Case : (III)
When 0 < r < 1 a+r=1
2h
change in momentum of photon when it is reflected = (upward)

h
change in momentum of photon when it is absorbed = (upward)

IA
hc
IA
No. of photons reflected per unit time = .r
hc
IA
No. of photon absorbed per unit time = (1 – r )
hc
IA h IA
force due to absorbed photon (Fa)  (1 – r ). = (1 – r ) (downward)
hc  c
IA 2h 2IA
Force due to reflected photon (Fr)  .r  (downward)
hc  c
total force = Fa + Fr
IA 2IAr IA
 (1 – r )   (1  r )
c c c
IA 1 I
Now pressure P  (1  r )  = (1  r )
c A c
Ex.13 Calculate force exerted by light beam if light is incident on surface at an angle  as
shown in figure. Consider all cases.
Sol. Case - I a = 1, r = 0
initial momentum of photon (in downward direction at an angle  with vertical) is h/
final momentum of photon = 0
h
change in momentum (in upward direction at an angle  with vertical) = [  ]

energy incident per unit time = I A cos 
Intensity = power per unit normal area
P
I P = I A cos 
A cos 

IA cos 
No. of photons incident per unit time = .
hc
total change in momentum per unit time (in upward direction at an angle  with vertical)
IA cos   h IA cos  
 .  [ ]
hc  c
Force (F) = total change in momentum per unit time
IA cos  
F (direction on photon and  on the plate)
c
Pressure = normal force per unit Area
F cos  IA cos 2  I 2
Pressure = P= = cos 
A cA c
Case II When r = 1, a = 0
 change in momentum of one photon
2h
 cos  (upward) h
 cos 
h 
No. of photons incident per unit time cos 

energy incident per unit time h
 sin 
h   
h
sin 
IA cos . 

hc
 total change in momentum per unit time
IA cos . 2h 2IA cos 2 
  cos   (upward)
hc  c
2IA cos 2 
 force on the plate  (downward)
c
2IA cos2  2I cos2 

Pressure  P
cA c
Case III 0 < r < 1, a +r=1

2h
change in momentum of photon when it is reflected = cos  (downward)

h
change in momentum of photon when it is absorbed = (in the opposite direction of incident

beam)
energy incident per unit time = I A cos )
IA cos .
hc
IA cos .r
no. of reflected photon (nr) =
hc
IA cos .
no. of absorbed photon (nQ) = (1 – r)
hc

force on plate due to absorbed photons Fa = na. Pa

IA cos . h
 (1 – r)
hc 
IA cos 
 (1 – r) (at an angle  with vertical  )
hc
force on plate due to reflected photons Fr = nr Pr
IA cos . 2h
  cos  (vertically downward)
hc 
IA cos2 
 2r
c
now resultant force is given by FR  Fr2  Fa2  2FaFr cos 
IA cos 
 (1 – r)2  (2r)2 cos2   4r(r – 1) cos2 
c
Fa cos   Fr
and, pressure P
A
IA cos (1 – r) cos  IA cos2 .2r

 
cA cA
I cos2  I cos2  I cos2 

 (1 – r)  2r  (1  r)
c c c
Ex.14 A perfectly reflecting solid sphere of radius r is kept in the path of a parallel beam of
light of large aperture. If the beam carries an intensity I, find the force exerted by the
beam on the sphere.
Sol. Let O be the centre of the sphere and OZ be the line opposite to the incident beam (figure).
Consider a radius about OZ to get a making an angle  with OZ. Rotate this radius about OZ
to get a circle on the sphere. Change  to  +d and rotate the radius about OZ to get
another circle on the sphere. The part of the sphere between these circles is a ring of area
2r2 sin d. Consider a small part A of this ring at P. Energy of light falling on this part in time
t is
R p
Q
O Z
U = It(A cos )
The momentum of this light falling on A is U/c along QP. The light is reflected by the sphere
along PR. The change in momentum is
U 2 
p = 2 cos = t (A cos2 ) (direction along OP )
c c

The force on A due to the light falling on it, is
p 2 
 A cos2  (direction along OP )
t c
The resultant force on the ring as well as on the sphere is along ZO by symmetry. The
component of the force on A along ZO
p 2 
cos  IA cos2  (along ZO )
t c
2
The force acting on the ring is dF = I(2r2 sin d) cos3 
c
 /2
4 r 2 I
The force on the entire sphere is F=  cos3  d
0
c
 /2  /2  /2
4 r 2 I 4r2I  cos4   r 2I
F=  cos3  d(cos ) = –    
0
c  0
c  4 0 c
Note that integration is done only for the hemisphere that faces the incident beam.
3. DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF MATTER WAVE
A photon of frequency v and wavelength has energy.
hc
E = hv =

By Einstein's energy mass relation, E = mc2 the equivalent mass m of the photon is given by.
E hv h
m= 2
 2  . ..(i)
c c  c
h h
or = or = ...(ii)
mc p
Here p is the momentum of photon. By analogy de-Broglie suggested that a particle of mass
m moving with speed v behaves in some ways like waves of wavelength (called de-Broglie
wavelength and the wave is called matter wave) given by,
h h
= = ...(iii)
mv p
where p is the momentum of the particle. Momentum is related to the kinetic energy by the
equation,
p= 2Km
and a charge q when accelerated by a potential difference V gains a kinetic energy K = qV.
Combining all these relations Eq. (iii), can be written as,
h h h h
 = mv  p  2Km

2qVm (de=Broglie wavelength)....(iv)

3.1 de-Broglie wavelength for an electron

If an electron (charge = e) is accelerated by a potential of V volts, it acquires a kinetic
energy,
K = eV
Substituting the value of h, m and q in Eq. (iv), we get a simple formula for calculating de-
Broglie wavelength of an electron.
150
 (in Å) =
V(in volts)
3.2 de-Broglie wavelength of a gas molecule :

let us consider a gas molecule at absolute temperature T. Kinetic energy of gas molecule is
given by
3
K.E. = kT ; k = Boltzman constant
2
h
gas molecules =
2mkT
4. ATOMIC MODEL
A model is simply a set of hypothesis based on logical & scientific facts.

Theory : When any model satisfies majority of scientific queries by experimental verification
then it is termed as theory otherwise, model is simply not accepted.
In Nutshell we can say that every theory is a model but every model is not a theory. So, after
more & more clarity about the substances, various new models like Dalton, Thomseon,
Rutherford, Bohr etc came into the pictures.
4.1 Dalton's atomic model :

(i) Every element is made up of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
(ii) Atoms of same element are identical both in physical & chemical properties while
atoms of different elements are different in their properties.
(iii) All elements are made up of hydrogen atom. The mass of heaviest atom is about 250
times the mass of hydrogen atom while radius of heaviest atom is about 10 times the
radius of hydrogen atom.
(iv) Atom is stable & electrically neutral.
Reason of Failure of model :

After the discovery of electron by U. Thomson (1897), it was established that atom can also
be divide. Hence the model was not accepted.
4.2 Thomson's atomic model (or Plum-pudding model)

(i) Atom is a positively charged solid sphere of radius of the order of 10–10 m in which
electrons are embedded as seeds in a watermelon
(ii) Total charge in a atom is zero & so, atom is electrically neutral.
electron
uniformly distributed positively

charged matter

Achievements of model :
Explained successfully the phenomenon of thermionic emission, photoelectric emission &
ionization
4.3 Type of line spectrum
(a) Emission line spectrum :
When an atomic gas or vapour at a pressure less than the atmospheric pressure is excited by
passing electric discharge, the emitted radiation has spectrum which contains certain specific
bright lines only. These emission lines constitute emission spectrum. These are obtained
when electron jumps from excited states to lower states. The wavelength of emission lines of
different elements are different. For one element the emission spectrum is unique. It is used
for the determination of composition of an unknwon substance.
(b) Absorption line spectrum :
When white light is passed through a gas, the gas is found to absorb light of certain wavelength,
the bright background on the photographic plate is then crossed by dark lines that corresponds
to those wavelengths which are absorbed by the gas atoms.
The absorption spectrum consists of dark lines on bright background. These are obtained due
to absorption of certain wavelengths, resulting into transition of atom from lower energy
states to higher energy states. (The emission spectrum consists of bright lines on dark
background.)
Failure of the model :
(i) It could not explain the line spectrum of H-atom
(ii) It could not explain the Rutherford's  - particle scattering experiment
4.4 Ruthorford's Atomic Model

In 1911, Earnest Ruthorford performed a critical experiment that showed that Thomson's
model could not be correct. In this experiment a beam of positively charged alpha particles
(helium nuclei) was projected into a thin gold foil. It is observed that most of the alpha
particles passed through the foil as if it were empty space. But some surprising results are
also seen. Several alpha particles are deflected from their original direction by large angles.
Few alpha particles are observed to be reflected back, reversing their direction of travel as
shown in figure-l.2.
If Thomson model is assumed true that the positive charge is spreaded uniformly in the
volume of an atom then the alpha particle can never experience such a large repulsion due to
which it will be deflected by such large angles as observed in the experiment. On the basis of
this experiment Ruthorford presented a new atomic model.
In this new atomic model it was assumed that the positive charge in the atom was concentrated
in a region that was small relative to the size of atom. He called this concentration of positive
charge, the nucleus of the atom. Electrons belonging to the atom were assumed to be
moving in the large volume of atom outside the nucleus. To explain why these electrons were
not pulled into the nucleus, Ruthorford said that electrons revolve around the "nucleus in
orbits around the positively charged nucleus in the same manner as the planets orbit the sun.
The corresponding atomic model can be approximately shown in figure.

Reason of Failure of model :

1. It could not explain the line spectrum of H-atom.
Justification : According to Maxwell's electromagnetic theory every accelerated moving charged
particle radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves & therefore duringh revolution
of e– in circular orbit its frequency will contanously vary (i.e. decrease) which will result in the
conitnuous emission of lines & therefore spectrum of atom must be continuous but in reality,
one obtains line spectrum for atoms.
2. It could not explain the stablity of atoms.
Justification : Since revolving electron will continuously radiates energy & therfore radii of
circular path will continuously decrease & in a time of about 10–8 sec revolving electron must
fall down in a nucleus by adopting a spiral path
Path of electron spiral

DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH :
When a positively charged particle approaches towards stationary nucleus then due to repulsion
between the two, the kinetic energy of positively charged particle gradually decreases and a
stage comes when its kinetic energy becomes zero & from where it again starts retracting its
original path.
Definition : The distance of closest approach is the minimum distance of a stationary nucleus
with a positively charged particle making head on collision from a point where its kinetic
energy becomes zero.
Suppose a positively charged particle A of charge
q1 = (=z1e) approaches from in finity towards a
stationary nucleus of charge z2e then,
z2e
Suppose a positively charged particle A of charge z,e
+
q1 ( = z1 e) approaches from in finity towards a A B
stationry nucleus of charge z2e then, Stationary
nucleus
Let at point B, kinetic energy of particle A becomes r0
zero then by the law of conservation of energy
at point A & B,
TEA = TEB
KEA + PEA = KEB + PEB
k(z1e)(z2 e) k(z1e)(z2 e)
E+0=0+ (in joule)  r0  m
r0 E

Ex.15 An -particle whith kinetic energy 10 MeV is heading towards a stationary point-nucleus
of atomic number 50. Calculate the distance of closest approach.
Sol.  TEA = TEB
A B
K  (2e)(50e)
6
 10 × 10 e = r   particle
0
r0 = 1.44 × 10 m –14 r0
r0 = 1.44 × 10–4 A
Ex.16 A beam of  - particles of velocity 2.1 × 107 m/s is scattered by a gold (z = 79) foil.
Find out the distance of closest approach of the - particle to the gold nucleus. The
value of charge/mass for  - particle is 4.8 × 107 c/kg.
1 K(2e)(ze)
Sol. m v2 
2 r0
 2e 
2K  (79 e)
 m  2  (9  108 )(4.8  107 )(79  1.6  10–19 )
r0   ; r0  2.5  10–14 m
v2 (2.1  107 )2
Ex.17 A proton moves with a speed of 7.45 × 105 m/s directing towards a free proton originally
at rest. Find the distance of closest approach for the two protons.
Sol.  v = 7.45 × 105 m/s u=0
Proton Free proton

Originally
v1 v2
r0
Proton
free proton after
movement
At the time of distance of closest approach
1 2 ke2 1 2 1 2
By the law of cons. of energy 2 mv  0  r  2 mv1  2 mv1 ...(1)
0
By the cons. of momentum mv + 0 = mv1 + mv1

v
 v1 
2
2
1 ke2  v
From equation (1) mv2 =  m 
2 r0  2
4 4  (9  109 )(1.6  10–19 )2

r0  2
 ke2  ; r0  1.0  10–12 m
mv (1.66  10–27 )(7.45  105 )2

5 BOHR'S MODEL OF AN ATOM

Between 1913 and 1915 Niels Bohr developed a quantitative atomic model to the Hydrogen
atom that could account for its spectrum. The model incorporated the nuclear model of the
atom proposed by Rutherford on the basis of his experiments. We shall see that this model
was successful in its ability to predict the gross features of the spectrum emitted by Hydrogen
atom. This model was developed specifically for Hydrogenic atoms. Hydrogenic atoms are
tho se which consist of a nucleus with positive charge + Ze
(Z = atomic number, e = charge of electron) and a single electron. More complex electron-
electron interactions in an atom are not accounted in the Bohr's Model that's why it was valid
only for one electron system or hydrogenic atoms.
The Bohr model is appropriate for one electron systems like H, He+, Li+2 etc. and it was
successful upto some extent in explaining the features of the spectrum emitted by such
hydrogenic atoms. However this model is not giving a true picture of even these simple
atoms. The true picture is fully a quantum mechanical affair which is different from Bohr
model in several fundamental ways. Since Bohr model incorporates aspects of some classical
and some modern physics, it is now called semiclassical model Bohr has explained his atomic
model in three steps called postulates of Bohr's atomic model. Lets discuss one by one.
5.1 First Postulate
In this postulate Bohr incorporate and analyses
features of the Rutherford nuclear model of atom.
In this postulate it was taken that as the mass of
nucleus is so much greater then the mass of
electron, nucleus was assumed to be at rest and
electron revolves around the nucleus in an orbit. v
The orbit of electron is assumed to be circular for
simplicity. Now the statement of first postulate is
"During revolution of electron around the nucleus Fe Fd
in circular orbit, the electric coulombian force on + –e
electron is balanced by the centrifugal force acting +Ze
on it in the rotating frame of
reference."
If electron revolves with speed v in the orbit of
radius r. Then relative to rotating frame attached
with electron, the centrifugal force acting on it is
mv2
Fef  ...(1)
r
The coulombian force acting on electron due to charge of nucleus (+Ze) is
K(e)(Ze)
Felectric  ...(2)
r2
Now according to first postulate from equation (1) & (2) we have
mv2 KZe2

r r2
mv2 KZe2
or  ...(3)
r r2
Equation (3) is called equation of Bohr's first postulate.
5.2 Second Postulate
In the study of atom, Bohr found that while revolving around the nucleus the orbital angular
momentum of the electron was restricted to only certain values, we say that the orbital
angular momentum of the electron is quantized. He therefore took this as a second postulate
of the model. The statement of second Postulate is, Bohr proposed that -"During revolution
around the nucleus, the orbital angular momentum of electron L could not have just any
value, it can take up only those values which are integral multiples of Plank's Constant
divided by 2 i.e. h/2"
Thus the angular momentum of electron can be written as

nh
L= ...(1)
2
Where n is a positive integer, known as quantum number. In an orbit of radius r if an electron
(mass m) revolves at speed v, then its angular momentum can be given as
L = mvr ...(2)
Now from equation (1) and (2), we have for a revolving electron
nh
mvr  ...(3)
2
h
Equation (3) is known as equation of second postulate of Bohr model. Here the quantity
2
occurs so frequently in modern physics that, for convenience, it is given its own designation
h, pronounced as "h-bar."
h
 = 2 ~– 1.055 × 10–34 J-s ...(4)
5.3 Third Postulate

While revolution of an electron in an orbit its total energy is taken as sum of its kinetic and
electric potential energy due to the interaction with nucleus. Potential energy of electron
revolving in an orbit of radius r can be simply given as
K(e)(Ze) Kze2
U– = – ...(1)
r r
For kinetic energy of electron, we assume that relativistic speeds are not involved so we can
use the classical expression for kinetic energy. Thus kinetic energy of electron in an orbit
revolving at speed v can be given as
1
K  mv2 ...(2)
2
Thus total energy of electron can be given as
1 KZe2
E=K+U= mv2 –
2 r
Here we can see that while revolving in a stable orbit, the energy of electron remains
constant. From the purely classical viewpoint, during circular motion, as electron is accelerated,
it should steadily loose energy by emitting electromagnetic radiations and it spiraled down
into the nucleus and collapse the atom.
Bohr in his third postulate stated that "While revolving around the nucleus in an orbit, it is in
stable state, it does not emit any energy radiation during revolution. It emits energy radiation
only when it makes a transition from higher energy level (upper orbit) to a lower energy level
(lower orbit) and the energy of emitted radiation is equal to the difference in energies of
electron in the two corresponding orbits in transition. "
If an electron makes a transition form a higher orbit n2 to a lower orbit n1 as shown in figure.
Then the electron radiates a single photon of energy
E = E n2 – E n1  h
n2 n2
–e
h
n1
–e n1
h

Here En2 and E n1 are the total energies of electron in the two orbits n2 and n1. The emitted
photon energy can be expressed as h where  is the frequency of radiated energy photon. If
A be the wavelength of photon emitted then the energy of emitted photon can also be given
as
hc
E  h   ...(1)

Similarly when energy is supplied to the atom by an external source then the electron will
make a transition from lower energy level to a higher energy level. This process is called
excitation of electron from lower to higher energy level. In this process the way in which
energy is supplied to the electron is very important because the behaviour of the electron in
the excitation depends only on the process by which energy as supplied from an external
source. This we'll discuss in detail in later part of this chapter.
First we'll study the basic properties of an electron revolving around the nucleus of hydrogenic
atoms.
5.4 Properties of Electron in Bohr's Atomic Model

Now we'll discuss the basic properties of an electron revolving in stable orbits, we call Bohr
energy level. We have discussed that there are some particular orbits in which electron can
revolve around the nucleus for which first and second postulates of Bohr model was satisfied.
Thus only those orbits are stable for which the quantum number n = 1, 2, 3, ............ Now for
nth orbit if we assume its radius is denoted by rn and electron is revolving in this orbit with
speed vn. We can represent all the physical parameters associated with the electron in nth
orbit by using a subscript n with the symbol of the physical parameters like rn, vn etc.
(a) Radius of nth Orbit in Bohr Model

Radius of electron in nth Bohr's orbit can be calculated using the first two postulates of the
Bohr's model, using previous equations, we get
nh
vn 
2mrn
nh
Substituting this value of vn in equation mvr = , we get
2
n2h2
rn 
4 KZe2m
2
h2 n2
or rn  
42Ke2m Z
n2
or rn  0.529  A
Z
1.5.2 Velocity of Electron in nth Bohr's Orbit
By substituting the value of rn we can calculate the value of vn as
2KZe2
vn 
nh
2Ke2 Z
or vn  
h n
Z
or vn  2.18  106  m/s
n

(b) Time period of Electron in nth Bohr's Orbit

Time period of electron of nth orbit is given by
Tn 
1 n3h3
or Tn 
fn 42K2Z2 e4m
(c) Current in nth Bohr's Orbit

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in the nth Bohr's Orbit then due to revolvution there is
current in the orbit and according to the definition of current, the current in the nth orbit will
be total coulombs passing through a point in one seconds, and in an orbit an electron passes
through a point fn times in one second so the current in the nth orbit will be
In = fn × e
42K2Z2 e5m
or In 
n3h3
(d) Energy of Electron in nth Orbit

We've discussed that in nth orbit during revolution the total energy of electron can be given
as sum of kinetic and potential energy of the electron as
E n = K n + Un
Kinetic energy of electron in nth orbit can be given as
1
mvn2
Kn 
2
From equation of first postulate of Bohr Model we have for nth orbit
KZe2
mvn2 
rn
From equation
1 1 KZe2
Kn  mv2n 
2 2 rn
the potential energy of electron in nth orbit is given as
KZe2
Un  –
rn
Thus total energy of e– in nth orbit can given as
1 KZe2 KZe2 1 KZe2
E n = K n + UR  2 r – 
n rn 2 rn
1
Here we can see that | En || K n || Un | which is a very useful relation, always followed by a
2
particle revolving under the action of a force obeying inverse square law.
Now substituting the value of rn we get
1 42KZe2m
En  – KZe2 
2 n2h2
22K2Z2 e4m
or –
n2h2
22K2Z2 e4m Z2
or En   2
h2 h
Substituting the value of constants in above equation we get
Z2
or En  –13.6 
eV
n2
The above equation can be used to find out energies of electron in different energy level of
different hydrogen atoms.
(e) Energies of Different Energy Level in Hydrogenic Atoms

By the use of above equation we can find out the energies of different energy levels.
Students should remember these energies for first six level as
E1 = –13.6 Z2 eV
E2 = –3.40 Z2 eV
E3 = –1.51 Z2 eV
E4 = –0.85 Z2 eV
E5 = –0.54 Z2 ev
E6 = –0.36 Z2 eV
The above equations clearly shows that as the value of n increase, the difference between
two consecutive energy levels decreases. It can be shown with the the help of figure, which
shows the energy level diagram for a hydrogen atom.
E=0
n
n=6
E=–0.54eV
n=5
E=–0.85eV
n=4
E= –1.51eV
n=3
E= –3.4eV
n=2
E= –13.6eV
n=1
Now if we multiply the numerator and denominator of above equation by ch we get
22K2 e4m Z2
En  –  ch 
ch3 n2
Z2
or En = – Rch × eV
n2
22K2e4m
Where R  is defined as Rydberg Constant and the value of it is given as R =
ch3
10967800 m–1, which can be taken approximately as 107 m–1. For n = 1 and Z = 1 the energy
is given as
E = –Rch joules and is called as One Rydberg Energy
1 Rydberg = 13.6 eV = 2.17 × 10–18 joules
Lets discuss some examples on Bohr's atomic model to understand it better.
Ex.18 What is the angular mometum of an electron in Bohr's Hydrogen atom whose energy
is –3.4 eV ?
Sol. Energy of electron in nth Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom is given by,
13.6
E– eV
n2
13.6
Hence, –3.4 = –
n2
or n2 = 4
or n=2

nh
The angular momentum of an electron in nth orbit is given as L = . Putting n = 2, we obtain
2
2h h n3h3
L=   T 
2  4 k 2Z2 e4m
2
T1 n3
Thus, T  n3 or  13
T2 n2
As T1 = 8T2, the above relation gives
3
 n1 
   8 or n1 = 2n2
 n2 
Thus the possible values of n1 and n2 are
n1 = 2, n2 = 1 ; n1= 4, n2 = 2; n1 = 6, n2 = 3 and so on .........
Ex.19 An electron in the ground state of hydrogen

atom is revolving in anti-clockwise direction B̂
in the circular orbit of radius R as shown in
figure n̂ v
30°
(i) Obtain an expression for the orbital
magnetic dipole
moment of the electron.
(ii) The atom is placed in a uniform magnetic
induction B such that the plane normal of the
electron orbit makes an anlge 30° with the
magnetic induction. Find the torque
experienced by the orbiting electron.
Sol. (i) According to Bohr's second postulate
h h
mvr  n  (As for n = 1 first only)
2 2
h
or v1 
2mr1
We know that the rate of flow of charge is current. Hence current in first orbit is
 v  e
Now from each equation i  ev1  e  1    v1
 2r1  2r1
e h eh
i  
2r1 2nr1 4 2mr 2
Magnetic dipole moment, M1 = i × A1
eh eh
or M1  2 2
 r12 
4 mr 4m
(ii) Torque on the orbiting electron in uniform magnetic field is
  
  MB
or  = MB sin 30°
eh B ehB
or   
4m 2 8 m

6. EXCITATION AND IONIZATION OF AN ATOM

According to third postulate of Bohr model we've discussed when some energy is given to an
electron of atom from an external source it may make a transition to the upper energy level.
This phenomenon we call excitation of electron or atom and the upper energy level to which
the electron is excited is called excited state. To excite an electron to a higher state energy
can be supplied to it ijn two ways. Here we'll discuss only the energy supply by an
electromagnetic photon. Other method of energy supply we'll discuss later in this chapter.
According to Plank's quantum theory photon is defined as a packet of electromagnetic energy,
which when absorbed by a physical particle, its complete electromagnetic energy is converted
into the mechanical energy of particle or the particle utilizes the energy of photon in the
form of increment in its mechanical energy. When a photon is supplied to an atom and an
electron absorbs this photon, then the electron gets excited to a higher energy level only if
the photon energy is equal to the difference in energies of the two energy levels involved in
the transition.
For example say in hydrogen atom an electron is in ground state (energy E1 = –13.6 eV). Now
it absorbs a photon and makes a transition to n = 3 state (Energy E3 = –1.51 eV) then the
energy of incident photon must be equal to
E13  E 3 – E1 = (–1.51) – (13.6) eV = 12.09 eV
Now we'll see what will happen when a photon of energy equal to 11 eV incident on this atom.
From the above calculation of energy differences of different energy levels we can say that if
the electron in ground state absorbs this photon it will jump to a state some where between
energy level n = 2 and n = 3 as shown in figure. When electron in ground state absorbs a
photon of 11 eV energy, its total energy becomes
E = E1 + 11 = –13.6 + 11eV = –2.6 eV
E  0 ev
E4 = 0.85 eV
E3 = 1.51 eV
E13  12.09 ev Ex = –2.6 eV (Hypothetical level)
E2 = –3.4 eV
E12  10.2 ev E1x  11 ev
E1 = –13.6 eV
As discussed in previous sections, in an atom electron can not take up all energies. It can
exist only in some particular energy levels which have energy given as – 13.6/n2eV.
When a photon of energy 11 eV is absorbed by an electron in ground state. The energy of
electron becomes –2.6 eV of it will excite to a hypothetical energy level X some where
between n = 2 and n = 3 as shown in figure, which is not permissible for an electron. Thus
when in ground state electron can absorb only those photons which have energies equal to
the difference in energies of the stable energy level with ground state. If a photon beam
incident on H-atoms having photon energy not equal to the difference of energy levels of H-
atoms such as 11 eV, the beam will just be transmitted without any absorption by the H-
atoms.
Thus to excite an electron from lower energy level to higher levels by photons, it is necessary
that the photon must be of energy equal to the difference in energies of the two energy
levels involved in the transition.
As we know that for higher energy levels, energy of electrons is less. When an electron is
moved away from the nucleus to th energy level or at n = , the energy becomes (zero) or
the electron becomes free from the attraction of nucleus or it is removed from the atom. In

 13.6 2 
fact when an electron is in an atom, its total energy is negative  E n   2 Z  . This negative
 n 
sign shows that electron in under the influence of attractive forces of nucleus. When energy
equal in magnitude to the total energy of an electron in a particular energy level is given
externally, its total energy becomes zero or we can say that electron gets excited to th
energy level or the electron is removed from the atom and atom is said to be ionized.
We know that removal of electron from an atom is called ionization. In other words, ionization
is the excitation of an electron to n =  level. The energy required to ionize an atom is called
ionization energy of atom for the particular energy level from which the electron is removed.
In hydrogen atoms, the ionization energy for nth state can be given as
En  E   En
 13.6 Z2 
or En  0    eV
 n2 
13.6 Z2
or En   eV
n2
When an electron absorbs a monochromatic radiation from an external energy source then it
makes a transition from a lower energy level to a higher level. But this state of the electron is
not a stable one. Electron can remain in this excited state for a very small internal at most of
the order of 10–1 second. The time period for which this excited state of the electron exists is
called the life time of the excited state. After the life time of the excited state the electron
must radiate energy and it will jump to the ground state.
Let us assume that the electron is initially in n2 state and it will jump to a lower state n1 then
it will emit a photon of energy equal to the energy difference of the two states n1 and n2 as
E  En2  En1
When E is the energy of the emitted photon. Now substituting the values of En2 and E n1 in
above equation, we get
22K2Z2 e4m 22K2Z2 e4m
E   
n22h2 n12h2
22K2 Z2 e4m  1 1
or E  2  2
 2
h  n1 n2 
 1 1
or E  13.6 Z2  2  2  eV
 n1 n2 
Here 13.6 Z2 can be used as ionization energy for n = 1 state for a hydrogenic atom thus the
energy of emitted photon can also be written as
1 1
E  IP  2  2 
n
 1 n2
Equation can also be used to find the energy of emitted radiation when an electron jumos
from a higher orbit n2 to a lower orbit n1. If  be the wavelength of the emitted radiation then
hc
E 

This energy can be converted to eV by dividing this energy by the electronic charge e, as if
wavelength is given in A, the energy in eV can be given as
hc
E  (in eV)
e

Substituting the values of h, c and e we get

(6.63  1034 )  (3  108 )
E  eV
  (1.6  1019 )  1010
12431
E  eV ...(a)

Here in above equation, lambda is in Å units
This equation is the most important in numerical calculations, as it will be very frequency
used. From equation we have
hc 1 1 1 13.6Z2  1 1
 13.6Z2  2  2  eV or    2
 2  eV
  n1 n2  hc  n1 n2 
1  1 1
or   RZ2  2  2 
  n1 n2 
(As Rydberg Constant R = 13.6/hc eV)
Here v is called wave number of the emitted radiation and is defined as number of waves per
unit length and the above relation is used to find the wavelength of emitted radiation when
an electron makes a transition from higher level n2 to lower level n1 is called Rydberg formula.
But students are advised to use equation (a) is numerical calculations to find the wavelength
of emitted radiation using the energy difference in electron volt. If can be rearranged as
12431
 Å
E(in eV)
No. of emission spectral lines : If the electron is excited to state with principal quantum
number n then from the nth state, the electron may go to (n – 1)th state, ............, 2nd state
or 1st state. So there are (n – 1) possible transitions starting from the nth state. The
electron reaching (n – 1)th state may make (n – 2) different transitions. Similarly for other
lower states. The total no. of possible transitions is (n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n – 3) + ..............2
n(n – 1)
+ 1=
2
No. of absorption spectral lines : Since at ordinary temperatures, almost all the atoms
remain in their lowest energy level (n = 1) & so absorption transition can start only from n =
1 level (not from n = 2, 3, 4, ..... levels). Hence, only Lyman seires is found in the absorption
spectrum of hydrogen atom (which as in the emission spectrum, all the series are found No.
of absorption spectral lines = (n – 1)
7. SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM :

The wavelength of the lines of every spectral series can be calculated using the formula
given by equation (a).
Five special series are observed in the Hydrogen Spectrum corresponding to the five energy
levels of the Hydrogen atom and these five series are named as on the names of their
inventors. These series are
(1) Lyman Series
(2) Balmer Series
(3) Paschen Series
(4) Brackett Series
(5) Pfund Series
These spectral series are shown in figure-1.11.

E=0
n=8
n=7
n=6
n=5 E = –0.54 eV
Pfund Series
n=4 E = –0.85 eV
Brackett Series
n=3 E = –1.51 eV
Paschen Series
n=2 E = –3.4 eV
Balmer Series
n=1 E = –13.6 eV
Lyman Series
(1) Lyman Series : The series consists of wavelength of the radiations which are emitted when
electron jumps from a higher energy level to n = 1 orbit. The wavelength constituting this
series lie in the Ultra Violet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
For Lyman Series n1 = 1
and n2 = 2, 3, 4, .........
First line of Lyman series is the line corresponding to the trnasition n2 = 2 to n1 = 1, similarly
second line of the Lyman series is the line corresponding to the transition n2 = 3 to n1 = 1.
(2) Balmer Series : The series consists of wavelengths of the radiations which are emitted
when electron jumps from a higher energy level to n = 2 orbit. The wavelengths consisting
this series lie in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(3) Paschen Series : The series consists of wavelengths of the radiations which are emitted
when electron jumps from a higher energy level to n = 3 orbit. The wavelengths constituting
this series lie in the Near Infra Red region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(4) Brackett Series : The series consists of wavelengths of the radiations which are emitted
when electron jumps from a higher energy level to n = 4 orbit. The wavelengths constituting
this series lie in the Infra Red region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(5) Pfund Series : The series consists of wavelengths of the radiations which are emitted when
electron jumps from a higher energy level to n = 5 orbit. The wavelengths constituting this
series lie in the Deep Infra Red region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
We can find out the wavelengths corresponding to the first line and the last line for remaining
four spectral series as mentioned in the case of Lyman Series.
8. APPLICATION OF NUCLEUS MOTION ON ENERGY OF ATOM

Let both the nucleus of mass M, charge Ze and electron
of mass m, and charge e revolve about their centre of
mass (CM) with same angular velocity () but different r1 r2
linear speeds. Let r1 and r2 be the distance of CM from M m
CM
nucleus and electron. Their angular velocity should be
same then only their separation will remain unchanged in
an energy level.
Let r be the distance between the nucleus and the electron. Then
Mr1 = mr2
r1 + r2 = r

mr Mr
 r1  and r2 
Mm Mm
Centripetal force to the electron is provided by the electrostatic force. So,
1 Ze2
mr2 2 
4 0 r 2
 Mr  2 1 Ze2
or m   .
 M  m  4 0 r 2
 Mr  3 2 Ze2
or  M  m  r  
4 0
e2
or r 3  2 
4 0
Mm
where 
Mm
Moment of inertia of atom about CM,
 Mm  2
I  Mr12  mr22   r  r 2
 M  m 
nh
According to Bohr's theory,  I
2
nh
or r 2  
2
Solving above euqations for r, we get
0n2h2 n2 m
r and r = (0.529 A) .
e2Z Z 
Further electrical potential energy of the system.
–Ze2 –Z2 e4 
U U
4r 4 20n2h2
1 2 1 2 2 1
and kinetic energy. K I  r  and K  v 2
2 2 2
v-speed of electron with respect to nucleus. (v = r )
Ze2
here 2 
4 0 r 3
Ze2 Z2e4 
 K =
80r 820 n2 h2
 Total energy of the system En = K + U
4
e
En  –
8 20n2h2
this expression can also be written as
Z2   
En  –(13.6 eV) 2 .  
n  m
me4
The expression for En without considering the motion of proton is En  – , i.e., m is
820n2h2
replaced by  while considering the motion of nucleus.

IMPORTANT FORMULA
v
(1) Time period (T) : distance = time x speed
2r = T × v
2r
T 
v
+
n2h2 r
Tn 
4k 2 z2me4
n3
Tn 
z2
(2) Frequency of revolution
vn 4k 2z2me4 z2
fn   ; fn 
2r0 n3h3 n3
(3) Momentum of electron
2mkz2 1
Pn  Pn 
nh n
83k 2 z2me4 z2
(4) Angular velocity of electron n  ,  n

n3h3 n3
(5) Current (1)
e ev z2
I  ev  ; I 3
T 2r n
(6) Magnetic moment of electron (M)
M=iA
ev evr
M  r 2 , M =
2r 2
e(mvr) eJ M e e  nh   eh 
M = ;  , M  2   n  4m 
2m 2m J 2m 2m
M = nB B = Bohr magneton = 9.3 × 10–24 Amp. m2.
Mn
0i 0 ev
(7) Magnetic field of Magnetic induction at the centre B = 
2r 4r 2
9. ATOMIC COLLISION
In such collisions assume that the loss in the kinetic energy of system is possible only if it can
excite or ionise.
neutron H atom at rest in ground

state and free to move
K,v
Ex.20
head on collision
What will be the type of collision, if K = 14 eV, 20.4 eV, 22 eV, 24.18 eV
(elastic/inelastic/perectly inelastic)
Sol. Loss in energy (E) during the collision will be used to excite the atom or electron from one
level to another.

According to quantum Mechanics, for hydrogen atom.

E = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV, .........., 13.6 eV}
According to Newtonion mechanics
minimum loss = 0, (elastic collision)
for maximum loss collision will be perfectly inelastic
if neutron collides perfectly inelastically
m m vf
then, Applying momentum conservation
v0
mv0 = 2mvf  vf =
2
1
1 v20 mv20
final K.E. =  2m  = 2 k
2 4 
2 2
K
maximum loss =
2
K
According to classical mechanics (E) = [0, ]
2
(a) If K = 14 eV, According to quantum mechanics
(E) = {0, 10, 2eV, 12.09 eV}
According to classical mechanics
E = [0, 7 eV]
loss = 0, hence it is elastic collision speed of particle changes
(b) If K = 20.4 ev
According to classical mechanics
loss = [0, 10.2 eV]
According to quantum mechanics
loss = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV,...........}
loss = 0 elastic collision.
loss = 10.2 eVperfectly inelastic collision
(c) If K = 22 eV
Classical mechanics E = [0, 1]
Quantum mechanics E = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV,.......}
loss = 0 elastic collision
loss = 10.2 eVinelastic collision
(d) If K = 24.18 eV
According to classical mechanics E = [0, 12.09 eV]
According to quantum mechanics E = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV, .............13.6 eV}
loss = 0 elastic collision
loss = 10.2 eVinelastic collision
loss = 12.09 eV perfectly inelastic collision
Ex.21 A He+ ion is at rest and is in ground state. A neutron with initial kinetic energy K col-
lides head on with the He+ ion. Find minimum value of K so that there can be an inelas-
tic collision between these two particle.
Sol. Here the loss during the collision can only be used to excite the atoms or electrons.
So according to quantum mechanics
loss = {0, 40.8eV, 48.3eV, ........., 54.4 eV} ...(1)
Z2
En  –13.6 eV
n2
Now according to newtonion mechanics
Minimum loss = 0
maximum loss will be for perfectly inelastic collision.
m 4m
let v0 be the initial speed of neutron and vf be the final
common speed. n K He+
v0
so by momentum conservation mv0 = mvf + 4mvf vf 
5
where m = mass of Neutron

 mass of He+ ion = 4m

so final kinetic energy of system
1 1 1 v2 1 1 K
K.E.  mv2f  4mv2f = 2
(5m) 0 = .( mv0 ) 
2 2 2 25 5 2 5
K 4K
maximum loss = K – 
5 5
 4K 
so loss will be 0, 5 
 
For inelastic collision there should be at least one common value other than zero is set (1)
and (2)
4K
 > 40.8 eV
5
K > 51 eV
minimum value of K = 51 eV
Ex.22 How many different wavelengths may be observed in the spectrum from a hydrogen
sample if the atoms are excited to states with principal quantum number n ?
Sol. From the nth state, the atom may go to (n – 1)th state, ..........2nd state or 1st state. So
there are (n – 1) possible transitions starting from the nth state. The atoms reaching (n –
1)th state may make (n – 2) different transitions. Similarly for other lower states. The total
number of possible transitions is
(n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n – 3) + ................ 2 + 1
n(n – 1)
 (Remember)
2
Calculation of recoil speed of atom on emission of a photon

h
momentum of photon = mc =

fixed H-atom in first excited state free to move
hc h
(a)  10.2 eV (b) v H-atom
 '
m - mass of atom
According to momentum conservation
h
mv  ...(i)
'
According to energy conservation
1 hc
mv 2   10.2 eV
2 '
Since mass of atom is very large than photon
1 2
hence mv can be neglected
2
hc h 10 . 2
 10.2 eV  eV
'  c
10.2 10 .2
mv  eV v
c cm
10.2
recoil speed of atom =
cm

10. X-RAYS
It was discovered by ROENTGEN. The wavelenth of x-rays of found between 0.1 Å to 10 Å.
These rays are invisble to eye. They are electromagnetic waves and have speed c = 3 × 108
m/s in vacuum. Its photons have energy around 1000 times move than the visible light.
v increases
Rm mw I R v uv x y
When fast moving electrons having energy of order of several KeV strike the metallic target
then x-rays are produced.
10.1 Produced of x-rays by coolidge tube :
The melting point, specific heat capacity and atomic number of target should be high. When
voltage is applied across the filament then filament on being heated emits electrons from it.
Now for giving the beam shape of electrons, collimator is used. Now when electron strikes
the target then x-rays are produced. When electrons strike with the target, some part
of energy is lost and converted into heat. Since target should not melt or it can absorbe heat
so that the melting point, specific heat of target should be high.
Here copper rod is attached so that heat produced can go behind and it can absorb heat and
target does not get heated very high.
Evacuated X-rays
tube
+ –
continuous
m Cathode
Target
Form one energetic electron, accelerating volage is increased.

Form one no. of photons voltage across filam entis increased.
The x-ray were analysed by mostly taking their spectrum
10.2 Variation of Intensity of x-rays with l is plotted as shown in figure.
I V’>V,Z
V,Z
Continuous x-rays
V,Z’

m
1. The minimum wavelength corresponds to the maximum energy of the x-rays which in turn is
equal to the maximum kinetic energy eV of the striking electrons thus
hc hc 12400
eV = hvmax =    min   Å
min eV V(involts)
We see that cutoff wavelength min depends only on accelerating voltage applied between
target and filament. It does not depend upon material of target, it is same for two different
metals (Z and Z).
2. Charactristic X-rays
The sharp peaks obtained in graph are known as characteristic x-rays because they are
characteristic of target mateial
1, 2, 3, 4, ................. = charecteristic wavelength of material having atomic number Z are
called characteristic x-rays and the spectrum obtained is called characteristic spectrum.
If target of atomic number Z is used then peaks are shifted.

n=5 N O
n=4 M M N
K
n=3 M
L  L L
K 
n=2 L
K x-rays
n=1 R
Characteristic x-rays emission occurs when an energetic electron collides with target and
remove an inner shell electron from atom, the vacancy created in the shell is filled when an
electron from higher level drops into it. Suppose vacancy created in innermost K-shell is filled
by an electron droping from next higher level L-shell then K characteristic x-ray is obtained.
If vaccany in K-shell is filled by an electron from M-shell, K line is produced and so on
2
similarly L, L,................. M, M lines are produced.
1
1
Ex.23 Find w hich is K  and K
hc hc
Sol. E  , =
 E
since energy difference of K is less than K
Ek < Kk I1 I2 
1 is K and 2 is K 1
2
I
Ex.24 Find which is K and L

Sol.  EK > EL
1 is K and 2 is L
11. MOSELEY'S LAW : 1 2 

Moseley meaured the frequencies of characteristic x-rays for a large number of elements and
plotted the square root of frequency against position number in periodic table. He discovered
that plot is very closed to a straight line not passing through origin.
 1,  1 ' ,  1 ' ' ,  1 ' ' '
v I, I2
 ,  ',  ' ' ,  ' ' ' I1' I2 '
2 2 2 2
I1' ' I2 ' '
I1' ' ' I2 ' ' '
Z Wavelength of charactristic wavelengths.

Moseley's observations can be mathematically expressed as
v  a(Z – b)
a and b are positive constrants for one type of x-rays & for all elements (indepedent of Z).
Moseley's Law can be derived on the basis of Bohr's theory of atom, frequency of x-rays is
given by
1 1
v  CR  2 – 2  .(Z – b)
 n1 n2 

1 2
1 1
by using the formula   Rz  2 – 2  with modification for multi electron system.
n
 1 n2
b  known as screening constant or shielding effect, and (Z – b) is effective nuclear charge.

for K line
n1 = 1, n2 = 2
3RC
 v  (Z – b) v  a( Z – b)
4
3RC
Here a , [b = 1 for K lines]
4
K
I K
Ex.23 Z1
Z2
1 2 
Find in Z1 and Z2 which one is greater.
1 1
Sol.  v  cR  2 – 2  . (Z – b)
n
 1 n2 
If Z is greater then v will be greater,  will be less

 1   2
 Z1 > Z2


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IIT-JEE|AIEEE

Nurturing potential through education

S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Nature of Light .................................................................... 3 – 15

2. Force due to Radiation ......................................................... 16 – 20

3. De-Brogli Wavelength of matter wave ..................................... 20 – 21

4. Atomic Model ....................................................................... 21 –24

5. Bohr's Model of an Atom ....................................................... 25 – 30

6. Excitation and Ionization of an Atom ...................................... 31 – 33

7. Spectral Series of H-atom .................................................... 33 – 34

8. Aplication of Nucleus Motion ................................................ 34 – 36

9. Atomic collision ................................................................... 36 – 38

10. X-Rays ............................................................................ 39 – 41

11. Exercise -I ....................................................................... 42 – 55

12. Exercise - II ..................................................................... 56 – 60

13. Exercise - III .................................................................... 61 – 68

14. Exercise - IV ..................................................................... 69 – 70

15. Exercise - V ...................................................................... 71 – 82

16. Answer key ...................................................................... 83 – 84

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

1.2 Hugen's wave theory :

1.3 Maxwell's electromagnetic wave theory :

1.4 Max Planck's quantum theory of light :

1.5 Debroglie Hypothesis

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

Ex.1 A beam of light having wavelength  and

Total energy incident I A t 

1.7 Threshold frequency and Threshold wavelength

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Graph between Kmax and f

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

2  4.9  1.6  1019

9.1  1031  1.31  106

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

1.8 Experimental Study of Photo Electric Effect :

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

1.11 Cut off Potential or Stopping Potential :

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

1.12 Effect of Change in Frequency of Light on Stopping Potential :

  h v th  6.63  10 34  6  1014  3.978  10 19 J

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

(v02  v01 )(1.6  10–19 )

(16.5  6.6)(1.6  1019 )

(b) From equation (1), we have

(1.3  0.9)[(4000  1010 )  (4500  1010 )]

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

2. FORCE DUE TO RADIATION (PHOTON)

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

2IA cos2  2I cos2 

Case III 0 < r < 1, a +r=1

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

force on plate due to absorbed photons Fa = na. Pa

now resultant force is given by FR  Fr2  Fa2  2FaFr cos 

IA cos (1 – r) cos  IA cos2 .2r

I cos2  I cos2  I cos2 

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671