2021

MIDDLE BENUE TROUGH

GROUP 5
PET 312
1/1/2021
 CHUKWUMA TOCHUKWU FAVOUR - 18CN024482

OLUWAROTIMI OLUJINMI DOHERTY - 17CN022864

AKINSANYA TIMILEHIN ADEFOLAJU - 18CN024470

ADELAJA SAMUEL - 18CN024463

AHAMS KELECHI PETER - 18CN024465

AIDEYAN ZACH - 18CN024467

AICHIENEDE OSE – 18CN024466

TEBITE BOMA – 17CN022900

1| Middle Benue Trough

 Table of Contents
1. Introduction.
2. Origin of the Middle Benue Trough.
3. Location of the Middle Benue Trough.
4. Geological and structural framework of the Middle Benue Trough.
5. Hydrocarbon/ economic mineral potential for the Middle Benue
Trough.
6. Literature review.
7. Conclusion.
8. References.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank God; the department of Petroleum Engineering, the students and

all that made this report a success. Your continuous support make our
success a reality.

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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO BASINS

Basin is a depression on the surface of the earth or, a dip. Basins are
shaped like bowls with sides higher than rim. They may be oval or circular in
shape, similar to a sink or tub you might have in your own bathroom. There
are some filled with water. Others are empty.

Basins are formed by forces above the soil (such as erosion) or below
the earth surface (like earthquakes). Over thousands of years or almost
instantly, they can be formed. The major types of basins are river basins,
structural basins, and ocean basins.

Sedimentary basins are a category of structural basins that, often

forming long troughs, are not formed like traditional like traditional basins.
For millions of years, sedimentary basins have been packed with deposits of
rocks and or organic material. Sediment fill is considered the fluid that fills
up the Basin.

The middle Benue Trough is the central segment of the Nigerian Benue
Trough, an elongate large intracratonic rift structure that formed within the
Precambrian to Early Palaeozoic crustal basement of the Pan-African mobile
belts in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Its formation was associated
with the second phase of rifting of the Gondwana supercontinent that
resulted in the South Atlantic and Equatorial Atlantic (or Gulf of Guinea)
opening as well as the separation of South America from Africa.

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 1.2

https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1464343X19303796-gr2.jpg

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ABSTRACT

The Benue Trough of Nigeria is a sedimentary basin that extends from the
Gulf of Guinea in the southwest to the Chad Basin in the northwest for about
800 km in length and 150 km in width. Lead-zinc-barytes occurs in almost
the entire length of the Benue Trough. Lead-zinc-barytes mineralization in
the Trough is believed to be hydrothermal in origin and is associated with
brine springs. Fracturing and jointing are intense in the areas of
mineralization. Lead zinc minerals in the form of their ores of galena and
sphalerite respectively and barytes mineralization are often associated with
copper, quartz, iron minerals (siderite, marcasite and pyrite), gold and silver
as gangue occurring in the form of veins and veinlets associated with the
host sedimentary rocks in the axial zone of the Benue Trough. The
mineralization occurs in form of dissemination, stock work and narrow beds
with poorly developed wall-rock silicification (alteration). The host
lithologies are highly varied ranging in the Lower Benue Trough from shale
to siltstone, sandstone and occasionally igneous bodies; in the Middle Benue
Trough from shale to sandstone, siltstone, conglomeratic ironstone, minor
limestone beds and occasionally igneous bodies; and in the Upper Benue
Trough from shale to sandstone, mudstone, limestone, clay and porphyritic
granites. Keywords: Nigeria, Galena-Sphalerite-Barytes Mineralization,
Hydrothermal Origin.

Lead (Pb) is a relatively soft, malleable, blue-grey, heavy metal and is

probably the earliest discovered metal that does not occur naturally in its
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pure state. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver lustre when it is melted into a
liquid. Galena (PbS) is the principal ore mineral, usually found in association
with sphalerite (ZnS) and barytes. Galena often contains inclusions of silver
and is a major source of that metal. Zinc (Zn) is a crystalline, bluish white
metal that is brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100
and 1500C. Above 2100C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be
pulverized by beating. It is principally mined as the primary sulphides
sphalerite (ZnS), usually in association with galena and barytes. Sphalerite
contains 67% Zn and often includes traces of simple sulphides such as
Cadmium, Gallium, Germanium and Indium in solution. Barytes, is a
mineral consisting of barium sulphate. It is generally white or colourless, and
is the main source of barium. Barytes occurs in a large number of
depositional environments, and is deposited through a large number of
processes including biogenic, hydrothermal, and evaporation, among others
[1]. Barytes commonly occurs in lead zinc veins in limestones, in hot spring
deposits, and with hematite ore. It is often associated with the minerals
anglesite and Celestine. It has also been identified in meteorites [2]. Fatoye
F. B. et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2014, 5(2):86-92

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2.1 ORIGIN AND LOCATION OF THE MIDDLE BENUE TROUGH

2.1.1 Origin of the basin

The Benue Trough was formed by rifting of the central West African basement,
beginning at the start of the Cretaceous period. The Cretaceous is a geologic period and
system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period 145 million years
ago (mya) to the beginning of the Paleogene Period 66 mya. It is the last period of the
Mesozoic Era (an interval of geological time from about 252 to 66 million years ago),
and the longest period of the Phanerozoic Eon (the current geologic eon in the geologic
time scale, and the one during which abundant animal and plant life has existed which
covers 541 million years to the present).

At first, the trough accumulated sediments deposited by rivers and lakes. During the
Late Early to Middle Cretaceous, the basin subsided rapidly and was covered by the sea.
Sea floor sediment accumulated, especially in the southern Abakaliki Rift, under
oxygen-deficient bottom conditions. In the Upper Cretaceous, the Benue Trough
probably formed the main link between the Gulf of Guinea and the Tethys Ocean
(predecessor of the Mediterranean Sea) via the Chad and Iullemmeden Basins. Towards
the end of this period the basin rose above sea level, and extensive coal forming
swamps developed, particularly in the Anambra Basin. The trough is estimated to
contain 5,000 m of Cretaceous sediments and volcanic rocks.

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A common explanation of the trougThe Benue Trough was formed by rifting of the
central West African basement, beginning at the start of the Cretaceous period. The
Cretaceous is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of
the Jurassic Period 145 million years ago (mya) to the beginning of the Paleogene
Period 66 mya. It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era (an interval of geological time
from about 252 to 66 million years ago), and the longest period of the Phanerozoic Eon
(the current geologic eon in the geologic time scale, and the one during which abundant
animal and plant life has existed which covers 541 million years to the present).

A common explanation of the trough's formation is that it is an aulacogen, an

abandoned arm of a three-armed radial rift system. The other two arms continued to
spread during the break-up of Gondwana, as South America separated from Africa. The
two continents seem to have started to split apart at what are now their southern tips,
with the rift extending up the modern coastlines to the Benue Trough, then later split
along what is now the southern coast of West Africa and the north eastern coast of
South America. As the continents were wedged apart, the trough opened up. When
separation was complete, the southern part of Africa swung back to some extent, with
the sediments in the Benue Trough compressed and folded. During the Santonian age,
around 84 million years ago, the basin underwent intense compression and folding,
forming over 100 anticlines and synclines. The deposits in the Benue Trough were
displaced westwards at this time, causing subsidence of the Anambra Basin.

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 (Figure 1. Diagram showing the Benue Trough formation)

3.1 Location of the basin

The trough has its southern limit at the northern boundary of the Niger
Delta, where it dips down and is overlaid with Tertiary and more recent
sediments. It extends in a north easterly direction to the Chad Basin, and is
about 150 km wide. The trough is arbitrarily divided into lower, middle
and upper regions, and the upper region is further divided into the Gongola
and Yola arms. The Anambra Basin in the west of the lower region is more
recent than the rest of the trough, being formed during a later period of
compression, but is considered part of the formation.

(Sketch map of the Benue Trough)

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11| Middle Benue Trough
4.1 STRATIGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE BENUE TROUGH

4.1.1 The Middle Benue Trough

The Middle Benue Trough extends northeastward approximately as far as
line joining Bashar and Mutum Biyu. This boundary marks the Southern
limit of the Gombe and Keri-Keri Formation while the older sediments of the
Upper Benue Trough undergo lateral facies change in this area. The Middle
Benue Trough is relatively poorly known, especially in its Northeastern part;
no detailed geological maps of this portion are available but the area
immediately south of Bashar was included in a photo geological map. Maps
of the Lafia-Keana-Awe region were presented by Offodile (1976) and
Offodile and Reyment (1977) and of the area around makurdi by Kogbe et al
(1978) and Nwajide (1985). The geological map of the Middle Benue

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Trough after Geological Survey of Nigeria, 1984 is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Geological Map of the Middle Benue Trough (Source: Geological

Survey of Nigeria,1984).

4.2 STRUCTURE

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The axial basement high of the Middle Benue Trough (the Keana ridge of
Ajayi and Ajakaiye, 1986), coincides with its main surface structural
features, the NE-SW trending Keana anticline. Benkhelil (1988, 1989)
identified either side of the basement high sedimentary sub-basin through
gravity and aeromagnetic data. On the southeastern, flank a “Wukari” and a
Mutum Biyu Basin with inferred sediment thickness of 1.9 to 3.8km and on
the North-western flank a minor “Shendam Basin” and a more important
“Kadarko Basin” with sediment thickness of 2.4 to 5.3km.

4.3 STRATIGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE BENUE TROUGH

Stratigraphic ally, the Middle Benue Trough consists of six formations
namely:
Asu River Group: The oldest outcropping beds occurring in the core of the
Keana Anticline are Micaceous siltstone, shale, mudstone, clays and fined
grained sandstones which Cratchley and Jones (1965), Offodile (1976) and
Offodile and Reyment (1977) referred to the Asu River Group. They contain
the Middle Albian ammonite Oxytropidocera (Reyment, 1955a, 1957;
Offodile, 1976; Offodile and Reyment, 1977). Reyment (1964) proposed the
term Uomba Formation for these beds. In the southeastern extremity of the
Middle Benue Trough, the locally developed Arufu (Arufa) limestone
(Reyment 1964), lying directly upon the Precambrian Basement Akande et
al., 1988), contains the ammonite Elobiceras and is Late Albian (Spath,
1928; Reyment, 1965). The Uomba Formation represents the first
transgression into the Benue Trough and is probably the age equivalent of
the marine slumps and turbidities that make up the Ekebeligwe Formation in
the Lower Benue Trough. This transgression entered the Benue Trough from
the newly opened Equatorial Atlantic Ocean and reached its peak towards
the end of Middle Albian. The sea apparently shoaled somewhere towards
the northeastern boundary of the middle Benue Trough. The nature of any
sediment underlying the Uomba Formation is speculative. Benkhelil et al.,
(1988), reported shale-dominated lacustrine facies with channel-fill
sequences in the lower Asu River Group east of Keana. Popoff (1988)
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suggested that “great interior lakes” occupied the Benue Trough during
Birrimian to Middle Albian times.

Awe Formation: The Awe Formation is lying above the Asu River Group.
Its lithological composition consists mainly of about 100m flaggy, pale
colored medium to fine grained sandstone with interbedded carbonaceous
shales and clays, the Awe formation (Offodile, 1976) [“passage beds” of
Falconer (1911); “our are are our our are unnamed transition deposits” of
Cratchley and Jones (1965)]. Brine springs issue from these beds in places.
Offodile (1976) and Offodile and Reyment (1977) attributed the Awe
Formation to the gradual regression which took place during the latter part of
the Albian (Reyment and Tait, 1972) but thought it may also include
Cenomanian beds.

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Keana Formation: The Keana Formation overlies the Awe Formation, the
contact between the two being variously described as gradational and
unconformably (Offodile, 1976, 1984; Reyment and Offodile, 1977). The
Keana Formation consists mainly of thickly bedded, cross-bedded, fine to
very coarse grained, sometimes conglomeratic, gritty arkosic sandstone of
inferred fluvial or deltaic origin (Murat, 1972; Offodile, 1976). Offodile
(1976) and Offodile and Reyment (1977) described the Keana Formation as
in places lying below beds referred to the Ezeaku formation and elsewhere
interfingering with them. Although not directly dated, the Keana Formation
has generally been regarded as late Albian to Cenomanian and representing
the southern part of a fluvio-deltaic system discharging into the receding sea.
Its laterally equivalent to the north is the “Muri sandstone” (Cratchley and
Jones, 1965; Whiteman 1982; Benkhelil et al., 1988). To the South the
Keana Formation passes laterally into Makurdi Formation (Nwajide, 1985;
Benkhelil et al., 1988). Offodile (1976) suggested that this fluvio-deltaic
system was diachronous, Late Albian to Cenomanian in the Upper Benue
Trough, the Keana Formation being Cenomanian and the Makurdi Formation
Cenomanian to Turonian. While it is probable that a deltaic system
prograded south-west wards along the Benue Trough during the Late Albian
and early part of the Cenomanian, marine conditions were established
throughout the Trough in the later part of the Cenomanian and the Early
Turonian. Benkhelil (1988) interpreted the Makurdi Formation as the product
of a local Turonian side-delta. Such an origin for parts at least of the
Makurdi Formation would accord with the regional stratigraphy of the Benue
Trough.

Ezeaku Formation: In the Keana-Awe region, the Ezeaku Formation

consists mainly of grey to black shales with clay horizons, fine to medium-
grained sandstones and limestone beds (Offodile 1976; Offodile and
Reyment 1977). Its basal part includes shelly limestones containing the
bivalve Costagyra olisiponensis (Sharpe) and a marly horizon has yielded the
Late Cenomanian ammonite Euomphaloceras septemseriatum. Higher in the
formation a diverse “vascoceratid” dominated ammonite fauna occurs,
containing Late Cenomanian to Early Turonian species almost all of which
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are known from the Upper Benue Trough. West and South of Keana black
shales, marls, limestones and micaceous sandstones occur in the Ezeaku
Formation, with fine to coarse-grained feldspathic sandstones appearing in
its upper part (Obaje, 1994).

Awgu Formation: In the Keana-Awe area the beds overlying the Ezeaku
Formation were referred to the Awgu Formation by Offodile (1976) and
Offodile and Reyment (1977) who, by comparison with the Nkalagu area in
the Lower Benue Trough, suspected that the boundary between the two may
be unconformable, the upper part of the Turonian being missing. Obaje
(1994) believed the contact to be conformable and dated the Awgu
Formation as Turonian to Coniacian (or Early Santonian). The beds referred
to the unit here are lithologically more variable than those in the Lower
Benue Trough are. Numerous sections obtained from outcrop and Obaje
(1994) described boreholes drilled in the course for exploration for coal.
Deltaic conditions developed in the Keana-Obi area during the Late Turonian
and Coniacian, alternation of clays, shales, siltstones, sandstones, limestones
and coal forming. Obaje (1994) reported Turonian and concacian
Foraminiferas and Ostracods from marine horizons. Offodile (1976)
suggested that the Awgu Formation recorded numerous oscillations between
continental and shallow marine conditions with marine marls or shales
enclosing coals and associated non- marine beds. Obaje (1994), Obaje,
subdivided the coals, of bituminous rank, into three facies types and Ligouis
(1996) and Obaje et al (1994, 1996):
i. a vitrinite–fusinite facies believed to have formed in telmatic wet forest
swamps along and within lagoons;
ii. A trimaceratic facies, dominated by vitrinite with subordinate liptinite and
inertinite, believed to have formed within deltaic plain, limno-telmatic clastic
marsh environments; and
iii. A shaly coal facies, containing more than 25% mineral matter, mostly
clay minerals and pyrite, believed to have formed under greater marine
influence.

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The environments of deposition of the coal- bearing sequences were thought
to range from shallow marine through lagoonal to delta plain. Based on the
miospore proteacidites, correlated the upper part of Awgu Formation in the
Obi-Lafia area with the Late Campanian part of Nkporo Shale in the Lower
Benue Trough. He also inferred the presence of Santonian horizons, but
without firm evidence, suggesting that a continuous Coniacian-Campanian
succession existed. Most or all of the Santonian and Campanian stages is
generally believed to be missing in the Middle Benue Trough. Offodile
(1976), Offodile and Reyment (1977) and Obaje (1994) related this hiatus to
the Santonian compression which they believed produce the main NE-SW
trending fold structures including the Keana anticline. Offodile (1976) and
Offodile and Reyment (1977) postulated additional Cenomanian and Post-
Maastrichtian folding. Benkhelil (1989) proposed that a single compressional
event took place in the middle Benue Trough. In accordance with this belief
that the Benue compression was diachronous, he suggested that it might have
occurred between Santonian and Maastrichtian times but did not rule out a
Maastrichtian age. Although the Lafia Formation is only weakly disturbed,
Benkhelil related this to its outcrop being marginal to the main deformed
zone.

Lafia Formation: The Lafia Formation comprises the youngest sediments in

the southern part of the Middle Benue Trough. It is confined to the Kadarko
sub-basin. Offodile (1976) quoted a thickness of 500-1500m though only
about 50m was reported east of Lafia where wedging out is apparent. It
consists of red, poorly consolidated, commonly cross-bedded frequently
ferruginous sandstones, flaggy mudstones and clays, with a palaesol horizon
identified just south of Lafia (Offodile, 1976). Carbonized plant remains are
the only fossils. Although not precisely dated, the formation is generally
regarded as Maastrichtian. Offodile (1976) and Offodile and Reyment (1977)
suggested an origin within a southwesterly flowing fluviatile system
discharging into the Anambra Basin.

Volcanics (Basalts): No Post-Cretaceous sediments, apart from superficial

deposits, occur in the Middle Benue Trough. Volcanic activity was relatively
18| Middle Benue Trough
minor in scale and was concentrated in its southern part. Carter et al., 1963
reported several volcanic plugs and basalt flows from southeastern Nigeria
with similar occurrences found in the Upper Benue Trough. A notable
occurrence is the phonolitic trachyte of Wase Rock (Wright, 1989), dated as
14.4 ±0.4Ma by Grant et al (1972). Basalt flows occur around Awe and
dolerite sills, of presumed Cenozoic age, have been encountered within the
Lafia Formation (Offodile, 1976; Obaje, 1994). Offodile (1976) reported that
intrusives in the Lafia-Awe area are restricted to anticlinal structures. In the
Middle Benue Trough, the Volcanics are mostly confined to the Keana, Awe,
Kanje and Jangerigeri areas
Further Informative extract on the stratigraphy of the studied area consists of
the Awe Formation, Keana Formation and the Volcanics (Figures 5 and 6).

4.4 Awe Formation

The Awe Formation was deposited as passage (transitional) beds during the
Late Albian-Early Cenomanian regression. The Awe Formation exposed in
the area mapped is about 97m thick and it consists entirely of flaggy, whitish
and medium to coarse-grained calcareous sandstones, shales, little limestones
and clays. The sandstones became fine-grained and more micaceous towards
the base with fine current bedding. Its typical sections occur around Abuni
and Anuku.

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Sandstones
Figure 5: Sandstones of Awe Formation Exposed around Abuni.
Sandstone Unit: The sandstone unit of the Awe Formation covered almost
half of the plot (around the basal and middle part of the plot) but in some
places been overlain by shales, limestones and clays and also been intruded
by the Volcanics (Figure 5). This rock unit is fine to medium grained in
texture and are well cemented with siliceous materials constituting the bulk
of the cement and ranges in color from whitish to grey and brown with
reddish and yellowish spots in some areas (Figure 5). The beds of this unit
are usually multilayered, highly micaceous, fine current bedded and tabular.
The sandstone unit grades into shale in some places as observed around the
southeastern part of the plot and giving rise to joints at right angles. This
rock unit is generally trending in NE-SW direction with a dip of 20°SE. It
ranges in thickness from 30-38m.
20| Middle Benue Trough
Shale Unit: The shale unit of the Awe Formation is found towards the
western and southeastern part of the plot (Figure 5). The shale unit in this
area is fine grained, loosely cemented, laminated, clayed and fissile and
ranges in color from grey to milky with white bands probably limestones.
The shale bed frequently overlies the sandstone bed, except in few places
where both beds grade into one another. This rock unit is generally trending
in NE-SW direction with a dip of 22°SE. It ranges in thickness from 20-25m.
The shale weathers into clayey and muddy soils.
Limestone Unit: The limestone unit of the Awe Formation is found towards
the western part of the plot and it is found somehow included in the shale as
bands of limestones (Figure 5). This rock unit is generally trending in NW-
SE direction with a dip of 22°SW. It ranges in thickness from 10-15m.
Sandy Claystone Unit: The sandy claystone unit almost divided the plot into
two (Figure 5) and it is the youngest in the Awe Formation of the area
mapped. The unit consists of clays with impurities of sands. This rock unit is
generally trending in NW-SE direction with a dip of 23°NE. It ranges in
thickness from 10-18m.

Keana Formation
The Keana Formation resulted from the Cenomanian regression, which
deposited fluviodeltaic sediments. The Keana Formation exposed in the area
mapped is about 60m thick and it consists entirely of cross-bedded, coarse-
grained feldspathic sandstones and bands of shale. Its typical sections occur
around Angwan Ladi and Kanje area.

21| Middle Benue Trough

Silty

Figure 6: Keana Formation Exposed around the Northern part of the area
Mapped.

Silty Sandstone Unit: The silty sandstone unit of the Keana Formation is
found towards the northeastern part of the plot (Figure 6). This rock unit
consists mainly of thickly bedded, cross-bedded, fine to very coarse gritty
arkosic sandstones with impurities of sands (Figure 6). This rock unit is fine
to medium grained in texture. This rock unit is generally trending in NE- SW
direction with a dip of 25°SE. It ranges in thickness from 30-35m.
Shale Unit: The shale unit of the Keana Formation is found towards
northwestern part of the plot (Figure 6). The shale unit in this area is fine
grained, laminated and fissile. In some places, the sandstones of the Keana
Formation overlie the shale (Figure 6) while the shale also overlies the
sandstones and both forming a shale/sandstone sequence of varying
thickness. This rock unit is generally trending in NE-SW direction with a dip
22| Middle Benue Trough
of 24°SE. It ranges in thickness from 20-22m. The shale weathers into clayey
and muddy soils.
Volcanics (Basalts)
Basalt is a mafic, medium-grained rock, which contains plagioclase feldspar
of labradorite composition and pyroxene of augite or titanoaugite
composition as essential minerals, and magnetite, titano-magnetite, or
ilmenite as accessory minerals where olivine also occurs as an additional
mineral. The areas covered by basalts are mostly flat and are found mostly as
laterite, there is also the existence of dense and vessicular basalts (fig 7 and
8) with no pillow structures. The thin section analysis shows that the basalts
are mainly the fresh olivine type and are generally ferrugenised. The age of
the volcanic is ascertained to be Cenozoic (Offodile, 1976; Obaje, 1994). In
the area mapped, the Volcanics are mostly confined to Abuni (south- west of
the plot) and Anuku (southeast of the plot).

Figure 7: Volcanics (Vessicular Basalt) Observed around Abuni.

23| Middle Benue Trough

Figure 8: Volcanics (Dense Basalt) Observed around Anuku.

24| Middle Benue Trough

5.1 Hydrocarbon/ Economic Mineral Potential for the Middle Benue
Trough
In the face of impending global energy crises, with demand for minerals and
energy surpassing availability, the need to explore relatively frontier areas
becomes imperative. In this study, high-resolution airborne magnetic data
covering Ikwo and its adjacent areas were utilized to delineate possible
mineral-bearing lineaments, determine depth to magnetic causative
structures, and assess the sedimentary pile thicknesses with their implication
for hydrocarbon and mineral exploration. The total magnetic intensity grid
shows an acute change in magnetic intensity values, which reflect the
subsurface geological environment. The second vertical derivative image
indicates that the western, north western and south eastern-most parts of the
area are most likely to possess abundant shallow magnetic bodies, which are
most probably mineral deposits or igneous intrusive rocks. Ground-based
electrical resistivity profiling and induced polarization methods were used to
confirm the presence of these shallow bodies. Lineament analysis depicts
NE–SW as the principal lineament orientation with minor E–W and N–S
trends. The horizontal gradient magnitude revealed two depth models.
Deeper bodies, attributed to intra-basement structures were marked as lying
between 1.2 km to 4 km whereas shallow intrusive rocks occur within a
depth range of 0.2 km to 1 km. The presence of numerous intrusive rocks
and a relatively thin sedimentary thickness means that the area is unlikely to
favour hydrocarbon accumulation. However, it appears viable and promising
for solid mineral exploration.

COAL AND LIGNITE

Like other parts of the world, coal is the oldest commercial fuel, dating in
Nigeria from 1916 when 24,000 tons were produced. Production peaked at
near one million tons in 1959, before declining to the present insignificant
level. This is due to the reduction in the demand for coal arising from

25| Middle Benue Trough

dieselisation of rail transportation, and switching from coal to gas for thermal
power generation.

Nevertheless, Nigeria's coal reserves are large, over 2 billion metric tonnes,
of which 650 mil- lion tonnes are proven. If fully revitalised, the coal
industry could fetch up to 5 billion Naira in export earnings. Coal production
is from the Cretaceous Anambra Basin, which extends to Dekina in the
northern part of the basin in Benue State and to Okigwe in the south. The
coal in this basin is sub- bituminous and occurs principally at two levels, the
lower coal measures (Mamu Formation) and the upper coal measures
(Nsukka Formation).

From north to south, the reserves from seams over one meter thick, are (in
million tonnes) Ogboyoga (100), Okaba (70), Orukpa (60), Ezimo (50), and
Enugu (50) (FRN, 1987). Coal seams also occur at Gombe in Gombe State.
Mine production capacities after full rehabilitation and privatisation could
attain the following levels: Onyeama and Okpara (150,000-400,000
tonnes/year), Owukpa (2,500 tonnes/year) and Okaba (15,000-300,000
tonnes/ year). Nigerian subbituminous coal has a high calorific value (5,000-
6,000 Cal/g or 5500-6500 air-dried), low ash and low sulphur contents, with
good storage characteristics (Afonja, 1979).

In the Lafia-Obi area of Nassarawa State, good quality cooking coal has been
discovered which is suitable for use in the iron and steel industry. If utilised,
the Lafia-Obi coal would save the country the high cost of importing cook
able coal. Since the Nigerian Coal Corporation has lost nearly all its
traditional customers, notably railways and power authority, a recent drive to
market its coal overseas offered some hope of recovery.

European buyers in Italy and the United Kingdom have started importing
Nigerian coal, because its low sulphur content is environmentally acceptable.
As already noted, Nigeria has the largest lignite deposit in Africa, with
reserves of about 50 million tonnes. The Nigerian lignite belt, of mid-
Tertiary age, extends from Oriu in the south-east, through Urnuezeala,
26| Middle Benue Trough
Umuahia, Nnewi, Oba, in a 20 to 40km - wide belt across the Niger, to
Ogwashi, Asaba, Mgbiigliba and Adiase-Uti in Delta State. It has not yet
been exploited.

NON-METALLIC MINERAL AND INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

Crushed rock, gravel, sand and clay are ubiquitous building materials widely
used for rural and urban dwellings, and in the construction industry for civil
engineering works such as roads, buildings, bridges and dams. The Basement
Complex furnishes a rich source of crushed rock, which is augmented with
basalt, dolerite and limestone in some places. Laterite is a common building
and road-surfacing material. River gravel of various sizes are widely
available as aggregates and building material, especially in Akwa lbom and
Cross River states.

Sand of glass-making quality has been found and assays in many parts of the
country (Odukwe, 1981). In Port Harcourt, the Trans-Amadi sands contain
over 99 per cent Silicon oxide (S,0g) and at Ughelli, another clean coastal
plain, sand deposit assays 97 per cent Silicon oxide (S,0j. Both sands are
used for the manufacture of bottles and window glass. The West African
Glass Company at Aba utilises a local sand deposit. Many other glass sand
deposits are known especially along the coast. Reserves are inexhaustible
since full industrial use has hardly begun.

Clays of various kinds and grades abound throughout Nigeria's sedimentary

basins and on the basement. Nigeria has a rich traditional pottery industry
that dates from the Stone Age. In all parts of the country, native pottery is a
vibrant traditional art form and an established cottage industry for
earthenwares. Modern industrial uses of clay for ceramics and bricks obtain
throughout the country. Ceramic works at Abeokuta (Ogun State), Ikorodu
(Lagos State), Okigwe (Imo State), Umuahia (Abia State) and Suleja in
Niger State produce glazed wares from local kaolin. Refractory clays for
27| Middle Benue Trough
refractory bricks have been proven at Onibode near Abeokuta where the
refractoriness is very high at about 1,750°C.

In Enugu, beneath the coal seams, are vast deposits of other fire clays, with
reserves of about 130 million tonnes. Other major clay deposits occur in
Akwa lbom (Etinan, ltu, Onna, Uyo); Anambra State at Ozubulu (3.5 million
tonnes) and Ukpor (4.2 million tonnes); Edo/Delta States at lgoriakhi (over
14.0 million tonnes); Imo/Abia States (over 2.0 million tonnes) at lgbere and
Ogbuebule; Kaduna State (over 5.3 million tonnes) at Miraba- Rido and
Kaohia; Katsina State (3.4 million tonnes) at Kankara; Ogun State (over 2.0
million tonnes) at Oke-Eri and Illefun Hill; large deposits in Ondo State;
over 18 million tonnes in Plateau State at Nafuta, Worrom, Major Porter and
Sabon Gida; and, in Sokoto State 2.0 million tonnes of pisolitic clays occur
at Girl, and clay bricks are made at Wurno (RMRDC, 1989). Bentonitic
clays, which are used for drilling mud, were first produced in Bende in Abia
State in 1961-62.

Recent investigations by the Nigerian Mining Corporation, aimed at locally

sourcing the enormous amount of bentonite imported into the country by the
petroleum industry, established the existence of bentonitic clay reserves of
over 700 million tonnes in the country, with the largest single deposit at
Afuze in Edo State holding 70-80 million tonnes. Limestone and gypsum,
the principal raw materials for cement manufacture, are very essential for a
rapidly growing nation like Nigeria.

In addition, indeed, cement is in very high demand in the country. While

limestones abound in Nigeria more than in any other West African country,
gypsum and other salts have not been found in commercial quantity. The
nearest potential source of gypsum for Nigeria could be Mali Republic,
where millions of tonnes of mineable salts occur at Agorgott. As for clinker
(processed limestone for cement), Nigeria could export this material to
Cameroun, which at present obtains its clinker from Europe.

28| Middle Benue Trough

Seven out of the eight cement factories in Nigeria are sited close to limestone
deposits, except the plant at Okpilla in Edo State, which uses marble. The
cement factory at D'Onigholo in Benin Republic is jointly owned by Benin
(52 per cent) and Nigeria (46 per cent); it is located on the Ewekoro
limestone deposit, which extends from Ogun State in Nigeria to as far as
Ghana. Other cement factories in Nigeria are located at Ashaka, Yandev,
Nkalagu, Shagamu, Okpilla, Ewekoro, Sokoto and Calabar.

The limestone at Mfamosing, near Calabar, is the largest and the purest
deposit in Nigeria. It is about 50m thick, at the quarry site. West of Calabar,
another carbonate body occurs in the subsurface that is 450m thick. The
Calabar flank is the main carbonate province in Nigeria, with well-developed
tropical karsts and caves (Reiljers and Potters, 1987). The Mfamosing
limestone has over 97 per cent limestone (CaC03).

The Delta Steel plant at Aladja as a fluxing agent and for making hydrated
lime uses it. Marble is found in the Basement Complex and is quarried at
Jankura near Lokoja, at Ubo near Okene, and at Okpilla. The Jankura marble
is utilised as decorative marble by the Nigerian Marble Industries. Dolomitic
marble deposits are exploited at lgbeti in Oyo State and at Kwakuti in Niger
State. Other deposits are at Elehu in Kwara State, Kobe in Benue State, Muro
Hill in Plateau State, and at Burum and Taka Lafia in the Federal Capital
Territory.

Feldspar, a mineral that is used locally in the ceramic and glass industries,
occurs abundantly in the Basement Complex. Economic deposits are found
in the granitic intrusive in the basement and especially in pegmatite’s where
potash feldspar is the commercial type. Important sources of feldspar rich
pegmatites occur in Kwara and Kogi States and extensively around Oshogbo
in Osun State. Near Oshogbo, potash feldspars attain lengths of 0.9m, but
around Ijero in Ekiti state, gigantic crystals are up to 1.2m long.

Feldspar-rich pegmatites are common in the Qwozan area of Borno State and
in parts of Adamawa/Taraba states. Although rock salt has not been found in
29| Middle Benue Trough
Nigeria, highly saline brines in the Benue Trough provide potential local
sources of salt except; of course, the open ocean and there are as yet no
Salinas on the Nigerian coast. However, along the Benue Trough brines, salt
springs, salt ponds and shallow subsurface brine pools are commonly
associated with lead-zinc deposits.

Salt concentrations are up to 1.5 per cent in the Ikom area and 8.6 per cent at
Okpoma in Cross River State, where the richest occur. At Uburu-Okposi in
Abia State, the salt concentration is up to 5 per cent and 5 - 6 per cent at
Ameri. Near Abakaliki. Further, north, in Nassarawa State (Keana, Awe) and
in Taraba and Adamawa States, there are other brine fields. Geophysical
investigations by the Geological Survey of Nigeria and other organisations
aimed at locating salt domes in the Benue Trough, have so far not found any.

Therefore, the establishment of local, modern and large-scale salt industry in

Nigeria is still a dream not realised. However, at Okpoma, Ikom, Uburu,
Okposi, and Abakaliki and in the Keana/Awe areas, the local people have
established a long tradition of winning salt from their brines.

Among the metallurgical and refractory minerals needed for the reduction of
ores from their metallic state and for making resistant materials for high
temperature metallurgical furnace, which will be required by the local
metallurgical industries (e.g. iron steel plant), only fluorspar and graphite
seem to have commercial prospects in Nigeria.

The lead-zinc lodes in the Benue Trough carry small amounts of fluorspar,
which also occur in tin veins in the younger granites. Impure graphite is
known in the younger metasediments near Birnin Gwari in Kaduna State,
Taraba and Adamawa States, at Hayna (Ningi) in Bauchi State and in the
Obudu area of Cross River State.

Other refractory minerals, such as sillimanite and kyanite, occur in the Birnin
Qwari schists, while sillimanite is found near lbadan. Other industrial and
manufacturing materials such as mica, talc, asbestos and barytes also occur
30| Middle Benue Trough
in the country. There is a mica deposit around Egbe in Kwara and Kogi
States, which was mined in the past.

The crystal size of Nigerian mica is often not large enough to be economic.
Low-grade talc occurs in schists near lbadan (Oyo State), llesha (Osun
State), Abuchi in Niger State, Zonkwa in Kaduna State and at Isanlu in
Kwara State. Asbestos exists at Shemi in Kaduna State, and a large deposit
occurs at Chafe in Sokoto State.

Barytes, major weight filler for drilling mud, occurs in veins, up to 1.8m
thick in association with lead- zinc deposits in Cross River, Benue, Plateau,
Taraba and Adamawa States. Major Baryte occurrences in Nigeria are at
Lefin in Cross River State, at Aloshi, Akuri, Wuse, Azara and Gbane in
Plateau State. Keana in Nassarawa State and at Ibi and Durngel in Taraba
and Adamawa States.

At Azara, the Nigerian Mining Corporation has proved good quality baryte
reserves of about 70,000 tonnes. Finally, the Nigerian basement also holds
some prospects for gemstones. In Nassarawa, Plateau and Kaduna States,
aquamarine, emerald, sapphire, ruby, topaz, tourmaline, zircon and
almandine have been won from pegmatites.

31| Middle Benue Trough

6.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
6.1.1 MIDDLE BENUE TROUGH
The middle Benue Trough is the central segment of the Benue Trough, an
elongate large intracratonic, cretaceous to Palaeogene rift basin in Nigeria.
This study provides new information about the depth to basement (sediment
thickness), basement morphology and tectonics of the middle Benue Trough
region through detailed analysis and interpretation of preconditioned high-
resolution aeromagnetic data using three grid based semi-automated depth-
estimation methods. Integration of results reveals that the middle Benue
Trough region is a moderate to deep, faults bounded rift basin with a
maximum sediment thickness (basin fill) of about 6300m. There are seven
deep (>~2500 m) sedimentary sub-basins and several elongated shallow
(<~1800 m) basement ridges. These sub-basins and basement ridges exhibit
dominant ne-sw tectonic trends. Previously mapped magmatic bodies in the
axial region of the trough occur at depths less than about 1000 m. Most of
the imaged subsurface features were previously unknown. Subsurface crustal
basement structures show trends predominantly ne-sw, ene-wsw, nne-ssw
and nw-se and these generally reflect variations in pre-existing crustal
basement structural trends in the area, superimposed by the effects of the
regional tectonic stress fields responsible for the trough's tectonic evolution
in the cretaceous – Palaeogene. The implication of the results in regards to
hydrocarbon exploration, particularly when combined with published field
geological and organic geochemical studies, is that the middle Benue trough
region is more likely to have moderate to low oil prospects and high gas
prospects.
Despite the scientific and economic (e.g. Hydrocarbon, mineral, geothermal)
interest in the trough, the basement morphology and geometry as well as
detailed sediment thickness variations in the middle Benue trough region are
still relatively poorly known. Although several magnetic studies have been
conducted and published on the depth to basement (sediment thickness) in
the region based on analysis of a number of magnetic profiles extracted from
32| Middle Benue Trough
digitised analogue aeromagnetic anomaly maps produced from the old
(1974–1976) aeromagnetic datasets acquired with less rigorous conventional
survey parameters (Ofoegbu, 1985; Benkhelil et al., 1988; 1989; anudu et al.,
2012). This is primarily due to poor field exposure of rock outcrops and
structures, lack of seismic data, low-to medium-resolution of the
aeromagnetic datasets used and the limitations of the various magnetic
profiling depth estimation methods applied. In addition, depths of occurrence
of the numerous magmatic rocks recognised and mapped using various edge
enhancement (derivative) methods applied to high-resolution aeromagnetic
data, as presented and discussed in anudu et al. (2014) and anudu (2017), are
still generally unknown.

Therefore, this present study is aimed at providing new insight on the

morphology and geometry of the subsurface crustal basement, including
magmatic rock bodies, in the middle Benue trough region by analysis of
recently acquired, digital high-resolution aeromagnetic (total magnetic
intensity, tmi) data using three grid-based semi-automated depth-estimation
methods-total gradient (tg), horizontal gradient magnitude (hgm) and source
parameter imaging™ (spi™). Specific objectives are determining the
locations and depths of structures, estimating depth to basement (sediment
thickness) and magmatic bodies in the area, as well as their implications for
hydrocarbon exploration and tectonic/geodynamic studies. The results of the
study shed more light on the tectonic framework of the trough and aid in
further hydrocarbon exploration efforts across the region.

33| Middle Benue Trough

7.1 CONCLUSION

The middle Benue Trough region is a possible hydrocarbon system based on

field geological and organic geochemical studies and therefore merits further
investigation. Hydrocarbon exploration in the Trough is still at its early stage,
although about 935 million cubic metres of gas and an unspecified little cubic
metres of oil were discovered in the first oil well (Kolmani River-1) drilled to
a depth of c. 3000 m in 1999 by Shell Nigeria Exploration and Production
Company (SNEPCo) in the Gongola Basin of the upper Benue Trough region
to the northeast. In addition, according to Obaje (2009) two other exploration
wells: Kuzari-1 and Nasara-1, drilled to a depth of c. 1670 m in 1999 by Elf
Petroleum Nigeria Limited (TotalFinaElf) and to a depth of c. 1500 m in 2000
by Chevron Nigeria Limited (ChevronTexaco), respectively in the same
region were reported dry. No oil and/or gas exploratory well has been drilled
in the middle Benue Trough region till now, and also up to now, no seismic or
drill-hole datasets are available in this region.

34| Middle Benue Trough

References

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35| Middle Benue Trough
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36| Middle Benue Trough