Modelling and Simulation of Grid

Connected Hybrid Power System

Project Report Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of Bachelor of Technology from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of
Technology, West Bengal (formerly known as West Bengal University of
Technology)

By

MAINAK CHATTERJEE (500317011030)

SAYAN GHOSH (500317011054)

ROUNAK KUILA (500317011043)

RIJU KOLEY (500317011039)

JOYDEEP GHOSH (500317011027)

Under the guidance of

Prof. Dr Aveek Chattopadhayaya

Department of Electrical Engineering

Guru Nanak Institute of Technology

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology

Panihati, Kolkata, West Bengal

2021
 Certificate of Recommendation

It is hereby recommended to consider the project report entitled " Modelling and Simulation
of Grid Connected Hybrid Power System " submitted by Mainak Chatterjee , Sayan Ghosh
,Riju Koley , Joydeep Ghosh , Rounak Kuila (Roll no: 30 ,54 ,39 ,27 ,43) for partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical
Engineering from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (formerly known as
West Bengal University of Technology).

------------------------------ -------------------------------

Prof. (Dr Aveek Chattopadhyaya) Prof. (Dr.) B. Kundu

(Project Guide) (Head of the Department)

 Certificate Of Approval

It is hereby approved that the project report entitled " Modelling and Simulation of Grid
Connected Hybrid Power System " submitted by Mainak Chatterjee , Sayan Ghosh ,Riju Koley
, Joydeep Ghosh , Rounak Kuila (Roll no: 30 ,54 ,39 ,27 ,43) for partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering
from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (formerly known as West Bengal
University of Technology).

Board of Examiners

---------------------------

----------------------------

----------------------------
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my Project Guide (Dr. Aveek
Chattopadhayaya) as well as our Head of Department of Electrical Engineering (Dr. Barnali
Kundu)who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic (Write
the topic name), which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and i came to know about
so many new things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing
this project within the limited time frame.

………………………………………….

NAME, ROLL AND SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENT

Contents
List of Principal Symbols and Acronyms (S06-S09)

List of Figures (F10)

Abstract (A11)

Chapter 1

Introduction (12-21)

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Review of Previous Works (Literature Review)

1.3 Objective and Motivation

1.4 Scope of Present Work

Chapter 2 (22-30)

Hybrid Energy Systems

Chapter 3 (31-37)

Solar Energy

Chapter 4 (38-43)

Wind Energy

Chapter 5

Future Scope and Conclusions (44-46)

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Future Scope

References
List of Principal Symbols and Acronyms
A Surface Swept by the Wind Turbine Rotor [m2]

BAT_CH Signal Activating Battery Charging

BAT_DISCH Signal Activating Battery Discharging

cp Aerodynamic Power Coefficient

Edel_daily Daily Energy Demand of the Deferrable Load [Wh]

ED_min Minimum Energy towards the Deferrable Load Every Day [Wh]

Ewp_daily Daily Energy Demand of the Water Pumping [Wh]

Ewtr_daily Daily Energy Demand of the Water Purification [Wh]

fv Derating factor for the photovoltaics performance

G Solar Irradiance [W/m2]

g Gravitational constant [m/sec2]

GSTC Solar Irradiance for Standard Test Conditions [W/m2]

Idc_bat DC Current at Battery Output [A]

Imax_char Maximum Charging Current of the Batteries corresponding to the

Maximum Charge Rate [A]

Imax_disch Maximum Discharging Current of the Batteries corresponding to the

Maximum Charge Rate [A]

kp Temperature coefficient of the Photovoltaic Panel related to Power [

%/°C]

Np Total number of photovoltaic panels

nrotor Rotational speed of the rotor [rpm]

Pac_bat The power output of the battery converter on the ac bus [W]

Pdel Power to Deferrable Load [W]

Pdg Power Output of the Diesel Genset [W]

Pdg_n Rated Power of the Diesel Genset [W]

Pdif Power Difference Signal (the difference between the produced power
and the primary load) [W]

PD_total Maximum Power towards the Deferrable load [W]

PD_ON Deferrable Load Activating Signal

Pfrom_bat Electrical Power at the Input of the Rectifier after the Battery Output
[W]

Pin Power of the Wind for Speed Vwcut-in [W]

Pinv_rated Rated Power of the Inverter [W]

Pmaxchar Maximum Charging Power of the Batteries Corresponding to

Imax_char [W]

Pmax_disch Maximum Discharging Power of the Batteries Corresponding to

Imax_disch [W]

Pplh Power of the Primary Load of High Priority [W]

Pplh_off Rejected Power of the Primary Load of High Priority [W]

Ppll Power of the Primary Load of Low Priority [W]

Ppll_off Rejected Power of the Primary Load of Low Priority [W]

PPL Power of the Primary Load [W]

PPV Total Power Produced by the Photovoltaics [W]

PRprod Total Power Produced by Renewable Resources [W]

PSTC Rated Power of the Photovoltaic Panel under Standard Test

Conditions [W]

Pto_bat Electrical Power at the Output of the Rectifier before Battery Input [W]

Ptotalload_off Total Power Corresponding to Load Shedding [W]

pump Signal Permitting Water Pumping

Pwp Power for Water Pumping [W]

PWT Produced Power by the Wind Turbine [W]

Pwt_rated Nominal Power of the Wind Turbine [W]

Pwtr Power for Water Purification [W]

p0 Sea Level Standard Pressure [Pa]

R Specific Gas Constant [J/(kg*K)]

Rad Radius of the Rotor [m]

T Temperature [K]

Temp Temperature [°C]

TSTC Temperature for Standard Test Conditions [°C]

Vdc DC Voltage of the Battery Bank [V]

Vw Wind Speed [m/sec]

Vwcut-in Cut in Wind Speed for the Wind Turbine [m/sec]

Vwcut-out Cut out Wind Speed for the Wind Turbine [m/sec]

Vw_rated Rated Wind Speed of the Wind Turbine [m/sec]

z Altitude of the Wind Turbine [m]

β Pitch Angle [°]

ηch_b Efficiency Factor of Charging the Battery

ηconvb Efficiency Factor of the Battery Converter

ηdisch_b Efficiency Factor of Discharging the Battery

ηgint Efficiency Factor of the Interface between the Generator of the Wind
Turbine and the Inverter

ηinv Efficiency Factor of the Inverter

ηp.e. Efficiency of the Power Electronics for the Photovoltaics

ηround_trip Round-trip Efficiency of the Battery

ηw.g. Efficiency Factor of the Wind Generator

λ Tip Speed Ratio

ρ Density of the Air [kg/m3]

ωrotor Angular Speed of the Rotor [rad/sec]

AC Alternating Current

CHP Combined Heat and Power

COE Cost of Energy

DC Direct Current

DER Distributed Energy Resource

DG Distributed Generation

DNO Distribution Network Operator

DS Distributed Storage

EMS Energy Management System

MC Microgrid Central Controller

MO Market Operator

NPC Net Present Cost

PCC Common Coupling Point

PMS Power Management System

PV Photovoltaics

rms Root Mean Squared Value

SOC State of Charge of the Battery

WT Wind Turbine

VSC Voltage Source Converters

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

List of Figures
Fig 1.3.1 Block Diagram of Modelling of Hybrid System

Fig 1.4.1 Modelling and Simulation of Grid Connected Hybrid Power System

Fig 1.4.2 Graphical Simulation of Grid Connected Hybrid Power System

Fig 1.4.3 Graphical Representation of 3-Phase Grid after Simulation

Fig 1.4.4 Graphical Simulation of Output Power

Fig 2.1 Grid Connected, Hybrid Solar-Wind Energy system of electrical charging station &
street lighting system

Fig 2.2 Block Diagram of Grid Connected, Hybrid Solar-Wind Energy system of electrical
charging station & street lighting system

Fig 3.1 Line Drop Compensation Confused by a PV Generator near Front of Regulation Zone

Fig 3.2 Tail End of Regulation Zone Forced to High Voltage Due to Large Exporting PV
System Located Near the End of the Feeder (or Regulation Zone)

Fig 4.1 The Interconnection of a Wind energy conversion systems (WECS)

ABSTRACT
This Thesis is a review of Hybrid Renewable Energy System (HRES) for electricity generation.
It presents the operating mode, the different structure of the HRES and the sizing software used
to evaluate the Hybrid Renewable System (HRS) behavior. The proposed hybrid renewable
energy system contains wind, photo –voltaic cell. The objectives of this system are,
preliminary, to ensure reliable supply of electricity to the grid and secondly satisfy the local
power demands. Renewable energy power plants have been used to feed loads in remote area
as well as in central power plants connected to electric utility. Smart grid concepts used in the
design process of the hybrid renewable power systems can reduce the size of components
which can be translated to reduce the cost of generated energy.

Buildings consume about 40% of the overall energy consumption, worldwide and
correspondingly are also responsible for carbon emission. Since last decade efforts have been
made to reduce this share of the CO2 emissions conservation and efficient measures. A novel
methodology has been introduced taking the smart grid concept into account by dividing the
loads into high and low priority parts. The high priority part should be supplied at any generated
conditions. But the low priority loads can be shifted to the time when the generated energy
from renewable energy sources is greater than the high priority load requirements. A
comprehensive nonlinear model and a control design of the studied power system have been
developed in this paper. Simulation results using MATLAB/Simulink illustrate the
performances of the proposed supervisor controller under several operation modes.
Chapter 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Global residential energy consumption has increased in recent years and is expected to increase
further in the future. The domestic and commercial sectors account for almost 30% of energy
consumption globally.

The electrical sector was a profitable economic activity at its beginning in 1880, with the
development of localized systems of electrical power production, distribution and sale at the
local communities. Thus, the distributed generation of electrical energy is not a really new
concept, even though it recently started appearing in the electrical power market bibliography.
During the early stages of the electricity production development, the decentralized systems
were the norm and not the exception, with the first power plants providing electricity to
consumers, who were located in relatively small distances from them.

The first electricity networks were dc and the voltage was limited as well as the distance
between production and consumption point. The balance between them was partially achieved
with the use of some kind of local energy storage, like batteries. With the expansion of the
utility networks, the grid became ac and used high voltage in order to have higher capacity and
reach longer distances. During the last decades though, the technological progress has
contributed to the integration of the decentralized production related with the usage of
renewable energy sources. This has increased the overall complexity of the grid, but has created
many prospects for the access to electricity in many regions, where till now it was extremely
difficult. Autonomous hybrid power systems comprising different energy sources and storage
devices have been developed and have successfully served a wide range of applications, while
continuing growing up and facing challenges.

The power produced from renewable energy sources is characterized by its variability. The
solution is to couple sources of supply and form a hybrid system. A hybrid renewable energy
system is an electrical system, comprising more than one energy source, among which one at
least is renewable. In another word, a hybrid renewable energy system is a system that
combines two different technologies: one or more conventional energy sources, and at least
one renewable energy source. Hybrid energy systems are generally autonomous in this case
storage capacity is necessary; this type is widespread in isolated sites.

Renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar energy have attracted growing attention
recently as alternatives supply options for residential energy requirements, even though such
renewable energy systems operate intermittently. An on-grid, hybrid, renewable energy-based
combined heat and power (CHP) system, in which useful heat and electricity are generated
simultaneously, can be used to mitigate this challenge and enhance reliability. The hybrid
renewable energy-based CHP system considered here incorporates solar photovoltaic (PV),
solar-thermal collector, wind turbine (WT) and hydrogen energy technologies.

The goal of a hybrid renewable energy system is to meet the demand for a load from renewable
sources, if there is a lack it is filled with conventional sources, while minimizing fuel
consumption. Rapid depletion of fossil fuels has necessitated an urgent need for alternative
sources of energy to cater the continuously increasing energy demand. Another key reason to
reduce our consumption of fossil fuels is the growing global warming phenomena.
Environmentally friendly power generation technologies will play an important role in future
power supply. The renewable energy technologies include power generation from renewable
energy sources, such as wind, PV (photovoltaic), MH (micro hydro), biomass, ocean wave,
geothermal and tides.

The key reason for the deployment of the above energy systems are their benefits, such as
supply security, reduced carbon emission, improved power quality, reliability and employment
opportunity to the local people. Since the RE resources are intermittent in nature therefore,
hybrid combinations of two or more power generation technologies, along with storage can
improve system performance. Hybrid Renewable Energy System combines two or more
renewable energy resources with some conventional source (diesel or petrol generator) along
with storage, in order to fulfill the demand of an area.
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
In this section a detailed literature review of the previous works on the topic of Modeling and
Simulation of a Grid Connected Hybrid System is given.

In 2010, a paper was published on Modeling and Simulation of Grid-connected Hybrid

Photovoltaic/Battery Distributed Generation System by Fei Ding, Peng Li, Bibin Huang, Fei
Gao, Chengdi Ding, Chengshan Wang.

In this paper, a grid-connected hybrid PV / Battery generation system has been studied. In order
to convert the solar energy efficiently, the maximum power point of the PV array should be
tracked to ensure the PV array to generate most power to the utility grid. When solar irradiance
or temperature fluctuates, PV generation changes as a result. Battery can be charged or
discharge to maintain the power balance between PV generation and the demands, and thus
improve the stability of the entire system. When there is a short-circuit fault in the lines,
voltage, current and power a t the ac grid will fluctuate. Because the bi-directional D C/DC
converter in BESS can control the dc bus voltage to be constant, dc side of the system will not
be affected during the fault period, and thus I t w ill reduce the impact of fault on the PV system.

In 2013 a paper was published on Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid by Fei Ding, Student Member,
IEEE, and Kenneth A. Loparo, Fellow, IEEE, and Chengshan Wang.

In the paper, a grid-connected hybrid AC/DC microgrid is presented. Detailed dynamic

modeling of the system, including device and grid level control strategies are studied for short-
term transient simulations. Based on the test-bed various cases are simulated, from which the
following conclusions can be obtained.

(1) At steady state, a distributed generation units operate stably and provide power f or the
loads. These units help support voltage (mitigate voltage sag) and ensure local loads have
sufficient power.

(2) Wind speed fluctuations induce similar Doubly Fed Induction Generator transients;
however, the pitch angle control systems adjust pitch angle to extract maximum wind power if
wind speed is less than the nominal value and limits the output power to protect the device if
the wind speed is larger than the nominal value.
(3) Changes in solar irradiance cause P V generation to change, but the PV system tracks the
maximum power point for each condition. When P V and fuel cell generation are insufficient
to meet the load demand, the ultracapacitor will discharge to make up the difference. As a
result, the ultra-capacitor energy storage system helps to maintain D C bus voltage during the
transients and the AC grid is unaffected by DC microgrid disturbances; overall stability of the
system improved.

(4) During the three-phase fault at bus 4 all bus voltages and currents in the system are affected.
However, the bi-directional converter in ultra-capacitor energy storage system is controlled to
maintain DC bus voltage almost constant during the fault, and the operation of the DC
microgrid is not greatly affected by the fault. Thus, the cooperative operation of the DER and
storage system helps to maintain system stability during transient disturbances.

In 2013 a paper was published on the Control and Energy Management of a grid connected
Hybrid Energy System PV-Wind with Battery Energy stored for Residential Application by
Abderrezzak Bouharchouche, El Madjid Berkouk, Terrak Ghennam of the ELT- Military
Polytechnic School, Algiers, Algeria.

The paper presents the control and energy management of a hybrid system that comprises wind
(Double Fed Induction Generator DFIG) and Photovoltaic cell (PV) generation subsystems, a
battery bank, and an AC residential load, connected to the utility grid which is used a backup
source. The objectives of this system are primarily to satisfy the house load power demand and
secondarily to manage the power between its different components. The main architecture of
the hybrid system is composed of a PV generator, a DFIG based wind generator, a battery bank,
a house load, an inverter between DC bus and AC bus. The whole system is connected to the
utility grid which is considered as a backup source. Furthermore, by using double fed induction
generator, the rating of the converter reduces. So, the power loss and cost also reduces.

In 2015, a paper was published on Optimal Operation of a Grid-Connected Hybrid Renewable

Energy System for Residential Applications by Akbar Maleki, Marc A. Rosen and Fathollah
Pourfayaz ID Department of Renewable Energies, Faculty of New Science & Technologies.

The results of a study on incorporating solar-thermal collectors into a hybrid renewable energy
system are reported. A photovoltaic–wind turbine–fuel cell–solar-thermal collector system is
designed and an economic model is introduced for supplying the residential thermal and
electrical loads via the grid-connected hybrid system. Since determining the optimal operation
of a hybrid system such as a combined heat and power system constitutes a complex
optimization problem requiring a sophisticated optimization method, a modified heuristic
approach-based particle swarm optimization is proposed for solving the optimization problem.
The results are compared with those obtained by an efficient metaheuristic optimization
method, namely a genetic algorithm, in terms of accuracy and run time.

The results show that, using the grid-connected hybrid combined heat and power system,
among the cases considered, decreases the total cost of the system. The results also demonstrate
that the reductions in daily cost relative to the base case by the modified particle swarm
optimization algorithm f or Cases 1 –4 are 5.01%, 25.59%, 19.42%, and 22.19%, respectively.
Finally, Case 2 is the most cost-effective and reliable. Moreover, the modified particle swarm
optimization algorithm leads to better results than the genetic algorithm. The optimal operation
cost of grid-connected hybrid energy systems to supply both electricity and heat to a residential
application is determined. For this study, a photovoltaic–wind turbine–fuel cell–solar-thermal
collector is designed and an economic model is introduced to supply of residential thermal and
electrical loads via a grid-connected hybrid system. A modified particle swarm optimization is
proposed f or solving the optimization problem. The results are compared with those obtained
by a genetic algorithm in terms of accuracy and run time. The photovoltaic– wind turbine–fuel
cell–solar-thermal collector system is designed to meet the full demand and four possible cases
are considered and assessed. The simulation results showed that hybrid energy systems are
more cost effective than the simple energy systems with one energy input, suggesting that
hybrid energy systems are superior options. The results also demonstrate that the reduction in
daily cost relative to the base case via the modified p article swarm optimization algorithm for
Cases 1–4 is 5.01%, 2 5.59%, 1 9.42%, and 22.19%, respectively. Based on the minimum of
the objective function values, the suggested cases can be listed in rank order as follows: Case
2, Case 4, Case 3, and Case 1. Moreover, the results for Case 2 exhibit a better overall demand
(electricity and heat) supply than the first case due to its operational advantage. In addition, a
comparison of Cases 3 and 4 demonstrates that adding a solar-thermal collector is an effective
strategy, and a comparison of Cases 1 and 2 demonstrates that adding solar and wind energy is
an effective strategy. Of the cases considered, the Case 2 is the most cost-effective and reliable.
The performance of the modified particle swarm optimization method appears to be
advantageous to that of the genetic algorithm.
In 2017, a paper was published on Modeling and simulation of a micro grid-connected solar
PV system by Rameen Abdel Hady National Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources
and Irrigation, Egypt.

In this paper, a grid-connected hybrid P V / Battery generation system has been studied. In
2012, the Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy (MERE); began promoting the system
of ‘Feed-in Tariff’ in billing.

The introduced system allows the user to generate electricity through solar panels mounted on
the roofs of residential buildings and governmental organizations and tied to the grid. To
benefit from MERE’s approach, the National Water Research C enter (NWRC) (Qanatir,
Egypt) set up a pilot rooftop 91 kW PV system. All the generated electricity is fed into the 220
V, 50 H z low voltage grid serving NWRC premises. All the generated electricity is fed into
the 220 V, 50 Hz low voltage grid serving NWRC premises. The economical savings of both
scenarios are compared based on the new billing system. Results show that the current system
saves 1 00 thousand L.E./year, while tying the system to the national grid will save 2 35.8
thousand L.E./year. This model simulates two scenarios: local grid tied system (present
situation) and national grid tied system (introduced option). The economical savings when
system is connected to the national grid are exponentially higher compared to the saving of the
real system when feeding the local grid. Therefore, to encourage private and governmental
agencies expanding on solar energy production Electricity Distribution Company has to be
truly committed to ‘Feed-in Tariff’ billing system. A more precise tracking method (online or
hybrid) can be used to track the MPP rather than the OCV that has an efficiency of 85%. Later,
before the execution of NWRC’s plan, to provide all the roofs of its premises with photovoltaic
generated systems, it is recommended that a complete design and a Cost Benefit Analysis
(CBA) has to be carried out. Also, this model could be reused and modified to provide an early
evaluation of any introduced system and selling several scenarios to choose the most efficient
one taking into consideration transmission and cabling besides the saving in NWRC’s electrical
bill.

In 2018 a paper was published on Modeling and Simulation of Grid Connected Hybrid Energy
System and its Fault Analysis by Sujit Kumar Bhuyan, Prakash Kumar Hota, Bhagabat Panda
from the School of Electrical Sciences, KIIT University, India.
In this paper a detailed model of hybrid energy system combination of PV/FC/Electrolyzer and
storage tank is determined. The system configuration and the characteristics of the different
components are verified as well as the power management strategy and overall control
strategies of the system are given. In their proposed system, the PV cell was the main generating
source and used to fulfill the load requirement. Excess power of PV was used for the production
of hydrogen from the electrolyser. When the PV power was not sufficient to fulfill the load
requirement a t that time Solid Oxide Fuel Cell was used to fulfill the required load by taking
the hydrogen as fuel, also the amount of fuel flow through the valve is consumed by SOFC was
determined by the P ID controller. Different types of fault analysis are considered on the
proposed system and verified the effects due to these faults. Again, the performances of the
system are verified by the help of simulations a t different condition. Further, the obtained
results are conformed and provide the satisfactory performances. A better power management
as well as control strategy were used for the fulfillment of the load requirement under the
various critical and unfavorable situations. In their proposed system the hybrid energy system
was connected to the grid with the help of Voltage Source Converter which gives the better
results as well as better performance.

In 2019 a paper was published on Design and Simulation of 100 KW Hybrid Grid Connected
Solar PV System by L. Karunakar, R. Sai Sankar Rao, K. V. D Saiteja, P. Rohit Kumar of
ALIET, Vijayawada, India.

This paper proposes the Simulation idea of 100 KW grid-connected solar PV system. Solar
array characteristics depends on the sunlight, radiation and temperature these are in nonlinear
nature its power shifts consistently with climate evolving conditions. In this condition,

MPPT algorithm is used to track most extreme power from the solar array. Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT) controller exploits the fact that the slope of the power-voltage curve of
a PV array is equal to zero at the maximum power point, this slope is positive in the area to the
left of the maximum power point and negative in the area to the right.
1.3 OBJECTIVE AND MOTIVATION
Hybrid systems can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and increase the share of renewable energy
resources, including intermittent ones, thus increasing the eco-efficiency of energy production
and energy security.

Hybrid systems can reduce energy costs in the long run by offsetting fossil fuel use with
renewable production.

Setting up isolated grids can help provide modern energy access to remote areas and avoid the
cost of expensive transmission and distribution lines from the central grid. Particularly in poor
areas using diesel gensets, for which fuel price fluctuations can mean no electricity for a period
of time, hybrid systems can help provide more reliable modern energy access

Hybrid energy systems are particularly well suited for use in remote locations. Hybrid systems
can serve standalone mini-grids, thus avoiding costly transmission costs. The increased
capability of integrating renewable energy production into the electricity mix reduces the costs
of transporting fuel to remote areas.

Applicable for combined heat and power and district heating: As technology systems that can
be used for distributed generation, isolated grids or on-site application, hybrid energy systems
are generally well suited for combined heat and power production or district heating.

Fig.1 Block Diagram of Modelling of Hybrid System

1.4 SCOPE OF PRESENT WORK
SHORT COMING OF INDIVIDIUAL SOLAR AND WIND POWER WHICH CAN BE
OVERCOME BY A HYBRID GENERATION MODEL

Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of the
solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to effectively gather solar energy.
Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a noticeable effect on the energy system. You
should also take into account that solar energy cannot be collected during the night. On the
other hand, if you also require your water heating solution to work at night or during
wintertime, thermodynamic panels are an alternative to consider. With a hybrid energy
generation model, we are not solely relying on only solar or wind power, instead the advantage
of hybrid model is when the conditions are not suitable for generation of either of the individual
energy generation forms, the power demand can be borne to an extent by either of the system.
Thereby reducing the sole reliance on only one form of energy source.

Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These batteries,
used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that the energy is used at
night. This is a good solution for using solar energy all day long but it is also quite expensive.
In most cases, it is smarter to just use solar energy during the day and take energy from the grid
during the night (you can only do this if your system is connected to the grid). Luckily your
energy demand is usually higher during the day so you can meet most of it with solar
energy.Since the system is connected to the grid, we don’t need to worry about storing the solar
energy in batteries. When the energy demand is higher than the energy generated the wind
energy or the energy from the consumer grid can be used to fill the meet the demand. Similarly,
when the energy generated from the wind farm is insufficient to meet the power demand. The
deficient can be filled from solar array.

Wind energy has a lot in common with solar energy in terms of consistency. Although wind
energy qualifies as a renewable resource, wind speeds fluctuate each day. This can be a big
disappointment to wind turbine developers to end up with fluctuating wind patterns. The
inconsistency of wind energy generation can be overcome using the hybrid generation model
where the energy generated from the solar pv system can help share the load requirement
thereby providing a stable energy source. Wind turbines are suited to the coastal regions which
receive wind throughout the year to generate power
Fig 1 Modelling and Simulation of Grid Connected Hybrid Power System

Fig 2 Graphical Simulation of Grid Connected Hybrid Power System

Fig 3 Graphical Representation of 3-Phase Grid after Simulation

Fig 4 Graphical Simulation of Output Power

Chapter 2: HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEMS
Hybrid systems can increase the amount of dispatchable renewable energy generation as well
as the reliability of rural energy access.

The first electricity networks were dc and the voltage was limited as well as the distance
between production and consumption point. The balance between them was partially achieved
with the use of some kind of local energy storage, like batteries. With the expansion of the
utility networks, the grid became ac and used high voltage in order to have higher capacity and
reach longer distances. During the last decades though, the technological progress has
contributed to the integration of the decentralized production related with the usage of
renewable energy sources. This has increased the overall complexity of the grid, but has created
many prospects for the access to electricity in many regions, where till now it was extremely
difficult. Autonomous hybrid power systems comprising different energy sources and storage
devices have been developed and have successfully served a wide range of applications, while
continuing growing up and facing challenges.

A hybrid energy system combines multiple types of energy generation and/or storage or uses
two or more kinds of fuel to power a generator. A hybrid energy system is a valuable method
in the transition away from fossil fuelbased economies. Particularly in the short term, while
new technologies to better integrate renewable energy sources are still being developed,
backing up renewable generation with conventional thermal electric production can actually
help expand the use of renewable energy source.

Hybrid energy systems can capitalize on existing energy infrastructure and add components to
help reduce costs, environmental impacts and system disruptions. Planning a hybrid electricity
system has a market focus rather than a technology focus: the priority is to choose a mix of
energy technologies that is the most efficient and reliable way to meet users’ needs. Generally,
at least one source of the fuel used to power a generator is renewable. Such a system is designed
to increase the reliability (and thus usability) of renewable energy sources by providing
redundant energy production from conventional sources or, more efficiently, by providing
storage for electricity produced by intermittent sources. Computer applications automatically
increase or reduce conventional generation or battery usage as needed to respond to fluctuations
in production from the renewable resources to maximize the amount of renewable energy in
the system. An important issue in renewable energy development has been the inability to rely
on intermittent renewable sources, such as wind and solar, for base load power. It is not
economical to ramp up or reduce production at large conventional base load power plants; so
even if wind or solar plants are producing enough electricity to supply both peaking and some
base load demand, it does not generally offset fossil fuel-based or nuclear base load energy
generation. Small, agile hybrid energy systems are one way to allow energy production from
intermittent renewable sources into the grid more reliably. To respond accordingly to peaks
and dips in renewable energy production, hybrid systems are best implemented on a small scale
because small generators are more flexible. These agile systems can, when possible, be
interconnected into the central grid system and function as small power plants.

Industry interest in and activity regarding HES is apparent in interconnection queues and
project pipelines across the United States. However, it can be challenging to reconcile the
current and anticipated industry interest with recent research focused on the value HES can
capture from energy and capacity markets (accounting for near-term tax credits for select
technologies), which often suggests multiple independent systems offer greater net-economic
benefits than HES. This apparent disconnect could be explained by the diverse motivations for
HES that fall outside the largest value streams, such as market risk mitigation, ancillary
services revenues, revenue diversification, permitting and siting delays for new projects,
provision of local reliability and resilience (e.g., for microgrid-based hybrid applications), and
achievement of computational tractability in system operation software. To reconcile industry
interest and ongoing valuation studies, DOE could host a multistakeholder workshop to identify
the key current drivers of HES, explore the time frame for anticipated drivers of HES, gain
greater visibility into industry efforts related to HES, and gauge industry interest (or lack
thereof) in virtual power plants. Planning for such a workshop should begin by reviewing
previous HES workshops hosted by DOE and its National Laboratories.51 Moreover, the work
should be designed to directly solicit and collect specific insights from industry, utility planners
who evaluate HES in processes like integrated resource planning, and other stakeholders.
Planning for such a workshop should begin by reviewing previous HES workshops that have
been hosted by DOE and its National Laboratories, targeting attendees and topics that address
pressing challenges related to HES that are currently being developed, proposed, or considered
for interconnection in the near term. Ensuring that a wide range of viewpoints are considered
requires involvement from multiple groups, including utilities, regulators, developers, large
industrial customers, and corporate purchasers. The findings from this workshop could serve
as a benchmark of current and anticipated motivations for hybridization. To build on this
benchmark, a useful next step would be to identify and engage in deeper case studies related to
the aspects of these motivations, or sources of value, which are not currently adequately
represented in valuation tools. Such case studies should seek to characterize and quantify these
potentially unexpected sources of value to inform model development and analysis activities
for valuing commercial and emerging HES. Moreover, a primary goal of them would be to
inform DOE, researchers, policymakers, and system planners about the conditions under which
various motivations interact and influence the level (and pace) of HES deployment that might
be expected. Finally, the outcomes of such case studies should guide improvements in
“standard” valuation techniques, highlight important motivations to other stakeholders, and
inspire broader conversations about whether unexpected sources of value are transitory
elements that might be the outcome of an inefficient policy or are more robust features that are
expected to be persistent.

Technology development is the research area that is most often addressed in our DOE HES
project inventory. This research is primarily applied to colocated resources and full hybrids,
which reflects both the hardwarebased and software-based research that is needed to develop
HES in which the subcomponents are physically linked. Technology development research for
virtual power plants is much more limited in frequency, and it is principally dedicated to
distribution-connected systems (e.g., aggregated DERs and microgrids) comprising
PV+battery, as well as wind and diesel subcomponents in select projects; such research may
ultimately be relevant for utility-scale virtual power plants.

The technology development research area spans many topics, ranging from hardware and
software components to optimized conversion, hybridization, and coupling. DOE-funded
research related to

(a)Optimized energy conversion and (b) hybridization and optimized system coupling spans a
diverse array of technology subcomponents, which largely follows from the nature of the
research subcategories: all generation technologies must explore the nature of hybridization
that will result in cost and performance benefits, relative to independent systems. However, it
also indicates the value associated with exploring a variety of technology combinations and
couplings, particularly for HES that contain more exotic subcomponents or linkages.

DOE-funded technology development research often deals with hardware components, with
controls being the most frequently studied. Controls research for PV+battery HES is most
abundant, while the addition of wind and diesel subcomponents is also common in distribution-
connected HES, typically for microgrid and remote deployments. DOE is also funding
integration and testing capabilities for a broad range of HES that include fuel cells,
electrolyzers, thermal integration with power generators and heat users, and a diverse set of
energy storage technologies (e.g., thermal, electrical, and chemical). Furthermore, recent
capabilities for multi-vector (or multiproduct) systems include integration of hydrogen and
chemicals production with supervisory control based on market signals.

There is a convergence occurring between the business realities of the utility industry, the
energy demands of modern society, and the sustainability requirements of the environment in
which we live. The combination of these factors is driving the development and
implementation of a new power delivery system. This network will utilize the same basic
infrastructure we know today, but will also draw on advanced monitoring, control and
communications technology that is presently only beginning to be applied. The result will be a
grid that is largely automated applying intelligence to operate, monitor and even heal itself.
This “smart grid” will be more flexible, more reliable and better able to serve the needs of a
digital economy.

It will be good to start with hybrid energy system (HES). Hybrid energy system is the
engineering design of hybridizing power supply components or pairing them, for example,
arranging diverse energy resources to work in parallel (equivalent) is very common in power.
So, hybridizing is defined as forming crossbreed of pairs of agents for working together to
achieve a purpose. Thus, hybridizing is to manually or automatically synchronize two or more
electric power generator resources or components to supply electric power to the grid, therefore
forming hybrid energy system. Hybrid energy system is an infrastructural design that integrates
diverse or multiple energy converters to energy storage, energy conditioners, energy
management system. By and large hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) is an extension of
HES that uses mix diverse resources as hybrid or all hybrid renewable energy resources to
supply the electric power system.

The concept of the hybrid RE power system is the perception to implement reliability portfolio
to avert LPSP that will affect the quality of power supply resulting in dynamic change and
transient. Hence, reliability is the dependability of systems or components to be able to function
appropriately under stated conditions for a specified period without failure. Furthermore,
reliability is said to be a probability of success, expressed as reliability (R) equal to “1” minus
(Pf) probability of failure i.e., R = 1 − Pf. Hence, reliability relates to safety factors and cost
factor caused by system downtime, cost of equipment repairs, spare parts, personnel, and cost
of warranty claims. High reliability level will of course result from good engineering, reliability
concept such as employing the concept of electric power system design optimization.
Stochastic parameter dynamics in power supply do affect system reliability as failure is
unabated, unless the concept of hybridization is embraced and integrated in the power supply
structure as stated. Redundancy is provision of more than one alternative resource power
supply or system component to perform certain task (important), duplication of active or
passive subsystem, and complete energy storage backup integration in case of failure according
to Ashourian et al.

On the other hand, reliability covers several unique modus operandi which provides high
quality output, affording utmost availability through redundancy, and advanced problem-
solving capabilities of hybrid RE power system as stated by Mat et al. Thus, HES assume
several design types such as multiple fossil fuel energy sources, diesel generator-SPV
renewable energy sources or other hybrid renewable energy resources mixture. And the hybrid
system reliability can be improved through the integration and optimization of essential
components such as energy resources, energy storage and energy management. Hybrid energy
renewable systems are economical, less or no fossil fuel consumption for all RER, and have no
or less greenhouse gas emission. Solar, hydro and other renewable energy sources are
environmentally safe and have adequate power generation potentials. Therefore, the integration
of these sources with energy storage as hybrid system has economic returns as supported by
Mat et al.

Hybrid renewable energy power system (HREPS) is a cross breed or mixture of matching
(parallel) power system infrastructure designed to offer power supply reliability. Hybrid
renewable energy power system (HREPS) has enormous designs or models that consists of five
common subunits, namely, (i) renewable energy resource (RER) or energy harvester, (ii)
electrical system (energy conditioners), and (iii) energy storages system (ESS), however, (iv)
a common Bus and (v) electronic logic controller (ECS) is included for system management.
Hence, HREPS has several designs of hybridizing by optimal selection of appropriate
components that consists of energy harvester, electrical energy conditioner, ESS, common bus
and electronic logic controller, however, all hybrid design emphases on hybridizing RER than
any of the five components. Thus, adapting redundancy norm on all subunits in order to avoid
loss of power supply probability (LPSP) is necessary in order to realize optimal design. The
nomenclature hybrid renewable energy power supply (HREPS) design requires the following
project proposal subunits to be, the hybrid renewable energy resource (HRER)-hybrid energy
storage system (HESS)-hybrid energy conditioner (HEC)-hybrid energy management (HEMS)
of four modules hybridized subunits. Each of the subunit is expected to complement its pair to
compromise optimal design to be modulated and simulated using simulation-based
optimization in order to achieve power supply reliability devoid of loss of power supply
probability (LPSP).

In hybrid system both wind and solar photovoltaic systems are used. A DC-DC Boost converter
is combined with multilevel inverter to get the output voltage of 230V then the simulated results
is carried out. It indicates the synchronous generator model, power converter, photovoltaic
system and control blocks.

Tightly coupled hybrid energy systems refer to physically connected technologies having
various time constants. These systems can increase the economic value of dedicated energy
resources and independent systems through more-efficient use of variable and underutilized
energy sources. They can also provide a range of services to the grid, including power on
demand and power phase, frequency, and voltage maintenance, as well as multiple other energy
products or energy-intensive products such as chemicals, thermal energy for industrial
processing or district heating, and water treatment. Creating a highly efficient, low-cost tightly
coupled energy system will require the development of interdependent subsystems that are
connected through electrical and properly designed heat and mass transport systems. Tightly-
coupled systems must also be resilient to inherent or unplanned system perturbations. They
require system-wide monitoring, state awareness, and application of supervisory or fully
automated control systems that anticipate and adjust energy flows and unit operations in
accordance with energy availability and market signals. Many of the advanced technologies
that could be part of future HES have been described in the previous opportunities, and they
include:

1) Thermal, chemical, and electrical energy delivery and storage systems

2) Advanced power generation technologies, including hybrid systems that reduce exergy
destruction (i.e., the loss of available work as heat, waste products, or electrical grounding)

3) Advanced heat transport and heat exchangers

4) Smart control systems

5) Cybersecure communications and control

6) Advanced fuel production and processing

7) Stable water systems and natural water cycles

8) CO2 capture and utilization.

Major System Components for grid connected hybrid renewable energy system The functional
and operational requirements will determine which components the system will include. It may
contain major system components as multilevel power inverter, power charge controller, PV
modules, wind turbine, MPPT system, battery bank system, and sometimes the specified
electrical loads such as charging station & street lightning loads.

1) PV Modules: - Convert sunlight instantly into DC electric power.

2) Wind turbine: - extracts energy from wind by rotation of the blades of the wind turbine.
Power generated from wind is depend on wind speed. Generally, power is fluctuating so we
require battery bank system to store it.

3) MPPT: - To track maximum power by solar array from solar radiation.

4) Multilevel Inverter: - Converts DC power extracted from hybrid renewable energy system
into standard AC power for use in specified application, also it is coordinating with utility
power whenever the electrical grid is distributing electricity.

5) Battery Bank: - store energy when there is a surplus coming in and distribute it back out
when there is an electricity demand. A solar PV panel continues to recharge batteries each day
to keep battery full charge.

6) Charge Controller - Avoids battery overcharging and prolongs the battery life of your PV
system. Also supervise and control of balance of system components; wiring system,
overcurrent protection, surge protection, connect & disconnect devices and other power
processing equipment.

7) System Sizing: - The size of the PV system that will meet your expectations depends on
your specific needs, site location and weather.

8) PV System Maintenance: - PV systems require very little maintenance. Practically

maintenance-free.

9) Vehicles charging station: - to recharge the electrical vehicles by hybrid renewable energy
system.
10) Street lightning system: -lighted by supply obtained from hybrid renewable energy system

STRENGTHS IN USING A HYBRID SYSTEM

> Hybrid systems can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and increase the share of renewable energy
resources, including intermittent ones, thus increasing the eco-efficiency of energy production
and energy security.

> Hybrid systems can reduce energy costs in the long run by offsetting fossil fuel use with
renewable production.

> Setting up isolated grids can help provide modern energy access to remote areas and avoid
the cost of expensive transmission and distribution lines from the central grid. Particularly in
poor areas using diesel gensets, for which fuel price fluctuations can mean no electricity for a
period of time, hybrid systems can help provide more reliable modern energy access

CHALLENGES TO USE A HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEM

> Financial:

1) The multiple components required to form a hybrid system generally make them expensive
to build.

> Technical:

1) There is no single optimal hybrid energy system configuration. Rather, optimizing is based
on the availability of renewable and non-renewable resources, on site-specific energy
infrastructure, production costs and incentive policies. Planning a hybrid system thus
necessitates an adequate study period for each proposed project site.

2) Because many hybrid systems rely on the flexibility of small conventional power production
facilities that can be dispatched as needed and/or on small storage devices to deal with
intermittent renewable energy sources, these systems have limited scalability with the currently
available technologies.

3) Not all energy production and storage technologies that are potential hybrid system
components are fully developed. It is risky to invest in long-term, expensive infrastructure that
may improve significantly in the medium term.

4) Implementing hybrid energy systems can create market opportunities for the deployment of
energy technologies that are not yet mature.5 If a particular technology, such as a new type of
fuel cell, is not yet efficient or reliable enough to produce electricity in a stand-alone system,
it may fit well as an additional component to a hybrid system in which other components can
cover possible bumps in the production process.

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY:

Figure: Proposed Block diagram of grid connected Hybrid Solar-wind Energy system vehicles
charging station & street lightning system

The total power generated by this system may be given as the addition of the power generated
by the solar PV panel and power generated by the wind turbine. Mathematically it can be
represented as, Pt =Nw*Pw+Ns*Ps

Where, Pt is the total power generated

Pw is the power generated by wind turbines

Ps is the power generated by solar panels

Nw is the no of wind turbine

Ns is the number of solar panels used

Fig 2: Block Diagram of Grid Connected, Hybrid Solar-Wind Energy system of electrical
charging station & street lighting system
Chapter 3: SOLAR ENERGY
SOLAR LIGHT

The spectrum of the solar light coming from sun covers from about 250 nm to about 2500 nm
in wavelength. By the way visible light of human beings covers from 400 to 700 nm, at which
band the light is very dense, about 1.5 W/m2/nm at 400 nm, going up to about 1.75 W/m2/nm
at about 550 nm and then comes back to 1.5 W/m2/nm at 700 nm . Solar thermal heating is the
result of the whole solar spectrum, for this reason, even white painted cars, get hot, because
though most of the visible light is reflected, but the other parts of the spectrum, heats the car.
Though mirrors reflect most of the wide spectrum of sun, but the glass covering the mirror,
gets hot. the behavior of PV modules at varying environmental conditions like solar irradiation
and temperature are studied.

BEHAVIOR OF PV MODULE

Behavior of PV module during partial shading condition and also how it’s bad effects can be
minimized. Different MPPT techniques, their advantages and disadvantages and why MPPT
control is required. The wind energy system, its working and also techniques to extracts the
maximum power from the wind energy system is understood. The study of different type of bi-
directional converters, its working and how to use them in battery charging and discharging
system is carried out. the modeling and analyzing of a seven-level inverter operate on
photovoltaic and wind energy sources is studied. Study of vehicles charging station and street
lightning system is carried out.

HIGH PV PENETRATION AND THE UTILITY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

PV systems generate energy with minimal environmental impact. However, a simple PV

system without storage provides power only when the sun shines. It does not produce power
in the evening when loads can be high, and the power output from a PV system can increase or
decrease rapidly due to cloud passages. While the markets for grid-connected residential and
commercial PV systems are growing rapidly, the total contribution of PV systems to the
nation’s power supply is small and currently has no significant effect on the operation of the
nation’s power systems. However, as the quantity of energy generated by solar and other
distributed energy systems becomes significant, these systems have the potential to adversely
impact utility system operation. To mitigate these impacts, changes are likely to be made to
utility/PV system interface requirements and to utility rate structures, which in turn may alter
the value of these systems.

> PV System Characteristics and Impacts

: Today’s grid-connected residential and commercial systems typically have the following
characteristics and associated impacts:

1) The PV system and the inverter are connected to the grid in parallel with the load.

2) The load is served whenever the grid is available.

3) Energy produced by the PV system decreases the apparent load. Energy produced in excess
of the load flows into the distribution system.

4) The PV system has no storage and cannot serve the load in the absence of the grid.

5) The PV system produces power at unity power factor and utility supplies all Volt Ampere
reactive power.

: For residential and small-commercial systems, the grid interconnection is typically net
metered at a flat rate

1) There is no direct communication or control between the utility and the inverter.

2) If the inverter senses that utility service has fallen outside set boundaries for voltage and/or
frequency or utility service is interrupted, the inverter will disconnect from the utility until
normal conditions resume. The load remains connected to the utility.

3) If the grid is not available, grid-tied PV inverters (without energy storage and load transfer
capability) cannot serve the load, even when sunlight is present and the PV modules are able
to produce power.

4) The price of energy is constant throughout the day and there is no demand charge. • When
excess energy is produced, the meter spins backwards. • Energy is bought and sold at the same
price.

5) Over the course of a month or a year, if energy produced exceeds energy used, the utility
will not pay for the excess above the amount used.

: For large-scale commercial systems, rate structures are more complex.

1) Time-of-use rates often apply, with cost of energy being higher during periods of peak
demand.

2) Demand charges may apply with a significant portion of the utility bill derived from the
highest power requirement (kW) measured over a 15-to-30-minute interval during the monthly
billing period.

3) A charge for VARS (reactive power) may apply.

4) Net metering is less common, and some systems are not permitted to deliver any power back
to the utility. In this case, the load must always exceed the energy generated by the solar
system.

5) Other systems have dual meters and power is purchased by the utility at a lower rate than
the rate charged for power supplied by the utility to the customer.

IMPACTS OF CONNECTING PV SYSTEM TO THE GRID

If the PV penetration is really high Photovoltaic systems can subject the grid to several negative
impacts. They are i) Reverse power flow, ii) Overvoltage along Distribution feeders, iii)
Voltage control difficulty, iv) Phase unbalance, v) Power Quality problems, vi) Increased
Reactive power and vii) Islanding detection difficulty. This paper considers the following three
impacts.

> Power quality problems/Harmonics

The inverter forms the core of the grid connected PV system and is responsible for the quality
of power injected into the grid. Inverters also introduce harmonics into the system in the
presence of non-linear loads, during DC to AC conversion. Harmonic currents introduce
voltage drop and result in distortion of supply voltage. Harmonics can also cause resonance in
the supply system, resulting in malfunction, reduction in lifetime or permanent damage of
electrical equipment

> Increased Reactive Power

Photovoltaic inverters usually operate at unity power factor. The owners of small residential
PV systems in an incentive-based program are levied based on their kilowatt-hour yield and
not on their kilovolt-ampere hour yield. Hence, they prefer to operate PV inverters at unity
power factor, maximizing the active power generation, and accordingly their returns. As a
result, the reactive power demand met by the PV system is minimal. Hence, the grid is
responsible for supplying majority of reactive power, and it makes the distribution transformer
operate at a low power factor.

> Islanding Detection

The condition when the solar system continues to supply to the load even though grid power
from the utility is not present is called islanding. Islanding can be dangerous to utility workers,
who may not realize that a circuit is still energized while working on repairs or maintenance.
Hence, the solar inverter must detect islanding and disconnect the PV system when the grid is
down. This function of the PV system is known as ‘anti-islanding’.

These impacts are dependent on the size and location of the PV system. According to the Solar
America Board for Codes and Standards (Solar ABCs) PV systems are classified into three
categories, based on the ratings of the system. Small-scale systems are rated at 10kW or less;
Medium-scale systems are rated between 10kW and 500kW; and large-scale systems are rated
above 500 kW. This paper considers large-scale PV system of 4MW for simulation.

IMPLICATIONS FOR UTILITY OPERATIONS

There are utility concerns that high penetration of inverter-based solar energy systems along
with other distributed generation sources on distribution lines will contribute to instabilities
and possibly unsafe operations due to one or several of the following design and operational
characteristics:

> Because PV energy production does not always coincide with the times when it is most
economical for utilities to use it, it can negatively impact utility operating economics

1) No power is available in the hours immediately after sunset when demand for power may
be high. Thus, the utility must increase peak power generation during these hours.

2) Conversely, utility demand is low in the early morning hours (sunrise to ~ 9 am). Power
from solar systems during these hours results in a lower load for the utility, decreasing the need
for economical 24-hr base load power, and increasing the need for more expensive intermediate
and peaking power during the rest of the day.

> From the utility perspective, net-metered, flat rate customers, especially those whose net
demand approaches zero, do not pay a fair share of their costs.

1) If energy generated equals energy used, then energy-related charges (the dominant part of
most residential and small commercial bills) will approach zero.
2) Without a demand (kW) charge or significant interconnection charge, customers will pay
little for the benefits of being connected to the grid.

> Power production from an individual PV system may increase or decrease rapidly due to
cloud passages

1) In most cases, the rate of change of the collective output from PV systems will be moderated
by the geographic dispersal of the systems. However, in a case where the service area is
relatively small and rapid weather changes can occur, measurements conducted by Tucson
Electric Power show that a rapidly-passing cloud bank can essentially eliminate all solar
generation across Tucson in less than 5 minutes.

2) The introduction of significant amounts of rapidly-changing intermittent power in a utility

system can affect the controls on and increase the need for spinning reserve.

> If a utility experiences sagging voltage under high demand conditions, IEEE 1547 requires
that inverters disconnect. However, since the loads are not automatically disconnected, the
utility will see an increase in demand, potentially aggravating the cause of the voltage sag and
leading to a blackout (decreased utility system reliability).

> The addition of large numbers of inverters has been shown to increase the probability of
islanding, during which inverters continue to supply local loads after a utility fault. Other
impacts to the utility include:

1) Inverters are limited in their ability to introduce extremely high levels of short circuit current,
but the addition of large systems or many small systems can sum to significant short circuit
currents and possibly cause equipment malfunction or damage.

2) Utility protection relays are designed to detect a fault, e.g., an arc to ground created by a tree
branch falling across a line. The relays briefly disconnect from the fault to allow the fault to
clear, and then reconnect to provide continuing service. If islanding detection fails and
inverters remain on-line:

3) The inverters may be damaged by the reconnect.

4) The inverters may continue to supply current which could maintain the fault, causing the
utility protection relays to lock open. Utility technicians must then be dispatched to reset the
relays, and customers may be left without power for a significant time.
5) When technicians are dispatched, if the inverters are still on-line, the safety of the technicians
is threatened because of power being supplied to the load side of disconnects and downed
power lines.

> Large power flow into distribution systems that were designed for one-way flow may impact
system regulation and protection. Fully understanding the effects of high penetration on
distribution system operation and design requires further study, but a number of potential issues
have been identified.

1) Reverse power flow can interfere with voltage regulation. Voltage regulators measure
current and voltage and will maintain higher voltage at the beginning of a radial line to ensure
adequate voltage at the end of the line, in proportion to power flow. Introduction of significant
distributed power downstream from the voltage regulation system will make line loading
appear to be low.

2) If the power is injected just downstream from voltage regulation, customers at the end of the
line will experience low voltage,

3) If the power is injected near the end of the line, high voltage may occur at that point,

4) Fuses are designed to protect the current carrying capability of a line, but injection of power
downstream from a fuse will not be detected, leading to the potential for overload

5) Frequency regulation may be impacted when distributed generation from PV systems

becomes greater than local conventional generation. The effect on frequency regulation has
not yet been observed, but is dependent upon the characteristics of the loads and the load-to-
generation ratio.

6) Phase-to-neutral over voltage may develop with load/generation imbalance or with phase to
neutral faults. This condition will likely be worsened with high penetrations of PV distributed
systems with no dispatchability or interactive controls. Singlephase systems installed
disproportionately on a single phase may cause severely unbalanced networks leading to
damage to controls or transformers.

7) Inverters using pulse-width-modulation schemes to regulate their outputs typically do not

add to lower number harmonics, however the higher frequencies associated with the power
electronics do inject higher order harmonics.
8) The levels of higher order harmonics from inverters that would interfere with the distribution
equipment have not been fully characterized and need to be studied to determine if there is a
possible effect on safety and equipment ratings. However, if required, mitigating the impact
by filtering is generally simple, but will impact cost and performance

9) Inverter-generated pulses associated with impedance detection for anti-islanding also

accumulate in high penetration scenarios and may cause out-of-spec utility voltage profiles.
Chapter 4: WIND ENERGY
NATURE OF WIND

The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating of the earth’s
surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area expands, it is forced upward by
cool, denser air which flows in from surrounding areas causing wind. The nature of the terrain,
the degree of cloud and the angle of the sun in the sky are all factors which influences this
process.

In general, during the day the air above the land mass tends to heat up more rapidly than the
air over water. In coastal regions this manifests itself in a strong onshore wind. At night the
process is reversed because the air cools down more rapidly over the land and the breeze
therefore blows off shore.

Despite the wind’s intermittent nature, wind patterns at any particular site remain remarkably
constant year by year. Average wind speeds are greater in hilly and costal area than they are
well inland. The winds also tend to blow more consistently and with greater strength over the
surface of the water where there is a less surface drag.

Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the mass
of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of the energy and convert is into useful
work.

Wind is used to produce electricity using the kinetic energy created by air in motion. This is
transformed into electrical energy using wind turbines or wind energy conversion systems.
Wind first hits a turbine’s blades, causing them to rotate and turn the turbine connected to them.
That changes the kinetic energy to rotational energy, by moving a shaft which is connected to
a generator, and thereby producing electrical energy through electromagnetism.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

> Advantages of Wind Power

1) Wind power is cost-effective. Land-based utility-scale wind is one of the lowest-priced

energy sources available today, costing 1–2 cents per kilowatt-hour.

2) Wind creates jobs

3) It's a clean fuel source. Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on
combustion of fossil fuels, which emit particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide.

4) Wind is a domestic source of energy.

5) It's sustainable. Winds are caused by the heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation
of the Earth, and the Earth's surface irregularities

6) Wind turbines can be built on existing farms or ranches. This greatly benefits the economy
in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found.

> Disadvantages of Wind Power

1) Wind power must still compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis. Even
though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically, wind projects must be able to
compete economically with the lowest-cost source of electricity.

2) Good land-based wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the
electricity is needed. Transmission lines must be built to bring the electricity from the wind
farm to the city.

3) Wind resource development might not be the most profitable use of the land. Land suitable
for wind-turbine installation must compete with alternative uses for the land.

4) Turbines might cause noise and aesthetic pollution. Concern exists over the noise produced
by the turbine blades and visual impacts to the landscape.

5) Wind plants can impact local wildlife. Birds and bats have been killed by flying into
spinning turbine blades. Most of these problems have been resolved or greatly reduced through
technology development or by properly sitting wind plants.

POWER IN WIND

Several different factors influence the potential wind resource in an area. The three main
factors that influence power output are: wind speed, air density, and blade radius.
Wind turbines need to be in areas with a lot of wind on a regular basis, which is more important
than having occasional high winds.
> Wind Speed:

Wind speed largely determines the amount of electricity generated by a turbine. Higher wind
speeds generate more power because stronger winds allow the blades to rotate faster which
translates to more mechanical and electrical power from the generator.

> Air Density:

Power output is related to the local air density, which is a function of altitude, pressure,
and temperature. Dense air exerts more pressure on the rotors, which results in higher power
output.

> Turbine Density:

Wind turbines are designed to maximize the rotor blade radius to maximize power output.
Larger blades allow the turbine to capture more of the kinetic energy of the wind by moving
more air through the rotors. However, larger blades require more space and higher wind speeds
to operate. As a general rule, turbines are spaced out at four times the rotor diameter. This
distance is necessary to avoid interference between turbines, which decreases the power output.

No device, however well-designed, can extract all of the wind’s energy because the wind would
have to be brought to a halt and this would prevent the passage of more air through the rotor.
The most that is possible is for the rotor to decelerate to whole horizontal column of intercepted
air to about one-third of its free velocity.

A 100% efficient aerogenerator would therefore only be able to convert up to a maximum of

around 60% of the available energy in wind into mechanical energy.

A well-designed blade will typically extract 70% of the theoretical maximum, but losses
incurred in the gear box, transmission system and generator or pump could decrease overall
wind turbine efficiency to 35% or less.

CALCULATION OF WIND POWER

The power in the wind can be computed by using of Kinetics.

We know that power is equal to energy per unit time. The energy available is the kinetic energy
of the wind. The kinetic energy of any particle is equal to one half its mass times the square of
its velocity.

1
i.e., Kinetic Energy of Particle = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 --------(1)
The amount of air passing in unit time, through an area ‘A’, with velocity ‘V’ is A x V, and its
mass ‘m’ is equal to its volume multiplied by its density ‘ρ’ of air.

i.e., 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 ---------(2)

Substituting Eq (1) in Eq (2),

We get,

1
Kinetic Energy = 2 𝜌𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉 2

1
= 𝜌𝐴𝑉 3 (Watts)
2

WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

Wind energy conversion systems (WECS) are designed to convert the energy of wind
movement into mechanical power. With wind turbine generators, this mechanical energy is
converted into electricity and in windmills this energy is used to do work such as pumping
water, mill grains, or drive machinery.

The following figure shows the interconnection of a WECS

WIND ENERGY CONVERSION

The fact that the wind is variable and intermittent source of energy is immaterial for some
application such as plumbing water for land drainage-provided, of course, that there is a broad
match between the energy supplied over any critical period and the energy required. If the wind
blows, the job gets done; if it does not, the job waits.

However, for many of the uses to which electricity is put, the interruption of supply may be
highly inconvenient. Operators or users of wind turbines must ensure that there is some from
of back-up can take the form of

1) Battery storage

2) Connection with the local electricity distribution systems, or

3) A stand by generator powered by liquid or gaseous fuels

For utility responsible for public supply, the integration of medium sized and large wind
turbines into their distribution network could require some additional plant which is capable of
responding quickly to meet fluctuating demand.

SMALL PRODUCERS

Private citizens in several countries have won to right to operate wind generator and other
renewable energy systems and to export power to the grid. For most small wind generators this
requires that the output is conditioned, so that in the frequency and phase of the mains supply.
Only few small units are designed to maintain a constant rotational rate, so that can be
synchronized to the mains frequency and feed electricity directly into the grid. Where there is
no grid connection, electricity that is surplus to immediately requirements must be stored on
site using heavy duty batteries. It can be recovered later when the demand exceeds the supply.

LARGE PRODUCERS

Large and medium-sized wind generators are designed to give a stable and constant electrical
output over a wide range of wind speeds and to feed current directly into the grid, they operate
primarily as fuel savers, reducing the utility’s total fuel burn. The choice of generator type
depends on the size of the local distribution grid and its associated generating capacity. An
induction generator would normally be used where there is a significant amount of other
generating capacity (which could provide the necessary reactive power for excitation).
Induction generators are robust and reliable and require minimal control equipment. For
isolated networks where other local generating capacity is limited, a synchronous generator is
more appropriate. Synchronous generator are more complex and therefore more expensive than
induction machines
SITE SELECTION

The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind energy
conversion machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong and
persistent. The most suitable sites for wind turbines would be found in areas where the annual
average wind speeds are known to be moderately high or high.

Some of the main site selection considerations are given below:

1. High annual average wind speed.

2. Availability of anemometry data.

3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site.

4. Wind structure at the proposed site.

5. Altitude of the proposed site.

6. Terrain and its aerodynamic.

7. Local Ecology.

8. Distance to road or railways.

9. Nearness of site to local centre/users.

10. Nature of ground.

11. Favorable land cost.

Chapter 5.1 CONCLUSION
Photovoltaic Systems have developed into a mature technology used for mainstream electricity
generation. However, they introduce numerous negative impacts into the electrical networks.
Studies on three such impacts has been provided. A gridconnected PV test system was
considered and simulated in RSCAD software. Harmonic content introduced by 4MW PV
system with a 3-phase, 2-level DC/AC inverter, at PCC was found to be within the limits.
Reactive power support with regards to varying load power factor and varying PV penetration
levels was studied. Anti-islanding function of the PV system was studied and found that the
critical islanding time of the PV system for the system considered is 125ms. Further, the
Performance Ratio of a typical grid connected system in India was calculated in order to
compare the performance of the PV system with other systems throughout the world. The
studies carried out will help PV power generators and utilities the issues to be studied for a grid
connected PV system.

The SEGIS program is intended to provide the impetus for improving the methodologies and
hardware for increasing the penetration of PV systems into the utility grid. The development
of advanced, integrated inverter/controllers and associated energy management functions is a
critical part of the SEGIS program. The SEGIS program is an aggressive effort to enable
substantial penetration of PV into today’s grid, into intermediate grid scenarios, and into the
smart grid of the future, which will be characterized by a significantly larger amount of
distributed generation, much of it from intermittent sources. To achieve optimum value and to
enhance the reliability of power for solar systems owners and the grid as a whole, these systems
will require advanced controls that can integrate energy management and energy storage.
Changes to the protection methods for the integrated grid will be required to accommodate the
possible back-feeding of energy from these sources, and distributed generation systems will be
required to demonstrate value in a market dominated by time-of-use tariffs.

Advanced inverter/controllers and energy management systems will need to include

sophisticated interfaces and controls to be able to integrate with emerging “Smart Grid”
technology, and as such, must be compatible with communication protocols utilized by
established and emerging energy management and utility distribution level communication
systems. Finally, these systems must meet the performance and reliability targets consistent
with achieving levelized cost of energy that will be competitive in future energy markets.
5.2 FUTURE SCOPE
The renewable technologies have come a long way in terms of research and development.
However, there are still certain obstacles in terms of their efficiency and optimal use. Following
are the challenges faced by the designer.

The renewable energy sources, such as solar PV and FCs, need innovative technology to
harness more amount of useful power from them. The poor efficiency of solar is major
obstruction in encouraging its use.

The manufacturing cost of renewable energy sources needs a significant reduction because the
high capital cost leads to an increased payback time.

It should be ensured that there should be minimal amount of power loss in the power electronic
devices.

The storage technologies need to increase their life-cycle through inventive technologies.

These stand-alone systems are less adaptable to load fluctuations. Large variation in load might
even lead to entire system collapse.
References
[1] Thesis on Modelling and Simulation of Grid-connected Hybrid Photovoltaic/Battery
Distributed Generation System by Fei Ding, Peng Li, Bibin Huang, Fei Gao, Chengdi Ding,
Chengshan Wang.

[2] Thesis on Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid by Fei Ding, Student Member, IEEE, and Kenneth A.
Loparo, Fellow, IEEE, and Chengshan Wang.

[3] Thesis on Optimal Operation of a Grid-Connected Hybrid Renewable Energy System for
Residential Applications by Akbar Maleki , Marc A. Rosen and Fathollah Pourfayaz ID
Department of Renewable Energies, Faculty of New Science & Technologies and many more

[4] In 2010, a thesis was published on Modeling and Simulation of Grid-connected Hybrid
Photovoltaic/Battery Distributed Generation System by Fei Ding, Peng Li, Bibin Huang, Fei
Gao, Chengdi Ding, Chengshan Wang.

[5] In 2019 a thesis was published on Design and Simulation of 100 KW Hybrid Grid
Connected Solar PV System by L. Karunakar, R. Sai Sankar Rao, K. V. D Saiteja, P. Rohit
Kumar of ALIET, Vijayawada, India.

[6] In 2018 a thesis was published on Modeling and Simulation of Grid Connected Hybrid
Energy System and its Fault Analysis by Sujit Kumar Bhuyan, Prakash Kumar Hota, Bhagabat
Panda from the School of Electrical Sciences, KIIT University, India.

[7] In 2017, a thesis was published on Modeling and simulation of a micro grid-connected solar
PV system by Rameen Abdel Hady National Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources
and Irrigation, Egypt.

[8] In this Thesis, a grid-connected hybrid P V / Battery generation system has been studied.
In 2012, the Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy (MERE); began promoting the
system of ‘Feed-in Tariff’ in billing.

[9] In 2015, a thesis was published on Optimal Operation of a Grid-Connected Hybrid

Renewable Energy System for Residential Applications by Akbar Maleki, Marc A. Rosen and
Fathollah Pourfayaz ID Department of Renewable Energies, Faculty of New Science &
Technologies.
[10] In 2013 a thesis was published on the Control and Energy Management of a grid connected
Hybrid Energy System PV-Wind with Battery Energy stored for Residential Application by
Abderrezzak Bouharchouche, El Madjid Berkouk, Terrak Ghennam of the ELT- Military
Polytechnic School, Algiers, Algeria.

[11] In 2013 a thesis was published on Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid by Fei Ding, Student
Member, IEEE, and Kenneth A. Loparo, Fellow, IEEE, and Chengshan Wang.

[12] In 2010, a thesis was published on Modeling and Simulation of Grid-connected Hybrid
Photovoltaic/Battery Distributed Generation System by Fei Ding, Peng Li, Bibin Huang, Fei
Gao, Chengdi Ding, Chengshan Wang.