Greenhouse Gardening

A Small Backyard Geenhouse For the Home
Gardener
Home gardening and landscaping are enjoyable hobbies for many people in North Carolina. If
you are among them, you might benefit from a small backyard greenhouse. A greenhouse can be
built easily and inexpensively in several hours using simple hand tools and materials available at
most building supply stores. This publication presents plans and instructions for an easily
constructed greenhouse that costs about $100 and may be used for many purposes. Measuring 12
feet by 14 feet (168 square feet), it is small enough to be unobtrusive but large enough to meets
the needs of the serious grower. The completed structure is shown in Figure 1.
Selecting a Site
Choose a level, well-drained plot for the greenhouse. If it will be used primarily for plant
propagation in the summer, place it in partial shade to minimize heat buildup. A good location is
the north side of a large deciduous tree. If a partially shaded site is not available, you can use a
shade cloth or a white plastic cover to control the amount of sunlight reaching the interior.
If the greenhouse will be used for starting transplants or growing plants to maturity, it will need
maximum exposure to the sun. It should also be located where air drainage is good; avoid low
areas surrounded by woods or buildings. Easy access to running water and electricity is also
important.
Figure 1. A backyard greenhouse constructed from inexpensive materials.
Constructing the Greenhouse

The greenhouse consists of a wooden frame to which are attached bows of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe. The bows hold up the clear plastic film covering, as shown in Figures 1 through 3.
Figure 2. Bows of PVC pipe are used to hold up the plastic film covering.
All lumber for construction should be treated for ground contact with an environmentally safe
preservative such as CCA. Avoid wood preserved with chemicals such as pentachlorophenol or
creosote. Lumber treated for ground contact has a higher concentration of preservative and
therefore will last much longer than untreated or lightly treated wood. Except for the covering,
the structure should last 10 to 12 years.
Unless the site is very flat, you will need to level the foundation boards. This is best done by
digging a trench on the high side instead of raising the low side, as the foundation boards should
contact the ground at all points to ensure a good seal. To keep rainwater out, however, the top of
the foundation board should not be below ground level, particularly around the door. the purpose
of the 4-inch-by-4-inch post at each corner (Figure 4) is to anchor the greenhouse and prevent it
from moving in high winds.
The PVC pipe bows are attached to the side boards of the foundation with electric metallic
tubing (EMT) clamps (Figure 4). It is best to attach the clamps loosely to the side boards with
wood screws before you secure the side boards to the end boards and corner blocks. They may be
tightened after the PVC pipe has been slipped into place.
PVC pipe may be purchased in 12- or 20-foot lengths in either schedule 40 or schedule 80
weights. Schedule 80 PVC pipe has a thicker wall and is stronger than schedule 40 pipe. It is
therefore recommended for greenhouse construction. The 12-foot width of the greenhouse was
chosen so that each half of the rib section of pipe is 10 feet long. PVC pipe may be easily cut
with a hand say, although a neater cut can be made with a pipe-cutting tool specially designed for
that purpose. Care must be taken during assembly because the cement used to fasten PVC is fast-
acting and permanent. It should not be used when the temperature is below 50 degree
Farenheight. Check the directions on the can.
It is best to lay all parts out on a flat surface for assembly. For the ribs to be 2 feet apart, the mid-
rib pipe must be cut into pieces about 22 1/2 inches long (Figures 3 and 5). After all joints have
been cemented and allowed to harden for a few minutes, position the entire assembly over the
foundation boards, bend the ribs, and secure them in place with the EMT clamps. Assembly is
best done by two or more people to prevent over stressing the cemented joints. Ten feet of
galvanized EMT positioned inside the mid-rib will give added strength to the structure.
After all the PVC ribs have been secured, the end frames and door may be constructed.
Although there is a door on only one end, both frames are essentially the same. The two
diagonals on each end give strength to the structure and make it easy to secure the cover. The top
of the end frame may be fastened to the end ribs with either a wood screw of a small metal strip
bent into a U shape. If wood screw are used, the PVC pipe must be predrilled to prevent splitting.
Select the type of cover material according the intended use of the greenhouse. Clear 4- or 6-mil
plastic greenhouse film is generally best if the house will be used for growing plants. If it will be
used exclusively for propagating or overwintering plants, consider using 4- or 6-mil milky or
white copolymer film. White copolymer film reduces the amount of heat and light within the
house and therefore limits the fluctuations in these factors, keeping conditions more nearly
constant during propagation or over the winter. However, shading clear plastic with a 30 to 50
percent polypropylene shade cloth or greenhouse whitewash available from horticultural supply
companies will produce nearly the same effect.
Figure4. Foundation side and end boards are attached to 4-by-4 posts to anchor the
structure. Note the EMT clamps on the side boards hlod the PVC pipe ribs.
The cover may be attached with small tacks, but staples are much faster and are more secure.
Allow the cover to extend several inches past the bottom of the foundation boards and cover the
extra material with packed soil to prevent the entrance of moles and rainwater. An inch of coarse
sand or fine gravel on the floor will reduce problems with mud and weeds.
Figure 5. The mid-rib pipe is cut into sections about 22 1/2 inches long and rejoined with
PVC crosses to which the ribs are attached. Ten feet of EMT is placed inside the mid-rib
for strength.
Operating the green house

It is essential that the house be as tight as possible so that it retain both heat and humidity.
Problems with overheating can usually be solved by simply opening the door. Supplemental heat
can be provided if needed during very cold weather or at night by one or more heat lamps or a
small electric heater. Any electrical devices used in the damp environment of a greenhouse
should be connected only to a circuit equipped with an approved ground fault current interrupter
(GFCI) outlet or circuit breaker. Other source of heat can be used, but even very small gas or oil
heaters will usually overheat a greenhouse this small and may not burn well if not properly
ventilated.
The greenhouse will satisfactorily support up to 4 inches of dry snow. If the snow is deeper or
unusually wet, one or more temporary supports should be provided along the mid-rib to prevent
collapse. If a larger greenhouse is required, the length may be increased. Do not increase the
width of the house without increasing the size of the ribs. Doing so will seriously reduce the
ability of the house to withstand snow and wind loads.
Uses
A small greenhouse can be quite useful throughout the year for many different purposes. In the
early spring, it can be used germinated and grow bedding and vegetable plants earlier that would
otherwise be possible. In the summer it can be used either with or with out a mist system of
humidifier as a propagation house to root cutting. It can be used in the fall to start winter
vegetable plants. During the winter, it can protect patio plants and other hardy but containerized
woody plants.
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Climate Guide for Vegetables & Fruits
What you can grow successfully depends on the temperature you choose for your gree nhouse.
"Cold Greenhouse" (night temp. 35°-45° F)
This climate is suitable for holding over many plants during the winter,
but plant GROWTH is limited. Some vegetables such as carrots and
ViewCart | Checkout cole crops matured in the warmer fall months can be held over for
winter harvest.
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"Cool Greenhouse" (night temp. 45°-50° F)
Browse Products At this temperature range you can actively grow many leafy and root crops; e.g.,
lettuce, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, beets and carrots. Citrus fruits and grapes can be
wintered over at these temperatures.
"Moderate Greenhouse" (night temp. 55°-60° F)
Many options are available, and some plants will propagate.

Possibilities include cucumbers, beans, bibb lettuce, herbs, strawberries,
mushrooms, cool variety tomatoes, dwarf fruit trees, figs and grapes.
"Warm Greenhouse" (night temp.

65°-70° F)
While more expensive to heat (we recommend insulated glazing), there

are many unusual and tropical plants you can grow; e.g., lemons,
bananas, melons, dwarf corn, peppers, eggplant and a wide variety of
tomatoes. (Grow lights may be necessary in winter.)
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HS790
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse

Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 31
R. C. Hochmuth2
Greenhouse cucumbers are more sensitive to low
temperatures than tomatoes. Minimum temperatures
Greenhouse cucumber production is very
should be no lower than 65F for sustained production.
popular in many areas of the world (Fig. 1). The
Prolonged temperatures above 95F should also be
cucumber is a warm season crop with required
avoided as fruit production and quality are reduced at
growing conditions of 80 to 85oF and plenty of
sunlight. The primary type of cucumber grown in extremely high temperatures.
Florida greenhouses is the European seedless type. Establishment
The fruits are mild in flavor, seedless, and have a thin
edible skin that requires no peeling. Harvested fruit Several different types of production systems
generally range from 12 to 14 inches in length and and substrates can be used to grow greenhouse
weigh about 1 pound each. However, smaller fruits cucumbers. Possible production systems include:
of mini cucumbers have become more popular and trough, NFT, bag culture, and rockwool. For further
commercial production has increased. European information, readers are referred to the earlier
greenhouse cultivars are parthenocarpic (produce discussion in this manual on production systems.
fruit without pollination). Gynoecious cultivars, i.e.,
those producing only female flowers or Greenhouse cucumbers are ordinarily established
predominately gynoecious cultivars should be grown. in the greenhouse as transplants using rockwool or
If pollination does occur, the fruit will form seeds, the foam blocks. Seed costs are very high; a typical cost
shape of the fruit will be distorted and a bitter tasting is 25 to 30 cents per seed. Germination is generally
fruit will develop. It is therefore essential to prevent close to 100%, so one seed per transplant container is
bees and other pollinators from entering the sufficient. Producers may choose to over-plant the
greenhouse and carrying pollen from outdoor gardens number of containers by 10% to 15% to make up for
or field cucumber plantings. Cucumber plants are those few seeds that do not germinate and those plants
indeterminate in growth, continually producing fruit
on new growth, similar to greenhouse tomatoes.
1. This document is HS790 and a part of SP48, a chapter of the Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook- Volume 3, one of a series of the
Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Date first
printed: December, 1990. Date revised: December 2001. Please visit the EDIS Web site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. R. C. Hochmuth, extension agent IV, North Florida Research and Education Center - Suwannee Valley, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences,
University of Florida. The Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook is edited by George Hochmuth, professor of Horticultural Sciences and
Center Director, North Florida Research and Education Center - Quincy and Robert C. Hochmuth, extension agent IV, North Florida Research and
Education Center - Suwannee Valley, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611.
The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer authorized to provide research, educational
information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, color, sex, age, handicap, or national origin.
For information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension Service office. Florida Cooperative
Extension Service/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences/University of Florida/Christine Taylor Waddill, Dean.
Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, Vol 3 2
Selecting Cultivars
There are many cultivars available for
greenhouse cucumber production. The cultivars
available are generally produced by European seed
companies, however, a few of the companies have
sales and technical support representatives in North
America. Cultivars change frequently and, as a result,
growers should consult current recommendations
through local Extension agents and industry
representatives. Several factors should be considered
when selecting a cultivar, including disease
resistance, plant vigor, early and total yields, fruit size
and color, and general fruit quality. Disease
resistance is an especially important factor when
selecting a cultivar. Diseases can be severe in Florida
greenhouses, and fungicide options are limited in the
greenhouse. Diseases that can be problems in
greenhouse cucumbers in Florida include: gummy
stem blight, gray mold, downy mildew, powdery
mildew, cucumber mosaic, watermelon mosaic, and
Pythium root rot in NFT. Growers must determine
the levels of resistance or tolerance in the cultivars
considered for production. Selection of a resistant
cultivar may be the only practical method of control
Figure 1. Slender Eurpoean greenhouse cucumbers.
for some diseases.
Two evaluations of twelve cultivars were

lost during or shortly after transplanting. Some
conducted in the fall of 1995 and the spring of 1996
growers have successfully direct seeded cucumber
at Live Oak. Several cultivars performed well in that
into perlite bags and at the same time seeded a few
trial including 'Kalunga', 'Bellissma', 'Millagon',
transplants to use as replacement plants. Transplant
'Discover', 'Marianna', 'Fitness', 'Aramon', and
production should be confined to a small transplant
'Fidelio'. in the trial that were most susceptible to
production area of the greenhouse or a separate
mildew were '90-0048', E1828', 'Futurea', and
greenhouse entirely to make efficient use of space
'B-1157'. 'Fidelio', a long-time popular cultivar
and energy and to assist in sanitation practices for
produced well in the trial, and had especially smooth
disease control.
fruit, however, it had the shortest fruit length of the
Cucumber seed germinates rapidly (2 to 3 days) twelve cultivars. The longest fruits were consistently
at an optimum germinating temperature of 84F in the produced by '90-0048'. The darkest fruit color was
germination room. Once the seed has germinated, the found 'Kalunga', 'Bellissima', and 'E1828'. The
temperature should be lowered to 77F. During the lightest green fruit color was found in Futura. The
seeding and transplant production stage, the plants cultivar 'Tyria' has been especially susceptible to
must never become stressed for water or nutrients. A gummy stem blight lesions inside the fruit in Florida
plant with three or four true leaves is ready to be growers trials and is not recommended in Florida.
transplanted. The transplants should maintain an 'Bologna' has also been very popular among Florida
upright growth habit (no curves in the stem) to aid in producers since the late 1990s.
successful transplanting.
In addition to the standard long European
cucumbers, special markets may also be developed
for shorter miniature or "beit-alpha" types. Some evenly spaced rows in a vertical cordon system would
miniature cucumber cultivars are especially be approximately 4 to 5 feet between rows and 12 to
susceptible to powdery mildew and the tolerance 18 inches between plants within the row.
level of each cultivar should be checked.
A second popular training system is the
Spacing and Training V-cordon. Single rows are evenly spaced
approximately 5 feet apart and plants are distanced
Greenhouse cucumber plants have very large approximately 12 inches apart within each row, and
leaves, grow vigorously, and require large amounts of the 2 wires are spaced approximately 30 inches apart
sunlight (Fig. 2). Under good sunlight conditions, from each other. The support strings are then tied
each plant should be provided 5 to 7 square feet of alternately to each wire. In this manner the plants are
greenhouse space. More space is often required in the trained up the string and will grow at an incline away
northern United States, where light conditions are from the row center. The plants form a
poor. Exact spacing between rows and between plants V-arrangement down the row.
within a row will depend upon the type of training and
production system to be used. Pruning
The most common pruning system for either
vertical cordon or V-cordon trained plants is known
as the umbrella system. In this system, all lateral
branches are pruned out as they appear until the main
stem reaches the overhead wire. The growing point
of the main stem is removed when one or two leaves
have developed above the wire. Two lateral branches
near the top of the plant are allowed to grow and are
trained over the overhead wire resulting in these two
branches growing downward. The growing point of
each lateral is removed when nearly to the ground.
Fruits are developed at the node of each leaf. The
Figure 2. Young cucumber crop. fruits on the base 30 inches of the main stem should
be pruned off as soon as they appear. This allows the
Several training systems exist for greenhouse plant to vigorously produce early vegetative growth
cucumber. The basic principle in developing a which is essential for maximum fruit production.
training system is to uniformly maximize the leaf Fruits above the basal 30 inches of the main stem are
interception of sunlight throughout the house. The then allowed to develop. The productivity of the
selection of a system will largely depend on the laterals is generally less than the main stem.
greenhouse facility, the production system, and
grower preference. A comparison of two pruning systems was made
in 1995 and 1996 at Live Oak. A drape system
A vertical cordon system trains plants vertically allowed the main stem to drape over the trellis cable
to an overhead wire. Once the plants reach the wire and grow down to the floor. In the drape system, the
they are topped and then pruned using an umbrella apical meristem was not removed. The pinch
system (to be described later). Single, evenly spaced system required the apical meristem to be removed
rows can be used, however, double-row production is once reaching the trellis cable. One side branch was
very popular. Typical spacings for this double-row then allowed to grow over the trellis cable and back
system would be approximately 5 to 6 feet between down to the floor. In both systems, all other side
the centers of each pair of rows. The distance between branches were removed. In the two trials, the drape
the two rows within a pair is approximately 2 feet.
The spacing of plants in the row for such a
double-row system would be 18 to 24 inches. Single,
system produced higher yield and quality in most essential minor elements is required. Fertilizer recipes
instances. The pinch system resulted in a delay in are presented in the chapter on fertilization in this
new growth before the side branch began producing volume. Designing a fertility program varies
fruit. depending on the production system desired and
extreme caution must be used when interpreting or
Fruit Development comparing research or articles from one production
system to another.
A fruit may be developed at each node and more
than one fruit may begin to develop at some nodes Florida greenhouse producers are using soilless
(Fig. 3). It is usually best to thin these multiple-fruit production systems. In these systems, a complete
clusters to a single fruit, however, vigorous plants can nutrient solution is used to supply the needed
sometimes mature more than one cucumber at a node. nutrients to the crop. Soilless culture increases the
Miniature and beit-alpha types will support several grower's ability to control the growth of the plant, but
fruit per node. Any distorted fruit should be removed it also requires management to achieve success.
immediately. The greatest growth of the fruit occurs Many of the guidelines for soilless culture of tomato,
between day 6 and 14 after the bloom opens presented earlier in this handbook, also apply to
(anthesis). Maximum fruit length occurs at day 14 cucumber.
followed by diameter increase. The shape of the fruit
is somewhat tapered being largest at the stem end One concern of the soilless system grower is the
prior to day 10 after bloom, however, the fruit supply of micronutrients or trace elements (those
becomes uniformly cylindrical by day 14. During the needed only in trace amounts). Soilless growers not
spring season, commercially acceptable fruit size is only must supply their crop with the six
usually reached by the 11th day after the bloom opens. macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and sulfur), but also the 7
micronutrients (iron, manganese, copper, zinc,
molybdenum, boron, and chlorine). It is especially
important in a soilless system to test the source of
water prior to developing a nutrient program. The raw
water will have some amounts of many of the
essential plant nutrients. These may need to be
considered when developing a fertility program. The
pH of the water is also critical and may need to be
adjusted. Frequently groundwater in Florida has a
high pH of 7.0 or above. The target pH of the nutrient
solution supplied to the plants should be between 5.5
Figure 3. Parthenocarpic greenhouse cucumber flower and 6.0.
and young fruit.
Generally, either nitric, sulfuric, or phosphoric
Nutrient Programs acid is recommended for pH control. If it is necessary
to raise the pH, potassium hydroxide is usually used.
Greenhouse seedless cucumbers have a high If the source water is alkaline due to high bicarbonate
nutrient requirement and grow very rapidly when concentrations, the pH should be adjusted before the
supplied with sufficient nutrients. As a result, growers fertilizer salts are added to prevent precipitation.
must plan for an optimum nutrient program making
adjustments in the program as the crop demands Plant tissue testing can be a useful tool in
change. The greatest demand for nutrients is during addition to a good soil testing or nutrient solution
the peak fruit production period. Nitrogen and program to monitor the fertility. Cucumber
potassium are required in the greatest amounts, leaf-nutrient ranges are presented in the chapter on
however, a complete nutrition program including fertilizer management elsewhere in this volume. The
reported ranges should be used as a guide to assist in
avoiding major problems, both toxicities and

deficiencies.
Several research articles report a sudden

temporary wilt of greenhouse cucumber plants when
using NFT. Cucumber roots have a greater oxygen
requirement when compared with roots of tomatoes.
Cucumbers develop a large root system in the
growing tubes and as a result may become stressed
for oxygen. Because of this concern, measures may
need to be taken to provide improved oxygen supplies
to the root zone. Continuous aeration of the nutrient
solution and increasing the slope of the tubes to 2 feet
or more in height for every 30 feet in length are
reported to help. High solution temperatures also
reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the
solution. Growers must avoid high temperatures in
the solution.
Managing Pests
Several diseases, insects, and nematodes can
potentially be pests of greenhouse cucumbers.
Cultivar selection, greenhouse sanitation, and
well-timed applications of properly selected
pesticides are all important in managing these pests in
the greenhouse. The pest control portion of this Figure 4. Greenhouse cucumbers ready for harvest.
handbook has details for managing pests of
greenhouse cucumbers. to the number of fruits they can support any instance.
Harvest is usually required three or four times per
Harvesting week.
Fruits are harvested when uniform length, shape, Total expected yield will depend directly on
and diameter is reached and before any yellowing length of harvest period. Yields range from 1 to 3
appears on the blossom end (Fig. 4). Typical fruit pounds of fruit per plant per week during the peak
length is 12 to 14 inches and current USDA Grade harvest period. A normal harvest period of 12 weeks
standards require a minimum of 11 inches in length. in a well managed crop can yield a total of 20 to 25
Updated copies of the U.S. Grade standards for pounds of fruit per plant.
greenhouse cucumbers are available through:
Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA, Room 2056 Packing and Storage
South Blvd., Washington, D.C. 20250. European greenhouse cucumbers have a very
Frequent harvests are required because the fruits thin skin resulting in high susceptibility to water loss
quickly become overmature. Fruits are harvested as and softening of harvested fruit. Immediately after
soon as they are marketable to avoid retarding the harvest, containers should be covered to avoid
development of any younger fruit on the plant. exposure to direct sunlight. Each fruit is individually
Continued, timely harvest keeps the plants in a wrapped in a shrink-wrap film before packaging.
productive mode since cucumber plants have a limit Shrink-wrapping will minimize moisture loss and
extend shelf life by several days. Since each
cucumber has to be shrink wrapped, this crop is very
labor-intensive and time consuming. Growers often Agriculture University of California, Riverside. Calif.
mention they were not aware of the considerable time Cooperative Extension Leaflet 2775.
needed to properly shrink-wrap greenhouse
cucumbers. Growers should invest in a commercial Johnson, H. Jr., G. J. Hochmuth, and D. N.
shrink-wrapping machine designed for cucumbers so Maynard. 1985. Soilless culture of greenhouse
that the shrink wrapping is done in a professional vegetables. Florida Cooperative Extension Bulletin
manner. There are several types and sizes of shrink 218.
wrapping machines available to meet the needs of all
Johnson, H. Jr. 1980. Greenhouse vegetable
sizes of growers.
production general information and bibliography.
European greenhouse cucumbers are considered Division of Agriculture University of California,
highly susceptible to chilling injury caused by Riverside. Calif. Cooperative Extension Leaflet
exposure to low, but nonfreezing temperatures. 2667.
Chilling injury can occur at temperatures below 50F
Lindquist, R. K., and R. C. Rowe. 1984.
for most vegetables. Chilling injury on cucumber fruit
Greenhouse cucumber disease and insect control.
results in a pitting of the fruit surface and a tendency
Ohio State University Cooperative Extension Bulletin
for more rapid loss of green color. Fungal decay
718.
often follows chilling injury. Optimum fruit holding
conditions are approximately 55F and 95% relative Savage, A. J. 1985. Hydroponics Worldwide:
humidity. State of the art in soilless crop production
International Center for Special Studies. Honolulu,
Cucumbers are also sensitive to ethylene gas.
Hawaii.
When cucumber fruits are exposed to ethylene, they
lose cholorophyll and rapidly become yellow. Sherman, M. 1984. Ethylene in postharvest
Exposure to levels of 1 ppm ethylene for 1 day at 59F horticulture. Florida Cooperative Extension
will result in a noticeable yellowing of the fruit. Vegetable Fact Sheet VC-34.
Chilling injury to cucumber fruit, even for a short
duration, will increase the production of ethylene by Straver, W. K 1983. Growing seedless
the fruit. It is very important that cucumbers not be cucumbers. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and
held or shipped in the same compartment with Food. Agdex 292/20.
moderate to high ethylene producing fruits or
vegetables such as tomatoes, cantaloupes, apples, and More Information
peaches. Consult IFAS Vegetable Crop Fact Sheet
For more information on greenhouse crop
VC-34 Ethylene in Post harvest Horticulture for
production, please visit our website at
further information on ethylene.
http://nfrec-sv.ifas.ufl.edu.
Suggested Reading For the other chapters in the Greenhouse
Vegetable Production Handbook, see the documents
Hochmuth, R.C., L.C. Leon, and G.J. Hochmuth.
1996. Evaluation of Twelve Greenhouse Cucumber listed below:
Cultivars and Two Training Systems Over Two Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Seasons in Florida. Proc. Fla. State. Hort. Soc. Handbook, Vol 1
109:174-177.
Introduction, HS 766
Jarvis, W. B., and V. W. Nuttall. 1981.
Cucumber diseases. Information Services, Financial Considerations, HS767
Agriculture Canada. publication #1684.
Pre-Construction Considerations, HS768
Johnson, H. Jr., and G. W. Hickman. 1984.
Greenhouse cucumber production. Division of
Crop Production, HS769 Operational Considerations for Harvest, HS792
Considerations for Managing Greenhouse Enterprise Budget and Cash Flow for
Pests, HS770 Greenhouse Tomato Production, HS793
Harvest and Handling Considerations, HS771 Vegetable Disease Recognition and Control,
HS797
Marketing Considerations, HS772
Vegetable Insect Identification and Control,
Summary, HS773 HS798
Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Handbook, Vol 2
General Considerations, HS774
Site Selection, HS775
Physical Greenhouse Design Considerations,

HS776
Production Systems, HS777
Greenhouse Environmental Design

Considerations, HS778
Environmental Controls, HS779
Materials Handling, HS780
Other Design Information Resources, HS781
Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production

Handbook, Vol 3
Preface, HS783
General Aspects of Plant Growth, HS784
Production Systems, HS785
Irrigation of Greenhouse Vegetables, HS786
Fertilizer Management for Greenhouse

Vegetables, HS787
Production of Greenhouse Tomatoes, HS788
Generalized Sequence of Operations for

Tomato Culture, HS789
Greenhouse Cucumber Production, HS790
Alternative Greenhouse Crops, HS791

COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION
GREENHOUSE CUCUMBERS
By
Charles W. Marr
European cucumbers are a popular greenhouse 65°F and daytime temperature should not exceed
crop, producing fruits that weigh about 1 pound 85 to 90°F.
and grow 12 to 14 inches long. The fruits are uni-
Growing Media. Greenhouse cucumbers may
formly dark green in color and mild in flavor and
be grown in soil, in bag culture, or in rockwool.
have a thin, tender skin that does not require peel-
Good soil drainage is essential to avoid a build-up
ing. In contrast to American cucumbers, European
of soluble salts, which can damage plant roots. Light
varieties set and develop fruit parthenocarpically
sandy loam soils are preferable. Growing in bag
(without pollination) resulting in fruits that are
culture or rockwool is generally more costly than
seedless. Standard cucumbers cannot be grown in a
growing in soil, and control of the nutritional pro-
greenhouse because bees are needed for pollination.
gram is more critical.
Varieties. European varieties vary in flowering
Plant Production. Start plants in a commercial
habit (most have only female flowers, but some
seed-starting mix using 2- to 4-inch pots or contain-
have both male and female), plant vigor, fruit shape
ers. Because of the high cost of European cucumber
and length, and productivity. Gynoecious varieties
seed, plant one seed per pot. Keep the mix moist
(100 percent female blossoms) generally are more
but not wet and at 80°F until emergence; after emer-
productive and produce fruits with smoother skins
gence maintain a minimum temperature of 65 to
than the monoecious type (having both female and
70°F. Transplant when the plants reach the three
male flowers). However, the latter are more vigor-
to four true leaf stage, approximately two to three
ous and produce fruit of better size and quality.
weeks from seeding.
Both types produce an excessive number of female
flowers, so some flower “pruning” may be needed. Plant Spacing. Trellised greenhouse cucumber
Recommended varieties include Toska 70, Sandra plants need 4 to 6 square feet per plant for good
and Fidelio, which offers excellent powdery mildew production. Plant double rows 2 feet apart and leave
resistance. Check with seed companies for green- a walkway about 3 feet wide. Plant spacing within
house varieties. the row will vary from 18 to 24 inches.
Fertilization. Greenhouse cucumbers grow
very quickly and should never lack water or nutri-
Cultural Practices ents. It is recommended that a soil sample be col-
Temperature. The cucumber is a warm-season lected and analyzed for soil pH, phosphorous, and
plant and grows rapidly at 75 to 85°F temperatures. potassium.
Minimum temperatures should be no lower than
KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AND COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
In a soil system, apply all the potassium and Most growers prune the plants using an
phosphorous needed and a small amount of nitro- umbrella system (Figure 1). It is important to main-
gen before planting. A general recommendation tain a proper balance between vegetative growth
(per acre) is 50 pounds of nitrogen (N), 150 pounds and fruit load to achieve maximum production of
of phosphorous (P205), and 250 pounds of potassium marketable fruit. Maximum production requires
(K20). The acre recommendation can be divided by regular removal of shoots and female flowers.
40 for 1,000 square feet. Any micronutrient deficien-
Excessive fruit set results in poorly shaped,
cies indicated by a soil analysis should be corrected
unmarketable fruit, whereas excess foliage may
by incorporating minor element materials into the
interfere with plant management and pest control
soil before planting. During crop growth, the most
practices and result in undesirable, pale-colored
important element needed is nitrogen. It should be
fruit. Shoot pruning is employed to limit vegetative
injected in the irrigation water during each irriga-
growth and flower development, control the form
tion using soluble fertilizer materials such as
of the plant, and stimulate continued shoot and
potassium nitrate (13 percent N), calcium nitrate
flower initiation. Flower and fruit pruning is used to
(16 percent N), or ammonium nitrate (33 percent N).
control the location and limit the number of fruits
During the first few weeks after transplanting,
on the plant and to remove misshapen and other-
apply 5 to 10 pounds of nitrogen per acre per week,
wise unmarketable fruit. The amount of pruning
gradually increasing to 25 to 30 pounds per acre per
needed will vary with variety and plant vigor.
week during fruit production.
Continued flower initiation depends on
Training. Plants are trained by intertwining the
continued production of vegetative shoots and leaf
main stem with a vertical piece of polyethylene
axils and may occasionally require major pruning
twine suspended from a horizontal, overhead sup-
and fruit removal to stimulate vegetative growth.
port wire 61⁄2 to 7 feet above the plant rows. The
All deformed fruit should be removed as soon as
string is anchored to the base of each plant with a
noticed.
loose, non-slip loop knot.
Steps in training with the umbrella system:

1. Remove flower buds on the main stem up to 30 inches from the
base of the plant (or approximately 8–10 nodes).
2. Remove side shoots from the lower 2 feet of the main stem.
3. Above 2 feet on the main stem, prune lateral shoots to one leaf.
4. Main-stem fruit will develop at the base of each leaf. More than
one fruit may begin to develop at each node. Some growers thin
these to a single fruit, but it may be more practical to leave all
young fruit attached, because more than one may mature.
5. Top (cut) the main stem at one node above the support wire at
61⁄2 to 7 feet above the soil surface. Secure the stem to the wire
with a string or Twistem to prevent it from sliding down the
plastic twine.
6. Train the top 2 or 3 lateral runners over the support wire, and
tip them when they reach 3 feet from the ground.
7. Tip all secondary shoots to 1 leaf.
2
Diseases. Serious diseases of European cucum-
bers include cucumber and watermelon mosaic,
gray mold, powdery mildew, and rootknot nema-
todes. Mosaic viruses are transmitted by aphids and
can be introduced into the greenhouse from infected
alternate host plants by this insect. Exclusion or
control of aphids is important in controlling virus
diseases.
Gray mold is associated with high humidity.
Adequate ventilation and air circulation in the
greenhouse are important in controlling this disease.
Removal of the lower leaves and use of an appropri-
ate fungicide are helpful in the prevention and con-
trol of gray mold.
cautions are taken. Short-term storage is possible
Powdery mildew is a foliar disease that can by covering fruits and storing them in a cool, moist
cause serious reduction in productivity. Techniques area. Fruits that must be held for more than a few
for controlling gray mold also help in controlling hours should be wrapped in clear plastic film and
powdery mildew. The use of resistant varieties is stored at high humidity (90 to 95 percent) and
recommended. 50 to 55°F. Do not store at temperatures below 45°F.
Insects. In addition to virus diseases trans-
mitted by aphids, other troublesome insect pests
include the white fly, serpentine leaf miner, and References
two-spotted mite. Care should be taken to prevent
“Greenhouse Cucumber Production,” Johnson,
introducing these pests into the greenhouse envi-
H. and G. Hickman, 1984, Publication No. 2775.
ronment. Control of weeds in and around the
Cooperative Extension, Univ. of California, Berke-
greenhouse site is helpful in avoiding these pests.
ley, CA 94720.
Extension personnel can recommend chemical
control measures for these disease problems and “Cucumbers,” Grower Guide No. 15, 1980.
insect pests. Grower Books, 49 Doughty St., London, WCIN 2BR.
Harvesting and Handling. Fruits should be Growing European Seedless Cucumbers, Staver,
harvested when they are well filled out and show W.A., 1978, Publication No. 78-053, Information
only slight ribbing. The most desirable fruits are Branch, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 801 Bay
11 inches or longer and average 3⁄4 to 1 pound. St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A 1A5.
During peak production, fruits need to be removed
American Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Asso-
three or four times a week. Use a knife or pruner
ciation, P.O. Box 9797, Colorado Springs, CO 80932
to avoid damaging vines and fruit. Handle carefully
(Newsletter).
to minimize damage to the thin skin. A healthy
plant should produce 24 to 30 marketable fruits. Greenhouse Vegetable Newsletter, J.C. Fisher,
Vegetable Crops Advisor, Research Station, Harrow,
Because of their thin skins, European cucumber
Ontario, N0R 1G0.
fruits lose moisture rapidly and soften unless pre-
3
About the author: Charles W. Marr is an extension specialist, vegetable crops.
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
MF-2075 February 1995
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils,
Extension Districts and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Richard D. Wootton, Associate Director. All educational programs and materials
available without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, or disability.
File Code: Horticulture and Landscaping—11 2-95—500;10-97—500
4
COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION
GREENHOUSE CUCUMBERS
By
Charles W. Marr
European cucumbers are a popular greenhouse 65°F and daytime temperature should not exceed
crop, producing fruits that weigh about 1 pound 85 to 90°F.
and grow 12 to 14 inches long. The fruits are uni-
Growing Media. Greenhouse cucumbers may
formly dark green in color and mild in flavor and
be grown in soil, in bag culture, or in rockwool.
have a thin, tender skin that does not require peel-
Good soil drainage is essential to avoid a build-up
ing. In contrast to American cucumbers, European
of soluble salts, which can damage plant roots. Light
varieties set and develop fruit parthenocarpically
sandy loam soils are preferable. Growing in bag
(without pollination) resulting in fruits that are
culture or rockwool is generally more costly than
seedless. Standard cucumbers cannot be grown in a
growing in soil, and control of the nutritional pro-
greenhouse because bees are needed for pollination.
gram is more critical.
Varieties. European varieties vary in flowering
Plant Production. Start plants in a commercial
habit (most have only female flowers, but some
seed-starting mix using 2- to 4-inch pots or contain-
have both male and female), plant vigor, fruit shape
ers. Because of the high cost of European cucumber
and length, and productivity. Gynoecious varieties
seed, plant one seed per pot. Keep the mix moist
(100 percent female blossoms) generally are more
but not wet and at 80°F until emergence; after emer-
productive and produce fruits with smoother skins
gence maintain a minimum temperature of 65 to
than the monoecious type (having both female and
70°F. Transplant when the plants reach the three
male flowers). However, the latter are more vigor-
to four true leaf stage, approximately two to three
ous and produce fruit of better size and quality.
weeks from seeding.
Both types produce an excessive number of female
flowers, so some flower “pruning” may be needed. Plant Spacing. Trellised greenhouse cucumber
Recommended varieties include Toska 70, Sandra plants need 4 to 6 square feet per plant for good
and Fidelio, which offers excellent powdery mildew production. Plant double rows 2 feet apart and leave
resistance. Check with seed companies for green- a walkway about 3 feet wide. Plant spacing within
house varieties. the row will vary from 18 to 24 inches.
Fertilization. Greenhouse cucumbers grow
very quickly and should never lack water or nutri-
Cultural Practices ents. It is recommended that a soil sample be col-
Temperature. The cucumber is a warm-season lected and analyzed for soil pH, phosphorous, and
plant and grows rapidly at 75 to 85°F temperatures. potassium.
Minimum temperatures should be no lower than
KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AND COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
In a soil system, apply all the potassium and Most growers prune the plants using an
phosphorous needed and a small amount of nitro- umbrella system (Figure 1). It is important to main-
gen before planting. A general recommendation tain a proper balance between vegetative growth
(per acre) is 50 pounds of nitrogen (N), 150 pounds and fruit load to achieve maximum production of
of phosphorous (P205), and 250 pounds of potassium marketable fruit. Maximum production requires
(K20). The acre recommendation can be divided by regular removal of shoots and female flowers.
40 for 1,000 square feet. Any micronutrient deficien-
Excessive fruit set results in poorly shaped,
cies indicated by a soil analysis should be corrected
unmarketable fruit, whereas excess foliage may
by incorporating minor element materials into the
interfere with plant management and pest control
soil before planting. During crop growth, the most
practices and result in undesirable, pale-colored
important element needed is nitrogen. It should be
fruit. Shoot pruning is employed to limit vegetative
injected in the irrigation water during each irriga-
growth and flower development, control the form
tion using soluble fertilizer materials such as
of the plant, and stimulate continued shoot and
potassium nitrate (13 percent N), calcium nitrate
flower initiation. Flower and fruit pruning is used to
(16 percent N), or ammonium nitrate (33 percent N).
control the location and limit the number of fruits
During the first few weeks after transplanting,
on the plant and to remove misshapen and other-
apply 5 to 10 pounds of nitrogen per acre per week,
wise unmarketable fruit. The amount of pruning
gradually increasing to 25 to 30 pounds per acre per
needed will vary with variety and plant vigor.
week during fruit production.
Continued flower initiation depends on
Training. Plants are trained by intertwining the
continued production of vegetative shoots and leaf
main stem with a vertical piece of polyethylene
axils and may occasionally require major pruning
twine suspended from a horizontal, overhead sup-
and fruit removal to stimulate vegetative growth.
port wire 61⁄2 to 7 feet above the plant rows. The
All deformed fruit should be removed as soon as
string is anchored to the base of each plant with a
noticed.
loose, non-slip loop knot.
Steps in training with the umbrella system:

1. Remove flower buds on the main stem up to 30 inches from the
base of the plant (or approximately 8–10 nodes).
2. Remove side shoots from the lower 2 feet of the main stem.
3. Above 2 feet on the main stem, prune lateral shoots to one leaf.
4. Main-stem fruit will develop at the base of each leaf. More than
one fruit may begin to develop at each node. Some growers thin
these to a single fruit, but it may be more practical to leave all
young fruit attached, because more than one may mature.
5. Top (cut) the main stem at one node above the support wire at
61⁄2 to 7 feet above the soil surface. Secure the stem to the wire
with a string or Twistem to prevent it from sliding down the
plastic twine.
6. Train the top 2 or 3 lateral runners over the support wire, and
tip them when they reach 3 feet from the ground.
7. Tip all secondary shoots to 1 leaf.
2
Diseases. Serious diseases of European cucum-
bers include cucumber and watermelon mosaic,
gray mold, powdery mildew, and rootknot nema-
todes. Mosaic viruses are transmitted by aphids and
can be introduced into the greenhouse from infected
alternate host plants by this insect. Exclusion or
control of aphids is important in controlling virus
diseases.
Gray mold is associated with high humidity.
Adequate ventilation and air circulation in the
greenhouse are important in controlling this disease.
Removal of the lower leaves and use of an appropri-
ate fungicide are helpful in the prevention and con-
trol of gray mold.
cautions are taken. Short-term storage is possible
Powdery mildew is a foliar disease that can by covering fruits and storing them in a cool, moist
cause serious reduction in productivity. Techniques area. Fruits that must be held for more than a few
for controlling gray mold also help in controlling hours should be wrapped in clear plastic film and
powdery mildew. The use of resistant varieties is stored at high humidity (90 to 95 percent) and
recommended. 50 to 55°F. Do not store at temperatures below 45°F.
Insects. In addition to virus diseases trans-
mitted by aphids, other troublesome insect pests
include the white fly, serpentine leaf miner, and References
two-spotted mite. Care should be taken to prevent
“Greenhouse Cucumber Production,” Johnson,
introducing these pests into the greenhouse envi-
H. and G. Hickman, 1984, Publication No. 2775.
ronment. Control of weeds in and around the
Cooperative Extension, Univ. of California, Berke-
greenhouse site is helpful in avoiding these pests.
ley, CA 94720.
Extension personnel can recommend chemical
control measures for these disease problems and “Cucumbers,” Grower Guide No. 15, 1980.
insect pests. Grower Books, 49 Doughty St., London, WCIN 2BR.
Harvesting and Handling. Fruits should be Growing European Seedless Cucumbers, Staver,
harvested when they are well filled out and show W.A., 1978, Publication No. 78-053, Information
only slight ribbing. The most desirable fruits are Branch, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 801 Bay
11 inches or longer and average 3⁄4 to 1 pound. St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A 1A5.
During peak production, fruits need to be removed
American Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Asso-
three or four times a week. Use a knife or pruner
ciation, P.O. Box 9797, Colorado Springs, CO 80932
to avoid damaging vines and fruit. Handle carefully
(Newsletter).
to minimize damage to the thin skin. A healthy
plant should produce 24 to 30 marketable fruits. Greenhouse Vegetable Newsletter, J.C. Fisher,
Vegetable Crops Advisor, Research Station, Harrow,
Because of their thin skins, European cucumber
Ontario, N0R 1G0.
fruits lose moisture rapidly and soften unless pre-
3
About the author: Charles W. Marr is an extension specialist, vegetable crops.
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
MF-2075 February 1995
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils,
Extension Districts and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Richard D. Wootton, Associate Director. All educational programs and materials
available without discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, or disability.
File Code: Horticulture and Landscaping—11 2-95—500;10-97—500
4
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service F-6703
Greenhouse Floors and Benches
Michael A. Schnelle
Assistant Professor Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
Extension Specialist are also available on our website at:
Floriculture and Ornamentals
http://www.osuextra.com
John M. Dole
Assistant Professor
Floriculture
Choosing benching materials and designs can be a difficult chronically muddy with frequent irrigations and will generally
decision, due to the wide choice of products available to the appear unacceptable, particularly in retail operations. In fact,
grower today. Listed below are common designs, materials, these muddy, unstable floors will be a liability because of the
and considerations in choosing floors and benches for com- risk of customers falling and injuring themselves. Additionally,
mercial greenhouses. wheelchair bound customers will have a more difficult time
maneuvering on gravel or dirt aisles.
A compromise to save money is to use gravel over dirt
Floors floors with concrete aisles. Many of the advantages of concrete
floors discussed earlier can be realized but with a lowered
Standard Concrete
expense, due to less concrete poured.
Regular concrete will endure about 2500 pounds per
square inch. This mix is appropriate for heavy loads such Floors as Benches
as soil-mixing areas and locations in the greenhouse where In some cases, it is advantageous to consider growing
heavy equipment is used. When possible, this formulation plants directly on the floor in conjunction with ground floor
of concrete should be avoided for aisles in growing areas heating systems. Using the floor for growing plants is gaining
between benches, since it will not drain properly. popularity, but the cement must be laid exactly level in order
to achieve an even distribution of water when flooding floors.
Porous Concrete
Porous concrete floors may be expanded in width to serve as
Porous concrete allows for drainage, will help prevent “benches.” The main advantage is the porosity offered and the
puddling, and still provides a barrier for weed control. Uni- lowered cost from bypassing above ground structures. This
formly graded aggregate and cement water paste are needed system works well for some species. However, the added
to mix porous concrete. Although regular concrete is made fatigue on employees may not be worth the initial savings
with gravel or sand, no sand is included in porous concrete when considering the strain of working at an awkward posi-
mix. Rather, mix one cubic yard of 3/8-inch diameter stone, tion.
5 1/2 sacks of Portland cement, and 4 1/4 gallons water per When floors are being installed for specific purposes, it is
sack of cement. When pouring this mixture, be careful not to wise to consult with qualified concrete contractors. They can
tamp or compress the concrete, which will destroy the poros- advise and/or install the floor to your specifications. Porous
ity needed for good drainage. Avoid using porous concrete in or standard concrete will be used, depending on the specific
propagation/seeding areas, because soil particles will eventu- roles the floor will serve.
ally clog the porous matrix and prevent even drainage.
Properly cured porous concrete will have a capacity to
endure 600 pounds per square inch of surface. A four-inch Raised Benches
floor of this mixture will adequately endure light vehicle traffic
and personnel. Keep in mind that porous cement has one- Bench Arrangements
fourth the strength of regular concrete, so do not exceed light Maximum utilization of growing facilities is largely based
traffic. on the amount of growing area achieved (Figure 1). Benches
in the peninsular design may result in a greater growing area
Gravel/Dirt than if they were in a longitudinal arrangement. The penin-
Gravel or dirt floors are inexpensive, but often not worth sular design also allows many species to be conveniently
the initial savings. Gravel or dirt floors cannot be properly segregated, which can be a real advantage for retail growers.
cleaned and disinfected, making it impossible to allow plants However, many growers have found routine tasks such as
to touch the floors without the risk of transmitting diseases. watering much easier on longitudinally placed benches.
Gravel or dirt floors will also harbor more pests. Floors will be
Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University

Figure 1. Greenhouse bench layouts. Design are intended for comparison only; exact dimension will vary with each
greenhouse.
6703-2
Lastly, non-stationery benches, which provide even more requirements are grouped together on each bench. An added
growing space, are gaining popularity with growers. Movable benefit is that foliage will stay dry and plants can be grouped
benches, known as rolling benches, can increase efficiency up closely for greater production efficiency. Ebb and flow bench
to 90 percent of the floor space. Bench platforms are moved manufacturers have also designed trays to be incorporated
by a crank at the end of the bench from side to side. Some into a rolling bench system for even greater versatility. This
can be moved by hand by sliding the benches over the top of bench system should be given serious consideration with ever
long steel poles. Aisles are created where the grower wants increasing restrictions on water and fertilizer runoff.
to work at any given time. Rolling benches are easy to move
by practically any laborer, which is an added bonus. Movable Materials for Benches
benches, however, are not appropriate in a retail setting or Regardless of the building materials chosen, benches
where plants must be accessed frequently. Retailers are bet- normally do not exceed 36 inches high or wide when against
ter served by staying with conventional benches such as the a wall. Freestanding benches which are not against the wall
longitudinal, peninsular, or other comparable type designs. may be up to six feet wide to allow workers to reach from
either side. Freestanding benches should also not exceed 36
Bench Space Efficiency inches high to accommodate wheelchair bound clientele.
Benching efficiency is defined as the square feet of bench Allow air circulation for plants by having an open bench
space to the entire greenhouse floor area. This number is floor. This may be accomplished by a number of materials such
expressed as a percentage. as redwood, lath, 14 gauge welded wire fabric, or expanded
Examples: A grower chooses a longitudinal bench ar- metal. Be certain enough rigidity is offered to prevent sagging
rangement in a greenhouse 30' x 80' or 2400 square feet of and toppling pots. Regardless of materials chosen for bench
floor area. He decides to use 3-foot wide benches and 2.5-foot construction, a good rule of thumb is to allow support for at
wide aisles and allows four feet at the end of the benches. least 25 pounds per square foot area.
The greenhouse has a benching efficiency of [5 (number of
benches) x 72 (length of each bench) x 3 (width of bench)] \ Wooden Benches
(30 x 80 greenhouse dimensions) x 100 = (1080/2400) x 100 Locust, cedar, redwood, and cypress are all woods highly
= 45%. resistant to decay. Paint benches before use with copper
However, if the benches were widened to four feet and 74 naphthenate or other preservatives (known to be safe around
feet long, allowing a three-foot turn around rather than four feet plants) to augment the natural decay resistance of the wood
as before, efficiency could be increased to 49 percent [(4 x 74 chosen. When redwood is chosen, iron and steel will corrode
x 4) / (30 x 80) x 100 = 49%]. To further increase efficiency, the from naturally present decay inhibitors. Therefore, choose met-
benches could be widened and the aisle widths reduced. als such as aluminum, zinc, or brass nails, screws, and bolts.
If the grower looks at the same greenhouse with 2400 Benches may be all wood or in combination with a different
square feet floor space, but this time designs a peninsular material for the base. Often, expanded metal or welded wire
bench arrangement, he will find that the peninsular design will of one inch or smaller mesh are used. While expanded metal
increase the growing area even more. Still greater efficiency is more expensive, it does not sag like welded wire. Besides
could be realized with rolling benches. decay, wood may warp and often absorbs soils, chemicals, etc.
Benching efficiency could be increased even more by which cannot be adequately removed. When wood is chosen,
growing hanging baskets. Use caution in deciding what to higher maintenance will be required on a regular basis.
grow underneath the overhead containers. Dripping will oc-
cur which may make some species unsalable under certain Concrete
conditions. Overhead shelving, tiered benches and temporarily Some growers have built concrete forms and poured en-
widening benches are additional methods to grow more with tire benches, including the legs (supports), all at once. These
less space. benches are permanent and do not allow for change later.
Concrete benches are durable and will not require additional
Bench Design treatment to prevent decay such as with wood. They may be
An alternative to conventional benching systems is the reinforced with steel rods, when poured, for additional durabil-
ebb and flow (flood or subirrigation) benches. Metal or wood ity. Lastly, consider drilling holes in the base of the bench for
benches are replaced with watertight, molded plastic trays. proper drainage.
Trays are periodically flooded with water and desired fertilizer
concentration, which can be taken up throughout the plants via Metal
capillary action. This system has such advantages as reduced Entire metal or steel benches are used alone or in com-
and uniform applications of water and fertilizer. Excess water bination with another material. Advantages of galvanized
and fertilizer are collected after each flood and drain cycle to metals over wood are the longevity and resistance to rot and
be recirculated later. Up to 50 percent reductions in water and decay. Metal benches may be expensive to install initially, but
fertilizer savings have been reported. Labor costs will also be can be considered a one-time cost. Also consider the lowered
reduced since the entire bench can be watered at the same maintenance costs when these types of benches are used.
time. This may not be feasible if plants with dissimilar water
6703-3
Temporary/Portable Benches Growing Systems, (M,W)
2950 N. Weil
Plastic Milwaukee, WI 53212
(414) 263-3131
Although plastics are becoming more common for bench
beds, plastic frames are not always desirable. They are often
Metalex, Inc., (M)
not as durable or able to support as much weight as other
1530 Artiaus Pkwy
benching materials. However, in a retail setting, prefabricated
Libertyville, IL 60048
benches can be purchased which are lightweight and, thus,
(312) 362-8300 US: 800-323-0792
portable. These are also available mounted on rollers, making
them particularly convenient in retail settings. Also, mainte-
Nexus Greenhouse Systems Corp., (M)
nance on plastic benches is again considerably less than for
10983 Leroy Dr.
wood.
Northglenn, CO 80233
(303) 457-9199 US: 800-2-BUY-NEX Fax: (303) 457-2801
Pallets
Rough Brothers
Another portable bench system can be inexpensively
P.O. Box 16010
constructed by placing pallets on cement blocks for support.
Cincinnati, OH 45216
Besides the low cost, this portable display can be easily and
(513) 242-0310 OH: 800-543-7602 US: 800-543-7351
quickly disassembled.
Fax: (513) 242-0816
Bench Supports
Sharp & Son, Inc.
Cement blocks are commonly used to support bench tops, 900 Lind Ave. SW
particularly if they are not intended to be permanent. Permanent Renton, WA 98055
benches may also be supported in this fashion. Additionally, steel (206) 235-4510
poles are often used for bench support. Plastic bench supports
are becoming more popular, but again they are often not as Westbrook Greenhouse Systems, Ltd. (M)
strong, and in many cases are most appropriate for temporary P.O. Box 99
retail displays. When wooden supports are used, it is especially Grimsby, ON Canada L3M 4G1
critical to chemically treat them for decay, at least the area (416) 945-4111 US: 800-263-0230 Fax: (416) 945-6564
which will be submerged in the soil. The same preservatives
which may be used on the growing surface of the benches are Structural Plastics Corp.
appropriate. Also, by pouring concrete footings, the structural 2750 Lippincott Blvd.
integrity of the bench supports may be reinforced. Flint, MI 48507
(313) 743-2800 US: 800-523-6899 Fax: (313) 743-2799
Purchasing/Building Benches
Benches may be built to suit ones particular needs, or an Dramex Intl., (M)
array of prefabricated benches may be purchased and installed 20 Fasken Dr.
by the distributor. Besides bench frames, bench fabrics made Rexdale, ON Canada M9W 1K5
from metal, plastic, etc. are readily available from greenhouse (416) 675-6311 Fax: (416) 675-4310
supply companies.
B & C Mortensen Wood Products
Bench System Supply Companies Rt. 4, Box 1000
American Plant Products and Services, Inc. Oldtown, ID 83822
9200 N.W. 10th Street (208) 437-5665
Oklahoma City, OK 73127
(405) 787-4833 Barlow Tyrie, Inc., (M)
1263/230 Glen Ave.
AQUA-HORT SYSTEMS, INC. Moorestown, NJ 08057
P.O. Box 57197 (609) 273-7878 US: 800-451-7467
(405) 521-8002 US: 800-446-1694 Southeastern Wood Products Co.
P.O. Box 113
Growers Intl. Inc./Div. of Sharp & Son, Inc. Griffin, GA 30224
P.O. Box 10 (404) 227-7486
Schulenburg, TX 78956
(409) 743-6522
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in
any of its policies, practices, or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director
of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 20 cents per copy. 0503
6703-4
A Small Backyard Geenhouse For the Home
Gardener
Home gardening and landscaping are enjoyable hobbies for many people in North Carolina. If
you are among them, you might benefit from a small backyard greenhouse. A greenhouse can be
built easily and inexpensively in several hours using simple hand tools and materials available at
most building supply stores. This publication presents plans and instructions for an easily
constructed greenhouse that costs about $100 and may be used for many purposes. Measuring 12
feet by 14 feet (168 square feet), it is small enough to be unobtrusive but large enough to meets
the needs of the serious grower. The completed structure is shown in Figure 1.
Selecting a Site
Choose a level, well-drained plot for the greenhouse. If it will be used primarily for plant
propagation in the summer, place it in partial shade to minimize heat buildup. A good location is
the north side of a large deciduous tree. If a partially shaded site is not available, you can use a
shade cloth or a white plastic cover to control the amount of sunlight reaching the interior.
If the greenhouse will be used for starting transplants or growing plants to maturity, it will need
maximum exposure to the sun. It should also be located where air drainage is good; avoid low
areas surrounded by woods or buildings. Easy access to running water and electricity is also
important.
Figure 1. A backyard greenhouse constructed from inexpensive materials.
Constructing the Greenhouse

The greenhouse consists of a wooden frame to which are attached bows of polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe. The bows hold up the clear plastic film covering, as shown in Figures 1 through 3.
Figure 2. Bows of PVC pipe are used to hold up the plastic film covering.
All lumber for construction should be treated for ground contact with an environmentally safe
preservative such as CCA. Avoid wood preserved with chemicals such as pentachlorophenol or
creosote. Lumber treated for ground contact has a higher concentration of preservative and
therefore will last much longer than untreated or lightly treated wood. Except for the covering,
the structure should last 10 to 12 years.
Unless the site is very flat, you will need to level the foundation boards. This is best done by
digging a trench on the high side instead of raising the low side, as the foundation boards should
contact the ground at all points to ensure a good seal. To keep rainwater out, however, the top of
the foundation board should not be below ground level, particularly around the door. the purpose
of the 4-inch-by-4-inch post at each corner (Figure 4) is to anchor the greenhouse and prevent it
from moving in high winds.
The PVC pipe bows are attached to the side boards of the foundation with electric metallic
tubing (EMT) clamps (Figure 4). It is best to attach the clamps loosely to the side boards with
wood screws before you secure the side boards to the end boards and corner blocks. They may be
tightened after the PVC pipe has been slipped into place.
PVC pipe may be purchased in 12- or 20-foot lengths in either schedule 40 or schedule 80
weights. Schedule 80 PVC pipe has a thicker wall and is stronger than schedule 40 pipe. It is
therefore recommended for greenhouse construction. The 12-foot width of the greenhouse was
chosen so that each half of the rib section of pipe is 10 feet long. PVC pipe may be easily cut
with a hand say, although a neater cut can be made with a pipe-cutting tool specially designed for
that purpose. Care must be taken during assembly because the cement used to fasten PVC is fast-
acting and permanent. It should not be used when the temperature is below 50 degree
Farenheight. Check the directions on the can.
It is best to lay all parts out on a flat surface for assembly. For the ribs to be 2 feet apart, the mid-
rib pipe must be cut into pieces about 22 1/2 inches long (Figures 3 and 5). After all joints have
been cemented and allowed to harden for a few minutes, position the entire assembly over the
foundation boards, bend the ribs, and secure them in place with the EMT clamps. Assembly is
best done by two or more people to prevent over stressing the cemented joints. Ten feet of
galvanized EMT positioned inside the mid-rib will give added strength to the structure.
After all the PVC ribs have been secured, the end frames and door may be constructed.
Although there is a door on only one end, both frames are essentially the same. The two
diagonals on each end give strength to the structure and make it easy to secure the cover. The top
of the end frame may be fastened to the end ribs with either a wood screw of a small metal strip
bent into a U shape. If wood screw are used, the PVC pipe must be predrilled to prevent splitting.
Select the type of cover material according the intended use of the greenhouse. Clear 4- or 6-mil
plastic greenhouse film is generally best if the house will be used for growing plants. If it will be
used exclusively for propagating or overwintering plants, consider using 4- or 6-mil milky or
white copolymer film. White copolymer film reduces the amount of heat and light within the
house and therefore limits the fluctuations in these factors, keeping conditions more nearly
constant during propagation or over the winter. However, shading clear plastic with a 30 to 50
percent polypropylene shade cloth or greenhouse whitewash available from horticultural supply
companies will produce nearly the same effect.
Figure4. Foundation side and end boards are attached to 4-by-4 posts to anchor the
structure. Note the EMT clamps on the side boards hlod the PVC pipe ribs.
The cover may be attached with small tacks, but staples are much faster and are more secure.
Allow the cover to extend several inches past the bottom of the foundation boards and cover the
extra material with packed soil to prevent the entrance of moles and rainwater. An inch of coarse
sand or fine gravel on the floor will reduce problems with mud and weeds.
Figure 5. The mid-rib pipe is cut into sections about 22 1/2 inches long and rejoined with
PVC crosses to which the ribs are attached. Ten feet of EMT is placed inside the mid-rib
for strength.
Operating the green house

It is essential that the house be as tight as possible so that it retain both heat and humidity.
Problems with overheating can usually be solved by simply opening the door. Supplemental heat
can be provided if needed during very cold weather or at night by one or more heat lamps or a
small electric heater. Any electrical devices used in the damp environment of a greenhouse
should be connected only to a circuit equipped with an approved ground fault current interrupter
(GFCI) outlet or circuit breaker. Other source of heat can be used, but even very small gas or oil
heaters will usually overheat a greenhouse this small and may not burn well if not properly
ventilated.
The greenhouse will satisfactorily support up to 4 inches of dry snow. If the snow is deeper or
unusually wet, one or more temporary supports should be provided along the mid-rib to prevent
collapse. If a larger greenhouse is required, the length may be increased. Do not increase the
width of the house without increasing the size of the ribs. Doing so will seriously reduce the
ability of the house to withstand snow and wind loads.
Uses
A small greenhouse can be quite useful throughout the year for many different purposes. In the
early spring, it can be used germinated and grow bedding and vegetable plants earlier that would
otherwise be possible. In the summer it can be used either with or with out a mist system of
humidifier as a propagation house to root cutting. It can be used in the fall to start winter
vegetable plants. During the winter, it can protect patio plants and other hardy but containerized
woody plants.
Greenhouse Structures - CEAC http://cals.arizona.edu/ceac/research/archive/structures_pe.htm
ceac : research : archive : Greenhouse Structures
Greenhouse Structures
Dr. Gene A. Giacomelli

Controlled Environment Agricultural Center
Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering Department
University of Arizona
introduction
basic design requirements
greenhouse orientaition
glazings and coverings
environmental control
management, labor, materials flow, etc.
automation, mechanization, and labor aids
questions
Introduction (top)
Selection of the greenhouse design is determined by the expectations, needs and experience of the grower.
Consider what crop(s) will be grown, how they will be managed, and the grower experiences in the type of
growing system. With this initial information, a workable design can be completed, and then modified by the
financial realities of the required investment.
Basic Design Requirements (top)

Assume a greenhouse layout, that efficiently uses the land space available. Begin with a small, but complete,
free-standing greenhouse unit, which readily fits within a plan for future additions to this initial unit, or with
modular blocks of separate, larger greenhouses. Consider the location and size of a headhouse work area,
storage space and office space. Select a greenhouse design with structural integrity sufficient for the weather
conditions (winds, snow) of the site. The greenhouse structure must not only be of sufficient overall size, but
also be proportioned to fit the modular size (row spacing or bench width) of the crop production system, such
that use of interior space is maximized.
The land should be well-drained and level, with access to roads for transport of materials and products.
Utilities such as fuel, electrical power and telephone should be readily available. Sufficient quantity of good
quality water is a necessity. Consider pH, hardness, salinity, and dissolved minerals when determining water
quality. Have a lab test completed!
An important consideration for future expansion is whether a ground-to-ground (Quonset style), or

gutter-connected structure should be initially selected. The Quonset can initially be less expensive. However,
its maximum width is limited to approximately 9 m (30 ft), and for expansion, additional and separate units
must be built. The gutter-connected design allows for future expansion by moving its sidewall and adding
more bays. The entire module is under one roof, which provides for common access, and the capability of
sharing environmental control systems, and other mechanical systems.
Multiple, separate structures can potentially offer isolation for disease and insect control measures, which
seems less possible within gutter-connected facilities. However, pest control practices are more difficult and
time consuming in the separated, smaller structures.
1 of 5 21/02/2007 4:55 PM
Greenhouse Orientation (top)

Orientation is determined by the direction of the greenhouse roof ridge or gutters, relative to the line of
movement of the sun. There is no optimal orientation, but there are costs/benefits to be considered for either
choice. The primary concern is for the maximum quantity, duration and uniform availability of solar radiation
for plant growth. At geographic locations greater than 30o from the equator, the seasonal reduction of solar
radiation is the most limiting plant growth and development factor.
The free-standing, Quonset greenhouse will provide more solar radiation than a gutter-connected greenhouse,
with a similar orientation. The total yearly light received will be greatest for the Quonset or gutter-connected
greenhouses if oriented with a N-S (North to South) roof ridge. Much of this total, however, is received in the
summer season when light is not limiting.
Considering only the winter season, that is, the lowest light intensity and shortest daylength period of the
year, an E-W ridge orientation will gain more total light than a N-S orientation.
For uniformity of light distribution to the plant canopy, the N-S oriented greenhouse is always better than the
E-W. The shadow patterns caused by the overhead greenhouse supporting structures continually move across
the crops (from west to east), as the sun travels from sunrise in the east to sunset in the west. This is
especially important during the light-limiting season.
Glazings and Coverings (top)

The types of greenhouse coverings range from traditional glass to the polymer plastics, such as thin films or
multi-layer rigid plastic panels. Enhancements to covering materials include: ultra-violet radiation (UV)
degradation inhibitors, infrared radiation (IR) absorbency, and anti-condensation drip surfaces, as well as,
other unique radiation transmission properties.
Plastic glazing includes: rigid plastic structured panels, such as fiberglass reinforced polyester (FRP),
polycarbonate (PC), acrylic (PMMA, polymethylmethacrylate), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) panels.
Thin film coverings include low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and ethylene vinyl
acetate copolymer (EVA). These materials have been used in single, double and even triple layers to cover
the greenhouse.
Glass is quite inert, in contrast to plastic, and it can function for 40 to 50 years without failure. It is
non-combustible, resistant to UV radiation and air pollutant degradation, and it maintains its initial radiation
transmission if regularly cleaned. The greatest drawback of glass is its vulnerability to catastrophic losses
caused by hail.
Polyethylene film covered greenhouses have been developed so that they are reliable, and usually have a
lower initial cost than most other greenhouse glazing systems. All plastic coverings are affected by
weathering and have useful lives of 3-5 years for films, and 10-15 years for rigid panels. Low air infiltration
rates resulting from the continuous film cover have improved energy savings, but contribute to high
greenhouse air humidity conditions. Moisture condensation, especially on flattened arch-shaped roofs,
promotes dripping on the crop below. The open-roof greenhouse structures, where the entire roof can be
mechanically opened and closed, have resolved some of these problems.
Selection of the type of covering material to use on new construction or on renovation projects requires many
practical considerations. The flexible and forming properties of the film simplify the covering process
compared to rigid plastics or glass. The attachment procedures for plastic film range from the simplicity of
wooden nailer strips to the reusable aluminum extrusion inter-locking strips. The need for replacing the film
every three to four years requires that the recovering process be rapid and easy. A means of recycling or
disposing of spent film must also be considered.
Glass or rigid structured plastic panels require the more elaborate aluminum extrusions for their attachment to
2 of 5 21/02/2007 4:55 PM
the greenhouse structure. These must be designed for the longer life of these covering materials.
Rigid plastic structured panels made of acrylic, polycarbonate, PVC and FRP, are initially more expensive as
a cover than polyethylene film, but they require less maintenance and provide a longer useful life. Re-glazing
systems for acrylic and polycarbonate panels use fewer, stronger support elements which are spaced wider
apart. This has effectively reduced the amount of structural shading typically associated with glass.
Ultraviolet radiation promotes photochemical degradation processes in all plastics and is generally the major
reason for their replacement. Temperature extremes and their duration can weaken film coverings, and this is
especially a problem where the film contacts the greenhouse metal structure. Air pollutants also reduce the
usable life of plastic coverings. These may be from sources external to the greenhouse which are attracted to
the outer plastic layers and reduce radiation transmission. They may also come from internal sources such as
chemicals used for pest control, which can cause premature failure of the plastic.
Environmental Control (top)

Environmental control for heating and cooling uniformity is a very important design consideration to
maintain desired environmental setpoint conditions. However, the distribution of heat is difficult, and a
uniformly heated environment may not result. Non-uniform environments cause differential plant growth
rates, potential disease problems, unpredictable results with nutrition or hormonal application, and generally
a more difficult plant production system to manage.
For the most effective and uniform cooling and heating, the rows of plants should be arranged in the direction
parallel with the ridge or gutters of the greenhouse structure. For ventilation, this assumes that the ventilation
system (fans and air inlets) would be located on the endwalls (perpendicular to the direction of the gutters).
Should airflow be restricted and non-uniform, then the ventilation system cannot effectively cool the plant,
nor provide for sufficient air exchange for humidity reduction (disease control) and replenishing carbon
dioxide.
Evaporative cooling systems, whether pad and fan, or high-pressure fog, are highly dependent upon effective
and uniform ventilation, as well. Similarly, row orientation can improve air movement and more effective
heating of each plant.
The capability of a hot water heating system for distributing the heat the plants is less affected by plant row
direction within the greenhouse than a hot air system. The heating pipe network is uniformly spaced
throughout the entire greenhouse area, and typically distributes the heat more uniformly. The hot water pipes
may be placed at the perimeter walls, overhead, at the base of the plant, or in a combination of each. Heating
pipes near the base of the plant provide warmed air near the floor which rises through the plant canopy,
providing a desirable plant microclimate.
A taller greenhouse is better for improved climate uniformity. In gutter-connected greenhouses, a minimum
of 3 m (10 ft) from floor surface to gutter, plus an additional 1.2 m (4 ft) from the gutter up to the ridge, is
desirable. Tall greenhouses provide a large internal air volume, which reduces rapid changes of the
greenhouse climate caused by the natural daily fluctuations of the outside environmental conditions.
In addition, a tall greenhouse provides sufficient space required for other greenhouse systems such as: an
energy blanket or shade cloth, supplemental lights, raised benches (reducing usable height to overhead
systems), irrigation boom, overhead misting systems, tall crops such as tomatoes, or hanging basket plants.
The most common energy conservation technique related directly to the design of the structure is the internal
energy blanket. This system could also be used as a shading system with proper selection of blanket material.
In all greenhouse structure designs, a space for the energy blanket should be provided, whether the systems is
initially installed or not. Within a gutter-connected greenhouse, the blanket can be located at the height of the
gutter. When not in use it can be tightly packed beneath the gutter to minimize shading to the plants below.
Management, Labor, Internal Transport, Space Utilization, and Materials Flow (top)
3 of 5 21/02/2007 4:55 PM
Greenhouse crop production has work conditions that can be modified and improved as a result of the
mechanization, automation, or environmental control systems. The labor demand is nearly continuous, which
helps to maintain a skilled, dependable workforce. The regularity and repetitiveness of the work tasks allows
for improvement of work conditions, work procedures, and mechanization, which ultimately lead to increased
productivity and safety for the worker.
Management and labor for crop production is a major expense for a greenhouse operation, thus any means to
increase labor productivity or improve labor management is beneficial. Generally, a larger facility under one
roof, such as with gutter-connected greenhouse, can improve the labor management situation. The
preparation and work areas for specific tasks can be centralized for more efficient labor productivity.
Supplies and raw materials can be readily available from central storage. The layout or relative locations of
preparation area, growing area, storage, and shipping (input/output), directly affects the production capacity,
flow of materials, and labor productivity of the greenhouse. The plant production space within the
greenhouse bays, accounts for the largest of these locations.
The type of growing system, its physical layout, and its environment and plant culture systems (water,
nutrients, heat) directly affect labor efficiency and flow of materials. Within the plant production area, the
greenhouse bays consists of crop rows which are typically organized in a repetitive fashion. The bays have
aisles for worker access to the plants. It is desirable to minimize both the number and the size of the aisles, in
order to increase the greenhouse floor space for plant production.
The limitations on these minimum sizes are based on the light availability to the plant canopy, and the need
for sufficient access to the plants to complete the tasks associated with plant care, maintenance, and most
importantly, harvest.
The crop rows within the bay must be inter-connected to each other for easy access by the workers, as well
as, to the input/output location (typically a shed) of the greenhouse. The number and size of pathways which
make this connection need to be minimized, however, they must be of sufficient capacity to prevent labor or
transport bottlenecks. They should be sized for the required machinery that must be transported.
Automation, Mechanization and Labor Aids (top)

The importance of mechanization and automation is directly proportional to the amount of handling and
maintenance operations required for the crop. Handling is determined whether the crop requires regular
(daily) handling/transport to complete an operation (pinch, prune) during its growth period, and whether
these operations can remain within the greenhouse growing area, or must be transported to a work area
outside the growing area. A general rule of internal transport to make the most efficient use of labor is, to
move the largest unit size of materials or crop over the shortest possible distance within each labor transport
cycle.
There are several options for locating the work area (i.e. the area where hands-on maintenance operations
will be performed on the crop) for efficient crop transportation. It could be near by but removed from the
production area, for example, within an adjacent shed building. There is also the option for a mobile work
station, which is moved to the plants in the growing area.
Machinery and hand equipment which can improve the capability of the workers to perform their tasks, or
improve the working conditions should be considered in the design. Automation and mechanization have an
investment cost which must outweigh the costs of a manual operation. Automated machinery or manual labor
aids increase the uniformity and consistency of the product, and the work force. Mechanization of an
operation can provide mechanical power, speed, repetition, safety and a greater potential for consistency and
quality control. Automation includes these attributes but with greater flexibility, and potentially, some
automated decision-making.
Questions? (top)
Contact Dr. Gene A. Giacomelli
Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering
4 of 5 21/02/2007 4:55 PM
504 Shantz, University of Arizona

Tucson, AZ 85721
(520) 621- 1412
[email protected]
Paper # E-125933-04-01. (Greenhouse Structures.doc)

Supported by CEAC, the Controlled Environment Agricultural Center
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
University of Arizona.
ceac : research : archive : Greenhouse Structures
Copyright 2002, UA Controlled Environment Agriculture Center
5 of 5 21/02/2007 4:55 PM
Greenhouse Structures
and Coverings
Michael A. Schnelle
Extension Ornamentals/Floriculture Specialist
are also available on our website at:
John M. Dole
Assistant Professor
Floriculture

Many advances in greenhouse materials and designs have Unless the grower is constructing a greenhouse without
occurred in the last few years. Traditionally, greenhouses were the use of a manufacturer, specific recommendations are
made of glass and all had a similar structure. Today, however, usually provided for adequate durability of the foundation.
a great variety exists, and the materials chosen depend on The foundation stage of construction is critical and consulting
production goals and financial constraints. with appropriate personnel, such as experienced builders, is
highly recommended.
Types of Greenhouses
Freestanding (single) or ridge and furrow (gutter con- Structural Components
nected) greenhouses are two common styles of commercial The major vertical support of greenhouses is provided
greenhouses. The freestanding style is often a Quonset, which by rafters placed on two to four foot centers, depending on
will accommodate many growing situations but presents height the strength needed. Depending on the width of the structure,
restrictions near the side walls. Another freestanding style is truss or curved arch type rafters are used.
the single gable greenhouse and its many variations. Purlins are arranged horizontally and connect the rafters.
The ridge and furrow or gutter connected greenhouses Four to eight foot spacings are used depending on the size of
are joined at the eave by a common gutter. When several the greenhouse. Cross ties are also used in certain houses.
of these buildings are joined they are often referred to as a In areas where high winds occur, purlins are important in
greenhouse range (Figure 1). maintaining structural integrity of the greenhouse.
Side posts and columns are vertical supports that dictate
Foundations the height of the production area. These range from one to
ten feet in height and should be given serious consideration
The foundation must resist overturning and vertical pres-
since they directly influence efficiency (Figure 2). Quonset
sure from structural loads and snow, and should extend below
style greenhouses are an example of a structure with low side
the frost line. Concrete is the most appropriate material for
walls, making it difficult for laborers to work or grow plants in
permanent structures. A 2,500 PSI or greater mix should be
that reduced area (Figure 1).
chosen when ready-mix concrete is used.
Figure 1. Commercial greenhouse structures: A) gutter connected, B) Quonset, and C) single gable.

Framing Materials guarantee their materials for up to four years. Look for ultra-
violet stabilized products that are slower to yellow and crack.
Aluminum is the most economical material for constructing
Single and triple layer polyethylene coverings are used less
the greenhouse frame. It can be shaped as needed to form
commonly. Replacement of a polyethylene covering as a result
various structural components of the greenhouse and needs
of wind, hail, or solar damage will be more frequent than any
no maintenance after installation. Aluminium framing also has
other covering, but the low investment and the need for less
the longest life span and allows for light reflectance.
structural components make it a material to consider when a
Steel is commonly used but must be painted or galvanized
temporary greenhouse is desired. Two additional products,
to resist high moisture conditions within the greenhouse. Steel
available commercially, to extend the life of a polyethylene
needs more maintenance than aluminum and is heavier,
house are poly patch and anti-drip material. The anti-drip mate-
requiring additional support.
rial reduces condensation that can harm plants growing below.
Wood was once a common framing material, but it has
Condensation should also be controlled to prevent lowered
steadily lost popularity for a number of reasons. The main
light transmission, especially during the winter months when
disadvantage of wood is that it deteriorates over time. If wood
low light levels may limit plant growth.
is desired, pressure treated lumber should be purchased
Fiberglass is another material that has gained popularity
and then treated with commercially available coatings. Avoid
over glass. It is very durable, rigid, and available in various
PENTA and creosote since they liberate fumes that are harmful
light transmission levels. Ultraviolet light will cause fiberglass
to plants.
to deteriorate in a few years from swelling and fraying of the
fibers. This in turn quickly leads to lowered light transmission
to the plants. However, there are products now available that
Coverings will help reduce the fraying. These coatings should be applied
Glass allows maximum light transmission in greenhouse prior to damage to the fiberglass. Although the life span of
production. Despite this, there are several disadvantages to fiberglass can be as short as five years, choosing higher grade
consider. Glass is expensive and, because it is fragile, has products and applying a coating may result in a twenty year
to be replaced more often than many other materials on the life span.
market today. Also, consider that when using glass, the cost Polycarbonate is one of the newest materials available
of structural components will be expensive because of the and is still being evaluated. This material is rigid but also
added weight which must be supported. When glass is desired, flexible enough to be used in a Quonset style greenhouse.
check with the manufacturer for double and triple strength Although the initial cost of polycarbonate is high, a ten to
ratings available. Also, “hammered” or “frosted” panes will 15 year life span can be expected. Polycarbonate can be
distribute incoming light better by dispersing the rays, result- purchased in double and triple walled forms which are highly
ing in fewer shadows. This type of glass is not transparent impact resistant.
from the outside, which can be an added security benefit in Acrylic is also new and expensive but it has a minimum
certain situations. ten year warranty from some manufacturers. Although many
A double layer of polyethylene, inflated with air, is another advantages exist such as high light transmittance, high impact
option to consider for covering the greenhouse. One advan- resistance, and great strength, costs have proven prohibitive
tage of using this material is that it is relatively inexpensive. in most cases.
Materials have greatly improved and some manufacturers
Figure 2. Basic structural components of a greenhouse: A) rafter, B) end wall, C) side posts, D) side wall, and E) purlin.
6700-2
Remember to check with the covering manufacturer for Oklahoma Greenhouse Companies
several factors.
Aqua-Hort Systems, Inc.
1. Combustibility - Some materials may result in lower insur-
P.O. Box 57197
ance premiums if they are fire retardant. Other materials
are highly flammable, such as fiberglass reinforced panels
(FRP), and that must be considered. Fire retardant FRP
Acme Engineering & Mfg. Co
panels can be purchased.
P.O. Box 978
2. Durability - Not only will this differ among materials, but
Muskogee, OK 74402
also will be determined by whether they are one, two, or
three ply.
3. Insulation - Note insulation “R” factor and compare for Out of State Greenhouse Companies
fuel savings. Heat retention from highest to lowest: B.F.G. Supply Company
• Acrylic (double layer) 1455 Kinsman Road
• Polycarbonate (double layer) Burton, Ohio 44123
• Glass (double layer)
• Polyethylene (double layer) Stupp GH Mfg. Inc.
• Fiberglass P.O. Box 12456
N. Kansas City, MO 64116
Keep in mind that this is relative to the number and thick-
ness of layers used. Poly-Tex, Inc.
4. Life span P.O. Box 458
5. Care - Maintenance may be required to realize life span Castle Rock, MN 55010
claims from manufacturer.
6. Guarantee - Read warranties carefully as most will be Jaderloon
limited. P.O. Box 685
Irmo, SC 29063
Shading Compounds
Keeler-Glasgow Company, Inc.
During the summer months the solar radiation in Oklahoma
80444 C.R. 687
is too intense for many crops to be grown to acceptable qual-
P.O. Box 158
ity. Shading is necessary to make greenhouses usable and
Hartford, MI 49057
to prevent overtaxing the cooling and ventilation systems.
Many commercial shading compounds can be applied in
National Greenhouse Co.
the spring and removed as fall approaches. Instructions are
P.O. Box 100
provided to reach the desired percentage of radiation blockage.
Pana, IL 62557
Liquid formulas are commonly used for glass and sometimes
fiberglass. However, frayed fiberglass may absorb the liquid,
V & V Noordland
making it impossible to remove when maximum solar radiation
P.O. Box 739
is again needed.
16 Commercial Boulevard
Another alternative is to use shade cloth. It can be pur-
Medford, NY 11763
chased for the percent of solar radiation reduction desired,
depending on the crops grown.
Atlas Greenhouses
Dixie Mfg. Company
Rt. 1, Box 339
Alapaha, GA 31622
6700-3
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advise changes.
6700-4
E N H OU
E
GR
SE
TOMATO HANDBOOK
Contents
Page
Plan for Success ....................................................................................................................................1
Plant Population ....................................................................................................................................2
Varieties..................................................................................................................................................2
Growing in Aggregate Media ................................................................................................................3
Planting Schedule ..................................................................................................................................3
Pruning and Training ............................................................................................................................4
Pollination ..............................................................................................................................................5
Temperature ..........................................................................................................................................6
Relative Humidity..................................................................................................................................6
Greenhouse Cooling ..............................................................................................................................6
Irrigation ................................................................................................................................................9
pH ..........................................................................................................................................................9
Fertility ................................................................................................................................................10
Methods of Mixing Fertilizers ............................................................................................................11
Plant Response ....................................................................................................................................12
Modified Steiner Solution....................................................................................................................12
Commercial Fertilizers ........................................................................................................................13
How To Calculate Element Level in a Fertilizer ................................................................................14
Leaf Tissue Analysis ............................................................................................................................16
Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms ..........................................................................................................16
Physiological Disorders ......................................................................................................................17
Appendix I. Additional Information ....................................................................................................20
Appendix II. Commercial Greenhouse Manufacturers (G) and Suppliers (S)....................................20
Appendix III. Associations and Short Courses....................................................................................27
1
Greenhouse Tomato Handbook
Greenhouse tomato production has attracted much atten- schedule, and then harvested after so many days have
tion in recent years, partly because of a new wave of inter- elapsed, tomatoes must be examined daily. Because the
est in “alternative crops.” The attraction is based on the per- growth system is complex, many things can go wrong.
ception that greenhouse tomatoes may be more profitable Raising a greenhouse tomato crop may be more similar to
than the more conventional agronomic or horticultural maintaining a herd of dairy cows than to growing a field
crops. The popularity may also be due to misconceptions crop of vegetables.
about how easily this crop can be grown. • The greenhouse environment is not a sterile one.
While the value of greenhouse tomatoes is high on a per There is a common misconception that crops grown in
unit basis, the costs are also high. The following points are greenhouses do not have insects and diseases. Just the
outlined to clear up misconceptions you might have. Keep opposite is true. While a greenhouse environment is excel-
these in mind before pursuing greenhouse tomatoes, either lent for growing tomatoes (and other vegetables), it is even
as a livelihood or as a crop for supplemental income: better for propagating insect pests and disease organisms.
• Greenhouse tomatoes have unique cultural require- Due to the higher temperature, higher relative humidity, and
ments, unlike crops such as soybeans and cotton, and not lush, green foliage, insects and diseases are constant threats
even similar to other field vegetable crops. In fact, a once introduced into a greenhouse. Therefore, weekly
grower of field tomatoes would have difficulty in growing sprays with both insecticides and fungicides are standard
greenhouse tomatoes without a significant amount of learn- practice.
ing time. Greenhouse tomatoes should be thought of as alto- These comments are not meant to discourage prospective
gether different from field-grown crops. growers. If you are preparing to invest time and money into
• Because of specific production requirements, green- growing greenhouse tomatoes, however, you should be fully
house tomatoes cannot be termed an “easy” crop to aware of the pitfalls as well as the benefits before
grow. They are one of the more difficult horticultural crops proceeding any further. If you are willing to spend the
to produce with many procedures that must be followed to necessary time to learn how to grow this crop, you can be
insure a healthy, productive crop. successful if you follow the basic guidelines in this and
• The time necessary to grow greenhouse tomatoes is other publications.
much greater on a per unit basis than any field vegetable
crop. The many weekly cultural practices (pruning, wrap- Plan for Success
ping, pollinating, spraying, etc.) add up to a significant The best way to learn is not by your own mistakes, but by
amount of time. The estimated average labor requirement other people’s mistakes. Visit as many other greenhouse
per greenhouse (or bay) is 20 person-hours per week (for an tomato growers as possible and ask questions. Most grow-
average 24- by 96-foot greenhouse). As a grower gains ers are happy to share information.
experience, this time requirement can be reduced. This fig- • Collect as much information as you can and read it.
ure estimates the amount of time per week averaged over the If you don’t know where to start, call your county agent or
entire crop. More time is needed during transplanting and Extension specialist and request a packet of material on
harvest, and less time is needed while the plants are grow- greenhouse tomato production.
ing from transplant to the time of first harvest. Adequate • Sell your tomatoes before you plant them. Line up
labor provisions should be made before help is actually buyers ahead of time to be sure you have a market for your product.
required. • Buy a pH meter and an electroconductivity (EC)
• Greenhouse tomatoes need regular attention. Unlike meter. These are relatively inexpensive instruments that
many field crops that can be planted, sprayed on a fixed will help you make sure that you are putting on the appro-
1
priate level of nutrient solution. Check the pH and EC of you buy. This cost reflects the laborious process of hand
every tank you mix to avoid mistakes. pollination required to produce the hybrid seed. Although
• Pollinate every other day with an electric buzzer pol- this seems rather expensive, it is still one of the lowest costs
linator or another method. of production. After the heating, labor, and fertilizer costs
• Be sure your plants have plenty of water. Any time are incurred, the extra expense of using the finest seed is rel-
your plants wilt, they are not growing, and blossoms may atively small.
drop; increase the water level as needed. There are thousands of tomato varieties available on the
• Water enough so that there is always some drainage market, but only a few are acceptable for greenhouse pro-
from the bags. This ensures that fertilizer salts will not duction. If you plan to grow tomatoes in a greenhouse, you
accumulate in your growing medium. need to use a greenhouse variety. These are almost exclu-
sively Dutch hybrid indeterminate varieties, bred in Holland
• Don’t let diseases or insects (especially whitefly) get
specifically for greenhouse production. Field varieties are
out of control. Start weekly sprays or biological controls as
typically adapted to higher light and lower humidity condi-
soon as your plants are in the greenhouse. Increase the fre-
tions and probably would not yield well in the greenhouse.
quency of sprays if a problem arises.
A glass or plastic greenhouse has about 20 percent less light
• Keep good records. Record the date and chemical pes-
than outdoors, and many field types do not tolerate this
ticide used each time, the fertilizer ppm (concentration) used
reduction.
and the date it is increased, the amount of water you are
There are many companies in Holland and other
feeding per day, and any time you make a change in your
European countries that deal in greenhouse varieties; how-
cultural program.
ever, only a few have distributors in the United States. You
• If a problem comes up, get help quickly. Call your
can buy seed from a greenhouse supply catalog, or directly
county agent or Extension specialist for assistance.
from the seed companies, which are shown in the list of sup-
Plant Population pliers at the end of this publication.
Base variety selection on these criteria:
When growing greenhouse tomatoes, it is important to
• size of fruit desired
use the proper planting density. Greenhouse tomatoes need • disease resistance
at least four square feet per plant or 10,000 plants per acre. • lack of physiological problems, i.e., cracking,
In fact, recent research at the Truck Crops Branch catfacing, blossom-end rot
Experiment Station shows that using a planting density of 5 • yield uniformity of fruit size
sq. ft/plant produced the same per unit area, while reducing • market demand
the plant population. To determine how many plants can be In Mississippi, as in most of the United States, the mar-
grown in your greenhouse, multiply the length by the width ket preference is for a red tomato. In Ohio and southern
and then divide by four or five. For a 24- by 96-foot green- Canada (Leamington, Ontario), the preference is for pink
house, about 460 to 576 plants can be grown; for a 30- by tomatoes. The only physical difference is in the skin color.
96-foot greenhouse, 576 to 720 plants will fit, depending on There are no flavor or biochemical differences.
planting density. Note: If you will use some of the floor The varieties most worth considering at the time of this
space for other purposes (for example, storage, packing, printing are Trust, Match, Switch, and Blitz.
grading), subtract this area from the total before dividing by Tropic cannot be recommended to commercial growers
four or five. because of its lack of size uniformity, intolerance to high
Using a higher planting density will cause the yield per nitrogen fertilizer, and lack of resistance to Tobacco Mosaic
plant to decrease, while the yield per greenhouse will stay Virus (TMV) and other diseases; however, Tropic is fine for
about the same. This is due primarily to plants shading each a hobby greenhouse.
other. The costs and the amount of labor required, however, Jumbo may be the largest fruited variety available, but it
increase with more plants. Also, crowding plants tends to lacks resistance to TMV and most other diseases, is not tol-
promote disease development, since foliage does not dry as erant to higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and is not as uni-
readily, and sprays cannot easily penetrate the thick foliage. form in size as some of the other varieties.
Arrange plants in double rows, about 4 feet apart on cen- Serious growers should not use outdoor varieties such as
ter. Within a row, plants will average 14 to 16 inches Celebrity, Better Boy, Travellers, etc., in the greenhouse,
between stems. although these are fine for the garden.
You can buy seed by the piece with lower costs per unit
Varieties for larger quantities and higher costs for smaller quantities.
The first step in raising any crop is to choose the best Tomato seeds are very small; one-fifth of an ounce contains
variety. Growing a variety that is not the best choice, or about 1,200 seeds. If you have a two-bay greenhouse (4,500
using seed that are not of the best quality, reduces your square feet) with about 550 plants per bay, this is enough
potential for success at the outset. It is smart to start off with seed. Always plant a few extra seeds (10 - 20 percent) since
the greatest potential rather than limiting yourself by using germination will not be 100 percent. This also gives you the
inferior seed, even if it saves a few dollars. opportunity to discard any seedlings that do not meet your
Hybrid tomato seed is expensive. It now costs 10 to 30 high quality standards. Store extra seed in unopened con-
cents per seed, depending on the variety and quantity that tainers or in zip-locked bags in the freezer.
2
Table 1. Varieties of greenhouse tomatoes and their characteristics
Variety Source* Fruit size (ounces)** Greenback*** Disease resistance****
Caruso DR 6-8 SG TMV,C5,V,F2
Laura DR 6-8 SG TMV,C2,V,F2
Capello DR 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,Wi
Perfecto DR 5-7 NG TMV,C5,F2,Wi
Trust DR 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Match DR 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Switch DR 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Blitz DR 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR
Baronie RZ 7-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Mariachi (74-56RZ) RZ 8-9 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Mississippi RZ 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Zoltano RZ 6-7 NG TMV,C5,V,F2,FR,Wi
Electra HZ 7-8 G TMV,V,F2
Gabriela HZ 5-7 G TMV,V,F2,N
Dombito B 6-8 G TMV,C2,F2
Dombello B 7-9 G TMV,C5,V,F2,N,Wi
Jumbo B 7-10 G C2,V,F2
Belmondo B 6-8 NG TMV,C5,V,F2
Medallion B 7-9 NG TMV,C2,V,F2,FR
Tropic 5-11 SG tmv,V,F1,ASC
Vendor S 6-8 NG tmv,C2,F1
Vendor VFT S 6-8 NG TMV,V,F2
* DR = De Ruiter; B = Seminis (Bruinsma/Asgrow); S = Stokes; RZ = Rijk Zwaan; HZ = Hazera.

** Actual fruit size is variable, depending on pollination, cultural practices, and environmental conditions.
*** G = greenback; SG = semigreenback; NG = non-greenback type.
**** TMV = resistant to Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV); tmv = tolerant to TMV; C2 = Cladosporium races A and B; C5 = Cladosporium
races A, B, C, D, and E; V = Verticillium Wilt; F1 = tolerance to Fusarium Wilt race 1; F2 = Fusarium Wilt races 1 and 2;
Wi = tolerance to Silvering; N = most Nematodes; ASC = resistant to Alternaria Stem Canker; FR = resistant to Fusarium Crown
and Root Rot.
Table 1 lists some of the common greenhouse tomato temperature, and so that there is no nitrogen depletion
varieties and some of their characteristics. Note that only caused by the decomposition process. If you cannot deter-
some of the varieties have resistance to Fusarium Crown mine the age of bark, purchase the bark at least 3 months
and Root Rot (FR). This disease has been in Mississippi before it is to be used; this allows time for composting at
greenhouses since 1990. The variety Trend is not recom- your site.
mended for Mississippi greenhouses. The recommended volume of aggregate medium is 1/2
cubic foot per plant. With pine bark, this is easily achieved
Growing in Aggregate Media by using 2 cubic-foot bags and transplanting three or four
Many types of growing systems for greenhouse tomatoes plants per bag. You can buy these pine-bark filled, perforat-
are available. These systems include NFT (nutrient film ed, polyethylene bags from Mississippi suppliers (see list at
technique), PVC pipes, sand, ground culture (in the soil), end of this publication). Alternatively, two plants can be
troughs, rock wool slabs, and various types of aggregate grown in a 7 1/2-gallon bag or bucket, or you can grow one
media. This latter group includes peat moss and peat-lite plant in a 3- or 4-gallon container (1 cubic foot equals 7 1/2
mixes, perlite, rock wool aggregate, glass wool, pine bark, gallons).
and many others. Most of the multi-acre greenhouse ranges
in the U.S. use rock wool. This inert, highly porous materi- Planting Schedule
al is made by melting volcanic rock, limestone, and coke at There are two principal cropping systems for growing
292°F and spinning it into fibers. In Mississippi, pine bark greenhouse tomatoes: two crops per year and one crop per
is the leading growing medium due to its suitable properties, year. With the one-crop system, set plants in mid-
availability, and low cost. September or later and grow until mid- to late June. For
For growers using pine bark, it is recommended that the Mississippi, the two-crop system, with a spring crop and a
bark be composted fines. Fines are particles less than 3/8 of fall crop, is preferred. This is because plants held over the
an inch in diameter. Initial composting is necessary so the winter are more likely to be infected with diseases such as
bark does not damage roots of tomato transplants from high Botrytis (gray mold) and Cladosporium (leaf mold) that
3
thrive in damp greenhouse conditions during December, Rig a support system of wires above the crop. Use 9-
January, and February. Plants that have been growing for gauge or 3/32-inch galvanized wire or stronger (a 100-
several months have dense growth by winter, reducing air- pound box contains about 1,700 linear feet). These wires
flow and aggravating humidity problems. These conditions should run parallel to the direction of the rows and 7 feet off
are favorable to disease development. Also, plants that have the ground. Cut strings 14 feet long, so there is enough
been growing since September do not have the same vigor slack to allow the plant to be leaned and dropped when it
as young plants transplanted in January. reaches the height of the wire. Tie one string loosely (not a
Alternatively, one, shorter crop can be grown just in the slipknot) or clip it to the bottom of each plant, throw it over
spring, or through the late winter and spring. Marketing con- the wire, and then tie it to the wire with a slip knot. Plastic
ditions should determine the cropping season. clips are commercially available (see Appendix 1 for list of
July and August are too hot to have producing tomato suppliers). Note: Be certain the greenhouse frame can sup-
plants in greenhouses in the Midsouth. Summer fruits are port the weight of fruit-laden plants, or that a sturdy frame
plagued with splitting, cracking, blotchy ripening, and gen- is constructed at the ends of rows to support the wires. Plan
erally poor quality and yield. In addition, the market price on the wire bearing a load of 15 pounds per linear foot, or 3
is down because field tomatoes are available. tons for 600 plants.
For the two-crop system, seed the fall crop after the mid- When the plant reaches the wire height, it should be
dle of July in trays, with one seed per cell. If you plant ear- leaned and dropped. Hold the string securely with your left
lier, young plants will be subject to high summer tempera- hand just above the plant; loosen the knot with your right
tures and will be off to a poor start. Allow plants to grow for hand. Simultaneously let the plant down about 2 feet below
4 1/2 to 5 weeks. Transplant during mid-August into bags, the wire and slide the string to the right. The plant must be
buckets, or rock wool. The first harvest will be late October leaned over while it is dropped; otherwise the stem will
or early November. probably break. Always lean in the same direction. Do not
Seed the spring crop in late November, transplanting this lean some to the right and some to left or they will shade
crop soon after the first of January, when transplants are each other. Lower all plants to the same height so they don’t
about 6 weeks old. This means you will have young shade each other. Repeat this operation each time plants
seedlings at the same time you have mature plants. It is grow higher than the wire. This is another reason the two-
preferable to have a separate propagation house for new crop-per-year system is preferable–there is less labor need-
seedlings. If seedlings are grown in the same greenhouse ed for leaning and dropping the plants.
with mature plants, it is likely that insects (whiteflies, As you prune the plant to one main stem, wrap it around
leafminers, etc.) and diseases will contaminate the new crop. the support string. You can prune and wrap in one opera-
The first harvest should occur in March. The spring crop tion, doing both to a plant before moving on to the next
can be grown until late June, or until the temperature plant. Always wrap in the same direction—if you start
becomes too extreme for quality production (see section on
Greenhouse Cooling).
Top the plants 6 weeks before the intended termination
date. Termination should be close to the end of December
for a fall crop and mid- to late June for a spring crop. When
topping, remove the tops of plants from marble-sized fruit
and higher. Such small fruit will not have time to mature
before termination of the crop. Leave one or two leaves
above the highest cluster of fruit that remains. This helps
shade the fruit and prevents sun scald.
Pruning and Training

For best production, prune tomato plants to a single stem
by removing all lateral shoots, commonly referred to as
“suckers.” One sucker will form at the point where each leaf
originates from the main stem, just above the leaf petiole
(stem). Allowing all suckers to grow and bear fruit would
increase the total number of fruit, but they would be small
and of poor quality. It is better to have one main stem that
bears fruit, as this will produce larger, more uniform, and
higher quality fruit.
Removing suckers once per week will keep them under
control. It is advisable to leave one or two of the smallest
suckers at the top of the plant. Then, if the plant becomes
damaged and the terminal breaks off, one of these suckers
can be allowed to grow and become the new terminal. Pollination is best accomplished with an electric pollinator.
Generally, remove any sucker longer than one inch.
4
ough pollination reduces the number of fruit set per plant.
Several problems can result from poor pollination: off-
shaped fruit if seeds do not develop uniformly throughout
the fruit, smaller fruit, and fruit that are rough (ridged) along
the tops. Pollination can be prevented by various stresses
such as cold or hot temperatures, drought, high humidity,
nutrient deficiencies, nutrient toxicities, etc., as well as lack
of pollen transfer.
Tomato flowers have both male and female parts within
every flower. Botanically, these are termed “perfect” flow-
ers. Field tomatoes are pollinated primarily by wind rather
than by bees, which pollinate many other types of vegeta-
bles. Most of a flower’s pollen fertilizes the ovary within
the same flower, although some of the pollen reaches sur-
rounding flowers. Wind shakes the flower so that pollen
leaves the anther and travels to the stigma. In the green-
A simple slipknot is used to tie string to the plant support wire. house, wind is not strong enough to shake the flowers suffi-
ciently to transfer the pollen. Even though the greenhouse
clockwise, continue clockwise; otherwise, when the plant is ventilated with fans, on cooler days when the fans are not
gets heavy with fruit, it may slip down the string and break. operating, the air is relatively motionless.
Some growers prefer to use plastic clips to secure the plant The optimum temperature for pollination is within the
to the string, either in combination with wrapping or to range 70 to 82 °F. Optimum relative humidity is 70 percent.
replace wrapping. Above 80 percent relative humidity, pollen grains stick
Cluster pruning will also improve size and uniformity. together and are not dispersed well. With relative humidity
This involves removing small fruit from some clusters, leav- less than 60 percent for extended periods, the stigma may
ing three, four, or five of the best ones. Remove misshaped dry out so that pollen grains will not stick to it. With ideal
or deformed fruit first. Otherwise, remove the smallest fruit, conditions, fertilization occurs 48 hours after pollination.
which is usually the last one formed on each cluster. Serious greenhouse tomato growers should use an electric
pollinator to ensure good fruit set. (What is a “serious”
Pollination grower? — one who grows tomatoes for a profit.)
Pollination of the female flower part must occur before In a hobby greenhouse, the expense of a pollinator is
fruit will set. Any activity or inactivity that prevents thor- probably not necessary. You can purchase an electric polli-
Touch the pollinator wand to the upper side of each pedicel (flower stem). Do not touch individual flowers.
5
nator from most greenhouse supply distributors. These can individual grains. It is important to stay with the schedule
be powered with a disposable alkaline battery or with a of every other day because if the cloudy days turn into a
rechargeable 6-volt battery. Purchasing a rechargeable bat- cloudy week without pollinating, fruit set and quality will
tery with a charger may be less expensive than continually certainly be decreased.
buying alkaline batteries. Also, you should never be with- What if it is cloudy for a long period of time?
out power. The rechargeable battery can be plugged in after
As mentioned, pollination in very wet conditions is not as
use to be sure it is ready for the next pollination. How much
effective as in dry weather. One technique you can try is to
time does it take to pollinate? Vibrate each cluster (not each
dry the air before pollinating. Turn on the heating system
blossom) for about half a second. Touch the wand to the top
for 30 to 60 minutes before pollinating. Ventilate to main-
side of the pedicel (flower stem). Do not touch individual
tain the temperature requirements. This will dry the flowers
blossoms, as this will damage them, causing damaged fruit.
and the air, improving pollen transfer.
One acre (10,000 plants) is estimated to take 5 to 6 hours to
pollinate. For a 24- by 96-foot greenhouse, this would be Is the expense of an electric pollinator really necessary?
about 20 minutes. New growers may take an hour or more If you want to get maximum yield, the answer is certain-
until they gain experience. ly “yes.” If you would be happy with a lower yield, then it
If you have 10,000 square feet or more under one roof, is not so important. In an experiment at the University of
seriously consider using bumblebees for pollination. Southwestern Louisiana Center for Greenhouse Research,
Purchase your bumblebee hives from commercial suppliers pollinating with an electric air blower resulted in a 7 percent
(see list at end of this publication). Use an electric pollina- decrease in yield, while not pollinating resulted in a 21 per-
tor if you have one or two gutter-connected bays, or more cent decrease in yield, compared to using an electric polli-
bays that are not under one roof. For ranges between 5,000 nator. You can purchase a pollinator from most greenhouse
and 10,000 square feet under one roof, you need to compare suppliers.
the cost of the bee hives to the cost of labor to achieve pol-
lination. Generally, a hive will last for about 8 weeks before Temperature
you need to replace it with a new hive. It is a good idea to A day temperature of 70 to 82 °F is optimum, while night
allow for some overlapped time between the old and new temperature of 62 to 64 °F is optimum for greenhouse toma-
hives. Note: Even if bumble-bees are used, an electric polli- toes. During cloudy weather, a temperature closer to the
nator will still be needed to pollinate the first few flowers lower end of these ranges is preferred, while in sunny
that open. Hives should be introduced when 50 percent of
weather, temperatures closer to the higher end are better.
plants have open blooms.
Below 60 °F, nutrient deficiencies may occur because plants
cannot absorb some elements at cool temperatures. The first
Questions About Pollination sign of cool temperature stress is purpling of the leaves,
How often should I pollinate? indicating lack of phosphorus uptake (even though there
Pollinate every other day or three times per week. may be adequate phosphorus in the nutrient solution). One
Pollinating less often is taking a chance on reducing fruit or two nights of 56 or 58 °F temperature can cause a con-
set; but more often is very likely a waste of time. siderable number of rough fruit several weeks later when
Does the time of day matter? fruit exposed to the cold temperature reach full size. You
Yes. The best time for pollinating is when the relative should maintain a minimum temperature of 64 °F.
humidity is between 60 and 70 percent. If you live in an Ideally, the thermostat should be located at blossom height
area with high humidity, find when the relative humidity is rather than above the tops of plants.
at its daily low point. If the amount of moisture in the air Avoid temperatures over 90 °F if at all possible. At 86 °F,
stays constant, the relative humidity decreases as the tem- lycopene (the pigment that makes tomatoes red) no longer
perature increases because warm air can hold more moisture develops. See the section Greenhouse Cooling for help in
than cool air. The warmest time of day is usually mid-day. managing high temperatures.
This is why the best time (in humid areas) to pollinate is Locate thermostats near the center of the greenhouse for
generally between 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. good temperature control. Also, enclose the thermostat in
How do I know if pollination is actually taking place? an aspirated box, or shade it so that it indicates the air tem-
You can see it happen. If the air is relatively dry and the perature correctly. If the sun is allowed to shine directly on
light is good, you can see a small cloud of yellow powder the thermostat, it will read a higher temperature than the air
around the flower when the cluster is vibrated. These are surrounding it.
the pollen grains. This is your insurance that conditions are
excellent for pollination. Relative Humidity
How does cloudy weather affect pollination? The optimum relative humidity for greenhouse tomatoes
In cloudy weather, the relative humidity is high. In such is 60-70 percent. This is very difficult to obtain in
conditions, pollination is not as effective because pollen Mississippi greenhouses and is given for your information
tends to stick together in clumps rather than dispersing as only.
6
Locating thermostats in a box will avoid direct sun on them. An aspirated box is best.
Greenhouse Cooling Remember —so long as the sun shines, the leaf temperature
is considerably higher than the air temperature.
Greenhouse tomato growers in Mississippi have to deal
There are several ways to lower the air and plant temper-
with high temperatures. When greenhouse temperatures go
ature in the greenhouse. None are 100 percent successful by
into the high nineties or even higher, poor-quality fruit,
themselves in this climate because of the extreme heat in
especially fruit splitting, is the usual result. The splitting in
Mississippi. However, any one of these methods will lower
the skin is caused by the surface of the fruit reaching a high-
the temperature to some extent.
er temperature than the layer just beneath the surface. This
All of the following methods are used as additional cool-
causes a rupturing between adjacent cells, showing up as a
ing after exhaust fans have already been installed:
split or burst skin. The mechanism is similar to that of the
bimetallic coil in a thermostat, except that the thermostat • Evaporative cooling is probably the best way to reduce
coil can tighten or loosen as the temperature changes, while greenhouse temperature. The principle is simple. As the
the tomato skin cannot; therefore, the skin tears. exhaust fans blow air out of one end of the greenhouse, they
When the sun shines through the plastic greenhouse cov- draw in moist air from the other end. As the moist air moves
ering onto the plants, it is common for leaf temperature to be through the greenhouse, some of the water vaporizes,
30 degrees higher than the air temperature in the green- absorbing heat in the process. Moisture is supplied at the
house. As leaf temperature increases, leaves lose more end opposite the fans with a system that drips water through
water to the atmosphere and make up for this loss by taking an absorbent material such as cellulose or a synthetic fiber
up more water through the roots. This is how the plants (commonly called “cool pads” or “wet pads”). All incoming
keep from overheating. As long as there is ample water sur- air passes through this wet fiber. Any water that drips
rounding the roots, this system works fine, up to a point. If through the fiber is collected in a gutter at the bottom, and
there is ever a water shortage, plants wilt at the tops, reduc- drains into a small holding tank. Water is recirculated from
ing the water loss. If the water loss is very severe, plants the holding tank back to the top of the cool pads. There
wilt completely from top to bottom. Plants revive from a needs to be a provision for replacing water that is absorbed
mild wilt condition when water becomes available or the by the air passing through the cool pads. This is usually
stress situation is removed (as it is at night). But, if plants done with a “toilet tank-type” float valve controller.
reach the “permanent wilting point,” tissue is permanently Evaporative cooling is more effective when the air out-
damaged and they will not recover, even with plenty of side the greenhouse has a low relative humidity. As the rel-
ative humidity of the outside air increases, this technique
water.
becomes less effective. But so long as the relative humidity
Also, if the temperature climbs into the upper nineties,
is less than 100 percent, this method will have some cooling
plants may not be able to retrieve enough water through
effect on the air.
their roots to make up for the rapid loss from their leaves,
even if there is plenty available in the growing medium. At • A shade cloth can be used over the top of the green-
this point, leaves become burned or scorched. They look as house (outside) or suspended inside the greenhouse above
if they have been touched with the flame of a propane torch. the crop. The most common materials are polypropylene,
7
polyethylene, polyester, and saran, although cheesecloth and
tobacco netting can also be used.
If used internally, the cloth can be suspended on wires or
some other type of framework. The advantage of an inter-
nal shade curtain is that it can be pulled back on cloudy days
and spread out on sunny days as needed, either manually or
with small motors. The internal curtain usually has a reflec-
tive silver upper surface, with the lower surface dark or
white. Do not use a curtain that is black on top because it
will accumulate heat.
The disadvantage of using an internal shade cloth is that
light is converted to heat inside the greenhouse; although
plants receive less light, they don’t get the same reduction in
heat. If the shade cloth is used outside the greenhouse, sun-
light is converted to heat before entering the greenhouse.
Shade cloths must be custom ordered to fit a greenhouse.
Provide the supplier with the greenhouse dimensions so the
company can sew together pieces to fit the structure.
Grommets are sewn into the edges to provide a secure way
of fastening the material down.
Shade cloth is available in a number of different “percent
shade” formulations. The appropriate amount depends on
the season it is applied and how many cloudy days are Use a thermometer that records the high and low tempera-
expected during the time period it is on. It is not convenient tures.
to remove the external shade cloth on cloudy days. For warm, dry weather so it sticks well. Another product from
tomatoes, 50 percent shade during May and June for the this company, E-Z Off Kool-Ray, is easier to remove from
spring crop, and August and September for the fall crop, is plastic and fiberglass greenhouses. These products cost
recommended in Mississippi. about $20 per gallon.
Be aware that the percent shade is not the same as the Rain during summer and fall wears most of the com-
percent reduction in temperature. Research by Dr. Dan pound away. Wash off any remaining compound with water
Willets at North Carolina State University shows that poly- and rubbing. One technique is to tie rags or burlap bags to
propylene shade cloth labelled at less than 30 percent shade a rope, toss the rope over the top of the greenhouse, and rub
did not decrease greenhouse temperatures at all. With high- it back and forth over the top (with a partner on the other
er percent shade ratings, the decrease in heat gain was about side). It works even better if a hose is tied to the midpoint,
half of the shade rating. The covers were also more effec- so that it sprays water on the roof as you rub. If necessary,
tive on windy days because heat was dispersed more effi- commercial cleaners are available. If you use commercial
ciently from the cover outside the house. cleaners, be sure to rinse the greenhouse off with water
Shade cloth costs 10 to 20 cents per square foot, with afterwards since the acid in these cleaners can be corrosive
additional charges for grommets, sewing panels together, to metal.
sewing reinforcement tape to edges, etc. For a standard- Varishade, from Sunstill, Inc., is a product that turns
sized, free-standing greenhouse (24 by 96 feet), this may darker in bright light and lighter in bad weather. When it
amount to $300 to $400. gets wet or moist, it is almost transparent, allowing 80 per-
cent of the light to enter. In sunny, dry weather it transmits
• Shade compounds have the same effect as shade cloths only 35 percent of the light. It can be applied on glass or
except they come in liquid form and are usually sprayed plastic.
onto the outside surface of the greenhouse after being dilut- Inexpensive white latex paint will shade just as well as
ed with water. They can also be brushed or rolled like paint. shade compound. However, you may not be able to remove
The most common product is Kool-Ray, from it from plastic at the end of the hot season. Use paint only
Continental Products Co. This material is diluted with if you will be replacing the plastic before the fall crop of
water; use 2 to 20 parts water for 1 part Kool-Ray, depend- tomatoes. Then you won’t have to worry about trying to
ing on the amount of shading desired. It is better to apply a clean off the paint. Mix 1 part white latex paint with 10
thin coat early in the season (using more water) and then parts water. Apply with sprayer or long-handled roller.
darken it later if needed. It is much easier to darken the
shade than to lighten it once it has been applied. The ratio Other cooling techniques:
of 1 part Kool-Ray to 7 or 8 parts water has worked well in • Use as much white in the house as possible. White floor
Mississippi. About 10 gallons of dilute solution covers a covering, bags, even strings, reflect light rather than absorb
standard greenhouse (24 by 96 feet). It is best to apply it as it and convert it to heat. Insulated north walls can be paint-
small droplets and try to avoid streaking. Apply it during ed white or silver. An additional benefit from using white is
8
that the light level is increased during the darker winter growing point may be killed. To be certain that plants
months. receive enough water, allow enough so some drainage from
• While “low profile” houses, those with a low roof, the bags (10-20 percent) is apparent after each watering.
require less heat during the cold season, they tend to be hot- Be aware that a prolonged cloudy period followed by
ter in warmer months than those with a high roof. With bright sun may cause severe wilting. Be ready to increase
more head room, the heat has space along the peak where it the amount of water in this situation.
collects before being exhausted. Without this extra head
room, the heat remains at plant height; therefore, green- pH
houses with vertical side walls of at least 9 feet are recom- It is a good idea to check the nutrient solution pH daily
mended. with a pH meter. At a minimum, check pH every time you
• You can alleviate some of the fruit splitting during hot prepare fertilizer solution. A “pocket” pH meter is a tool
weather by adding copper to the fertilizer solution. See every grower should have.
Splitting section under Physiological Disorders.
The optimum pH range for the nutrient solution is 5.6
Irrigation to 5.8. If the pH of the solution is too high, caused by alka-
line water, add an acid in small quantities to lower the pH to
Except in small hobby greenhouses, irrigation should be
within this range. The choices of materials to use are sulfu-
controlled automatically, with the use of time clocks or elec-
ric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), or phosphoric acid
tronic controllers. The volume of water will vary depending
(H3PO4). Sulfuric acid, the least expensive, can be pur-
on the season and the size of plants. New transplants need
chased from an auto supply store as battery acid. However,
only about 2 ounces (50 ml) per plant per day. At maturity
there is an advantage to using phosphoric or nitric acid,
on sunny days, however, plants may need up to 3 quarts (2.7
since they supply nutrients in addition to lowering the pH.
liters or 2,700 ml) of water per plant per day. Generally, 2
(Phosphoric acid supplies phosphorus and nitric acid sup-
quarts per plant per day are adequate for fully grown or
plies nitrogen.) Although they are more expensive than sul-
almost fully grown plants. Monitor plants closely, especial-
furic acid, they may be preferred for this reason. Phosphoric
ly for the first couple of weeks following transplanting, so
acid and nitric acid are inexpensive sources of these ele-
that the volume of water can be increased as needed. Water
ments when compared to other fertilizers.
should be delivered to each plant. This is usually done with
“spaghetti tubing” and emitters that carry water from main Handle all acids very carefully because they can cause
lines to the base of each plant. injury. Nitric acid can be very hazardous. Phosphoric acid
Each watering should include fertilizer (see section on lowers pH more than the other two for a given volume. It is
Fertility); therefore, the process is more appropriately advisable to use these acids directly from the drum or con-
referred to as “fertigation.” Most growers use from 6 to 12 tainer in which they are purchased so there is no risk
waterings per day once plants are established. In a medium involved while pouring them. Never use vinegar (acetic
that drains extremely well, such as rice hulls, 12 or more acid) or swimming pool acid (sodium bisulfate) to lower the
waterings per day may be needed to keep plants from drying pH.
out between waterings. In pine bark, 6 to 12 waterings per To determine how much acid to add to a bulk or concen-
day are usually adequate. The important point is that plants trate tank of nutrient solution, take 1 gallon of solution and
should receive enough water so they do not wilt. A wilting add 1 ml of acid at a time until the pH of the nutrient solu-
plant is not growing. If the permanent wilting point is tion is within the range stated. Then, multiply the amount
reached because of a prolonged period without water, the added to 1 gallon times the number of gallons in the tank. If
Shown are 10 greenhouse bays in a gutter-connected range (1/2 acre).
9
you are using a bulk tank, this is the amount of acid to add. Fertilizer Measurement and Vocabulary
However, if you are using an injector system, multiply this Several units are used to express the fertility level of
amount by (times) the ratio. nutrient solutions (fertilizer dissolved in water). This caus-
Be aware that the pH scale is not linear; it is logarithmic. es confusion among growers since the use of different units
For example, if 10 drops lower the pH from 8.0 to 7.5, there makes it difficult to understand different readings among
is no reason to believe that 20 drops will lower the pH to 7.0. growers. This section explains the different units.
You may reach the point where one more drop lowers the Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the ability of
pH to 5.0 or lower. So, be careful! A pH that is too low can a solution to conduct electricity—the more concentrated the
be very damaging to the crop. Check and double check the fertilizer solution, the more electricity it will conduct and
pH after adjusting it with acid. the higher the reading will be. The general unit is mho (pro-
If the pH is too low (below 5.5), you can bring it up by nounced MO) with the plural being mhos (pronounced
using materials such as sodium carbonate, caustic soda, MOZE). You will notice that mho spelled backwards is ohm
potassium bicarbonate, potassium hydroxide, or caustic (pronounced OM), the unit of resistance in electrical jargon.
potash. The recommended material is potassium carbonate, Mhos, the reverse of ohms, is a measure of conductivity
which has a pH of 8.2. This will also supply potassium. rather than resistance.
Avoid the sodium sources since plants do not need sodium. There are two units of mhos commonly used: micro-
If the irrigation system, or emitters, become clogged dur- mhos (µmhos) (pronounced micro-MOZE) and millimhos
ing the production of a crop, they can be cleaned out after (mmhos) (pronounced milli-MOZE). A micromho is one
the cropping season is over. Use an acid mixed with water millionth of a mho and a millimho is one thousandth of a
to adjust to a pH of 4.5. While this acidic mixture is running mho. Therefore, there are 1,000 micromhos in a millimho.
through the system, tap emitters to break up any crust that Another way of looking at it is that a millimho is 1,000
has formed. Do not do this while tomato plants are grow- times bigger than a micromho. Either scale can be used.
ing in the greenhouse—a pH this low may kill plants! Convert from micromhos to millimhos by sliding the deci-
mal point 3 places to the left, and vice versa. Typical read-
Fertility ings of millimhos are 0.30 to 2.50, while typical readings of
The subject of fertility is probably among the most con- micromhos are 300 to 2,500. Millimhos are more common-
fusing for growers of greenhouse tomatoes; however, it is ly used than micromhos on most meters today.
important to production. The keys to a successful nutrition Some portable EC meters measure in microsemens (µs).
program include the following: These are equivalent to micromhos (µmhos), and are more
commonly used in European countries.
• Use fertilizer designed specifically for greenhouse The best way to understand the nutrient status of a fertil-
tomatoes. izer solution and to communicate with other people is to
know how many parts per million of each element you are
• Know how much of each fertilizer element is needed. applying. Parts per million (ppm) is the unit used to meas-
ure nitrogen concentration, or any other specific nutrient in
• Know how much is being applied.
solution. These units are usually within the range of 50 to
• Check the electrical conductivity (EC) and pH levels. 300 ppm for nitrogen. For mature, producing plants, 125 to
200 ppm nitrogen (N) is needed, depending on the particu-
• Be observant for signs that plants may be deficient or lar circumstances. This is not directly related to or convert-
have an excess of a nutrient. ible to an exact measure of EC or total dissolved solids
(TDS) in a nutrient solution (see below). This is because
• Monitor plant nutrient status by periodically taking both EC and total dissolved solids are measurements of
samples for tissue analysis (see section on this topic). everything dissolved in the solution, not just nitrogen.
Table 2. General guidelines for amount of fertilizer to use

Total dissolved solids Electroconductivity
Nitrogen (TDS) (EC)
Stage of growth (ppm) (ppm) (mmhos)
Germination to first true leaf fully expanded 50 450-550 0.6-0.7

First true leaf to third true leaf fully expanded 50-75 550-600 0.6-0.7
Third leaf to transplant 75-100 600-800 0.7-0.9
Transplant to second cluster set 100-125 800-1,100 0.9-1.8
Second cluster to topping 125- 200 1,100-1,600 1.8-2.2
10
Another way of measuring the amount of fertilizer in Methods of Mixing Fertilizers
solution is by measuring dissolved solids. This is also There are two principal systems for mixing fertilizers:
referred to as total dissolved solids or TDS. The units com- the bulk tank system and the injector or proportioner system.
monly used for TDS are also parts per million (ppm). If you Both methods are acceptable and can produce high yields
knew the ppm of each element dissolved in the solution, and and excellent quality tomatoes.
added them up, along with the ppm of the water, you would
get the ppm TDS. This is a measure of all salts in solution,
Bulk Tanks
not just nitrogen, so it is not the same as measuring ppm of
The bulk tank system consists of a tank (plastic, concrete,
nitrogen. Some of these salts may have been in the water
steel, PVC, etc.) of appropriate size depending on the square
supply before any fertilizer was added. For this reason, this
footage of the greenhouse(s). A 100-gallon tank is fine for
form of measurement is not recommended. If a reading is
one greenhouse, whereas a 1,000 to 2,000 gallon tank may
1,500 ppm TDS, how do you know if this is due to nitrogen
be preferable for several greenhouses. The larger the tank,
or some other nutrient? You don’t. You even may have water
the less frequently it will have to be filled. But if the tank is
very high in sodium (salt) with no nitrogen. TDS is not a
too large, you will have to wait too long until it is empty to
reliable measurement for this reason.
mix up a new batch of fertilizer of a stronger concentration
The readings of ppm dissolved solids are not directly
or with some other change in the formula. For a new grow-
convertible to millimhos or micromhos for a fertilizer; how-
er, or a grower with only one or two bays, the bulk tank sys-
ever, the conversions can be calculated for specific fertiliz-
tem is easier to understand and probably causes fewer mis-
ers. A rule of thumb (very crude conversion) is if your mil-
takes, providing that the directions that come with the fertil-
limho reading is in the range 0.9 to 1.9, then mmhos x 680
izer are followed.
= ppm total dissolved solids. If your millimho reading is in
Mixing fertilizer is a matter of adding so many ounces (or
the range 2.0 to 2.8, then mmhos x 700 = ppm total dis-
pounds) of dry fertilizer per 100 gallons of water. The fertil-
solved solids. Remember–this is only a rule of thumb and
izer must be completely dissolved in the water. Any precip-
does not give an exact conversion.
itate (settled out fertilizer) will not reach the plants.
An important point: Any time dissolved solids or EC
Therefore, it may be necessary to stir the solution, by hand
are measured in a solution, it is very important to know the
with a “paddle” or with an electric mixer, or use a circula-
dissolved solids or EC of the water source used to make the
tion pump. Be sure to check the pH and EC of the solution
solution (it cannot be assumed to be 0). There may be sodi-
each time you mix a new batch.
um or some other dissolved element in your tap water that
can lead to false readings when you measure your nutrient
solution. Subtract the water source EC or dissolved solids
Injectors
measurement from that of the nutrient solution to find the With the injector system, a concentrated mixture of fer-
true value caused by fertilizer. This is the number to com- tilizer solution is diluted with the injector (proportioner) to
pare to charts to decide if the correct amount of fertilizer is the final concentration required by the plants. The simplest
in solution. and least expensive type of injector is a hozon proportioner,
often used for fertilizing lawns and garden plants, but it is
not appropriate for commercial production. The most com-
plicated and expensive is the Anderson Injector; there are
many intermediate models in cost and complexity.
Generally, the more you spend, the more accurate the injec-
tor is. Inexpensive models will vary their injection ratio
depending on water pressure, which is often variable. This is
because the injection is timed rather than depending on volume
of water. Better models are dose specific, meaning that the
concentrate injected depends on a given volume of water pass-
ing through the device. Equally important, the higher priced
injectors are adjustable. A knob or dial on the head can be
turned to increase or decrease the dose of fertilizer concentrate
injected into the water. The fertilizer solution goes from the
concentrate tank to the injector, where it is diluted by being
injected into the irrigation system. A water meter monitors the
flow of water and then sends out a signal when enough water
has passed through. The meter can be mechanical or electrical.
This signal from the meter is a pulse of water, which is sent to
the pilot valve (skinner valve). This small volume of water is
discarded after it passes through the pilot valve.
Concentrate is held in small containers (e.g., 10 to 50 gal-
lons). Two heads and two concentrate tanks (at a minimum) are
Exhaust fans are essential to remove heat even in the winter. needed: one for the calcium nitrate (tank B) and the other for
11
all other nutrients (tank A). This is necessary so calcium does er deficiency symptoms are discussed in the section Nutrient
not combine chemically with phosphates or sulfates when the Deficiency Symptoms.
elements are in high concentration, especially under a high pH.
The resulting compounds, calcium hydrogen phosphate or cal- Modified Steiner Solution
cium sulfate, are hard precipitates and can clog the injector and One of the most recognized nutrient solutions is the
irrigation system. However, once these elements are diluted, Modified Steiner Solution. The original Steiner Solution
there is no problem. If the pH is higher than 5.8, it is advisable was published by Dr. Abram A. Steiner in an article called
to use a third head to inject acid. This is needed to keep the pH “Soilless Culture,” in the Proceedings of the 6th Colloquium
in the 5.6 - 5.8 range (see pH section above). of the International Potash Institute at Florence, Italy, in
With an injector system, there is no cost involved for the 1968. Dr. John Larsen (Professor Emeritus, retired, of Texas
large tank needed for the bulk tank system. However, a high A&M University) modified this formula according to his
quality injector can be expensive. research involving plant requirements and tissue analysis.
You can control the fertility level with an injector system According to Dr. Larsen, there is no need to exceed a level
better than with a bulk tank system since you can adjust the of 200 ppm nitrogen.
dose by simply turning a knob or dial. Furthermore, as better The Modified Steiner Solution will supply nutrients as
precision in the fertility program is desired (as money permits), follows:
you can add more injector heads. Ultimately, a head can be ppm in solution at 100% strength
used for each fertilizer element. Individual adjustments can be
171 N (nitrogen)
made based on regular tissue analyses.
48 P (phosphorus)
Injector Calibration 304 K (potassium)
It is important to know the injection ratio so you can cal-
180 Ca (calcium)
culate how much fertilizer to mix in the concentrate tanks.
Some come with tables that designate this ratio, i.e., 1:9, 48 Mg (magnesium)
1:16, 1:100, 1:200. On certain brands, the ratio is designat- 3 Fe (iron)
ed as a percent, i.e., 1 percent rather than 1:100. Some injec-
1-2 Mn (manganese)
tors let you adjust this ratio by turning a knob or a dial, or
by adding rings, while others are fixed at one setting. 1 B (boron)
If you do not know the ratio, it is necessary to calibrate 0.4 Zn (zinc)
the injector to learn this important number. Using a beaker
0.2 Cu (copper)
or graduated cylinder, measure how much water is sucked
up by the injector in one minute. Then, using several 0.1 Mo (molybdenum)
beakers, one at each of several emitters (that is, ten loca-
tions), measure how much water is distributed to plants in The suggested use of the Modified Steiner Solution is as
one minute. Take an average of the number of beakers in follows:
which water is collected in the greenhouse. Multiply this Fall Crop
average amount emitted per plant in one minute by the num-
1) transplant to first bloom
ber of emitters in the greenhouse. The injection ratio is the
on fourth cluster 40 - 50% concentrate
ratio of the output to the input. Divide the total amount emit-
2) above to end of crop 85 - 90% concentrate
ted in the greenhouse in one minute by the total amount
sucked up in one minute. State the ratio as 1:X, where X is Spring Crop
the number you get after dividing. Your concentrated solu- 1) transplant to first bloom
tion is diluted X times with water. (There are X parts water on fourth cluster 40 - 50% concentrate
for each one part of concentrated fertilizer solution.) 2) above to first bloom on
fifth cluster 85 - 90% concentrate
Plant Response 3) above until May 1 100% concentrate
How do you know what is the right amount of fertilizer? 4) above to June 1 75% concentrate
In addition to following the directions on the bag and taking 5) above to end of crop 60% concentrate
regular foliar analyses, the plant also gives an indication. If
tops of plants “ball up” with dense, curling-under growth, As you can see, the Modified Steiner Solution never calls
the nutrient solution is a little high in nitrogen. Another sign for more than 171 ppm nitrogen during the life of the crop.
of having nitrogen too high is when the clusters of flowers Most of the time, the fertility level is much lower. There are
end in leaves or shoot growth (these should be pruned off). many disagreements about the proper level of fertilizer solu-
This condition will not necessarily decrease yield unless tion to use. Some people feel that the levels in the Modified
nitrogen is excessively high. Steiner Solution are too low for optimum production; how-
If stem diameter is extremely small and plants are ever, the majority of researchers agree that these levels and
spindly, fertilizer concentration is too low. Other signs ratios are appropriate to grow greenhouse tomatoes, and,
include faded or yellowed foliage, decreased vigor, blos- therefore, they are the basis of many of the commercial fer-
soms that don’t set fruit, and yield reduction. Other fertiliz- tilizers on the market today.
12
Commercial Fertilizers Table 4. Concentration of nutrients supplied from
Various commercial fertilizer mixes are available for use TotalGro 3-13-29 plus calcium nitrate at rates in Table 3
in bulk tank systems or with injectors. Some mixes are Nutrient PPM
“complete,” while others require the purchase of additional Nitrate Nitrogen (N) 110
calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, magnesium sulfate (same
Phosphorus (P) 49
as epsom salts), sequestered iron (Fe 330), or some other
fertilizer. Follow the recommendations on the bag exactly as Potassium (K) 240
stated if you use these commercial blends. Adjust as needed Calcium (Ca) 100
after gaining experience. The most common mistake new Magnesium (Mg) 54
growers make is not following the directions concerning
Sulfur (S) 110
amount of fertilizer.
The choice of a commercial fertilizer is up to the grower. Iron (Fe) 3.4
However, be certain that the mix has been formulated Manganese (Mn) 1
specifically for greenhouse tomatoes. An all-purpose fertil- Copper (Cu) 1
izer such as 20-20-20 is not appropriate for this crop, Zinc (Zn) 0.46
although it is fine for bedding plants and other general use
in the greenhouse. Boron (B) 1
For educational purposes, three examples showing how Molybdenum (Mo) 0.1
to use some of the commercial mixes are provided. The
mention of a brand name is not an endorsement and is not Hydro-Gardens Chem-Gro Tomato Formula (4-18-38)
meant to exclude other brands on the market.
Source: Hydro-Gardens, Inc., P.O. Box 25845, Colorado
Springs, CO 80936-5845 (1-800-634-6362).
TotalGro Bag Culture Tomato Special (3-13-29) This is a low nitrogen-type fertilizer, supplying 4 percent
Source: TotalGro, P.O. Box 805, Winnsboro, LA 71295 nitrogen (N), 18 percent phosphate (P2O5), and 38 percent
(1- 800-433-3055). potash (K2O). In addition, it provides Mg, B, Cu, Fe, Mn,
For the southern part of the United States, this is a low Mo, and Zn. This fertilizer does not supply calcium, so cal-
nitrogen-type fertilizer designed especially for growing cium nitrate must be used in conjunction with the 4-18-38.
greenhouse tomatoes using pine bark. It contains 3 percent The recommendations for mixing Chem-Gro are shown
nitrogen (N), 13 percent phosphate (P2O5), and 29 percent in Table 5. In addition, if the source water has less than 50
potash (K2O). In addition, it provides all of the magnesium ppm calcium, then add calcium chloride in an amount equal
(Mg) required, as well as S, B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn. to 25 percent of the calcium nitrate used per 100 gallons
This fertilizer does not contain calcium, so use in conjunc- water. This can be added to the calcium nitrate concentrate
tion with calcium nitrate. tank, if an injector system is being used.
When used at the recommended rates (Table 3) and com-
bined with calcium nitrate as shown, it will supply 100 ppm Table 5. Amount of Chem-Gro (4-18-38) and other fertiliz-
nitrogen and all of the calcium and magnesium needed, in ers to use per 100 gallons of water for each stage of plant
addition to the other nutrients (Table 4). growth
Submit tissue samples for laboratory analysis to deter- Plant Chem-Gro Calcium Magnesium Potassium
mine when fertilizer rates need to be adjusted. age (4-18-38) nitrate sulfate nitrate
(ounces) (ounces) (ounces) (ounces)
Table 3. Amount of TotalGro (3-13-29) plus calcium Seedlings 8 4 4 0
nitrate to use per 100 gallons of water for 110 ppm N Second to
Ounces of fertilizer fourth flower
per 100 gallons water ppm Nitrogen EC (mmhos/cm) clusters 8 8 4 0
Fourth and
13.3 ounces 3-13-29 30 1.26 higher flower
clusters 8 8 5 1.6
7 ounces calcium nitrate 80 0.60
Table 3 shows how much will be applied at the rates indi- Peters Peat-Lite Special (15-11-29)
cated. With this table, you can check the concentration with Source: Peters Fertilizer Products, The Scotts Company,
an EC meter. The EC of the solution with both fertilizers 14111 Scotts Lawn Rd., Marysville, OH 43041 (1-800-492-
should be 1.86 when mixed as shown. Be sure to subtract the 8255).
ppm or TDS of the source water from the reading of the This supplies 15 percent, 11 percent, and 29 percent of
nutrient solution before comparing the reading to the table. nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5), and potash (K2O), respec-
The relationship between TDS, EC, and ppm N is unique for tively, in addition to small amounts of Mg, Fe, Mn, B, Zn,
each fertilizer. Therefore, Table 3 does not apply to other Cu, and Mo.
fertilizers. Make it a practice to check the EC of the solution According to the directions, 9 ounces of fertilizer per
each time that you mix a new batch. gallon of concentrate will provide 100 ppm N if a 1:100
13
injector is used. For 50 ppm N with a 1:100 injector, use half How To Calculate Element
this amount. Likewise, for 200 ppm N with a 1:100 injector,
use 18 ounces per gallon of concentrate. Adjust the amount Concentration in a Fertilizer
of fertilizer up or down, depending on the maturity stage of There are many times when you need to know how much
the crop. The same amount would be used for a bulk tank of a fertilizer element (such as nitrogen) is contained in the
system per 100 gallons of water (since 1 gallon of fertilizer solution. The concentration is usually measured in
concentrate used with a 1:100 injector is the same as using units of parts per million (ppm). This simply means the
100 gallons of mixed nutrient solution in bulk). number of parts of a fertilizer element per million parts of
Table 6 coordinates the EC reading with the ppm of nitro- water, on a weight basis. For example, 1 part nitrogen per 1
gen for this fertilizer. Be sure to subtract the EC of the water million parts of water is 1 ppm; or, 1 pound of nitrogen per
from the reading of the nutrient solution before comparing the 1 million pounds of water is 1 ppm.
reading to Table 6. This fertilizer does not contain adequate The following formulas are ways to calculate the con-
calcium or magnesium, so these must be added from other centration of any fertilizer element in water. They are easy
sources. To accomplish this, use only half 15-11-29 with the to use, and a couple of examples are shown. By using these
other half of the nitrogen source coming from calcium equations, you will be able to know exactly how much of
nitrate. This way, you are able to supply calcium as well. To each fertilizer element you are feeding your plants.
supply 100 ppm nitrogen, use 4.5 ounces 15-11-29 (instead You can use the following formulas to calculate the
of 9 ounces) and 4.5 ounces calcium nitrate (calcium nitrate amount of any fertilizer element, not just nitrogen.
is 15.5% N; about the same N content as 15-11-29) per gal- There is essentially only one formula; however, if you are
lon. In addition, add 1.8 ounces magnesium sulfate (epsom using an injector system, there is another factor to use,
salt) and 0.07 ounces (2 grams) iron chelate per gallon to namely the injection ratio. With a bulk tank system, there is
supply magnesium and iron. As you need to go up or down no injector, and, therefore, no injection ratio, so this number
in feed, maintain the same ratios of these fertilizers. For is left out.
example, for 150 ppm N, use 6.75 ounces 15-11-29, 6.75
ounces calcium nitrate, 2.7 ounces magnesium sulfate, and #1. Injector System
0.105 ounces (3 grams) iron chelate per gallon. ppm = (% fertilizer) x (lb added to tank) x (16 oz per lb) x
For source water with a high alkalinity (total carbonates), (.75) x (100 / gal of concentrate) x (1 / ratio of injector)
the manufacturer suggests using Peters Excel K-Cell 14-5-38.
#2. Bulk Tank System
Table 6. Nitrogen concentration supplied at various ppm = (% fertilizer) x (lb added to tank) x (16 oz per lb) x
EC readings using Peters Peat-Lite Special (15-11-29) (.75) x (100 / gal of bulk tank)
EC Nitrogen
mmhos/cm (ppm) Examples
Example 1. You use 25 pounds of a 15-11-29 fertilizer
0.34 50 mix in a 30-gallon concentrate tank, then use a 1:100
Anderson injector. How much nitrogen are your plants get-
0.52 75
ting?
0.69 100 Since you have an injector system, use formula #1.
ppm = (15) x (25) x (16) x (.75) x (100/30) x (1/100) ppm = 150
0.86 125 ppm nitrogen
1.03 150 Example 2. You use a bulk tank system with 15 pounds
of 8-5-16 fertilizer mix. Your bulk tank holds 600 gallons of
1.21 175 fertilizer. You also add 10 pounds of potassium nitrate
(13.75% N) to be sure the plants get plenty of nitrogen.
1.38 200
How much nitrogen are the plants getting?
1.55 225 Since you have a bulk tank system, use formula #2.
1.72 250 ppm from 8-5-16 = (8) x (15) x (16) x (.75) x (100/600)
= 240 ppm N
1.90 275
ppm from KNO3 = (13.75) x (10) x (16) x (.75) x
2.07 300
(100/600) = 275 ppm N
Total ppm N = 240 + 275 = 515
This is much too high for greenhouse tomatoes.
14
Nutrient Composition of Fertilizers P and K Conversions
For your handy reference, the list shows the amount of If you need to calculate phosphate or potash content of
each element in the following fertilizers: your fertilizer solution, be aware that the middle number in
the fertilizer grade is in the form of phosphate or P2O5 (not
Fertilizer Percent elemental composition phosphorus) and the third number is in the form of potash or
K2O (not potassium). To convert between units, use the fol-
Calcium nitrate 15.5% N, 19% Ca
lowing formulas:
Potassium nitrate 13.75% N, 44.5% K2O
Ammonium nitrate 34% N K x 1.205 = K2O
Urea 46% N
K2O x 0.83 = K
Phosphoric acid 75% P2O5 (% can vary) P x 2.291 = P2O5
Magnesium sulphate 9.7% Mg (same as epsom salt),
P2O5 x 0.437 = P
13% S
Potassium sulphate 50% K2O, 14.4% S Derivation of Fertilizer Calculation Formulas
Ammonium sulphate 21% N, 24% S and Further Explanation
Potassium chloride 60% K2O, 47% chloride If you would like to know where the above formulas
(same as muriate of potash) come from, read on. If you do not want to know the deriva-
Monoammonium tion, skip this section and just use the formulas, being
phosphate (MAP) 12% N, 61% P2O5 assured they are accurate.
Diammonium The formulas are based on the following law of physics:
phosphate (DAP) 16% N, 48% P2O5 1 ounce of any 100 percent soluble fertilizer in 100 gallons
Monopotassium of water always equals 75 ppm. This is always true, regard-
phosphate (MKP) 52% P2O5, 34% K2O less of what is being dissolved in the water; however, it does
Calcium chloride 36% Ca assume the fertilizer is completely dissolved.
Why is this true? First of all, accept the fact that 1 gallon
Solubility Limits of Fertilizers of water weighs 8.34 pounds. Then, if you take 1 ounce of any
There are limits on how much of a fertilizer will dissolve fertilizer (or anything else soluble) and put it in 100 gallons of
in water. These are the solubility limits. It is important that water, you are putting that 1 ounce in 834 pounds of water (100
you dissolve the fertilizer completely. Otherwise, it will set- gallons x 8.34 pounds/gallon) or 13,344 ounces (834 pounds x
tle out in your tank, and the plants will not get their full 16 ounces in a pound). One part in 13,344 equals 0.0000749
dose. The following are the solubility limits of some fertil- (divide 1 by 13,344). To find out how many parts per million
izers in 100 gallons of cold water. If you put more than these this is, multiply it by 1,000,000. For example, we have
amounts of fertilizer in 100 gallons of cold water, some fer- 0.0000749 parts per 1. Multiply by 1 million to find how many
tilizer will not dissolve. If there is a problem with dissolving parts this is per million. So, 0.0000749 x 1,000,000 equals
the fertilizer, it may be necessary to mix the fertilizer with a 74.94 ppm. We can round this off to 75 parts per million
circulating pump or a mechanical mixer or use hot water (ppm).
(180 °F). Now, to find out the concentration of a fertilizer element in
water, you need to know the weight of the fertilizer and the
Pounds soluble in Kg in percent strength of the fertilizer, since they are never 100 per-
Fertilizer 100 gallons cold water 100 Liters cent in strength. A 15-11-20 fertilizer is 15 percent nitrogen.
Ammonium nitrate 984 118 Assume you are using 1.5 pounds of a 15 percent nitrogen fer-
Ammonium sulfate 592 71 tilizer in a 100-gallon water tank, and you want to know how
many ppm N this is. You would set up the equation as follows:
Calcium nitrate 851 102
Calcium chloride 500 60 ppm N = (15% N) x (1.5 lb) x (16 oz per lb) x (.75).
Diammonium phosphate 358 43 If you multiply this out, you will get 270 ppm, a very
(DAP) high amount for tomatoes. You are using 0.75 rather than 75
Monoammonium phosphate 192 23 because this lets you use the percent nitrogen (15 percent)
(MAP) rather than the decimal form (0.15). The above formula will
Potassium nitrate 108 13 work fine as long as you are mixing with 100 gallons of
Urea 651 78 water.
Borax 8 1
What if you have a larger or smaller tank? You simply set
up a multiplier to adjust the equation. If you have a 500-gal-
Magnesium sulfate (epsom salt) 592 71
lon tank, multiply by 100/500, which will adjust the amount
Potassium chloride 290 35 in 500 gallons down to what it would be in 100 gallons
Potassium sulfate 83 10 (since this is how the first rule discussed is set up). If you are
15
using 5 pounds of the 15 percent fertilizer in 500 gallons, Select the leaf for this sample that is just above a fruit about
this is the equation: 2 inches in diameter (about the size of a golf ball). Taking
leaves higher or lower on the plant will have serious effects
ppm N = (15% N) x (5 lb) x (16 oz per lb) x (.75) x on the level of nutrients shown in the test report, especially
(100/500). for nitrogen and other highly mobile elements.
This multiplies out to be 180 ppm N, a reasonable Send leaf samples to the laboratory at Mississippi State
amount for a mature crop of tomatoes. If you had a smaller University (Soil Testing and Plant Analysis, Box 9610,
tank, about 25 gallons, and used 1/4 pound of the 15 percent Mississippi State, MS 39762) or any private lab. Wrap the
fertilizer, the equation to adjust the amount in 25 gallons up leaves in dry paper towels and mail in a large envelope.
to 100 gallons would be as follows: At Mississippi State University, the fee is $10 for
Mississippi residents, and $15 for samples from outside of
ppm N = (15% N) x (0.25 lb) x (16 oz per lb) x (.75) x the state. Most greenhouse fertilizer manufacturers also
(100/25). have a testing service available.
Multiplying through, you should get 180 ppm N. This is When sending a sample to Mississippi State University,
all you need to know to calculate ppm N in any bulk tank include a “Plant Analysis Information Sheet” (Extension
system. Form 700) with the sample, filled out as completely as pos-
If you have an injector (proportioner), you also need to sible. These are available from your county Extension
know the injection ratio. For example, is it injecting 1:9 or office.
1:20 or 1:100? Whatever the ratio is, multiply it by the rest Test results list the macronutrients as a percent, while the
of the equation. If you have determined that you have a micronutrients are listed as parts per million (ppm). The
1:100 injector, and are using 50 pounds of a 15 percent optimum levels of nutrients for tissue of mature (producing)
nitrogen fertilizer in a 50-gallon stock solution (concen- tomato plants are as shown in Table 7. Adjust the fertilizer
trate), set up the equation as follows: solution so the appropriate corrections can be made.
ppm N = (15% N) x (50 lb) x (16 oz per lb) Keep in mind that what is in the fertilizer solution is not
x (.75) x (100/50) x (1/100). always what the plants get. If there is any kind of stress sit-
Multiplying this out, you will get 180 ppm N. Set up the uation, plants may not take up all of the nutrients that you
injector ratio as 1/100 since the injector is diluting the con- are putting into the bags (or other containers). For example,
centrate with water 100 times. if the root temperature is below 58 °F, you may see purpling
This system will work with any injector ratio and any in the leaves, a sign of phosphorus deficiency, since phos-
size concentrate tank. Simply plug in the numbers to cus- phorus is not taken up well when roots are cool. If salts have
tomize the formula to your own system. accumulated to high levels around the roots (indicated by
high EC readings of the leachate), certain nutrients will not
Leachate be taken up well. If plants do not receive adequate water,
After each feeding, some fertilizer solution (referred to as they wilt and will not take up enough fertilizer. These situa-
leachate) should drain from the bottoms of bags. If there is tions support tissue analysis as the best indicator of the
no leachate, the plants are probably not getting enough nutrient status of plants.
water.
Check the EC of the leachate to determine how much fer- Table 7. Recommended levels of elements in tomato leaf tissue
tility the plants are using. The EC of the leachate should be N 4.0-5.5% Fe 100-250 ppm
fairly close to the EC of the nutrient solution (less than 0.5
P 0.3-1.0% Zn 30-150 ppm
mmhos different). If it approaches 2.5 to 3.0 mmhos, too
much fertilizer is accumulating in the bags and the roots K 4.0-7.0% Mn 40-300 ppm
may burn from this high concentration. Ca 1.0-5.0% Cu 5- 25 ppm
Mg 0.4-1.5% B 35-100 ppm
Leaf Tissue Analysis Mo 0.15-5.0 ppm
It is a good idea to have tomato leaf tissue analyzed peri-
odically to determine if the plants are receiving the best lev-
els of nutrients. This technique can be used to “trou- Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
bleshoot” problems with unhealthy looking plants, or as a In addition to having tissue analysis done periodically to
monthly check on nutrient levels. Save these monthly check the nutrient status of plants, growers should be on the
checks so you can refer to them in diagnosing problems that lookout for symptoms which occur when plants are deficient
might occur. in a nutrient. The following will help identify these nutrient
It is very important to take leaf samples from the correct deficiencies:
location on the plants to get reliable results. Take the sample Nitrogen (N) — Restricted growth of tops, roots, and
according to the directions of the lab to which you will send especially lateral shoots. Plants become spindly, with gen-
the sample. For Mississippi growers, remove one leaf from eral chlorosis of entire plant to a light green, and then a yel-
each plant, collecting six to eight leaves for one sample. lowing of older leaves that proceeds upwards toward
16
younger leaves. Older leaves defoliate early. Generally, 1 1/2 teaspoons in 100 gallons. Alternatively, iron can be
veins of younger leaves show purpling on undersides when applied as a foliar spray, using 1/4 teaspoon per gallon.
deficiency is severe in tomatoes. Manganese (Mn) — Starts with interveinal chlorotic
Phosphorus (P) — Restricted and spindly growth sim- mottling of immature leaves, and in many plants it is
ilar to that of nitrogen deficiency. Leaf color is usually indistinguishable from iron deficiency. On fruiting plants,
dull, dark green to bluish green with purpling of petioles and the blossom buds often do not fully develop but turn yellow
the veins on undersides of younger leaves. Young leaves are and abort. As the deficiency becomes more severe, the new
yellowish green with purple veins with N deficiency and growth becomes completely yellow, but in contrast to iron
dark green with P deficiency. Otherwise N and P deficien- deficiency, necrotic spots usually appear in the interveinal
cies are very much alike. tissue. In tomatoes that show some interveinal chlorotic
Potassium (K) — Mature, lower leaves show inter- mottling caused by a manganese deficiency, some of the
veinal chlorosis and marginal necrotic spots or scorching bloom buds on the flowering clusters show incomplete
that progresses inward and also upward toward younger development and do not develop into blooms. During the
leaves as deficiency becomes more severe. The fruit often short days of December and January, the plants often show
ripens unevenly or shows blotchy green to yellow patches no blooms at all.
on red ripe fruit. Fruit sometimes falls off the plants just Zinc (Zn) — In some plants, interveinal chlorotic
before ripening. Deficiency may also cause soft or spongy mottling first appears on the older leaves, and in others
fruit. If this is the case, increase the K level up to 400-450 it appears on the immature leaves. It eventually affects the
ppm. growing points and causes smaller than normal leaves. This
Calcium (Ca) — From slight chlorosis to brown or is sometimes referred to as “mouse ear.” The interveinal
black scorching of new leaf tips and die-back of growing chlorotic mottling is the same as that for iron and man-
points. The scorched and die-back portion of tissue is very ganese deficiency, except for the little leaf. When the onset
slow to dry so that it does not crumble easily. The first of zinc deficiency is sudden, such as when zinc is left out of
symptom is usually blossom-end rot of the fruit (see section the nutrient solution, the chlorosis can appear identical to
on Physiological Disorders). Boron deficiency also causes that of iron and manganese deficiency without the little leaf.
scorching of new leaf tips and die-back of growing points, Boron (B) — Symptoms include slight chlorosis to
but calcium deficiency does not promote the growth of lat- brown or black scorching of new leaf tips and die-back
eral shoots and short internodes as does boron deficiency, of the growing points similar to calcium deficiency. The
and boron deficiency does not cause blossom-end rot. brown and black die-back tissue is dry, brittle, and easily
Magnesium (Mg) — Interveinal chlorotic mottling or crumbled. The pith of affected stems may be hollow, and the
marbling of the older leaves, which proceeds toward the epidermis roughened and cracked. In addition to scorching
younger leaves as the deficiency becomes more severe. of new leaf tips, die-back of growing points, and cracked
The chlorotic interveinal yellow patches usually occur stems, plants have short internodes with prolific lateral
toward the center of leaves with the margins being the last shoot development that may develop on midribs of the
to turn yellow. In some crops, the interveinal yellow patch- leaves and on the flower clusters. The mildest symptom
es are followed by colorful orange to red coloring. As the shown on mature fruit is minute cracking to heavier con-
deficiency increases in severity, the interveinal chlorosis is centric cracking in the skin on the shoulders. With severe
followed by necrotic spots or patches and marginal scorch- deficiency, fruit may show a distinct cracked, brown, corky
ing of the leaves. On plants with mature fruit, the interveinal area under the calyx.
chlorotic yellow patches usually do not start on the oldest Copper (Cu) — Leaves at the top of the plant wilt easi-
leaves but on those toward the middle of the plant. ly. This is followed by chlorotic and necrotic areas in the
Magnesium can be applied as a foliar spray; use 2 table- leaves. Leaves on top half of plant show unusual puckering
spoons of magnesium sulfate per gallon of water. with veinal chlorosis. There may be an absence of a knot on the
Sulfur (S) — Resembles nitrogen deficiency in that leaf where the petiole joins the main stem of plant beginning
older leaves become yellowish green; stems become thin, about 10 or more leaves below growing point. Splitting of ripe
hard, and woody. Some plants show colorful orange and fruit, especially under warm temperatures, is an indication of
red tints rather than yellowing. The stems, although hard and low copper. Increase copper in the nutrient solution up to 0.5
woody, increase in length but not in diameter. to 1.0 ppm if it is lower, or up to a maximum of 2 ppm.
Iron (Fe) — Starts with interveinal chlorotic mottling Molybdenum (Mo) — Older leaves show interveinal
or a general yellowing of immature leaves. In severe chlorotic blotches, become cupped and thickened. Chlorosis
cases, the new leaves become almost white (completely continues upward to younger leaves as deficiency progresses.
lacking in chlorophyll) but with little or no necrotic spots. This deficiency is seldom seen in greenhouse tomatoes.
The chlorotic mottling of immature leaves starts first near
the base of the leaflet so that the middle of the leaf appears Physiological Disorders
to have a yellow streak. If additional iron is needed, 1/4 Many problems that occur with tomatoes are not caused
ounce of Fe 330 iron chelate (9.7 percent iron) in 100 gal- by insects or diseases. These problems are due to environ-
lons of water provides 1.9 ppm iron. Achieve this by using ment (temperature, humidity, light, water, etc.) or nutrition
17
and are termed “physiological disorders.” Listed are Russetted fruit are not marketable because appearance is
descriptions of the most common disorders: below standard, and even more important, the shelf life of
russetted tomatoes is greatly diminished. This is because
Radial Cracking water escapes via the minute cracks, causing loss of weight,
These are cracks that radiate out from the calyx (stem shriveling, and breakdown. When fruit lose 5 percent of
end) of the fruit and proceed downwards. If one crack is less their weight (due to water loss), they soon become soft, and
than one-half inch long and not deep, the fruit is still mar- their shelf life is reduced. Do not ship tomatoes with this
ketable. If cracks are deeper, longer, or more numerous, the condition.
fruit is not marketable. These cracks are caused by too much Research conducted at an agricultural research station in
water following too little water; very fast growth with high Naaldwijk, Holland, has identified two sets of conditions
temperature and moisture; or a large difference between day that promote russetting (called “crazing” in some publica-
and night temperatures. Also, be sure that the fertilizer level tions).
is adequate (check your EC). Condition 1. As the crop approaches the end of its pro-
ductive season, plants are often topped (terminal cut off) to
Concentric Cracking
remove any new flowers and fruit that will not have time to
These cracks are in the formation of concentric circles,
mature. This often promotes a growth of side shoots and
one inside another, around the calyx (stem end) of the fruit.
results in russetting. The reasoning is that regrowth of the
Depending on severity, fruit may or may not be marketable.
side shoots stimulates activity with the roots, forcing more
This cracking is also caused by a water problem. Be sure
water and nutrients into the limited number of fruit remain-
that fertilizer supply is adequate (check your EC). These
ing. Plants that were topped but had all side shoots removed
cracks are caused by too much water following too little
had much less russetting. Plants that were not topped at all
water; very fast growth with high temperature and moisture;
had the least russetting. Apparently, allowing small fruit to
or a large difference between day and night temperatures.
develop at the tops of plants provides a more balanced
Splitting growth and better distribution of nutrients and water.
Regular, uninterrupted growth is important in limiting this
Splitting is not the same as cracking (see above). When
problem. If you have had a problem with russetting, do not
fruit are exposed to very high temperatures, such as those
top plants as they approach the end of the season. If you
found in many greenhouses in May and June in Mississippi,
have already topped, remove new side shoots.
the fruit have a tendency to split the skin, a result of tem-
perature stress. Solutions include these: Condition 2. Low greenhouse air temperature, especially
• Lower the air temperature by using shading or evapora- in combination with high day temperature, has been shown to
tive cooling (see section on Greenhouse Cooling). cause russetting. The difference between air and fruit temper-
• Increase the supply of copper in the nutrient solution atures may be the real culprit. In research at the same station,
up to 2 ppm. One tablespoon of copper sulfate in 1,000 gal- a temperature of 62 °F caused 46 percent of a crop to be rus-
lons of water will supply 1 ppm copper. setted, while three warmer temperatures averaged consider-
Do not try to grow greenhouse tomatoes through the ably less russetted fruit. If russetting has been a problem, raise
summer in Mississippi; the resulting fruit will usually show the minimum temperature to 64 °F or above.
this disorder. Here are some ways to reduce the likelihood of problems
Splitting can also ocur when the night temperature is too with russetting:
low, followed by a sunny day, such as in late fall or winter. • Avoid sudden changes in growing conditions, including
Be sure the night temperature is not lower than 64 ºF. climate and electrical conductivity (EC) of the nutrient
solution.
Catfacing • Keep the EC high enough for continuous growth.
This is a malformation, scarring, or cracking of fruit at • Be sure the potassium level is high enough.
the blossom end, sometimes leaving “holes” in the fruit • Avoid situations that cause condensation on fruit. This
exposing the locules. This defect is caused by very high or includes poorly ventilated greenhouses and refrigera-
low temperatures during fruit set, or any disturbance to the tion of harvested fruit.
flower parts. It may also be a result of 2,4-D herbicide • There are some varietal differences in susceptibility.
injury. Some varieties are less susceptible than others. Capello is more prone to this problem than Trend,
which in turn is more prone than Caruso.
Minute Cracking (Russetting)
Russetting is a condition in which the fruit skin appears Zipper Scar (also called “Anther Scar”)
roughened, especially along the shoulder. Close examina- This is a vertical scar along the side of the fruit that
tion reveals thousands of minute cracks on the fruit surface. resembles a zipper, or perhaps the type of scar left by stitch-
This is very different from the more common concentric es. It is caused by the anther sticking to the edge of the ovary
cracking (rings) or radial cracking (splits coming out from (immature fruit). As the fruit increases in size, the anther
the stem end) on the top of the fruit. These cracks are so tears away from the fruit, leaving a scar. This is a genetic
small they might be mistaken for a roughened skin. The problem and probably not caused by any environmental
same situation occurs with bell peppers, pears, and potatoes. conditions.
18
Blotchy Ripening (also called “Gray Wall”) at the rate of 14 to 64 ounces per 100 gallons (or 4 table-
This problem appears as flattened, blotchy, brownish- spoons/gallon) of water. Or, use calcium nitrate (20 percent
gray areas on green fruit. As the fruit turns red, these areas calcium) at the rate of 17.5 pounds per 100 gallons (or 9
may remain gray or turn yellow, causing uneven ripening. tablespoons/gallon) of water. For a small-scaled operation, a
Dark brown vascular tissue can be seen in fruit walls when commercial product called “Stop Rot” is available. Use 1
fruit is cut. Identifying the specific cause for this defect is pint per 7 1/2 gallons, and spray twice per week until the
probably more difficult than for any other defect. It can be problem is corrected.
caused by low temperature, temperature fluctuations, high Avoid excess nitrogen fertilizer, especially the ammoni-
humidity, low light intensity, high moisture, high nitrogen, um forms. Ammonium increases the demand for calcium,
low potassium, compaction of the growing medium, etc. limiting the amount available. Some varieties may be more
High temperatures (above 86 °F) prevent formation of resistant to BER than others.
lycopene, the pigment that gives tomatoes red color. Also,
certain fungi, bacteria, or tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) may
Puffiness
be involved. Since some varieties are more susceptible than Fruit that are “puffy” have an angular appearance, with
others, it is advisable to switch varieties if blotchy ripening one or more sides flatter than the rest. They also weigh less,
is a serious problem. and the locules are not well filled; i.e., there is not much gel
and seed inside. Some of the locules may be empty.
Green Shoulder Puffiness is a product of poor pollination caused by any
of the following environmental problems that affect good
This appears as a dark-green area at the top (calyx end)
pollination:
of ripening fruit, which never turns red. Often, the area may
turn yellow as the remainder of the fruit ripens. The disorder • high temperature, especially above 90 °F
is genetic, but is brought out especially in conditions of high • low temperature, especially below 55 °F
light and temperature. Recommended procedures include
• wide differences between day and night temperature
increasing ventilation during warm periods, being sure that
plants are not defoliated above developing clusters, using • drought
some type of shading system (see section on Greenhouse • excessive water
Cooling), and adequate phosphorus and potassium fertility. • excessive nitrogen
Also, some varieties are immune (non-greenback) or par-
• use of fruit hormones, or
tially immune (semi-greenback) to this defect (see section
on Varieties). • lack of adequate carbon dioxide (CO2)
Blossom-End Rot (BER) If puffiness is a problem, try to change any of the above
Although referred to as a rot, this problem is not caused conditions that may apply, especially too high a nitrogen
by an organism. It appears as a light tan, brown, or black level. Also, be sure that you use an electric pollinator every
sunken area at or near the base (blossom end) of the fruit. It other day and that pollination is done at the proper time of
is not soft, but is firm and somewhat leathery and may be day, or use bumblebees (see section on Pollination).
accompanied by a dry rot. Sometimes it appears only inside Increase air movement within the greenhouse to cool the air
the fruit as a blackened area, with no symptoms on the out- and to bring CO2 closer to the leaf surfaces where it is need-
side. Occasionally, a secondary organism invades the tissue ed. There are no varieties resistant to this problem.
causing a soft rot. Remove and discard any immature fruit
that show symptoms; once a fruit has blossom-end rot, it Sunscald
will not go away. This appears as a whitish or yellowish patch on the side
BER is caused by insufficient calcium in the fruit. Even of the fruit facing the sun. This area may shrink and form a
though adequate calcium may be applied in the nutrient large white spot with a papery surface, or a white, blistered
solution, it may not be reaching the fruit because of insuffi- area on a green fruit. This is a “sun burn” caused by sudden
cient water. If plants wilt, it is difficult for nutrients to reach exposure of a formerly shaded fruit to direct sunlight, espe-
the fruit. Although BER is a calcium problem, it can result cially during hot, dry weather. The area may be secondarily
from water stress. Rapidly growing plants suddenly exposed invaded by a fungus, although this is not the real problem.
to drought are especially susceptible. Any stress condition Uncovering fruit by shifting foliage during harvest is the
interferes with the uptake of calcium, and may cause BER. most likely cause, although death of leaves (which had shad-
Some stressors are excessive salinity of the growing medi- ed fruit) due to disease can lead to sunscald as well.
um, high nitrogen, rapid plant growth, high temperature,
high humidity, and root damage.
To prevent BER, maintain steady plant growth, and avoid
wide fluctuations in water and temperature. The calcium
level in the nutrient solution should be at least 125 ppm.
Once BER occurs, it can be prevented in nonaffected fruit
with a foliar spray of calcium chloride (36 percent calcium)
19
Appendix I. Additional Information
Note: All of the MSU-ES publications listed below are available on the Greenhouse Tomato FAQ website (see below).
Killebrew, Frank, Pat Harris, and Herbert Willcutt. Horticultural Science Press, 600 Cameron Street,
1999. Greenhouse Tomatoes – Pest Management in Alexandria, VA 22314-2562).
Mississippi. Mississippi State University Extension
Service. Publication 1861. Hood, Ken, Richard G. Snyder, and Charles Walden,
2000. A Budget for Greenhouse Tomatoes, Mississippi
Snyder, Richard G., and Jim Thomas. 1996. State University Extension Service. Publication 2257.
Fertigation – The Basics of Injecting Fertilizer for Field-
Grown Tomatoes. Mississippi State University Extension Greenhouse Tomato FAQ (Frequently Asked
Service. Publication 2037. Questions) On the web at
http://www.msucares.com/crops/comhort/greenhouse.html.
Snyder, Richard G. 1995. Starting Vegetable
Transplants. Mississippi State University Extension Listing of Greenhouse Vegetable Production Resources
Service. Publication 1995. on the web at http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/green-
house_veg/webresources.html.
Snyder, Richard G. 1993. Injector Planner – A
Spreadsheet Approach to Fertilization Management for
Greenhouse Tomatoes. Mississippi Agricultural and Listing of Greenhouse Vegetable Production Resources
Forestry Experiment Station. Research Bulletin 1003. Print at http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-32-
a.html.
Snyder, Richard G. 1993. Environmental Control for
Greenhouse Tomatoes. Mississippi State University Greenhouse Tomato Short Course – In March of each
Extension Service. Publication 1879. year, the Greenhouse Tomato Short Course is held in
Jackson, Mississippi. This is a two-day intensive training
for growers and potential growers of greenhouse tomatoes
Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the 26th and other vegetables. Attend this program if you are seri-
National Agricultural Plastics Congress and the American ously considering going into the greenhouse vegetable
Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Association Conference, business. Expert speakers are brought in from all over the
Atlantic City, NJ, June14-18, 1996. (source: Pat Heuser, United States and other countries to address their topics of
Executive Secretary, American Society for Plasticulture, expertise. To have your name added to the mailing list,
526 Brittany Drive, State College, PA 16803). call (601) 892-3731 or send an email message to
[email protected]. For more information concerning
Proceedings for the Greenhouse Tomato Seminar, the short course, visit
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August 3-4, 1995. Dr. Richard http://www.msstate.edu/dept/cmrec/GHSC.htm.
G. Snyder, Coordinator. (source: American Society for
Appendix II. Commercial Greenhouse Manufacturers (G) and Suppliers (S)

AgBio Development, Inc. Agra Tech, Inc. (G)
9915 Raleigh Street 2131 Piedmont Way
Westminster, CO 80030 Pittsburg, CA 94565
303-469-9221 925-432-3399
http://www.agrobiologicals.com http://www.agra-tech.com
(Mycostop biofungicide) (greenhouses)
A&L Southern Agricultural Labs Agrisales, Inc.
1301 W. Copans Road, Bldg. D#8 P.O.Box 2060
Pompano Beach, FL 33064 Plant City, FL 33564-2060
305-972-3255 813-754-8885
http://www.al-labs.com http://www.agrisales.com
20
Agro Dynamics Bobby’s Eastside Market
4300 L. B. McLeod Road, Suite C Route 1, Box 113
Orlando, FL 32811 Philadelphia, MS 39350
407-872-2250 Buckman Laboratories, Inc.
http://www.agrodynamics.com 1256 N. McLean Blvd.
(rockwool) Memphis, TN 38108
Albert J. Lauer, Inc. 901-274-8316
16700 Highway 3 http://www.buckman.com
Chippendale Ave. West The Buffalo Co., Inc.
Rosemont, MN 55068 503 E. Lakeshore Drive
612-423-1651 Ocoee, FL 34761
(greenhouses) 407-656-3118
American Plant Products & Services, Inc. (G, S) BWI, Inc. (G, S)
9200 NW 10th Street, 6013 McRaven Road
Oklahoma City, OK 73127 P.O. Box 20407
1-800-522-3376 Jackson, MS 39209
http://www.americanplant.com 1-800-395-2580
Anderson Injectors http://www.bwicompanies.com
2100 Anderson Drive Carolina Greenhouses (G)
P.O. Box 1006 P.O. Box 1140
Muskogee, OK 74401 Kinston, NC 28503
918-687-4426 919-523-9300
http://www.heanderson.com http://www.carolinagreenhouses.com
(fertilizer injectors) (greenhouses)
Atlas Greenhouse Systems, Inc. CASSCO (G, S)
Hwy. 82 East U.S. Highway 231, North
P.O. Box 558 P.O. Box 3508
Alapaha, GA 31622 Montgomery, AL 36193
1-800-346-9902 1-800-933-5888
http://www.atlasgreenhouse.com
(greenhouses) Cathedral Greenhouses
252 West Leavell Woods Drive
Barnes Brothers Nursery & Garden Center Jackson, MS 39212
3359 Medgar Evers Blvd. 601-372-1904
P.O. Box 12947 (hobby greenhouses)
Jackson, MS 39236-2947
601-362-2448 Caves Enterprises, Inc. (G)
(plastic nursery buckets) 40529 Pumpkin Center Road
BASF Corporation Hammond, LA 70403
102 Rowley Court 1-800-535-0800
Apex, NC 27502-5932 (greenhouses)
813-960-2644 Century Tube Corp.
http://www.basf.com P.O. Box 7612
BFG, Inc. (G, S) Pine Bluff, AR 71611
14500 Kinsman Road 1-800-643-1523
Burton, OH 44021 www.century-tube.com
216-834-1883 (greenhouses)
1-800-883-0234
http://www.bfgsupply.com Chapin Watermatics, Inc.
2192 Meadow Lark Road
BIO-COMP Spring Hill, FL 34608
2116-B Bio-Comp Drive 904-686-5007
Edenton, NC 27932 http://www.chapindrip.com
919-482-8528 (irrigation)
21
Chilean Nitrate Corporation De Ruiter Seeds, Inc.
9212 County Line Road 3001 Bethel Road, Suite 207
Lithia, FL 33547 P.O. Box 20228
941-425-9538 Columbus, OH 43220
http://www.cncusa.com 614-459-1498
(fertilizer) http://www.deruiterusa.com
Compu-Heat (seeds for greenhouse vegetables)
7589 Race Road Dosatron International, Inc.
North Ridgeville, OH 44039 2090 Sunnydale Boulevard
1-800-776-6829 Holcomb, KS 67851
(waste oil burners/heaters) 813-443-5404
Conley Manufacturing & Sales (G) http://www.dosatron.com
4344 E. Mission Boulevard (fertilizer injectors)
Montclair, CA 91763 Eakes Nursery Materials, Inc.
1-800-377-8441 249 Bethel Church Road
http://www.conleys.com Sanford, MS 39479
Continental Products Company (ground pine bark)
1150 East 222 Street Energy Management Systems
Euclid, OH 44117 12560 West River Road
216-531-0710 Clearwater, FL 34625-1201
http://www.continentalprod.com 1-800-999-3781
(shade compound) Florida Seed Co., Inc.
CO-EX Corporation 4950 Frontage Road South
5 Alexander Drive Lakeland, FL 33801-3193
Wallingford, CT 06492 1-800-342-7333
1-800-888-5364 (seeds)
http://www.co-excorp.com Forestry Suppliers, Inc. (S)
(greenhouses) 205 W. Rankin Street
Coor Farm Supply P.O. Box 8397
3 Malta Street Jackson, MS 39284-8397
P.O. Box 525 1-800-682-5397
Smithfield, NC 27577 http://www.forestry-suppliers.com
1-800-999-4573 (instruments, wide range of supplies)
http://www.scnla.com/coor_farm.htm GB Systems, Inc.
CropKing, Inc. (G, S) P.O. Box 19497
5050 Greenwich Road Boulder, CO 80308
Seville, OH 44273-9413 303-473-9144 (CO office)
330-769-2002 216-353-9437 (OH office)
http://www.cropking.com (biologicals, bumblebees)
(greenhouses) General Supply Corporation (S)
Daniel Label Printing, Inc. 303 Commerce Park Drive
3021 Lincoln Avenue P.O. Box 9347
North Little Rock, AR 72114 Jackson, MS 39286-9347
501-945-1349 1-800-647-6540
http://www.dlpforlabels.com http://www.generalsupplycorp.com
(labels) George Dodd’s Nursery Supply
Dave Butler Rice Hull Compost, Inc. 9100 Church Street
6021 SR 221 P.O. Box 86
Georgetown, OH 45121-9401 Semmes, AL 36575
1-800-622-4936 1-800-821-0243
(rice hulls) (ground pine bark)
22
Hydrogardens, Inc. (G, S)
Glasteel Tennessee
P.O.Box 25845
830 Highway 57
Colorado Springs, CO 80936
Collierville, TN 38017-5202
1-800-634-6362
1-800-238-5546
http://www.hydro-gardens.com
http://www.glasteel.com
(general supplies, seeds, fertilizers)
Gothic Arch Greenhouses
Imperial Builders & Supply Inc.
P.O. Box 1564
P.O.Box 670
Mobile, AL 36633
Apopka, FL 32704-0670
1-800-531-4769
1-800-442-4147
1-334-432-7529
407-889-4147
http://www.gothicarchgreenhouses.com
http://www.imperialbuilders.com
(hobby greenhouses)
(greenhouses)
Grainger’s (S)
IPM Laboratories
3551 I-55 South, West Frontage Road
Main Street
Jackson, MS 39201-4963
Locke, NY 13092
601-352-0891
315-497-3129
http://www.grainger.com
http://www.ipmlabs.com
(motors)
Irrigation Mart, Inc.
Grayson Research
3303 McDonald Avenue
1040 Grayson Farm Road
Ruston, LA 71270-7412
Creedmore, NC 27522
1-800-729-7246
919-528-4925
http://www.irrigation-mart.com
Green Thumb Group, Inc. (irrigation)
3380 Vengard, Suite Two
Janco Greenhouses
Downers Grove, IL 60515
9390 Davis Ave.
(greenhouse screening)
Laurel, MD 20723
Gromax Plasticulture, Inc. 1-800-323-6933
2250 Gulf Gate Drive, Suite A http://www.jancoinc.com
Sarasota, FL 34231-4838 (greenhouses)
904-432-0962
J. A. Nearing Co., Inc.
http://www.gromax-int.com/homeframe.htm
9390 David Avenue
(vertical towers)
Laurel, MD 20810
Grower’s Supply Center (S) 301-498-5700
3000 South Highway 77, Unit 214
J-F Equipment Co.
Lynn Haven, FL 32444
1230 Crowley Drive
850-785-8974
Carrollton, TX 75006-1315
Guelph Twines LTD. 1-800-344-6767
50 Crimea Street (Dosmatic injectors)
P.O. Box 125
J. M. McConkey & Co. (G, S)
Guelph, Ontario, N1H 6J6
12321 Western Avenue
519-821-9140
Garden Grove, CA 92641
(plastic twine)
714-894-0581
Hardy Mfg. Co., Inc. http://www.mcconkeyco.com
Route 4, Box 156
J&M Industries, Inc. (S)
Philadelphia, MS 39350
300 Ponchatoula Parkway
1-800-431-3239
Ponchatoula, LA 70454
(wood heaters, waste oil burners)
504-386-6000
Hummert International (S) http://www.jmindustries.com
4500 Earth City Expressway (produce packaging supplies)
Earth City, MO 63045
1-800-325-3055
http://www.hummert.com
23
Jaderloon Co., Inc. (G, S) Nexus Greenhouse Corporation (G)
P.O. Box 685 10983 Leroy Drive
Irmo, SC 29063 Northglenn, CO 80233
803-798-4000 1-800-228-9639
1-800-258-7171 http://www.nexuscorp.com
http://www.jaderloon.com (greenhouses)
(greenhouses) Paramount Seeds, Inc.
Keeler-Glasgow Co., Inc. P.O. Box 1866
P.O. Box 158 Palm City, FL 34991
Hartford, MI 49407 561-221-0653
1-800-526-7327 http://paramount-seeds.com
http://www.keeler-glasgow.com (seeds)
(greenhouses) Penick’s Forest Products
Klink Bros., Inc. (G) P.O. Box 479
4369 Circle Avenue Macon, MS 39341
Castro Valley, CA 94546 601-726-5340
415-581-7905 (bark, topsoil, pine posts/poles)
Koppert USA Peter Lederer
P.O. Box 19497 P.O. Box 271
Boulder, CO 80308-2497 Big Flats, NY 14814
216-353-9437 607-562-8267
http://www.koppert.com Peters Fertilizer Products
(biological control, bumblebees) The Scotts Company
L & L Greenhouses (G) 14111 Scotts Lawn Road
P.O. Box 90 Marysville, OH 43041
Poyen, AR 72128 1-800-492-8255
1-800-843-9686 http://www.scottsco.com/
Ludy Greenhouse Manufacturing Corp. (G) (greenhouse tomato fertilizers)
P.O. Box 141 Phillips Brothers Pine Bark Processing
New Madison, OH 45346 County Farm Road
1-800-255-LUDY Brookhaven, MS 39601
http://www.ludy.com 601-833-7858
(greenhouses) (pine bark - in bags or bulk)
Micro-Macro International, Inc. Plant Products Co., Ltd.
183 Paradise Blvd. Suite 108 6100 Maryhurst Drive
Athens, GA 30607 Dublin, Ohio 43017
706-548-4557 614-717-0330
(laboratory analysis) (rockwool, fertilizers, beneficials)
Mid-South E, Inc. Plantel Nurseries, Inc.
2015 Jackson Street P.O. Box 66553
Monroe, LA 71202 Los Angeles, CA 90066
318-322-7239 310-390-4711
http://www.midsouthextrusion.com http://www.plantelnurseries.com
Mycogen Corporation (seedling trays)
5701 SE 22nd Place Poly Drip Irrigation Supply
Ocala, FL 34471 13799 Airline Highway
904-624-1224 Baton Rouge, LA 70817
http://www.mycogen.com/Index_NoCookie.asp 1-800-676-0979
(biologicals) http://www.polydrip.com
Neogen Corporation (irrigation)
620 Lesher Place
Lansing, MI 48912
1-800-234-5333
http://www.neogen.com
(disease test kits) 24
Poly Growers Greenhouse Co. Solar Components Corporation (G)
P.O. Box 359 121 Valley Street
Muncy, PA 17756 Manchester, NH 03103
Poly-Tex, Inc. (G) http://www.solar-components.com/default.htm
P.O. Box 458 Solar Prism Greenhouses (G)
Castle Rock, MN 55010 P.O. Box 40-PC4
1-800-852-3443 Amity, OR 97101
http://www.poly-tex.com 1-800-711-7336
(greenhouses and accessories) http://www.countryfamily.com
Pro-Gro Products (hobby greenhouses)
841 Pro-Gro Drive Southern Agricultural Insecticides
Elizabeth City, NC 27909 P.O. Box 429
1-800-334-3311 Hendersonville, NC 28793
Radiant Equipment Co. 704-229-2233
P.O. Box 949 http://www.southernag.com
San Andreas, CA 95249 Southern Time and Alarm
209-754-1801 1057 South Jackson Drive
Roberts Irrigation Products, Inc. Terry, MS 39170
700 Rancheros Drive 601-878-5066
San Marcos, CA 92069-3007 http://www.fugitt.com/index2.htm
619-744-4511 (alarms, computer controls)
http://www.robertsirrigation.com Spectrum Technologies, Inc. (S)
(irrigation) 12010 South Aero Drive
Rough Brothers (G) Plainfield, IL 60544
5513 Vine Street 1-800-436-4440
Cincinnati, OH 45217 http://www.specmeters.com
1-800-543-7351 (EC, pH meters, instrumentation)
http://www.roughbros.com Steuber Distributing Co.
(greenhouses) P.O. Box 100
Rounhouse Mfg. Co. (G) Snohomish, WA 98290
P.O. Box 1744 1-800-426-8815
Cleveland, TX 77327 http://www.steuberdistributing.com
713-593-1118 (greenhouses)
(shade cloth, ground covers, etc.) Structures, Unlimited (G)
S & M Farm Supply, Inc. (S) 2122 Whitfield Park Avenue
13690 SW 248th Street Sarasota, FL 34243-4048
Homestead, FL 33032 813-756-8129
1-800-432-3411 1-800-541-8129
352-620-5581 http://www.structuresunlimitedinc.com
(greenhouses)
San Joaquin Sulfur Co.
P.O. Box 700 Stuppy Greenhouse Manufacturing, Inc. (G, S)
Lodi, CA 95241 1212 Clay Street
209-368-6676 P.O. Box 12456
(sulfur) North Kansas City, MO 64116
1-800-733-5025
Soil Mender Products http://www.stuppy.com
3071 HWY 86 (greenhouses)
Tulia, TX 79088
806-627-4276 Sunderman Mfg Co.
www.soilmender.com 47143 250th Street
(compost) Baltic, SD 57003-5200
1-800-843-3312
http://www.sundermanmfg.com
(heating systems)
25
Taylor Manufacturing, Inc. Vicksburg Chemical Company
P.O. Box 518 5100 Poplar Avenue, Suite 2408
Elizabethtown, NC 28337 Memphis, TN 38137
1-800-545-2293 http://www.kpower.com
http://www.taylormfg.com (fertilizers)
(wood heaters) Wager Company of Florida, Inc.
Terra International P.O. Box 520296
P.O. Box 157 Longwood, FL 32752-0296
Flora, MS 39071 407-834-4667
601-879-3802 http://www.wagerco.com
http://www.terraindustries.com (irrigation and parts)
(fertilizers, chemicals) The Warehouse
Texas Greenhouse Company (G) 601 Chestnut Street
2524 White Settlement Road P.O. Box 699
Fort Worth, TX 76107 Summit, MS 39666
817-335-5447 601-276-7318
1-800-227-5447 (irrigation)
http://www.texasgreenhouse.com Westmark Co. (G, S)
(greenhouses and accessories) 3529 Touriga Drive
TotalGro Pleasanton, CA 94566
P.O. Box 805 415-846-8505
Winnsboro, LA 71295 Winandy Greenhouse Co., Inc.
318-435-7587 2211 Peacock Road
1-800-433-3055 Richmond, IN 47374
http://www.grannyshouse.com/page.cfm/1035 765-935-2111
(fertilizers) (greenhouses)
Tubular Structures (G) X. S. Smith, Inc. (G)
129 Radcliff Drive Drawer X
Lucedale, MS 39452 Red Bank, NJ 07701
601-947-9558 1-800-631-2226
United Greenhouse Systems http://www.xssmith.com
708 Washington Street Z-Top Greenhouse Co., Inc. (G)
Edgerton, WI 53534 64575 Gisclard Road
1-800-433-6834 Plaquemine, LA 70764
http://www.unitedgreenhouse.com 504-687-2161
(greenhouses) (self-ventilating greenhouses)
United Irrigation Supply, Inc. Zarn, Inc. (S)
Highway 84 West P.O. Box 1350
P.O. Box 854 Reidsville, NC 27320
Quitman, GA 31643 1-800-367-7687
912-263-9393 (plastic containers)
(irrigation)
United States Plastic Corp.
1390 Neubrecht Road
Lima, OH 45801-3196
1-800-821-0349
http://www.usplastic.com
(polyethylene tanks)
Van Wingerden Greenhouse Co. (G)
4078 Haywood Road
Horseshoe, NC 28742
704-891-7389
http://www.van-wingerden.com
(greenhouses)
26
Appendix III. Associations and Short Courses
American Society for Plasticulture Ohio State University Extension Service

Pat Heuser, Executive Secretary Agricultural Business Enhancement Center
526 Brittany Drive 440 E. Poe Rd., Suite 201
State College, PA 16803 Bowling Green, OH 43402-1351
814-238-7045 419-354-6916
Fax: 814-238-7051 Fax: 419-354-6416
Annual Meetings Annual Greenhouse Food Production Short Course
Proceedings (February)
Newsletter Proceedings
Ohio Hydroponic Vegetable Program
Hydroponic Society of America Hydroponic Study Group
P.O. Box 1183 Greenhouse Tours
El Cerrito, CA 94530
510-232-2323 Rutgers University
Fax: 510-232-2384 Dr. A. J. Both, Assistant Extension Specialist
http://hsa.hydroponics.org/ The State University Of New Jersey
Annual Meetings Bioresource Engineering
Proceedings Department of Plant Science
Newsletter 20 Ag Extension Way
Book Supply Service New Brunswick, NJ 08901-8500
732-932-9534
Mississippi Fruit and Vegetable Growers Association Fax: 732-932-7931
Dr. John Braswell, Secretary Annual Short Course – “Design of Greenhouse Systems”
South Mississippi Branch Experiment Station (January)
Box 193 http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~horteng
Poplarville, MS 39470
Annual Tri-State Fruit and Vegetable Conference Southern Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Association
http://www.msstate.edu/dept/cmrec/mfvga.htm Terri Buckler, Secretary
P.O. Box 654
Mississippi State University Extension Service Winnsboro, TX 75494
Truck Crops Branch Experiment Station 903-365-2457
P.O. Box 231 http://www.sgvga.org
Crystal Springs, MS 39059 Annual Meetings in Texas (Third weekend in July)
601-892-3731 Proceedings
Annual Greenhouse Tomato Short Course (March) Members receive Vegetable Press Newletter
http://www.msstate.edu/dept/cmrec/GHSC.htm
Vegetable Press Newsletter
http://www.msucares.com/newsletters/vegpress/index.html
North Carolina Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Association

C/o Dr. Mary Peet
Room 220, Box 7609
Kilgore Hall
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695-7609
Annual Short Course
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/greenhouse_veg/ncgv-
ga.html
The mailing address for the author is Truck Crops Branch Experiment Station, P.O. Box 231, Crystal Springs, MS
39059; telephone (601) 892-3731, fax (601) 892-2056. For those with access to the internet or e-mail, you can reach
Dr. Richard Snyder at [email protected].
27
The author gratefully acknowledges the faculty and staff at the Truck Crops Branch Experiment Station
and expresses appreciation for their hard work in assisting with the greenhouse research in Crystal
Springs. This research is the basis for much of the information in this publication.
This publication is also available on the web at http://www.msucares.com/pubs/pub1828.htm.
By Dr. Richard G. Snyder, Extension Vegetable Specialist
Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, disability, or
veteran status.
Publication 1828
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance
of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. JOE H. McGILBERRY, Interim Director (rev-500-10-01)
Greenhouse Tomato
Growers’ Glossary
Producing greenhouse tomatoes, like Starting Vegetable Transplants, MSU
many endeavors, has its own world of ter- Extension Publication 1995
minology. But because of the integration of
many different fields—horticulture, Fertigation: The Basics of Injecting
botany, plant physiology, plant pathology, Fertilizer for Field-Grown Tomatoes, MSU
entomology, and others—are so closely Extension Publication 2037
related, there are more terms in this field
than perhaps any other agricultural pur- A Spreadsheet Approach to Fertilization
suit. Also, greenhouse tomato production Management For Greenhouse Tomatoes,
is rooted in European and Asian countries MAFES Bulletin 1003
and was well established in Holland,
England, and Japan, before being trans- Helpful Terms To Know
ported to Canada and eventually to the bacterium: microscopic, one-celled organ-
United States. So, some words have a isms reproducing by fission, lacking
more international base. chlorophyll, and causing disease in toma-
For of all of these reasons, this to, such as bacterial canker, bacterial wilt,
Greenhouse Tomato Growers’ Glossary bacterial stem rot, pith necrosis, and bacte-
was assembled to help growers with rial soft rot.
learning the language of hydroponics and
greenhouse tomato production. For more biological control: using one or more liv-
specific information, refer to other publi- ing organisms to help control a pest or
cations of the Mississippi State University limit its population.
Extension Service. All of these publica-
tions are online at http://msucares.com, blade: the extended flat part of a leaf, not
or you may get copies from your county including the petiole.
Mississippi State University Extension
Service office: blossom-end rot: a sunken, leathery
brown or black spot on the bottom or near
Greenhouse Tomato Handbook, MSU the bottom of a tomato fruit; not from a
Extension Publication 1828 disease; usually from lack of water or not
enough calcium in the fruit.
Budget for Greenhouse Tomatoes, MSU
Extension Publication 2257 bullish: a plant with thick, leathery, dark-
green leaves, little or no fruit, and very
Environmental Control for Greenhouse vegetative; may be caused by overfertiliza-
Tomatoes, MSU Extension Publication tion with nitrogen or genetic off-type.
1879
calyx: the green pointed structures
Greenhouse Tomatoes: Pest Management beneath flower petals and at the top of the
in Mississippi, MSU Extension Publication fruit; composed of individual sepals.
1861
canker: a sunken, discolored area of diseased plant tis- fungicide: a chemical or biological product applied to
sue that is usually dry and corky in texture. plants to prevent infection by disease-causing organ-
isms.
chlorosis: yellowing of normally green tissue caused
by the lack of chlorophyll; can be caused by disease, fungus: a microscopic organism lacking chlorophyll
lack of nutrients, shading, age, or other factors. and the ability to manufacture its own food, with a
body of spider web-like filaments.
cluster: a group of flowers or fruits that set at the same
point on the plant. glazing: the covering over a greenhouse; this can be
polyethylene, polycarbonate, glass, or other transpar-
compound: a type of leaf composed of many parts or ent materials.
leaflets; non-compound leaves are called simple.
hand: see cluster.
condensation: accumulation of water droplets on the
inside of plastic covering the greenhouse that can then head: the top of a plant.
drip onto plants, resulting in artificial rain on the crop;
can also form on leaf and fruit surfaces, promoting host: plant that is attacked by a pathogen.
disease.
hydroponic: using water to grow plants without soil;
cool pad: see wet wall. soil-less culture.
corolla: all of the flower petals considered together hyphae: threadlike filaments forming the mycelium of
make up the corolla. a fungus.
disinfectant: an agent that kills or inactivates infection: when a pathogen is established in a host.
pathogens on greenhouse or plant
surfaces. inoculum: any part of a pathogen that can cause dis-
ease.
dissemination: transfer of inoculum from diseased to
healthy plants. insecticide: a chemical or product used to control
insect pests.
drench: a pesticide treatment that is applied to the
soil, or medium, in which a plant is growing. internode: the part of the stem between leaves.
EC: abbreviation for electroconductivity; a measure- IPM: abbreviation for integrated pest management;
ment of how much electrical current a solution can using various methods of insect and disease control
conduct; corresponds to amount of fertilizer dissolved rather than only chemicals.
in solution.
leaflet: the subdivisions of a leaf; the tomato leaf is
electroconductivity: see EC. compound, so it is made up of many leaflets.
emitter: device that puts water/fertilizer mixture lean & lower: leaning plants over and dropping them
directly into the growing medium. when they are taller than the support wire; it is impor-
tant to lean when lowering to avoid stem breakage;
epidemic: widespread, severe outbreak of disease. this needs to be repeated every 2 weeks or so in
mature plants.
fertigation: mixing or putting fertilizer into the irriga-
tion water so fertilizer is delivered with irrigation lesion: a localized area of diseased plant tissue (a leaf
water. spot).
foliar spray: a pesticide that is sprayed on the leaves liquid concentrate: a formulation of pesticide sold in
of plants. concentrated liquid form; it must be diluted with
water before being applied.
fruit: the tomato that is eaten.
media: (plural) material in which plants are grown,
fruiting bodies: complex fungal structures containing such as perlite, pine bark, and peat moss.
spores.
medium: singular form of media. relative humidity: the amount of water in the air
divided by the amount of water the air could hold if
mho, millimho, micromho: units of electrical conduc- saturated, at a particular temperature; expressed as a
tance used to estimate fertilizer concentration to deter- percentage.
mine how strong a fertilizer solution has been mixed;
there are 1,000 millimhos in a mho, and 1,000,000 root or root ball: the below ground portion of a plant;
micromhos in a mho. a mass of roots at the base of the plant that can fill the
container (bag, bucket) in which plants grow.
mycelium: a mass of fungal growth consisting of
branching, threadlike hyphae. sclerotia: compact masses of hyphae, usually in the
form of a hard, round, or irregularly shaped structure,
necrosis: a dead or dying area of plant tissue. which can survive adverse conditions.
node: the point on the stem where a leaf is attached. scouting: regularly checking a crop for insect and dis-
ease infestations to determine pest population levels.
NFT: nutrient film technique; using plastic sheeting
and water to grow plants hydroponically. seedling: a very young plant.
parasite: an insect or other organism that searches for sepal: the individual parts of a calyx; green pointed
a pest species and deposits its eggs into that species. structure beneath flower petal and at top of fruit.
The immature parasites develop within the pest, even-
tually killing it. solubility limit: the most fertilizer that can be dis-
solved in water at a given temperature; the solubility
parts per million: see ppm. limit increases as water warms.
pathogen: a living organism that can infect a plant; in spindly: a plant with thin stems, small leaves, and
the context of biological control, a disease organism long internodes; leggy; opposite of stocky.
that attacks a pest species and helps control the pest.
spore: a reproductive structure of a fungus (like a
pedicel: the “flower stalk” that holds a single flower. seed).
peduncle: the “fruit stalk” that holds a cluster of fruit. stem: the main trunk of the plant; has roots attached
at the base and leaves, flowers, and fruit attached to
petiole: the “stem” of a leaf; attaches the plant stem to above-ground portion; tomatoes are usually pruned to
the leaf blade. one main stem.
pH: measurement of how acidic or basic (alkaline) a systemic: a pesticide that is absorbed by the plant,
solution is; less than 7 is acidic; more than 7 is basic. either through the roots or leaves, and translocated to
other plant parts, where it controls insect or disease
plant disease: a malfunctioning plant; includes leaf pests; also refers to a pathogen, such as a virus, that
spots, cankers, wilts, rots, nutrient deficiency and toxi- spreads inside the plant.
city, and various fruit and environmental disorders.
toxicity: a compound’s ability to injure a plant, such as
pollinate (pollination): transfer of pollen from anther too much of a nutrient or chemical.
(male flower part) to stigma (female flower part); with
greenhouse tomatoes, this is done with an electric pol- transpiration: the flow of water from the plant to the
linator or with bumblebees. atmosphere, such as evaporation of moisture from the
plant through the leaf surfaces.
ppm: abbreviation for parts per million; the concentra-
tion of a fertilizer or any other material in water. transplant: a young plant past the seedling stage;
Note: 10,000 parts per million = 1%. replanting a small plant to a larger container.
predator: an insect or other organism that actively turgid: the stiffness of a plant because of internal
searches for and eats a pest species, thus helping to water pressure; opposite of wilted; it is best to remove
control or limit its population. shoots (suckers) or leaves when plants are turgid so
you can easily snap off shoots or leaves.
vapor pressure deficit (VPD): the difference between wet wall: an evaporative cooling system, also called
the actual water vapor pressure and the saturation of cool pad system; cools by pulling water-saturated air
water vapor pressure at a particular temperature; at a into the greenhouse that vaporizes, absorbing heat in
low VPD, transpiration may be too low; at a high the process; the exhaust fans then remove the warmed
VPD, transpiration may be too high; you can manipu- vapor.
late VPD to make plants more vegetative or more gen-
erative. wettable granule: a formulation of pesticide sold as a
dry granule that must be dissolved in water before
virus: microscopic organisms having a strand of nucle- being applied.
ic acid surrounded by a protein coat and capable of
causing disease in tomato, such as tomato spotted wilt wettable powder: a formulation of pesticide sold as a
virus, tomato yellow leaf curl virus, and tomato mosa- dry powder that must be dissolved in water before
ic virus. being applied.
water soluble package: a formulation of pesticide sold wilt: loss of turgidity in plant tissue associated with
in water soluble packages that have a premeasured the lack of water.
amount of dry, water soluble insecticide. The package
dissolves when you put it in water, thus releasing the
pesticide it contains.
Copyright 2005 by Mississippi State University. All rights reserved. This publication may be copied and distributed
without alteration for nonprofit educational purposes provided that credit is given to the Mississippi State University
Extension Service.
By Dr. Richard G. Snyder, professor and vegetable specialist, Central Mississippi Research & Extension
Center; Dr. David M. Ingram, associate Extension/Research professor, Central Mississippi Research &
Extension Center, and Dr. Blake Layton, Extension professor, Entomology & Plant Pathology
Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex,
sexual orientation, group affiliation, age, disability, or veteran status.
Publication 2364
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. JOE H. MCGILBERRY, Director
(POD-02-05)
http://king.wsu.edu
KING COUNTY 700 Fifth Ave, Suite 3700
Seattle, WA 98104-5037
206-296-3900 /TTY-TDD 296-5242
Greenhouse Growing
Agriculture and Natural Resources Fact Sheet # 528
The Basic Idea

Greenhouse production offers a cost-efficient way to
extend the growing season at both ends and to even grow
some crops year-round. A lot of information is available
on greenhouse growing, equipment, and supplies. This
house is three zones warmer than where you live. (See
fact sheet presents a few basic considerations and is meant
Growing for Market Vol. No. 1). USDA climate zones are
as a starting point. Follow-up on some of the ideas and
based on a 10° F spread so this means the temperature
resources provided here with your own research and
inside a greenhouse could be 15-30° F warmer, a signifi-
experiments.
cant difference in the cool months of spring, autumn, and
Most people think of greenhouses as solar, or heated
winter in this area. Ventilation is as important as heat.
and lighted by the sun. Solar greenhouses are insulated to
Lack of proper ventilation can result in too much heat or
collect and store energy from the sun for use at night and
conditions that favor mildew and disease.
during cloudy weather. Here in the Pacific Northwest,
Winter plants have to be planted before winter to
however, most of the light in winter is diffuse and little
overcome the limitation on growth caused by the cooler
direct light from the sun reaches the earth because of our
temperatures of winter lower levels of light (see Frost
cloudy climate. As a result, greenhouse production in this
Dates/Climatic Data, Community Horticulture Fact Sheet
area will likely require the use of supplementary light or
#40). During the period of winter when there are less than
heat. This type of greenhouse system is often referred to as
10 hours of daylight (see figure), newly sown seeds grow
an active system. Those that rely only on energy from the
very slowly. Count on these crops for early spring harvest.
sun are passive systems.
Types and Location 25
Greenhouses generally are attached to a building (house,

shed, barn) or are freestanding. Most commercial green- 20
houses are freestanding. Whichever type you choose, the

15
best placement is such that light is captured from all
Hours
directions. For an attached greenhouse, the south side of a 10

building will be the sunniest all year. The north side is
not recommended. Wind is another factor to consider in 5
deciding where to locate a greenhouse, especially one that

is freestanding. 0
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Month
Temperature & Light
In the Pacific Northwest the long period of short gray days Hours of Daylight Over a Year in the Pacific Northwest (Seattle)
during winter make solar heating difficult. Electric lights
and alternative heating sources (e.g., electric or fossil fuel) What to Grow
can be used during fall, winter, and spring months to Greenhouse production offers a wide variety of plant
overcome this limitation. You may also want to install a choices, including those that may be grown year round
backup heating system in case of power failure. and those that can be transplanted outside. Cold tolerant
However, Eliot Coleman, author of the book Four- vegetables such as brassicas, lettuce, spinach, scallions,
Season Harvest: How to Harvest Fresh Organic Vegetables parsnips, beets, chard, radishes, and turnips are easily
from Your Home Garden All Year Long, suggests any grown in a greenhouse throughout the off seasons (see Fall
greenhouse from simple hoop structures to glass conserva- and Winter Vegetable Gardening, Community Horticulture
tories which grow plants in the soil can produce veg- Fact Sheet #41). Warm weather crops like melons,
etables without artificial heat. All you need is to add a peppers, eggplants, and tomatoes can be started early in
second protective layer of translucent material inside the the greenhouse for later transplanting outside or can be
greenhouse...This twice tempered climate in your green- grown inside the greenhouse all the way to harvest. Such
crops will not yield as well in winter but it is possible to Growing for Market Newsletter. Fariplain Publications,
get tomatoes in winter with added light and heat. For Lawrence, KS (800) 307-8949.
winter growth in the greenhouse look for varieties of
plants grown in the South which are varieties adapted to WSU Cooperative Extension King County. Frost Dates/
short-day culture. Whether you plant cold tolerant or heat Climatic Data. Community Horticulture Fact Sheet #40.
loving plants, timing is key in greenhouse growing. Once Seattle, WA. Call (206) 296-3900.
you understand your greenhouse climate and light condi- WSU Cooperative Extension King County. Fall and Winter
tions you will be able to schedule plantings to maximize Vegetable Gardening. Community Horticulture Fact
growth and harvest. Sheet #41. Seattle, WA. Call (206) 296-3900.
Other possibilities for greenhouse growing include
herbs, specialty or delicate plants such as orchids, some Greenhouse Equipment & Supplies
types of mushrooms, bedding plants, bulbs, potted
flowers and, of course, cut flowers. Cut flowers that can BioTherm Hydronic, Inc. (heating specialists for the
be grown successfully include bachelors button, calen- greenhouse industry) 800-GET-HEAT or 707-794-9660;
dula, carnation, chrysanthemum, gardenia, lupine, P.O. Box 750967, Petaluma, CA 94975;
marigold, pincushion flower, poppy, snapdragon, stock, e-mail: [email protected];
zinnia. http://www.getheat.com/.
Cascade Greenhouse Supply
Pest and Disease Management (253) 833-5664; 214 21st SE Auburn, WA 98002.
Disease is often best handled by practicing proper hy-
giene, cultivating strong, healthy plants which will be Charleys Greenhouse Supply
more resistant to disease and pests, and weeding out weak (800) 233-2611 1599 Memorial Hwy, Mount Vernon,
and sick ones. Diseases and pests can enter the greenhouse WA 98273-9721.
via insects, in soil, on plants, and on seeds so careful
handling and monitoring can go a long way to prevent Future Gardening & Hydroponics
disease and pest infestation. (253) 531-9641 11522 Canyon Rd E, Puyallup, WA
Prevention is very important in the greenhouse 98373-4360.
environment but diseases and pests will inevitably be a Garden Specialties Inc
problem at one time or another. Pest management rather (253) 941-6767 30821 Pacific Hwy S, Federal Way,
than eradication is a more realistic goal and is the basis of WA 98003-4901.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM in greenhouses
involves monitoring, pest identification, record keeping, Green Air Products
understanding pest life cycles, exclusion techniques, (800) 669-2113.
cultural practices such as sanitation, biological controls Green Gardens Distributing
including the use of beneficial organisms, insect growth (425) 454-5731 12738 Bellevue Redmond Rd, WA
regulators, and, as a last resort, chemical controls (see 98005-2601.
ATTRA publication Integrated Pest Management for
Greenhouse Crops). Perhaps the most important aspect of Indoor Garden & Lighting
IPM is monitoring and understanding the life cycle and (253) 373-9060 730-A S Central, Kent ,WA 98032-
behavior of pests. This information will help you develop 6109; (253) 761-7478 3843 6th Ave, Tacoma, WA
the most effective control strategy. 98406-4903.
Indoor Sun Shoppe
Resources (206) 634-3727 911 NE 45th, Seattle, WA 98105-4714.
Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA)
PO Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702 (800) 346-9140; Lindas Gardening & Hydroponics Inc
web: http://www.attra.org. (253) 531-9641 11522 Canyon Rd E, Puyallup, WA
Related publications: 98373-4360.
Greenhouse IPM: Sustainable Aphid Control
Greenhouse IPM: Sustainable Thrips Control M & R Lighting
Greenhouse IPM: Sustainable Whitefly Control (206) 729-7751 1301 N 97th, Seattle, WA 98103-3319
Integrated Pest Management for Greenhouse Crops (253) 891-4190 22914 State Route 410 E, Buckley, WA
Solar Greenhouses: Horticulture Resource List 98103-3319.
Coleman, Elliot. 1999. Four-Season Harvest: How to McCalif Growers Supplies Inc
Harvest Fresh Organic Vegetables from Your Home (360) 435-0741, Arlington, WA 98223.
Garden All Year Long. Chelsea Green Publishing, White McConkey J M & Co Inc (206) 328-1500 or (253) 863-
River Junction, VT. 8111.
Oregon Valley Greenhouse (800) 347-2701; 20367 Hwy
99E, Aurora, OR 97002; email: [email protected].
OBC Northwest, (800) 477-4744 or (503) 266-2021;
PO Box 759; Canby, OR 97013; email: obcnw@web-
ster.com.
Steuber Distributing Co
(360) 568-2626; (800) 426-8815 308; 3rd, Snohomish,
WA 98291.
Sunglo Solar Greenhouses
(253) 833-4529; 214 21st SE, Auburn, WA 98002.
US Global Resources
(425) 391-5646; 20808 SE 20th, Issaquah, WA 98029-
7406.
Sources
Coleman, E. 1999. Start Your Season Now! in Growing
for Market Vol. 8, No. 1. Fariplain Publications,
Lawrence, KS.
Freeman, M. 1998. Greenhouse Basics: Gardening in
Your Greenhouse. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA
Greenhouses. Washington State University Cooperative
Extension Spokane County, http://www.spokane-
county.wsu.edu/GARDEN/c055.htm.
Greer, L. and Diver, S. 1999. Integrated Pest Management
for Greenhouse Crops. ATTRA, Fayetteville, AR.
Greer, L. 1999. Solar Greenhouses: Horticulture Resource
List. ATTRA, Fayetteville, AR.
Miller, E. and C. 1999. Fundamentals of Solar
Greenhousing in Acres USA March 1999.
Miller, E. and C. 1999. Greenhouse Management Tips
in Acres USA July 1999.
No endorsement is intended of any businesses listed in this fact sheet, nor is criticism of unnamed businesses implied.
Written by Sylvia Kantor, WSU Cooperative Extension King County, 1999.
Cooperating agencies: Washington State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and King County. Cooperative Extension programs and
employment are available to all without discrimination. Evidence of noncompliance may be reported through your local Cooperative Extension office.
ACF Greenhouse Buying Guide http://www.littlegreenhouse.com/guide.shtml
Greenhouse Guide | Supplies Guide | Grow Light Guide | Cold Frame Guide
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Greenhouse Buying Guide

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4 Questions to Ask Yourself | Selecting a Site for Your Greenhouse
GREENHOUSE KITS Greenhouse Coverings | Greenhouse Frames (structures)
• Compare Kits
• Cross Country Rule of Thumb
• FlowerHouse
• Hobby Gardener
• Juliana
• Little Greenhouse
• Portable
So You're Thinking About Buying a Greenhouse
• Sundog
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Eventually every gardener considers the purchase of a greenhouse. A greenhouse offers the
SUPPLIES opportunity to enjoy gardening every month of the year. It also represents a considerable
• Benches
• Books commitment in money, time, and space. This guide has been developed to help you select
• Controls from the variety of available greenhouses.
• Deer Repellent
• Grow Lights
• Heaters You will want your greenhouse to meet both your gardening needs and your
• Meters pocketbook. This guide can help you decide what type of greenhouse best fits these
• Misting Systems
• Plastic Coverings
requirements, whether it is one from us or a different greenhouse.
• PVC Fittings
• Season Extenders 1. What size greenhouse?
• Ventilation
• Watering
Greenhouse size is usually dictated by factors like available space and construction costs
• Other Supplies versus need or desire. When choosing a size, consider if the greenhouse will be used
year-round, seasonally, or mainly as a sunspace. If you want a greenhouse to house an
RESOURCE CENTER
• Greenhouse Guide extensive collection of houseplants, then it is best to plan on building or purchasing a
• Supplies Guide structure that is larger than your current space requirements. Most hobby greenhouse owners
• Grow Light Guide
• Cold Frame Guide
find they need a larger greenhouse than they originally thought. Upgrading later on may be
• Foundation Guide more costly than ordering a larger unit from the beginning. Another important size
• Heater Calculator consideration often neglected is height. You want to make sure your greenhouse has adequate
• Fan Calculator
• Area Calculator head room. You need to consider both peak and eave (sidewall) height. Taller houses are also
• Ordering Policies easier to heat and ventilate because the air has a greater buffer area.
• Shipping Details
• Order Tracking
• About Us 2. What will the greenhouse be used for?
• Contact Us Are you using it for year-round vegetables and flowers, foliage houseplants, or seasonal see
starting for the outdoor garden? A tightly sealed and insulated greenhouse with high light
transmission is desirable for year-round vegetables and flowers (especially in northern
climates) but not necessary for foliage plants and seed starting. Remember, greenhouses are
designed to store heat from the sun and create a warmer environment inside of them, so use
in the summer in most areas would be limited at best.
3. How elaborate do you want the greenhouse to be?

If you are just starting seedlings or wintering over a few plants too tender for your area's
winters, then a simple plastic greenhouse with few accessories other than ventilation and
possibly a heater (depends on location) are needed. You should consider upgrading to
1 of 7 21/02/2007 3:19 PM
twinwall polycarbonate or an inflated double layer of polyethylene if you plan to grow plants
in the winter because of their heating efficiency. If you are interested in an attractive
greenhouse, a painted frame and glass covering are popular options. The Cape Cod series of
the Cross Country greenhouse line are even available with a combination of glass and
polycarbonate providing both beauty and function.
4. Is a building permit required?

Check local ordinances for required setbacks from property lines, design requirements, and
other requirements. Call your local building department. Some hobby greenhouses may not
need a permit, but it is a good idea to check anyway.
Selecting a Site for Your Greenhouse

Choosing the right site for your greenhouse will not only determine how well it works as a
greenhouse, but how much you will enjoy it. There are several factors to consider in choosing
your site.
1. Sunlight
If the greenhouse is going to be used primarily for starting seeds and transplants or plant
propagation in the summer, place it in partial shade to minimize heat buildup. You can use a
shade cloth to control the amount of sunlight reaching the interior if a partially shaded site is
not available. If the greenhouse will be used for growing in late fall and winter, or growing
plants to maturity, it will need maximum exposure to the sun. It should receive a minimum
of 6 hours of direct sunlight everyday. It is best to position the greenhouse with the ends
facing east and west. This will provide more heat gain from the sun during the winter and
create less shadowing in the greenhouse. If the southern exposure is restricted, but open to
the east, southeast, southwest, or west, turn the greenhouse to the winter sun. Remember the
difference in sun angles from summer to winter (the sun is much lower in the winter).
Sometimes a shade tree can be an advantage, providing some shade for the greenhouse
during the hot summer and letting the sun in after losing its leaves in the fall. The problem
2 of 7 21/02/2007 3:19 PM
with overhanging trees is one of falling branches that can damage your greenhouse.
2. Accessibility
You want your greenhouse to be easily used. A good site should be sheltered from high
winds and easily accessible from your home and garden. Remember the need to move soil,
plants, fertilizer, and yourself to and from the greenhouse. Access to utilities such as
electricity and water are important requirements to remember also when selecting your site.
3. Weather
Many regions have chronic weather problems such as heavy rain, snow, and/or strong winds.
Heavy rains may cause drainage problems in and around the greenhouse. To avoid standing
water, choose a spot on high well-drained ground or install a drainage system before the
greenhouse is erected. Snow is usually not a problem as long as you provide adequate
insulation and heating. Strong winds can be a real problem. In cold weather, winds blowing
over a greenhouse can drain it of its interior heat escalating energy costs. Windbreaks are
your most effective weapon. A windbreak is an obstacle that "breaks" up the force of the
wind. Trees, shrubs, fences, and other structures can all be effective windbreaks. Remember
that a windbreak can also obstruct light. Try to locate one where it will block the least
amount of light.
4. Ease of construction and maintenance

A level, well drained site will obviously be easier to work with and maintain than a low,
swampy, or sloped area. It is also a good idea to locate your greenhouse away from children's
play areas.
What's the Best Material for Greenhouses?

There really is no best material for a greenhouse. It is hard to know what's best when there
are so many different materials used to make greenhouses. Aluminum, galvanized steel,
wood, PVC, glass, fiberglass, polycarbonate, polyethylene, etc. They all have their place in
greenhouse construction. Your needs and budget will determine which is best for you.
Greenhouse Coverings
Most important is the covering. It will determine the amount and type of light reaching your
plants, the overall appearance of your greenhouse, its safety, ease of maintenance, and
longevity.
Greenhouse Covering Insulation (R) Values

4 mil polyethylene 0.83 4 mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.43
6 mil polyethylene 0.87 6 mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.54
6 mil poly double layer (inflated) 1.43 8 mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.61
11 mil woven polyethylene 0.95 10mm twinwall polycarbonate 1.89
3 mm glass (single layer) 0.95 16 mm triplewall polycarbonate 2.50
Fiberglass / polycarbonate (single
Two layers of glass (insulated) 2.00 0.83
layer)
3 of 7 21/02/2007 3:19 PM
R value is a commercial unit used to measure the effectiveness of thermal insulation. A larger number
represents a higher insulation value and therefore greater heating and cooling efficiency.
Specific, brand-name, product R values may vary slightly from these figures.
- Glass -
The traditional greenhouse covering, preferred for its permanence and beauty. Glass is one of
the least efficient materials for retaining heat, because it transmits heat and cold quickly and
has very little insulating value (that's why it is used in cooking utensils and thermometers).
Greenhouse glass should be double or triple strength to increase heating efficiency and
decrease breakage which can be dangerous when installing as well as a problem in the
completed greenhouse.
Glass is much heavier than other coverings, requiring more substantial framing. Other
disadvantages include: it doesn't diffuse light, so there's a risk of burning plants; glass breaks
more easily than the plastic glazings (important if you have hailstorms, trees nearby, kids that
play baseball, etc.); and finally, slight deviations from horizontal and vertical frame
alignment or settling of the foundation can crack it. Most glass greenhouses use either
engineered aluminum, steel, or laminated wood frames with full foundations. Never install
glass on breezy days. Because of the need for many smaller, overlapping, glass segments in
these greenhouses, site selection should take wind into consideration. Air (heat) leakage is
greater in glass greenhouses because of the many panes needed.
If you are unsure about your building talents, you might do well to avoid glass as the frame
must be absolutely square and rigid. If you must have glass, consider hiring a contractor for
your installation.
- Plastics -
These coverings include fiberglass, polycarbonate, acrylic sheets, and polyethylene film. All
plastics resist hailstone damage and are shatterproof, a distinct advantage over glass. Rigid
plastics are stiff, but not brittle. They can be flexed to fit over a curved surface and are
available in large sheets. This reduces the number of potential air leaks by reducing the
number of joints in the covering.
Fiberglass
The first of the practical replacements for glass, fiberglass usually comes in rolls or
corrugated sheets and is translucent rather than transparent. You can't see through it but light
transmission is roughly equal to glass. Fiberglass diffuses light that passes through it creating
a virtually shadowless greenhouse. Fiberglass retains heat more efficiently than glass (but not
as well as insulated plastics like multiwall polycarbonate or two layers of inflated
polyethylene film) while transmitting less heat into the greenhouse, a benefit in both winter
and summer.
Its corrugated form allows overlapping sides to seal well but its undulating ends can make for
difficult joints. Aesthetically, the corrugations tend to detract from the structure and grime
can collect in valleys. Greenhouse fiberglass is UV protected by a gel coat that will
eventually be baked off by the sun lasting only about 6 years before turning yellow. When
this happens, dirt accumulates among the glass fibers and becomes very unsightly.
Polycarbonate
One of the newest covering options, UV treated polycarbonate provides much of the clarity
of glass and is stronger and more resistant to impact than other coverings. It is also more
4 of 7 21/02/2007 3:19 PM
resistant to fire than other plastics. View picture of polycarbonate
Polycarbonate is available in several different thicknesses and normally comes in single,

double, and triple walled sheets with many structural walls separating its two flat sides.
Single wall polycarbonate is the least expensive and is generally used for its attractive
appearance, but it lacks the strength, heat retention, and light diffusing properties of double
and triple wall polycarbonate. The multiwall structure gives it greater strength and superior
insulating values with the air space built into the product. Multiwall polycarbonate also
provides your greenhouse with an even diffused light that minimizes shadow and is optimal
for growing plants. Another advantage of polycarbonate is its +15 year lifespan in most
areas. Triple wall is rather expensive compared to other covering options, but it will pay for
itself in reduced heating costs in cold climates that require frequent heating. The Hobby
Gardener greenhouses are covered with a unique single wall polycarbonate. Double walled
polycarbonate is used to cover the Sundog greenhouses, Sunshine greenhouses, and Juliana
greenhouses. Cross Country greenhouses are available with double or triple walled
polycarbonate options.
Polyethylene Film
A favorite of commercial growers (about 90 % of all greenhouse sq. footage in the USA)
because of its simplicity of maintenance. Use it for 2 to 5 years (life depends on poly
thickness and UV treatment used) then recover with new poly. Used in single thickness,
polyethylene film is good for simple cold frames and greenhouses used for starting seeds and
other seasonal needs. When two layers are used, and the space between is inflated by a fan
creating insulated air space, the polyethylene film retains heat more efficiently than glass
houses, saving roughly 40% in heating costs.
Drawbacks to polyethylene film include a relatively short lifespan vs. other coverings,
possibilities of rips and tears, and a translucent appearance much like fiberglass.
Polyethylene's low cost, ease of replacement, high light transmission, and good heat
retention have made it a favorite of nurserymen and commercial growers.
There are differences in polyethylene film. Cheap, thin films sold at many hardware stores
and home centers are unsuitable for greenhouse use. Those films are designed as vapor
barriers in home construction and other "interior" uses. Greenhouse polyethylene films are
specially coated for protection from UV (ultraviolet) rays which shorten the lifespan of
unprotected film. There's a minimal cost difference and a considerable difference in
performance on your greenhouse. Polyethylene film is used to cover the Little
Greenhouses. The Portable and FlowerHouse greenhouses use a new woven polyethylene
which is more durable.
Greenhouse Frames
Most greenhouse frames are made from wood, aluminum, galvanized steel, and PVC. Which
material is right for you depends a great deal upon where and how you will be using your
greenhouse.
Galvanized Steel
Most commercial greenhouses have galvanized steel frames because they are long-lasting,
low cost, and require less framework (thus less shadowing) than any other framing material
thanks to steel's natural strength. Steel's greatest value in greenhouse construction is its
strength. You want as much light to enter your greenhouse as possible and steel frames can
5 of 7 21/02/2007 3:19 PM
be thinner than others, creating less shadow. Its other big advantage is its low cost. Steel
greenhouses are normally covered with polyethylene film because most frames are not
designed to accommodate rigid panels without additional hardware. Be sure that any steel
tube greenhouse you purchase is made with heavy-duty galvanized or stainless tubing which
is made for outdoor construction purposes to protect it from a greenhouse's normal humid and
corrosive (fertilizer salts) atmosphere.
Galvanized metals will eventually wear off their protective finish and rust from high
humidity levels present in a greenhouse. Steel is much heavier than aluminum and generally
requires additional hardware to mount a rigid covering to it.
Aluminum
Aluminum is used primarily in conjunction with glass or polycarbonate in architectural
sunspaces and hobby greenhouses. It can be anodized in a variety of colors and has low
maintenance requirements. Because of its higher initial cost, aluminum is most often used
with glass and rigid plastic coverings in structures like the Sundog greenhouses, Juliana
greenhouses, and Cross Country greenhouses. Aluminum is the longest lasting of all of the
framing materials mentioned because it will never rust, rot, or break down from UV rays.
Aluminum does not have the strength of steel so frame members either must be larger or
more numerous. Look for engineered shapes in aluminum that are designed to increase frame
strength, because you want as little frame shadowing as possible while not sacrificing the
integrity of your greenhouse's frame.
Wood
Wood is most commonly used either for sunrooms or in homemade greenhouses. They are
popular because of their attractive look, the ease in which accessories can be added to them,
and the low amount of heat loss they produce compared to similar size metal frames. Wood
frame structures are most often covered with a rigid plastic or glass. Though very attractive in
sunspaces, wood has a limited lifetime in a greenhouse's damp atmosphere before it starts to
deteriorate. Redwood (used in the Sunshine greenhouse frames) or cedar is recommended
because of their natural resistance to the elements and insects. Applying a chemical sealant or
stain to the wood periodically can also greatly increase the life of the material.
Wood frames are generally larger and heavier than equivalent metal frames which increases
the amount of shadow in the greenhouse. Wood hobby houses are generally small scale with
a limited ability to expand once construction is complete.
Plastic
Over the last 10 to 15 years plastic hobby greenhouses have become increasingly popular.
The main advantages of these greenhouses is their low cost, portability, and ease of
installation. Plastic is generally used to construct smaller structures because it is not as rigid
as metal or wood, but the introduction of options like metal wire supports (included in Little
Greenhouses) compensates for what plastic lacks in strength. Plastic frames have become
increasingly popular because of the low amount of heat loss they produce compared to
similar size metal frames. This is because plastic is a poor heat conductor like wood.
The main drawback to a plastic frame is that ultraviolet rays from the sun will eventually
cause the plastic to deteriorate even if it is a UV protected material. UV protected PVC
materials generally have a 20 year or better life. Plastic frames are also normally larger than
equivalent metal frames which increases the amount of shadow in the greenhouse.
6 of 7 21/02/2007 3:19 PM
Rule of Thumb
If you buy a greenhouse based solely on your current gardening
expectations, it will probably be too small within a year!
Greenhouse Supplies Guide >
Cross Country | FlowerHouse | Hobby Gardener | Juliana | Portable | Sundog |

Sunshine
Greenhouse Buying Guide | Ordering and Shipping Information
ACF Greenhouses
380 Greenhouse Drive
Buffalo Junction, VA 24529
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ACF Greenhouse Supplies Guide http://www.littlegreenhouse.com/guide2.shtml
Greenhouse Guide | Supplies Guide | Grow Light Guide | Cold Frame Guide
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Ventilation | Heating | Misting and Watering
GREENHOUSE KITS
• Compare Kits Shading | Flooring | Benches | Lighting
• Cross Country
• FlowerHouse
• Hobby Gardener The Most Important Greenhouse Supply
• Juliana
• Portable What you may ask is the most important accessory you need to have for your greenhouse. A
• Sundog heater? Proper ventilation? While these may be necessary to provide the temperatures you
• Sunshine
want to maintain in the greenhouse, you are operating in the blind if you do not have a
SUPPLIES min/max thermometer to show you what temperatures your plants are experiencing in the
• Benches greenhouse when you are not there. A min/max thermometer records daily high and low
• Books
• Controls temperatures in the greenhouse. This is vital information that can tell you if your heating
• Deer Repellent and/or cooling equipment is sized correctly and working properly in your greenhouse. Some
• Grow Lights
• Heaters
thermometers also record highs and lows for humidity as well. This is a helpful feature for
• Meters plants that require specific humidity levels like orchids. View greenhouse thermometers
• Misting Systems
• PVC Fittings Ventilation / Cooling
• Season Extenders
• Ventilation
• Watering
• Other Supplies
Ventilation is the single most important requirement for a greenhouse. It has two important
purposes: providing fresh air, mainly carbon dioxide, to plants and cooling for the
RESOURCE CENTER greenhouse. Without good ventilation, a greenhouse is nothing more than a solar
• Greenhouse Guide
• Supplies Guide furnace. Greenhouses are really designed to store heat from the sun during the day creating a
• Grow Light Guide warmer temperature in the greenhouse versus outside of it. This makes cooling a greenhouse
• Foundation Guide
on a hot day a difficult task that can not be accomplished without a good ventilation system.
• Heater Calculator Cooling in the summer can be accomplished most easily with a combination of shade, proper
• Fan Calculator ventilation, and an evaporative cooling system like a misting system, fogger, or evaporative
• Area Calculator
• Ordering Policies cooler. Shading and evaporative cooling are discussed below. Even using all of the items
• Shipping Details mentioned above you can expect a greenhouse to still not be much cooler if any than the
• Order Tracking
• About Us
outside temperature in hot humid areas.
• Contact Us
An exhaust fan ventilation system usually consists of a fan setup to blow hot stale air out of
the greenhouse and bring fresh cooler air inside the greenhouse via intake shutters mounted
on the opposite end of the structure. An exhaust fan system should be able to make a
complete change of air in 1 to 3 minutes (about 1 minute or less for small greenhouses, 2 to 3
minutes is acceptable for large commercial size greenhouses) in summer to keep temperatures
in the greenhouse at a reasonable level.
Many people use roof and/or side vents to supply fresh air to plants and cool their
greenhouse. This is ideal for venting during cold months because fresh air is supplied to
plants more gradually than an exhaust fan system reducing any "temperature shock" to plants.
1 of 4 21/02/2007 3:20 PM
Circulation fans are highly recommended for use with side and/or roof mounted vent
systems. These fans move air throughout the greenhouse eliminating hot and cold spots
which is useful when venting or heating your greenhouse. The increased air movement helps
to expel hot air out of the window vents and provide fresh air for plants.
Unless you plan on staying in your greenhouse 24 hours a day 7 days a week, you should
consider automating your ventilation system. Forgetting to vent your greenhouse one hot day
could fry every plant in it. Thermostatic controls and solar powered autovents will also
maintain a more consistent temperature in your greenhouse which promotes healthier plant
growth. In hot climates shading and misting equipment may be necessary to hold the
greenhouse's temperature in check. Winter ventilation needs are lower. View ventilation
supplies
Heating
The heating requirements of a greenhouse depend on the desired temperature for the plants
grown, the location and construction of the greenhouse, and the total outside exposed area of
the structure. Much of the daily heat requirement may come from the sun, but if you want
your greenhouse to be more than a few degrees above the outside temperature at night, you
will need to provide it with a heat source. The heating system must be adequate to maintain
the desired day or night temperature. Heating systems can be fueled by electricity, gas, oil, or
wood. The choice of a heating system and fuel depends on what is locally available, the
production requirements of the plants, cost, and individual choice. Heating requirements for
your greenhouse can be determined with our Heater BTU Calculator.
If you're using your greenhouse to start seedlings and root cuttings in the spring,
supplemental heating probably will not be necessary. In mild climates, 12' x 12' and smaller
model hobby greenhouses can be adequately heated with electric heaters (make sure electric
heaters are not exposed to water to avoid a dangerous shock). An electric heater is clean,
efficient, and easy to install and maintain. Small gas or oil heaters will also work well in
hobby greenhouses. With larger size greenhouses and cold climates where temperatures
regularly fall below freezing, larger gas greenhouse heaters are most commonly used because
it is cheaper to heat with gas than electric in most areas.
For safety purposes, and to prevent harmful gases from contacting plants, all gas, oil, and
wood burning systems must be properly vented to the outside. Use fresh-air vents to supply
oxygen for burners for complete combustion. If you use an unvented gas heater in your
greenhouse, it is recommended that natural "indicator" plants like tomatoes, impatiens, and
salvia be placed near the heater. These plants are very sensitive to gases produced from
combustion in gas heaters and will have malformed leaves and stems and/or prematurely lose
flowers before other plants if the gases are not being vented properly. Also, look for safety
features like automatic overheat controls when purchasing a heater. Portable kerosene heaters
used in homes are risky because some plants are sensitive to gases formed when the fuel is
burned. View heaters
Misting and Watering

Misting and fog systems have a variety of uses in a greenhouse. It is important to determine
what you want to accomplish with a misting system before purchasing one. Humidity: It is
important to maintain a healthy humidity level (50% to 70%) in a greenhouse. This is healthy
for the plants and higher humidity levels also helps reduce the watering frequency of plants
2 of 4 21/02/2007 3:20 PM
in the greenhouse. When the greenhouse is vented, essential moisture is lost, and plants are
more likely to dry out and wilt. Fog and Misting systems with fine nozzles are very effective
at providing additional humidity because their smaller water particles evaporate more
quickly. Evaporative Cooling: Misting systems help cool greenhouses with a fine mist that
lowers air temperatures when it evaporates. Smaller nozzles work best for cooling also.
Watering: Cuttings and seedlings are commonly watered with small overhead sprinkler or
misting systems or mist nozzles for hoses because watering with a regular wand or watering
can may disturb the surrounding soil causing plants to take longer to root. If a misting system
is used, larger misting nozzles are needed for cuttings and seedlings to make sure the soil is
properly saturated. Overhead sprinkler systems are useful for watering most types of
established plants in a greenhouse as well. Drip systems are an effective way to water larger
plants without wetting the foliage. Another advantage to drip systems is that they use very
little water when compared to overhead watering systems. View misting, sprinkler, and drip
systems
Shading
Shade covers are the way professional growers keep their greenhouses cool during those long
hot summers. They block a percentage of the sun's rays from entering the greenhouse which
can reduce temperatures over 20% alone. Shade covers are relatively inexpensive and also
provide shade for plants that don't grow well in full sun. The amount of shading necessary
varies depending on greenhouse location, your local climate, and the light requirements of
the plants in the greenhouse. Most greenhouse shade cloths fall in the 45% to 65% shade
range. When buying a shade cover remember, more is not always better. Excessive shading
can slow plant growth and cause plants to stretch. View shade covers
Flooring
The floor of your greenhouse is both functional and aesthetic. It forms the surface you walk
on and helps complete the image of the greenhouse. The walkway and the area under the
benches are usually two different materials. The walkway should form a firm nonskid surface
for walking, be easy to clean, and be durable enough to withstand constant moisture and dirt.
Common materials used for a walkway include concrete, brick, stone, gravel, wood slats, and
ground bark. The area under the benches is usually covered by a porous material that can be
dampened to help provide humidity and should allow easy drainage of water. For under
bench areas, consider gravel, sawdust, ground bark, or any other porous material. You will
want to lay a sheet of woven weed barrier (ground cover) under the floor covering to prevent
weed growth, because weeds harbor many pests and diseases. For more information, take a
look at our guide on building a foundation and floor.
Benches
You will want benches in your greenhouse. They make a world of difference in the ease of
gardening and add a lot of extra working space to your greenhouse. Benches also provide the
area under them with plenty of shade which is an ideal environment for many plants.
Greenhouse bench tops should have an open design which allows water to drain and fresh air
to flow through them. View benches
Lighting
3 of 4 21/02/2007 3:20 PM
If your growing area or the season does not provide your plants with enough light, you may
need to provide artificial lighting. For detailed information about artificial lights and options
available, you can visit our Grow Light Guide. View lighting systems
Greenhouse Buying Guide >
Greenhouses | Greenhouse Accessories | Resource Center

Ordering and Shipping Information
ACF Greenhouses
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A Good Look at Greenhouses http://www.extremehowto.com/xh/printpage.asp?article_id=60277
A Good Look at Greenhouses

Matt Weber
A greenhouse means the gardening season

doesn't have to end with the onset of
winter. It provides a light-friendly location
for growing flowers, vegetables or other
plants. Enjoy plump, juicy tomatoes in
winter and decorate your home with
tropical flowers throughout the year. A
greenhouse can be built big or small, and
designed to suit the casual hobbyist or
serious gardener. Thanks to technological
advances in building materials and
available features, constructing a
high-quality greenhouse doesn't necessarily
require a lot of money or time. But careful
planning is key before starting the project.
Location, Location, Location

First and foremost, decide on a proper location for the greenhouse. The whole point of a greenhouse is
exposure to sunlight, so locate the building to maximize light exposure. Exposure to sunlight all day is
ideal, but morning sunlight is usually sufficient for plants. Morning sunlight is most desirable because it
initiates the plants' food-production process early in the day, maximizing growth. Also, consider what type
of plants you intend to grow. Reproductive fruiting plants, such as tomatoes and cucumbers, require more
heat, light and control than vegetative plants like herbs and lettuce.
If positioning the greenhouse near trees is unavoidable, try to locate the building so the greenhouse is
shaded from the intense summer sun in late afternoon, but not shaded by the trees in the morning. Also,
deciduous trees such as oak or maple will shed their leaves, allowing more exposure to the sun in winter.
Evergreen trees, however, should be avoided because they will block the less intense winter sun.
If possible, locate the greenhouse where it will be exposed to at least 6 hours of direct sunlight during the
winter months. The best orientation is to position the greenhouse with its length running east and west.
This will provide more heat gain from the sun during the winter, when the sun is lower in the sky.
Proper drainage is another requirement for a good greenhouse site. When possible, construct the
foundation above the surrounding ground so water will drain away.
Also consider the location's accessibility to sources of heat, water and electricity, as well as shelter from
strong winds. Access to the greenhouse should be convenient for both people and utilities.
1 of 7 17/09/2006 1:12 PM
Size, Shape and Style

The design possibilities for a greenhouse are endless. When it comes to size, plan the interior layout on
graph paper, accounting for the width, number and spacing of plant benches, as well as the walkways
between them. Allow for storage space, and consider room for a small table and chair. First decide how
much room you need to create your greenhouse, and then add more square footage to the plan. It is much
easier and cheaper to account for future expansion at the beginning than to add the needed space later.
Cost is another factor in determining greenhouse size. A 24-by-48-foot structure might be nice, but
heating and cooling a structure that size can significantly impact the pocketbook. Heating will likely be
the biggest cost of operating a greenhouse. A smaller greenhouse or a lean-to style structure attached to
the home might be a more cost-efficient move.
Greenhouses also vary greatly in type or style. A lean-to greenhouse is half a greenhouse, split along the
peak of the roof and attached to the side of a house or other freestanding structure. Lean-to's are useful
where space is limited to a width of about 7 to 12 feet, and they're the least expensive type to build.
An even-span greenhouse is a full-size structure, but has one gable end attached to another building.
These are often large and costly, but generally offer more room and can be lengthened for future
expansion.
Freestanding greenhouses are separate from other buildings and can be positioned for better exposure to
sunlight. They can be as large or as small as the builder wants. However, separate heating, water and
electrical systems may be required for a freestanding greenhouse.
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Building Materials
A wide selection of frame kits and raw framing materials are available for greenhouses. They're
commonly made of wood, aluminum or galvanized steel. Plastic frames are generally considered too weak
to meet wind and snow-load requirements.
“I've seen some very nice home-built greenhouses,” says Charley Yaw of Charley's Greenhouse and
Garden. “But they were a labor of love and took considerably longer to build than a kit. A home-built
greenhouse can be a beautiful wooden structure that suits the nature of the site and its builder.”
Charley's Greenhouse and Garden is a leading distributor of greenhouse kits, supplies and equipment.
Charley notes that although wood is classically attractive, some of the ready-to-assemble kits on the
market are considerably easier to maintain.
“Kits may be made of aluminum, which is maintenance-free, allowing the greenthumb artist to focus on
growing plants rather than endless maintenance,” says Charley. “Remember, a greenhouse by design
should create a humid atmosphere for plants. A greenhouse is a very difficult climate for wood, and needs
to be maintained as much as you would a wooden boat. The greenhouse kit is quicker to build, and easier
for a fast-paced lifestyle.”
Greenhouse frames can be covered, or “glazed,” with glass, fiberglass panels, plastic film or rigid
multi-wall plastics:
Glass – A traditional glass covering is attractive, inexpensive to maintain and can potentially last
for years. Glass panels can create a weather-tight structure that minimizes heating and cooling costs.
Tempered glass is often used because of its additional strength. The down side is that glass can
break, is initially expensive to install and requires an extremely sturdy frame.
Corrugated – Lightweight and durable, corrugated fiberglass is available in various translucent
grades for greenhouse construction. The resin-coated fibers can last 10 to 15 years before needing a
new coat. But once the resin begins to wear off, the exposed fibers can trap unsightly dirt.
Corrugated polycarbonate panels are available in clear or translucent grades.
Plastic Film – Flexible film made from a number of different materials are available in several
different grades. These present the most inexpensive choice for a greenhouse covering. Building
costs can also be lowered because the structural framing can be lighter. However, plastic film
generally has to be replaced much more often than other covering materials. And, while light
transmission is comparable to glass, plastic film tends to attract dust and will need periodic
washing. Use only UV-stabilized film.
Multi-wall Plastic – “The biggest change in greenhouse design has been the introduction of
3 of 7 17/09/2006 1:12 PM
insulated, lightweight, polycarbonate glazing panels to replace heavier tempered safety glass,” says
Charley. Companies such as Suntuf manufacture rigid multi-layer polycarbonate panels that offer a
durable, moneysaving option for a greenhouse covering. The multiple walls of plastic, separated by
webbing, significantly minimize heat transfer, which in turn saves on energy costs. Both acrylic and
polycarbonate materials are typically available with 10-year warranties on their light transmission
properties.
“Kits often come with 4.5-millimeter polycarbonate,” notes Charley, “but I would recommend 6- or
8-millimeter, as it is stiffer and quieter on windy days. Triple-wall panels provide the best insulation.”
Companies such as Suntuf manufacture multi-layer polycarbonate panels for greenhouse walls.
Floors and Foundations

Smaller greenhouses (100 square feet) can be supported by a single or double layer of treated 4-by-4
lumber. Most large greenhouses require poured concrete as a foundation. A permanent foundation must be
constructed for any greenhouse over 200 square feet.
For a concrete foundation, remove plants and sod, then square and level the site. Cover the pour area with
2 inches of gravel. Place rebar in a grid pattern to strengthen the footing. Pour the concrete and let it cure.
On top of the concrete foundation, use a treated 2-by-4 wood sill on which to anchor the greenhouse.
Place 1⁄2-by-9-inch anchor bolts into the fresh concrete to fasten the sill, leaving only 11⁄2 inch above the
concrete surface. Counter-sink nuts into the wood sill so the greenhouse base will not rest on the nuts. Set
bolts within 1 foot of each corner, spacing additional anchor bolts about 4 feet apart.
A concrete foundation is recommended, but a concrete floor may not be a good idea. Water and soil can
make a greenhouse floor a slippery, soupy mess. Instead, many greenhouse floors are covered by several
inches of gravel to easily drain water from the structure. A 2- to 3-foot stone or paver walkway can be
installed between benches for easy access to plants.
Environmental Control
The purpose of a greenhouse is to maintain an environment suitable for optimum plant growth. Although
solar energy can provide some light and heat, a fully functioning environmental system requires regulating
temperatures with heaters, fans and other equipment.
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Heating – The heating requirements for a greenhouse depend greatly on the temperature required for the
plants grown, which can vary among plant varieties. While the sun may provide a partial heat source,
plant health depends on exposure to proper temperatures day or night, summer or winter. Size and
insulation of the greenhouse will also impact what type of heating system will work best. In some cases, a
220-volt electric heater may suffice. Small gas or oil-burning heaters may also do the trick. Make sure
your heating system offers adequate capacity for your greenhouse. Heating systems can be fueled by gas,
oil, wood or electricity, and the heat can be distributed by forced air, radiant heat, steam or hot water.
Unvented propane- or kerosene-fueled heaters are not recommended.
Circulation – Circulating fans can mix the air of a greenhouse so that warm air doesn't rise to the top,
while cool air settles to the floor. Installing these fans ensures the heat is evenly distributed.
Ventilation – The exchange of interior air for exterior air helps to control temperature, remove moisture
and replenish carbon dioxide levels. Natural ventilation uses roof vents with louvered side inlets. The
rising heat escapes from the roof vents, which in turn pulls cooler air into the side inlets. Mechanical
ventilation uses a motorized fan to exhaust air through one end of the greenhouse, while taking in air from
an inlet on the other end. If relying on an exhaust fan, make sure it offers the capacity to exchange the
total volume of air in the greenhouse every 1 1⁄2 minutes.
Cooling – In some cases, ventilation alone may not sufficiently reduce temperatures in a greenhouse.
Temperatures may need to be lowered using shade materials, such as vinyl netting. “Place woven shade
screen on the outside, as it is 40 percent less effective when placed inside the greenhouse,” suggests
Charley, who recommends using a UV-stabilized shade material. “Polyethylene and polypropylene knitted
screens are inexpensive. And a fiberglass screen makes a great material for a roll-up shade.”
Hanging bubble wrap on the greenhouse walls can help to insulate plants from the outside elements.
SIDE NOTE
Greenhouse Heat Requirements
The following formula can be used to determine the approximate heating requirements of your
greenhouse:
A x D x 1.1 = Btu's. “A” is the total wall and roof surface area of your greenhouse. “D” is the difference
between the coldest outdoor winter temperature and the night temperature desired in your greenhouse.
“Btu's” is the heat requirement. Subtract 30 percent if the greenhouse is insulated using double glazing or
a polyethylene liner. Subtract another 30 percent if it is a lean-to greenhouse on a heated wall.
– Source: Charley's Greenhouse & Garden
Watering Systems
When it comes to plant health, watering is essential. Hand watering may suffice if you're available during
the day. But if you work away from home, a separate, automatic drip water supply will help maintain the
5 of 7 17/09/2006 1:12 PM
plants' water regimen. Systems that spray a fine mist can create humidity and provide water to plant
seedlings. Time clocks or mechanical sensors can be used to automatically control many watering
systems.
In fact, automated control devices can be used to control not only the water system, but cooling, heating
and ventilation systems as well.
Greenhouse Automation
Many greenhouse hobbyists work day jobs and aren't always available to tend to their plants when needed.
An automated system to control heating, water, ventilation and more would be ideal. Many of these
systems are very expensive and more appropriate for the commercial grower. However, there are some
affordable products on the market to help your operation, such as solar-powered vent controls.
Solar-powered vent openers are thermal pistons. A temperature-sensitive wax expands with heat, which
drives a leveraged arm to lift the vent. As the temperature is lowered, the wax cools and shrinks. Gravity
and “helper” springs close the vent and reset the piston. Opening and closing are gradual adjustments that
allow just the right amount of airflow for cooling. Vent controls can lift up to 35 pounds each; combine
two for a 70-pound lift.
Greenhouse automation can also be facilitated by a home computer. “There is computer hardware and
software under $1,000 that allows monitoring your greenhouse from inside your home,” says Charley.
“The Sensaphone will even call you on your cell phone and explain in a synthesized voice when the
greenhouse climate is exceeding preset limits.”
Solar-powered vent controls help automate the vetilation system.
A Lot to Consider
The options abound with greenhouse construction, which is why careful planning is absolutely crucial.
“Almost everyone wishes they had built the greenhouse bigger by about 50 percent,” says Charley,
“including me.” He points out a few other common errors people make when building their first
greenhouse:
• Inadequate ventilation
• No shading
• Poorly built foundation
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• Failure to read the kit instructions before

beginning to build
• Cutting or altering kit parts due to not correctly
reading the instructions.
So plan ahead to avoid these mistakes. And research the many features and designs available for
greenhouse construction. Whether building from a kit or starting from scratch, there is a lot to contend
with. But with a little work and ingenuity, you can create the ideal greenhouse for many years of growing
and gardening.
Doing It Yourself? Are you interested in FREE detailed plans on how to build your own greenhouse?
Just visit the SUNTUF website at www.suntuf.com and click on the "Do It Yourself" link at the top of the
page to access the plans in PDF format.
Editor's Note: Special thanks to Charley Yaw of Charley's Greenhouse and Garden for help with this
article. Additional information is from West Virginia University (www.wvu.edu). To learn more about
building and using greenhouses, call Charley's help line open 7 days a week at 800-322-4707. Or visit
Charley's online at www.charleysgreenhouse.com.
Close Window
7 of 7 17/09/2006 1:12 PM
The Solar Greenhouse That's Right for You http://www.survivalplus.com/foods/page0009.htm
Welcome To Our "Survival Foods

& Their Preparation" Section
The Solar Greenhouse That's Right for You

(Text & illustrations for this web page came from the This Site's Pages
August, 1978 issue of Organic Farming & Gardening) Updated Every
Friday Evening
Here is a new gardening tool that produces Between 7 & 9
Site Table
fresh food when the snow flies. PM CST
of Contents
BULLETINS JACK RUTTLE

CATALOG
NEW STUFF ALMOST ANY STRUCTURE that is built to look like a solar
PHILOSOPHY...
SURVIVAL FOODS greenhouse will work. That is to say, the solar greenhouse concept is so
FORWARD! right that you can ignore (or not know) the fine points of solar design
THE OUTRIDER and still build a house with much less need for supplemental heat than a
SELF-DEFENSE traditional greenhouse. But once you understand a few basic A TEST
solar-greenhouse design ideas, you can easily put together a greenhouse
that truly lives up to the label solar, and provides remarkable
efficiency.
Dave MacKinnon, Ph.D., ORGANIC GARDENING greenhouse

designer, has put it all together after three years of experimenting and
has created a design formula that gardeners in any climate can follow.
His newest solar greenhouse, which he has built and tested in Flagstaff,
Arizona, epitomizes a good solar shape. It has produced food through
two winters without requiring any outside heat source. Almost all the
floor space is usable for growing beds because the energy storage is on
the walls. And it uses a minimum of materials because the design,
insulation and heat storage are in balance and arranged to complement
each other.
The best measure of a solar green house is the plant-growing

environment it creates. When the building is skillfully made, you will
get midspring soil and air temperatures in the depths of winter on sun
power alone.
Our experiences suggest that solar greenhouses can maintain that kind
of environment in most parts of the country. ORGANIC GARDENING
researchers have built two different greenhouses that have worked well
despite unusual winter weather. The Flagstaff greenhouse performed
well with much less sun than is considered normal, and the one at our
Maxa-tawny, Pennsylvania, research center worked through the coldest
winters in recorded meteorological history.
In December and January we harvested enough salad greens every day
for three or four people. Cold-hardy plants, all very rich in vitamins A
and C, produce best. Escarole, lettuce, parsley, corn salad, chervil,
chives and other salad herbs are dependable. So are kale, chard and
chicory, which grow so thin and tender in the weak winter sun that they
are best in salads too. In spring and fall the harvests are bigger.
Succession plantings make heat-loving plants like tomatoes and
1 of 8 21/02/2007 3:22 PM
cucumbers possible far beyond their normal seasons.

Dave MacKinnon's solar greenhouse
greatly expands
his crops of homegrown food. He picks
salads every
day through winter. Frost nips his outside
garden early,
so greenhouse protection has meant the
first
heavy-producing tomato plants he's ever
grown.
SOLAR
GREENHOUSE
BASICS
At the least, a solar greenhouse
should have three features. One
of the long walls should face due
south rather than east or west.
The south wall should have two
layers of glazing. All the surfaces
that don't face south are
insulated. But there's a little more
to it than that if the greenhouse is to live up to its solar potential. The
new Flagstaff greenhouse is a perfect model.
Dave MacKinnon says the greenhouse should be about twice as long

(east to west) as it is wide. Accordingly, his Flagstaff greenhouse is 20
feet by 12 feet. The two-to-one relationship offsets the effect of the
shade that the opaque east and west end walls create. The building thus
captures more solar energy for each square foot of growing space. If the
building is made much deeper than two to one — that is, closer to a
square floor plan — the heat-storage material in back is shaded too
much. These proportions are recommended for greenhouses
everywhere.
MacKinnon has learned another rule of thumb for sizing the

energy-collecting south face properly, and has built it into the Flagstaff
greenhouse. The peak should be made about as high as the building is
wide (north to south). Heat-storing materials in the back of the
greenhouse will then get the direct exposure to the sun they must have
if the storage is to work efficiently.
The slope of the north roof is an important feature of MacKinnon's
greenhouse, though the precise angle of slope is not critical. Sunlight
which enters the greenhouse and strikes the aluminum-foil-covered roof
(white paint works well too) is aimed back down to the growing beds.
From the outside, the interior of the greenhouse looks almost black
because very little light is bouncing back out to the viewer. If designed
well, solar greenhouses with reflective walls can actually deliver up to a
third more light to the plants in winter. In the traditional all-glass
design, much of the light passes right on out the clear north roof and
wall. Angles between 60 and 75 degrees for the north roof will work
well in the United States and southern Canada.
The slope of the sun-collecting south face might appear to be trickier to
2 of 8 21/02/2007 3:22 PM
decide upon. The angle does affect how well the translucent face
collects sunlight, but for greenhouses it's not as critical as when setting
up a compact solar-heating unit. Actually, a wide range of angles will
work equally well at any given latitude. The simplest thing to do is to
add 20 degrees to your latitude. A south face with that angle will give
optimum performance in January. But if that particular angle proves
hard to work with, go to a slightly shallower one, and you will be
favoring solar collection in spring and fall. If you use 50 degrees rather
than 60, which, for example, you may figure is your ideal, you still
have sacrificed very little midwinter light.
Given this leeway, other factors like convenient construction can help
determine the south slope. The south face of the Flagstaff greenhouse
was made steep all the way to the ground to shed snow quickly. That
feature lets sunlight in sooner after storms. The Maxatawny greenhouse
has a vertical glazed knee wall from which a shallow, clear roof slopes
up to the peak. There is much less snow to worry about there, and this
shape makes working in the front of the growing beds easier.
When it comes to putting in insulation and heat storage, however, solar
greenhouses can get needlessly expensive. The key is to have sensible
amounts of both. Great thicknesses of insulation can't do away with the
need for heat storage, and are wasteful. And obviously, adequate
heat-storage material without a certain amount of insulation in the walls
is equally wasteful. Even if you build a greenhouse that is not
completely solar-reliant, using a balance of these component parts
guarantees an economical building that will work well. (The
information on the map indicates the proper proportion of materials, as
well as recommending minimum amounts for a fully solar structure.)
HOW HEAT STORAGE AND INSULATION

TEAM UP
The connection between heat-storing materials and insulation works
like this. Without heat storage, solar greenhouses are something like a
thermos bottle — all the energy is in the sun-warmed air. Drafts will
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quickly drain off the heat, because even the most tightly made building
will have a fair amount of tiny cracks. Energy held within storing
materials is not lost along with escaping air. The energy is released
slowly as the greenhouse cools, and the building stays warm much
longer.
A no-less-important effect is that heat-storage materials keep the
greenhouse from overheating during the day. We quickly learned that
without storage the inside temperature can soar into the 80's or 90's on
cold, bright days. That is quite hard on a winter greenhouse crop.
With storage absorbing some of the incoming energy, the result is a

milder daytime environment.
The amount of heat storage for full solar heating seems enormous at
first, but is manageable in practice. Both of MacKinnon's greenhouses
use about 1,000 gallons of water stacked vertically on the rear walls.
That amounts to four gallons of water for each square foot of floor
space. The best method we've found is to use rectangular five-gallon
honey cans with a rust inhibitor added to the water.
"Five-gallon honey cans make
efficient
heat-storage containers" says
MacKinnon.
They pack the maximum amount
of
water into a given space.
Why do we rely so
heavily on water? It is
admittedly hard to work
with because it tends to
corrode containers and to
leak. But water is about
the best heat-storing
material known and is
cheap. The best alternative is rock (in any form from sand through
concrete), but water holds about five times more heat. So water
reservoirs on walls make compact heat storage that gets a good share of
direct incoming sunlight.
MacKinnon favors smaller containers over 55-gallon drums for two
reasons. Drums leave empty about a third of the space they occupy,
because they are big and round. They also permit warmed water to
gather into a few large areas, which causes both greater heat losses and
poorer collection in those areas. Smaller containers keep the energy
more evenly distributed. On the other hand, the large barrels are
certainly worth using if they can be had cheaply. We've also used
translucent plastic cider jugs filled with water dyed black, and have
heard reports of success with beverage cans sealed with tape and
stacked right-side-up.
The amount of insulation that MacKinnon judges to be practical in

various regions is roughly the same as local, energy-efficient
recommendations for homes. If that seems lavish for a greenhouse,
remember that homes get a lot of extra heat; the greenhouse is designed
to get along with none. To me, the need for plenty of insulation is a
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reminder that people aren't much different from plants in their

requirement for warmth, among other things. To use less insulation,
however, is to need more heat storage, which demands more space and
money.
Two other simple things are crucial to the success of our greenhouses.
The earth below them is insulated to a little below frostline with plastic
foam. And at night an insulating curtain is drawn over the clear south
wall to reduce the high heat losses there.
Regional recommendations for minimum amounts of

insulation in walls and roof, below ground
and of water for heat storage.
wall and roof, R-40 below ground, R-15 to 3 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 1
4 gallons per square foot of floor
wall and roof, R-22 below ground, R-15 to 3 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 2
3 gallons per square foot
walls and roof, R-12 below ground, R-10 to 2 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 3
walls and roof. R-8.5 below ground, R-10 to 2 feet deep heat storage,
Zone 4
walls and roof, R-6.5 below ground, R-5 to 1 foot deep heat storage,
Zone 5
walls and roof, R-6 below ground, R-5 to 1 foot deep heat storage,
Zone 6
1 gallon per square foot
Zone 7, 8, 9 These regions need insulation and night curtains,

but to much lower insulating values. Greenhouses in these
regions do not require double glazing, but it will help. No
heat storage or below-ground insulation is needed for
minimum performance. About half the north slope of
the roof should be glazed.
It pays to insulate the earth below the greenhouse because earth is a

relatively poor insulator, contrary to a lot of lore.
A few inches of most common insulators match the R-value of ten to 15
feet of earth. But earth is a good heat-storing material, lying somewhere
between rock and water. So insulating around the perimeter builds heat
storage into the structure while stopping steady heat losses to the
ground outside. We checked the advantage of doing this at the
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Maxa-tawny site. Six inches below the surface, the insulated soil was in
the 40's in January and in the 50's in February, while the ground outside
was frozen solid several feet deep.
The day comes when shuttering the glass or plastic face becomes
practical despite the inconvenience of twice daily attention. Past a
certain point, there's no easier way to gain a few degrees inside. The
south-facing glass loses a tremendous amount of heat compared to the
other three-fourths of the building's surface that is insulated. To add
enough storage material to make up for what shutters can save would
take too much room away from the plants.
We've found that a good nighttime heat barrier for the window doesn't
have to be a great insulator, but it must be durable and easy to
maneuver, since it will get heavy use. More important, the material
should be reflective on the inside and fitted tightly at the edges to stop
air flow. A reflective material (aluminum paint or foil) will block all
escaping radiant energy. Combined with an airtight seal, that seems to
do plenty for me greenhouse. Beyond that, any insulating value you can
build into the curtain is so much the better.
The muscle power it takes to
raise
and lower the heat-trapping
curtain
is the only non-solar energy a
well-
designed greenhouse needs.
Without a doubt, a thin,

aluminized fabric which
is operated by ropes or a
pulley is the cheapest
system to make and
work with. The best one
Dave MacKinnon tried
was made of aluminum foil glued to one side of parachute fabric. That
curtain lasted two years before needing repairs.
The third winter at Maxatawny we used a shutter system that could
hardly be bettered for stopping heat. Panels of one-inch urethane foam,
aluminized on one side, were held in place with wooden battens. We
kept them in an air-lock entrance room that doubled for storing tools
and gardening supplies. The only drawback to the foam is that it is
expensive. Any exposed foam surfaces should be painted to waterproof
the material against condensation that accumulates on the glazing.
Those are the basics of a solar greenhouse: the sun-catching design,
strategically placed insulation, and heat storage. Together they make a
cool-weather garden possible even in Northern states. In ours the air
inside has averaged 42 degrees higher than outside and between 45 and
55 degrees F. in the soil throughout the winter. Many vegetables will
thrive in that temperature range.
VEGETABLE GROWING IN THE SOLAR

GREENHOUSE
There's a lot to be learned about cool greenhouse vegetable culture. The
6 of 8 21/02/2007 3:22 PM
most important trick we've discovered is using the right growing

container. Traditional greenhouse wisdom recommends pots on
waist-high benches — easy to reach and easy to isolate diseases and
pests. But continuous temperature recordings in the soil pots showed
that the temperature in the root zone changed right along with the air
temperature, because the exposed surface of a pot is so large. There
were large swings every day, extremes that plant roots aren't used to. So
we switched to two large beds 18 inches deep that cover the greenhouse
floor. They held the root zone to a 10-degree daily change which is
natural, and also made a greater heat-storing mass.
Beds have many other advantages. Roots have more room to forage for
water and nutrients. The environment becomes a better one for natural
predators like spiders. Because the soil in beds holds a large amount of
organic matter, they also become an important source of carbon
dioxide. Plants in a sunny, airtight greenhouse can use up all the
available carbon dioxide in a few hours.
Nothing like these greenhouses is available for sale yet, but several
years from now you will start to see them. The big greenhouse
manufacturers are redesigning their products exactly along these lines.
They will probably be expensive. But a home-built, sun-heated
greenhouse like ours
can be constructed now for less than the finest energy-wasting glass
house, and will be tailored to match your local climate.
In the far North, where solar greenhouses will be the most expensive to
build, they will yield the greatest expansion of the gardening season.
Even in southerly Flagstaff, Dave MacKin-non reports that his solar
greenhouse has made possible his first really good tomato crops, so dry
and short is the growing season there.
Properly made and maintained, a solar greenhouse should outlast its
builder. The materials are all durable or renewable.
House-attached greenhouses are even cheaper to build. As you plan

your solar greenhouse, you should think first of this kind for many
reasons. Attached greenhouses have about a third less surface area for
the same floor space as a freestanding one. Thus construction costs are
lower, and less heat is lost at night. Attached solar greenhouses are the
most efficient hot-air solar collectors known. High and low vents that
open into the home through the common wall exchange solar-heated
greenhouse air for cool air at floor level from the house. At night, the
house can return some of the heat to the greenhouse. All the design
principles for solar greenhouses apply to the attached greenhouse,
except they may need less heat storage. The only requirement is a
suitable spot facing south that is unshaded in winter.
Looking only at the money, it's obvious that a durable solar greenhouse,
attached or freestanding, will repay its cost. Compared to conventional
all-glass models the fuel savings alone will pay for its construction in
three to four years in the North. And they make you independent of an
unhealthy agriculture and the transportation system it depends upon for
fresh vegetables to tide you through winter. That's why we recommend
so strongly that you build one if you can.
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Web Site Contents ©2006 By Atlan Formularies, Post Office Box 95, Alpena, Arkansas 72611-0095
Phone: 870-437-2999 - Fax: Out of Order - Email: [email protected]
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8 of 8 21/02/2007 3:22 PM
Building a Greenhouse Foundation http://www.littlegreenhouse.com/base/base.shtml
Categories
Building a Foundation
Search
There are several different options available when building a greenhouse foundation (Juliana
GREENHOUSE KITS greenhouses even have a foundation already built for them. Information on them is listed
• Compare Kits below the prices for each greenhouse). There are a few things every foundation should
• Cross Country
• FlowerHouse provide:
• Hobby Gardener
• Juliana 1. It must be anchored to the ground (Wind gusts can move or turn over a
• Portable greenhouse because of its low weight to surface area ratio).
• Sundog 2. There must be a way for water to drain out of the greenhouse (If water doesn't
• Sunshine
drain, it will collect on the floor and become stagnant promoting algae, disease,
SUPPLIES and insect growth).
• Benches 3. Measures should be taken to prevent weeds and grass from growing in the
• Books
• Controls greenhouse floor (Greenhouses will provide optimum conditions for weeds to
• Deer Repellent grow along with other the plants you have. Weeds can harbor harmful insects
• Grow Lights
• Heaters
and diseases and should be
• Meters kept out of the greenhouse).
• Misting Systems 4. Foundations for glass covered greenhouses 12' x 16' or larger should have
• PVC Fittings cement footers that extend below the frostline.
• Season Extenders
• Ventilation Before you start any foundation, you should know the greenhouse's outside base dimensions:
• Watering
• Other Supplies ( Juliana greenhouse dimensions, Cross Country Greenhouses: Standard twinwall
dimensions, Triplewall dimensions, Lean-to dimensions, Cape Cod dimensions, Cottage
RESOURCE CENTER
• Greenhouse Guide dimensions).
• Supplies Guide
• Grow Light Guide
Below are two of the most commonly built foundations that provide all of the features
• Foundation Guide mentioned above, wood and concrete.
• Heater Calculator
• Fan Calculator
• Area Calculator
• Ordering Policies
• Shipping Details Wood Foundation
• Order Tracking
• About Us
• Contact Us Building a foundation out of wood is simple and inexpensive making it an excellent option
for most home greenhouses. We recommend using naturally resistant woods, such as cedar,
redwood, or cypress. These woods contain substances that inhibit decay. Pressure-treated
wood is also available in most areas but contains copper and is corrosive to aluminum. When
using pressure-treated wood, a minimum 10 mil thick barrier should be placed between the
wood and aluminum frame. Common barrier materials include polyethylene, vinyl, and
plastic composite lumber.
The first step to building a greenhouse is constructing a foundation, but before you begin you
should have a level site prepared for your greenhouse. We recommend using 4" x 6" (4" x 4"
are acceptable for the smaller sizes) timbers for the foundation of a Sundog, Juliana, or Cross
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Country greenhouse. The wood can be cut to size with a standard hand or power saw once it
has been purchased.
Once you have cut the wood to fit the

greenhouse, lay the boards together on the
ground like you are going to set the greenhouse
on them (make sure you remove any rocks,
sticks or dirt clogs that keep the board from
laying flush on the ground). Set a level on top
of one of the boards (shown in picture at left).
The horizontal bubble should be in-between the
2 lines marked on the level. This should be
done for each board to ensure that the greenhouse base is level.
When the foundation has been leveled, it is time to secure the

timbers together with lag screws (shown in picture to the right).
The lag screw should be three or more inches longer than the
first board it is screwed through to insure a proper hold. Once
this has been done for each corner, we chose to lay our ground
cover (shown in the picture below) under the base and cut any
excess fabric around the edges. You can lay the ground cover
after completing the base, but we have found that this way does a
better job of keeping weeds out of the corners of the greenhouse.
Make sure you use a ground cover (also called weed barrier) that
is made for landscaping and not black plastic or a tarp. Ground
cover will allow water to drain through the fabric while keeping weeds from growing in your
greenhouse.
Now that the greenhouse

foundation has been built, it is
important to make sure your base is
square. To do this, use your tape
measure, and take two diagonal
measurements of the base (One
from the front left corner to the
back right corner and the other
from the front right corner to the
back left corner). The base needs to
be adjusted until the two measurements are the same. You are now ready to anchor your
foundation to the ground (If you are using earth anchors Click Here for directions).
Now that you have finished building a foundation for your new greenhouse, it is time to put
in the floor and secure the greenhouse structure to the base.
We used gravel to complete our

greenhouse floor. There are many
options to choose from for your
greenhouse floor, but we recommend
sand or small gravel because they have
good drainage. In the picture to the left,
there is about 2 to 3 inches of gravel in
the base (you should use enough to completely cover the ground cover under it).
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Now it is time to secure your greenhouse to the foundation

base. We recommend using 2" galvanized lag screws and
washers for this job. Drill a small hole in the aluminum ridge at
the bottom of the greenhouse frame to start the lag screw in (it
is recommended that you insert one screw for each panel in
your greenhouse). After you have drilled all of the necessary
holes, place a washer over each hole and secure the screws into
the greenhouse base as shown in the picture to the right (view
is from outside of greenhouse). For added insulation, you can
caulk the bottom of the aluminum ridge where it meets the the
base with sealant. This will help seal the greenhouse to the
base keeping cold air from entering and warm air from escaping in the winter. That's it! Your
greenhouse is now ready to provide you with many years of enjoyment.
Concrete Foundation
- Concrete Slab Foundation -
A concrete slab makes a convenient base for a greenhouse. For an attached structure, the
finish floor is generally placed level with or one or two steps below the house floor. For a
freestanding greenhouse, the floor should be several inches above the finish outside grade. It
is recommended when preparing the concrete foundation that the size be made 1" longer and
wider than the greenhouse outside dimensions. A 3 inch thick floor is adequate for home
greenhouses. The outside edges should be thicker to give support and resist cracking from
frost. A drain should be placed in the center of the greenhouse slab that drains into a gravel
pit or into a pipe leading to a drainage area outside the perimeter of the greenhouse. At least 4
inches of compacted gravel or stone should be placed on top of the subsoil to provide
drainage. Also, placing a 6 mil polyethylene moisture barrier on top of the gravel or stone
will keep the slab dry.
Build a form out of lumber around the perimeter. The top of the form should be at the finish
floor height. Reinforcing wire or fiber should be added to increase the strength of the slab.
Once the concrete has set (usually about 24 hours), the forms can be removed. Insulation
board 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick can be installed vertically around the outside of the foundation
3 of 5 21/02/2007 3:21 PM
to a depth of 1 to 2 feet. This insulates the floor and helps keep it warmer in the winter. One
recommended option whether you use a slab or wall is to fasten a 2" x 4" sill on the top of the
foundation. The sill acts as a insulated buffer between the concrete and the greenhouse frame
reducing heat loss. Recommended materials for sills include naturally resistant woods, such
as cedar, redwood, or cypress and plastic composite lumber. The greenhouse base can be
attached using concrete anchor bolts which are available at most home centers and hardware
stores. Set bolts within 1 ft. of each corner, then space additional anchor bolts about 4 ft.
apart.
- Concrete Wall Foundation -
With this foundation, the concrete wall is set on a footing below the frost line. This type of
foundation gives good support for heavier structures like greenhouses glazed with glass. To
build the wall, first dig a trench in the soil to below the frost line and place forms for the
footing. Check with the local building inspector to determine what this depth is and to see if
an inspection is required before the footing is poured. The footing is usually twice as wide as
the wall and equally as thick.
After the footing hardens, place the wall forms on top to pour the walls. The wall height
should be a minimum of 6 inches above grade. At this point, you should install drains around
the perimeter to drain water away from the site. You can finish the outside wall several ways.
You can leave it plain, paint it, or face it with brick or stone. To reduce heat loss, attach an
inch or two of insulation board to the inside or outside surface. Now you are ready to backfill
soil against the foundation and grade. One recommended option whether you use a slab or
wall is to fasten a 2" x 4" sill on the top of the foundation. The sill acts as a insulated buffer
between the concrete and the greenhouse frame reducing heat loss. Recommended materials
for sills include naturally resistant woods, such as cedar, redwood, or cypress and plastic
composite lumber. The greenhouse base can be attached using concrete anchor bolts which
are available at most home centers and hardware stores. Set bolts within 1 ft. of each corner,
then space additional anchor bolts about 4 ft. apart.
Juliana Greenhouses | Sundog Greenhouses | Cross Country Greenhouses
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Carbon Dioxide In Greenhouses http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/00-077.htm
Agdex#: 290/27 Publication Date: 12/02

Order#: 00-077 Last Reviewed: 05/03
Title: Carbon Dioxide In Greenhouses

Division: Agriculture and Rural
History: replaces OMAF Factsheet Carbon Dioxide in Greenhouses, Order No. 94-055
Written by: T.J Blom; W.A. Straver; F.J. Ingratta; Shalin Khosla - OMAF; Wayne Brown - OMAF
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Sources Of Carbon Dioxide
3. Supplementation Levels For Carbon Dioxide
3a. Natural air exchange
3b. Photosynthesis
4. Burner Capacity Required
5. When To Supplement With Carbon Dioxide
6. The Costs Of Adding Carbon Dioxide
7. Distribution Of Carbon Dioxide In The Greenhouse
8. Plant Damage As A Result Of Co2 Supplementation
9. Cultural Practices To Improve Productivity
10. Notes
Introduction
The benefits of carbon dioxide supplementation on plant growth and production wi thin the greenhouse environment
have been well understood for many years.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an essential component of photosynthesis (also called carbon assimilation). Photosynthesis
is a chemical process that uses light energy to convert CO2 and water into sugars in green plants. These sugars are
then used for growth within the plant, through respiration. The difference between the rate of photosynthesis and the
rate of respiration is the basis for dry-matter accumulation (growth) in the plant. In greenhouse production the aim of
all growers is to increase dry-matter content and economically optimize crop yield. CO2 increases productivity
through improved plant growth and vigour. Some ways in which productivity is increased by CO2 include earlier
flowering, higher fruit yields, reduced bud abortion in roses, improved stem strength and flower size. Growers
should regard CO2 as a nutrient.
For the majority of greenhouse crops, net photosynthesis increases as CO2 levels increase from 340–1,000 ppm
(parts per million). Most crops show that for any given level of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), increasing
the CO2 level to 1,000 ppm will increase the photosynthesis by about 50% over ambient CO2 levels. For some crops
the economics may not warrant supplementing to 1,000 ppm CO2 at low light levels. For others such as tulips, and
Easter lilies, no response has been observed.
Carbon dioxide enters into the plant through the stomatal openings by the process of diffusion. Stomata are
specialized cells located mainly on the underside of the leaves in the epidermal layer. The cells open and close
allowing gas exchange to occur. The concentration of CO2 outside the leaf strongly influences the rate of CO2
uptake by the plant. The higher the CO2 concentration outside the leaf, the greater the uptake of CO2 by the plant.
Light levels, leaf and ambient air temperatures, relative humidity, water stress and the CO2 and oxygen (O2)
concentration in the air and the leaf, are many of the key factors that determine the opening and closing of the
stomata.
Ambient CO2 level in outside air is about 340 ppm by volume. All plants grow well at this level but as CO2 levels
1 of 11 21/02/2007 3:23 PM
are raised by 1,000 ppm photosynthesis increases proportionately resulting in more sugars and carbohydrates
available for plant growth. Any actively growing crop in a tightly clad greenhouse with little or no ventilation can
readily reduce the CO2 level during the day to as low as 200 ppm. The decrease in photosynthesis when CO2 level
drops from 340 ppm to 200 ppm is similar to the increase when the CO2 levels are raised from 340 to about 1,300
ppm (Figure 1). As a rule of thumb, a drop in carbon dioxide levels below ambient has a stronger effect than
supplementation above ambient.
Figure 1. The effect of carbon dioxide on net photosynthesis.
During particular times of the year in new greenhouses, and especially in double-glazed structures that have reduced
air exchange rates, the carbon dioxide levels can easily drop below 340 ppm which has a significant negative effect
on the crop. Ventilation during the day can raise the CO2 levels closer to ambient but never back to ambient levels of
340 ppm. Supplementation of CO2 is seen as the only method to overcome this deficiency and increasing the level
above 340 ppm is beneficial for most crops. The level to which the CO2 concentration should be raised depends on
the crop, light intensity, temperature, ventilation, stage of the crop growth and the economics of the crop. For most
crops the saturation point will be reached at about 1,000–1,300 ppm under ideal circumstances. A lower level
(800–1,000 ppm) is recommended for raising seedlings (tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers) as well as for lettuce
production. Even lower levels (500–800 ppm) are recommended for African violets and some Gerbera varieties.
Increased CO2 levels will shorten the growing period (5%–10%), improve crop quality and yield, as well as, increase
leaf size and leaf thickness. The increase in yield of tomato, cucumber and pepper crops is a result of increased
numbers and faster flowering per plant.
| Top of Page |
Sources Of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide can be obtained by burning carbon-based fuels such as natural gas, propane, and kerosene, or
directly from tanks of pure CO2. Each source has potential advantages and disadvantages. When natural gas, propane
or kerosene is burned, not only CO2 is produced, but also heat is generated that can supplement the normal heating
system. However, incomplete combustion or contaminated fuels may cause plant damage. Most sources of natural
gas and propane have sufficiently low levels of impurities, but notify your supplier of your intention to use the fuel
for CO2 supplementation. Sulphur levels in the fuel should not exceed 0.02% by weight. Combustion of fuels also
generates moisture. For natural gas it is estimated that about 1.4 kg of water vapour is generated for each m3 of gas
burned. For propane the amount of moisture generated per kg of CO2 is slightly less than it is for natural gas.
Natural gas, propane and liquid fuels are burned in specialized CO2 generators located throughout the greenhouse.
(Plate 1). The size of the unit (BTU’s produced) and the degree of horizontal airflow in the greenhouse determine the
number and the location of these units. The most important feature of a burner should be that it burns the fuel
completely. Some manufacturers make burners in which either natural gas or propane can be used, as well as units
with adjustable outputs. A potential disadvantage of this system is that the heat generated by these units may have a
localized effect on temperature and disease incidence (i.e. powdery mildew and Botrytis), particularly in tall growing
crops.
Alternatively, a portion of the flue gas from natural gas boilers connected to hot water heating systems can be
directed into the greenhouse as a means of supplementing CO2 to the crop. The boiler must be equipped with a flue
gas condenser specifically designed for this purpose. (Plate 2)
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Plate 1. Carbon dioxide generator. Plate 2. Hot water boiler with flue gas condenser.
Note: not all boilers, particularly older boilers, are designed for this task. Natural gas boilers must burn cleanly,
generating low or no nitrogen oxides (NOx) or ethylene. Contact your boiler manufacturer before proceeding. All
equipment must be CSA approved or equivalent.
This allows for safe flue gas introduction into the greenhouse. The flue gases are extracted where the boiler connects
to the stack. These units are designed to reduce the temperature and moisture impact on the greenhouse environment,
and have monitoring systems that safe guard against flue gas introduction when the carbon monoxide (CO) level is
higher than a set level (usually 6–10 ppm). The system is designed with a small capacity ventilator with low suction
resulting in a fixed volume of the flue gases. A second ventilator is used to mix the flue gases with the greenhouse
air and then the mixture is introduced throughout the greenhouse. This system provides the flexibility to introduce
the CO2 low within the crop and allowing it to rise through the crop before exiting the vents. The delivery system
must be designed to ensure even distribution throughout the greenhouse (Plates 3 & 4). In order to increase
efficiency and to provide CO2 during the day when there is no requirement for heat, a hot water heating system
equipped with an insulated hot water storage tank is used. The size of the tank may vary from 30–130 m3/ha of
greenhouse. The heat generated by the boiler during the day is stored in the tank and is used at night as required
(Plate 5). Summer CO2 supplementation using flue gas can be achieved as long as the stored heat is used during the
night. In some cases during the summer months the stored heat is not required as the outside night temperature
remains higher than 22°C. In this situation CO2 application is limited.
Plate 3a. CO2 condenser and blower. Plates 3b. Flue gas CO2 distribution pipes.
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Plates 3c. Flue gas CO2 distribution pipes.

Plates 3d. Flue gas distribution in greenhouse.
Plates 3e. Flue gas distribution in greenhouse. Plate 4. Flue gas CO2 distribution in greenhouse through
clear polyethylene tubes.
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Plate 5. Hot water tank to store heat when Plates 6a. Liquid CO2 tanks.
supplementing with flue gas CO 2.
Plates 6b. Liquid CO2 tanks.

Plate 7. Liquid CO2 vaporizer.
Plate 8. Liquid CO2 distribution pipes located below raised trough system.
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Liquid carbon dioxide has become popular for many growers even though it is usually more expensive. The main
advantages of using liquid CO2 include purity of product, no concerns about crop damage, nor heat or moisture
production, better control of CO2 levels and the flexibility to introduce the CO2 within the plant canopy at any time.
Pure CO2 is delivered in bulk by truck to the greenhouse. Special storage tanks rented from the supplier are required
at every site (Plate 6). The compressed CO2 is in a liquid state and must be vaporised through vaporiser units (Plate
7). The distribution system for liquid CO2 in the greenhouse is simpler to design and install. Most growers use 18
mm black flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing with holes punched at an appropriate spacing (Plate 8). For a
small operation the CO2 may be supplied in cylinders.
When growers still growing in soil incorporate or surface apply animal manure or other organic materials, such as
straw, levels of CO2 in the greenhouse will be increased during the breakdown process. The amount of CO2
produced depends on the stability of the mulch and the activity of the microorganisms, which convert the organic
material into CO2. Production of CO2 from rotting manure will only be significant for about one month following
incorporation. In some cases organic growing media such as coconut coir will increase the CO2 level in the
greenhouse to 1,200 ppm during the night. This is usually not a problem, as the levels will drop quite rapidly at
daylight.
| Top of Page |
Supplementation Levels For Carbon Dioxide
Today, most growers monitor and control the greenhouse environment with sensors linked to a central computer to
allow integration of the different environmental factors. A carbon dioxide controller, usually an infrared gas analyser
(IRGA) is used to monitor and maintain the minimum and maximum CO2 level in the greenhouse. Usually a single
IRGA is used per operation. Multiple readings within individual compartments or from different zones can be
obtained by using a scanner or a multiplexer. The IRGA unit can be stand-alone or, as in most cases, connected to
the environment control computer. In the latter case the environment control computer is used to control the CO2
level, through integration with light levels, stage of ventilation, and wind speed. Infra red gas analysers require
routine calibration to insure accurate measurement of the CO2 levels.
Rates of carbon dioxide supplementation are dependent on the crop response and economics. Flower and vegetable
growers may take somewhat different approaches. In general, carbon dioxide supplementation of 1,000 ppm during
the day when vents are closed is recommended. At 10% vent opening the CO2 supplementation can be shut off or
reduced to 400–600 ppm. In order to improve economic efficiency, CO2 levels can be set depending on light levels.
The following is a recommended strategy for vegetable growers. On sunny days when the vents are closed,
supplement with 1,000 ppm CO2 while on cloudy days when the light level is below 40 watts/m2 supplement with
only 400 ppm CO2. However most flower growers will supplement with 1,000 ppm regardless of light levels. The
environment computer can be set to adjust the CO2 level depending on the light measured but once the vents open
beyond 10% or the second stage of exhaust fans becomes operational, the focus is to maintain a CO2 level in the
crop canopy at 400 ppm.
To provide a guideline for CO2 addition, a theoretical calculation is given below for a glass house of 100 m2, with a
growing crop, on a day with average light intensity. In this calculation, a level of 1,000 ppm CO2 will be
supplemented to maintain 1,300 ppm during the day. Normally CO2 supplementation is not required at night as no
photosynthesis occurs. Actually, the CO2 concentration will tend to build up naturally as a result of plant respiration.
Therefore, it is not uncommon to find elevated levels (500–600 ppm) early in the morning. Growers using
6 of 11 21/02/2007 3:23 PM
high-pressure sodium lighting during the night should maintain at least 400 ppm of CO2.
A typical greenhouse with a 2.4 m gutter has an approximate air volume of 400 m3/100 m2 floor area. To increase
the level from 300–1,300 ppm requires the addition of 1,000 ppm or 0.1% CO2. This requires 0.40 m3 or 0.75 kg of
CO2 per 100 m2 of greenhouse floor space. Add this amount before sunrise because photosynthetic activity is usually
the greatest early in the day. After a level of 1,300 ppm is achieved, it must be maintained.
Carbon dioxide levels are reduced in a greenhouse by natural air exchange and photosynthesis.
(a) Natural air exchange
Leaks in the greenhouse allow a continuous infiltration of outside air, which contains only 340 ppm CO2. An
average value for infiltration in a glass house would be one air change per hour. To compensate for this dilution,
approximately 0.37 kg CO2/100 m2 must be added to maintain the desired level of 1,300 ppm CO2.
Note that a correction should be made for gutter height and/or width of greenhouse. A wide span greenhouse has
more air volume than a narrow span given the same gutter height. For houses with double glazing (double
polyethylene or acrylic) an air exchange of ¼–1/3 of 1 greenhouse air volume is expected. For greenhouses with
forced ventilation, a lower CO2 level is usually maintained if fans are in operation, and as a result the rate of
supplementation will be different.
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(b) Photosynthesis
Plants during photosynthesis use carbon dioxide. Rate of consumption varies with crop, light intensity, temperature,
stage of crop development and nutrient level. An average consumption level is estimated to be between
0.12–0.24 kg/hr/100 m2. The higher rate reflects the typical usage for sunny days and a fully-grown crop.
When the 2 factors are combined, it is estimated that about 0.50–0.60 kg of CO2/hr/100 m2 must be added in a
‘standard’ glass greenhouse to maintain 1,300 ppm. For double-polyethylene houses supplementation is 0.25–0.35
kg of CO2/hr/100 m2. For glass houses, supplementation is primarily used to offset the dilution due to air infiltration,
while for double-poly houses the amount of CO2 required is about equal for the natural air exchange and
photosynthesis. Make adjustments in supplementation if lower levels are to be maintained.
Table 1, Potential Yearly CO2 Use on a Monthly Basis, shows the theoretical amount of CO2 used for a vegetable
crop being supplemented at 3 different rates based on sunshine hours.
Table 1. Potential Yearly CO2 Use on a Monthly Basis (based on sunshine hours at Harrow, Ontario)
Number Rate Applied (kg/ha/hr)

Hours
Month Applied 45 65 90
Jan 82 3690 5330 7380
Feb 100 4500 6500 9000
Mar 127 5715 8255 11430
Apr 168 7560 10920 15120
May 234 10530 15210 21060
Jun 253 11385 16445 22770
Jul 283 12735 18395 25470
Aug 252 11340 16380 22680
Sep 187 8415 12155 16830
Oct 157 7065 10205 14130
Nov 89 4005 5785 8010
Dec 67.1 3019.5 4361.5 6039
7 of 11 21/02/2007 3:23 PM
Total (kg) 89959.5 129941.5 179919
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Burner Capacity Required
For calculating the capacity of the burners, only natural gas and propane are considered as these fuels are most
commonly used in the industry. Growers who do not have a CO2 gas analyser or environmental computer need to
properly size their burners. This is especially true of bedding plant growers with freestanding hoop houses. Table 2,
Capacity of burner to maintain 1,300 ppm of CO2 under assumed conditions, lists the burner capacity based on the
compensation rates stated above.
At the recommended levels (Table 2) it can be calculated that the relative humidity will increase by about 3%–6%
when using natural gas provided the greenhouse temperature is not affected from the heat generated by the CO2
burners. Typically, when the temperature is raised by 1°C there is no effect on the relative humidity.
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When To Supplement With Carbon Dioxide
Since photosynthesis normally occurs only during daylight hours, CO2 addition is not required at night. However,
supplementation is recommended during cloudy, dull days to compensate for the lower rate of photosynthesis.
Because photosynthesis increases with high light levels, the optimal CO2 concentration becomes higher. Start
supplementation approximately 1 hr before sunrise and shut the system off 1 hr before sunset. However, CO2
supplementation is highly recommended when supplemental high-pressure sodium (HPS) lighting is used at night to
insure adequate levels.
Although the optimal CO2 level increases with increasing light levels, it is often wasteful, depending on wind speed,
to attempt to maintain a rate of 1,000 ppm supplementation when vents are more than 10%–15% open or the full
complement of exhaust fans are operational. Growers should however, aim to maintain ambient levels within the
crop canopy. The increased air circulation enhances the rate of diffusion by reducing the boundary layer around the
leaf surface.
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The Costs Of Adding Carbon Dioxide
The cost of generation and distribution as well as the cost of the fuel are the key factors that must be considered.
Table 3, Cost comparison of various sources of CO2 (kg/ha), indicates the cost of supplying CO2 from the various
sources for a 12-hour day. Most large operations, especially those using flue gas CO2 may use double the amount
indicated per day. Equipment cost must also be added to the equation (Table 4, Equipment Costs for 4 Hectare (10
acre) Operation).
Table 2. Capacity of burner1 to maintain 1,300 ppm of CO2 under assumed conditions.
Natural Gas Propane
kW/1,000 m2 m3/1,000 m2/hr kW/1,000 m2 L/1,000 m2/hr
Glass house 30–36 2.8–3.4 20–24 2.8–3.4
Plastic house 15–18 1.4–1.7 10–12 1.4–1.7
1
kW kilowatt = 3420 BTU/hr
The foregoing calculations are based on continuous operation of the burner.
Table 3. Cost comparison of various sources of CO2 (Kg/Ha)*
# hrs CO2 rate Amount of $Cost/unit CO2 Cost/hr Total cost/day
8 of 11 21/02/2007 3:23 PM
kg/ha/hr Product Req

Liquid CO2 12 50 50.0 kg 0.11 kg $5.50 $66.00
12 50 50.0 kg 0.15 kg $7.50 $90.00
12 50 50.0 kg 0.2 kg $10.00 $120.00
Natural 12 50 27.8 m3 0.1 m3 $2.78 $33.33
Gas
12 50 27.8 m3 0.15 m3 $4.17 $50.00
12 50 27.8 m3 0.3 m3 $8.33 $100.00
Propane 12 50 27.8 L 0.2 L $5.56 $66.67

12 50 27.8 L 0.25 L $6.94 $83.33
12 50 27.8 L 0.3 L $8.33 $100.00
* Does not include equipment costs
Table 4 : Equipment Costs for 4 Hectare (10 acre) Operation
Liquid CO2
Tank Rental $6,000

CO2 Distribution
1,000 ft 90 50 $4,500
Total $10,500*
Flue Gas CO2
Condenser $30,000
Blower $20,000
Distribution $15,000
plastic tube 65 mm
1,000 ft 150 100 $15,000
Total $80,000
Burner CO2
Units Required
20 2,500 $50,000
Total $50,000
*this is an annual cost
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Distribution Of Carbon Dioxide In The Greenhouse
It is important to have an adequate distribution system. The distribution of CO2 depends mainly on air movement
within the greenhouse(s), as CO2 does not travel very far through diffusion. For instance, when a single source of
CO2 is used for a large surface area or several connecting greenhouses, a distribution system must be installed. This
system must be designed to evenly distribute the CO2 in the greenhouse especially when flue gas CO2 or liquid CO2
is used. Air circulation using horizontal airflow fans or fan-jet system provides uniform distribution by moving large
volumes of air within the greenhouse when top vents are closed or exhaust fans are not operational. Today, growers
supplementing with liquid CO2 or flue gas CO2 have a central header with small individual tubes (with evenly
spaced holes) placed low in the crop canopy or in the case of bench crops, under the bench. The potential for low
CO2 levels inside a dense crop canopy (chrysanthemums) makes it beneficial to supplement within the canopy. Air
movement around the plants will also improve the CO2 uptake because the boundary layer around the individual leaf
9 of 11 21/02/2007 3:23 PM
is lessened bringing the CO2 molecules closer to the leaf.
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Plant Damage As A Result Of Co2 Supplementation
Do not allow excessive CO2 levels in greenhouses. Levels of 5,000 ppm can cause dizziness or lack of co-ordination
to humans. Higher than recommended levels can cause necrosis of old tomato and cucumber leaves. African violet
leaves become very hard and brittle, show a very dark greenish-grey colour and often malformed flower petals,
which do not fully expand. A similar symptom with freesia flowers has been observed where the CO2 burner was
used to provide the majority of the heat requirements of the greenhouse, and thereby generating excessive amounts
of CO2. Except in emergencies, do not use CO2 burners as the prime heating system.
Since sulphur dioxide can cause acute necrosis (0.2 ppm in the air), the sulphur content of the fuels should be less
than 0.02%. Heating fuels such as No. 2 oil and bunker C (# 6 Oil) are not suitable for CO2 supplementation.
Ethylene at 0.05 ppm and propylene at higher levels can cause premature senescence on tomato and cucumber
plants, induce sleepiness in carnations, create flower shatter of geraniums, promote excessive side shoot
development, prevent normal flower initiation, and flower bud abortion in chrysanthemums and poinsettia. Ethylene
is often produced as a result of incomplete combustion, while propylene is usually associated with the use of
propane. Leaky propane supply lines have created serious financial damage to growers in the past. Carbon monoxide
(CO), which usually does not create any problems by itself, is often used as the indicator for incomplete combustion.
Levels exceeding 50 ppm CO in the flue gases are an indication of the presence of ethylene at levels capable of
causing crop damage.
Burners with a high flame temperature can cause the formation of nitrous oxides (NOx and NO2). Excessive amounts
of nitrous oxide can cause diminished growth or even necrosis. Boilers equipped with low NOx burners must be used
for flue gas utilisation as a CO2 source.
A low level of both SO2 and NOx in combination can cause greater phytotoxicity damage or be more detrimental to
the plants than a high level of either. Excessive and prolonged use of CO2 (especially in tomatoes) results in the
plants not responding well to the supplemental CO2. Interruption of the CO2 application for a few days results in an
improved response.
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Cultural Practices To Improve Productivity
Depending on the crop, the increased growth rate related to CO2 application may require the nutrient solution to be
applied at a higher electrical conductivity (EC). As well, the increased CO2 levels can result in partial closure of the
stomata reducing transpiration and increasing leaf conductance in some crops. This decrease in transpiration reduces
calcium (Ca) and boron (B) uptake, which may affect tomato fruit quality. Increased applications of these nutrients,
within reason, will adequately compensate the decreased uptake.
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Notes:
1 kg of CO2 is equivalent to 570 L of CO 2
1 m3 of natural gas provides about (1.8 Kg) 1,000 L of CO 2 when combusted and 1.4 L of water
1 m3 of natural gas = 0.75 L of kerosene = 1.0 L of propane for an equivalent amount of CO2 produced
| Top of Page
For more information:

Toll Free: 1-877-424-1300
Local: (519) 826-4047
Email: [email protected]
10 of 11 21/02/2007 3:23 PM
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Queen's Printer for Ontario
Last Updated: November 30, 2005
11 of 11 21/02/2007 3:23 PM
The objective of growing greenhouse tomatoes is to set four or five perfect fruit on every cluster of each plant.
Proper environmental control will help meet this goal.
Environmental Control for Greenhouse Tomatoes

The only reason for growing plants in a greenhouse full sun. At times when full sun is not needed, plants can
rather than outside is to be able to control the environ- be shaded with shade cloth or shade compound.
ment. A greenhouse allows the grower to produce plants
in a location where they would normally not grow and at Choose a site that has room for possible future expan-
a time of year when it would otherwise be impossible sion. You may want to start with only one greenhouse, but
because of the weather. locate it so there is ample room to add gutter-connected
A greenhouse protects plants from extreme tempera- houses if you need to.
tures, rain, sleet, snow, winds, hail, insects and diseases,
etc. In addition, heat can be added, ventilation can be
provided, air can be cooled, humidity can be controlled,
Drainage
carbon dioxide can be added, light level can be altered, Drainage should be one of your first considerations. If
and water and fertilizer can be provided at optimum lev- the soil is mostly sand, water will percolate directly
els. through the soil under the greenhouse. However, many
The purpose of altering the environment is to provide a soils in Mississippi have a large component of clay. In
constantly controlled environment where plants can be poorly drained soils, water drainage must be designed into
grown at their optimum, not just to avoid extremes in the the system.
weather. First, level the site. Then put at least a 1 to 2 percent
In summary, the function of a greenhouse is to modify slope from one end of the site to the other. If you plan to
the environment for better plant production. plant tomatoes, dig ditches under where the rows will go.
These ditches will bring all water to one end of the green-
house.
Site Selection Next, cover the floor with heavy black plastic. This will
Select a site that has access to both electricity and fresh prevent contact between soil-borne organisms and plants
water. The water source should be clean – either commu- within the greenhouse. Fill the ditches with pea gravel 6
nity water or a well would be best. inches deep to make the floor level. Finally, cover the pea
gravel with a woven plastic, which will allow water to
Choose an area with no shading from trees or tall build- drain through and into the gravel and then travel to ditch-
ings. Be sure there are no shadows during the early morn- es to be removed from the greenhouses. The woven floor
ing or late afternoon hours. Greenhouse vegetables need covering is readily available in black; white floor covering
can be found with more effort. sume oxygen and deplete it so that incomplete combus-
Type of Greenhouse tion may result, producing harmful by-products. Or the
lack of oxygen may cause the flame to go out and the
Greenhouses can be either free standing, single green- burner to shut off. In either case, the use of unvented
houses, or gutter-connected bays. If you plan to build heaters is too risky for the greenhouse grower.
more than one greenhouse, the gutter-connected forma- The exhaust flue should extend at least 2 feet, prefer-
tion is more economical. Each side-by-side pair of houses ably 4 feet, above the ridge (highest point) of the green-
will share a common gutter, reducing the number of side- house. The high temperature of the exhaust gasses helps to
walls by two, thereby decreasing construction costs. In draw pollutants out of the greenhouse. In a tight plastic
addition, there will be less surface area for heat loss, so greenhouse, it may be necessary to bring fresh outside air
there is an energy savings as well. to the burner via a duct to ensure complete combustion.
Typical lengths of greenhouses for tomatoes are 96 feet See section "Providing an Air Intake" for information on
and 130 feet. The 96-foot greenhouse is a convenient size
because plastic covering is easily found in 100-foot
lengths. This is the longest practicable run from intake vent
to exhaust fan that will provide adequate cooling. A green-
house longer than 150 feet will have too much of a tem-
perature gradient from the intake end to the exhaust end.
For greenhouses longer than 150 feet, consider ventillating
across the width of the greenhouse.
Side walls need to be vertical for greenhouse tomatoes,
rather than the ground-to-ground or quonset styles, which
have curved side walls. The vertical side wall should be a
minimum of 8 feet high (10 feet preferred), at which point
the gutter would be placed in a gutter-connected green-
house. Above the side wall, an arch-shaped top, with or
without trusses, is most common.
Orientation
Face greenhouses north-south rather than east-west.
This siting becomes even more important as bays are
added in a gutter-connected formation. The shadow
caused by the gutter will leave an immobile shadow in an
east-west range, whereas in a north-south range, the gut-
ter shadow will move across the crop (from west to east)
during the day as the sun moves from east to west.
Locate exhaust fans on the downwind end of the green-
Maintaining a temperature of at least 62 ºF is important for
house so they are not blowing against the wind. Also,
greenhouse tomatoes. Lower temperatures can result in cat-
place the intake vents on the prevailing wind end (the facing and other quality defects.
direction the wind blows from).
the correct size.

Heating
There are several choices for the type of heating system How To Size the Heating Units
used to heat greenhouses: natural gas (methane), LP gas There are four steps needed to calculate the size of the
(propane), number 2 diesel oil, wood, electricity, or even heating system to keep tomato plants at the required tem-
a heat pump. Other than when using a heat pump or an perature (over 62 °F).
electric heaert, vent all burners to the outside. 1. Figure the greatest difference between inside
Never allow gasses to remain inside the greenhouse, as and outside temperature.
tomato plants are very sensitive to certain pollutants found Size your heating systems for the most extreme condi-
in fossil fuel exhaust. Especially with kerosene and tions expected. For example, do not base the BTU rating
propane space heaters, the potential exists to poison of the heaters on 40 °F winters because the temperature
plants with toxic pollutants. Also, space heaters may con- often drops below this in Mississippi winters. The 99 per-
2
cent and 97.5 percent Design Temperatures for various 4. Next, use the following equation:
cities in Mississippi are shown below. This means for Heat Required = U x A x (TINSIDE - TOUTSIDE)
Jackson, for example, 99 percent of recorded hourly tem- U = Heat Flow Efficient
peratures in December, January, and February were 21 °F, A = Surface Area of Greenhouse
and 97.5 percent of recorded temperatures during these (TINSIDE - TOUTSIDE) = maximum difference
months were above 25 °F. Therefore, to be safe, size the between inside and outside temperatures
heating system to provide adequate heat even when the
temperature outside falls as low as 21 °F in Jackson. In Example:
northern Mississippi, from Greenville to Tupelo and farther As an example, assume that a single 24- x 96-foot
north, the heating system should be designed for 14 °F. greenhouse in Jackson, with a double layer of plastic,
needs to be sized for a heating system.
99% Design 97.5% Design If the gutter height is 8 feet, the end walls are each 24 x
City Temperature Temperature 8 = 192 square feet. The side walls are each 96 x 8 = 768
square feet. The roof area is the same as the width of plas-
Biloxi 28 31 tic over the roof times the length. So, if the top is 30 feet
Clarksdale 14 19 over the curved roof, the roof area is 30 x 96 = 2,880
Columbus 15 20 square feet. The total greenhouse surface area is (2 x 192)
Greenville 15 20 + (2 x 768) + 2,880 = 4,800 square feet.
Greenwood 15 20 Using the formula above,
Hattiesburg 24 27 Heat Required = U x A x (TINSIDE - TOUTSIDE)
Jackson 21 25 = 0.8 x 4,800 x (62 - 21)
Laurel 24 27 = 0.8 x 4,800 x 41
McComb 21 26 = 157,440 BTUs
Meridian 19 23 A heating system able to supply a total of 158,000
Natchez 23 27 BTUs would be appropriate for a greenhouse of this size
Tupelo 14 19 located in Jackson, Mississippi.
Vicksburg 22 26 It is better to use two small heaters (for example, two
80,000 BTU heaters) than one large heater in a single,
free-standing greenhouse. Then, if one heater fails, there
The inside temperature for greenhouse tomatoes should will be a backup to prevent the crop from freezing.
not go below 62 °F. Therefore, the maximum expected The best way to distribute the heat is to use 8- or 10-
temperature difference = 62 - 21 = 41 °F for Jackson, inch poly tubes along the floor. These can run on the floor
Mississippi. along side walls and below gutters. By putting the heat dis-
2. Know the entire surface area of the greenhouse, tribution tubes on the floor, you deliver heat where it is
including the total area of the side walls, end walls, and most needed – at plant level – rather than close to the roof
roof, expressed in square feet. as with traditional fan jet systems. Cut holes in the tubes
3. Use the appropriate U-value (heat flow coefficient). along the side walls either at "3 o'clock" or "9 o'clock"; cut
For a single layer of plastic, use U = 1.2; for a double layer, holes in tubes between gutter-connected bays in both
use U = 0.8. If a thermal screen is used, U would be 0.5. locations to deliver heat in both directions.
The lower the U-value, the better the insulation effect.
Traditional fan jet systems are commonly used to distribute heat produced by heaters and to recirculate inside
air when the heating system is not in use.
3
Providing an Air Intake house near the thermostat. It will record the highest and
Now that you know the size of the heating system, you lowest temperature that occurred since the last reset of
can size the air intake for the heating unit. Calculate this these values. The important point is to maintain the actual
by using this formula: Use 50 square inches of intake for temperature that is desired. This temperature can be veri-
each 100,000 BTUs of the heating system. fied with use of the thermometer, regardless of what the
If 160,000 BTUs are needed, as in the example above, thermostat setting reads.
use 1.6 x 50 = 80 square inches (or about half a square
foot) of air intake for the burners.
Ventilation
Ventilation is important not only during the warm-
season months, but also during the cool season on sunny
Thermostat days. Fresh air is primarily needed to lower the humidity
Each environmental control device needs a thermostat and air temperature, but it also replenishes carbon dioxide
to control when it is activated. This includes any or all of (CO2) that plants consume during the daylight hours in the
the following: heater, exhaust fan, fan jet louver, poly vent, process of photosynthesis.
evaporative cool pads, and/or mist system. The location of Design the ventilation system to provide one air
these thermostats is very important. exchange per minute, 8 cubic feet per minute (CFM) per
Do not put thermostats on an outside wall; put them square foot. For a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, two 36-inch
somewhere in the interior of the greenhouse where the or 48-inch fans are usually required. Even with proper
temperature they monitor will be representative of most of ventilation in the warm season, the inside temperature will
the plant space. always be higher than the outside temperature.
Locate thermostats near the center of the house or
range to get good temperature control. Also, enclose the
thermostat in an aspirated box, or shade it so that it indi- How To Size the Exhaust Fans
cates the air temperature correctly. If the sun is allowed to Exhaust Fan CFM = 8 x (Length of Greenhouse) x (Width of Greenhouse)
shine directly on the thermostat, it will read a higher tem- Example: In a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, the square
perature than the air surrounding it. footage of the floor is 2,304 square feet. Therefore, calcu-
Do not put thermostats where hot air from the heater or late the CFM of the fans by multiplying 8 x 2,304, or
cool air from the fans will blow directly on them. 18,432 CFM. This will give one air exchange per minute
Never trust a thermostat to be 100 percent accurate. It for the volume of air in the greenhouse up to a height of 8
is wise to install a high/low thermometer in the green- feet.
Proper sizing of the exhaust fams is important to ensure adequate temperature control during warm
periods. Refer to the text for the simple calculations.
4
If you use variable speed fans or two-speed fans, you Any water that drips through the fiber is collected in a gut-
can have better temperature control. Be sure to keep any ter at the bottom and drains into a small holding tank.
doors and windows at the fan end of the greenhouse Water is recirculated from the holding tank back to the top
closed while the fan is operating. Otherwise, air currents of the cool pads.
will short circuit the greenhouse interior. Fit plastic cover- Take care to replace water that is absorbed by the air's
ings and poly vents tightly to prevent air leaks. passing through the cool pads. This is usually done with a
Be sure not to exhaust hot air from one greenhouse into toilet tank type float-valve controller.
the intake vent of another. This only compounds the cool- Evaporative cooling is more effective when the air out-
ing problem. Have shutters on fans that close automatical- side the greenhouse has a low relative humidity. As the rel-
ly when they stop blowing. ative humidity of the outside air increases, this technique
becomes less effective. For example, if the outside air is
How To Size the Intake Vent 95 °F and the relative humidity is 50 percent, there would
be about 13 degrees of effective cooling. But if the relative
Vent (sq ft) = 8 x (Length of Greenhouse) x (Width of Greenhouse) / 700 humidity is 70 percent, there would be only an 8-degree
Example: With a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, the square drop. With 90 percent relative humidity, only a 2-degree
footage of the floor is 2,304 square feet. To know the vol- drop can be expected. So long as the relative humidity is
ume of air that must be moved, multiply this number by a less than 100 percent, this method will have some cooling
height of 8 feet. Therefore, 2,304 x 8 = 18,432 cubic feet. effect on the air.
Have adequate ventilation to achieve approximately one Choosing the correct pad size is important so that ade-
air exchange per minute, or, in this case, 18,432 cubic feet quate cooling will be achieved. The length of pad is limit-
per minute (CFM). Wind velocity needed at the intake vent ed by the greenhouse width, so it is the height that must
is 700 feet per minute. Divide the cubic feet per minute by be calculated.
700 feet per minute to get the square feet of the intake
vent. To find the answer, divide 18,432 by 700. This equals How To Size the Cool Pads
26.3. So, a minimum of 27 square feet of intake vent is
required. For greenhouses with an insect barrier over the Pad Height (feet) = (Air Flow Rate) / (Pad Length) / (Design Velocity)
intake vent, increase the vent size to compensate for The air flow rate is the same as the cubic footage of
reduced air flow. Contact the manufacturer for informa- the greenhouse. With a 24- x 96-foot greenhouse, use
tion. 24 x 96 x 8, because the useable height for cooling is 8
feet. This equals 18,432 cubic feet. Because you need one
air exchange per minute, 18,432 CFM is the air flow rate.
Evaporative Cooling The pad length is probably about 2 feet less than the
greenhouse width, or 22 feet, in this example.
In addition to cooling by using exhaust fans, often you The design velocity is the speed with which air can pass
will need to take additional measures. One of the most through the cool pad, in feet per minute. For 4-inch cellu-
common measures is to add evaporative cooling, also lose, use 250; for 6-inch cellulose, use 380; and for aspen
referred to as "wet pads" or "cooling pads." The principle is pads, use 165. If you are using 4-inch cellulose, as in this
simple. As the exhaust fans blow air out of one end of the example, divide by 250.
greenhouse, they draw in moist air from the other end. As So, the equation above becomes as follows:
the moist air moves through the
Pad Height = (18,432) / (22) / (250) or 3.35
greenhouse, some of the water
vaporizes, absorbing heat in This means that a pad 22 feet long needs to be 3.35 feet
the process. high, or a minimum of 3 feet 4 inches in height. For ease
Moisture is supplied at the of construction, extend the vent height to 4 feet.
end opposite the fans with a
system that drips water
through an absorbent
material, such as cellulose
(typically 4 or 6 inches thick)
or aspen pads. These are
commonly called cool
pads. Because aspen
pads last a maximum of only 1 to
2 years in the Southern climate, they are not rec-
ommended. All incoming air passes through this wet fiber.
5
rate thermostat can be wired to the heater fan so that it can
be set to turn on when exhaust fans are off and heat is not
Horizontal Air Flow needed. The heater thermostat will still control when the
burner comes on, but the fan will stay on more of the time.
Horizontal air flow refers to movement of air within the When exhaust fans are on, they will provide all the air
greenhouse, as opposed to drawing fresh air in from out- mixing needed.
side. This inside air movement is important to the health Another technique is to install low-volume fans above
and productivity of greenhouse crops. the crop to push air through the greenhouse. These are left
It is necessary to have air movement within the green- on all the time, or they are wired so they turn off when the
house at all times, whether the exhaust fans are on or not. exhaust fans come on.
When exhaust fans are not in use, make some other pro- The reason for horizontal air flow is to keep air moving
vision to create air movement within the greenhouse. among the plants at all times. You must be able to see the
Constant air movement is important for the following slight movement of the leaves and any loosely hanging
reasons: strings in all parts of the greenhouse.
• A more uniform environment is maintained throughout
the greenhouse, avoiding "pockets" of high or low tem-
perature or humidity.
• Air movement helps to keep leaf surfaces dry so that Plastic Film
diseases are not so likely to develop. The plastic film used to cover greenhouses comes in
• The air will also help to dry the inside surface of the various formulations that affect its longevity. Generally, it
plastic covering. Any condensation on the plastic film is sold as 2-year, 3-year, 4-year, or unspecified length
will reflect some light rather than transmitting it to films. Film rated 2-year or higher has UV (ultraviolet)
plants; in effect, it causes shading. inhibitor in it to prevent rapid breakdown from the sun. A
• Carbon dioxide is brought to the leaf surfaces. In the film with an unspecified life span will probably last less
absence of air movement, carbon dioxide, essential for than a year with the strong Mississippi light, so it would
photosynthesis, can actually be depleted adjacent to not be worth the cost. The longer the life of a film, the
leaves even though it is more available in other parts of more expensive it is. But, although costlier, the longer life
the greenhouse. Air movement keeps carbon dioxide films require less frequent replacement.
mixed throughout the greenhouse. The recommended film to use for the greenhouse is a
One way to provide continuous air flow is to set the fan 3-year film, the best compromise between longevity and
on the heater so that it remains on constantly. Or, a sepa- price. Be certain that it says "UV-resistant" and is the cor-
rect size to cover the greenhouse with a little left over to
6
Small squirre-cage blowers (1⁄4 or 1⁄2 HP) can be used to inflate between the two layers of plastic covering the green-
house. It is important to use outside air for this purpose so that condensation does not collect between the layers.
fasten around the edges. Although inside air is warmer and will use less energy to
heat, it holds more moisture than the cooler outside air.
Energy Conservation Often, greenhouses that use inside air will have water
collect between the layers, making small pools of water. If
this happens, puncture the lower layer to let the water
Double Plastic Cover drain; then patch the hole. Otherwise, the weight of the
water can tear the plastic.
One technique used to reduce heat loss is to apply two
layers of film to the surface of the greenhouse rather than
Water collects because the warm, humid air blown
one layer of film or glass. This double layer is often referred
between the layers from inside the greenhouse comes in
to as "double poly." A single layer has a U-value (heat flow)
contact with the outside layer of plastic. This outside layer
of about 1.2, while two layers bring the U-value down to
is cooler. If the temperature of the outside layer is below
0.8 (remember: the lower the U-value, the better the insu-
the dew point, as it usually is in the winter, it causes water
lation). Also, the air space between the two layers serves
to condense from the air onto the cool surface. This water
as an excellent insulation to heat flow. An energy savings
collects between the layers into pools that grow with time.
of 30 percent is attainable by using this simple method.
However, there are two important points:
• Do not allow the two layers of plastic to touch each Insulation of North Wall
other except where fastened. Any point where the two The primary form of insulation for a greenhouse is the
layers come in contact is reduced to an insulating value of double layer of plastic on the top, side walls, and end
one layer. To avoid this, a small blower is used to inflate walls. However, the north wall can be insulated more thor-
the space between the two layers of plastic. A 1/3 or 1/4 oughly than with double poly (on a north-south oriented
horsepower squirrel-cage fan (100 to 200 watts) is usually greenhouse). Not enough light enters the greenhouse
adequate for this purpose. This blower should run con- through the north end wall to supplement light from the
stantly to maintain inflation. other walls and top. Therefore, construct a solid wall. This
• It is important to use outside air for this purpose. can be insulated with polystyrene boards, fiberglass bat-
7 ting, or any other means. The wall can be finished with
plywood or with any other suitable material.
More Information
For additional information on greenhouse tomatoes, refer to the following publications:
Pat Harris, Frank Killebrew, and Herbert Willcutt, 1993. Greenhouse Tomatoes – Pest Management in Mississippi. Mississippi
State University Extension Service. Publication No. 1861. 11 pp.
William Roberts and David Mears, 1984. Heating and Ventilating Greenhouses. Rutgers University Cooperative Extension
Service, New Brunswick, NJ 08903. Publication E-046. 19 pp.
By Dr. Richard G. Snyder, Professor and Extension Vegetable Specialist
Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, disability, or veteran status.
Publication 1879
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance
of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. JOE H. MCGILBERRY, Director. (rev-1M-7-03)
Locating the Greenhouse
Michael A. Schnelle
Extension Ornamentals/Floriculture Specialist are also available on our website at:
John M. Dole
Assistant Professor
Floriculture
Determining the site of a greenhouse operation involves Soil is an important factor to consider. Ideally, a sandy or
numerous considerations before actual construction of the silt loam soil with high fertility and good drainage is recom-
facility. Although this fact sheet is intended to guide the mended for container production. Soil is seldom used alone
entrepreneur in selecting the site, it also can be used as a as a container media, but rather in a mix with soil-less amend-
checklist when buying an existing operation. Before starting, ments. In fact, many businesses grow plants with entirely
it is important to have an idea of the type of plants you want soil-less mixes.
to raise and sell and a decision as to whether you wish to be Proper soil drainage is vital for growing plants in ground
retail or wholesale. The following are major factors that should beds. Without proper drainage a number of problems will
be investigated before greenhouse plans go beyond paper. develop that may be insurmountable to the beginning grower.
High salts and insufficient soil aeration are a couple of the
obstacles that may be encountered.
Light A media pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.5 is acceptable for the
Availability of sunlight is a major factor in deciding where production of most greenhouse stock. The pH can be lowered
to build the greenhouse. Do not base your decision on the by adding elemental sulfur or aluminum sulfate. However,
present season, but rather on the short days of winter. Plan raising the pH is more feasible and can be accomplished by
to choose the area with maximum light availability. This will adding dolomitic limestone. This is commonly used to correct
allow the grower to minimize or eliminate the use of artificial soil-less mixes that are excessively acidic. Correct soil pH
or supplemental light, depending upon the crops grown. Of provides for maximum plant utilization of the soil’s nutrients.
course, shading may be necessary during a portion of the The Department of Agronomy at Oklahoma State University
growing season for heat and light reduction. will test soil pH and nutrient status at a reasonable cost.
Search for an area that is free of any potential shading
from nearby structures or trees. A rule of thumb to follow is
to avoid construction any nearer than 2.5 times the height of Water
the nearby object. Removal of the shading object may be a Sufficient clean water is critical regardless of the crops
more feasible alternative. This will apply to eastern, western, to be grown. All water sources to be used in production must
and southern exposures. be tested with a solubridge to determine soluble salt content.
Place the greenhouse with the ridge in a north to south Research indicates that container grown plants may be watered
orientation to reduce interior shading from the structure itself with nearly 1400 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.
on the plants. However, seedlings and transplants normally tolerate water
with salt concentrations of 200 ppm or less. When electrical
conductivity is checked in micromhos per cubic centimeter
Land (mho/cm), up to 200 mho/cm is tolerable by many species.
The site should be naturally level. This will decrease initial Water pH must be known prior to irrigation of crops.
grading costs. If possible, the land should also be large enough Injection of phosphoric acid into the irrigation lines will help
to accommodate expansion without excessive grading. lower excessively high water pH. Acid type fertilizers can be
The ideal tract of land has a slight slope, up to five percent, used to help lower the pH in alkaline soils.
which provides for proper air circulation and excess water run- Total soluble salts, pH, calcium, carbonate, magnesium,
off. If the soil has a high clay content, a greater slope may be and sodium levels should be determined prior to growing
needed. Otherwise, considerable expenses may be incurred greenhouse stock. The Department of Agronomy at Oklahoma
to provide an elaborate drainage system. Determine if frost State University tests suitability of irrigation water at a nominal
pockets exist in low lying areas and if flooding has occurred cost. Contact your local OSU County Extension Office for help
on the site. Low lying areas or valleys can sometimes exag- in submitting a sample for testing.
gerate the effects of cold and hot air flow.

Municipal water is generally acceptable but expensive in reduce heating costs by choosing crops which can be grown
large production areas. Although chlorinated water is rarely during warm times of the year and by avoiding crops with high
harmful to plants, short of certain hydroponic systems, even temperature requirements.
0.5 ppm fluorine may reduce salability of sensitive crops.
Softened water is not appropriate for irrigation purposes.
Determine the pressure, pipe size, and flow rate of the
Auxiliary Power/Alarm System
water source. When city water cannot be used or is not de- An emergency energy source is important to consider
sirable, determine if a suitable well can be drilled. Also, look for a commercial operation for electrical support of heating
elsewhere for water sources such as streams, lakes, etc. and ventilation equipment. In addition, an alarm system is
Be certain that this water is a reliable source and will not be imperative to warn the operator/caretaker of impending freeze
diverted any time in the future from your usage. Securing a damage. Many tender plants grown in Oklahoma greenhouses
water source can be accomplished by contacting the organi- are damaged by temperatures well above freezing.
zation below:
Transportation and Parking
Oklahoma Water Resource Board Locating the greenhouse near a major road will help
Stream/Ground Water Division facilitate the movement of plants to and from the site. In plan-
1000 N.E. 10th Street ning a retail operation, include ample parking for customers
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73152 and employees. Provide 18 feet for head-in parking spaces
(405) 271-2555 and 30 feet clearance for back-out and turning. Any curves
or turns should have an 18 to 20 foot inside radius. Check for
An abundant source of water becomes particularly criti- local ordinances which dictate regulations on exits, entrances,
cal during the summer. A major time commitment in frequent and minimum car stall space. Plan for the greatest exposure
watering will be necessary, often more than once a day in possible when retailing to the public.
Oklahoma's hot weather. Up to 1/3 gallon of water per square Wholesale greenhouses must consider access for their
foot per day may be needed in potted plant production. Auto- buyers. Major roadways are desirable for truck and postal
mated irrigation systems will be necessary in larger ranges to arrangements and close proximity to a major airport may be
reduce excessive labor costs. During hot weather, greenhouse desirable.
plants may perish or be severely injured if even one irrigation
is missed. Ideally, a backup system for irrigation should be
planned. The water supply needed to cool the greenhouse Labor
in the summer must also be considered. Be certain that an adequate labor pool is available for
your operation. Operating a greenhouse range in a remote
area, even for a wholesale operation, may not be the ideal
Air
situation. Consider times of peak labor needs such as during
Air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, fluorides, and ozone the spring and before holidays.
have been shown to be detrimental to plant growth. Site selec-
tion around industrial areas and areas of high vehicle passage
could be a problem. However, in most areas of Oklahoma, Greenhouse Expansion
air quality is not a limiting factor in plant growth. A common oversight in greenhouse construction plans
is the possibility of future expansion. By planning for a larger
operation in years to come, the need for relocation may be
Utilities
avoided. Most greenhouse ranges will double in size within
a few years and even greater expansion should be antici-
Electricity
pated.
It is wise to anticipate electrical needs for the future and
provide sufficient capacity for full electric utilization. Currently,
electricity is not competitive with natural gas in Oklahoma and Greenhouse Layout and Design
is therefore not feasible as a heating source. However, check Below is one example for designing the greenhouse and
with the local electric company to get a commercial rate and associated areas (Figure 1).
determine if there are declining block rates for exceeding a
particular energy amount in a given time period. Electricity
Additional Reading
will be needed at the very least for ventilation purposes at 4
to 6 kilowatts for a 1/4 acre range. Mastalerz, John W. The Greenhouse Environment. John
Wiley and Sons, 1977.
Natural Gas Nelson, Kennard S. Greenhouse Management for Flower and
Natural gas is clean and relatively inexpensive. Also, gas Plant Production. The Interstate Printers and Publishers,
heating systems are generally less expensive to purchase. The Inc., Danville, Illinois, 1980.
cost of the energy source will be a major factor in determining Nelson, Paul V. Greenhouse Operation and Management.
the location and size of these structures. New growers can Reston Publishing Company, Inc., 3rd ed., 1985.
6701-2
Figure 1. An example for designing the greenhouse and associated areas. Typically, greenhouses are on a level, but well
drained, southerly exposed site.
Industry Trade Magazines Organizations

GrowerTalks OK Greenhouse Growers Association
P.O. Box 532 400 N. Portland
1 North River Lane Oklahoma City, OK 73107
Suite 206
Geneva, IL 60134 Professional Plant Growers Association
Box 27517
Greenhouse Grower Lansing, Michigan 48909
37733 Euclid Avenue
Willouby, Ohio 44094
Greenhouse Manager
Branch-Smith Publishing
120 St. Louis Avenue
Fort Worth, TX 76104
6701-3
system.
system are:
program direction.
Extension director.
advise changes.
6701-4
Mist Propagation Systems

and Humidity Chambers
for the Nursery and Greenhouse
Michael A. Schnelle
Associate Professor Extension Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
Ornamentals/Floriculture Specialist are also available on our website at:
Janet C. Cole
Associate Professor
Omamental Horticulture
John M. Dole
Associate Professor Algae can become a problem in areas which remain wet
Floriculture most of the time. If algae does cause a problem, chemicals
injected through the water system can be used for control.
Misting is a technique for minimizing plant moisture loss by

controlled periodic wetting of the foliage of cuttings which are Mist Propagation Bench
being rooted. This technique is helpful for rooting leafy cuttings; Mist propagation is most commonly achieved by adapt-
however, succulent plants are usually not placed under mist. ing a bench for the propagation area (Figure 1) or by using
Constant misting has been successful with a few plants, but a ground bed. Since the area will be kept wet constantly, the
results are generally better with intermittent misting. Constant bottom and sides should be of a material that is highly resistant
misting wastes water, leaches nutrients from the leaves, and to water. Construct the bench of stainless steel wire and metal
reduces soil temperatures which, consequently, restricts root frames to provide proper air circulation. The bottom can be
development. Mist beds can be used in greenhouses year covered to a depth of 1-inch with a freely draining material
round or during the growing season for nursery stock. such as gravel or crushed stone. The size of the aggregate
The on-off interval for misting depends upon how quickly should be about 1/4-inch. The gravel should then be covered
water dries from the leaves. Ideally, the mist should be turned with 2 to 3 inches of sand.
on just after the leaves become dry and should remain on long If flats are used for holding the rooted cuttings, the flats
enough to wet all leaf surfaces. Cuttings quickly die if they can be placed directly on the bench top or on sand. If the
become dry and are exposed to bright sunlight for even a short cuttings are to be rooted directly in the bench, the rooting
period; therefore, it is important that the leaves be kept wet medium (for example, a mixture of 3 parts sand and 1 part
at all times when the sun is shining on them. Over-misting is peat) should be placed to a depth of about 2 inches on top of
generally considered less detrimental than over-watering. the sand. Since the mist tends to lower soil temperature, which
Before mist propagation became widely accepted, rooting restricts root development, best results are obtained when the
was attempted by maintaining high relative humidities in the soil medium is warmed. For most plants, a temperature of
rooting area and restricting sunlight by partial shading when 75°F is considered optimum. To achieve such temperatures,
sunlight became intense. The use of partial shading, however, electric heating cable can be placed on the bench or slightly
reduces the rate of photosynthesis which indirectly restricts above the gravel layer in the sand. Standard soil electric
the rate of root development. This, obviously, is undesirable. heating cable units are available in lengths of 30, 60, and
However, various degrees of shading may be appropriate 120 feet. Thermostat controls are also available that permit
depending upon the species, location, and time of year. raising the soil temperature to whatever level is desired for
Misting reduces leaf transpiration in two ways. First, it the specific plant species being rooted. Many growers place
causes a reduction in leaf temperature due to evaporative cool- flats of cuttings or seeds directly on the bench. This practice
ing as the water on the leaf evaporates. Second, it maintains allows for greater sanitation since flats can be easily moved
high humidity conditions at the leaf surface. The cooling is and the benches cleaned.
reported to be as much as 1°F to 1.5°F as compared to leaves When the greenhouse is heated with steam or hot water,
not misted. These cooling effects are effective, however, it is some soil warming can also be provided by placing one or
recommended that mist propagation beds be shaded when more heating pipes below the bench. If this arrangement
necessary. is used, the piping below the bench should be separately
The development of disease under mist may be a serious controlled so that heat can be added even when greenhouse
problem. Botrytis and bacterial soft rots can be major problems space heating is not required.
with leafy cuttings, particularly if sanitary conditions are not Other features of benches such as required supporting
maintained. framework, bench dimensions, and construction features are

Figure 1. Layout for typical mist bench
Setup appropriate for direct use on the ground as well
discussed in detail in Extension fact sheet F-6703, “Green- The risers should normally be made of 1/2-inch diameter
house Floors and Benches.” Mist benches are often placed pipe. Depending upon nozzle type, the nozzles require a
in inexpensive polyethylene Quonsets in nurseries for added minimum water pressure of 20 to 40 pounds per square inch
protection to the propagation area. Refer to Extension fact (psi) for effective distribution over the bed. Pressures as high
sheet F-6700 “Greenhouse Structures and Coverings” for as 120 psi can be used with some mist nozzles. If the water
additional information. main pressure in the greenhouse is below the required pres-
sure, a booster pump should be placed in the water line to
obtain the required pressure.
Piping Arrangement
Since all of the nozzles have rather small orifices and
The mist nozzles are normally placed on the end of a openings, a filter or strainer should be placed in the line to
vertical riser from a distribution pipe placed on or below the remove solids that could plug the nozzles.
propagating bed. Such an arrangement avoids dripping from The control valve is generally an electrically operated
the nozzles when the water is turned off, and the riser does not solenoid valve that turns the water on and off in response to
interfere with the uniformity of the mist pattern. If the nozzles a control signal.
are placed on a pipe running above the bed, the nozzles Whirling nozzles use small slots within the internal body
should preferably be placed on the bottom of the pipe so that of the nozzle to break up the water and to generate small
droplet collection on the distribution pipe is minimal. Dripping droplets which then pass through an orifice and outward away
from the nozzles is still a problem with this arrangement due from the nozzle. Since the slots are small, these nozzles are
to water draining from the pipe when the water is turned off. particularly susceptible to plugging. The whirling nozzles are
The distribution pipe size depends upon the water dis- specifically made for mist-propagation discharge of the water
charged by the nozzles and the number of nozzles installed from an angle of 160 degrees. They are recommended for
along the length of the pipe. Most mist nozzles discharge use at pressures from 35 to 100 psi.
from 4 to 15 gallons of water per hour (gph). A 1-inch line will The deflection-type nozzles have larger orifices than
distribute water to 50 of the higher 15 gph capacity nozzles the whirling nozzles and, therefore, have less of a tendency
without significant pressure loss, a 3/4-inch line to 25 nozzles, to be plugged by solid particles in the water. Since they are
and a 1/2-inch line to 8 nozzles. Approximately four times as simpler in construction, they are also generally a little less
many of the 4 gallon-per-minute nozzles could be placed on expensive than the whirling nozzles. The uniformity of water
each of these lines. To minimize dripping, be certain that the distribution over the bed area with deflection nozzles is quite
mist lines are straight and level.
6708-2
variable and for a given nozzle could either improve or be-
come worse as the pressure increases. You can check the
uniformity of distribution by placing water cups over the bed
area and observing the water collected after a given period of
operation. The gap between the face of the orifice and deflec-
tion plate, and the centering of the plate over the orifice can
Types of Mist Propagation Nozzles be adjusted for most deflection-type nozzles. Adjustment is
recommended whenever uniformity of distribution differs by
more than 50 percent. The output of the deflection nozzles is
Two basic types of nozzles are used in mist propagation
generally higher than the whirling nozzles, varying between
systems:
4 and 15 gallons per hour for the nozzles tested.
1. Oil-burner nozzles, which have a whirling action.
Nozzle Position
The nozzle should be spaced so that there are no dry
areas on the bed and so the overlap is minimal. If excessive
overlap occurs, excessive wetting may result. Most nozzle
manufacturers recommend the nozzle spacing which they
feel provides the best results. The most common recom-
mended spacing is 3 to 4 feet. Be sure to follow the particular
manufacturer’s advice.
Nozzles are normally placed about 18 inches above
the plant-bed surface. Some manufacturers may, however,
recommend lower heights.
Controls for Misting Systems

Most mist propagation systems are controlled with two
time clocks. The first is a 24-hour clock which turns the system
on during the daylight hours and off at night. The second is a
cycle timer which controls the duration of the “on” cycle and
the interval between mist cycles. The clock should allow both
of these intervals to be adjusted to correspond to the growing
and environmental requirements. During bright, warm, summer
days in Oklahoma, the optimum number of mist cycles can be
as many as 20 per hour. Each “on” period should be as short
as possible but long enough to fully wet all leaf surfaces.
A number of greenhouse equipment suppliers provide
time clocks with the capability to provide such adjustments
(see suppliers listed on back page).
The disadvantage of clock-type controls is that they must
be set for bright sunlight conditions so that the plants do not
become dry during periods of maximum stress. When set in
such a manner, they over-water whenever the sun is less
intense, when clouds reduce the solar radiation entering the
2. Deflection nozzles, which employ a small stream of water house, or when the drying rate is reduced due to a reduction
impacting against a small, flat plate. in air temperature. For this reason, several different types of
automatic controls have been developed. One is a pivoting
beam (Mist-a-matic) that has a piece of screen on one end of
the beam and a movable counterweight on the other. The unit
is placed under the misted area where water collects on the
screen. The additional weight overcomes the counterbalance
causing the beam to move down. A switch connected to the
beam then shuts the water off. When the misting stops, the
water on the screen dries which reduces the weight on that
end of the beam. When adequate water has evaporated, the
beam rotates in the opposite direction activating the switch
and turning the mist back on. By adjusting the position of the
counterbalance weight, the drying interval and mist time can
be controlled within reasonable limits.
In a second type of control system (electronic leaf) the
water completes an electric circuit between two electrodes,
6708-3
activating a control circuit. This system does not involve any over-watering which occurs with continuous misting. Since as
moving parts and is not as subject to variation due to wind, many as 20 on-off cycles may be necessary per hour, manual
insects, or dirt accumulation and pivot friction. Salt accumula- control is impractical. The most common control is the electric
tion is a problem with the electronic leaf as well as the Mist- time clock; however, devices which sense and actuate as a
a-matic. Both require periodic cleaning with the frequency result of the drying rate would be preferable. Two such devices
contingent upon the water source. are available: a counterbalanced rotating beam with a switch
Regardless of the type of control used, it should permit and an electronic artificial leaf where wetting completes an
a gradual reduction in the frequency of misting as plants electronic circuit. Lastly, despite the ideal environment a mist
become rooted. Such control enables the grower to harden bench system provides, rooting powder or quick dip hormone
the plants to the water stresses involved with normal watering solutions may be necessary for species that are difficult to
practices before cuttings are removed from the mist propaga- root.
tion area.
Since even short periods of dryness with new cuttings can
Hardening-off Cuttings
be fatal, over-wetting is not considered to be as detrimental as
under-wetting. For this reason, the solenoid valve used in the Tender cuttings will be shocked if not carefully removed from a
water distribution line should be one which is normally open moist, humid environment to a dryer setting. Below are steps
(that is, open when no current is provided to the control). If considered to ease this transition:
an electric power failure occurs, the mist will operate continu- 1. Gradually decrease misting periods.
ously, keeping the plants wet throughout the electric power 2. Some nurseries allow cuttings to root into the soil be-
failure. This is, of course, dependent upon having a water neath the rooting medium. The mist frame is removed
supply system which maintains line pressure during periods altogether.
of electrical power failure. 3. Root cuttings in small containers arranged in flats under
mist. Plants can then be transplanted with little stress.
Block-type rooting mediums are routinely used such as
Humidity Chambers oasis cubes and rockwool cubes.
Humidity chambers provide an alternative to automated 4. Pot up cuttings and move them to a shaded, humid
mist systems. These systems have proven successful in location, gradually increasing sunlight and decreasing
major United States’ greenhouse operations as well as being watering intervals.
popular abroad. A humidity chamber wilI aid in rooting and/or
germination of many species. The success rate is comparable WARNING: Consult a competent electrician for the electri-
or possibly superior to mist systems under certain conditions cal installation of the mist system. Due to the presence of
(Figures 2a and 2b). water, the potential for electrocution from an improperly
installed system is high.
Summary
Mist propagation of plant cuttings is a widely accepted
practice. For best results, the mist should be operated intermit- Hardware Suppliers
tently. The on-off interval for misting should keep all cuttings American Plant Products and Services, Inc.
constantly wet. The propagation area is generally placed on 9200 Northwest 10th Street
a bench for convenience. It may, however, be placed directly Oklahoma City, OK 73127
on the ground in a nursery setting for example. (405) 787-4833
Ideally, the total propagating area should be uniformly
moistened. In practice, this is difficult to achieve due to various Aqua-Hort Systems, Inc.
nozzle characteristics. However, extreme variations in water P.O. Box 57197
distribution should be avoided. Both whirling and deflection- Oklahoma City, OK 73157
type nozzles can give good results when operated at water (405) 521 -8002
pressures between 25 and 60 psi on 4-foot wide benches.
For deflection-type nozzles, obtaining the best uniformity of
water distribution may require adjustments of the gap between
the deflection plate and nozzle orifice, and the position of the
plate over the orifice. Periodically check nozzles for plugged
orifices.
Some form of automatic control is essential to prevent
excessive use of water and detrimental growth effects due to
6708-4
Figure 2a.
Figure 2b.
6708-5
most successful informal educational organization for people of all ages. It is designated to take
in the world. It is a nationwide system funded and the knowledge of the university to those persons
system.
system are:
• The federal, state, and local governments full recognition of national problems and goals.
cooperatively share in its financial support and
program direction.
Extension director.
advise changes.
The Cooperative Extension Service does not endorse any of the companies or products referred to herein. Names given merely
represent commonly available sources for these type products.
6708-6
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND AT COLLEGE PARK
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND EASTERN SHORE
small greenhouse is likely to have a variety of plant
materials, containers, and soil mixes that need different SIT
Y OF MA
R SIT
Y OF MA
R
ER
ER
YL
YL
amounts of water.
Planning a Home Greenhouse
UNIV
UNIV
AND
AND
Time clocks or mechanical evaporation sensors can A
E
O R
K
LL R ST
E G E PA ER N S H O
be used to control automatic watering systems. Mist
sprays can be used to create humidity or to moisten
seedlings. Watering kits can be obtained to water plants
in flats, benches, or pots. Fact Sheet 645
CO2 and Light

Carbon dioxide (CO2) and light are essential for
plant growth. As the sun rises in the morning to pro-
vide light, the plants begin to produce food energy David S. Ross
(photosynthesis). The level of CO2 drops in the green- Extension agricultural engineer
house as it is used by the plants. Ventilation replenishes Department of Agricultural Engineering
Figure 5. Thermostats in the middle of the greenhouse the CO2 in the greenhouse. Because CO2 and light
in a shaded, white, and aspirated box complement each other, electric lighting combined with
CO2 injection are used to increase yields of vegetable
What should a gardener consider when planning to chased, or they can be built of simple frames. However,
perature can fluctuate greatly; close supervision would and flowering crops. Bottled CO2, dry ice, and com-
build a small hobby greenhouse? What materials should only qualified electricians and plumbers should install
be required if a manual ventilation system were in use. bustion of sulfur-free fuels can be used as CO2 sources.
be used to build it? Does it need heating and cooling? the automatic systems.
Therefore, unless close monitoring is possible, both Commercial greenhouses use such methods.
Where can it be placed on the property? There are
hobbyists and commercial operators should have auto-
mated systems with thermostats or other sensors.
Alternative Growing Structures many considerations, and careful planning is important Location
before a project is started. The greenhouse should be located where it gets max-
Thermostats can be used to control individual units, A greenhouse is not always needed for growing
Building a home greenhouse does not need to be imum sunlight. The first choice of location is the south
or a central controller with one temperature sensor can plants. Plants can be germinated in one’s home in a
expensive or timeconsuming. It can be small and sim- or southeast side of a building or shade trees. Sunlight
be used. In either case, the sensor or sensors should be warm place under fluorescent lamps. The lamps must
ple, with a minimum investment in materials and all day is best, but morning sunlight on the east side is
shaded from the sun, located about plant height away be close together and not far above the plants.
equipment, or it can be a fully equipped, fancy, auto- sufficient for plants. An east side location captures the
from the sidewalls, and have constant airflow over A cold frame or hotbed can be used outdoors to
mated conservatory. The final choice of the type of most November to February sunlight. The next best
them. An aspirated box is suggested; the box houses continue the growth of young seedlings until the weath-
each sensor and has a small fan that moves greenhouse greenhouse will depend on the growing space desired, sites are southwest and west of major structures, where
er allows planting in a garden. A hotbed is similar to the
air through the box and over the sensor (Figure 5). The home architecture, available sites, and costs. The green- plants receive sunlight later in the day. North of major
cold frame, but it has a source of heat to maintain prop-
box should be painted white so it will reflect solar heat house must, however, provide the proper environment structures is the least desirable location and is good only
er temperatures.
and allow accurate readings of the air temperature. for growing plants. for plants that require little light. Morning sunlight is
For More Information Regardless of the size and type of greenhouse you most desirable because it allows the plant’s food produc-
Watering Systems For more information on environmental control sys-
choose, consider how much time you have to manage
the system. Do not be too ambitious; some new green-
tion process to begin early; thus, growth is maximized.
tems, refer to Extension Bulletin 351 Greenhouse Deciduous trees, such as maple and oak, can effec-
A water supply is essential. Hand watering is accept- house owners find they do not have as much time as
Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation Systems. For tively shade the greenhouse from the intense late after-
able for most greenhouse crops if someone is available they thought. On the other hand, it is a misconception
further discussion of hotbeds and cold frames, see Fact noon summer sun; however, they should not shade the
when the task needs to be done; however, many hobby- that greenhouses require constant attention. The envi-
ists work away from home during the day. A variety of Sheet 633 Hotbeds and Cold Frames for Starting Annual greenhouse in the morning. Deciduous trees also allow
ronment can be maintained with minimal upkeep using maximum exposure to the winter sun because they shed
automatic watering systems is available to help to do Plants, also available from your county Cooperative
automatic controls, which operate the heating, ventila- their leaves in the fall. Evergreen trees that have foliage
the task over short periods of time. Bear in mind, the Extension Service office.
tion, watering, humidity, and artificial lighting systems year round should not be located where they will shade
when no one is home. A hobbyist should invest in the greenhouse because they will block the less intense
automatic controls and start with easy-to-care-for plants. winter sun. You should aim to maximize winter sun
Sometimes the hobby grows into a business, so give exposure, particularly if the greenhouse is used all year.
some thought to the possibility of expanding your Remember that the sun is lower in the southern sky in
greenhouse in the future. winter causing long shadows to be cast by buildings and
Constructing the greenhouse yourself can make the evergreen trees (Figure 1).
project more enjoyable and less expensive if you are Good drainage is another requirement for the site.
P94/R96 handy with tools. Prefabricated greenhouses can be pur- When necessary, build the greenhouse above the sur-
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30,1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, University of Maryland at College Park,
and local governments. Thomas A. Fretz, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland at College Park.
8 The University of Maryland is equal opportunity. The University’s policies, programs, and activities are in conformance with pertinent Federal and State laws and regulations on nondis-
crimination regarding race, color, religion, age, national origin, sex, and disability. Inquiries regarding compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended; Title IX of the
Educational Amendments; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; and the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990; or related legal requirements should be directed to the Director
of Personnel/Human Relations, Office of the Dean, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742.
Small fans with a cubic-foot-per-minute (ft3/min) and a two-stage thermostat are needed to control the
air-moving capacity equal to one quarter of the air vol- operation.
ume of the greenhouse are sufficient. For small green- A two-speed motor on low speed delivers about 70
Summer sun houses (less than 60 feet long), place the fans in diago- percent of its full capacity. If the two fans have the same
nally opposite corners but out from the ends and sides. capacity rating, then the low-speed fan supplies about
The goal is to develop a circular (oval) pattern of air 35 percent of the combined total. This rate of ventila-
movement. Operate the fans continuously during the tion is reasonable for the winter. In spring, the fan oper-
winter. Turn these fans off during the summer when the ates on high speed. In summer, both fans operate on
greenhouse will need to be ventilated. high speed.
The fan in a forced-air heating system can some- Refer to the earlier example of a small greenhouse. A
Winter sun times be used to provide continuous air circulation. 16-foot wide by 24-foot long house would need an esti-
The fan must be wired to an on/off switch so it can run mated ft3 per minute (cubic feet per minute; CFM)
continuously, separate from the thermostatically con- total capacity; that is, 16 × 24 × 12 ft3 per minute. For
trolled burner. use all year, select two fans to deliver 2,300 ft3 per
minute each, one fan to have two speeds so that the
Ventilation low-speed rating is about 1,600 ft3 per minute and the
Figure 1. Select location carefully. Note where the shade line occurs in both the winter and summer. high speed is 2,300 ft3 per minute. Adding the second
Ventilation is the exchange of inside air for outside
fan, the third ventilation rate is the sum of both fans on
air to control temperature, remove moisture, or replen-
high speed, or 4,600 ft3 per minute.
ish carbon dioxide (CO2). Several ventilation systems
rounding ground so rainwater and irrigation water will rapidly. The lean-to should face the best direction for Some glass greenhouses are sold with a manual ridge
can be used. Be careful when mixing parts of two
drain away. Other site considerations include the light adequate sun exposure. Finally, consider the location of vent, even when a mechanical system is specified. The
systems.
requirements of the plants to be grown; locations of windows and doors on the supporting structure and manual system can be a backup system, but it does not
Natural ventilation uses roof vents on the ridge line
sources of heat, water, and electricity; and shelter from that snow, ice, or heavy rain might slide off the roof of take the place of a motorized louver. Do not take short-
winter wind. Access to the greenhouse should be conve- the house onto the structure. with side inlet vents (louvers). Warm air rises on con-
cuts in developing an automatic control system.
nient for both people and utilities. A workplace for pot- Even-span. An even-span is a full-size structure that vective currents to escape through the top, drawing cool
ting plants and a storage area for supplies should be has one gable end attached to another building (Fig- air in through the sides. Cooling
nearby. ure 2). It is usually the largest and most costly option, Mechanical ventilation uses an exhaust fan to move
Air movement by ventilation alone may not be ade-
but it provides more usable space and can be length- air out one end of the greenhouse while outside air quate in the middle of the summer; the air temperature
enters the other end through motorized inlet louvers.
Types of Greenhouses ened. The even-span has a better shape than a lean-to
Exhaust fans should be sized to exchange the total vol-
may need to be lowered with evaporative cooling. Also,
A home greenhouse can be attached to a house or for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures the light intensity may be too great for the plants.
during the winter heating season. An even-span can ume of air in the greenhouse each minute. During the summer, evaporative cooling, shade cloth,
garage, or it can be a freestanding structure. The chosen The total volume of air in a medium to large green-
site and personal preference can dictate the choices to accommodate two to three benches for growing crops. or paint may be necessary. Shade materials include roll-
Window-mounted. A window-mounted greenhouse can be estimated by multiplying the floor area up screens of wood or aluminum, vinyl netting, and paint.
be considered. An attached greenhouse can be a half times 8.0 (the average height of a greenhouse). A small
greenhouse, a full-size structure, or an extended win- house can be attached on the south or east side of a Small package evaporative coolers have a fan and
house. This glass enclosure gives space for conveniently greenhouse (less than 5,000 ft3 in air volume) should evaporative pad in one box to evaporate water, which
dow structure. There are advantages and disadvantages have an exhaust-fan capacity estimated by multiplying
to each type. growing a few plants at relatively low cost (Figure 2). cools air and increases humidity. Heat is removed from
The special window extends outward from the house a the floor area by 12. the air to change water from liquid to a vapor. Moist,
Attached Greenhouses foot or so and can contain two or three shelves. The capacity of the exhaust fan should be selected at cooler air enters the greenhouse while heated air passes
one-eighth of an inch static water pressure.The static out through roof vents or exhaust louvers. The evapora-
Lean-to. A lean-to greenhouse is a half greenhouse,
split along the peak of the roof, or ridge line (Figure 2).
Freestanding Structures pressure rating accounts for air resistance through the tive cooler works best when the humidity of the outside
Freestanding greenhouses are separate structures; louvers, fans, and greenhouse and is usually shown in air is low. The system can be used without water evapo-
Lean-to’s are useful where space is limited to a width of
they can be set apart from other buildings to get more the fan selection chart. ration to provide the ventilation of the greenhouse. Size
approximately 7 to 12 feet, and they are the least expen-
sun and can be made as large or small as desired Ventilation requirements vary with the weather and the evaporative cooler capacity at 1.0 to 1.5 times the
sive structures. The ridge of the lean-to is attached to a
(Figure 2). A separate heating system is needed, and season. One must decide how much the greenhouse will volume of the greenhouse. An alternative system, used
building using one side and an existing doorway, if
electricity and water must be installed. be used. In summer, 1 to 1 1/2 air volume changes per in commercial greenhouses, places the pads on the air
available. Lean-to’s are close to available electricity,
The lowest cost per square foot of growing space is minute are needed. Small greenhouses need the larger inlets at one end of the greenhouse and uses the exhaust
water, and heat. The disadvantages include some limita-
generally available in a freestanding or even-span green- amount. In winter, 20 to 30 percent of one air volume fans at the other end of the greenhouse to pull the air
tions on space, sunlight, ventilation, and temperature
control. The height of the supporting wall limits the house that is 17 to 18 feet wide. It can house a central exchange per minute is sufficient for mixing in cool air through the house.
potential size of the lean-to. The wider the lean-to, the bench, two side benches, and two walkways. The ratio without chilling the plants.
higher the supporting wall must be. Temperature con- of cost to the usable growing space is good. One single-speed fan cannot meet this criteria. Two Controllers/Automation
trol is more difficult because the wall that the green- When deciding on the type of structure, be sure to single-speed fans are better. A combination of a single- Automatic control is essential to maintain a reason-
house is built on may collect the sun’s heat while the plan for adequate bench space, storage space, and room speed fan and a two-speed fan allows three ventilation able environment in the greenhouse. On a winter day
translucent cover of the greenhouse may lose heat for future expansion. Large greenhouses are easier to rates that best satisfy year round needs. A single-stage with varying amounts of sunlight and clouds, the tem-
2 7
1. A is the total exposed (outside) area of the green-
house sides, ends, and roof in square feet (ft2). On a
quonset, the sides and roof are one unit; measure the
length of the curved rafter (ground to ground) and
multiply by the length of the house. The curved end
area is 2 (ends) × 2/3 × height × width. Add the sum of
the first calculation with that of the second.
2. u is the heat loss factor that quantifies the rate at
which heat energy flows out of the greenhouse. For
example, a single cover of plastic or glass has a value of
1.2 Btu/h × ft2 × °F (heat loss in Btu’s per hour per
each square foot of area per degree in Fahrenheit); a A straight-eave lean-to greenhouse can fit This is an example of a curved-eave lean-to
double-layer cover has a value of 0.8 Btu/h × ft2 × °F.
24'
under the roof of a single-story house. built on a two-story house.
A table of u values is provided in Extension Bulletin
6'
351 Greenhouse Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation D
Systems. The values allow for some air infiltration but
are based on the assumption that the greenhouse is fair-
8'
6'
ly airtight.
3. (Ti – To) is the maximum temperature difference
between the lowest outside temperature (To) in your 16'
region and the temperature to be maintained in the
greenhouse (Ti). For example, the maximum difference
will usually occur in the early morning with the occur- Figure 4. Use the greenhouse’s dimensions to determine
rence of a 0 °F to –5 °F outside temperature while a the necessary heating system capacity.
60 °F inside temperature is maintained. Plan for a tem-
perature differential of 60 to 65 °F. The following equa-
tion summarizes this description: Q = A × u × (Ti – To). An even-span attached to a garage allows a larger greenhouse in a limited space.
This discussion is a bit technical, but these factors
Example. If a rigid-frame or post and rafter must be considered when choosing a greenhouse. Note
freestanding greenhouse 16 feet wide by 24 feet the effect of each value on the outcome. When different
long, 12 feet high at the ridge, with 6 feet side- materials are used in the construction of the walls or
walls, is covered with single-layer glass from the roof, heat loss must be calculated for each. For electrical
ground to the ridge, what size gas heater would heating, convert Btu/h to kilowatts by dividing Btu/h
be needed to maintain 60 °F on the coldest by 3,413. If a wood, gas, or oil burner is located in the
winter night (0 °F)? Calculate the total outside greenhouse, a fresh-air inlet is recommended to main-
area (Figure 4): tain an oxygen supply to the burner. Place a piece of
plastic pipe through the outside cover to ensure that
two long sides 2 × 6 ft × 24 ft = 288 ft2 oxygen gets to the burner combustion air intake. The
two ends 2 × 6 ft × 16 ft = 192 ft2 inlet pipe should be the diameter of the flue pipe. A
Free-standing greenhouses allow more location choices
roof 2 × 10 ft × 24 ft = 480 ft2 piece of plastic pipe about the size of the flue pipe and can be larger than attached greenhouses.
gable ends 2 × 6 ft × 8 ft = 96 ft2 through the outside cover to a point near the burner
A = 1,056 ft2 combustion air intake would be adequate. This ensures
adequate air for combustion in an airtight greenhouse.
Select the proper heat loss factor, u = 1.2 Btu/h Unvented heaters (no chimney) using propane gas or
× ft2 × °F. The temperature differential is 60 °F kerosene are not recommended.
– 0 ºF = 60 °F.
Q = 1,056 × 1.2 × 60 = 76,032 Btu/h (furnace Air Circulation
output). Installing circulating fans in your greenhouse is a
good investment. During the winter when the green-
Although this is a relatively small greenhouse, the house is heated, you need to maintain air circulation so
furnace output is equivalent to that in a small residence that temperatures remain uniform throughout the
such as a townhouse. The actual furnace rated capacity greenhouse. Without air-mixing fans, the warm air rises
A window-mounted unit extends a house’s growing space.
takes into account the efficiency of the furnace and is to the top and cool air settles around the plants on the
called the furnace input fuel rating. floor. Figure 2. Different types of greenhouses allow many options.
6 3
manage because temperatures in small greenhouses fluc- Rigid-frame. The rigid-frame structure has vertical Double-wall plastic. Rigid double-layer plastic Environmental Systems
tuate more rapidly. Small greenhouses have a large sidewalls and rafters for a clear-span construction: sheets of acrylic or polycarbonate are available to give
exposed area through which heat is lost or gained, and There are no columns or trusses to support the roof. long-life, heat-saving covers. These covers have two lay- Greenhouses provide a shelter in which a suitable
the air volume inside is relatively small; therefore, the Glued or nailed plywood gussets connect the sidewall ers of rigid plastic separated by webs. The double-layer environment is maintained for plants. Solar energy
air temperature changes quickly in a small greenhouse. supports to the rafters to make one rigid frame. The material retains more heat, so energy savings of 30 per- from the sun provides sunlight and some heat, but you
Suggested minimum sizes are 6 feet wide by 10 feet conventional gable roof and sidewalls allow maximum cent are common. The acrylic is a long-life, nonyellow- must provide a system to regulate the environment in
long for a lean-to and 8 or 10 feet wide by 12 feet long interior space and air circulation. A good foundation is ing material; the polycarbonate normally yellows faster, your greenhouse. This is done by using heaters, fans,
for an even-span or freestanding greenhouse. required to support the lateral load on the sidewalls. but usually is protected by a UV-inhibitor coating on thermostats, and other equipment.
Post and rafter and A-frame. The post and rafter is the exposed surface. Both materials carry warranties for
Structural Materials 10 years on their light transmission qualities. Both can
Heating
a simple construction of an embedded post and rafter,
but it requires more wood or metal than some other be used on curved surfaces; the polycarbonate material The heating requirements of a greenhouse depend
A good selection of commercial greenhouse frames
designs. Strong sidewall posts and deep post embed- can be curved the most. As a general rule, each layer on the desired temperature for the plants grown, the
and framing materials is available. The frames are made
reduces light by about 10 percent. About 80 percent of location and construction of the greenhouse, and the
of wood, galvanized steel, or aluminum. Build-it-your- ment are required to withstand outward rafter forces
the light filters through double-layer plastic, compared total outside exposed area of the structure. As much as
self greenhouse plans are usually for structures with and wind pressures. Like the rigid frame, the post and
with 90 percent for glass. 25 percent of the daily heat requirement may come
wood or metal pipe frames. Plastic pipe materials gener- rafter design allows more space along the sidewalls and
ally are inadequate to meet snow and wind load require- Film plastic. Film-plastic coverings are available in from the sun, but a lightly insulated greenhouse struc-
efficient air circulation. The A-frame is similar to the
ments. Frames can be covered with glass, rigid fiber- several grades of quality and several different materials. ture will need a great deal of heat on a cold winter
post and rafter construction except that a collar beam
glass, rigid double-wall plastics, or plastic film. All have Generally, these are replaced more frequently than other night. The heating system must be adequate to main-
ties the upper parts of the rafters together.
advantages and disadvantages. Each of these materials covers. Structural costs are very low because the frame tain the desired day or night temperature.
should be considered––it pays to shop around for ideas. Coverings can be lighter and plastic film is inexpensive. Light Usually the home heating system is not adequate to
transmission of these film-plastic coverings is compara- heat an adjacent greenhouse. A 220-volt circuit electric
Greenhouse coverings include long-life glass, fiber-
Frames glass, rigid double-wall plastics, and film plastics with ble to glass. The films are made of polyethylene (PE), heater, however, is clean, efficient, and works well.
Greenhouse frames range from simple to complex, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), copolymers, and other mate- Small gas or oil heaters designed to be installed through
1- to 3-year lifespans. The type of frame and cover must a masonry wall also work well.
depending on the imagination of the designer and engi- be matched correctly. rials. A utility grade of PE that will last about a year is
neering requirements. The following are several com- available at local hardware stores. Commercial green- Solar-heated greenhouses were popular briefly dur-
Glass. Glass is the traditional covering. It has a ing the energy crisis, but they did not prove to be eco-
mon frames (Figure 3). pleasing appearance, is inexpensive to maintain, and has house grade PE has ultraviolet inhibitors in it to protect
Quonset. The quonset is a simple and efficient con- nomical to use. Separate solar collection and storage
a high degree of permanency. An aluminum frame with against ultraviolet rays; it lasts 12 to 18 months.
struction with an electrical conduit or galvanized steel systems are large and require much space. However,
a glass covering provides a maintenance-free, weather- Copolymers last 2 to 3 years. New additives have
pipe frame. The frame is circular and usually covered greenhouse owners can experiment with heat-collecting
tight structure that minimizes heat costs and retains allowed the manufacture of film plastics that block and
with plastic sheeting. Quonset sidewall height is low, methods to reduce fossil-fuel consumption. One
humidity. Glass is available in many forms that would reflect radiated heat back into the greenhouse, as does
which restricts storage space and headroom method is to paint containers black to attract heat, and
be suitable with almost any style or architecture. glass, which helps reduce heating costs. PVC or vinyl
Gothic. The gothic frame construction is similar to fill them with water to retain it. However, because the
Tempered glass is frequently used because it is two or film costs two to five times as much as PE but lasts as
that of the quonset but it has a gothic shape (Figure 3). greenhouse air temperature must be kept at plant-grow-
three times stronger than regular glass. Small prefabri- long as 5 years. However, it is available only in sheets 4
Wooden arches may be used and joined at the ridge. ing temperatures, the greenhouse itself is not a good
cated glass greenhouses are available for do-it-yourself to 6 feet wide. It attracts dust from the air, so it must be
The gothic shape allows more headroom at the sidewall solar-heat collector.
installation, but most should be built by the manufac- washed occasionally.
than does the quonset. Heating systems can be fueled by electricity, gas, oil,
turer because they can be difficult to construct. or wood. The heat can be distributed by forced hot air,
The disadvantages of glass are that it is easily broken, Foundations and Floors radiant heat, hot water, or steam. The choice of a heat-
is initially expensive to build, and requires much better Permanent foundations should be provided for glass, ing system and fuel depends on what is locally available,
frame construction than fiberglass or plastic. A good fiberglass, or the double-layer rigid-plastic sheet materi- the production requirements of the plants, cost, and
foundation is required, and the frames must be strong als. The manufacturer should provide plans for the individual choice. For safety purposes, and to prevent
and must fit well together to support heavy, rigid glass. foundation construction. Most home greenhouses harmful gases from contacting plants, all gas, oil, and
Fiberglass. Fiberglass is lightweight, strong, and require a poured concrete foundation similar to those in woodburning systems must be properly vented to the
Rigid-frame Quonset practically hailproof. A good grade of fiberglass should residential houses. Quonset greenhouses with pipe outside. Use fresh-air vents to supply oxygen for burn-
be used because poor grades discolor and reduce light frames and a plastic cover use posts driven into the ers for complete combustion. Safety controls, such as
penetration. Use only clear, transparent, or translucent ground. safety pilots and a gas shutoff switch, should be used as
grades for greenhouse construction. Tedlar-coated fiber- Permanent flooring is not recommended because it required. Portable kerosene heaters used in homes are
A-frame glass lasts 15 to 20 years. The resin covering the glass may stay wet and slippery from soil mix media. A con- risky because some plants are sensitive to gases formed
fibers will eventually wear off, allowing dirt to be crete, gravel, or stone walkway 24 to 36 inches wide can when the fuel is burned.
retained by exposed fibers. A new coat of resin is need- be built for easy access to the plants. The rest of the Calculating heating system capacity. Heating sys-
Gothic Post and rafter ed after 10 to 15 years. Light penetration is initially as floor should be covered by several inches of gravel for tems are rated in British thermal units (Btu) per hour
Figure 3. Greenhouses can have a variety of good as glass but can drop off considerably over time drainage of excess water. Water also can be sprayed on (h). The Btu capacity of the heating system, Q, can be
different structural frames. with poor grades of fiberglass. the gravel to produce humidity in the greenhouse. estimated easily using three factors:
4 5
manage because temperatures in small greenhouses fluc- Rigid-frame. The rigid-frame structure has vertical Double-wall plastic. Rigid double-layer plastic Environmental Systems
tuate more rapidly. Small greenhouses have a large sidewalls and rafters for a clear-span construction: sheets of acrylic or polycarbonate are available to give
exposed area through which heat is lost or gained, and There are no columns or trusses to support the roof. long-life, heat-saving covers. These covers have two lay- Greenhouses provide a shelter in which a suitable
the air volume inside is relatively small; therefore, the Glued or nailed plywood gussets connect the sidewall ers of rigid plastic separated by webs. The double-layer environment is maintained for plants. Solar energy
air temperature changes quickly in a small greenhouse. supports to the rafters to make one rigid frame. The material retains more heat, so energy savings of 30 per- from the sun provides sunlight and some heat, but you
Suggested minimum sizes are 6 feet wide by 10 feet conventional gable roof and sidewalls allow maximum cent are common. The acrylic is a long-life, nonyellow- must provide a system to regulate the environment in
long for a lean-to and 8 or 10 feet wide by 12 feet long interior space and air circulation. A good foundation is ing material; the polycarbonate normally yellows faster, your greenhouse. This is done by using heaters, fans,
for an even-span or freestanding greenhouse. required to support the lateral load on the sidewalls. but usually is protected by a UV-inhibitor coating on thermostats, and other equipment.
Post and rafter and A-frame. The post and rafter is the exposed surface. Both materials carry warranties for
Structural Materials 10 years on their light transmission qualities. Both can
Heating
a simple construction of an embedded post and rafter,
but it requires more wood or metal than some other be used on curved surfaces; the polycarbonate material The heating requirements of a greenhouse depend
A good selection of commercial greenhouse frames
designs. Strong sidewall posts and deep post embed- can be curved the most. As a general rule, each layer on the desired temperature for the plants grown, the
and framing materials is available. The frames are made
reduces light by about 10 percent. About 80 percent of location and construction of the greenhouse, and the
of wood, galvanized steel, or aluminum. Build-it-your- ment are required to withstand outward rafter forces
the light filters through double-layer plastic, compared total outside exposed area of the structure. As much as
self greenhouse plans are usually for structures with and wind pressures. Like the rigid frame, the post and
with 90 percent for glass. 25 percent of the daily heat requirement may come
wood or metal pipe frames. Plastic pipe materials gener- rafter design allows more space along the sidewalls and
ally are inadequate to meet snow and wind load require- Film plastic. Film-plastic coverings are available in from the sun, but a lightly insulated greenhouse struc-
efficient air circulation. The A-frame is similar to the
ments. Frames can be covered with glass, rigid fiber- several grades of quality and several different materials. ture will need a great deal of heat on a cold winter
post and rafter construction except that a collar beam
glass, rigid double-wall plastics, or plastic film. All have Generally, these are replaced more frequently than other night. The heating system must be adequate to main-
ties the upper parts of the rafters together.
advantages and disadvantages. Each of these materials covers. Structural costs are very low because the frame tain the desired day or night temperature.
should be considered––it pays to shop around for ideas. Coverings can be lighter and plastic film is inexpensive. Light Usually the home heating system is not adequate to
transmission of these film-plastic coverings is compara- heat an adjacent greenhouse. A 220-volt circuit electric
Greenhouse coverings include long-life glass, fiber-
Frames glass, rigid double-wall plastics, and film plastics with ble to glass. The films are made of polyethylene (PE), heater, however, is clean, efficient, and works well.
Greenhouse frames range from simple to complex, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), copolymers, and other mate- Small gas or oil heaters designed to be installed through
1- to 3-year lifespans. The type of frame and cover must a masonry wall also work well.
depending on the imagination of the designer and engi- be matched correctly. rials. A utility grade of PE that will last about a year is
neering requirements. The following are several com- available at local hardware stores. Commercial green- Solar-heated greenhouses were popular briefly dur-
Glass. Glass is the traditional covering. It has a ing the energy crisis, but they did not prove to be eco-
mon frames (Figure 3). pleasing appearance, is inexpensive to maintain, and has house grade PE has ultraviolet inhibitors in it to protect
Quonset. The quonset is a simple and efficient con- nomical to use. Separate solar collection and storage
a high degree of permanency. An aluminum frame with against ultraviolet rays; it lasts 12 to 18 months.
struction with an electrical conduit or galvanized steel systems are large and require much space. However,
a glass covering provides a maintenance-free, weather- Copolymers last 2 to 3 years. New additives have
pipe frame. The frame is circular and usually covered greenhouse owners can experiment with heat-collecting
tight structure that minimizes heat costs and retains allowed the manufacture of film plastics that block and
with plastic sheeting. Quonset sidewall height is low, methods to reduce fossil-fuel consumption. One
humidity. Glass is available in many forms that would reflect radiated heat back into the greenhouse, as does
which restricts storage space and headroom method is to paint containers black to attract heat, and
be suitable with almost any style or architecture. glass, which helps reduce heating costs. PVC or vinyl
Gothic. The gothic frame construction is similar to fill them with water to retain it. However, because the
Tempered glass is frequently used because it is two or film costs two to five times as much as PE but lasts as
that of the quonset but it has a gothic shape (Figure 3). greenhouse air temperature must be kept at plant-grow-
three times stronger than regular glass. Small prefabri- long as 5 years. However, it is available only in sheets 4
Wooden arches may be used and joined at the ridge. ing temperatures, the greenhouse itself is not a good
cated glass greenhouses are available for do-it-yourself to 6 feet wide. It attracts dust from the air, so it must be
The gothic shape allows more headroom at the sidewall solar-heat collector.
installation, but most should be built by the manufac- washed occasionally.
than does the quonset. Heating systems can be fueled by electricity, gas, oil,
turer because they can be difficult to construct. or wood. The heat can be distributed by forced hot air,
The disadvantages of glass are that it is easily broken, Foundations and Floors radiant heat, hot water, or steam. The choice of a heat-
is initially expensive to build, and requires much better Permanent foundations should be provided for glass, ing system and fuel depends on what is locally available,
frame construction than fiberglass or plastic. A good fiberglass, or the double-layer rigid-plastic sheet materi- the production requirements of the plants, cost, and
foundation is required, and the frames must be strong als. The manufacturer should provide plans for the individual choice. For safety purposes, and to prevent
and must fit well together to support heavy, rigid glass. foundation construction. Most home greenhouses harmful gases from contacting plants, all gas, oil, and
Fiberglass. Fiberglass is lightweight, strong, and require a poured concrete foundation similar to those in woodburning systems must be properly vented to the
Rigid-frame Quonset practically hailproof. A good grade of fiberglass should residential houses. Quonset greenhouses with pipe outside. Use fresh-air vents to supply oxygen for burn-
be used because poor grades discolor and reduce light frames and a plastic cover use posts driven into the ers for complete combustion. Safety controls, such as
penetration. Use only clear, transparent, or translucent ground. safety pilots and a gas shutoff switch, should be used as
grades for greenhouse construction. Tedlar-coated fiber- Permanent flooring is not recommended because it required. Portable kerosene heaters used in homes are
A-frame glass lasts 15 to 20 years. The resin covering the glass may stay wet and slippery from soil mix media. A con- risky because some plants are sensitive to gases formed
fibers will eventually wear off, allowing dirt to be crete, gravel, or stone walkway 24 to 36 inches wide can when the fuel is burned.
retained by exposed fibers. A new coat of resin is need- be built for easy access to the plants. The rest of the Calculating heating system capacity. Heating sys-
Gothic Post and rafter ed after 10 to 15 years. Light penetration is initially as floor should be covered by several inches of gravel for tems are rated in British thermal units (Btu) per hour
Figure 3. Greenhouses can have a variety of good as glass but can drop off considerably over time drainage of excess water. Water also can be sprayed on (h). The Btu capacity of the heating system, Q, can be
different structural frames. with poor grades of fiberglass. the gravel to produce humidity in the greenhouse. estimated easily using three factors:
4 5
1. A is the total exposed (outside) area of the green-
house sides, ends, and roof in square feet (ft2). On a
quonset, the sides and roof are one unit; measure the
length of the curved rafter (ground to ground) and
multiply by the length of the house. The curved end
area is 2 (ends) × 2/3 × height × width. Add the sum of
the first calculation with that of the second.
2. u is the heat loss factor that quantifies the rate at
which heat energy flows out of the greenhouse. For
example, a single cover of plastic or glass has a value of
1.2 Btu/h × ft2 × °F (heat loss in Btu’s per hour per
each square foot of area per degree in Fahrenheit); a A straight-eave lean-to greenhouse can fit This is an example of a curved-eave lean-to
double-layer cover has a value of 0.8 Btu/h × ft2 × °F.
24'
under the roof of a single-story house. built on a two-story house.
A table of u values is provided in Extension Bulletin
6'
351 Greenhouse Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation D
Systems. The values allow for some air infiltration but
are based on the assumption that the greenhouse is fair-
8'
6'
ly airtight.
3. (Ti – To) is the maximum temperature difference
between the lowest outside temperature (To) in your 16'
region and the temperature to be maintained in the
greenhouse (Ti). For example, the maximum difference
will usually occur in the early morning with the occur- Figure 4. Use the greenhouse’s dimensions to determine
rence of a 0 °F to –5 °F outside temperature while a the necessary heating system capacity.
60 °F inside temperature is maintained. Plan for a tem-
perature differential of 60 to 65 °F. The following equa-
tion summarizes this description: Q = A × u × (Ti – To). An even-span attached to a garage allows a larger greenhouse in a limited space.
This discussion is a bit technical, but these factors
Example. If a rigid-frame or post and rafter must be considered when choosing a greenhouse. Note
freestanding greenhouse 16 feet wide by 24 feet the effect of each value on the outcome. When different
long, 12 feet high at the ridge, with 6 feet side- materials are used in the construction of the walls or
walls, is covered with single-layer glass from the roof, heat loss must be calculated for each. For electrical
ground to the ridge, what size gas heater would heating, convert Btu/h to kilowatts by dividing Btu/h
be needed to maintain 60 °F on the coldest by 3,413. If a wood, gas, or oil burner is located in the
winter night (0 °F)? Calculate the total outside greenhouse, a fresh-air inlet is recommended to main-
area (Figure 4): tain an oxygen supply to the burner. Place a piece of
plastic pipe through the outside cover to ensure that
two long sides 2 × 6 ft × 24 ft = 288 ft2 oxygen gets to the burner combustion air intake. The
two ends 2 × 6 ft × 16 ft = 192 ft2 inlet pipe should be the diameter of the flue pipe. A
Free-standing greenhouses allow more location choices
roof 2 × 10 ft × 24 ft = 480 ft2 piece of plastic pipe about the size of the flue pipe and can be larger than attached greenhouses.
gable ends 2 × 6 ft × 8 ft = 96 ft2 through the outside cover to a point near the burner
A = 1,056 ft2 combustion air intake would be adequate. This ensures
adequate air for combustion in an airtight greenhouse.
Select the proper heat loss factor, u = 1.2 Btu/h Unvented heaters (no chimney) using propane gas or
× ft2 × °F. The temperature differential is 60 °F kerosene are not recommended.
– 0 ºF = 60 °F.
Q = 1,056 × 1.2 × 60 = 76,032 Btu/h (furnace Air Circulation
output). Installing circulating fans in your greenhouse is a
good investment. During the winter when the green-
Although this is a relatively small greenhouse, the house is heated, you need to maintain air circulation so
furnace output is equivalent to that in a small residence that temperatures remain uniform throughout the
such as a townhouse. The actual furnace rated capacity greenhouse. Without air-mixing fans, the warm air rises
A window-mounted unit extends a house’s growing space.
takes into account the efficiency of the furnace and is to the top and cool air settles around the plants on the
called the furnace input fuel rating. floor. Figure 2. Different types of greenhouses allow many options.
6 3
Small fans with a cubic-foot-per-minute (ft3/min) and a two-stage thermostat are needed to control the
air-moving capacity equal to one quarter of the air vol- operation.
ume of the greenhouse are sufficient. For small green- A two-speed motor on low speed delivers about 70
Summer sun houses (less than 60 feet long), place the fans in diago- percent of its full capacity. If the two fans have the same
nally opposite corners but out from the ends and sides. capacity rating, then the low-speed fan supplies about
The goal is to develop a circular (oval) pattern of air 35 percent of the combined total. This rate of ventila-
movement. Operate the fans continuously during the tion is reasonable for the winter. In spring, the fan oper-
winter. Turn these fans off during the summer when the ates on high speed. In summer, both fans operate on
greenhouse will need to be ventilated. high speed.
The fan in a forced-air heating system can some- Refer to the earlier example of a small greenhouse. A
Winter sun times be used to provide continuous air circulation. 16-foot wide by 24-foot long house would need an esti-
The fan must be wired to an on/off switch so it can run mated ft3 per minute (cubic feet per minute; CFM)
continuously, separate from the thermostatically con- total capacity; that is, 16 × 24 × 12 ft3 per minute. For
trolled burner. use all year, select two fans to deliver 2,300 ft3 per
minute each, one fan to have two speeds so that the
Ventilation low-speed rating is about 1,600 ft3 per minute and the
Figure 1. Select location carefully. Note where the shade line occurs in both the winter and summer. high speed is 2,300 ft3 per minute. Adding the second
Ventilation is the exchange of inside air for outside
fan, the third ventilation rate is the sum of both fans on
air to control temperature, remove moisture, or replen-
high speed, or 4,600 ft3 per minute.
ish carbon dioxide (CO2). Several ventilation systems
rounding ground so rainwater and irrigation water will rapidly. The lean-to should face the best direction for Some glass greenhouses are sold with a manual ridge
can be used. Be careful when mixing parts of two
drain away. Other site considerations include the light adequate sun exposure. Finally, consider the location of vent, even when a mechanical system is specified. The
systems.
requirements of the plants to be grown; locations of windows and doors on the supporting structure and manual system can be a backup system, but it does not
Natural ventilation uses roof vents on the ridge line
sources of heat, water, and electricity; and shelter from that snow, ice, or heavy rain might slide off the roof of take the place of a motorized louver. Do not take short-
winter wind. Access to the greenhouse should be conve- the house onto the structure. with side inlet vents (louvers). Warm air rises on con-
cuts in developing an automatic control system.
nient for both people and utilities. A workplace for pot- Even-span. An even-span is a full-size structure that vective currents to escape through the top, drawing cool
ting plants and a storage area for supplies should be has one gable end attached to another building (Fig- air in through the sides. Cooling
nearby. ure 2). It is usually the largest and most costly option, Mechanical ventilation uses an exhaust fan to move
Air movement by ventilation alone may not be ade-
but it provides more usable space and can be length- air out one end of the greenhouse while outside air quate in the middle of the summer; the air temperature
enters the other end through motorized inlet louvers.
Types of Greenhouses ened. The even-span has a better shape than a lean-to
Exhaust fans should be sized to exchange the total vol-
may need to be lowered with evaporative cooling. Also,
A home greenhouse can be attached to a house or for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures the light intensity may be too great for the plants.
during the winter heating season. An even-span can ume of air in the greenhouse each minute. During the summer, evaporative cooling, shade cloth,
garage, or it can be a freestanding structure. The chosen The total volume of air in a medium to large green-
site and personal preference can dictate the choices to accommodate two to three benches for growing crops. or paint may be necessary. Shade materials include roll-
Window-mounted. A window-mounted greenhouse can be estimated by multiplying the floor area up screens of wood or aluminum, vinyl netting, and paint.
be considered. An attached greenhouse can be a half times 8.0 (the average height of a greenhouse). A small
greenhouse, a full-size structure, or an extended win- house can be attached on the south or east side of a Small package evaporative coolers have a fan and
house. This glass enclosure gives space for conveniently greenhouse (less than 5,000 ft3 in air volume) should evaporative pad in one box to evaporate water, which
dow structure. There are advantages and disadvantages have an exhaust-fan capacity estimated by multiplying
to each type. growing a few plants at relatively low cost (Figure 2). cools air and increases humidity. Heat is removed from
The special window extends outward from the house a the floor area by 12. the air to change water from liquid to a vapor. Moist,
Attached Greenhouses foot or so and can contain two or three shelves. The capacity of the exhaust fan should be selected at cooler air enters the greenhouse while heated air passes
one-eighth of an inch static water pressure.The static out through roof vents or exhaust louvers. The evapora-
Lean-to. A lean-to greenhouse is a half greenhouse,
split along the peak of the roof, or ridge line (Figure 2).
Freestanding Structures pressure rating accounts for air resistance through the tive cooler works best when the humidity of the outside
Freestanding greenhouses are separate structures; louvers, fans, and greenhouse and is usually shown in air is low. The system can be used without water evapo-
Lean-to’s are useful where space is limited to a width of
they can be set apart from other buildings to get more the fan selection chart. ration to provide the ventilation of the greenhouse. Size
approximately 7 to 12 feet, and they are the least expen-
sun and can be made as large or small as desired Ventilation requirements vary with the weather and the evaporative cooler capacity at 1.0 to 1.5 times the
sive structures. The ridge of the lean-to is attached to a
(Figure 2). A separate heating system is needed, and season. One must decide how much the greenhouse will volume of the greenhouse. An alternative system, used
building using one side and an existing doorway, if
electricity and water must be installed. be used. In summer, 1 to 1 1/2 air volume changes per in commercial greenhouses, places the pads on the air
available. Lean-to’s are close to available electricity,
The lowest cost per square foot of growing space is minute are needed. Small greenhouses need the larger inlets at one end of the greenhouse and uses the exhaust
water, and heat. The disadvantages include some limita-
generally available in a freestanding or even-span green- amount. In winter, 20 to 30 percent of one air volume fans at the other end of the greenhouse to pull the air
tions on space, sunlight, ventilation, and temperature
control. The height of the supporting wall limits the house that is 17 to 18 feet wide. It can house a central exchange per minute is sufficient for mixing in cool air through the house.
potential size of the lean-to. The wider the lean-to, the bench, two side benches, and two walkways. The ratio without chilling the plants.
higher the supporting wall must be. Temperature con- of cost to the usable growing space is good. One single-speed fan cannot meet this criteria. Two Controllers/Automation
trol is more difficult because the wall that the green- When deciding on the type of structure, be sure to single-speed fans are better. A combination of a single- Automatic control is essential to maintain a reason-
house is built on may collect the sun’s heat while the plan for adequate bench space, storage space, and room speed fan and a two-speed fan allows three ventilation able environment in the greenhouse. On a winter day
translucent cover of the greenhouse may lose heat for future expansion. Large greenhouses are easier to rates that best satisfy year round needs. A single-stage with varying amounts of sunlight and clouds, the tem-
2 7
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND AT COLLEGE PARK
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND EASTERN SHORE
small greenhouse is likely to have a variety of plant
materials, containers, and soil mixes that need different SIT
Y OF MA
R SIT
Y OF MA
R
ER
ER
YL
YL
amounts of water.
Planning a Home Greenhouse
UNIV
UNIV
AND
AND
Time clocks or mechanical evaporation sensors can A
E
O R
K
LL R ST
E G E PA ER N S H O
be used to control automatic watering systems. Mist
sprays can be used to create humidity or to moisten
seedlings. Watering kits can be obtained to water plants
in flats, benches, or pots. Fact Sheet 645
CO2 and Light

Carbon dioxide (CO2) and light are essential for
plant growth. As the sun rises in the morning to pro-
vide light, the plants begin to produce food energy David S. Ross
(photosynthesis). The level of CO2 drops in the green- Extension agricultural engineer
house as it is used by the plants. Ventilation replenishes Department of Agricultural Engineering
Figure 5. Thermostats in the middle of the greenhouse the CO2 in the greenhouse. Because CO2 and light
in a shaded, white, and aspirated box complement each other, electric lighting combined with
CO2 injection are used to increase yields of vegetable
What should a gardener consider when planning to chased, or they can be built of simple frames. However,
perature can fluctuate greatly; close supervision would and flowering crops. Bottled CO2, dry ice, and com-
build a small hobby greenhouse? What materials should only qualified electricians and plumbers should install
be required if a manual ventilation system were in use. bustion of sulfur-free fuels can be used as CO2 sources.
be used to build it? Does it need heating and cooling? the automatic systems.
Therefore, unless close monitoring is possible, both Commercial greenhouses use such methods.
Where can it be placed on the property? There are
hobbyists and commercial operators should have auto-
mated systems with thermostats or other sensors.
Alternative Growing Structures many considerations, and careful planning is important Location
before a project is started. The greenhouse should be located where it gets max-
Thermostats can be used to control individual units, A greenhouse is not always needed for growing
Building a home greenhouse does not need to be imum sunlight. The first choice of location is the south
or a central controller with one temperature sensor can plants. Plants can be germinated in one’s home in a
expensive or timeconsuming. It can be small and sim- or southeast side of a building or shade trees. Sunlight
be used. In either case, the sensor or sensors should be warm place under fluorescent lamps. The lamps must
ple, with a minimum investment in materials and all day is best, but morning sunlight on the east side is
shaded from the sun, located about plant height away be close together and not far above the plants.
equipment, or it can be a fully equipped, fancy, auto- sufficient for plants. An east side location captures the
from the sidewalls, and have constant airflow over A cold frame or hotbed can be used outdoors to
mated conservatory. The final choice of the type of most November to February sunlight. The next best
them. An aspirated box is suggested; the box houses continue the growth of young seedlings until the weath-
each sensor and has a small fan that moves greenhouse greenhouse will depend on the growing space desired, sites are southwest and west of major structures, where
er allows planting in a garden. A hotbed is similar to the
air through the box and over the sensor (Figure 5). The home architecture, available sites, and costs. The green- plants receive sunlight later in the day. North of major
cold frame, but it has a source of heat to maintain prop-
box should be painted white so it will reflect solar heat house must, however, provide the proper environment structures is the least desirable location and is good only
er temperatures.
and allow accurate readings of the air temperature. for growing plants. for plants that require little light. Morning sunlight is
For More Information Regardless of the size and type of greenhouse you most desirable because it allows the plant’s food produc-
Watering Systems For more information on environmental control sys-
choose, consider how much time you have to manage
the system. Do not be too ambitious; some new green-
tion process to begin early; thus, growth is maximized.
tems, refer to Extension Bulletin 351 Greenhouse Deciduous trees, such as maple and oak, can effec-
A water supply is essential. Hand watering is accept- house owners find they do not have as much time as
Heating, Circulation, and Ventilation Systems. For tively shade the greenhouse from the intense late after-
able for most greenhouse crops if someone is available they thought. On the other hand, it is a misconception
further discussion of hotbeds and cold frames, see Fact noon summer sun; however, they should not shade the
when the task needs to be done; however, many hobby- that greenhouses require constant attention. The envi-
ists work away from home during the day. A variety of Sheet 633 Hotbeds and Cold Frames for Starting Annual greenhouse in the morning. Deciduous trees also allow
ronment can be maintained with minimal upkeep using maximum exposure to the winter sun because they shed
automatic watering systems is available to help to do Plants, also available from your county Cooperative
automatic controls, which operate the heating, ventila- their leaves in the fall. Evergreen trees that have foliage
the task over short periods of time. Bear in mind, the Extension Service office.
tion, watering, humidity, and artificial lighting systems year round should not be located where they will shade
when no one is home. A hobbyist should invest in the greenhouse because they will block the less intense
automatic controls and start with easy-to-care-for plants. winter sun. You should aim to maximize winter sun
Sometimes the hobby grows into a business, so give exposure, particularly if the greenhouse is used all year.
some thought to the possibility of expanding your Remember that the sun is lower in the southern sky in
greenhouse in the future. winter causing long shadows to be cast by buildings and
Constructing the greenhouse yourself can make the evergreen trees (Figure 1).
project more enjoyable and less expensive if you are Good drainage is another requirement for the site.
P94/R96 handy with tools. Prefabricated greenhouses can be pur- When necessary, build the greenhouse above the sur-
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30,1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, University of Maryland at College Park,
and local governments. Thomas A. Fretz, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland at College Park.
8 The University of Maryland is equal opportunity. The University’s policies, programs, and activities are in conformance with pertinent Federal and State laws and regulations on nondis-
crimination regarding race, color, religion, age, national origin, sex, and disability. Inquiries regarding compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended; Title IX of the
Educational Amendments; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; and the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990; or related legal requirements should be directed to the Director
of Personnel/Human Relations, Office of the Dean, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742.
The Hobby Greenhouse
Michael A. Schnelle
Assistant Professor, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets
Extension Ornamentals/ Horticulture Specialist are also available on our website at:
Steven H. Dobbs
Extension Consumer, Floriculture Specialist
Douglas C Needham
Assistant Professor, Floriculture
John M. Dole
Assistant Professor, Floriculture
A greenhouse gives a homeowner an opportunity to

grow plants year-round in a controlled environment. While a
greenhouse can be either a substantial or nominal investment,
success as a hobby greenhouse grower will depend on the
degree of environmental control that can be maintained in the
structure. Environmental controls can be expensive, and as
most other hobbies, home greenhouses require a financial
commitment.
The first step would be to accurately assess greenhouse
requirements. Would a cold frame, hot bed, or window green- Figure 1. Attached Lean-to Greenhouse. This structure
house meet the requirements, or is more growing space is very convenient since it is placed close to existing
required? (It seems that regardless of the size selected, the utilities.
structure will be too small eventually). Larger greenhouses
(over 300 sq. ft.) cost less per square foot of useable space
than smaller ones, but cost more initially and cost more to op- • Limited space.
erate. Greenhouses are available in a large variety of shapes. • Limited light.
Select the style that will harmonize with other features on the • Limited ventilation and temperature control.
proposed site.
The greenhouse may be a free-standing structure, which The least expensive type is a window mounted green-
generally will provide more growing space and flexibility to house. It allows space to grow a few plants at relatively low
be placed anywhere on the property, or a lean-to structure cost for heating and cooling. This reach-in greenhouse is
attached to a wall of the home, garage, etc. Lean-to models available in many standard sizes, either in single units or
are frequently less desirable because there are limitations tandem arrangements for large windows. Only simple tools
on where they can be placed around the home. Preferred are needed to remove the regular window from the frame and
exposures are east and south. Regardless of the basic design, fasten a prefabricated window greenhouse in its place.
however, the greenhouse must receive a minimum of five to
six hours of unobstructed light during the winter months.
Attached Even-Span
The even-span greenhouse is the standard type—the
Attached Lean-To style generally visualized when thinking about a greenhouse.
A lean-to greenhouse is built against a building, using The even-span greenhouse is similar to a freestanding struc-
the existing structure for one or more of its sides. It is usually ture, except that it is attached to a house at one end. It can
secured to a house, but may be attached to other buildings accommodate two or three rows of plant benches. Attached
(Figure 1). The greenhouse is limited to single or double-row even-span greenhouses cost more than lean-to types, but
plant benches with a total width of 7 to 12 feet. It can be as have greater flexibility in design and accommodate more
long as the building to which it is attached. The advantage of plants.
the lean-to greenhouse is that it usually is close to available
electricity, water, and heat. The lean-to has the following
disadvantages:

Freestanding Some plants will grow in a greenhouse in any location.
However, types of plants which can be grown will be limited if
The freestanding greenhouse is a separate structure
the greenhouse is not placed in the best possible location.
and consists of sidewalls, end walls, and gable roof (Figure
Sometimes a greenhouse can be placed against a door,
2). It is assembled similar to an even-span, except that a
window, or basement entrance of the house. This allows heat
freestanding greenhouse is set apart from other buildings,
from the house to enter the greenhouse, makes the green-
allowing full exposure to the sun. It can be made as large or
house more accessible, and saves on construction costs.
small as desired.
The home heating bill, however, will increase significantly.
The freestanding greenhouse is more easily adapted to
With an L-shaped house, the cost of two greenhouse walls
the builder’s ideas of location, size, and shape than attached
can be saved by building the greenhouse in the “L.”
greenhouses. It also provides more light, but requires more
Wind protection may be more important than whether the
heat at night because of the additional exposed surface area.
greenhouse runs north and south or east and west. Protect
Separate heating and cooling systems will be necessary.
the greenhouse from winds by locating it so existing build-
ings will shield it, or by providing it with a windbreak hedge
or fence.
Designing the Greenhouse

Determine the exact dimensions for the greenhouse
before starting to build. Width is the most important dimen-
sion; it will not be changed during the life of the greenhouse.
Length can be increased if more space is desired.
Greenhouse Width
Determine the width of the greenhouse by adding the
widths of the plant benches and the walks. Allow approximately
six inches for walls at either side and two inches for air-cir-
culation space between the sidewalls and the benches.
Side benches are serviced from only one side and should
be no wider than one’s reach. For some people, this will be
Figure 2. Freestanding Greenhouse. This structure does two feet; for others, perhaps as much as three feet. Center
what its name implies; it stands alone. benches are serviced from both sides and, thus, can be as
wide as six feet. They should be narrow enough to permit
one to work comfortably.
Cost Determine the width of the walkways according to their
The lowest cost per square foot of growing space is intended use. If they will be used only as a place to stand
available in a 17 to 18-foot wide even-span greenhouse. It while servicing the benches, 18 or 19 inches is sufficiently
will house two side benches, two walks, and a wide center wide; however, if a wheelbarrow will be brought into the
bench. The lowest total cost for a greenhouse is a 7 to 12-foot greenhouse, the width must be greater. Wide walks, e.g. 24
wide lean-to house with double-row benches and a central to 30 inches, will allow easy passage for visitors who may
walk. Keep in mind that a lean-to greenhouse has less glass not be used to walking between rows of plants.
or other exposed covering; therefore, heating costs are less Should a disabled individual confined to a wheelchair
than for a free standing greenhouse. desire access, special design specifications should be kept in
mind. Access walks to the greenhouse (if freestanding) need
Locating the Greenhouse to be at least four feet wide, with a grade of no more than
five percent (6 inches every 10 feet). Obviously, these wide
After deciding on the type of greenhouse desired, its entrances and paths throughout the structure will influence
placement will need to be determined. An ideal site for a the width of the greenhouse.
greenhouse would be well drained, nearly level, and with full
exposure to sunlight. It would slope slightly to the south and Greenhouse Length
have a windbreak on the side of the prevailing wind.
Determine the length of the greenhouse by dividing the
The first choice for a greenhouse site should be on the
total number of plants to be grown in the greenhouse by the
south or southeast side of the house in a sunny location. The
density at which they can be spaced per linear foot of bench.
east side is the second best location, since it will capture the
For example, assume a freestanding greenhouse with two
most November to February sunlight. The next best locations
30-inch deep side benches and one 48-inch deep center
are the southwest and west, and the north side is the least
bench. Calculate the number of plants that could be grown
desirable location.
per linear foot of bench space. Thus, if 500 plants are to be
A greenhouse can be placed where it will be partly shaded
grown, and it is calculated that each side bench could grow
during the summer, when a reduction in light is desirable. Be
five plants per linear foot, and the center bench could grow
sure the greenhouse is not shaded too heavily, and take into
seven plants per linear foot, i.e. a total of 17 plants per linear
account the possibility of falling limbs that can damage the
foot, the greenhouse would need to be nearly 30 feet long,
greenhouse.
i.e. 500 divided by 17.
6705-2
Greenhouse Height Greenhouse Management
The height of the greenhouse depends on the desired
height to the eave. An eave height of 5 feet is satisfactory for Heating
side benches with low-growing plants. For tall plants, an eave Many types of heaters and heating systems are satis-
height of 6 or 7 feet is needed. The pitch of the roof should factory for greenhouses. Consider the initial cost, operating
be 6 in 12 (approximately 27 degrees). The eave height, the expenses, and available fuel. Greenhouses can be heated
distance from the sidewall to the center of the greenhouse, efficiently with coal, electricity, gas, or oil. A space heater, a
and the roof pitch will determine the height of your green- forced-air heater, a hot-water or steam system, or electric
house at the center. The height of the greenhouse should radiant heaters can be used. Radiant heat lamps over plants
be equal to the eave height plus one-fourth the width of the can be combined with soil heating cables under plants.
greenhouse. The required capacity of the heating system will depend
For instance, in an even-span greenhouse 18 feet wide, on the size of the greenhouse, the insulating or “R” value of
the distance from the sidewall to the center of the greenhouse the glazing material, and the maximum difference between
is 9 feet. The difference in height between the center of the inside and outside temperatures.
greenhouse and eave will be one-half of 9 feet, or 4 1/2 feet. Heating systems are rated in British thermal units (BTU)
If the eave is 5 feet high, the greenhouse should be 9 1/2 feet per hour. The company supplying the greenhouse should be
at the center. able to configure an appropriately sized heating system.
First, find the temperature difference. This is the dif-
Fiberglass Greenhouses ference in degrees Fahrenheit between the lowest outside
Fiberglass is lightweight, strong, and practically hailproof. temperature and the minimum temperature to be maintained
Corrugated panels or flat fiberglass are available. Poor grades inside the greenhouse. For instance, to maintain a minimum
of fiberglass will discolor, which reduces light transmission. inside temperature of 60oF with the coldest expected night
A good grade, on the other hand, may make a fiberglass temperature of -10oF, the temperature difference is 70oF. Next,
greenhouse as expensive to build as a glass house. If fiber- calculate the number of square feet of exposed glazing in the
glass is used, select the clearest grade. Do not use colored greenhouse. Do not forget to add the areas of the sides and
fiberglass. ends to the area of the roof.
Multiply the temperature difference by the number of
Plastic Greenhouses square feet. For example, if a 20 by 100-foot greenhouse
Plastic greenhouses are increasing in popularity be- has a total of 3,400 square feet of exposed plastic, multiply
cause: 3,400 by 70 (the temperature difference) yielding 238,000.
• Construction cost per square foot is generally one-sixth Now, if the greenhouse is covered with two layers of
to one-tenth the cost of glass greenhouses. plastic or glass, multiply the 238,000 by 0.8. If it is covered
• Plastic greenhouses can be heated as satisfactorily as with only one layer, multiply by 1.2. This will calculate the
glass greenhouses. required BTU per hour capacity of the heater. In the example,
• Plants grown under plastic have the same quality as a two-layer greenhouse would be:
those grown under glass.
• Plastic greenhouses are sometimes considered temporary 238,000 x 0.8 = 190,400 BTU per hour
structures and usually carry a low assessment rate for
tax purposes, or may not be taxed at all. The type of heating system selected will depend on funds
available to spend. The four types are:
Plastic greenhouses can be made of polyethylene (PE), • Space heater. For low-cost heating of small greenhouses,
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), copolymers of these materials, or use one or more ordinary space heaters. (WARNING:
other readily available clear films. Plastic coverings will have Gas, oil, or coal fired heaters need a fresh air supply
to be replaced more frequently than other glazings. for combustion as well as exhaust venting to avoid
carbon monoxide and ethylene accumulation.) Fans
Potting Shed/Workroom are also needed to improve circulation. In kerosene
heaters use only high-grade (low sulfur) kerosene to
A separate workroom or small building attached to the
avoid sulfur dioxide emission; the need for high ignition
greenhouse can be advantageous. Potting, seed sowing, soil
temperature is important to avoid carbon-monoxide and
mixing, etc. can be carried out while this room also serves as
ethylene buildup.
storage area for pots, growing media, stakes, pesticides, etc.
• Forced-air heater. The best system for heating a small
Keep this building attached to the greenhouse so that during
greenhouse is a forced-air furnace with a duct or plastic
cold weather plants can be moved freely about without worry
tube system to distribute heat. A thermostat can be used
of freeze damage. Tropical plants may be injured or killed by
to control the temperature in the greenhouse.
temperatures less than 50oF.
• Hot-water or steam heater. A hot-water system with a
The shed can be equipped with a bench for potting along
circulator or a steam system linked with automatic ven-
with containers or bins to store media ingredients, such as
tilation will give adequate temperature control. In many
peat moss, perlite, sand, etc. A small closet that can be locked
areas of Oklahoma, natural gas is readily available at
is a good idea for the pesticides, particularly when pets or
a low cost. This fuel is ideal for hot-water or a central
small children are present. Lastly, a sink with running water
steam system. Steam has an advantage in that it can be
should be considered to simplify washing of pots, syringing
used to pasteurize growing beds and potting soils. Hot
of plants, and other chores that may be necessary.
water and steam systems provide more precise control
6705-3
over temperature fluctuations and tend to operate more Polypropylene shade cloth can be purchased in custom
quietly than forced-air systems. sizes, in black or green, and in 30 to 100 percent light trans-
• Electric heater. Overhead infrared heating equipment, mission. These fabrics can be secured with rope or hooked
combined with soil cable heat, provides a localized plant onto the greenhouse by grommets woven into the binding.
environment that allows plants to thrive, even though the Vinyl plastic shading is made of a flexible film that reduces
surrounding air is at a lower than optimal temperature. light from 55 to 65 percent. The material comes in rolls and
Electric resistance type heaters are used as space heat- installs easily against the glass inside your greenhouse. To
ers or as an integral part of a forced air system. apply, just wash the glass with a wet sponge, then smooth
the plastic onto the wet glass. When smoothed into position
Important: Consider investing in a temperature alarm it adheres to the glass. It can be pulled off and used repeat-
system which alerts the hobbyist to any power failures. These edly.
thermalarms are worth the investment, particularly when grow- Shading compound can be applied on the outside of glass
ing expensive plants such as orchids or other highly prized greenhouses. Do not use shading compounds (whitewash)
tropicals. on materials other than glass. They may harm the glazing
(covering) and may not be easily or totally removable. Shad-
ing compound can be thinned with paint solvents. It comes
Ventilation in either white or green. Shading compound that mixes with
Even during cold weather, a greenhouse can get too water can also be used. The following is a homemade recipe
warm on bright, sunny days. Ventilation equipment, therefore, for whitewash. Mix 5 pounds hydrated lime with 3/4 gallon
should be built into the greenhouse to control temperatures water and allow this mixture to age overnight. Then dissolve
and humidity in all seasons. When using hand-operated roof 1 pound of common salt with 1/5 pound of zinc sulfate in 1/5
vents, frequent temperature checks will be required. As out- gallon of boiling water. Allow to cool, and then mix with lime
door weather changes, sashes must be opened and closed paste and stir well. Lastly, add 1/5 gallon of sweet skimmed
manually to keep plants from getting too hot or too cold. milk and again stir. Add water and keep stirring until desired
Automatic ventilation eliminates manual work and is thickness is reached.
the best way to cool a greenhouse. If your greenhouse has A lime paste can be mixed by using 50 pounds of hydrated
roof vents, for example, a thermostat and electric motor will lime with 6 gallons of water, or 38 pounds of quick lime with
open and close the vents. Temperature sensitive hydraulic 8 gallons water. An even more simplified formula is as fol-
pistons can be used to open and close small side and roof lows:
vents. Since they offer automatic ventilation without relying on
electricity, proper ventilation will be maintained, even during 1 part white latex paint to 10 parts water provides heavy
electrical outages. Fresh outside air is brought in through the shading; whereas,
side vents via convection as the warm air flows out through 1 part white latex paint to 15 to 20 parts water gives moderate
the roof vents. In addition to cooling the greenhouse, the or standard shading.
change of air improves growing conditions. Responding to
this air transfer, the thermostat will turn off and on to keep
desired temperatures for plants. Circulating and exhaust fans Removal of Shading Compound
provide good ventilation and are needed in both large and As fall approaches, maximum sunlight will be needed
small greenhouses. Exhaust fans should be large enough to again for greenhouse grown plants. Much of the shading
change the air in the greenhouse once every minute. To ac- compound may be worn off by this time, depending upon the
complish this, the capacity of the fan in cubic feet per minute solution applied. However, any remaining compound should
at 1/8-inch static pressure should equal the volume of the be scrubbed off clear glass to allow maximum light penetra-
greenhouse. The approximate volume can be calculated by tion.
multiplying the floor area by 7.
If the greenhouse is high enough, place the exhaust fan
Cooling can be a Problem
and the motorized intake louvers above the doors at opposite
end-walls. This will exhaust the hottest, most humid air and Cooling a greenhouse in Oklahoma is difficult. Two typical
prevent a direct draft on the plants near the intake. methods of cooling are used in the summer. The first method
Fan and duct ventilation can also be used for automatic is to reduce the light intensity passing through the covering
greenhouse heating and ventilation. Plastic ducts are sus- material by using a shading compound, a shade cloth, or wood
pended by wires or straps from the roof of the greenhouse. slats on the outside of the greenhouse. The second and most
The fan-heater-louver unit gives positive air flow, and the poly- effective method of greenhouse cooling is accomplished by
ethylene duct distributes the incoming air evenly throughout using an evaporative cooler. This system works by pulling
the house. outside air through a film of water thus cooling the air 15o
to 20oF by loss of heat through evaporation. The cool air is
pulled through the greenhouse by a fan. Evaporative coolers
Shading the Greenhouse work best at lower humidities. Most hobby greenhouse sup-
When protection from the sun is needed, use rollup screens ply companies have easy-to-install coolers made for hobby
of wood or aluminum, polypropylene shade cloth, vinyl plastic greenhouses. Such a system should receive equal priority
shading, or paint-on materials. Rollup screens are available to a heating system. The cost of operating an air conditioner
with pulleys and rot-resistant nylon ropes. These screens can to cool a greenhouse would be prohibitive and would likely
be easily adjusted from outside the greenhouse, as weather reduce humidity in the greenhouse to less than optimal lev-
and sunlight vary. els.
6705-4
The ideal temperature range for most greenhouse crops Associations
is 55o to 60oF for night temperature, and 70o to 75oF for day
Hobby Greenhouse Association
temperature. The day temperature should be 5o to 10o higher
8 Glen Terrace
than the night temperature on a cloudy day, and 10o to 15o
Bedford, MA 01730-2048
higher on a sunny, bright day. It is essential that a thermostat
(617) 275-0377
be located in the greenhouse in a central location, at plant
level, and away from direct exposure to sunlight. Do not rely
on the home cooling system with a thermostat in the living Oklahoma Supply Companies
area to cool the greenhouse. Cooling the greenhouse may Acme Engineering & Mfg. Corp.
also be thermostatically controlled. When the temperature P.O. Box 978
exceeds the desired temperature, the thermostat activates a Muskogee, OK 74402
small electric motor which opens a vent, turns on an exhaust (918) 682-7791
fan, and turns on an evaporative cooler. During summer
months, an evaporative cooler will be necessary to keep the American Plant Products and Services, Inc.
temperature close to the optimum level; at other times of the 9200 N.W. 10th
year, an open vent or exhaust fan will dissipate excessive Oklahoma City, OK 73127-9722
heat effectively. (405) 787-4833
Inside Maintenance Aqua-Hort Systems, Inc.

P.O. Box 57197
It is very important that the greenhouse be kept as clean
as possible. When this is overlooked, diseases and insects
1-800-446-1694
can rapidly become a major problem. Keep all paths and
floors free of weeds and debris. Don’t allow standing water
or muddy floors to exist. Consider gravel, concrete, or even Hobby Greenhouse Manufacturers and/or
bark floors for cleanliness and drainage. Keep dead and dying Hobby Greenhouse Supply Companies
growth pruned from plants, regularly. Many common sense
B and K Installations Co. Inc.
practices already practiced in the home are also applicable
246 SW 4th Ave.
in the greenhouse. Avoid the temptation to overcrowd the
Homestead, FL 33030
benches with plants, as this will prevent disease or insect
305-245-6968
problems.
B and W Greenhouse Construction Ltd.
P.O. Box 307
Weatherproof Wire Aldergrove, BC Canada VOX 1A0
Always weatherproof wire for all outside wiring. Wire size 604-852-5848
depends upon the distance to be covered and the electrical Dixie Greenhouse Mfg. Co.,
load on a circuit. Use approved terminal equipment and follow Route 1, Box 339
safe wiring practices. All wiring must conform to local wiring Alapaha, GA 31622
codes. It is worth the money spent and peace of mind to 912-532-2905
consult a qualified electrician before building a greenhouse.
Contact your county Extension educator for help in locating Fox Hill Farm
a few of your neighbors who have hobby greenhouses. Visit 20-M Lawrence
them to learn about their problems so that you can choose Vernon, CT 06066
the best greenhouse to suit your needs. 203-875-6676
Check local building codes and zoning laws before start-
ing construction. Greenhouse Mall
Any good book on houseplant care gives guidelines 9900 Highway 620 N.
or suggestions on what grows well in a greenhouse. Most Austin, TX 78726
growers are very surprised to see how much easier plants 512-250-0000
can be grown in the ideal environment a hobby greenhouse
provides. Refer to OSU Extension fact sheet F-6411 and J. A. Nearing Company Inc.
F-6425 regarding houseplant care and annual flowers. 9390 Davis Ave.
Guidelines within are applicable to greenhouse culture. Also, Laurel, MD 20723
readers interested in a commercial greenhouse operation 301-498-5700
should refer to OSU Extension fact sheet F-6700, F-6701, and U.S. 800-323-6933
F-6703. FAX 301-497-9751
6705-5
Northwest Eden Sales Inc. Vegetable factory Inc.
14219 NE 167th 71 Vanderbilt Ave.
Woodinville WA 98072 New York, NY 10169
206-881-1225 212-867-0113
U.S. 800-545-3336
Farm Wholesale, Inc.
Pacific Coast Greenhouse Mfg. Co. 2396 Perkins St. NE
2661 Gravenstein Hwy. S., Unit F Salem, OR 97303
Sebastopol, CA 95472 503-393-3973
707-823-9663 U.S. 800-825-1925
FAX 707-823-9709 FAX 503-393-3119
Snitches Sturdi-built Greenhouse Manufacturing Company

Route 10, Box 608-2 11304 SW Boones Ferry Road
Ft. Worth, TX 76135 Portland, OR 97219
817-237-6696 (503) 244-4100
Turner Greenhouses Gothic Arch Greenhouses

P.O. Box 1260 P.O. Box 1564
Goldsboro, NC 27530 Mobile, AL 36633
919-734-8345 (205) 432-7529
1-800-672-4770

6705-6
system.
system are:
program direction.
Extension director.
advise changes.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Cooperative
Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Direc-
tor of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 42 cents per copy. 0506
6705-7
Types of greenhouses and frames 1
Greenhouses vary greatly in size, shape and up by paths, doors and equipment such as Shapes and styles styles have come on to the market. These
type to meet the widely different demands of heaters and water tanks. The second way of Greenhouses are either free-standing or lean- usually have flat oblong wall panels but some
gardeners. This wide choice is not always calculating space is to consider the growing to, that is, supported on one side by a house also are geodesic in structure, miniature
helpful to the beginner, who is often thor- area in conjunction with the height at the or other wall. Free-standing houses may have versions of the vast space-dome-like Clima-
oughly confused by the variety of shapes and eaves and the height at the ridge. These two straight or inward sloping walls. Roof shapes tron greenhouse at the Missouri Botanic
materials. The basic factors which must be dimensions affect first the amount of grow- may be a simple span, hipped or double- Garden. Some of the more recent designs
considered are what the greenhouse is to be ing space for tall plants, such as tomatoes, hipped curvilinear. The "mini" lean-to is a have curved glass panels and an overall shape
used for, the amount of money available, and shrubs and climbers, and second ease of structure much narrower than the usual lean- that suggests the great Palm House at Kew
where the greenhouse is to be erected. access and comfort in use. In general, the to greenhouse. They are useful for the small Gardens in London. Certain circular styles
When buying a greenhouse, carefully larger the greenhouse the cheaper each unit garden or where wall space is at a premium. have decided aesthetic appeal and can be-
assess the amount of growing space required. of growing space becomes, though this is less The smallest ones are too narrow to enter and come a feature or focal point in the garden.
There are two ways of measuring growing apparent in those models where the walls maintenance of the plants is done from the In addition they contain a surprising amount
space. The first is a simple calculation of the slope inwards. All too often the beginner outside. On sunny walls overheating can be a of space, as the central path of a traditional
soil or bench area available, which tells how chooses a greenhouse which in time proves problem in summer. oblong structure is done away with. At
many plants may be accommodated. Simply to be too small. If cost dictates a small green- During recent years greenhouse manufac- present however, they are more expensive in
multiply the length of the greenhouse by the house to start with, make sure it is a model to turers have been seeking more original de- terms of growing space than structures of
breadth, taking account of the space taken which extra sections can be added. signs, and as a result circular and domed traditional shape.
Another departure from the traditional tages, and the choice must depend upon the The crucial factors in the choice of shape Mobile greenhouses
greenhouse is the use of a framework of use to which the greenhouse is to be put. If are accessibility, light transmission, and sta- Commercial growers use mobile greenhouses
tubular alloy or steel supporting a cover made crops are to be grown in the border, glass to bility and durability. Commercially-available of the D u t c h light type, which can be pulled
of plastic sheeting. Early models, still much ground is needed for light. If most plants will greenhouses can be expected to be stable, on a system of rails over crops. These allow a
used commercially, are called tunnel houses. be grown in pots, a staging is essential and the though the site must be taken into account in crop rotation program to be followed. For
Smaller versions of this simple pattern are wall area beneath it can be made solid. Brick, choosing a design. Plastic-covered houses, example, salad crops can be started on one
available for the amateur, and welded frame- wood or asbestos-cement half walls provide for instance, are less durable in very windy site in spring, then left to mature in the open
works in a variety of shapes are made. useful insulation, cutting the heating require- places. Accessibility covers factors such as while the house is moved onto a new site
Generally these have a traditional outline but ments of the greenhouse. A compromise is door design, which is dealt with on page 9, where tomatoes are grown.
some are dome-shaped. Plastic houses are to board the north wall only, gaining some and heights at eaves and ridge pole. Low-
cheaper than glass-clad ones but have draw- insulation with little effect on light values. built houses can be raised on a home-made Frames
backs in use (see pages 10 and 11). Removable w o o d e n insulation panels are plinth of brick, w o o d or concrete to give It is less easy to vary the overall design of a
made for some designs of greenhouse. These extra headroom. Light transmission is critical garden frame and the basic traditional shape
Design can be fitted in winter and removed when only in winter and early spring, for during the is still frequently met w i t h . This is a shallow
Greenhouses can be fully glazed, or they can crops are to be grown in the bed. Kick boards summer months more light is available than oblong box w i t h one end higher t h a n the
have one or more sides boarded or bricked should be fitted at the base of glass-to-ground is needed by the plants. Thus light is only of other and sloping sides shaped to hold a lid
up to staging height. Both styles have advan- walls to protect against accidental damage. concern when planning very early crops. or light of glass or plastic. A useful size is
4 x 6 ft. Double and multiple frames of this Cloches

design can be obtained. Variations include Until comparatively recently, cloches were
double span tops and glass walls with a made as units or sections, each one like an
number of different patented methods of open-ended greenhouse in miniature, fitting
opening. together to cover rows of crop plants. Made
Light-weight metal or plastic frames can be of sheets of glass and a variety of patented
moved around the garden and placed on metal clips, they were cumbersome and
ordinary beds in different positions as re- breakable but very efficient. Rigid plastic
quired. Traditional forms have permanent sheeting has largely taken over from glass for
bases of brick or w o o d . this type of sectional cloche. The most recent
Frames can be built along the sides of half- , development is the tunnel cloche made of
boarded greenhouses in order to benefit from strips of flexible plastic sheeting stretched The traditional cloche (a) was made of solid anchored with wire hoops. Plastic tunnel
surplus warmth from the greenhouse. over a series of wire hoops along a row and glass in a bell form. Class sheets joined cloches (e) consist of long plastic sheets
The simplest form of frame is just a light, held in place with further hoops over the top. with clips can be tent-shaped (b) or barn- bent over hoops and held w i t h more
a glass or plastic panel, placed over a shallow The ends are anchored firmly by burying shaped (c). Corrugated plastic sheeting (d) hoops. Plastic sheet attached to wire
pit. This allows pot or container plants to be them in the soil. Ventilation is by pushing up can be bent over rows of crops and frames forms a tent cloche (f).
hardened off. the plastic on the side away from the wind.
Structure materials 1
The superstructure of a greenhouse may be Unlike the wood-frame greenhouses once Metal is a good conductor of heat and cold Wood
made of wood, aluminum alloy or steel. Pre- widely sold, aluminum structures do not need and for this reason, condensation drip can be However wood greenhouses are still popular
stressed concrete, used for larger houses, is painting. This lack of regular maintenance is a nuisance in metal-framed houses. This heat for aesthetic reasons. The attractive colors of
too thick and heavy for smaller structures. a big factor in their popularity. conduction factor also means that metal redwood, cedar and cypress fit m u c h better
Steel is also used in greenhouse construc- houses are colder, or cool more rapidly than into the garden than the color of bright
Metal tion, either totally, as in some large commer- timber-framed ones, though the differences aluminum or steel.
Most custom-built greenhouses are made of cial houses, or in conjunction with an alloy in in temperatures between the t w o are small. Providing a w o o d house is properly con-
wood or aluminum alloy. The latter is now smaller ones. The steel must of course be gal- Unless the regular maintenance of painting structed and secured to a brick or concrete
by far the most popular material, being light vanized or treated in other ways to prevent and putty renewal is considered a pleasure, base and is initially treated with a w o o d pre-
and strong and easily extruded into the rusting. Although generally adequate, after aluminum or steel and aluminum houses are servative (if the wood is not naturally decay-
necessary shapes ready for bolting together time the galvanizing treatment breaks down much to be preferred to the various wood resistant), there is every chance it will out-
on the site. At one time, corrosion was a and rusting becomes a problem. Galvanizing houses, even those made of decay-resistant live its owner. Further painting w i t h a w o o d
problem, especially in areas of industrial air can also be broken down by an electrolytic redwood, red cedar or cypress, or other preservative, or better still, linseed oil about
pollution and near the sea. Modern alloy is reaction when alloy and steel members woods that have been treated with wood every five years or so is a wise precaution.
much more resistant so that corrosion is only touch. This factor is now well known however preservative. A metal greenhouse will allow Apart from the aesthetic considerations,
likely to occur in areas of very high industrial and seldom occurs in well-designed smaller the gardener to spend more time in the w o o d has some advantages when it comes to
pollution, which are not widespread. amateur greenhouses. greenhouse than working on it. installing extra shelving, securing wires for
Aluminum frame greenhouses are light to penetrate. The model shown has Cedar requires little maintenance and aluminum houses, but they have t h e
maintenance-free and have narrow glazing diagonal bracing struts for stability, a sliding blends well into the garden surroundings. advantage of being easily drilled for
bars, allowing the maximum amount of door and cement plinth foundations. The glazing bars are thicker than in fixings and plant supports.
Structure materials 2
i climbers ,andl hooks for hanging baskets. frame on a low wall of brick or concrete. If
Metal houses arcesometimes drilled for these this is not possible then redwood or metal PAINTING AND PRESERVING W O O D
purposes but so often these holes seem to alloy should be chosen. The surface must first be prepared before followed by t w o gloss coats for maximum
lx> where they are not needed and drilling it is treated. Brush down to remove dirt protection. Softwood greenhouses are
extra ones is not easy without the right equip- Cloches and grit then wash the surface and allow w i t h o u t question more difficult and costly
ment. Extra holes also often penetrate the Class and plasticform the bulk of a cloche and to dry. Rub the wood down with a medium to maintain than the more expensive
protective coatings on alloy and steel, leading are discussed on pages 10-11. Glass cloches glasspaper or wet-abrasive, which is easier hardwood greenhouses. The life of the
to corrosion. are secured by various patented methods and prevents dust from flying about. When greenhouse may be doubled if the w o o d
using stout galvanized wire or steel alloy repainting it may be necessary to strip is treated with a preservative which is
Frames brackets in conjunction with w o o d or plastic back and reprime if the paint is blistered toxic to decay organisms. Preservatives
The same considerations and comments re- buffers. The latter method makes assembly or cracked as moisture is rapidly absorbed should be applied to the greenhouse by
garding aluminum or steel and timber in the and dismantling easy but it must be used with once the skin of the paint is broken. the manufacturer before the greenhouse
construction of greenhouses applies also to care when the cloche is constructed of Softwood greenhouses will need paint- is constructed. They usually consist of
frames. Since a frame is generally used in larger sheets of glass. Rigid plastic cloches are ing every other year. Use an aluminum copper or mercurial-zinc compounds,
conjunction with a greenhouse it should be secured either by galvanized wire or are primer if any bare wood is to be seen after either in a water-soluble f o r m or in a
of the same materials. If w o o d is selected molded to shape and free-standing. Tunnel which an undercoat should be applied spirit solvent.
do not sit it directly on the soil. M o u n t the cloches require U-shaped wires or canes.
Tubular steel frame Doors Guttering
Steel tube frames are used for film-clad and consequent repeated maintenance Sliding and hinged doors are available. Some aluminum greenhouses have built-in
greenhouses. Among the cheapest frame work is to be avoided. Do not allow contact If possible, ensure that the base of the guttering, with others it is an extra. It avoids
materials, steel must be galvanized if rust between steel and alloy components. doorway is flat, or provide a ramp. drips and aids water saving.
Covering materials 1
Glass is the traditional glazing material for a stretched tightly over the superstructure. the type of fiberglass made specifically for Sunlight and the greenhouse
greenhouse, and for a long time was the only Loosely secured material can act like a sail greenhouses should be used; the familiar Heat builds up rapidly in a greenhouse when
material suitable for the job. Although plastic and, because of the movement, chafe against porch-roof material should not be used. the sun is shining and can easily reach limits
sheeting has become more popular, glass is its supports during strong winds. These Perhaps the greatest advantage of fiber- lethal to plants without ventilation and/or
still the most widely used material. Most of the factors can spell disaster before the natural glass is its exceptionally high resistance to shading. Light and heat from the sun reach
glass used for greenhouses is single-strength life of the sheeting is reached. breakage—a compelling reason for using it the earth as short-wave radiation, which
sheet glass. However, double-strength is One advantage of polyethylene is that it is in a neighborhood of rowdy children or passes easily through glass and plastics. This
preferable. From a light transmission point of so light that the greenhouse can be built frequent hailstorms. This factor, coupled with radiation warms everything it touches, such
view, the larger the pane size the better. without foundations (although it must, of its good resistance to ultra-violet, means it as the floor, benches, soil, pots and even the
There are also fewer heat-leaking joints with course, be anchored to keep it from being should last between 10 and 15 years. Make plants themselves, which then re-radiate
large panes, although they are more expen- blown over). Hence it can be moved around sure that it is not exposed to flame or ex- some of this heat as long waves. It is because
sive to replace if any get broken. the garden if desired. tremes of heat, because it burns readily and glass does not allow these long waves to pass
A disadvantage of polyethylene is that it rapidly. through it that a build-up of heat inside the
Glazing radiates heat rapidly. Because of this it is Because fiberglass is translucent, the light greenhouse results. O n c e shadows reach the
The technique of securing the glass to the often applied in a double layer and a small admitted to the greenhouse is soft and greenhouse, or after the sun sets, heat is
superstructure is known as glazing. In the fan used to blow air between the sheets in shadowless. This feature makes the panels lost via air flow through cracks and as long-
past glass was installed in overlapping sheets order to reduce heat loss. especially attractive in the West, where light wave radiation via solid walls and the basic
like shingles. The side edges were slipped into Vinyl Vinyl sheet is heavier than poly- intensity is high. framework.
grooves in the mullions or were puttied, but ethylene, more durable and considerably Acrylic Semi-rigid, usually flat acrylic panels Radiation is diffused as it enters a poly-
there was no sealant along the top and more costly. If made with an ultra-violet in- are ideal for greenhouses because of their ethylene sheeting greenhouse and the sub-
bottom edges, thus allowing a fairly free ex- hibitor, it can last as long as five years. But it strength, light weight, resistance to sunlight sequent long-wave radiation is not trapped.
change of inside and outside air. Today, the comes in narrow sheets that must be heat- and good light-transmission characteristics. For this reason, polyethylene sheeting-clad
glass is used in larger pieces and is fixed into seamed, which greatly adds to the difficulty They do scratch easily, but apart from this structures, including frames and cloches,
the framing members by various methods. of installation. Also, like polyethylene, it has their principal disadvantage is their very high cool d o w n more rapidly than glass ones once
In some cases putty or an equivalent material electrostatic properties that attract dust, cost. However, acrylic is worth the outlay the sun has gone, though the differences are
is used. Class allows about 90 per cent of the which clouds the sheeting and therefore as it will give good service for many years. not really significant in most climates. Once
sun's radiation to pass through but filters out cuts d o w n the transmission of light.
the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. Ultra- Polyester The best known of the polyester
violet light is not, however, essential to plant films is Mylar. In the 5-mm thickness used for
growth and in excess it can be harmful. greenhouses, it has the advantages of being
Where the sun's heat is excessive and can lightweight, it is strong enough to resist
lead to scorching of plants, translucent glass damage by hail, it is unaffected by extreme
can be used; but this will cut down winter temperatures and has light-transmission
light penetration considerably. In temperate characteristics quite similar to glass. Mylar is,
climates some form of shading is a preferable however, expensive.
alternative in hot weather. Mylar should last about four years on
sturdy framed greenhouse roofs and longer
Plastics on the sidewalls. It will not be so effective
Plastic sheets and panels perform the same when used on poorly built frames that are
functions as glass in greenhouse coverings rocked by wind.
and have the advantage of being cheaper and Fiberglass .Plastic panels reinforced with
non-breakable. fiberglass are considerably heavier than film
Polyethylene Polyethylene is applied in huge and much more durable. They retain heat
sheets that make for faster glazing, but it better than other glazing materials but are
has a short life span. Normally it needs to be also more expensive.
replaced after one growing season. Poly- The panels are semi-rigid and come in long
ethylene with ultra-violet inhibitors lasts lengths up to 4 ft in width. The most c o m m o n
about twice as long. Although the material weight of fiberglass used by amateurs is 4 or
does not break like glass, it is weakened by 5 oz, although heavier weights are available.
ultra-violet light and often splits during gales; The panels are either flat or corrugated. The
indeed on windy sites even new sheeting may latter are generally used only on greenhouse Glass should be free of flaws and bubbles, Traditional putty glazing (a). Dry methods
split. It is important that the sheeting be roofs because of their greater strength. Only which act as lenses and scorch plants. (b, c) are used with metal-framed houses.
Covering materials 2
the greenhouse heats up, convection cur- large, steeply inclined panes are the most
rents arise and the warm air moves in a cyclic effective.
fashion, varying somewhat with the shape During the winter, sunlight in northern
and size of the house and the amount of regions reaches the earth at a low angle.
ventilation. In theory, convection currents Therefore greenhouses with walls set at a
warm the whole area, in fact there are often slight angle present a surface at right angles,
small pockets of cooler and warmer air. or almost so, to the sun's rays, allowing
maximum penetration. In summer the angle
Light is not so crucial as the intensity of the sun-
Good glass allows about 90 per cent of total light is far greater.
illumination to enter the greenhouse. This The position of the sun varies during the
includes reflected light from all sources. day, moving through an arc that varies from
Direct sunlight must strike the glass at a about 60 degrees during the winter months
90 degree angle for the maximum amount to 120 degrees or more in the height of the
of light to enter. If the angle of the sun varies summer. Thus a flat surface receives light at
from this angle some of the light will be de- the optimum angle for only a short time. The
flected. During the summer months there is round greenhouse solves this problem by
more than enough light for most plants, but presenting glass surfaces at different angles
during winter it is in short supply. For this so that the plants receive light of sufficient
reason a fair amount of research has gone intensity throughout the year. Some green-
into finding the best greenhouse shapes for houses have been designed to rotate so that
good all-year-round light transmission. As a surfaces are exposed to the sun as required. The position of the sun varies widely from rising and setting of the sun is 60°, in
result round greenhouses have proved to be Round greenhouses, however, are still not winter to summer and this variation must summer 120°. In winter only the south-
the best shape for this purpose. The angle at as yet readily available. Most greenhouses, be considered when planning the location facing side of this greenhouse receives
which the glass is set is obviously important whether bought ready-made or built, are of and choosing the type of greenhouse. In direct sun, in summer the ends t o o face
and among traditional greenhouse designs, the lean-to variety or tent-shaped. winter, the arc between the points of the sun at morning and evening.
Sun angles and the "greenhouse effect"
Noon, Summer. The short rays from the sun the glass. Thus the temperature rises. A Noon, Winter. In winter, the angle of the to reflect some light, w h i c h is lost. Sloped
pass through the glass (a) and heat soil, plastic-clad house (b) does not get so hot glass surfaces to the sun becomes sides (b) allow light to pass t h r o u g h at right
benches and walls. Heat is reflected as because reflected long waves can pass important as the sun angle is lower and the angles and light transmission t h r o u g h the
long rays, which cannot pass out through through plastic, which also diffuses light. light intensity less. Vertical sides (a) tend glass is improved.
Site and situation 1
All too often, the greenhouse is relegated to entrance, as is usual for sun-rooms or the Shelter Although a solid wall or a close-boarded
a distant corner of the garden or to a site larger type of lean-to or conservatory. This For the free-standing greenhouse it is impor- fence may seem the ideal, the turbulence
which is far from ideal for the plants to be arrangement makes it possible to use the tant to choose a protected site or at least one factor must be taken into consideration, par-
grown. If a greenhouse is being purchased same heating system to heat both house and with some shelter from the coldest prevailing ticularly in areas frequently subjected to
and particularly if the expense of heating it is greenhouse, with a saving on installation and wind. The stronger and colder the wind blow- gales. W h e n wind strikes a solid object such
contemplated, then the best situation pos- subsequent running costs. If the lean-to is ing across the glass, the greater the heat loss. as a wall, it swirls over the top and causes
sible must be found. Failure to choose the built against a south, south-east or south- Some estimates make the loss caused by turbulence on the other side, the distance
best position could mean the disappointment west-facing wall, winter light will be good and wind as high as 50 per cent when a cold away from the wall that the turbulence ex-
of poor quality flowers, fruits and vegetables. shelter assured. winter gale is blowing. Some gardens, of tends depending on wind speed. A hedge or
In many cases, space in the garden will be A greenhouse will get much more use, and course, are well sheltered by buildings and open-weave fence diffuses the w i n d and
restricted and there will be only one possible the plants in it will get more care, if it is easy vegetation. W i n d problems in such gardens breaks its main force and in this respect is
site. Even so, this site can be adapted to give of access. Other considerations such as will be restricted to eddies and occasional to be preferred. Such a barrier is effective
the best possible conditions. aspect and shade may take precedence, but severe storms. over a downwind distance equal to five to ten
other things being equal it is best to site the Trees, even if they do not cast shadows times its height, so even if a barrier has to be
Choosing a site greenhouse as close to the home as possible. over the greenhouse, can cause problems by placed to the west or south-west of the green-
Basic considerations are good light and Wherever it is placed, make sure that there rain drip onto glass, and can shed branches house to counter prevailing winds, it can be
shelter from strong winds. Good light is are hard-surfaced paths leading to it. This will which can badly damage the greenhouse. sited far enough away to avoid shade
especially important if plants are to be grown allow the use of a barrow to transport heavy The roots of nearby trees can also damage problems.
during the winter months, and without some items such as compost and plants. foundations and intrude into planting beds.
sort of wind shelter heat losses will be con- If possible the greenhouse should be close Creating shelter If it is not possible to find a Foundation and erection
siderably greater than they need be, especi- to frames, if they are used, and the seedbed. sheltered site, a hedge can be planted, or a Once the position of the greenhouse has
ally during cold spells. If the site is chosen in Often greenhouse plants will be moved to or fence erected to provide a windbreak. If this been decided upon, the terrain must be
summer, and there are tall buildings or trees from the frame, and many seedlings will be is positioned at a distance of at least three examined carefully. Ideally the ground should
to the south, the shadows they will cast in planted out into a frame or seedbed for times the height of the greenhouse on the be level and well drained. If the site slopes or
winter must be calculated. In the latitude of growing on. Frames can be placed against north, north-east or north-west side, shading is very uneven it must be at least roughly
New York City the sun at noon on the shortest the walls of a half-boarded greenhouse. will be virtually nil. leveled. W h e n leveling the site, take care to
day is poised about 28° above the horizon
and all shadows are long. Winter sun angles Measuring shade areas with a sighting angle
can be reproduced with the aid of a pair of
calipers and a compass. A simple substitute
for the calipers is two straight flat pieces of
board about 1ft long, joined at one end by a
single nail or screw. Open the calipers thus
formed at the required angle and, keeping
the lower arm horizontal, point the upper
arm due south. If the part of the sky where
the arm points is widely obscured by trees or
buildings, then shade is likely to be a problem.
To take full advantage of the light from the
low winter sun, the greenhouse should be
positioned with its long axis aligned east-west
or as near to this ideal as possible. This posi-
tion cuts shading from roof beams and astra-
gals (glazing bars) to a minimum. An east-west
position also allows the rays of the sun to
penetrate at the most efficient angle (see
page 11).
Access There is no doubt that, to get the 1 To check if a site is likely to be shaded, 2 Place the lower arm of the sighting angle 3 The upper arm will now point to t h e
most enjoyment out of a greenhouse, especi- find out the lowest angle of the winter sun. on a spirit level at the planned position of lowest midday sun position. By sighting
ally in winter, easy access from the house is Join t w o pieces of w o o d with a screw. Using the greenhouse. Point the sighting angle along this arm it is possible to estimate
essential. The ideal is to have the greenhouse a protractor, carefully set the pieces at the south, making sure that it is exactly level. which trees and buildings will cast shadows
physically attached to the house with a direct required angle. Tighten the screw. over the planned site of the greenhouse.
Site and situation 2
remove and conserve the top-soil especially have been uncultivated or under grass for cement to harden before the superstructure Water supply
if a glass-to-ground greenhouse with soil beds several years. For greenhouses of 10 x 8 ft or is built or glazed. The period required varies Even if it is decided to use rain water butts as
is planned. Do not compact the soil when larger however a proper concrete foundation with the weather and the proportions of the a water source, these can run dry in dry spells
leveling the site and erecting the greenhouse. is necessary. concrete mixture used. Allow at least 48 and there is much to be said for a per-
Undue pressure can destroy the soil struc- Marking out the site Whether of compacted hours, more in cool weather. If glazing takes manent water supply in the greenhouse. If an
ture, leading to drainage problems and loss of soil or concrete, it is most important that the place after the structure goes up this should automatic or semi-automatic watering system
fertility. finished surface is level. The site should be be carried out during dry, calm weather. The or a mist propagation unit is planned, run-
If the site is wet, some sort of drainage accurately marked out using the plans sup- same applies to the erection of sections pur- ning water is essential. W i t h modern plastic
system should be installed. A row of tile drains plied with the greenhouse. Carefully check chased already glazed. If glazing is carried out piping and fittings the installation of a supply
down the centre of the site with a sump or that the base or foundations are on the cor- over a period of days there is much to be said is not difficult, though a professional plumber
drywell at one end is usually enough, or a rect alignment, using part of a building or a for doing the roof first. This allows the wind, must be called in to make the connection
concrete platform can be made with its sur- boundary line as a fixed point. Having estab- should it arise, to pass through the structure. to the main supply. The supply pipe is best
face just above the surrounding soil. If the lished a straight line along one wall of the A half-glazed house with a strong wind blow- laid at the same time as the foundations. If it
greenhouse is to be erected on a sloping site, greenhouse, carefully measure a right angle ing on to the inside can be badly damaged. has to be added later, take care not to
ensure that there is drainage to cope with for the end wall (see below right). A spirit level Class can be very slippery when wet and damage the foundations.
water running down the slope from above. is an essential tool during preparation. If the ideally should be handled only in dry weather.
Construct a gutter to channel water around base or foundation is not level, erection of In addition, the putty and mastic seals used Electricity
the greenhouse if necessary. the superstructure may be difficult, or it will in traditional glazing do not stick satisfactorily Even if a greenhouse is not heated by it, a
Bases and foundations All custom-built green- sustain stresses and strains that later could in wet conditions. If guttering is to be fitted supply of electricity gives many advantages.
houses are sold with detailed erection instruc- lead to trouble. Most small greenhouses are to the greenhouse some thought should be It is necessary for heated propagators, mist
tions. Many models have an integral or erected level, though some are provided with given to rain water disposal at this stage. Rain units, soil-warming cables and artificial illumi-
optional base, made of shaped sections of a slight fall to allow gutters to function. water butts provide a useful water reserve if nation. Lighting is a very w o r t h w h i l e extra,
concrete which are laid on the soil. No other Particular attention should be paid to the certain precautions are taken (see page 25). for its installation allows the greenhouse to be
foundation is needed for the smaller green- anchoring method, especially in windy sites. Alternatively, a drywell must be dug nearby used on winter evenings, adding a novel
houses providing the site is firm and If sill bolts have to be cemented in place, and piping laid to it or to a nearby drainage dimension to gardening under glass. For
accurately leveled. Ideally the soil should make sure enough time elapses for the ditch or watercourse. details of electricity, see page 17.
Walls, hedges and fences must be sited to winds yet casting no shadow. The fence to Mark the position of one side of the green- square, to establish the position of one
block, or preferably filter, wind, yet not cast the north can be sited closer to the house, using two pegs and a taut line. end wall. Repeat to fix the remaining
shadows over the greenhouse. The 6 ft greenhouse, as it will not cast a shadow. Check that the pegs are level. Then care- corners. Check that all eight pegs are level.
hedge above is south and west of the Use hedges or openwork fences as shelter fully measure a right angle, using a T A spirit level is an essential t o o l .
greenhouse, cutting the force of prevailing belts where possible as they filter the wind.
Ventilation and shading 1
Owing to the "greenhouse effect" (see p. 11), as optional extras so it is possible to rectify when cold winds are blowing. This practice eliminate it. Before installing louvered venti-
which causes a rapid build-up of heat inside the deficiency. cuts down damaging cold drafts. All ventilators, check that they are reasonably draft-
the greenhouse when the sun shines on it, an W h e n warmed, it is the nature of air to lators must be easily adjustable from closed free when closed.
efficient ventilation system is essential to become less dense and to rise. For this reason to wide open. This is particularly important
control temperature. Ventilation is also ridge vents are all-important for releasing for the ridge ventilators which, when fully Ventilator mechanisms
necessary in order to provide a supply of over-heated air. As the hot air rises up and open, should ideally continue the line of the In the small greenhouse ventilators are oper-
fresh air and to control humidity. Stale air passes out of the ventilators, fresh cool air is opposite side of the roof. This is equivalent ated by hand, being opened and secured by
provides ideal conditions for the spread of sucked in through the glass overlaps, glazing to being openable to about 55 degrees. Less the same perforated bar and pin m e t h o d
diseases and pests. Ventilation must be con- cracks, and around the doors. For full and than this will mean that maximum ventilation used for some factory windows. In larger
sidered a factor in the maintenance of a adequate ventilation the overall area of the is not possible. However, there are practical greenhouses, particularly those w i t h venti-
balanced greenhouse environment. It must ridge ventilators should be equal to at least difficulties to such an installation and many lators too high to reach, a variety of open-
be matched to heating, shading and the one-sixth of the floor area, more if feasible. small houses have ventilators which open ing methods are used, including cranks and
control of humidity. For the smaller greenhouse alternate ventila- less wide. A fully open ventilator at this angle gearwheels, pulleys and cords, and rack and
Despite the advances made in small green- tors either side of the ridge or at least two per is also an efficient wind trap, directing a cool- pinion.
house design few models, if any, are provided 6 ft length are usually adequate. For larger ing current downwards into the greenhouse. Automatic ventilators All the manual meth-
with enough ventilators to cope with warm structures or those used as alpine houses the This air-flow warms and rises up to exit via ods, however efficient in themselves, rely
summer day temperatures without opening provision of continuous ventilators along the lee side ventilators, thus ensuring a rapid entirely on an efficient operator. Forget-
the door. While using the door as an emer- both sides is ideal. air exchange on sunny days. fulness can result in loss of or damage to
gency ventilator is acceptable for some crops Air exchange and subsequent cooling is Air movement through side and ridge valuable plants. This factor, added to the
and on quiet days, it should never be con- faster if side ventilators are also fitted. These ventilators can be strong on windy days and frequent absence of the gardener during the
sidered standard practice. For manufacturers, can be just above ground or at bench level. create drafts unwelcome to many tropical day, has given the impetus for the invention
more ventilators means design modification Ventilators should be installed in both posi- foliage plants and orchids. To cut down the of automatic mechanisms. Initially, and still
and extra material with the inevitable in- tions if possible. Ventilators should be posi- force of this airflow louvered ventilators have widely used in the better-equipped nurseries
creased costs. However, most greenhouse tioned on both sides of the greenhouse so been designed. However, while they can cut of commerce and public gardens, came the
manufacturers can supply more ventilators that those on the lee side can be opened down the full force of a draft they cannot electric motor coupled with lifting gears and
Air flow Side ventilators
Ventilators in both roof and sides allow Ideally, roof ventilators should open to Side or wall ventilators speed air exchange closed. Louver ventilators are useful w h e n
complete air circulation within the about 55°, thus continuing the line of the and cooling. They can be conventional orchids or other tropical plants are being
greenhouse. Roof vents can also act as roof when fully open. Ventilators should be (above) or louver (above right). Check that grown as they cut d o w n , but do n o t
wind scoops in hot weather. positioned on both sides of the roof. louver installations are draft-free when eliminate, drafts.
controlled by a thermostat-activated switch, Ventilator fans almost flush with the wall of the greenhouse. Plan fan installations carefully, taking
more recently and now popular for the While the methods of controlling ventilation In place of glass are a series of louvers or flaps account of the capacity of the installation to
smaller greenhouse, a system has been per- described above work adequately, particu- which hang down and cover the gap when make the necessary air changes. The placing
fected which is triggered by a heat-sensitive larly in the small greenhouse, the natural air the fan is not working. Under air pressure of inlet openings is important w i t h fan venti-
compound. The compound is contained in a currents upon which they rely are not totally from the working fan, the louvers assume a lation. Site the inlets to allow cross-drafts to
strong metal cylinder, one end of which is efficient in maintaining a perfectly uniform horizontal position. The same system, but in occur, thus stimulating air m o v e m e n t . Damp-
closed by a plunger, the other end being climate. In larger structures in particular, reverse, can be used for the inlets at the other ing pads can be placed over inlet openings to
blanked off. On heating, the compound ex- there may be unsuspected pockets of warm end or the side opposite the fans, thus pre- moisten incoming air in hot, dry conditions.
pands, pushing the plunger forwards. This or cool air which can locally affect plant venting unwanted ventilation when the fans A b o u t 40 air changes an hour is the right rate
comparatively small amount of pressure is growth. To eliminate this factor and to cut are not working. The fans are usually operated to aim for.
magnified by a system of levers which open down drafts and conserve heat, ventilator automatically, being coupled to a pre-set
the ventilator. Closing is gradual once the fans are used. The usual high speed fans used thermostat. Humidity
compound starts to cool. Most types can be in kitchens and bathrooms are unsuitable, In general, the smaller the fan the higher it Humidistats, which w o r k on the same prin-
adjusted to open at various temperatures. as they can create artificial drafts, and low should be set in the greenhouse wall. In the ciples as thermostats but respond to humidity
The more sophisticated systems control ven- speed fans, which can move large volumes of small amateur greenhouse, one fan installed rather than temperature, are used in c o m -
tilators according to a full range of weather air, have been designed. Ventilator fans are above the door is a usual recommendation, mercial greenhouses. They have the effect of
conditions. W i n d gauges actuate motors to also useful in plastic-clad greenhouses, where while the big 4 f t fans used in commercial avoiding any excess build-ups of humidity by
shut ventilators to avoid drafts. A rain water vapor condensing on the plastic may houses are set at various heights, depending turning on fans for short periods and thus
gauge can be linked to ventilator controls to raise humidity unduly. A fan will prevent this upon the crop. The use of fans within the circulating the air. O n e effect of fans, especi-
shut down the house in the case of rain, by circulating fresh air. greenhouse, to circulate air rather than to ally in smaller greenhouses, is to dry the air.
though simple temperature controls, which Installing fans Ventilator fans should be in- ventilate, is usually coupled with heating, but If a fan is used as the main means of ventila-
will respond to increased cloud cover and stalled at one end of smaller houses or at when the artificial heat is not in use it is tion, some form of damping d o w n or other
the resulting temperature drop, produce the intervals along one side of larger structures, beneficial to leave the fan on to maintain a humidity control should be practised in warm
same effect. Sunlight-operated controls are with ventilators at the opposite end or side. buoyant atmosphere which is vital for the weather. Automatic spray systems can be
another refinement. Each fan is set with the blades parallel to and healthy growth of many greenhouse plants. obtained for this purpose.
Fans
Ventilators can be opened by hand (top), w h e n heated. This expansion operates a Position a ventilator fan above the door of A louvered ventilator must be positioned at
automatically (above) or by remote control plunger, which pushes the ventilator open a small greenhouse. Use only slow-running the opposite end of the greenhouse to a fan
(right). Automatic systems consist of a via a system of levers. Remote systems fans designed for greenhouses. to provide a flow of air.
cylinder of a compound which expands are used in large houses.
Shading is a greenhouse necessity that is Methods of shading warmth just when they need it most. For this Blinds Slatted blinds of w o o d or plastic laths
easily overlooked. While in winter every effort Shading can be carried out in two basic ways, reason the use of blinds is more efficient and are best, being long lasting and rolling and
is made to maximize the amount of sun re- by painting or spraying liquid onto the glass, to be preferred. Roller blinds can be fitted unrolling easily. A certain a m o u n t of light
ceived, in spring and summer too much sun- or by blinds. Lime wash was once a standard either to the outside or inside of the green- penetrates the blinds, but individual plants
light can quickly overheat the greenhouse, liquid shading and well-diluted emulsion house, and Venetian blinds fitted to the are not harmed as the angle of the sun
killing plants. Some form of shading system is paint has also been used. If applied too interior. Exterior blinds are the most effective changes slowly during the day. Also good arc-
therefore essential. It must, however, be used thickly, both of these substances tend to stick as they prevent heat build-up. Blinds on the blinds made from white suffused plastic
in conjunction with ventilation and watering on tight and need hard rubbing to remove at inside of the glass stop light reaching the sheeting, and Venetian blinds. Ideally, and
with the aim of maintaining a balanced the end of the season. Proprietary com- plants but the heat penetrates the glass and especially for the greenhouse owner away
greenhouse environment. All too often pounds are now available which rub off easily, warms the greenhouse in the normal way. each day, the roller blinds should be auto-
shading is used simply to reduce heat and the yet are not affected by rain. All the traditional Although they can be neat and easily used, mated, the unrolling mechanism coupled to
maintenance chore of watering. shading substances are likely to be thinned internal blinds can also be a nuisance where an electronic eye or thermostat. This of
In greenhouses where ventilation is efficient or washed off during heavy rain and will need lots of tall plants with leaves or flowers near course adds greatly to the cost. W h e r e auto-
there is much to be said for not shading unless replacing if hot weather continues. All liquid the glass are grown. In general, blinds fitted mation is not contemplated, the owner of the
absolutely necessary. Sun-loving plants in shading should be white. Green paint—and to the outside of the house are to be pre- smaller greenhouse can easily devise make-
particular, such as succulents, will grow more green blinds—absorb heat, while white ferred, though weather hazards must be shift shading for a few hot spells. W i n d o w -
sturdily in full light. Where a very varied col- reflects it. taken into consideration, particularly that of like frames of strong laths or canes can be
lection of plants is grown it is not difficult to The primary disadvantage of liquid shading strong wind. Exterior blinds can be rolled covered with opaque plastic sheeting or light
position them so that the shade lovers are is that, during summer's inevitable dull, cool down in winter to provide a certain amount burlap and hung or clipped to the green-
behind those that need or tolerate full light. spells, plants suffer from lack of light and of protection against frost. house sides and roof, inside or out.
Methods of shading Automatic shading Improvised shading
1 Shading paint is applied 2 Exterior blinds prevent 3 Interior blinds are less Exterior blinds can be unrolled and Improvised screens can be made f r o m
to the outside of the glass heat build-up and cut d o w n effective than exterior ones, retracted by motors triggered by light- burlap or cloth, and cloth or plastic sheet
in spring. Do not apply too light. They can also be but are neat and easily sensitive devices. This is expensive, but can be pinned or stuck to the outside
thickly. useful as frost protection. used. useful on greenhouses often left unattended. of greenhouses.
Electricity 1
Although it is possible to run ,1 greenhouse greenhouse control panel. Choose only those
without an electricity supply, lack ol power installations designed for greenhouse con-
|)uts many of the techniques of modern ditions. A control panel allows several pieces
horticulture out of the gardener's reach. A of equipment to be run from one point.
whole range of appliances from heaters to Fused, switched sockets are provided with an
pest control equipment depends upon a independent main switch. The main power
power source. Electric light also makes it cable has only to be connected, the sockets
possible to use the greenhouse for more being ready wired. The equipment is then
hours per day in winter. plugged in in the normal way. Always use
fused plugs, if possible made of rubber
Installing electricity rather than plastic.
House electricity out of doors is a matter for a
professional. Amateur gardeners are not Lighting
recommended to attempt installation, for the Strip or bulb lighting, using heavy-duty damp-
risks are great. Cables will have to be laid proof fittings, is relatively easy and cheap to
outdoors unless the greenhouse is a lean-to install once a power supply is available. Light-
adjoining the home, and the environment of ing will increase the use a greenhouse gets
the greenhouse itself raises dangers due to during winter, making it possible for the
high humidity and damp. gardener who is away during the day to
If cables have to be installed, plan the attend to the plants in comfort.
route they are to take with the aid of an elec- Lighting installations can also be used to
trician. Cables can be buried or suspended speed plant growth and to modify growth Cables laid underground should be A control panel simplifies the installation of
from posts. Buried cables should be sunk rates to produce special effects. Many plants protected against accidental damage while electricity in the greenhouse. All equipment
in trenches at least 2\1/2 deep. Route the are very sensitive to "day length", the period digging. Cover the cable with a treated can be controlled from the panel, which has
trenches where they will cause least disturb- during which light is strong enough for growth plank or place tiles over it. fused, switched sockets.
ance to garden plants, lawns and trees. W h e n to occur. During winter in northern areas, and
burying the cables, the electrician will pro- in areas with high atmospheric pollution, this
tect them from accidental damage by cover- level is often not reached. Banks of strip
ing them with a board or a row of tiles. lights are used commercially to modify the
Such a protective layer will prevent damage day length and bring plants into flower out-
when digging or carrying out other cultiva- side their normal season. Install lights about
tions in the garden. Make sure that trenches 3 ft above the greenhouse bench, in banks
do not interfere with drainage systems. sufficiently large to provide the light intensity
Cables buried beneath paths or lawns need required. Consult specialist suppliers of green-
not be so deep, but wherever they run, a house equipment for details of light levels
record should be kept of their position so and periods. Too much light, or too long a
that if the layout of the garden is changed "day", is often worse than too little, as many
the gardener is aware of the exact position plants have very specific requirements. Use
of the cables. mercury vapor lamps, as the type of light they
Cables taken overhead must be fixed to a produce is best for plant growth. Banks of
stout wire supported on poles well above the fluorescent tubes can also be used, mounted
ground. Keep the cable clear of trees which 2 ft above the bench.
may chafe it. The gardener may be able to
save on the electrician's bill by doing un- Other electric equipment
skilled preparatory work such as digging Propagating equipment, watering devices
trenches or erecting poles. Consult the elec- and ventilation equipment are described on
trician and agree on exactly what is to be the appropriate pages. Equipment used in the
done by w h o m before starting work. greenhouse must be made for the purpose. Thermostats should be set to the Fan heaters can be used to back up other
Do not, for instance, use domestic cooling temperature required in the propagating heating systems or as a system on their
Power points fans and fan heaters as they may be affected case or soil cable unit. Check the o w n . Use only those designed for
Inside the greenhouse, the power cable by the damp atmosphere in the greenhouse manufacturer's literature for the greenhouses, which can withstand damp.
should terminate at a purpose-designed and become dangerous. temperature range the appliance controls.
Heating 1
In the cooler temperate regions where frost Thus if the likely minimum temperature of the
occurs regularly in winter, sun heat alone is area is — 2°C, and a cool greenhouse is plan-
too weak and unreliable for the successful ned the temperature must be raised by 6°C
growth of tender plants under glass. There- and the heating system must be adequate.
fore to get the best out of a greenhouse an Greenhouses have higher heat losses than
artificial heat source must be installed if only other, more solid, structures and are more
to keep the minimum temperature above the prone to drafts. Also, heat is lost quickly
frost limit. An alternative is to use a heated through glass so cold spots can easily develop
propagating case as a "greenhouse within a if the heating system is not carefully designed.
greenhouse" to allow seeds and cuttings to be A single stove or radiator placed in the center
started earlier than in the greenhouse itself. of the greenhouse will not necessarily warm
It is possible to run a greenhouse without any the whole air space, which is the reason why
heat—see the Cold Greenhouse section pipe systems are popular. To check for cold
(page 64)—but a heat source which, c o m - areas, place several m a x i m u m - m i n i m u m
bined with insulation, maintains the temper- thermometers at intervals around the green-
ature above freezing, is almost essential. house and leave them overnight. Alter-
The first question to ask when planning a natively, use a single thermometer, placing it
heating system is what level of heat is needed. at different points on nights with the same or
Two factors must be taken into account. They very similar air temperature.
are the prevailing weather conditions in the Before calculating heat needs, check what
locality and the needs of the plants to be can be done to improve the insulation of the
grown. There are certain levels of tempera- greenhouse. Double glazing is the most
ture which must be maintained if various effective means of cutting heat loss. Per-
types of plants are to be grown (see Intro- manent double glazing is heavy, costly and
duction, page 2). Refer to the map, right, can interfere with light transmission, but is
for the lowest likely temperature. Consider becoming a more attractive option as better
the modifying effects of height, exposure and systems are designed and fuel costs continue
proximity to the coast, which can raise or to climb. Alternatives to permanent double
lower minimum temperatures. glazing are temporary plastic sheet double
Once the minimum temperature needed glazing or the use of insulating panels on the
in the greenhouse has been decided, the lower parts of the greenhouse sides.
temperature increase required can be calcu- Drafts should be stopped wherever pos-
lated. This is the number of degrees that the sible, not only because they increase heat
temperature must be raised above the likely loss but because drafts can interfere with the
minimum to be encountered in the locality. working of heating systems.
CALCULATING HEAT LOSS
Use the map right to establish the tem- a heating system capable of raising the
perature rise required. Then calculate the temperature by 4,000 BTU's- is needed.
rate of heat loss. First measure the glass Heaters and fuels have their heat outputs
area of the greenhouse in square feet. Each quoted in BTU's/hour so the size of heating
square foot of glass will lose 1.13 British installation needed can be calculated.
Thermal Units (BTU's) of heat per hour for Bear in mind additional heat loss from
each degree F of temperature difference wind, through gaps in the structure and The map above divides North America of growing season. W h e n calculating
between inside and out. Thus if there is through necessary ventilation. Measures into ten zones of hardiness. This zone greenhouse heating needs, use the map
360 sq ft of glass and the temperature taken to reduce heat loss such as double system was devised by the Arnold Arbor- to assess the local minimum temperature.
difference between inside and out is 10°F, glazing reduce the amount of heat needed. etum at Harvard, and is widely used by The difference between the expected mini-
the heat loss is 4,068 BTU/hour (360 x 10 Heat loss varies with material: the all-glass scientists and gardeners. The zones are mum and the temperature desired in the
x 1.13). Thus in order to maintain a tem- figure quoted gives a slight over-estimate defined in terms of consistent average greenhouse is the necessary temperature
perature 10°F above the likely minimum, for a part w o o d or brick house. annual minimum temperature and length increase the heating system must provide.
Heating 2
Air circulation Supplying oxygen to heaters
Wind can lower the temperature of the Allow a gap between benches and stagings Leave a ventilator open while combustion Alternatively, install a door or wall vent
exposed side of the greenhouse. Adequate and the sides of the greenhouse to permit heaters are in use. Avoid drafts over which will provide enough oxygen for
air circulation helps to avoid cold spots. air to circulate. plants. combustion w i t h o u t creating drafts.
Checking for cold spots Insulation
Check for cold spots in the greenhouse by greenhouse or, if only one is available, vary Insulation can be applied in the form of using tacks or a staple gun. Remove
using one or more m a x i m u m - m i n i m u m its position noting minimum temperatures special panels (left) or plastic sheeting, right, insulation as soon as the weather moderates
thermometers. Place them around the on nights of similar outside temperature. which should be fixed in double layers for it will impede light transmission.
Heating 3
Solid fuel piped hot water systems time. Large installations may have a main burning correctly, dangerous carbon mon- Natural gas heating
Heating water by burning solid fuel is a cheap constant-level system of the water tank and oxide fumes will be given off instead of carbon Natural gas burnt directly in special heaters
method of heating a greenhouse. Modern ball-valve type. dioxide and water vapor which is beneficial to is very efficient. Its by-products carbon
furnaces burning coal, anthracite, and other plants. Ensure that the flue fitted to the fur- dioxide and water vapor which enhance the
special fuels are designed to reduce stoking Oil-fired piped hot water systems nace is tall enough to carry fumes away from greenhouse atmosphere make the com-
and the clearing of ash to a minimum. Many Solid fuel furnaces may be adapted to burn oil the greenhouse. Regular maintenance should mercial greenhouse practice of atmosphere
have quite good thermostatic control but or a purpose-built system can be installed. be carried out on all furnace systems to avoid enrichment, which encourages the plants to
are not so accurate as the more easily con- Oil-fired systems can be thermostatically problems with fumes and fuel wastage. grow, available to the amateur gardener. As
trolled fuels such as electricity and gas. Water controlled: an efficient thermostatic control the burner is sited inside the greenhouse,
heated in a boiler within the furnace circu- system reduces the amount of attention Linking greenhouse and domestic systems regular maintenance is necessary in order to
lates through a system of pipes. The pipes, required to maintain a constant temperature. Where a lean-to greenhouse or sun room avoid possible emission of poisonous gases
which must rise gently from the boiler, should Large, specially manufactured oil-fired in- is to be heated and a hot water radiator such as carbon monoxide. The natural gas
be of narrow-diameter aluminum rather than stallations are highly efficient and automatic. system is used in the home, it is sometimes systems on the market are thermostatically
the large-diameter cast iron type. Furnaces possible to link the two. However, it is controlled and fully automatic, with a safety
are rated in terms of heat output as BTU's/ Gas-fired piped hot water systems advisable to consult a heating engineer first, valve which prevents the main supply from
hour. Choose a furnace large enough to heat Gas furnaces are easy to operate and may be and best if possible to incorporate the green- being turned on unless the pilot flame is
the greenhouse to the desired temperature fully automatic, being controlled thermo- house heater in the home system when it is alight. It is more convenient to use a piped
(see page 18). Only the fuels recommended statically. Care should be taken to site the installed rather than to add later. Problems natural gas supply in c o n j u n c t i o n with a
by the maker must be used. The pipes are furnace where its fumes will not be carried can arise with a linked system because special greenhouse heater which is portable
best filled with soft water such as rainwater, into the greenhouse. Gas fumes can be greenhouses need heating at night, whereas to some extent. Bottled natural gas such as
and will have to be topped up from time to dangerous to plants. If the furnace is not homes are heated during the day and evening. propane or butane tends to be expensive
Piped systems circulate hot water from a lower pipe to the furnace. This kind of The small-bore piped system uses narrow pipes and a circulating p u m p may be
furnace through pipes laid around the system, using large-diameter cast iron pipes, aluminum piping. Because of the extra needed. A header tank (illustrated) tops up
greenhouse. The hot water rises from the is less efficient than the small-bore system, friction in smaller pipes, the water does not the water in the system. Such furnaces
boiler, slowly cools, and returns via the right, which has mostly superseded it. rise by convection as freely as in large can be fuelled by solid fuel, gas or oil.
Heating 4
although it is convenient where piped produce water vapor as they burn which Siting a boiler
supply is not available. Propane is advisable keeps the greenhouse atmosphere moist,
when the storage bottle is kept outside as although ventilation is necessary at times as
butane does not readily volatilize in cold the atmosphere may become excessively
weather. The larger the bottles or cylinders, humid. W h e n combustion is taking place the
the more economical is this type of heating. greenhouse must be ventilated to provide an
oxygen supply. Keep the heaters clean and
Kerosene heaters the wick trimmed according to the maker's
Kerosene is the simplest form of heating to instructions. Features to look for when buying
install. Choose a heater that is designed for a kerosene heater are stainless steel lamp
the greenhouse, as some household kerosene chimneys, fuel level indicators and large,
heaters give off fumes deadly to plants. separate fuel tanks to make filling easier and
Greenhouse heaters are specially designed to less frequent.
reduce the risk of fumes and are often
equipped with tubes or other devices to Electric heating systems
distribute the heat evenly around the green- Electric heating is the most efficient and
house. They are, however, difficult to control effective. It is easy to control, clean and is the
thermostatically. A flue is a desirable feature, safest for use with plants as there are no
since some models may tend to produce fumes. It must be fitted by an electrician as
harmful fumes. Some have hot water pipes the combination of electricity and damp can Fumes from a furnace can harm plants. Site d o w n w i n d , so that the prevailing w i n d
as well as hot air ducts. Kerosene heaters be lethal (see page 17). it therefore outside the greenhouse and carries smoke and fumes away.
Where pipes run across a doorway, lay Electric tubular heaters distribute warmth Natural gas heaters heat the air by the Kerosene heaters must be carefully
metal grilles above them to allow heat to evenly in the same way as piped hot water burning of a gas which is harmless to plants maintained to avoid harmful fumes.
rise yet protect the pipes from damage. systems. They can be mounted in banks or if the burners are correctly adjusted. Piped Choose a model with a large, easily-filled
installed singly in greenhouse cold spots. or bottled gas can be used. fuel tank and a fuel level indicator.
Heating 5
There are many different types of electrical Soil heating cables
heating apparatus especially developed for There are many advantages to the gardener
greenhouses. Tubular heaters have a similar in warming the soil from below. Crops may be
capacity for even distribution as hot water raised earlier than normal and cuttings and
piping systems. Position along a side wall of seed germination should be more successful.
the greenhouse in a single line or group There are t w o good methods of warming
together at points around the greenhouse to the soil using cables. The first utilizes bare
give more heat to colder areas. cables buried 6 - 9 in below the surface of the
There are compact fan-assisted heaters soil with low voltage current passed through
which are easily moved and will spread the them by means of a transformer to step down
heat over the whole area of the greenhouse. the primary voltage. Alternatively, insulated
They may also be used to circulate cool air soil-heating cables are used in conjunction
when heat is not needed. Thermostatically w i t h the full house current buried 6 - 9 in
controlled fan heaters will accurately control below the surface.
temperatures to within one or two degrees The soil is excavated to the required depth
with no waste of fuel or heat and need little and a layer of sand spread over the bottom
maintenance. Fan heaters circulate air, keep- of the trench and raked level. The required
ing the atmosphere buoyant and reducing length of cable, as recommended by the
the chance of fungal disease. The best type of manufacturer, is laid over the surface in
fan heater has separate thermostats con- parallel lines as evenly spaced as possible.
trolling the fan and the heat, supplying heat The cable is then pegged in position using
when it is needed. W h e n the fan is switched galvanized wire pegs.
off the air will remain relatively motionless There is no need for special precautions to 1 Remove the border soil to a depth of 2 Lay soil heating cables on the soil
except for convection currents. The advant- protect the wire when using a low voltage. 9 in. Pile the border soil to one side and surface. Space the cable in a series of loops
age of this system is that there will be inter- However, 115 and 230-volt cables can be rake over the base of the trench produced. 4—6 in apart. Do not let the loops t o u c h .
mittent air circulation with little heat loss. dangerous if accidentally severed. It is there- Peg the cable down with staples.
The fan-heated greenhouse can be safely
left closed during cold weather as there is no HEATING COSTS
contamination of the air and no need for
extra ventilation. At a time when the relative prices of the
Convection heaters are another type of various fuels are fluctuating, it is impossible
efficient electric heater. They consist of a to give a realistic indication of what it
cabinet with holes at the top and bottom costs to heat a greenhouse. Two key
with heating wires inside which warm the air. points emerge from any study of heating
The warm air rises and flows out at the top costs. First, waste of heat, through inade-
causing cold air to be drawn in at the bottom. quate insulation, drafts and poor ad-
In this way convection currents cycle the air justment of heating systems, is a major
around the greenhouse. factor in most fuel bills. Second, the effect
Storage heaters can be economical using of raising the greenhouse temperature
the off-peak rate for greenhouse heating. from cool to warm level is to double bills.
This type of heating is, however, difficult to Therefore the decision to grow warm
control thermostatically. There will some- greenhouse plants is one that must be
times be too little and sometimes too much taken with an eye on the cost. Also,
heat. They are best used for background careful management and heat conserva-
warmth in conjunction with a main heat tion can make all the difference to the
source keeping the maximum temperature economics of greenhouse heating. The
thermostatically. An accurately controlled flexibility of the various fuels must be
electric heater can be used to maintain the considered as well as cost. Electricity,
maximum temperature level with a kerosene especially when used to power fan heaters, 3 Replace the border soil and rake it level. 4 Connect the soil heating cable to a
heater for background warmth. The advan- is very flexible and little energy is wasted Water the bed lightly. Damp soil conducts thermostat, if one is supplied w i t h t h e cable
tage of using a combination of heaters is that providing unwanted heat. heat better than dry. kit, or direct to an outlet. Carefully follow
the more expensive fuels are conserved. the maker's instructions on installation.
Heating 6
lore a good plan to lay ,1 length ot galvanized accurate thermostatic control is possible
mesh over the cable. Spread sand over the with electric heaters, and for this reason SOLAR HEATING
mesh and then replace the soil. Plug the other types of heater use electricity to All sources of heat are solar in the sense Heat storage
cable into a waterproof outlet which is operate motors or electro-magnets which that their fuels are derived, however
placed well above the level of the soil where regulate the flow of fuel. A thermostat usually distantly, from the power of the sun. Oil,
there is no danger of it getting wet. has a graduated dial which is set to the coal, and gas, and electricity generated
Soil-heating cable kits are available com- required temperature which the thermostat from them, are fossil fuels produced by
plete with thermostats, although the ther- will then maintain, if the heating system is nature from sun power. Because these
mostat is not essential. Soil-heating installa- powerful enough. fuels are expensive, increasingly scarce
tions vary in power. They usually provide a and liable to interruptions in supply,
temperature of 16°C/60°F. Conserving heat in the greenhouse many attempts have been made to har-
Heat will be lost through broken and cracked ness the sun directly. Two linked problems
Thermostats glass, ill-fitting doors and vents, which must immediately arise: timing and heat stor-
The various heating systems described may be repaired or improved. age. The sun tends to shine when heating
all be controlled by special greenhouse Lining the greenhouse in winter with is least required, so some means of heat
thermostats. A thermostat is a device that polyethylene sheet to give a "double glazing" storage is essential. None of the systems
controls the temperature of the atmosphere effect will help enormously (see page 22). Use available can be said to overcome these
in the greenhouse by regulating the fuel the thinnest and clearest polyethylene sheet problems so completely that they can be
supply to the heater. Two strips made of available. It is the static air trapped between recommended as a sole system of heating.
different metals, joined together within the the plastic and the glass that forms the insula- Solar heating has two uses at the present
thermostat, expand and contract in response tion—so do not leave gaps. So that vents can stage of development: as a back-up heat
to changes in temperature. The movement be opened, line them separately. source and as an area for experiment by
of this bi-metallic strip switches electrical Burlap or old blankets placed over the technically-minded gardeners. The illus- W a r m air is sucked by a fan d o w n a duct
contacts which control the flow of fuel, or the roof at night in extremely cold weather will trations on this page show the principles from the roof space, where sun heat is
flow of air to solid fuel, thus regulating the conserve heat. They must, however, be behind some of the solar heat methods greatest during the day. Rocks below the
speed at which the fuel is burnt. Very removed in the morning. in use. floor store heat. At night, the fan reverses.
Warm-air duct heating Water panels and heat storage Solar furnace
Polyethylene ducts, which may be greenhouse eves. First used in commercial Water is pumped up and flows over roof The sun heats air behind the glass wall,
perforated, distribute heat given out by an greenhouses, they are an efficient means of panels. The sun heats the panels and the causing it to rise. W a r m air flows into the
electric fan heater or a gas heater fitted distributing heat in larger greenhouses. water, which is stored in an insulated tank. heat storage of rocks, w h i c h are heated. At
with a fan. Such pipes can be installed At night, flaps are opened to let heat out. night warm air is pumped f r o m the storage.
either below benches or along the
Water supply and watering 1
Every greenhouse should have a piped supply can be installed over the tank to replenish for watering plants on shelves and lor Automatic watering: Pipe systems these
of water, unless it is very small or is close to it when rain fails. If water reserves of these measuring out liquid fertilizer, fungicides and methods of watering involve piping and
the house or an outside faucet. Despite the kinds are contemplated, it must be borne in insecticides. A gallon can is the most useful. finer tubing or nozzles. Trickle systems are the
contrary preferences of some gardeners, mind that mosquitoes and other pests will It should feel balanced and comfortable to the most popular. In its simplest form this is
city water is perfectly acceptable for plants, breed in static water. Water from tanks can grasp. It should have a tapered extension piping perforated at intervals and so arranged
and, unlike rainwater, the piped supply is also act as a distributor of fungal and bacterial spout for plants at the back of benches and that a perforation is over each pot, or by
unlikely to fail. However, guttering is useful plant diseases. on shelves, and a fine rose for watering newly- each plant to be watered. Somewhat more
in itself in preventing drips from the green- If running water is installed in the green- sown seeds or pricked-off seedlings, or for sophisticated versions have nozzles or a
house and it is sensible to store the water the house, make sure the water piping is well damping down floors. If high-level shelving length of tubing from each perforation. In the
gutters channel. Rainwater storage requires buried to prevent freezing. Install the pipes, or hanging baskets are fitted, obtain a so-called spaghetti system a sheaf of very
careful planning and attention to hygiene if which can be of modern plastics with com- smaller 1/2 or 3/4 gal can with a long, curved small-bore tubes runs from the end of a
water butts are not to become havens for pression fittings, when the greenhouse is spout. Cans are made of galvanized or hose. Each tube is then led to a pot and
waterborne pests and diseases. being built. Fit a faucet chosen to suit the enameled metal or plastic, the latter being clipped into place. These methods can be
If stored rainwater is to be the only source watering equipment likely to be used. A now the most readily available. Plastic is set to trickle indefinitely, or the water supply
of supply, at least two 60 gal butts will be range of modern hose couplings and connec- cheaper than metal and lighter to handle. can be set to a solenoid valve and linked to a
needed for a fully-stocked 8 x 8 f t green- tions for automatic watering devices is Automatic watering: Capillary benches time clock to run at set intervals.
house, and even then the reserves will be available, allowing several watering systems Watering plants properly by hand can be a If a slow non-stop trickle is used the pots
used up during a dry spell. Butts should have to be used at the same time. time-consuming job, requiring knowledge must be inspected regularly. Large, vigorous
tight-fitting lids to keep out leaves and other and experience. There are several methods of plants may need more water than the trickle
debris which can foul the water. Two or Watering systems watering plants automatically, whether in can deliver, and will suffer as a result.
more butts can be connected by overflow Once a supply of water is assured, watering pots or beds. Where a large collection of pot Overhead sprinklers can also be used on an
pipes to store surplus water. An alternative to systems can be chosen. These range from plants is maintained and especially if the automatic basis and for plants w h i c h need
butts is a tank within the greenhouse or simple cans to automatic devices. owner has to be away during the day, a a high humidity they are ideal. Care must be
even under the floor, with pipes leading from Cans Even if automatic watering devices are capillary bed system is a worthwhile invest- taken, however, to see that all plants are
the guttering. W i t h this arrangement, a faucet favored, a watering can will still be necessary ment. This method works on the capillarity getting an adequate water supply. The dense
of moist sand. That is, water is sucked up or broad foliage of some potted plants can
through the tiny spaces between the grains effectively prevent enough water f r o m reach-
WATERING CANS of sand through the drainage holes into the ing the rootball beneath.
pot. Line a deep bench top with heavy gauge While all these self-watering methods are
plastic sheeting, and fill with washed sand invaluable to the greenhouse gardener, they
to a depth of 2 - 3 in. Special trays can also must be used intelligently. As with all forms
be used. The sand is kept continually moist of automation, they are non-selective and
on the surface but not waterlogged, either this is a disadvantage where living organisms
with a watering can or an automatic device. are concerned. Every plant will get the same
The simplest of these is the inverted demi- amount of water whether it needs it or not.
john or header bottle in a shallow reservoir, Some will respond by growing lush and out of
which overflows directly onto the sand character, others may become waterlogged
or into connecting guttering. A more fully and slowly die. Where a wide variety of plants
automatic system uses a header tank con- is grown, they must be inspected regularly.
nected to a piped water supply and fed to Over-wet plants must be taken o u t of the
the sand bench via a ballcock valve. The pot automatic system for a while to dry out,
plants, which should not be crocked, are while dry ones must be given extra water
pushed into the top inch of the sand with a by hand.
screwing motion so that sand is forced into
the drainage hole or holes and makes
Humidity
contact with the soil. Water is taken up into
Although water is primarily used for keeping
the soil by capillary action.
the roots moist, most plants appreciate or
Watering cans should be durable and shelves and hanging baskets to be easily An alternative to sand is the so-called need humidity in the air, at least w h e n in full
well-balanced. A long, possibly sectional, reached. A fine rose will be required for capillary matting which is kept wet in the growth. This too can be provided by automa-
spout is useful in a crowded greenhouse watering seeds and delicate seedlings and same way. It can however, become clogged tion, using overhead or near-ground nozzles
and a small can allows plants on high rooted cuttings. with algae after a time and then needs such as those used in mist propagation
careful washing or replacing. systems (see page 30).
Storage butts Internal tanks Connecting fittings Header tanks
Water butts should have tight-fitting lids. Guttering can be led into the greenhouse Special fittings replace faucets and allow Header tanks and bottles supply water to
Two or more can be connected by pipes. to fill an internal water tank. Fit a tight- several appliances, such as hoses and a capillary and trickle irrigation systems by
Faucets allow cans to be filled. fitting cover to keep insect pests out. header tank, to be used at once. gravity.
Capillary bench Capillary matting
The capillary bench watering system plants take up water from the sand through An alternative to a sand bench, capillary Water can be supplied manually or by a
consists of a polyethylene-lined tray filled the pots' drainage holes. Push the pots matting soaks up water which is then header tank or bottle. The m a t t i n g becomes
with sand. The sand is moistened and the into the sand with a screwing motion. taken up by plants by capillary action. clogged with algae after a time.
Watering allowed almost to dry out (or dryish potting Spray lines Trickle irrigation
All watering under glass requires care, espe- mixture can be used at the outset). Each pot
cially that of plants in containers. In the is then weighed in the hand, watered tho-
beginner's greenhouse at least, more plants roughly and checked again. A method
are likely to suffer or die from lack of, or t o o formerly much used involves the use of a
much, water than succumb to pests and tapper, easily made from a length of cane
diseases. Watering is a skilled operation, not and a small block of w o o d about the size of
even all professional gardeners fully master it. a cotton reel. Each pot is rapped smartly in
Like so many other aspects of gardening turn and if a ringing tone is given out the root
under glass, it is essential to get to know the ball is dry and watering is needed. A dull,
plants well. In time, personal observation hollow noise denotes that the rootball is
will provide the experience that is required to moist. This only works with clay pots.
judge accurately the needs of each plant at The above methods can be used success-
any time of the year. fully on healthy actively growing plants. They
are less easily applied to dormant or resting
Watering containers plants which require keeping barely moist.
Water plants in containers by filling the space Provided a free-draining potting medium is
between the soil surface and the pot rim with used, ideally a loam-based mixture, applying
water, thus ensuring that the whole of the just half the usual amount of water at each
root system is moistened. Frequency of application is usually successful. All-peat pot-
watering depends on several factors, notably ting mixes shrink away from the sides of the
the vigor of the plant, temperature, type of pot when kept too dry and much of the
soil, and the container. A fast growing, well subsequent water applied runs down the Fine sprays of water directed by nozzles Trickle systems supply a small a m o u n t of
rooted plant will probably need watering sides. To overcome this difficulty the plants onto plants are an efficient way of both water continuously to each plant. Check
each day in summer, perhaps even twice should be stood in trays of water so that the watering and raising humidity. plants regularly.
daily during a hot spell. In winter the same bottom half of each pot is submerged. Unless
plant may need watering only once or twice a the soil is dust-dry, a few minutes in water Trickle irrigation—spaghetti
week, or even less if it has a definite resting will suffice to moisten it adequately.
period.
If in doubt as to when a plant needs water,
there are several useful observations that can Watering beds
be made and points to check. Wilting or Beds and borders in the greenhouse are
flagging of the plant is very obvious when in watered in much the same way as those in
an advanced state but the observant gar- the outdoor garden and it is even more
dener will note the slight drooping of soft important to use a rose or sprinkler on the
stem and leaf tips which precedes this, can or hose. This prevents panning of the
denoting a need for water. Whatever the soil surface and unsightly soil-splash on
soil mixture used it is always paler in tone lower leaves of small plants. As with pots,
when dry. W h e n this state is reached in a beds must be attended to regularly and
clay pot, watering is required. In a plastic pot thoroughly. It is all too easy to think the bed
however, this indication is not so reliable, as has been well watered when in effect it is
containers of this sort are not porous and the still dry several inches down. Many a crop
soil stays more moist below the surface layer. of grapes, peaches or tomatoes has been
If the plant is not growing vigorously or the spoilt for this reason. The equivalent of at
weather is cool, it is advisable to scratch into least one inch of rain should be applied each
the surface of the soil with the finger tip. time. To get a rough idea of this amount,
If the top 1/4 in of the soil is dry, then water- stand a straight-sided container on the bed
ing should be carried out. An estimate of during watering. W h e n an inch is measurable
the weight of a pot full of soil can also in the bottom, leave for at least an hour then
be used as a guide. To enable the weight dig a small hole about 6 in deep and if dryish The so-called spaghetti system works on the coupling, deliver water to each plant. A
differences to be recognized, a range of pots soil shows at the bottom of the hole, water same principle as the trickle system. header tank can be used to give a
should be filled and firmed as for potting and again. Flexible tubes, attached to a central continuous supply, or a timeswitch fitted.
Benches and staging 1
Kent lies and staging of some sort arc used in maintain plants at bench level—most heat, cold and sunlight, and that plants Uses for solid benches A solid top to the
most greenhouses, the only exceptions being benches and stagings are 2 1/2 ft high. The placed on them will need extra care. Finally, bench or staging allows beds of soil, sand or
those houses used entirely for growing crops plants are also nearer eye level, allowing ensure that there is easy access to all plants. gravel to be formed. These can range from
in the border soil, those devoted to tall con- them to be better appreciated. Benches and staging should be no more than thin layers of gravel on w h i c h containers are
tainer plants and possibly those lean-tos Other kinds of structure such as shelves, 4 ft deep, and shelves, pot holders and hang- stood, to aid drainage and increase humidity,
which are primarily used for growing fruit pot holders, orchid baskets, and hanging ing baskets should be placed where they do to 4 - 6 in deep beds of sand or soil. Such beds
against the rear wall. Benches are less per- baskets for ferns and trailing plants can also not impede normal work in the greenhouse. are essential if mist propagation or the use of
manent than stagings, a term used to refer be fitted into the greenhouse. Take care not Keep hanging baskets, for instance, above soil heating cables are to be practiced.
to robust long-term constructions often to over-crowd the greenhouse, for too many normal head height unless they are sus- Gravel trays are watered in summer with the
supporting raised soil beds. structures will cut out light, impede air circu- pended over a bench or other area away aim of increasing humidity. Solid-topped
The use of benches and staging has several lation, and allow high-level plant containers from the central path. Shelves can be placed benches are also needed if trickle irrigation
advantages. They multiply the amount of to drip onto those below. across the end of the greenhouse, opposite systems are contemplated. Hydroponics sys-
useful growing space available, as the area the door, it they do not obstruct side benches. tems, which rely on a flow of nutrients in
underneath them can often be used. This is Positioning benches liquid form, need solid benches. Shallow
especially true in glass-to-ground houses, Take account of the aspect of the greenhouse Types of bench and staging metal trays can be used to convert per-
where enough light will penetrate the area when planning the position of benches and The first choice to be made is between solid forated benches into solid ones.
beneath the benches to grow crops such as staging. If the axis of the house is east-west, and perforated tops. Both have their advan- Materials The choice is between metal
lettuce and to raise seedlings in boxes and then one bench on the north side is ideal, as tages, and the choice depends to a large frames, w o o d frames and permanent brick
pans. In half-glazed houses the area beneath it does not block light. The south soil bed can extent upon the crops to be grown and the or concrete stagings. Metal and w o o d frames
the staging can be used for forcing crops such be used for crops, and adequate light will type of cultivation to be carried out. Air can be fitted with perforated or solid tops.
as rhubarb and seakale and for storing dor- reach plants on the bench. Place high-level circulation around benches is not so critical Some benches are removable, giving flexi-
mant plants during winter. Plants grown on shelves where they will not cast shadows over in summer, when more ventilators will be bility in the arrangement of the greenhouse.
benches are likely to receive more light than other plants for an appreciable portion of the open. Then, perforated benches may be W o o d will need to be thoroughly cleaned at
those placed on the floor or grown in soil day. Bear in mind that shelves raised near to covered with plastic sheet or metal trays to least once a year as it can harbor pest and
beds. It is also easier to water and generally the roof glass will be subject to extremes of allow solid-bench techniques to be used. disease organisms.
Types of staging
Staging can be timber or metal-framed, or and in summer can be covered with plastic maximum air circulation allowing heat to releasing at night heat absorbed during the
supported on brick or concrete piers. sheet which can be spread with moisture- circulate. Metal trays can be laid on the day. Concrete is also strong, and can
Slatted w o o d staging (a) is traditional and retaining vemiculite, gravel or peat. Net- staging and filled with gravel (c). Solid similarly support raised soil beds and heavy
attractive. It allows air circulation in winter, topped stagings (b), with metal frames, give brick staging (d) acts as a heat reservoir, pots, but it retains less heat t h a n brick.
Shelves Displaying plants
1 Metal or wood shelves can be fixed to 2 Tiered staging displays large numbers of Pot holders allow plants, especially trailers, Hanging baskets can be suspended from
glazing bars on the sides and roof of the pot plants attractively. It is available in to be mounted on the greenhouse sides. brackets mounted on walls or from the
greenhouse. Use special clips on aluminum w o o d or metal and can be placed on the They can be bought or improvised from greenhouse roof. Use those fitted with drip
frames. Make shelves at least 6 in deep. ground or on staging. bent wire. trays if they are placed above other plants
Displaying orchids Shelves under staging Hardening-off shelves
1 Many orchids grow best in perforated 2 Epiphytic orchids can be grown on thick Shelves can be mounted under staging in Some greenhouses are equipped w i t h
containers or wooden baskets, which can pieces of bark. W r a p roots in compost and glass-to-ground houses, especially on the opening panes allowing flats of plants on
be suspended from the greenhouse roof. wire the plant and rootball to the bark, south side. Use shelves for pots of bulbs shelves below the staging to be slid into the
(See pages 84-85) which is hung from the roof. during their dormant periods. open by day and returned at night.
Solid brick and concrete stagings can he from the roof beam if there is enough head-
built as part of the structure of half-glazed room. Proprietary fastening systems have WIRING A WALL
greenhouses with a brick base, lhey are very brackets which can be adjusted to the dis-
strong, and also have the advantage of in- tances between the greenhouse frame bars.
creasing the amount of heat the greenhouse Shelves should be wide enough to take the
can store and release during the night. Sun pots envisaged, strong, and easy of access.
shining through the glass strikes the staging Bear in mind the need to water the plants.
and heat is stored in the same manner as in Tiered shelves Banks of tiered wood or metal
a brick or stone wall. This heat is given off shelves can be installed in place of normal
during the night, moderating the temperature benches, or can be mounted upon the bench
drop in the greenhouse. Brick is a much more itself. They are of most use where large num-
efficient storer of heat than concrete, and bers of ornamental pot plants are grown,
therefore brick structures should be chosen allowing the largest possible number of
if heat storage is an important factor. Choose plants to be displayed.
hard-faced bricks which are less porous than
the normal sort. These are easier to scrub Hanging baskets
down and less likely to harbor pest and Hanging containers may be essential if many
disease organisms. trailing ornamentals are grown, and in any
case such containers are attractive. Baskets
Bench-top beds are made of metal, or preferably plastic-
Soil beds at bench level are described on covered metal. They are filled with soil mix
page 46. They need strong brick or concrete and lined with moss (see page 54). Place them
staging and by their nature are permanent. carefully where drips will not be a problem, Rear walls of lean-to greenhouses can be wall and make maintenance and repair
Less permanent beds can be formed by add- and ensure that fastenings are strong enough used to grow fruits and ornamental to the framework difficult.
ing raised edges to solid-based benches. Such to support the combined weights of con- plants. Careful preparation pays dividends First scrub d o w n the wall with water and
benches can be covered with soil, sand or tainer, plants and wet soil. later on, when the plant will cover the a dilute horticultural disinfectant to kill
gravel. The use of soil heating cables re- Pots can be suspended in wire or cord
quires a bed of sand or soil 4 in deep, in which "cradles", or in the decorative purpose-made
the cables are buried. Power cables of special holders designed primarily for house plants.
type are used to raise the sand temperature Drill plastic pots to take the wire; clay pots
to 43°C/110°F, and the sand transmits the can be fitted into a sling.
heat to pots and flats of plants and seeds Pot holders Simple metal rings attached to
placed upon it. Soil-heating systems are fre- brackets can be used to support pots. Fix the
quently used with mist propagation. rings to greenhouse frame uprights.
Alpine houses frequently have stagings
topped with a tray containing 4 - 6 in of Permanent supports
gravel, into which the pots containing the Plant support systems are discussed on page
plants are plunged. Again, a strong per- 50. Permanent supports, such as the system
manent structure is essential. Alpines can of wires illustrated right, must be planned
also be grown in bench-top beds. Often t w o when other fittings such as benches, staging
beds are constructed: one filled with stony, and shelves are being considered. In a lean-
acid soil, the other with a free-draining to house the rear wall can be wired for the
alkaline soil. growing of espalier or cordon fruit trees or
climbers. Walls should be scrubbed down,
Shelves preferably with a fungicide, rendered if
The use of narrow shelves above the main necessary and then painted or whitewashed
bench or staging maximizes growing space before the wires are fitted. Trellising can be
and allows pot plants to be placed where they fitted to battens and hinged at the bottom to pest and disease organisms. If the wall is Fix 2 in square w o o d battens vertically
are attractive yet not in the way of propaga- allow the wall behind to be painted. This is of brick, repoint and render if possible. at either end of the wall. Using straining
tion and other bench-top activities. Shelves only necessary for very long-lived plants such Then whitewash or paint the wall to bolts at one end, stretch wires horizontally
may be fixed to the glazing bars or suspended as vines. Full details can be found in Gardening provide a light-reflecting surface. between the posts, 15-18 in apart.
from them. Shelves can also be suspended Techniques in this series.
Propagating aids 1
All gardeners like to propagate their own humidity, temperature, gas content and light propagated successfully without protection able cost, they are much to be preferred to
plants, at least by the two basic means of transmission; and the environment of the For these reasons a properly-constructed inexpertly-made or put together do-it-your-
sowing seeds and taking cuttings. The prin- medium (soil or compost), which covers tem- heated propagating frame or case is highly self frames. The cheaper custom-built cases
ciples and methods of propagation are dealt perature, moisture, aeration and chemical desirable. In addition, the larger propagating have cable heating which maintains a tem-
with on pages 55-63, the equipment used, on reaction (acidity/alkalinity). The job of propa- cases can be used to house a small collection perature around 65"F/18"C. If outside con-
the next t w o pages. gation equipment is to modify these factors of tropical plants in a cold or cool greenhouse. ditions are cold, however, the temperature
Most tender plant seeds germinate more to provide the o p t i m u m conditions. can drop much lower and for this reason ,a
readily if kept at a temperature a little warmer The ideal environment An ideal environ- Propagating cases more efficient heating unit coupled with a
than is required by the growing plant. Seeds ment is one that allows minimum water loss Basically, the propagating frame or case is a thermostat is desirable. If tropical plants are
of hardy and half-hardy vegetables and from the plant, cool air temperatures, smaller version of a garden frame. It provides being propagated, it must be possible to
flowers are often sown under glass in late adequate light penetration, a normal atmo- a closed high-humidity environment and can maintain a minimum temperature of about
winter or early spring before the weather is spheric balance between soil and air, good be used either in the greenhouse or indoors if 75°F/24°C. Sophisticated units have both
warm enough outside. The main problem in drainage and warm soil temperatures. The light is adequate. The case can be of wood or bottom heat to warm the soil and cables
propagation is to ensure survival of the acidity/alkalinity reaction should be neutral. aluminum, with a cover of glass or plastic around the sides to w a r m the air.
propagated material (be it seed, cutting or The degree to which a particular system of sheeting. Bottom heat can be supplied elec- Unheated propagators If most of the propa-
graft) until it forms a new young plant. If the environmental control operates will limit the trically by soil heating cables (see page 22) gation is done from late spring to late sum-
correct material has been used at the start, propagation techniques that can be used or custom-made units with built-in heating mer, b o t t o m heat is not so important and a
and properly prepared, then success is successfully within it. In general, the "softer" elements can be purchased. Small units are wide variety of custom-made propagators
directly related to the control of the environ- or less hardy the plant material the greater heated by light-bulbs fitted to the end walls, without heat are available. Like the heated
ment by the gardener. will be the degree of environmental control or by fluorescent lighting tubes. For the ones, they are largely of plastic, the b o t t o m
Environmental factors In plant propagation needed to achieve success. The vagaries of amateur there is now a wide range of easily- being like a seed flat, the t o p an angular
there are two environments: the aerial en- the normal outdoor climate are too great portable propagating cases with a heating dome of clear rigid plastic. Home-made
vironment, which can be broken down into for all but the easiest and hardiest plants to be unit as an integral part. Generally of reason- frames of w o o d and glass or plastic sheeting
A mist unit provides fine sprays of water in trols the soil heat, and a cut-off switch,
the air above the plants, which are thus responsive to light, moisture or time, the
constantly covered by a fine film of water. water supply. Sunlight is uninterrupted as
Such a unit is used in conjunction with there is no need for a glass or plastic cover. An ordinary seed flat, pan or pot can be Purpose-made propagators have a d o m e d
soil-heating cables. A thermostat c o n - Mist units can cover entire benches. converted into a propagator if polyethylene plastic top over an ordinary seed flat.
sheeting is spread over hoops and sealed. Ventilators are usually fitted.
Propagating aids 2
CAN be just as effective and for small-scale way. As a result, a high level of photosynthesis will raise the temperature excessively , in Heated propagators
propagation some of the rigid plastic boxes t a n continue from the moment of insertion closed cases, sometimes to lethal limits.
sold for food storage are useful. Simplest of and subsequent rooting is more rapid and Shading must then be provided for all propa-
all is a plastic bag with either the pot of assured. There can be weaning problems gators enclosed with glass or plastic. This can
cuttings or seeds placed inside, or with the with some of the more difficult to root plants be done by shading the cases or frames
bag inverted over the pot. If the latter method once they reach the potting stage. themselves or the glass of the greenhouse
is used, two U-shaped loops of galvanized The system known as intermittent mist above. Any of the shading methods described
wire can be pushed into the rooting medium is also useful. The spray nozzles are coupled on page 16 can be employed, though the
to prevent the bag from collapsing onto the to a solenoid positioned among the cut- permanent or semi-permanent liquid prep-
cuttings or seedlings. tings. W h e n the solenoid dries sufficiently it arations are less desirable in climates where
actuates a switch to start the misting again. long, dull spells can be experienced at any
Mist units Another method is triggered by an absorbent time of the year. Ideally, shading should be
For the gardener who is particularly keen to pad attached to a switch. W h e n the pad is used only on bright days or during sunny
propagate plants of all kinds, a mist unit will wet and heavy it presses d o w n and turns the spells so that photosynthesis is not curtailed
ensure a higher rate of rooting success and system off. W h e n dry it rises and turns it on more than necessary. A position at the north
give much interest and satisfaction. Mist again. Where the growing season is persist- side or end of a greenhouse is best.
propagation requires electricity and piped ently warm and sunny, misting nozzles may The mist propagation method requires
water supplies. It keeps the foliage of the be left on, or just shut off at night. little or no shade in temperate zones, parti-
plant material moist with a fine mist-like cularly if the unit is sited at the north side or
spray of water, thus eliminating the need for Siting a propagator end of the greenhouse. In areas of hotter
light-reducing covers of plastic or glass. The Whatever propagation equipment is chosen summer sun, light shading during the middle Small propagating cases are heated by a
sun's light and heat can fall onto the cuttings it must be sited with care in the greenhouse. part of the day may be necessary unless con- light-bulb in a glass-covered case. Flats are
with only the greenhouse roof glass in the Adequate light is essential but direct sunlight tinuous misting nozzles are used. placed on the glass.
Soil heating Thermostat Roof shape
Soil-heating cables or heated panels in the An adjustable thermostat allows the internal A sloped roof causes condensation to run A kerosene-heated propagator can be used
base heat the growing medium in larger temperature to be maintained at the to the sides of the roof, avoiding harmful where there is no electricity.
propagators. required level despite weather changes. drips onto plants.
Introduction/Hygiene 1
Of all the branches of horticulture, growing Summer A routine for an imaginary summer Winter Much the same procedure is followed Hygiene
under glass is the most specialized. Not only day could be as follows. Once the morning in winter, but if the weather is cold and tem- Along with the right environment and routine
is the constant maintenance of the plants sun is fully on the greenhouse, check the peratures do not rise, ventilation and damp- care, a good level of hygiene must be main-
necessary, but the environment must be con- temperature. If it is about five degrees above ing will not need to be carried out and water- tained to ensure healthy, vigorous plants
trolled to give acceptable growing conditions. the desired minimum temperature for the ing will be minimal. The need to keep the greenhouse and parti
The ideal environment The basic aim should plants being grown, open the ventilators by While this sort of routine is ideal for the cularly the glass clean is often overlooked. II
always be to create an ideal environment for half to two-thirds. If temperatures continue plants, it is not easily carried out by the is surprising how much dirt can settle firmly
healthy growth, but perfection is seldom to climb, open up fully around mid-morning. gardener who may have to be away all day. onto a sheet of glass in the open, even in
possible, and never possible if a mixed col- Damp down, shade if required and check that Happily, it can be modified and compromises areas where air pollution is low. This consider
lection of plants is grown, for plants have there are no dry plants (but leave the main made. Full ventilation and essential watering ably cuts down light intensity, the effects of
differing needs. In theory at least, the fully watering operation until later). In early after- can be carried out just before leaving in the which are particularly noticeable in winter.
automated greenhouse can be programmed noon, go over the watering thoroughly and morning and the main watering and damping Plants which need good light, such as tomato,
to provide the correct levels of heat, light, damp down again if conditions are hot. If it is down done on arriving home. Damping down lettuce and freesia, look thin and pale and
humidity and ventilation whatever the con- not particularly hot, damp down in late after- during the day, while desirable for most lack substance.
ditions in the outside world. But in practice noon. As soon as direct sunlight is off the plants, is not essential. Automatic watering Class should be washed thoroughly in
this is rarely the case. Freak weather con- greenhouse the blinds can be rolled up and and ventilation help to optimize conditions autumn, using a suitable non-toxic detergent
ditions, a breakdown of equipment or a when the temperature drops back to about in greenhouses left unattended during the Where the glass overlaps, dirt accumulate-
simple power failure can quickly upset the five degrees above minimum, shut down day. and algae flourish, forming a dark band.
automated system. In the end, it is the skill the ventilators. During a warm spell the In the winter a daily check over in the Remove this dirt with a metal plant label
of the gardener that counts. Automatic temperature may not drop so low even after morning or evening is enough. If automatic or a sliver of sheet metal. Class washing
equipment can at best work to only fairly nightfall and the greenhouse can then be left ventilators and capillary watering are in- should be carried out at intervals during
wide tolerances and has the disadvantage of open day and night. Ail depends on the stalled, then a weekly check over should the winter, especially in areas of air pollution.
providing the same levels of water, heat and minimum temperature being maintained. suffice in winter. At other times of the year it is usually not
so on for all the plants in the greenhouse. It
is most important to get to know the limita- Cleaning the greenhouse
tions of the individual greenhouse and the
degrees of tolerance of the plants being
grown. This knowledge goes to build up the
intuitive skill which all good growers have, to
know when to water and ventilate, when to
damp down, shade or feed for the very best
results. All this takes patience and practice
and the beginner must be keen enough to
spend time with his plants, noting what
happens to them under different conditions.
Record keeping There is much to be said for
keeping a greenhouse diary or notebook.
Record in it the daily maximum and minimum
temperatures, when seeds are sown or cut-
tings taken, when plants are potted, fed,
staked, and stopped. In addition, comments
can be made from time to time on the
vigor, appearance and health of the plants.
Over the seasons, a valuable record of the
prevailing conditions is built up.
The daily routine

It is important to establish a regular daily
routine when gardening under glass. To fail In late summer, scrub the framework of the In autumn, wash the glass thoroughly using At the same time, scrub surfaces such as
to do so is likely to lead to the disappoint- greenhouse to remove pest and disease a non-toxic detergent. Remove dirt and paths and walls to remove algae, using a
ments of poor-quality plants and frequent organisms. First empty the greenhouse. Use algae from glass overlaps with an alloy dilute solution of a proprietary algicide.
failure of seedlings and young plants. a dilute sterilizing agent. plant label.
Introduction/Hygiene 2
so important and in summer the layer of of soil or chemicals around the insides of the PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL Apply fumigants in the evening, then leave
grime can even he beneficial, acting as pots. Soak clay pots in water to ensure Good greenhouse hygiene, as outlined in the the greenhouse closed overnight. Seal any
partial shading, cleanliness. Perhaps the chief cause of infec- previous section, is an essential starting point leaks and close all ventilators before applica-
At least once a year the framework of the tion of soil-borne rots is the use of dirty in the avoidance of pests and diseases. How- tion. To sterilize the greenhouse, empty it of
greenhouse should be scrubbed to remove containers for propagation. It is of great im- ever, problems will inevitably occur because plants and burn sulfur at the rate of 1 lb per
pest and disease organisms such as the eggs portance to ensure that containers are clean. it is impossible to avoid introducing infected 1000 cu ft. The burning sulfur produces sul-
of red spider mite and spores of fungal In order to avoid cross-infection, always material into the greenhouse. The following fur dioxide gas, which is highly poisonous.
diseases. To do the job properly the green- remove containers and used soil from the pages detail pests and diseases met with in Leave the greenhouse as soon as the sulfur
house should be empty so that a sterilizing greenhouse when not in use. Spent soil pro- the greenhouse and prescribe remedies. On is ignited.
agent, a chemical fluid, can be added to the vides ideal conditions for the multiplication this page methods of control are discussed.
washing water. Late summer is a good time to of both damping off fungi and sciarid flies. Biological control
wash the greenhouse, when all but the It is important to wipe tools clean after use Control methods In the open, many harmful pests are kept
tenderest plants can be stood outside. to ensure they do not become a potential Because the greenhouse is a closed environ- under control by predators such as birds or
In a humid greenhouse a film of green algae source of infection. ment it is often easier than in the open other insects. In the closed greenhouse
can form on all moist surfaces including walls It is futile to go to great lengths to sterilize garden to control pests and diseases. Some environment, such natural balances break
and floors, and can become slippery. All such soil, or to go to the expense of buying sterile pests, such as snails, can be removed by hand, down, leading to pest problems. In an effort
surfaces should be scrubbed, using one of the soil mixes, if they are left lying about open to but most greenhouse problems will have to to avoid over-use of chemicals, biologists
proprietary algicides in the water. the elements. All mixtures and their c o m - be dealt with by chemical means. Some bio- have investigated the possibility of biological
Hygiene should not stop at keeping the ponents should be kept bagged and covered logical control is possible for a few green- control. This means introducing a predator to
greenhouse clean. All used pots and seed to maintain their reliability. Do not attempt house pests (see below). Good growing prac- attack concentrations of harmful pests. Some
flats should be thoroughly washed and to re-use spent soil mixes, even if sterilized, tice is the first line of defence, for healthy predators have been f o u n d to be regularly
scrubbed before re-use to minimize the as the chemical balances will be out of sturdy plants are less susceptible to disease effective and are available commercially. A
spread of disease. Remove any "tide-marks" proportion. than sickly ones. predatory mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, con-
Applying chemicals Choose a chemical trols greenhouse red spider mite. A ladybird,
which will not harm the plants being grown, Cryptolaemus montrouzeri, can be used
but which is effective against the problem against mealybugs; a parasitic wasp, Encarsia
concerned. Remove any plants likely to be formosa, for greenhouse whitefly; and a
harmed by the chemical, or cover them with bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, attacks
plastic sheeting secured with string or elastic caterpillars.
bands. Carefully follow the instructions given If biological control is used chemical means
on the next page for the use of chemicals in must be ruled out until the predators have
the greenhouse. When spraying, open all had a chance to work, which limits its applica-
ventilators and the door. Many pesticides are tion if more than one pest is f o u n d . Predators
also available as dusts which are applied from are a cure rather than a prevention: they
a puffer pack. Use dusts on flowers and on cannot work until their prey, the pest, is
plants sensitive to moisture on foliage. present. The critical time to introduce preda-
Fumigation Chemicals can also be applied in tors is when the pest first appears. The preda-
smoke form, a process called fumigation. tor can then breed and build up a large
First check carefully that none of the plants enough population to eradicate the pests.
present will be damaged by the fumigant to Predators will only breed faster than the
be used. The manufacturer's instructions will pests when the daytime temperature exceeds
contain a list. Remove any such plants from 21°C/70°F and light intensity is good.
the greenhouse. Fumigants are available as While biological control avoids chemical
simple pyrotechnic smokes which resemble build-up on plants, a point especially to be
slow-burning fireworks, or as solids which are borne in mind with food crops, it is a less
vaporized on electric elements. Fumigants certain and more complicated method of
should be applied at a measured rate depend- pest control than the use of chemicals. The
ing upon the cubic capacity of the green- use of predators has to be carefully timed.
After use, wash and scrub seed boxes and kept in a bin with a tight-fitting lid to avoid house. Measure the capacity by the formula This may involve investigating sources of
pots to minimize the spread of disease. staleness and possible contamination. length x breadth x average height. Fumiga- supply well before the trouble is likely to
Store containers neatly and do not allow Remove spent soil from the greenhouse tion can be used against specific pests or as a arise and taking swift action once the pests
debris to build up. Potting soil should be after use. general hygiene measure every six months. are noticed.
Pests and diseases 1
Introduction SEEDLINGS
This section is concerned with the various This section covers the period of plant growth
pests, diseases and disorders that may affect between germination and the emergence of
plants grown under glass. It is divided into true leaves.
two parts: ornamental plants, and fruits and
vegetables. Within each part, the possible Seedlings eaten
troubles are listed by symptom, such as Slugs, woodlice and millipedes can destroy
Leaves discolored or Stems galled. Under plants by eating the foliage before the seed-
each symptom the various causes that may lings have a chance to become established.
produce it are described and control measures Slugs are the most destructive; woodlice and
suggested. millipedes only become troublesome when
The most important means of controlling thev are present in large numbers. Slug
pests and diseases is by good cultural prac- pellets containing metaldehyde give some
tice. In particular, ensure that plants are not additional protection against woodlice and
allowed to become pot-bound or suffer from millipedes. Scatter pellets along seed rows.
malnutrition, that they are given sufficient
water and light, and that the greenhouse has Seedlings collapsing
the correct temperature and humidity for the Damping off is usually due to species of the
plants. If any of these conditions is unsuitable, soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora
the plants will not only be much more sus- and Pythium. Seedlings of antirrhinum, sweet
ceptible to attack by pests and diseases, they peas, lobelia, stock and zinnia are particularly
may also be damaged by the condition itself susceptible to infection, and collapse at
and develop recognizable symptoms. Such ground level. Prevent infection by sowing
problems are known as physiological dis- thinly, since the disease is encouraged by
orders. They are discussed under the appro- overcrowding, and by using sterilized soil or
priate symptom. compost of a good tilth. Over-watering can Plant wilting caused by over- or under-watering or malnu-
Even if plants are given the correct growing also induce damping off, so water carefully Bacterial wilt (Xanthomonas begoniae) trition; prevent it by maintaining even growth
conditions, pests and diseases will still occur with clean water. Give adequate light but causes wilting and spotting on leaves of through good cultural treatment.
occasionally, and in this case it is often not too much heat. Check slight attacks by winter-flowering begonia hybrids derived
advisable to use pesticides or fungicides. watering with captan or zineb after removing from B. socotrana and 6. dregei. Burn severely Leaves distorted
Such chemicals are, however, potentially all dead seedlings. Captan or thiram seed diseased plants and do not propagate from Tarsonemid mites are a group of tiny
dangerous and must be handled with care at dressings can help prevent damping off them. If they are only slightly diseased, cut creatures that infest the growing points of
all times; failure to do so may harm the user disease. out affected parts and decrease the tempera- certain greenhouse plants. The bulb scale
or damage plants. It is particularly important ture and humidity of the greenhouse. This mite (Steneotarsonemus laticeps) lives in the
that the manufacturer's instructions are read BULBOUS PLANTS will reduce the spread and severity of the neck of narcissus and hippeastrum bulbs.
and followed, and that all chemicals are This section treats problems that are specific disease, but it will also delay flowering. It causes a distinctive sickle-shaped cur-
stored in a cool dark place away from food- to plants having bulbs, corms, tubers or Disinfect the greenhouse after a severe vature of the leaves and a saw-toothed
stuffs, if possible in a locked cupboard where rhizomes. attack of the disease. notching along the margins. The flower
children and pets cannot reach them. Wear stems become stunted and distorted, again
rubber gloves when diluting chemicals, and Plant stunted Leaves discolored with a saw-toothed scar along the edges of
thoroughly wash the sprayer, gloves and any Non-rooting of hyacinth bulbs is a physio- Leaf scorch (Stagonospora curtisii) causes the stem. The cyclamen mite (Tarsonemus
other equipment after use. Always spray logical disorder, the precise cause of which brown blotches to appear on the leaves of pallidus) and broad mite (Polyphagotarson-
from all sides of the plant to give an even is not known. The leaves do not develop at the hippeastrum (amaryllis), particularly at the emus latus) live inside the leaf and flower buds
coverage and ensure that both upper and normal rate and the inflorescence remains leaf bases, and also on the flower stalks and of plants such as cyclamen, Hedera (ivy),
lower leaf surfaces are covered. Finally, avoid stunted. The roots of an affected bulb are petals. The affected tissues usually rot begonia, impatiens, saintpaulia and Sin-
using insecticides on plants that are in flower either lacking or poorly developed. This and become slimy. Cut out such tissues and ningia (gloxinia). Their feeding causes stems
since the petals may be damaged. problem can be caused by the temperature burn them. Spray or dust affected plants with and leaves to become scarred and frequently
Plants that have been severely attacked by being too high during storage or forcing, or sulfur or zineb. to be distorted into spoon-like shapes. The
pests or diseases should not be left in the by forcing or lifting too early. Unfortunately Unsuitable cultural conditions can check the growing points may be killed and the flowers
greenhouse since they can become a source it is not possible to detect in advance those growth of hippeastrums, causing red blotches are either distorted or fail to develop. There
of infection for other plants. All such plants bulbs in which the non-rooting tendency has or streaks (or both) to appear on the leaves, are no controlling chemicals available to
should, if possible, be burned. developed. flower stalks and bulbs. This trouble is usually amateur gardeners. Burn all infested plants.
storage but when the corms are replanted these caterpillars eat holes in the foliage.
the rot progresses rapidly. Destroy badly Control light infestations by searching for and
infected plants and disinfect the greenhouse. squeezing the caterpillars' hiding places.
Sterilize the soil where diseased plants have Otherwise spray the plants thoroughly with
been growing in beds. Examine corms when a dilute solution of trichlorphon when signs
removing them from store and cut out any of damage are seen. Other caterpillars that
brown areas. Then steep them for two hours can be found on greenhouse plants include
in a 2 per cent formalin solution before those of the angle shades m o t h (Phlogo-
planting them out. phora meticulosa) and the silver-Y moth
(Autographa gamma). These feed in the open
Inflorescence loose on the foliage and flowers but may be
Loose bud of hyacinth, in which the stem difficult to find since they are active mainly at
below the flower bud fractures completely at night. Control these pests by hand-picking or
an early stage of growth, is usually caused by by applying the above insecticides.
storing bulbs at too low a temperature. Slugs (various species) can damage most
Bulbs that have been moved from cold plants, especially during the early stages of
storage into a very warm place are parti- growth. They frequently leave a slime trail on
cularly susceptible. Loose bud may also be the foliage, which distinguishes their damage
caused by incorrect lifting or forcing. Unfortu- from that caused by caterpillars. Control
nately it is impossible to detect the tendency them by scattering slug pellets based on
for loose bud in a consignment of bulbs. metaldehyde onto the soil surface around
the plants.
Buds withering
Blindness of bulbous plants is usually caused Leaves discolored
by the soil being too dry at a critical stage of Faulty root action may be caused by over- or
Leaves, flowers and bulbs rotting Bulbs, corms or tubers rotting growth. Prevent this by making sure that the under-watering, malnutrition or poor pot-
Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora var carotovora) Basal rot may be caused by various fungi, compost never dries out. Less frequently it is ting. It results in irregular yellow or brown
causes a soft, slimy, evil-smelling rot of the and affects mainly Lilium and Lachenalia. The caused by storing bulbs before planting in blotches on the leaves, or complete dis-
leaves and bulbs of hyacinths. It often c o m - roots and base of the bulb rot, resulting in conditions that are too hot and dry. Prevent
mences in the inflorescences when florets stunting of the top growth and discoloration this either by potting up immediately on
have withered through a physiological dis- of the leaves. Discard badly affected bulbs. obtaining bulbs, or by storing them in the SOOTY M O L D
order known as blindness; for details see In less severe cases cut out diseased roots proper conditions. The flower buds of affected Some sap-feeding insects such as aphids,
right under Buds withering. If the rot has not and tissues, or scales in the case of lily bulbs. bulbs turn brown and wither at an early whiteflies, scales and mealybugs excrete a
advanced too far it may be possible to save Then dip the bulbs in a solution of captan or stage. Such bulbs can be planted out in the sugary liquid known as honeydew. Since
the bulbs for planting outside by cutting out benomyl before re-potting. Prevent such garden but will not flower for a year or two. these insects feed mainly on the under-
all infected tissue. Such bulbs planted out- troubles by using only sterile compost and sides of leaves the honeydew drops down
side will not flower for a year or two. clean pots. GENERAL PLANTS onto the upper surfaces of leaves grow-
Begonia tuber rot and cyclamen corm rot The pests and diseases mentioned in this ing below the actual infestation. Such
Roots or tubers eaten usually occur as a result of frost damage dur- section may, unless otherwise stated, affect leaves become sticky, and under damp
Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) are ing storage. The tissues become soft and any type of plant, including those with conditions various black, non-parasitic
plump white maggots about 1/2 in long with have a sweetish smell. Prevent these rots by bulbs, corms, tubers, or rhizomes. fungi known as sooty mold rapidly de-
light brown heads. Plants grown from tubers ensuring that tubers and corms of the velop. They do not directly harm plants
are particularly susceptible but many other respective plants are stored carefully in a Leaves eaten because they grow on the honeydew,
plants may be attacked. Usually the first frost-proof place. Carnation tortrix caterpillars {Cacoecimor- although the amount of light and air
symptom that is noticed is the plant wilting Arum corm rot {Erwinia carotovora var caro- pha pronubana) feed on a very wide range of reaching the foliage is reduced. Remove
and, when it is tipped out of its pot, most of tovora) can be serious wherever arums plants and can be found throughout the year sooty mold by wiping the leaves with a
the roots are seen to have been destroyed. {Zantedeschia spp. and hybrids) are grown in heated greenhouses. The "caterpillars grow soft damp cloth. Good ventilation makes
Such plants rarely recover. Badly affected under glass in large numbers. The plants up to 3/4 in long and are pale green with brown the atmosphere drier and thus less suitable
plants should be destroyed, the soil thrown wither and collapse due to rotting of the heads. They fold over the edge of a leaf with for the growth of sooty mold, but the
away and the pot sterilized. Some protection corms; these may develop extensive brown silken threads, or bind two leaves together, best cure is to identify and control the pest
is given by adding chlorpyrifos granules or areas with rotting roots arising from them. and when small feed unnoticed by grazing that is producing the honeydew.
naphthalene flakes when potting up. The corm lesions can lie dormant during away the inner surfaces of these leaves. Later
coloration of the foliage, and premature leaf- Glasshouse thrips (Heliothrips haemor-
fall. Prevent such troubles by careful potting rhoidalis) are thin yellow or dark brown
up and correct cultural treatment for the insects about 1/10 in long that live mainly on
type of compost being used. Applications of the upper surfaces of leaves and on flowers.
foliar fertilizer should help overcome the They feed by sucking sap and cause a full
troubles, but in severe cases it may be neces- green or silvery discoloration of the foliage,
sary to re-pot the affected plant. which is also marked by minute black spots
Tip scorch of the leaves of plants such as caused by the thrips' excretions. Control this
aspidistra, chlorophytum and sansevieria pest by spraying thoroughly with a pyre-
may be caused by the air being too hot or throid compound, derris, malathion or a
dry, or by faulty root action (see above). systemic insecticide.
Affected plants should recover once the
scorched leaves have been removed and the Leaves with corky patches
correct cultural treatment given. In the case Oedema, or dropsy, is caused by the atmos-
of saintpaulia, anthurium and palms such as phere being too moist or the soil too wet. It
kentia, it may be necessary to place the pot in shows as pale pimple-like outgrowths on the
a larger container packed with damp moss or undersurfaces of the leaves and on the stems.
peat in order to create a humid atmosphere. The outgrowths later burst and then become
Sun scorch of leaves usually shows as pale brown and powdery or corky. The most sus-
brown blotches (often elliptical) across the ceptible plants are eucalyptus, ivy-leaved
foliage. It is caused by the sun's rays on a hot pelargonium, peperomia and camellias—
day passing either through glass onto moist the last mentioned develops large scabby
foliage, or through a flaw in the glass which patches on the undersurfaces. Improve the
acts as a lens to intensify the rays. Prevent cultural conditions by careful watering and
scorch in greenhouses by careful ventilation by ventilating the greenhouse. Do not re-
to reduce humidity. move affected leaves since this will only make
Leaf spots are caused by a variety of fungi. In matters worse.
practically all cases they produce brown or Corky scab of cacti is caused either by a lack
black spots on the leaves, but on some hosts of light and the humidity being too high, or control eelworms, and infested plants should Leaves with visible fungal growth
the spots have a purple border or they may by over-exposure to sunlight. It occurs most be burned. However, it is possible to give Powdery mildews are c o m m o n on chrysan-
have pinpoint-sized black dots scattered frequently on Epiphyllum and Opuntia and chrysanthemum stools a hot water treat- themums, begonias and cinerarias, and occur
over them. Remove affected leaves and spray shows as irregular rusty or corky spots which ment so that they will subsequently produce occasionally on other plants. The symptoms
with mancozeb or zineb. If further trouble develop into sunken patches as the tissues cuttings free of eelworms. Wash the dormant are white powdery spots on the leaves and
occurs the plants may be lacking in vigor due beneath die. Where the trouble is very un- stools free of all soil and then plunge them sometimes the stems. Ventilate the green-
to faulty root action, in which case see above sightly propagate from the affected plant and in hot water at 46°C/115°F for five m i n u t e s - house well since the fungi are encouraged by
and previous page. ensure that new plants are given correct it is important that the time and temperature a humid atmosphere. Plants that are dry at
"Ring pattern" on saintpaulias and achimenes cultural treatment and are not exposed to are exact. Then plunge into cold water. the roots are more susceptible to infection,
is caused by a sudden chilling of the leaves too much light. so water before the soil dries out completely.
from watering overhead in sunlight. Affected Leaves mined Fumigate the greenhouse with dinocap
leaves develop large yellow rings. Prevent Leaves blotched Chrysanthemum leaf miner grubs (Phyto- smokes or spray with dinocap or benomyl.
this by careful watering. Chrysanthemum eelworm and fern eelworm myza syngenesiae) tunnel the leaves of Remove severely affected leaves.
Viruses such as tomato spotted wilt and (Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi and A. iragariae) chrysanthemum and related plants such as Rusts can affect chrysanthemums, fuchsias,
cucumber mosaic affect a wide range of are microscopic worm-like animals that live cineraria (Senecio cruentus hybrids) and ger- pelargoniums, cinerarias and carnations. On
plants. In general the symptoms are mottled, inside leaves. Many different plants may be bera. These mines show on the leaves as fuchsias and cinerarias orange powdery
blotched or striped leaves, affected parts infected, although in greenhouses the main whitish-brown lines meandering through the pustules develop on the leaves, predomi-
being pale green, yellow or black. The hosts are those indicated by the pests' com- leaf and, in heavy infestations, leaves may nantly on the lower surfaces. On other plants
leaves may also be distorted and the plants mon names. Infested parts of the leaves turn lose almost all their green color. A single the pustules produce masses of chocolate-
stunted. Destroy any plant showing these brown. At first these areas are clearly separ- application of benomyl pirimiphos-methyl colored spores. Remove arrd burn affected
symptoms. A valuable plant such as an ated by the larger leaf veins from the green, controls this pest if applied as soon as mining leaves. If severely infected, destroy the plant.
orchid may be kept but it will always produce healthy parts, but eventually the brown areas begins, but if the plants are badly infested Reduce the humidity of the atmosphere, and
discolored leaves and the trouble may spread coalesce and the whole leaf dies. None of the three applications of insecticide at ten day avoid wetting the leaves. Spray at seven to
to previously healthy plants. chemicals available to amateur gardeners intervals will be necessary. ten day intervals with zineb or mancozeb.
Leaves with pests visible and the top growth wilts or collapses. Prevent the latter have yellow-brown, flat, oval shells yellow insects, about 1/10 in long, that suck
Greenhouse whitefly (ltrialeurodes vapor-iro- these diseases by using sterilized soil mixes of the same length. The insects live under- sap from the petals of carnation, chrysan-
rum is one of the most c o m m o n and and pots, and by using clean water. Pot up neath these shells and feed on sap. Once themum, cyclamen and other plants. The
troublesome of greenhouse pests. for details, carefully and tease out the roots of pot- a suitable feeding place is found they do not petals develop white flecks where the thrips
sec page 40. bound plants. Control by watering with move. Control by spraying plants thoroughly have fed. Control them by spraying thorough-
Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum aphid ethazol plus benomyl, or use a solution of with malathion or nicotine three times at two ly with malathion or nicotine. Care needs to
(Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum circum- Banrot as a soil drench. In severe cases re- week intervals. be taken since flowers may be marked
llexum) are both species of greenfly that suck pot, using a smaller pot if necessary, in sterile Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) are gray- by insecticides, so spray w h e n the plants
sap from a wide range of plants. For details, soil or potting mixture after having removed white soft-bodied insects that grow up to 1/4 in are not exposed to bright sunlight or high
see page 40. all dead parts including roots. Spray the long. They infest cacti, succulents and many temperatures.
Soft scales (Coccus hesperidum) are sap- developing leaves with a foliar fertilizer. other plants, and secrete white, waxy fibers Viruses such as cucumber mosaic and
feeding insects that live on the stems and Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) causes plants to that cover the mealybug colonies and their tomato spotted wilt can cause spotting or
undersides of leaves near the main veins. For decay and affected leaves and flowers to egg masses. Control them by spraying with streaking of flowers, w h i c h may also be dis-
a description of these pests and their control, become covered with a gray-brown mass of malathion or nicotine. Thorough applications torted. Most frequently affected are chrysan-
see below. fungal spores. The petals may also develop are necessary because mealybugs tend to themums and bulbous plants, especially
numerous small red or brown spots. Cray live on relatively inaccessible parts of the lilies and cyclamen. Destroy affected plants.
Leaves mottled mold spores are always present in the air plant, and two or more sprays at two week
Greenhouse red spider mites (Tetranchus and infect plants through wounds and dead intervals may be needed. On plants that are Flowers spotted or rotting
urticae) are minute pests that attack most or dying tissue. Infections can also occur liable to be damaged by insecticides, such as Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) frequently attacks
greenhouse plants. For details, see page 40. between diseased and healthy tissues. Pre- Crassula and ferns, dab mealybugs with a the flowers of cyclamen and chrysan-
Greenhouse leafhoppers (Zygina pallidifrons) vent gray mold by good hygiene and by brush dipped in methylated spirit. themums. For symptoms and treatment, see
suck sap from the undersides of leaves and removing dead leaves and flowers promptly. under Stems or crowns rotting, above.
cause white, pinhead-sized dots to appear on Ventilate the greenhouse carefully to reduce Stems galled
the upper surfaces. In heavy attacks these humidity, and water early in the morning and Leafy gall (Corynebacterium tascians) affects Pests in or on the soil
dots coalesce and most of the leaves' green not at night. Once the disease has appeared mainly pelargoniums and chrysanthemums, Vine weevil grubs (Otiorhynchus sulcatus)
color is lost. Adult leafhoppers are about on any type of plant, spray with benomyl or and shows as a mass of abortive and often are plump white legless grubs, up to 1/2 in long,
5/8 in long and pale yellow with two V-shaped a copper fungicide or use Isotherm Termil fasciated (flattened) shoots at soil level. with light brown heads. For symptoms of
gray markings on their back. The nymphal bombs. In the case of cyclamen affected by Destroy affected plants and sterilize pots and attack, and treatment, see under Roots and
stages are creamy-white. As they grow they gray mold around the crown, dust with the greenhouse bench on which the plants tubers eaten in the Bulbous plants section.
periodically shed their skins, which remain captan. were standing. Do not propagate from dis- Fungus gnats or sciarids (various species) are
attached to the undersides of the leaves. Carnation wilt is caused by the fungi Verti- eased plants. For details of sterilizing, see small gray-black flies that run over the soil
Control leafhoppers by spraying with any of cillium albo-atrum and Fusarium oxysporum page 33 on Hygiene. surface of pot plants or fly slowly around
the insecticides malathion, pirimiphosmethyl, f dianthi. Affected plants wilt rapidly and the them. Their larvae are thin white maggots up
methoxyclor or a pyrethroid compound. leaves become either yellow or gray-green Flower buds dropping to 1/4 in long with black heads. They live in the
and then straw-colored. In both cases a Bud drop affects stephanotis, gardenias, soil and feed mainly on rotting plant material
Stems or crowns rotting brown discoloration can be seen in the inner hibiscus and camellias. It is caused by the soil but they sometimes damage the roots of
Blackleg (various organisms) affects pelar- tissues of affected stems. Prevent these being too dry at the time the buds were seedlings and plants that are in poor health.
gonium cuttings and sometimes the mature diseases by using sterilized pots and soil. beginning to develop. Prevent this trouble They may also tunnel into the base of soft
plant. The stem bases become soft, black Destroy severely affected plants and sterilize by ensuring that the soil never dries out. cuttings and cause them to rot. Control the
and rotten, and affected plants die. Prevent the greenhouse bench or floor on which the Gardenias may also lose their buds if the adult flies by spraying w i t h a pyrethroid
this disease by using sterile soil mixes and plants were standing. Do not propagate atmosphere is too dry. Prevent this by c o m p o u n d . Against the larvae, mix some
pots, and by hygienic cultural conditions, from diseased plants. To reduce the spread syringing the plants in the morning and diazinon granules into the soil around the
including the use of clean water. Destroy of wilt drench the remaining plants with a evening during warm sunny weather except plants.
severely diseased cuttings, but in the case of solution of benomyl or thiophanate-methyl, when the flowers are open, otherwise they Springtails (various species) are white soil-
valuable plants it may be possible to propa- repeating the treatment t w o weeks later. will discolor. Over-watering can also cause dwelling insects, about 1/10 in long. They are
gate by taking a fresh cutting from the top of bud drop of gardenias. Bud drop can be found especially in peat-based mixes, and
a diseased plant. Stems or crowns with pests visible avoided by careful greenhouse management. are distinguished by their habit of jumping
Foot, crown and root rot may be caused by Scale insects such as hemispherical scale Ensure that temperature, humidity and venti- when exposed on the surface of the soil. They
black root rot fungus or other soil or water- (Saissetia coffeae) and soft scale (Coccus lation are correct. usually appear on the soil surface after plants
borne fungi. These organisms cause a brown hesperidum) encrust the stems of many have been watered. However, they cause no
or black rot of the tissues at the base of the different plants. The former have red-brown Flowers discolored damage and there is, therefore, no need for
stems, around the crowns or at the roots, convex shells about ^ in in diameter, while Thrips (various species) are thin, black or any controls.
dirty tanks and butts. give adequate light but still produce good crops it the deficiency is
not too much heat. Check slight attacks by corrected early on. HORMONE WEEDKILLER DAMAGE
watering with captan or zineb after removal This commonly affects plants under glass,
of the dead seedlings. Leaves moldy particularly vines and tomatoes. Affected
Wirestem fungus, caused by Rhizoctonia Tomato leaf mold (Cladosporium lulvum) leaves become narrow and fan-shaped,
solani, is a disease of brassica seedlings, affects only tomatoes grown under glass or show parallel veins, are frequently cupped
particularly cauliflowers, but the same fungus polyethylene. A purple-brown mold develops and the shoots twist spirally. Take care
can also affect seedlings of other vegetables. on the lower surface of leaves which show when using hormone weedkillers, apply
Stems of affected brassica seedlings shrink yellow blotches on the upper surface. These ing them with equipment kept solely for
at ground level before they topple, but other symptoms may be overlooked as affected their use. Do not use them on a windy day
seedlings damp off as described above. Let- leaves are subsequently often attacked by and, when spraying nearby, close green-
tuce seedlings affected by this fungus usually gray mold. Grow resistant varieties and keep house ventilators. Do not store weed-
succumb to gray mold (see below) fairly the greenhouse temperature less than 21°C/ killers in a greenhouse since vapors from
soon afterwards so that the original cause 70°F. Ventilate well since the disease is them can affect plants. Wash hands and
may be overlooked. Prevent by sowing encouraged by humid atmospheres. At the tools after applying weedkillers.
thinly in a good tilth and avoid over-watering. first signs of trouble spray with benomyl or
Use sterilized soil or a good-quality soilless mancozeb or use Exotherm Termil every
Leaves discolored mix to help prevent infection. The fungus is 7 days. (see above). The top growth wilts or collapses
Downy mildew of brassica seedlings, especi- not controlled by fungicides with the excep- completely because these soil: a n d water-
ally cauliflowers, is caused by the fungus tion of dicloran. The chemical can be raked Leaves and stems rotting borne organisms attack the roots and stem
Peronospora parasitica and that of lettuce by into the soil before sowing seed where this Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) is a c o m m o n bases. Prevent this by the use of clean water
Bremia lactucae. White mealy or downy tufts disease is known to be troublesome. problem under glass, affecting particularly and by changing or sterilizing the soil at
of fungal growth develop on the underside of grapes, strawberries, cucumbers and t o m - least once every three years, or by the use of
the leaves, which become blotched on the DISEASES OF MATURE CROPS atoes. Lettuce tends to wilt due to attack at sterile soil. Plant carefully, and tease out
upper surface. Affected seedlings are severely The diseases described below may affect any ground level. Affected stems, fruits and leaves roots of pot-bound plants. Do not over- or
checked and lettuces may later be attacked crop, fruit or vegetable, being grown in rot and become covered with a gray-brown under-water as plants suffering from faulty
by gray mold (see below). These mildews are greenhouses, cold or heated frames or under velvety fungus growth. Sometimes the fungus root action (see above) are very susceptible
most troublesome on overcrowded seedlings cloches, unless otherwise stated. Vines and does not rot tomato fruits but produces pin- to attack. If foot rot occurs, water with a
growing in very humid conditions. Prevent peaches are treated separately at the end of point spots, each with a pale green ring, solution of captan, or alternatively, zineb,
the diseases by sowing seed thinly in steril- this section. known as water spots, which can still be seen or dust at the base of the plant with dry
ized, well drained soil or seed sowing mix, and on ripe fruit. Spores of the fungus infect plants bordeaux powder. W h e n tomatoes are
ventilate carefully to reduce humidity. Do not Leaves discolored through wounds and dead and dying tissues, affected, place fresh sterilized soil around
over-water seedlings. Should mildew occur, Faulty root action is due to over- or under- or by contact between diseased and healthy the base of the stems and spray all plants
remove diseased leaves and spray with watering or poor transplanting and can cause tissues. Remove dead leaves and over-ripe with a foliar fertilizer to encourage the
mancozeb or zineb. On brassica seedlings, irregular yellow or brown blotches on the fruits promptly to avoid infection. Ventilate development of new roots in the fresh soil.
chlorothalonil and captafol may be used. leaves. Prevent this by careful planting and greenhouses carefully to reduce humidity As these new roots develop they should re-
correct cultural treatment. Applications of a and water early in the morning, not at night. vitalize the plants.
Stems collapsing foliar fertilizer should help to overcome the Over-watering plants should be sprayed Verticillium wilt is caused by species of the
Damping off is usually due to species of the trouble, but with severely affected tomatoes with thiram every three or four weeks. fungus Verticillium. The larger leaves wilt
soil- and water-borne fungi Phytophthora it may be necessary to mound sterile soil Prevent infection of grapes and strawberries during the day, particularly on hot days, but
and Pythium. Seedlings of lettuce, tomato, around the base of the stem into which new by spraying with benomyl as the first flowers recover at night. Affected plants may lose
mustard and cress are most susceptible to roots can grow as the plant recovers. open, repeating twice at ten day to t w o week their older leaves. Brown streaks are seen
infection, and collapse at ground level. Over- Magnesium deficiency is common on t o m - intervals, or with captan or thiram except running lengthways in the tissues if the base
crowding encourages the disease, therefore atoes and eggplants. Orange-yellow bands on fruit to be preserved or canned. Fumigate of the stem is cut longitudinally. Destroy
sow thinly and use sterilized soil of a good develop between the veins on the lower an affected greenhouse with smokes if badly affected plants. Prevent the disease by
tilth or a well-prepared sterilized sowing mix. leaves, which gradually turn brown as the possible. using sterilized soil or planting mix, and
The organisms that cause damping off are symptoms spread progressively upwards. always plant verticillium and fusarium re-
often present in unsterilized soil, particularly Spray at the first signs of trouble with 1/2 lb Stems wilting sistant varieties. Seed catalogs indicate which
if it is compacted causing poor aeration. magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal of water, to Foot and root rot can be due to various fungi, varieties are resistant.
Overwatering can also induce damping off. which is added a spreader. Spray repeatedly including Thielaviopsis basicola and species Tomato stem rot {Didymella lycopersici)
Use clean water to prevent infection by every seven to ten days until the plants have of Fusarium, as well as those fungi which causes a sudden wilting of mature plants.
water-borne organisms which build up in completely recovered. Affected plants can cause damping off and wirestem of seedlings A brown or black canker develops on the
stem, usually at ground level, and small black Chats (small tomato fruits) may form on by adequate and early ventilation, by ensur- VINES
specks, which are the fruiting bodies of the plants which are dry at the root, but poor ing that plants have sufficient shade, and by The most serious disorder to affect vines
fungus, can just be seen with the naked eye all pollination caused by cold nights and a dry correct feeding and watering. Crow tomato grown under glass is powdery mildew.
over the diseased tissues. These produce atmosphere may also be responsible. Encour- varieties resistant to greenback. Consult seed
many spores which over-winter and act as a age pollination by syringing the foliage in the catalogs for lists of tomato varieties resistant Leaves, shoots and fruits with fungal growth
source of infection the following season. It is morning and again during the day when the to greenback. Powdery mildew (Uncinula necatof) shows a
essential, therefore, to burn all debris and to weather is hot. soft white floury coating of fungus spores on
sterilize the greenhouse and equipment at the Dry set of tomatoes is also due to poor pol- Bronzing of tomatoes is caused by tobacco the leaves, young shoots and fruits. Affected
end of the season if this disease has occurred. lination. It is caused by the atmosphere being mosaic virus. Brown patches develop be- berries drop if attacked early, but in later
Destroy badly affected plants and spray the too hot and too dry. The fruits remain 1/8 in neath the surface, usually at the stalk end, attacks become hard, distorted and split,
stem bases of the rest of the crop with beno- across and become dry and brown. Syringe and give a bronzed patchy appearance to the and are then affected by secondary fungi
myl or captan. Less severely diseased plants the foliage as described for chats above. young fruit. When cut open the patches such as gray mold. Ventilate carefully since
may be saved by cutting out affected tissues show as a ring of small dark spots beneath the disease is encouraged by humidity.
and applying a paste of captan mixed with a Fruits discolored the skin. W i t h severe infection depressed Avoid overcrowding the shoots and leaves
little water, or by painting them with a solu- Blossom end rot of tomatoes shows as a streaks which fail to ripen may radiate from and provide some heat if the greenhouse is
tion of benomyl. circular and depressed brown or green-black the stalk end. The internal tissues of such cold. Avoid also dryness at the roots. At the
patch on the skin at the blossom end of the fruits show large brown corky areas. Plants first sign of mildew spray or fumigate with
Flowers dropping fruit (the end farthest away from the stalk). In bearing bronzed tomatoes would have shown dinocap, spray or dust w i t h sulfur, or spray
Tomato flower drop is almost always due to most cases it is due to a shortage of water at a other symptoms such as stunted growth with benomyl. Up to four applications may be
dry conditions at the roots. The flowers may critical stage in the development of young or mottled foliage earlier in the season and needed. In winter, after removing the loose
open, but break off from the stalk at the fruit. Prevent this by seeing that the soil is should have been destroyed when these bark, paint the vine stems w i t h a solution of
joint and fall to the ground. Prevent this never allowed to dry out completely. All the symptoms first appeared. sulfur made up as follows: mix equal parts
trouble by adequate but careful watering. fruit on one truss may be affected but those of flowers of sulfur and soft soap to form
developing later should be normal if the Fruits rotting lumps the size of golf balls. Put one lump into
Fruits failing to develop normally plant has a good root system and is looked Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) can attack a jam jar with a little water and stir well with
Withering of young cucumbers starting at after carefully. various crops. For details, see page 38. the brush used to paint the stems.
the blossom end is due to uneven growth Greenback and blotchy ripening of tomatoes
resulting from irregular watering. Remove all show as hard green or yellow patches on the Fruits bitter Leaves discolored
the fruits from an affected plant to rest it, and fruits. The former occurs on the shoulder of Bitter cucumbers can be due to an excess of Scorch is due to the sun's rays striking
spray the foliage with foliar fertilizer if a poor the fruit and the latter on any part. Both may nitrogen in the soil or irregular growth. Avoid through glass onto moist tissues on a hot day.
color. Later-developing fruits should be nor- be encouraged by high temperatures and a excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and It shows as large brown patches which soon
mal once the plant regains its vigor, providing shortage of potash; greenback is also caused maintain even growth by watering carefully. dry out and become crisp. Prevent this by
there is no root disease present. Prevent fur- by exposure of the shoulder to strong sun- Since pollination of the fruit can also result careful ventilation in order to reduce the
ther trouble by watering cucumbers carefully light, and blotchy ripening may occur where in bitterness, grow varieties having mostly humidity, and carefully remove all the
and regularly. nitrogen is deficient. Prevent these troubles female flowers. affected leaves.
Magnesium deficiency shows as a yellow- W h e n shanking occurs early in the season,
orange discoloration between the veins, cut out the withered berries and spray the C O M M O N GREENHOUSE PESTS
but in some varieties the blotches may be foliage with a foliar fertilizer.
purple. Later the affected areas turn brown. Splitting of berries most commonly occurs as
Spray with 1/2 lb of magnesium sulfate in 21/2 gal a result of powdery mildew (see above).
of water plus a spreader such as soft soap However, it is sometimes due to irregular
or a few drops of mild washing-up liquid. watering. Remove affected berries before
Repeat applications once or twice at two- they are attacked by secondary organisms
week intervals. such as gray mold, and water before the soil
dries out.
Leaves with small globules Scald is caused by the sun's rays striking
Exudation of small round green or colorless through glass onto moist tissues on a hot
droplets from the leaves is quite natural and day. Ventilate carefully to reduce the humid-
usually goes unnoticed. However, in the ity. Remove affected berries showing sunken
spring the transparent globules may become discolored patches.
very noticeable on the young foliage. The Oedema occurs when the roots of an affected
symptoms are most obvious on plants grow- plant take up more water than the leaves Greenhouse red spider mite (Tetranychus both types often occurring together on the
ing in a very humid atmosphere and they can transpire and is due to extremely moist urticae) are tiny, eight-legged creatures same plant, while the latter is yellow-green
indicate that the root action is vigorous and conditions in the soil, the atmosphere, or that can occur in large numbers on the with a dark horseshoe marking on its back.
the plant is in good health. Nevertheless, both. It shows as small warts or pimples on undersides of leaves. They are just visible Both types of aphid excrete honeydew
ventilate carefully to reduce the humidity the stalks and sometimes on the berries and to the naked eye but a hand lens is neces- upon w h i c h , in humid conditions, sooty
and prevent other troubles. even on the lower leaf surface. These out- sary to see them clearly. Despite their molds may grow and cause the leaves
growths may break open and then have a c o m m o n name, these mites are yellow- and fruit to blacken (see page 35). As the
Vine dying blister-like or white powdery appearance, or green" with black markings; they only aphids grow they shed their skins, w h i c h
Honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) frequently they may become rusty-colored and show become orange-red in the autumn when become stuck on the leaf surface where
kills indoor and outdoor vines. W h i t e fan- as brown scaly patches. Do not remove the they hibernate. Their sap feeding causes they are held by the sticky honeydew.
shaped growths of fungus develop beneath affected parts as this will make matters worse. the upper surface of the leaves to become These skins are white and are sometimes
the bark of the roots and the main stems at Maintain drier conditions both in the air and discolored by a fine mottling. In severe mistaken for whitefly or some other pest.
and just above ground level. Dark brown soil; with correct cultural treatment the infestations leaves dry up and the plants Control aphids by applying pirimiphos-
root-like structures known as rhizomorphs affected plant should eventually recover. become festooned with a silken webbing methyl or pyrethroid compounds. Use
develop on the affected tissues, grow out produced by the mites. Maintaining a the last-mentioned if the crops are ready
through the soil and spread the disease. Dig PEACHES damp atmosphere helps to check this pest for eating.
out dead and dying plants together with as The following remarks on split stone also but treatment with insecticides such as Greenhouse whitefly (Thaleurodes vapor-
many roots as possible. If the greenhouse is apply to nectarines. malathion or dimethoate will also be ariorum) is a major pest of greenhouse
vacant, sterilize the soil with 2 per cent needed at seven day intervals until the plants. Both the small, white, moth-like
formalin, or change the soil completely before Fruit failing to develop normally pest has been controlled. Take care when adults and their flat, oval, white-green,
replanting. Sterilizing is a potentially danger- Split stone shows as a cracking of the fruit at applying these chemicals to cucumbers scale-like larvae feed by sucking sap from
ous process. Wear gloves, protective clothing the stalk end, forming a hole large enough for and melons as they may be damaged by the underside of leaves. Like aphids, adults
and a mask. the entry of earwigs. The stone of such a fruit insecticides. Avoid this risk by spraying in and larvae excrete honeydew, w h i c h
is split and the kernel is either rotting or the evening when temperatures are allows the growth of sooty mold. W h i t e -
Fruit failing to develop normally absent. Affected fruits are susceptible to cooler, and by making sure the plants are fly eggs and immature stages are not very
Shanking is due to one or more unsuitable secondary rotting. This trouble can be due to not dry at the roots. As an alternative to susceptible to insecticides, making well
cultural conditions. The stalks of the grapes the soil being too acid. Lime to bring the pH insecticides this pest can be controlled established infestations difficult to c o n -
shrivel gradually until completely girdled. up to 6.7-7.0. Poor pollination can also cause by introducing a predatory mite, Phyto- trol. Early treatment with pirimiphos-
O d d berries or small groups of berries then split stone, therefore hand-pollinate flowers seiulus persimilis. methyl or a pyrethroid c o m p o u n d such as
fail to color and develop naturally at the by passing cotton-wool or a soft camel hair pyrethrum will prevent damage occurring
early ripening stage. The berries are watery brush from flower to flower. The commonest Peach-potato aphid and mottled arum if applied early. Spray heavy infestations
and sour, black varieties turn red, white cause of this trouble, however, is an irregular aphid (Myzus persicae and Aulacorthum several times at three to four day inter-
varieties remain translucent. Ensure over- or water supply. Prevent this by watering in dry circumflexum) are both species of greenfly vals. Greenhouse whitefly can be c o n -
under-watering or stagnant soil are not re- periods and mulching to conserve moisture. that suck sap from a wide range of plants. trolled by introducing a parasitic wasp,
sponsible. Reduce the crop for a year or two In particular, ensure that the soil is never The former is either pink or yellow-green, Encarsia formosa.
until the vine regains its vigor. allowed to dry out.
Feeding and fertilizers
Plants require certain basic (hemic .lis in order general cultivation of most plants. Some plants such as cacti and alpines need very when a plant needs a nutrient boost, such as
to grow. In nature these arc present, to a plants require larger proportions of one little. Feed plants when they are growing, just before it flowers.
greater or lesser extent, in the soil, contri- element, and fertilizers are available which not when they are dormant. Plants that are Solid feeds Fertilizers in solid form—granules
buted by the base rock and by the growth provide higher concentrations of potassium suffering from over-watering, incorrect en- or powder—can be added to soil mixes.
and decay of plant and animal life. A balance for tomatoes, for example. Special formula- vironmental conditions, pests or diseases will The John Innes formulae call for the addition
between the nutrients available in a given tions are sold designed for carnations, chrys- not be cured by feeding. Establish the cause of certain amounts of John Innes base
environment and the plants that will grow anthemums and various fruits and vegetables. of the trouble and take steps to correct it. fertilizer, which is made up as a powder. Solid
soon forms and is maintained. Gardening Fertilizers containing several elements are W h e n the plant has recovered and is growing fertilizers can also be added in the form of
conditions, under glass or outside, upset this called compound fertilizers, simple fertilizers normally it will benefit from feeding. Follow top dressings to plants w h i c h are kept
balance. In the greenhouse, the plants are in a contain only one element. They are applied the feeding instructions given for individual permanently in pots. Solid feeds are also
closed environment. The only nutrients avail- when specific deficiencies are diagnosed, but crops and carefully adhere to the instruc- added to soil beds. The larger amount of
able are those in the soil and those supplied must be used with care in the greenhouse as tions on the fertilizer pack. When using rooting medium in a bed makes it possible for
by the gardener. it is easy to build up large concentrations liquid feeds, dilute to the proportions in- solid fertilizers in slow-release form to be used.
An explanation of the nutrient needs of of elements in soil mixes, damaging the structed and do not use too strong a mixture. These fertilizers are specially formulated to
plants and a list of the essential elements is plants. In addition to the three basic ele- Liquid feeding Liquid feeds are watered onto release the elements they contain over a
given on page 45. ments, many commercially available com- the growing medium and taken up by the period. W h e n using solid fertilizers around
Properly formulated soil mixes contain pound fertilizers also contain trace elements roots of plants. Because nutrients have to be plants, take care not to scorch the foliage.
nutrients needed for at least the initial stages needed for plant growth. dissolved before they can be taken up by the Apply the top dressing as close to the soil
of plant growth. At some point, however, roots, application in liquid form speeds the surface as possible and water in immediately.
these nutrients will become depleted and Using fertilizer process of absorption and allows the nu- Foliar feeding Some liquid fertilizers—but
more must be added in the form of fertilizer. While nutrients are necessary, too great a trients to reach the plant quickly. Nutrients not all—and some special compounds, can
This process is called feeding. concentration can be harmful. Nutrient salts applied to the soil or a mix in a solid form be watered or sprayed onto the leaves of
can build up in the soil mix and damage are dissolved by water applied as irrigation plants. Foliar applications are very effective
Types of fertilizer roots. Plants must be ted at the rate they can and are then taken up by the roots. in controlling deficiency symptoms, parti-
Balanced fertilizers contain nitrogen, po- take up food. Fast-growing crops such as Because liquid feeds are fast-acting, they cularly of magnesium and the minor elements,
tassium and phosphorus. They are used for tomatoes need heavy feeding, slow-growing are applied at frequent intervals, especially as the elements are quickly absorbed.
Applying fertilizer Foliar feeding
1 Mix liquid or powdered fertilizer with 2 Apply the dilute fertilizer to the surface of 3 Apply top-dressings to beds, borders and Mix foliar fertilizers according to the
water in the proportions given on the p a d the soil or potting mix with a watering can. large containers in granule form. Sprinkle maker's instructions. Apply to the leaves of
Do not make solutions stronger than the the granules onto the soil or potting mix the plant until run-off, using a watering can
recommended rate. and rake or fork in. fitted w i t h a fine rose.
Soil and mixes 1
Plants growing under glass, whether in a c o n - tions and may contain good reserves of
tainer or in a bed in a greenhouse or frame, nutrients. The bed must be well drained and, ROOT SYSTEMS
have access to lower levels of soil nutrients unless it was previously part of a fertile
than do plants in open ground. Therefore soil garden, extra organic matter should be
in beds needs to be enriched, and special added. Well-decayed manure, garden com-
soils or mixes are required for pots or con- post, leal-mold, peat or other organics should
tainers. An understanding of the nutrients be dug at a rate of one 2 gallon bucketful per
necessary to plant growth is important in square yard, ideally some weeks before plant-
order to judge what needs to be added to ing. Spread balanced fertilizer over the bed
basic soils and growing mixes to ensure just before planting. Apply at a rate of 3 - 4 oz
health (see page 45). per square yard. If the top-soil was stripped
Beds provide a larger root run than do from the area prior to the erection of the
containers, and therefore need less enrich- greenhouse, the existing sub-soil should be
ment. But the soil in the bed must be in good removed from the border site to at least one
condition and well drained and aerated. Also, spade depth. Replace it with good top-soil or
soils in beds may become infested with build- a mixture of loam and one of the organic
ups of pests and diseases, especially if the matter sources mentioned above.
same crop is grown year after year. Con-
sequently the soil must be changed, or Mixes
sterilized, regularly if beds are used. Apart from natural soil beds, plants can be
grown in special mixes or composts, or in
Beds inert media to which are added nutrients in Plants growing in open ground have room Container-grown plants have their root
Ground level beds or borders created from fluid form (see Hydroponics, page 49). The to expand their root system in order to systems confined and therefore nutrients
the soil on which the greenhouse is placed root systems of plants growing in containers search out water and nutrients. must be added to the soil available.
can provide the best possible rooting condi- are confined to a very much smaller volume
Greenhouse beds Replacing soil
1 Improve a greenhouse or frame bed by 2 Just before planting, rake in a balanced 1 If good top-soil is lacking, remove 2 Add good top-soil or a mixture of loam
digging in organics such as well decayed fertilizer at a rate of 3 - 4 oz per square yard. exposed sub-soil to at least one spade's and organics to bring the bed back to the
manure or garden compost at a rate of depth. Deal with any drainage problems. original level. At intervals add organics and
2 gallons per square yard. general fertilizer to maintain soil fertility.
Soil and mixes 2
of soil than they would normally occupy in a to grow a wide variety of plants well, soon
became popular, and is still widely used. STERILIZATION
bed or border (see box). If ordinary garden
soil is used in containers, vigorous plants in Any good potting medium must be well Commercially, loam is pasteurized in
particular rapidly use up the available aerated and free-draining, but moisture- specially constructed flat-bottomed bins
nutrients. This can be corrected by the retentive. It must contain sufficient fertilizers or troughs injected with steam from
application of extra minerals in the form of to supply all the needs of the plants for as long below. There are also electric sterilizers,
solid or liquid fertilizers, but plants will be as possible. In addition, it should be free from small versions of which can be bought and
more successful if they can be kept growing weed seeds, pests and disease organisms. used by amateurs who garden on a
at a steady rate from the beginning. To this These can be present in the basic loam which moderate scale. Small quantities of soil
end it is necessary to create a richer, well- is an ingredient of most mixes. The John can be pasteurized in the kitchen, using a
balanced soil for container-grown plants. Innes formula demands that the loam be steamer saucepan. Pass the loam, which
Compost formulae In the past, professional sterilized to destroy harmful organisms. Al- should be almost dry, through a1/2 in mesh
gardeners devised their own formulae for though the term "sterilized" is widely used sieve and place a 6 in layer in the steamer.
container soil, using in varying proportions in connection with soil and mixes, the loam Bring 2 in of water to the boil in the sauce-
such basic ingredients as turfy loam, decayed is actually heat-pasteurized, because it is pan. Then put the lid on the steamer and
manure and leaf-mold, plus various ferti- not desirable to kill all life in the soil. allow the loam to heat up. A thermometer
lizers. These potting media were known as Loam The key ingredient of the John Innes must be used throughout the operation (a
composts, not to be confused with the de- formula is loam, the subtly-blended soil c o m - candy thermometer is suitable) and once
cayed vegetable matter known as garden posed of clay, fine sand, humus and minerals the surface of the loam reaches 82°C/
compost. The American term mix or potting that is found under long-established valley 180°F it must be kept as steady as possible
mix is now commonly used. The need for a pastures. To create the finest loam the top for 10 minutes. As soon as the 10 minutes
reliable standardized mix became imperative 4 - 6 in layer of pasture turf is removed and are up the loam must be turned out to cool.
for research purposes as horticulture de- stacked in layers. Between each 10 in layer of Loam can be steamed in large amounts 1 Pass good-quality, dry, fibrous loam
veloped. In the 1930s the John Innes Institute turf a 2 in layer of strawy manure is laid. The by passing steam from a boiler into a pile through a 1/2 in mesh sieve. Prepare sieved
in England devised such a formula. It proved stack should not exceed 6 ft high and wide of soil covered with a tarpaulin. loam to form a 6 in layer in t h e steamer.
Making loam
1 Cut sods 4 - 6 in deep from good pasture. 2 Water the stack, which should be no 2 Place the loam in the steamer and bring Alternatively, use a purpose-made soil
Stack them grass side down in a sheltered more than 6 ft high and wide, and cover the water in the lower portion to the boil. sterilizer, which heats water by means of
position, adding a 2 in layer of strawy well w i t h heavy-duty plastic sheeting. Leave Keep at 82°C/180°F for 10 minutes. an electric element.
manure between each 10 in of sod. tor six months until the sods have rotted.
Soil and mixes 3
and the sods must be moist or made so as Preparing mixes
the work proceeds. Ideally, the stack should
be made in an open shed to protect it from
the rain. Alternatively, cover the top with
heavy duty plastic sheeting. The stacked
sods will turn into high quality loam in about
six months. Suitable pasture turf is in short
supply and some of the commercial potting
mixes sold are made with inferior loam.
Generally speaking, however, such c o m -
posts are still superior to garden soil and
equal to other substitutes. Test a mix
before purchase by handling a sample. A
mix made with good loam will have a high
fiber content.
How to make soil mixes The first stage in
making soil mixes to one of the John Innes
formulae is to sterilize the loam (see page 43).
The mix should be made up as soon as the
loam cools. Ingredients must be mixed well
to obtain an even and uniform end product.
It is helpful to have a bushel or half-bushel
box in which to measure the ingredients, as
lime and fertilizers are normally added at a 1 Prepare a bushel box for measuring 2 Fill the box with the first of the ingredients 3 Spread the first of the ingredients on a
bushel rate. A bushel is the amount that will ingredients. The box should measure 22 in to the 10 in level. Do not compact the hard, dry surface.
fit into a box 22 in x 10 in x 10 in without by 10 in. Mark the 10 in depth on the inside. ingredients.
compacting. Evenly layer the ingredients into
a pile on a clean concrete floor. Sprinkle some
of the lime and fertilizers onto each sand
layer. When the heap is complete it will
clearly show layers of the various ingredients
as they are of varying colors. The whole
should be well mixed with a clean shovel.
John Innes formulae The basic potting mix
formula is: 7 parts by bulk loam, 3 parts
of coarse washed sand, and 2 parts of moist
moss peat. To each bushel of this mixture add
4 o z of John Innes base fertilizer and | o z of
ground limestone. This is a No. 1 compost
or mix. For a No. 2 mix add twice as much
fertilizer, and for No. 3, three times as much.
For lime-hating plants a neutral to acid loam
should be used if possible and the limestone
omitted.
John Innes base fertilizer is rarely available
commercially but can be made up as follows:
2 parts superphosphate, 2 parts blood meal
and 1 part sulfate of potash.
For the seed-sowing mix the proportions
are: 2 parts loam, 1 part peat and 1 part sand, 4 Sprinkle lime and fertilizer, according to 5 Add further ingredients in layers, 6 W h e n all the ingredients have been
adding to each bushel 11/2oz of superphos- the formula being followed, onto the pile. sprinkling lime and fertilizers between added, mix the resulting heap w i t h a clean
phate and 3/4 oz of ground limestone, which each layer. shovel until the mix is an even color.
Soil and mixes 4
is omitted for lime-hating subjects. It is recom- mental work has been carried out to find become top-heavy. To overcome this factor
mended that, except for very fine or slow alternative growing media. The most success- and to render dryish peat more readily wet- PREPARING SOILLESS MIXES
germinating seeds, sowing is made direct ful substance of all has been peat, in both its table, it is an advantage to add a small Follow the bushel proportions listed on
into John Innes potting compost No. I, thus sedge and sphagnum moss forms. Soil mixes percentage of coarse washed sand. the left, with a quarter-bushel box (81/2 x
doing away with seed-sowing mixes. consisting purely of peat with mineral U.C. mixes A series of simple standardized 8 1/2 x 73/4 in) substituted if smaller quantities
Although there is plenty of experimental nutrients added are now the most popular of peat and sand media has been devised at the are required. The necessary chemicals can
evidence to show the benefits of properly all for the amateur market. Professional University of California. They are known as be applied one by one or in the form of
sterilized loam, it must be clearly stated that opinion, however, favors the adding of at U.C. mixes. There are three variations: 3 parts ready-mixed compounds available c o m -
good plants can be grown without it. Weeds, least some loam to peat-based mixes. by bulk moss peat and 1 part sand; equal parts mercially. The nutrients can be added
pests and diseases will occur and have to be Peat mixes All-peat mixes have the advan- peat and sand and 3 parts sand to 1 of peat. as the mix is used to save prior mixing.
dealt with, but everything else considered, tage of being comparatively sterile and of To this is added a special fertilizer. If a commercial c o m p o u n d is to be used,
the risks are not high. Weeds are a problem being light and fairly clean to handle. They Soil mixes for special purposes Lime-hating ensure that it includes the necessary trace
when seed sowing and it is advisable to use have proved remarkably successful for a wide plants such as azaleas must be grown in lime- elements as well as the basic nutrients.
one of the non-loam mixes mentioned below. range of container-grown plants providing free mixes. These can be bought, or normal Slow-release forms of potassium and
A particularly annoying possible result of they are used to makers' instructions. They John Innes formulae can be used with nitrogen can be added to soilless mixes
using non-sterilized loam is the introduction must not be firmed when potting in the way the lime omitted. The formula for John Innes to provide for plant needs for three
of earthworms. Their tunneling activities can loam-based mixes are and watering must acid compost, intended for acid-loving plants, months or longer, removing the need for
slow down plant growth and render the be done with care. If the plant's rootball is: 2 parts loam, 1 peat, 1 sand, with 1 1/2-oz feeding. Trace elements can also be
mix so well drained that most of the water becomes too dry and shrinks away from the calcium superphosphate and 3/4 oz flowers of applied in fritted slow-release form. Fritted
applied runs straight through. Kill the worms sides of the pot, subsequent watering is less sulfur added per bushel. To give a mix for trace elements are released over a period
by watering affected pots with solutions of effective even when wetting agents are used. plants which require sharp drainage, add of months. Mixes should be used as soon
potassium permanganate. As much for this reason as any other, all-peat gravel or grit to the mixture. Plants which as slow-release fertilizers have been added,
mixes are best used for quick-growing short- need large amounts of water may benefit or they will build up in the mix before
Soilless mixes term plants which require regular watering. from the addition of charcoal, which helps plants are present, leading to levels pos-
Sources of good loam have been in short A disadvantage of peat is the lack of prevent souring of the saturated mix. Steri- sibly damaging to plants.
supply for many years and much experi- weight a peat rootball has. Tall plants soon lized leafmold can be used in mixes.
SOIL NUTRIENTS
Balanced feeding is the key to successful The functions of the various nutrient normally present in most plants. It is essen- up from the water by the plant's roots and
plant growth although plant groups vary mineral elements are summarized here. tial to those enzymes involved in the trans- combines with carbon dioxide, absorbed
widely in their requirements of each Nitrogen Essential for the formation of pro- porting of phosphorus within the plant. from the atmosphere, to form a sugar
nutrient. If a plant is to thrive, its soil must teins which in turn make up protoplasm, Deficiency shows as severe chlorosis of the compound which is the plant's f o o d .
contain both the major and minor mineral the life-stuff of plants, nitrogen encourages leaves. Iron In its mineral form iron enters into
elements. The macro or major nutrients leafy growth and promotes rapid growth Calcium A major element but required in the making of chlorophyll and therefore is
are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, in the spring and summer. Insufficient nitro- very small amounts, calcium is important vital to all green plants. Deficiency shows
magnesium, calcium, sulfur, carbon, gen results in a general suppression of for the movement of carbohydrates in the as yellow to whitish shoot tips w h i c h often
hydrogen and oxygen. Of these, nitrogen, growth. plant and aids in the entry of phosphorus, turn brown and die back.
phosphorus and potassium (abbreviated Phosphorus Phosphorus is a constituent of nitrogen and sulfur with which it combines. Manganese Manganese is a trace element
to N, P and K) are required in large quanti- protoplasm which plays a part in photo- Deficiency is rare but can show as wilting of needed for the functioning of various
ties. In addition to these nine mineral synthesis, the complex process by which shoots, leaves and flower stalks. enzymes and cell chloroplasts. Deficiency
elements, plants also need minute plants use light energy to make their own Sulfur Sulfur takes part in the formation symptoms vary but usually show as
amounts of the minor, or trace elements food. Deficiency shows as thin shoots and of protoplasm and proteins. Deficiency is very chlorosis.
such as iron, manganese, boron, molyb- narrow leaves. rare in well-prepared soil mixes but when Boron Deficiency of boron, a trace ele-
denum, zinc and copper. Potassium (Potash) Essential to the function- it occurs symptoms are similar to those of ment mainly concerned with cell division,
All balanced fertilizers contain nitrogen, ing of enzymes active in the formation of nitrogen. results in a crippling or death of developing
phosphorus and potassium with some fibrous tissue, sugars and starches, potassium Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen These ele- tissues.
of the trace elements occurring as im- makes plants more disease-resistant. De- ments are available from water and the Molybdenum, copper and zinc All three
purities. Some balanced fertilizers are ficiency shows as thin growth. atmosphere. Oxygen is absorbed from the are vitally important, in small quantities,
compounded so as to include balanced Magnesium Magnesium is a constituent of atmosphere and helps to convert the plant's to the proper growth of the plant. They
amounts of trace elements. chlorophyll, the important green matter food (sugar) into energy. Hydrogen is taken are often present in soil mixes.
Growing systems 1
Greenhouse growing systems are basec tainers allows staging and high-level shelves lesser extent cucumbers and tomatoes, are
either on open beds or some form of con- to be installed to maximize the use of growing traditionally grown on ridges or mounds of STERILIZING BORDER SOIL
tainer to restrict root run. The size, type and space, though the space below the staging is soil on benches. This system not only gives
site of the greenhouse and the choice of to a large extent wasted. The decision must the plants more light than ground-level beds,
plants to be grown will dictate the kind of depend upon the crops chosen. but also enables the rooting medium to be
growing system used. Another factor is the maintained at a beneficially higher tempera-
manner in which the greenhouse is to be run. Open beds ture than is possible at ground level without
Container, or restricted, systems lend them- If the greenhouse is sited upon good soil, and soil heating cables. This is because air can
selves more readily to automated watering that soil is free of pests, diseases and per- circulate below the bench as well as above
than do soil beds, for instance. If mist units or ennial weeds, open beds are the simplest the soil surface.
soil-heating cables are to be installed, then growing system. Open beds must contain a Although open soil beds are the most
a bench or staging system with containers or good-quality soil or mix. If the soil is in- suitable growing system for such early crops
raised soil beds will be needed. adequate, modify or replace it (see page 42). If as lettuce, they are not economic of room
Containers are the best growing system if the site is wet and difficult to drain, a raised where ornamentals are concerned. Climbers
a large number of different plants is to be bed is the best solution. Construct one 9-12 in and shrubs given a free root run make strong
grown in a greenhouse, for they can be deep with the sides retained by boards or a growth, but often at the expense of blooms.
moved and re-sited as the plants grow, thus brick or concrete wall. Fill the space above A further disadvantage of soil-level beds,
freeing space for further propagation and the cultivated garden soil with good-quality particularly if tomatoes are to be the main
plant raising. Soil beds, on the other hand, do top-soil up to the level of the top of the wall. crop, is the possible build-up of soil-borne
very well if only one major crop is to be grown Beds may also be formed on stagings, but the pests and diseases. This is inevitable if the
at any one time. If, for instance, tomatoes or stagings must be specially built to support the same crop is grown year after year. The only Empty the greenhouse and open ventila-
carnations grown for cut flowers are to be the weight. Bench beds have the advantage of remedy is replacement or sterilization of the tors. Then, wearing gloves, apply a for-
main crop, then soil beds are preferable. Soil- bringing small plants nearer to the light and soil. Removing all the affected soil to 1ft maldehyde solution (one part of 3 8 - 4 0
level beds do not make use of the vertical to a level which makes cultivation easier. depth and replacing it with fresh, or sterilizing per cent formalin to 49 parts water) at
dimension of the greenhouse except when They are especially applicable to the growing it (see page 43), is a laborious task. There are 5 gal per square yard. Leave for 4 weeks.
tall crops are being grown. The use of c o n - of alpines (see page 88). Melons, and to a methods of sterilizing the soil in situ with
Raised bed Bench bed Ring culture
On wet sites, raise the soil by building a Beds can be placed on benches at waist Ring culture consists of a bed of aggregate, containing soil. Roots penetrate into the
9-12 in deep raised bed. Use boards, a level. The benches must have extra-strong placed in a trough or a plastic-lined trench, inert aggregate, where they absorb moisture
brick wall or concrete as sides. supports and drainage must be adequate. with plants grown in bottomless pots or rings and nutrients.
Growing systems 2
steam or chemicals, but in the main they are in open soil without restricting the plants' feeding has to be begun early in the plant's as it is easy to over-water a large volume of
not convenient for the amateur. The easiest roots to the confines of a pot. Each plant is growth. Proprietary liquid fertilizer, or a mix- all peat mix. The mix also dries out quickly
technique is to soak the soil with formalde- grown in a bottomless pot stood on a bed, ture consisting of 2 parts nitrate of potash, and it can be hard to re-wet. Feeding is
hyde (see page 46). The greenhouse must be or substrate, of gravel about 6 - 9 in deep. 3 parts sulfate of ammonia and 5 parts necessary to supplement nutrients.
empty when this is done, and the soil cannot The substrate is laid in a trough lined with super-phosphate (all by weight) should be This method can be used for a wide range
be used for at least one month after treat- plastic sheeting to prevent it coming into applied to each ring weekly. Apply at the of plants but is particularly useful for toma-
ment. Formalin will give fair control of fungal contact with the soil. Thus the roots are able rate of 1 oz of the mixture to 1 gal of water. toes, peppers and small squash. It keeps plant
diseases but has no effect on eelworms. to pass out of the bottomless pot and enter The main disadvantage of the ring culture roots away from the possible contamination
Cresylic acid, D-D and methyl bromide are the substrate. Water is applied to the sub- method is the need for precision in the of diseased soil in greenhouse beds. Growing
used commercially against eelworms, the strate only, not to the pots, as soon as roots application of water and fertilizer. Water bags can also be used in concrete-floored
latter controlling fungi also, but these chemi- begin to penetrate the substrate. Dig out a loss can be high, especially early on when the greenhouses as temporary beds, and smaller,
cals should never be used by amateurs. The trench in the border soil at least 6 in deep and roots have not yet penetrated the substrate. lighter growing bags can be placed on the
work can be done by skilled contractors, but 16 in wide. Line the base and sides of the Ring culture means devoting the whole staging. Supporting tall plants such as toma-
it is costly and only worthwhile on a large trench with heavy gauge plastic sheeting and greenhouse, or a large part of it, to tomatoes. toes is not very easy. The traditional cane
scale where other growing systems cannot fill it with the substrate. For the substrate Pot plants such as chrysanthemums can be stake cannot be used, for it will not sup-
be used. a mixture of three parts gravel to one of ver- stood on the substrate later in the year. port itself in the growing bag. It is necessary to
miculite is recommended. Other suitable Plastic growing bags Crowing bags provide fix strings or wires to the greenhouse frame
Restricted growing systems substrata are formed from perlite, stone restricted root runs but a larger than average above the plants and to train the plants.
This term is used to describe growing systems chips or coarse sand. The substrate must be amount of growing medium. They are plastic The advantages of growing bags are free-
where the plants' roots are in some way chemically inert. sacks usually the size of pillows, filled with d o m from disease, a growing medium that
restricted by a container. Place fiber rings or bottomless pots at least an all-peat growing medium. They are laid warms up fast, and convenience. Against
Ring culture The ring culture system was de- 8 in deep on the substrate and fill them with a flat in the growing position and sections of these advantages must be set the difficulties
vised for, and is mainly used for, growing sterilized rooting medium such as John Innes the top cut away so that plants can be in- of accurately assessing feeding and watering
tomatoes (see illustration, page 46). The aim potting compost No. 2 or 3. Soil-less media serted. Drainage is provided if necessary by needs, and the possible build-up of mineral
of the ring culture system is to eliminate the can also be used. Because of the small amount making slits along the edges near ground salts in the peat. Crowing bags can also only
problems of the build-up of pests and diseases of growing medium contained with the ring, level. Watering must be carried out with care be used once.
Growing bags
1 Place the bag on a flat surface in the 2 Add water to wet the peat-based 3 Water and feed the growing plants with needed. Feeding will be necessary as the
growing position. Slit the top to provide growing medium. care, for it is easy to over-wet the peat in plants grow, although the peat in the bags
planting spaces. the bag. Make drainage slits in the sides if has some nutrients added to it.
Growing systems 3
Straw bales The growing of plants under glass sium nitrate and 3oz of ferrous sulfate, all The straw bale system
on slowly decomposing bales of wheat straw rates per bale. Water the nutrients in. The
can be considered a modern development of second method is that favored by c o m -
the old hot bed system. The reason for its mercial growers of tomatoes.
development, however, is quite different. Its Fermentation Whichever regime is applied,
aim is that of ring culture, to provide a disease- the straw will heat up through fermentaion
free root run, primarily for tomatoes and and should reach 43 o -54°C/110 o -130°F.
cucumbers. It is thus a restricted system, Check the temperature with a soil thermo-
although containers are not used. The straw meter every few days. W h e n it drops to
bales are thoroughly wetted and fermentation about 38°C/100°F and is still falling, planting
is triggered by applying nitrogen, thus build- can take place.
ing up heat and giving off carbon dioxide. To plant, pile a ridge of John Innes No. 3
Both are beneficial to the young plants, which compost or equivalent mix along the top of
are placed in soil mounds on the bales as the the bales and set the plants into this. Sub-
temperature in the bales starts to fall. The sequent watering and liquid feeding must be
temperature in the center of the bale will, carried out regularly and thoroughly as the
under the right conditions, reach at least bales are very free-draining. Plants should be
43°C/110°F. Due to the difficulty in obtaining supported with strings tied to the greenhouse
straw and the relatively intensive care needed, roof (see page 50). Do not make the strings
the system is a difficult one for the amateur. It too tight as the bales will settle.
also restricts the use of the greenhouse as Straw bale culture has the advantage of
the ammonia given off during fermentation providing heat and carbon dioxide which aid
can damage some plants. plant establishment, but bales take up a lot The straw bale system is used for toma- placed on fermenting wheat straw bales,
Preparation Wheat straw bales are usually of greenhouse space. Care must be taken not toes, cucumbers and other food crops. into which the roots penetrate. Do not use
used as they do not decompose quickly; to use straw sprayed with hormone weedkiller. Plants are grown in ridges of soil mix. straw sprayed with hormone weedkiller.
barley and oat straw are inferior substitutes.
Bales of 4 0 - 6 0 lb weight should be used. If Preparing the bales
possible, they should be bound with wire
rather than string, which can rot. They are
put on polyethylene sheet end to end in rows
where the plants are to be grown. The bales
can be placed in a shallow trough lined with
polyethylene, which helps to save water
which runs through the bale. The ventilators
should be kept closed, and the greenhouse
temperature should ideally be around 10°C/
50°F to promote fermentation.
There are two alternative methods, one
fast, one slow. Choose that which fits the
period during which the greenhouse is free of
other crops. The slower method first involves
thoroughly watering the bales. Then water in
1 1/2 lb nitro-chalk (ammonium nitrate-lime mix-
ture) per bale. Four days later, apply a further
1lb of nitro-chalk, again watering in. Four
days after that, add 3/4 lb of a general fertilizer
and water in. Keep the bales damp at all
times. This method takes about 18 days.
The second method takes 7-10 days.
Thoroughly wet the bales and then apply 1 lb 1 Add fertilizers as listed in the text to the 2 Check the temperature every few days 3 Sprinkle soil or mix in a ridge along the
of nitro-chalk, 6oz of triple superphosphate, tops of the wet bales. Water the fertilizers during fermentation. Plant when it drops tops of the bales and plant. The roots will
6 o z of magnesium sulfate, 12 oz of potas- in. to 38°C/100°F. enter the straw.
Growing systems 4
HYDROPONICS Nutrient film technique to the gardener. However, some details of Hydroponics systems
Hydroponics is the technique of growing The nutrient film technique is a system of them are given so that the basic technique
plants in water and dissolved mineral nutrients growing plants in troughs of shallow re- may be understood.
without soil or other solid rooting medium. circulating nutrient solution. Polyethylene Pure solution This method uses nutrients
I he fluid used has to contain all the nutrients troughs or pre-formed open gullies are laid contained in tanks about 8 in deep with fine
necessary to plant growth, and some kind of on flat surfaces in the greenhouse to a slope wire mesh stretched across the top to hold
support system is necessary to replace the of not less than 1 in 100. A narrow strip of the stems of the plants upright. The nutrient
anchoring action of roots in soil. non-toxic capillary matting is laid along the solution needs to be artificially aerated and
The use of a hydroponic system does take base of the gully beneath each plant con- regularly tested for pH, and must be changed
away the skilled chore of watering and virtu- tainer. This ensures that no plant dries out in every t w o weeks. Among the disadvantages
ally eliminates diseases and pests of the root the early stages of growth and it leaves most of the pure solution method are the difficulty
system. However, for success regular chemi- of the roots uncovered allowing good, in- of supporting plants adequately, and the fact
cal analysis of the nutrient is essential. There expensive aeration. The nutrient solution, that only a limited range of species will
are several nutrient formulae which the containing a complete range of plant foods, tolerate the permanent immersion of roots.
amateur can try, some being available pre- and if possible warmed to 25°C/77°F, is con- Flooded substrate Similar tanks to those used
mixed. If mixing is necessary, great care must tinually circulated by a submersible pump for the pure solution method are required for The pure solution system uses tanks of
be taken. An excess or a deficiency of any through the troughs to a catchment tank at this system, but they must be protected with solution, with plant stems supported by
one or more minerals could spell disaster to a flow rate of about 31/2 pints per minute per a layer of bituminous paint. Plastic-lined tanks horizontal wire mesh.
the plants. None of the commercial systems gully. The systems available in kit form for or troughs are an alternative. The tank or
now available can be recommended to amateurs are based upon modifications of trough is filled with an inert aggregate, ideally
amateurs except to those interested in ex- this technique. washed gravel or grit, though coarse vermi-
perimenting for its own sake. Experiments culite, perlite, polystyrene chips, lignite or
continue and a system wholly suitable for Other hydroponics systems weathered coal ash may also be used. This
amateurs may be developed. Meanwhile, kit The other systems developed for commercial substrate is regularly flooded with the nutrient
systems may interest enthusiasts. horticulture are of mostly academic interest solution, the surplus being recycled. The
solution must be tested regularly for con-
Nutrient film technique centration and pH, and adjustments or
replacement made when necessary. Replace-
ment of the solution is more costly than
adjustment, but is more reliable, as the
correct concentration is assured. The flood-
ing and draining operation ensures that
sufficient air gets to the roots and the sub- The flooded substrate system uses troughs
strate gives the plants adequate support. filled with an inert aggregate w h i c h supports
Drainage tank The drainage tank system is the roots.
a simplified version of the flooded substrate
method. The system can be adapted to a
variety of situations. Dig a trench and line it
as described under Ring Culture (page 46).
Make drainage holes in the sides about 3 in
above the base. Alternatively, any tank of
similar depth and width with the same pat-
tern of drainage holes can be used. Ideally,
use an absorbent substrate, such as vermi-
culite, perlite or lignite, the last being recom-
mended. Washed sand that is not too coarse
and thus has good capillarity is also suitable.
Add nutrient solution to the substrate regu-
larly, the surplus draining away, a reservoir
remaining below the drainage holes. Less
The warmed nutrient solution is pumped matting and are covered by "tents" of The drainage tank system is similar to the
nutrient is needed than for other methods,
from a storage tank along gently sloping black polyethylene to reduce evaporation. above. A trench lined w i t h perforated
and checks are less frequent.
gullies. The gullies contain a strip of capillary Amateur systems are smaller. plastic sheet is used.
Plant supports
Many greenhouse plants require some kind cause for instance pots or growing bags are attached. Wires should be kept taut by the can be used in wooden-framed houses.
of support to control and direct their growth. being used, drop lengths of strong string from use of a straining bolt at one end of the wire. Supporting plants in growing bags It is not
Examples are tomatoes, fruit trees and orna- secure fixings in the greenhouse roof to the Fix wires for fruit trees 15-18 in apart. Crapes possible to drive supports into the growing
mental climbers. The plants that require sup- base of each plant. Attach the string loosely need wires at a 10 in spacing. bag, as the small amount of soil will not
port outdoors, such as certain shrubs and around the plant beneath the lowest true Wires can be used vertically to support hold a stake or cane and the plants which
annuals, will also need support under glass, leaf. Twist the string gently around the plant climbing crops such as beans and ornamental grow up it. Self-supporting metal frames can
though the supports need not be as strong as as it grows. Do not allow the string to become climbers. In all cases, attach the plants to the be obtained which stand over the bag.
those used in the open. Permanent systems too tight. wires with soft string as necessary. Some Alternatively, drop strings from the green-
are needed for some plants such as grape Netting Plastic or plastic-covered wire net- forms of plastic netting are perishable and house framework to the plants or attach
vines. Such supports are attached to the ting can be draped from the greenhouse rot after a season or two. Do not use such plants to wall wires or nets.
framework of the greenhouse, by nails or structure along the line of the plants. Support netting for perennial plants. Rigid wire or Supporting plants in pots Lightweight wire
screws in the case of wooden frames, or by top and ends of the net securely to the frame- plastic-covered wire netting can be fixed, frameworks can be bought which are inserted
clips or bolts to metal frames. Other crops work. Gently guide the plants through the using battens, to walls or greenhouse frames into the potting mix. Several light canes
such as tomatoes require temporary props. netting as they grow, tying in with soft string to provide support for climbing plants. tied together in a fan-shape achieve the same
These are similar to those used outdoors, but as necessary. Netting of varying mesh sizes Fastenings Metal-framed greenhouses need result. Bushy twigs, as used outdoors for peas,
use is often made of the greenhouse frame- can be used. Some crops, such as melons and drilling, or the addition of special bolts, be- are useful for supporting small climbers and
work to anchor them. cucumbers, require large-mesh nets. fore wire or other support systems are other ornamental plants. If flowering plants
Canes Bamboo or wooden canes can be Wires Fruit trees and climbers can be trained erected. Special bolts are available with T- such as carnations are being grown for
used in borders where there is sufficient soil up permanent or temporary systems of wires shaped ends which slot into the glazing bars cutting in large numbers, plastic or wire
to anchor them securely. Use one cane per stretched horizontally along greenhouse of most aluminum greenhouses. To these netting can be stretched horizontally above
plant, of a height suitable for the mature walls. In lean-to greenhouses, screw eyes can bolts attach drilled brackets between which the bed or staging and the plants allowed to
plants. Insert them on planting. Tie the plants be attached to rear walls and 14 gauge gal- the wires can be fixed. W o o d e n battens can grow through it.
to the canes with soft garden string at 12 in vanized wire fixed between them. Alterna- be attached to the bolts to provide easy Perennials Fruit trees and climbers need
intervals. tively, fix vertical battens to the wall and drill permanent or temporary fixing points for robust support systems to control and direct
Strings Where canes are impracticable, be- them for bolts, to which the wires are strings, nets or wires. Ordinary screws or bolts their growth. Avoid perishable materials.
Canes Strings Netting Tall crops Grape vines Lean-to walls
Tie the plants to bamboo Loosely tie strings below the Wire or string netting Tall or heavy crops need Vines require a rigid system Climbers can be trained up
canes at 6-12 in intervals, plant's first true leaf, wind attached to the greenhouse stronger strings or wires of horizontal wires at 10 in a framework of wire mesh
using soft garden string. them around the stems and frame can be used to and strong fixings to avoid spacings, firmly attached to fixed to battens.
then run them to the frame. support plants. collapse. the greenhouse frame.
Pots and potting 1
Until the advent of methods such as ring mainly because they did not have the porous Drainage All pots should have adequate 5 - 6 in. Pots are normally a b o u t as deep as
culture and growing bags, most greenhouse quality of clay. However, as clay pots become drainage holes in the base. Lack of drainage they are wide, but half pots—half as deep as
plants were grown in containers. There were more and more expensive, and often difficult leads to saturated soil and rotting roots. their width—are also used. They are often
primarily a range of plastic or clay flower pots, to obtain, the controversy fades into the Good drainage also allows capillary watering called alpine pots as one of their main uses is
with tubs being used for larger, semi- background. It has been widely proved that systems to be used efficiently. The drainage for alpines and other low-growing plants.
permanent plants. Containers are still the plastic pots will grow plants just as well as holes allow water to rise up into the soil Half pots can also be used for raising seed
main tool for propagation, and they find clay, and it had become clear that they have from the capillary medium below. Many and for other propagation w o r k w h e n only a
favor with gardeners who want to concen- certain advantages. The first advantage is that plastic pots have a raised rim around the small quantity of material is being raised. The
trate on ornamental greenhouse plants. They plastic pots are much cheaper than clay. They base. This lifts the drainage holes clear of the broader the base of the pot, the more stable
provide the most versatile way of growing a are also more durable and easier to clean, for bench or shelf on which the pot is standing, it will be when it contains a possibly top-
wide range of plants in a small greenhouse. they do not harbor dirt. Clay pots need allowing water to drain away through gaps heavy plant.
Pots come in a wide range of sizes, and tubs soaking, scrubbing and sterilizing between in the rim. W i t h o u t such a rim, water can be
extend the size range upwards. There are also use, whereas plastic pots can be wiped clean prevented from draining away. Alternatives to pots
several types of disposable pot, including with water and detergent. Plastic pots are Size and shape Pots are traditionally round, The illustration below left shows the range of
those formed from organic material which also lighter than clay, which makes for easier and round pots have advantages in display- alternatives to the traditional pot that is avail-
can be planted with the plant. handling. However, because they are lighter, ing plants. They are also easier to fill with able. Clay pots (a) have been joined by plastic
Whatever container is used, there are plastic pots when used with light soilless soil, especially in the smaller sizes, than pots (b), also available as half pots (c). Shallow
certain principles which must be followed mixes may be top-heavy. rectangular pots. Square pots do have the seed pans (d) are useful for sowing in small
when potting, re-potting and potting on Plants in plastic pots need watering less merit of being economical on space. More amounts. Non-rigid pots such as black plastic
plants. These operations are covered in frequently than those in clay, because clay can be fitted onto a shelf or into a propagating sleeve containers (e) are often used for trans-
detail on pages 52-54. pots are porous. The difference is minimal case. They contain a greater volume of soil planting and for plants for sale. Disposable
Clay and plastic pots It was once asserted when plants are well rooted and growing than round pots of the same diameter. pots include peat rectangles (f), individual
that only clay pots could be used to grow vigorously. Plants in plastic pots therefore Pots are measured by their diameter at the peat pots (g), paper pots (h), peat pellets (i)
plants successfully. Plastic pots, when first need less day-to-day care than those in clay, rim in inches. Two sizes should be acquired and soil blocks (j). Flats in w o o d and plastic
introduced, were viewed with suspicion, but there is a danger of overwatering. as the basis of a stock of pots: 2-21/2 in and complete the range (k and I).
Potting bench Soil blocking

CONTAINERS
A potting table or bench w i t h sides and a Moisten special peat-based blocking

back keeps soil mix away from growing mix and press the blocking machine into
areas. it. Use the blocks 24 hours later.
Pots and potting 2
Disposable pots Peat pots and soil blocks Peat pots can be the plunger a little to consolidate the soil even when filled with damp soil mix. Make
Several alternative systems have been de- bought individually or in strips and blocks. mix. Place the soil blocks on a flat so that sure also that the seed flats chosen are of
veloped to avoid the problems of root dis- While they have the advantages in cutting they are touching and leave for 24 hours to good quality plastic: some sorts become
turbance that result from growing in pots or the amount of root disturbance described consolidate. Then insert the seed or seedling. brittle when exposed to sunlight for any
flats. Seedlings grown in flats, for instance, above, they are relatively expensive. They Pot on or plant out when the roots begin to length of time.
are traditionally pricked out into small pots, are useful for sowing large seeds such as emerge from the sides of the block. Keep the One advantage of wooden flats is that a
then moved again into individual pots or into beans. Soil blocks also involve expense, for a block moist at all times as the peat-based side or end can be easily prized away to allow
the open garden. Sowing in soil blocks or peat special machine must be bought. However, blocking mix is difficult to re-wet. seedlings to be slid out in a block. If w o o d e n
pots makes these moves unnecessary. The the cost of the blocking machine can be set Substitutes for pots Plastic dairy produce flats are used, they must be carefully (leaned
block or pot is planted with the young plant, against the saving in pots, whether of plastic containers, paper or plastic cups and similar between use. W i t h o u t careful maintenance
and provides it with extra humus as it is or peat, that soil blocks bring. Special soil substitutes can be used in place of pots when they rot easily and thus have a shorter lift'
becoming established in its new pot or bed. mix is needed, but soil mix or its ingredients expense is a major consideration. Punch than plastic flats.
Paper and papier mache pots have the same has to be purchased anyway, and its cost is adequate drainage holes in the base of the Substitute flats may be created by press-
effect. Bedding plants are often raised from the only factor once the machine is paid for. pots, and use the correct mix, and good ing into service such things as fruit boxes,
seed commercially in strips of expanded The blocking machines produce either results should be obtained. plastic and polystyrene cartons and kitchen
polystyrene which contain holes for seed and square or hexagonal blocks about 2 in high, foil or plastic food containers. Cleanliness and
soil mix. This material is heat-retentive and with a depression in the top for the seed to be Seed flats good drainage are the main conditions; when
easily broken to release the plants on planting sown or the seedling pricked on. To make a Just as plastic pots have replaced clay ones, they are achieved just about anything will do.
out. However, the strips can only be used batch of soil blocks, moisten some special so wooden seed flats have been superseded There is, however, no substitute for the neat
once. Plastic sleeve pots, also widely used blocking mix in a bucket or bowl. Test by plastic. Flats are vital for raising larger appearance of a bank of clean plastic or
commercially, can be used for pricking on the moisture content by squeezing. If the numbers of seedlings. Many propagating wooden flats.
seedlings which are later to be planted out. mix crumbles a little, it is ready. If it falls cases are designed to take the standard-sized
W h e n filling such non-rigid containers with apart, it is too wet. If it does not start to seed flat, which measures 14in x 81/2in x 21/2in. Other equipment
soil mix care must be taken to fill all the crumble, it is too moist. Push the mould into Half-sized flats, 6 in x 81/2 x 21/2, are also used. A sieve with a 1/2 in mesh, a further fine sieve,
corners to avoid air pockets. the damp mix and when it is full depress Plastic flats must be well drained and rigid, and a supply of labels will be required.
Potting
Crock the pot to provide adequate drainage. Hold the plant in the pot by a leaf and pour Firm gently with the finger tips to avoid air Place the potted plants in a position w i t h
Moisten a supply of potting soil and water in compost with a circular motion. Tap the pockets around the roots of the plant. good light and water to settle the soil
the plants to be potted. pot to distribute the soil. around the roots.
Pots and potting 3
Potting procedure 2 ft deep. The sides and back can be 6-12 in the seedling and roots from the soil. Place surface and the pot rim to allow for efficient
Potting, re-potting and potting on are some high. The bench can be placed in the green- the plant in the pot and pour fresh soil watering. As a guide, aim at a space equal to
of the most frequent tasks the greenhouse house or in a shed or outhouse, wherever around the roots. Make sure that the plant is one-seventh or one-eighth of the depth of
gardener faces. While they are not difficult, there is space. If the bench is in the green- not potted too deeply—the base of the stem the pot. As much water as will fill this space
the basic techniques should be mastered, for house, be sure not to leave surplus soil should be level with the surface of the soil. should thoroughly wet all the soil with a
if plants are not potted properly, no amount lying on it or on the floor, where it will attract Distribute the soil around the roots with a little surplus trickling out at t h e b o t t o m .
of subsequent care will make them grow to pest and disease organisms. circular motion of the hand or trowel. Tap
their full potential. Preparation Assemble the pots, drainage the pot gently on the bench to settle the soil Potting on
Potting is the initial transfer of a seedling, material such as crocks if needed, and the around the roots. Make sure that the plant W h e n the young plant has filled its container
rooted cutting or bought-in plant to a pot or soil mix. Carefully choose pots no larger is centered in the pot. If roots still show with roots it will need p o t t i n g on, that is,
other container. Potting on is its transfer to a than necessary: most plants grow and look after tapping, add more potting soil, then removing from its container and placing in a
larger pot as it grows. Re-potting is move- better in small rather than large pots. Use firm lightly with the fingertips. A further tap larger one. First water the plant, but do not
ment to a new pot of the same size as the old, a soil mix suitable for the plant being grown, on the bench will level the soil leaving it soak it. Invert the pot onto an open hand
the prime object being to renew some of the and make sure that it is well mixed. Soil ready for watering. The degree of firming with the plant stem hanging d o w n between
soil mix around the rootball. should be damp but not wet. It should be can vary with the type of plant and soil the middle and index fingers. Gently rap the
The potting bench The first step is to have a possible to pour it cleanly into the pot by type. All-peat mixes require little firming, pot rim on a firm w o o d surface, or tap it with
proper work surface for potting. A bench or hand or with a trowel. tapping followed by watering will settle the a light hammer, and lift the pot off. If this
table with a back and sides allows the soil medium amongst the roots. Loam-based operation does not w o r k the first time, the
mix to be piled up. If there are never more Potting mixes, particularly when used for vigorous plant may be too dry and watering should be
than a few plants to pot at a time, construct a Seedlings or cuttings growing in flats or pots plants, can be made firm with light finger repeated before trying again. Prepare a new
portable bench from a 2 ft square board with should be watered. Loosen them from their pressure. The former practice of ramming pot which should be large enough to allow
a retaining rim 3 - 4 in high around three sides. container by knocking the sides. Remove soil firm with a potting stick is now con- about an inch gap all round the rootball to
This board can be rested on the greenhouse seedlings carefully, holding them by the seed sidered unnecessary. the right level, then fill the gap with fresh soil,
bench when required. A permanent potting leaves, not the stem. Keep the rootball as W h e n the potting operation is completed tapping and firming as described above.
bench should be at waist height, 3 ft wide and large as possible. Use a dibble to help free there must be a space between the soil W a t e r to settle the soil.
Potting on PEAT PELLETS
Peat blocks and pellets allow seedlings to

grow and be transplanted w i t h o u t root
disturbance. The plants should be potted
or planted out when the roots emerge
Water the plant. Select a pot 1 in larger than Hold the plant stem between the fingers Place the rootball in the new pot and from the block. The netting will decom-
the present pot and crock it if necessary. and invert the pot, tapping gently so that sprinkle moist soil around it. Firm pose in the soil.
the rootball slides out. carefully.
Pots and potting 4
Re-potting fresh soil in the base of the pot and put Hanging baskets
Re-potting is carried out when the plant has MAINTENANCE OF CONTAINERS
the plant back in position. Push more fresh Baskets made from wire, without a drip-tray,
reached as large a size as is required and soil in around the sides, making sure there must be lined with sphagnum moss before If looked after, pots, tubs, boxes and other
the status quo needs to be maintained. The are no air pockets left and that the soil is the mix is added. Black polyethylene is a containers will last for many years. Once
aim is to replace some of the spent soil pushed around the roots. Firm the surface more convenient but less traditional and less plants are removed from t h e m they should
around the rootball. Re-potting is necessary of the soil, and water. attractive lining. It must be perforated. be washed in a mild disinfectant, dried and
every year or every other year. Check the Use John Innes No. 2 potting compost for stored in a dry place. W o o d e n container!
cultural instructions for the plant concerned Top-dressing hanging baskets, as its loam base holds should be treated w i t h a non-toxic: pre-
for advice on the frequency of re-potting. Top-dressings of fresh soil are applied to moisture well. Peat-based mixes can be used servative, ideally coated inside with .in
Some species resent disturbance, in which beds, borders and containers. W h e n used but they tend to dry out in the exposed asphalt paint. If metal cans are used as
case they should be top-dressed (see below). on pot plants the process of top-dressing environment of a basket and are hard to substitute containers, make sure that they
It is best done when the plant is resting or serves the same function as re-potting. It is re-wet. Place a layer of moss in the bottom are painted with non-toxic paint to pre
dormant in late autumn. Remove the plant more practical than re-potting on very large of the basket and weigh it down with moist vent rust. Some improvised plastic; con-
from its pot and reduce the size of the root- plants which are difficult to re-pot, and is mix. Add one or two trailing plants and firm tainers will tend to become brittle under
ball by up to a quarter, using a small hand fork essential for those plants which resent the more mix around their roots. Proceed by the effects of the ultra-violet component
and a sharp knife or shears to prune any disturbance of re-potting. During the dor- building up layers of plants and mix, pushing of sunlight.
thick roots. On larger perennial plants such mant season, strip away the top layer of the trailing plants through the basket so that Clay pots are expensive to replace and
as fruit trees and bushes, prune the top soil and any small roots. This must be done they can hang down the sides. Build up the should be wired or riveted to prevent
growth by the same amount as the roots. This carefully and any of the thicker roots en- layer of moss around the sides, keeping it breakage. Unless completely shattered,
ensures that the plant remains balanced. If countered should be left. On completion, above the level of mix at all times. Place up- broken pots can be repaired very satis-
necessary, tease out the roots from the root- fill the gap with a rich mix such as John right plants in the final layer of mix so that factorily with waterproof ceramic glue.
ball using a fork or stick. Remove some of the Innes No. 3. Firm the mix carefully and they grow upwards from the basket. Hanging Those based on epoxy resin are strong and
old spent soil from the rootball, without water lightly. Top-dressing is usually carried baskets should be replanted with fresh permanent. It is rarely possible to repair
damaging the roots if possible. If the same out in early spring, just before the plant material each year so potting on and re- broken plastic pots. W o o d e n containers
pot is to be used, clean it well. Place some begins to grow again. potting do not arise. can often be mended using screws or
nails. Use greased brass screws when
Re-potting assembling large wooden containers.
To strengthen a cracked clay pot, wrap

galvanized wire around the pot and twist
the ends gently together. Keep cracked
pots scrupulously clean, for the cracks
Remove the plant from its pot as described Trim the roots with sharp scissors, knife or If the old pot is to be used, clean it well. can harbor dirt and pest and disease
under potting on. Remove some of the shears. On larger plants, prune top Replace the rootball and add fresh soil, organisms.
spent soil from the rootball by loosening. growth In proportion. firming well.
Growing from seed 1
One of the most satisfying aspects of garden- Growing from seed an example of the often complex dormancy board so that the soil comes level with the
ing under glass is raising plants from seed, In the wild, all flowering plants reproduce factors that are inherent in some seeds. The rim. Firm the soil d o w n with a presser, then
cuttings or by other propagation methods. themselves by seed and in the garden too this seeds of a few plants benefit from a dry warm sow the seeds evenly and thinly.
Many plants can be raised with a minimum of is an important method of increase. It must be period because, though superficially ripe, Seeds which are large enough to handle
equipment and skill, while with practice and borne in mind, however, that many garden they are not fully mature within. Some seeds either with the fingers or flat-tipped forceps
patience the ability to cope with the more plants are of mutant or hybrid origin and have chemical inhibitors in the seedcoat are best space-sown, that is, each seed should
difficult plants grows quickly. may not come true to type from seeds. For which normally leach out during heavy rain- be placed in position sufficiently far apart
The main methods of propagating green- such plants, vegetative propagation methods fall. Seeds in this category should be soaked each way that subsequent seedlings can
house plants are by seeds and stem cuttings. are required. Make sure that home-saved in cold water for 24 to 48 hours before sowing. develop w i t h o u t crowding. Larger seeds such
Less important methods are layering, offsets, seeds are from healthy plants. This simulates the natural leaching process. In as sweet peas can be sown singly in batteries
bulbils, root cuttings and leaf cuttings. Growing conditions In order to germinate general, most tropical and sub-tropical plants of small pots, soil blocks or peat pellets to
Propagation equipment ranges from the successfully, seeds must have moisture, air do not have these dormancy problems. If save both initial pricking-off and potting. Use
most basic improvised tray to the sophistica- and a suitable temperature. The temperature there is any doubt as to when to sow seeds, the presser again to push the seeds into the
tion of a mist unit. Equipment is described on they need varies widely, depending upon the particularly if home-saved, sow half when surface so they are not m o v e d during the
page 30, containers on page 51. The purpose species or variety. The majority of greenhouse gathered or received and the other half the covering operation.
of propagation equipment is to provide the plants will germinate at 15°-18 o C/60 o -65°F, a following spring if the first batch has not Very fine seeds such as those of begonia
optimum environment, in terms of tempera- temperature easy to maintain in a home already germinated. Alpines grown from seed and lobelia are difficult to sow evenly and are
ture, irrigation and humidity, for the plants. propagator. Some of the plants raised under need special treatment. See pages 88-90 on best mixed with some fine dry sand to aid
Hygiene W i t h all aspects of propagating, glass for setting outside will germinate at the alpine house. dispersal. Fine seeds of this sort do not need
hygiene is vital. The seed sowing or rooting lower temperatures, around 10°C/50°F or Soil and containers Pre-mixed seed sowing covering. Larger seeds should be covered
medium should be sterilized and all c o n - less, while many tropical plants need mixes (composts) are available commercially, with a layer of fine soil equal in depth to the
tainers scrubbed clean before use. Between 24 o -26°C/75 o -80°F. As a rough guide, a some containing loam, as in the John Innes longest diameter of the seed. This is best done
each batch of propagation, the case or frame suitable germinating temperature is at least formula, while others are all peat. Both sorts through a fine mesh sieve.
should be washed inside with disinfectant. five degrees above the minimum required by are suitable for most greenhouse plants. For Aftercare Watering should be carried out as
(See page 32.) Check all cuttings regularly and the plants when growing. details and mixtures see page 42. W h e n a few soon as the seeds are sown, using a fine-rosed
remove all leaves that are fallen and any When to sow The best time to sow seeds plants only of each species are needed, small can or by immersion. Immersion is best for
which are yellowing or browning. Take pre- varies with the species, but in general early pots or pans of 3 - 4 in diameter are ideal. very fine seeds as overhead watering may
cautions against damping-off disease of seed- spring suits most plants. The seeds of many Sowing Fill each container above the rim, tap disturb or clump them. Place the pot in a
lings (see page 33). Make sure that the stock hardy plants need a cool period after sowing it gently on the potting bench, then strike bowl or deep tray filled with water so that it
plants are free from pests and diseases. before they will germinate properly. This is off the surplus soil with a straight-sided comes at least halfway up the pot. As soon
Seed sowing
1 Fill a container with 2 Firm the soil w i t h a 3 Space-sow seeds which 4 Press the seeds into the 5 Water by immersion, 6 Cover containers with a
soil mix, tap it, then presser to within \ in of the are large enough to handle surface of the soil. Cover placing the container in sheet of glass or plastic
strike off surplus soil rim. Sow the seed thinly with the fingers or a pair of with a thin layer of sieved water until the top of the and keep t h e m away from
with a board. and evenly. forceps. soil. soil darkens. direct sunlight.
Growing from seed 2
as the surface of the soil darkens and glistens turer's instructions. Additional feeding is tainer. Push the soil gently around the root to the stage when their leaves start to over
remove the pot and place in the appropriate necessary because many seed mixes con- and firm each seedling lightly with the dibble. lap, they are ready lor potting or hardenning,
germinating temperature. tain only a phosphate fertilizer, and other The distance apart at which seedlings off and planting out.
To prevent undue drying out of the soil nutrients are necessary for healthy plant should be set varies with its size. Very small
during the germinating period the pots growth. seedlings such as those of begonias can be Hardening off
should be kept out of direct sunlight and set about 1 in apart, larger ones to 2 in or After the seedlings have been pricked off,
placed either in a propagating case or Pricking off more. Bedding lobelia seedlings may be they have to be gradually weaned to a stage
covered with sheets of glass. If direct sunlight Once the seedlings are seen to be ready for pricked off in groups of t w o or four to make at which they can be planted out and survive
is likely to fall on them, they must be shaded pricking off, fill pots, pans or boxes with the handling easier. The equally small begonias cool temperatures, fluctuating water condi-
with sheets of cardboard or newspaper to chosen potting mix as described for seed can be treated in the same way but are best tions and the effects of wind w i t h o u t their
prevent scorching. This covering is important, sowing. Lift the seedlings with care. If in quan- kept singly. To aid handling, each tiny seed- growth rate being affected. This process is
for if the soil surface dries out just as the tity, small clumps should be dug out with a ling can be picked up with a notched-tipped called hardening off.
seeds are germinating it can be fatal, especi- dibble or a stout wooden label, then teased flat stick or plant label. Once the pricked-out seedlings have re-
ally to very small seeds. apart, taking care to handle them by the seed Once pricking off is completed, each pot, established, move them to a cold frame,
Germination Inspect the seed containers leaves only; damaged seedlings should be pan or box must be watered carefully with a which should be kept firmly closed. Gradually
regularly and either wipe off the condensation discarded. fine-rosed can and returned to the same en- air the frame during the day by raising the lid,
or turn the glass over. After the first week to W h e r e a few seedlings are growing in a vironment. W h e n the seedlings have grown until the frame is open continually.
ten days, examine daily to catch the first small pot it is best to tap out all the seedlings
signs of germination. Once the seedlings are and soil, and then to shake or tease them GERMINATION
seen pushing through the soil, remove the apart. If there is little or no root branching,
covering and bring into good light, but shade seedlings can be left to make small plants for On germination, each seed produces one get under way. So, if the seed has not been
from direct sunlight for the first week or so. direct potting later. primary root or radicle, a stem known as a soaked before sowing, it is important that
If the seed was sown too densely or more Make planting holes with a dibble, a cylin- hypocotyl, and one or t w o seed leaves or the soil should be watered immediately
seedlings appear than were expected, it is drical stick like a blunt-pointed pencil and cotyledons. Flowering plants are classi- after sowing.
advisable to spray with captan or zineb as thick enough to make a hole large enough to fied by the number of seed leaves they Once the seed has sufficiently imbibed,
a precautionary measure against damping- take the seedling root comfortably. Dibbles produce. The monocotyledons, which in- the embryo inside the seed begins to
off disease. of differing thickness will be needed for seed- clude all members of the lily, amaryllis, produce root and stem systems, w h i c h
Feeding If seedlings are to be kept in the c o n - lings of varying size. Each seedling should be onion and agave families, produce one eventually break out of the seed.
tainer for some time, they should be given a inserted at the same depth or a little deeper usually grassy seed leaf. The dicotyledons, To grow, the embryo uses its food
liquid fertilizer according to the manufac- than it was when growing in the original con- which include most other vegetable and reserves. W h e n oxygen is combined w i t h
flower families and all the broad-leaved carbohydrates in these food reserves, the
Pricking off trees and shrubs, have two, usually energy necessary for growth is produced.
rounded or oval seed leaves. All growth processes within the seed are
There are some anomalies to this appar- chemical reactions activated by the addi-
ently straightforward classification. Some tion of water. To develop successfully, the
members of both groups retain their seed seed needs an increasing quantity of
leaves as food stores below ground, the water, and the soil used must be capable
first leaves to appear being true ones. of holding these amounts.
Familiar examples are broad bean, sweet As all the processes involved are basic-
pea, oak and palm. ally chemical reactions they will obey
The germination of seeds covers the normal physical rules, the simplest of
entire process, from subjecting a resting which implies that the higher the t e m -
seed to suitable conditions to cause it to perature is raised, the faster will be the
develop to the stage at which the seedling rate of the reaction. In practice, this
produces true leaves and establishes as a means that the warmer seeds are kept,
young plant. If a seed is subjected to the the quicker they will germinate. As all
conditions required for germination, and these reactions are taking place in a
it fails to germinate, despite the fact that biological context, there are biological
1 Lift seedlings in clumps with a wooden 2 Make planting holes in fresh soil with a it is alive, then the seed is described as limitations as to how high the temperature
label or a dibble, then tease them apart, dibble, and insert the seedlings to the being dormant. can be raised. Higher temperatures are
taking care to handle them by the seed correct depth. Firm the soil lightly around Water is vital to allow plant growth to also more costly to maintain.
leaves only. the roots with the dibble.
Cuttings 1
Growing from cuttings is the most popular closed cases if a mist unit is not available.
method of vegetative propagation. Cuttings A moist but well-aerated rooting medium TYPES OF CUTTINGS
are severed pieces of stem, leaf or root in- must be used in all cases. John Innes seed
duced to form roots and shoots and develop compost, all-peat seed and cutting mixes, and
into young plants. The advantage of this the 50/50 sand and moss peat mixture (see
method of vegetative propagation is that page 42) are all suitable. For difficult plants
every young plant will be identical with its use pure sand, which must be coarse and
parent and often will flower and fruit sooner well washed. There are no nutrient minerals
than a seedling. The severed piece of the in sand and almost none in peat, so once the
plant is detached from its parent and has to cuttings start to root a proprietary liquid ferti-
survive while it develops a root and shoot lizer should be used at each watering until
system and becomes a complete plant. potting is carried out. Potting should be
Therefore, it is vital to provide an environ- done as soon as the cutting is well rooted.
ment that will induce the production of new
root and shoot growth as fast as possible. Selecting and taking cuttings
Cuttings should always be taken from vigor-
Stem cuttings ous plants, which are young and healthy in
Depending on the species and variety and the themselves. If possible, the parent plant
age of the plant, stem cuttings take anything should be severely pruned to encourage it to
from about ten days to several weeks to pro- produce faster-growing shoots from which
duce roots and start to grow. The younger the cuttings can be made. If it is anticipated that a
parent, the faster the cutting will root. This is a large number of cuttings will be taken from
factor often overlooked and it must be a one parent, the parent plant should be pruned
major influence on the choice of plant hard to encourage the growth of new shoots. Heel cuttings can be made from soft, Mallet cuttings consist of a side-shoot and
material when taking cuttings. During this Growth-controlling chemicals called hor- green, semi-ripe or hardwoods. Strip a a section of the main stem. They are taken
period they must be kept alive and in a mones are responsible for the rooting of young side-shoot away from the main from semi-ripe and hardwoods. The plug
healthy condition. To cut down water loss as cuttings. In many cuttings enough natural stem so that a strip of bark comes away. of mature w o o d helps prevent rotting.
much as possible, all leafy cuttings must be hormone is present to initiate rooting but it is
kept in a "close" or humid propagating case recommended that one of the proprietary
or improvised container. hormone rooting powders is used as a stan-
The rate at which a stem cutting develops dard procedure. These powders also usually
its roots is dependent on the temperature contain a fungicide to combat rotting.
around it. The higher the temperature, within The ability of the propagating material to
reason, the faster the root-triggering chemical regenerate roots and shoots depends on its
reaction and thus root production. However, stage of development. This is particularly
if the whole cutting is kept warm, the tip true of woody-stemmed plants. Some root
should begin to grow and food will be diverted best from soft shoots, others as the shoots
from the important function of forming roots, begin to get w o o d y at the base, and yet others
thus weakening the cutting. Therefore, a stem when they are fully woody. Four categories of
cutting ideally requires cool air to retard the development are generally recognized. These
growing tip, and warm soil to encourage root are softwood, greenwood, semi-ripe and
production. hardwood stem cuttings. The box right illus-
The exact temperatures vary with the c o n - trates some of the ways of taking cuttings.
dition of the stem and how susceptible it is Heel cuttings are short stems pulled away
to water loss. Softwood and greenwood cut- from the main plant. The heel is the thin sliver
tings require b o t t o m heat of about 21C/70°F of plant material that tears away from the
and as cool an aerial temperature as practic- main stem. Mallet cuttings incorporate a
able—a mist unit with soil heating is ideal. section of main stem on either side of the Softwood stem cuttings are taken from the Leaf-bud cuttings can be taken from any
Semi-ripe and evergreen cuttings may be side-shoot chosen for propagation. Softwood tips of the current season's growth. Hor- type of w o o d . They consist of a short piece
rooted in a similar environment, although and other cuttings are often taken from the mone powder is not needed, but it is good of stem with a leaf and a b u d in its axil. The
less bottom heat is required. Some may also tips of branches. Leafbud cuttings consist of practice to dip the cutting in fungicide. leaf chosen must be fully mature.
be rooted successfully in cold frames or a whole leaf, bud, and short piece of stem.
Cuttings 2
Softwood stem cuttings Vigorously growing heat. Softwood cuttings are extremely choose lateral shoots as cuttings, each one will still lose some water by evaporation from
shoots of non-woody plants, or fast-growing susceptible to water loss. A mist unit thus being either sliced or gently pulled off with a their surface. The commonest reason why
tips of potentially woody stems, are used as provides a very high quality environment. downwards movement so that a sliver or heel these cuttings may fail to develop roots is
softwood cuttings. Softwood cuttings are Aim for a rooting medium temperature of of the parent stem is attached. If a tail of because they are allowed to dry out. To avoid
taken in spring or early summer. The stems 21°-24°C/70 o -75°F. Spray with fungicide on tissue extends from the heel this should be cut water loss, expose as little of the cutting ,is
are best gathered in early morning when at insertion and weekly thereafter. away cleanly. If the tip of the semi-ripe cut- possible above the ground. However, it the
maximum turgidity. If the cuttings are not to Greenwood stem cuttings Greenwood cutting is soft it should be removed. Cut off the cutting is planted too deep, the buds will not
be used immediately, place them in a bucket tings are taken in early summer from the soft lower foliage, leaving about a third of the grow properly. Thus it is vital to expose
of water. An exception is the zonal geranium tips of the stems, just as the main flush of cutting bare. Insert them in the same way as sufficient of the cutting above ground for
which roots better after cuttings have been growth slows down but before any sort of softwood cuttings. Semi-ripe cuttings taken about three buds to develop. Keep the
left exposed and shaded for a period of woodiness is observable. They differ from in late summer should be left in the cold cuttings cool to prevent dormant buds
24 hours. softwood cuttings only in their speed of frame until the end of the following growing developing and diverting energy from the
Trim each shoot to 3 in long, cutting cleanly growth. Treat them in the same way as season. Feed regularly to encourage vigor- developing roots.
just beneath a node or leaf. All leaves on the softwood cuttings, rooting them in a mist ous growth. Lift and transplant the new
basal third to one half should be removed. unit or a heated propagating case. plants in autumn. Leaf-bud cuttings
Place a 4-6 in layer of the chosen rooting Semi-ripe stem cuttings This category is a Hardwood stem cuttings This method is sel- Leaf-bud cuttings may be taken from any of
medium in the bottom of the propagating stage further from green wood, each cutting dom used under glass, though it is suitable for the types of stem. Each cutting consists of a
case, or fill boxes or pots. If there are only a being made from shoots which are hardening bougainvillea and a few other shrubs and leaf, a bud in its leaf axil and a very short piece
few cuttings of each species, 3-4 in pots at the base. Such cuttings are taken in late climbers that have a fully dormant period. of stem. The leaf supplies food to support the
make best use of propagating room. This is summer. Semi-ripe cuttings can be rooted in Growth will have then ceased and the stems cutting and the regenerative processes; the
particularly useful if several species are being poorer light and lower temperatures than will be fully mature. Use 6 in pieces of mature bud is the basis for the new stem system; and
propagated which have a wide range of softwood or greenwood cuttings, and can wood which have dropped their leaves. Treat the piece of stem is where the first roots are
rooting times. Insert the cutting into the thus be grown in a cold frame. with hormone powder and insert them in a produced.
rooting medium so that about one-third of Cuttings should be 4 - 6 in long, and it is closed frame within the greenhouse. Leave New stems produced by pruned plants
its length is in the soil, water and place often advantageous for them to have a heel about half the length of the cutting above soil have the best chance of success. Select one
in a propagating case, ideally with bottom of older wood at the base. To obtain a heel, level. Hardwood cuttings, although leafless, of these new stems with an undamaged
Softwood cuttings
1 Gather shoots from the 2 Trim each shoot to 3 in 3 Fill pots or trays with 4 Water the cuttings and 5 Spray the cuttings with 6 When the cuttings have
tips of vigorously-growing long, cutting below a node soil mix. Make planting place in a propagating case a dilute fungicide on rooted, gradually reduce
plants. If possible, take or leaf. Remove leaves from holes with a dibble and or mist unit. The rooting planting and weekly bottom heat and when they
cuttings in the early the bottom third of the insert the cuttings. medium should be kept at thereafter. Label the have hardened off pot using
morning. cutting. 21 o -24°C/70 o -75°F. containers. John Innes No. 1 compost.
Cuttings 3
mature leal, insure that there is a viable bud on the opposite side of the stem from the bud. insertion. If they are inserted vertically, make in the b o t t o m of the stem of plants that are
in the leaf axil. Label the pot and stand it on a greenhouse sure they are the same way up as when difficult to root. Dip the base of the cutting in
Cut close above the bud so that as small a bench or in a closed case—the higher the growing on the plant. Each cutting will have rooting hormone powder. Ensure the cut
snag as possible is left. This minimizes the temperature, the faster will be the rate of several incipient buds, one to three of which surface is covered w i t h the powder.
likelihood of rotting and die-back. Make the regeneration. may grow into aerial shoots. Plant the cutting up to its leaves in a cold
basal cut about 1-11/2 in below the top cut so Water the cutting to prevent it drying out. frame or mist unit. Allow the leaves of cuttings
that sufficient stem is available to anchor the Do not overwater during the winter when Evergreen cuttings to t o u c h but not to overlap.
cutting firmly in the growing medium. Apply the cutting is dormant, as the soil will Evergreen cuttings are taken from stems of Aim for cool, moist conditions by shading
a rooting hormone. Insert the cutting with readily waterlog, causing the cutting to rot very ripe w o o d . Unlike hardwood cuttings the frame until light intensity becomes lower
its bud level with the soil surface. Place and die. Harden off the cutting once it has they are not leafless and are not fully dormant in winter. Leave frame-grown cuttings in place
cuttings of the more hardy plants in a cold rooted, and transplant in spring. Label it. because of their evergreen habit. Because for the whole of the next growing season. Pot
frame and cuttings of less hardy plants in a they have leaves, the cuttings need extra care on mist-unit cuttings in spring, taking care not
well-lit protected environment such as a mist Stem sections to prevent excessive water loss. to damage the roots.
unit or closed case. It may be necessary to A few greenhouse plants, notably Dietlen- Take evergreen cuttings, from a pruned Evergreen plants can be propagated from
support large-leaved plants such as Ficus bachia (dumb cane), Dracaena and Cordyline, plant if possible, during later summer to early softer w o o d earlier in the growing season.
elastica with a short length of cane inserted become leggy with age, the lower stem be- a u t u m n ; rooting will normally take place Treat these cuttings according to the con-
next to each cutting to prevent it toppling. coming leafless. W h e n the plant becomes during winter. Evergreen cuttings taken in dition (soft, green w o o d or semi-ripe wood) of
The cane can be inserted through the rolled unattractive it can be cut back to just above late summer should be 4 - 6 in long. Take a their stems.
leaf, which is itself secured by a rubber band. soil level. Sever the top of the removed stem heel with the cutting if it is to be propagated
Vine eyes Vine eyes are the hardwood and use it as an evergreen cutting. Cut the in unsterilized soil in a cold frame or poly- Conifers
equivalent of leaf-bud cuttings taken while remaining bare stem into 11/2-2 in lengths ethylene tunnel. Neaten any tail on the heel. Some conifers, but not most spruces, pines
the grape vine, or other woody plant, is leaf- and insert these stem section cuttings verti- Leave on the cutting any terminal bud that and firs, can be propagated from cuttings.
less. Prepare the vine eyes as described above. cally w i t h the top flush with the soil, or may have formed. If, however, growth is c o n - Either a warm environment such as a propa-
Insert them horizontally with the bud just horizontally and completely covered by tinuing, cut out the soft tip with a knife. Strip gating case or a cold frame can be used.
above the soil surface. If this method is chosen about 1/2 in of the rooting medium. It is advis- the leaves off the bottom third of the cutting. Select young, actively-growing shoots and
it will aid rooting if a sliver of bark is removed able to dip the sections into a fungicide before Make a shallow vertical w o u n d about 1 in long take cuttings in autumn and winter.
Evergreen cuttings
1 In late summer, take heel 2 Trim the heel, pinch out 3 Make a shallow 1 in cut 4 Mix peat, grit and sand 5 Shade the frame and 6 The following autumn,
cuttings of the current the growing tip and remove at the base of the stem. into cold-frame soil. Plant water well. In winter, transplant t h e rooted
season's growth, from a leaves from the lower third Dip the cut area in rooting the cuttings in the frame up insulate the frame against cuttings, taking care not to
pruned plant if possible. of the cutting. hormone powder. to their leaves. Do not frost if necessary. damage t h e fragile roots.
Rooting is in winter. allow leaves to overlap. Label the plants.
Leaves 1
Some greenhouse and house plants will Leaves of plants such as Begonia rex can be Choice of leaves Young yet fully developed up a mix of equal parts silted peat and grit
develop plantlets on their leaves. In some cut into squares which will, given correct leaves should be chosen. If the leaf is still Fill a container and firm the mix to within
cases this is done naturally, in others leaves conditions, each produce a plantlet. Succu- growing, its energy will go into developing 1/4 - 3/4 in of the rim. Cut the chosen leal from
are detached, treated in much the same way lents and some bulbs have the capacity to fully. This will delay the generation of new the parent plant with a clean sharp knife
as cuttings, and the plantlets which develop produce plantlets from leaf sections. plant life in the form of plantlets. Since a About 2 in of stalk should be attached to the
grown on. Although only a small range of leaf is unsupported by a root system, any leaf. Using a dibble, insert the petiole at a
plants can be grown from leaves, this range Foliar embryos delay can be a source of problems. Select shallow angle in the mix. Firm the mix gently
includes many of the most popular such as A few plants develop plantlets naturally. leaves that are complete, normal and un- around the petiole. The leaf should be almost
Begonia rex and the African violet Saintpaulia Examples are Tolmiea menziesii, the pig-a- damaged, and free from pests and diseases. flat on the surface of the mix so that the
ionantha. back plant, and Mitella. Some plants release It is possible to take leaf cuttings all the year stalk is in the topmost layer of the cuttings
their plantlets naturally, on others the plant- round, so long as young complete leaves are mix, where air can penetrate. Insert the
Types of leaf cuttings lets have to be separated from the parent available. remaining cuttings, label them and water with
The simplest form of leaf cutting is a complete plant. Planting and aftercare Use a cuttings mix a dilute fungicide.
leaf with a stalk. Such leaf-petiole cuttings made up of equal parts of sand and grit. The leaf cuttings will need an a t m o s p h e r e
can be taken at any season when a complete Propagation conditions When taking the leaves from the parent of high humidity, such as that produced in a
young leaf is available. Midrib cuttings make Leaf cuttings of all sorts are vulnerable to plant, use a sharp knife or razor blade. Always heated propagating case. Bottom heat,
use of the fact that a leaf midrib is an exten- moisture loss and therefore must be kept in spray or water leaf cuttings with a fungicide maintaining a temperature of 20*C/68*F, is
sion of a leaf-stalk and is able to regenerate a closed propagator, or under a glass sheet on planting. If the plantlets are slow to ideal. The cuttings must have sufficient light
in the same way. Propagation by midrib or polyethylene tent. Bottom heat best develop, foliar feeding may be necessary. to develop, but should be shaded from direct
cuttings is most successful from plants provides the warm, humid conditions re- Do not feed until plantlet growth has begun. sunlight.
having leaves with a single central vein, quired The most c o m m o n cause of failure in In about 5 - 6 weeks, plantlets should begin
such as Streptocarpus. Lateral vein cuttings leaf propagation is rotting of the leaf before Taking leaf-petiole cuttings to develop on the leaf stalk. Several may
develop on the side-veins of a leaf after the it has a chance to become established. Leaf-petiole cuttings can be taken at any appear on each stalk, though the number is
midrib has been cut out. Leaf slashing Hygiene is thus vital. All propagating equip- time of the year when new leaves are avail- variable. The number of plantlets that appear
involves the growth of plantlets from cuts ment and containers should be clean, and able. Choose an undamaged leaf which has on each stalk is smaller than the number that
made in a leaf without a central main vein. soil should be sterile. recently expanded to its mature size. Make each leaf will produce using leaf squares of
Taking leaf-petiole cuttings
1 Cut an undamaged, fully 2 Insert the stalk at a 3 Spray the cuttings with a 4 Place the flat of cuttings 5 Alternatively, place a few 6 Pot on the plantlets once
grown young leaf from the shallow angle in a flat of dilute fungicide as soon as in a propagating case at cuttings in a 3 in pot. they are large enough to
parent plant. Cut near the cuttings mix. Firm the they are inserted. 20°C/68°F. Shade lightly to Cover with a polyethylene handle. Harden off by
base, and trim the stalk to mix gently around the protect the cuttings from bag supported on wire. reducing heat and increasing
about 2 in. stalk. direct sun. Place in a warm, light room. ventilation.
Leaves 2
leal slashing. W h e n the plantlets are suffi- Monocot leaves Taking leaf square cuttings
ciently large to be handled, pot them on into Some plants have monocotyledonous leaves,
|ohn Innes No. 1 or equivalent. Liquid that is, leaves with a series of parallel veins
feeding may be necessary if the plantlets running along the length of the leaf. Such
have to remain in the original cuttings plants include bulbous species such as
mix for any length of time. The popular hyacinth and snowdrop, and succulents
African violet, Saintpaulia ionantha, is often such as Sansevieria (mother-in-law's tongue).
propagated from leaf-petiole cuttings. Other Leaves from bulbous plants are delicate and
plants that respond to the method are should be handled as little as possible.
begonias (other than Begonia rex), Peperomia Take a mature leaf and cut into 1 in sections
caperata, and P. metallica. across the veins, using a sheet of glass and a
sharp blade as described above for leaf
Taking leaf square cuttings squares. Insert the cuttings vertically in
Unlike the leaf-petiole method, the leaf cuttings soil or mix. Spray with fungicide and
square cuttings technique allows a large place in a warm (21°C/70°F), humid environ-
number of plants to be propagated from a ment.
single leaf. It is mainly used to propagate New leaves used for propagation from
Begonia rex and related species. bulbs in spring will take four to six weeks to
Take a fully expanded, undamaged young produce plantlets. Pot up the plantlets once
leaf from the parent plant. Lay it face down on they are large enough to handle.
a sheet of clean glass and cut the leaf into a
series of squares. Each piece should be Grafting
roughly 3/4 in square. Be careful not to crush Grafting is not a c o m m o n method of pro- 1 Carefully cut a large fully 2 Lay the leaf face d o w n on 3 Place the leaf squares 1/2 in
the leaves when cutting. Prepare a flat of pagation in the amateur greenhouse, though grown young leaf from the a sheet of clean glass. Cut apart on the surface of a
cuttings soil and firm it to within 1/4-3/8 in of it is used by professionals and in the open parent plant, cutting near the leaf into squares, each flat of damp soil in a warm,
the rim, water it well and lay the leaf squares garden to propagate shrubs, roses and fruit the base. about 3/4 in across. humid environment.
on the soil surface, face upwards and about trees. The main purpose of grafting is to
j in apart. Label and spray with a dilute replace the rootstock of a given plant with
fungicide. Do not water leaf squares, but another, compatible rootstock. This can
irrigate if necessary by standing the flat in have the effect of restricting the growth of
a bath of water. the plant, conferring resistance to disease, or
Place the flat of cuttings in a closed promoting vigorous growth. The process is
propagating case with bottom heat and not technically difficult, and grafting can
keep them at a temperature of 18-21°C/65- form an enjoyable area for experiment. Full
70°F. Avoid direct sunlight, but allow the details may be found in the companion
cuttings enough light to begin development. volume in this series, Plant Propagation.
Plantlets should begin to appear after 5-6
weeks. They should not be detached from MIDRIB CUTTINGS
the leaf square and potted on until they are
large enough to handle. Gradually harden off Leaves with pronounced central ribs can
the plantlets by admitting air to the pro- be used as propagation material in the
pagating case and reducing the temperature. same way as whole leaves with stalk
Leaf slashing Begonia rex can also be pro- attached. The midrib is an extension of
pagated by leaf slashing, a technique similar the stalk, and when cut into sections
to propagation from leaf squares. Choose a plantlets will develop from the cut sur-
large mature leaf, lay it on a sheet of glass, faces of the rib, given the correct condi-
and instead of cutting it into squares, make tions. Cut leaves of Gloxinia, Streptocarpus
3/4 in cuts across the leaf veins. Aim for one cut and similar plants into 1 1/2 in sections.
every square inch. Place the leaf face up on Insert vertically in flats of soil and treat 4 Spray the cuttings with 5 Harden off young 6 Pot on the plantlets
damp soil, and secure it with a wire staple. as leaf square cuttings. Plantlets should dilute fungicide. Shade from plantlets by increasing when they are large enough
Treat as leaf squares above. Plantlets will appear in 5 - 6 weeks. direct sunlight. ventilation and reducing to handle John Innes No. 1
develop at the cuts. temperature. or equivalent.
Other propagation methods 1
Air layering Air layering the moss in place with a square of black
While cuttings are induced to form roots after polyethylene wrapped around to form a tube
being detached from the parent plant, air and fixed in place with tape. The black poly
layering is a technique which induces the ethylene will keep in moisture, keep out light
growth of roots on stems still attached to the and maintain the correct warm, moist en
parent. Its main use in the greenhouse is to vironment for root formation and growth,
propagate Ficus elastica, though it can also be Aftercare and potting Air-layered plants will
used on citrus trees and on shrubs. normally take at least a growing season to
Air layering is carried out in spring or late establish themselves. Towards the end of the
summer on growths of the current season dormant season after the first growing season,
that are becoming woody. The necessary prune back any new g r o w t h above the
conditions for root formation are restriction layered section. Cut the stem just below the
of the chosen stem and the exclusion of light. b o t t o m of the polyethylene-clad section and
The roots thus stimulated are encouraged by carefully remove the polyethylene and the
damp, moist conditions. tape. The moss should be combined with
Preparing a stem Trim off the leaves and side- the new roots to form a rootball. Cut away
shoots of a straight stem to between 6 and the section of stem below the new roots,
12 in from the tip. Girdle the stem with a sharp slightly loosen the rootball and plant < art-
knife and apply hormone powder. fully in a pot of John Innes No. 1 or equivalent
Applying the rooting medium Sphagnum Firm gently to avoid damaging the roots.
moss, which is well aerated and holds mois-
ture, is the best rooting medium. Soak a hand- Bulb scaling
ful of moss thoroughly and squeeze it to Bulbs increase naturally by producing bulb-
1 In spring, trim leaves and side-shoots 2 Apply hormone power to the cut. remove excess moisture. W o r k it into an lets or offsets but this method is slow. A faster
from the chosen stem. Girdle by cutting Squeeze a ball of wet sphagnum moss interwoven ball of fibers 2 - 3 in in diameter, method of propagation is bulb scaling. This
off a 1/3 in ring of bark with a sharp knife. around the girdled stem. split and place around the girdled stem. Hold can be done with lily and f ritillary bulbs. These
3 Wrap a square of black polyethylene 4 Towards the end of the following dormant 5 Then cut the stem below the poly- 6 Pot into John Innes No. 1 or equivalent,
around the moss ball. Secure top and bottom season, prune any new growth above the ethylene. Remove the polyethylene, taking firm in gently and place in the greenhouse
with tape. Leave for a growing season. layered portion. care not to damage the delicate new roots. until new growth begins.
Other propagation methods 2
bulbs have relatively narrow scale leaves Division Bulb scaling
which can be readily pulled off the bulb's I he garden technique of propagating peren-
basal plate, nials by division is practiced in the green-
lake scales from fresh, healthy bulbs, house. Mature plants which have become too
preferably in October or November. Cut only large can be divided, as can those fibrous-
a few scale leaves from each bulb. Treat all crowned plants which become woody in the
scales with a fungicide such as captan by center and only produce new growth at the
shaking them in a bag with fungicide powder. edges. Dahlias and tuberous begonias can be
Place the scales in sterile cuttings mixture or divided but grow better from cuttings or seed.
damp vermiculite and seal the whole in a Greenhouse plants that can be divided in-
plastic bag. Store at 21°C/70°F until, in about clude arums, ferns, and some orchids. Plants
6 - 8 weeks, bulblets develop at the base of with fibrous crowns should be divided im-
the detached scales. W h e n the bulblets mediately after flowering. Remove the plant
appear, plant the scale leaves, with the bulb- from its pot and dip the rootball in a bucket
lets, in pots of potting mix or soil. Plant them of water. Then gently pull the crown into
vertically with the tips just above the soil pieces of the required size. Tough crowns can
mix. Water sparingly, and keep at 21°C/70°F be cut with a knife. Make sure that each piece
until leaves are produced. At the end of the has a good eye or bud. Trim the long snoots
season, after the leaves have died down, lift on the divided segments to balance the top-
and separate the new bulbs, potting on or growth and roots and lessen water loss. Plant
replanting them at once. in pots and water well.
1 In autumn, remove scale leaves from the 2 Place the scale leaves in a plastic bag
outside of bulbs. Cut only a few scale leaves containing damp vermiculite or an equal
from each bulb. Dust with fungicide powder. mixture of damp peat and grit. Blow up the
bag, seal it and put it in a w a r m dry place.
All material propagated—seeds, leaves or Alternatively, paint a strip at the end of a

cuttings—must be labeled. Otherwise it is seed flat white to form a writing surface
very easy to lose track of what plants are. (b). W h e n the flat is re-used a new layer of
The label should show the date of sowing white paint can be applied to obliterate
or propagation, the species and the variety. the label and provide a new writing sur-
Other information such as the source of face.
the propagating material or reminders of Mature plants can have labels attached
the conditions required may be added. to the stem. These can be made of plastic
Labels can simply be wood, plastic or or light metal (c). Hand machines are avail- 3 Six-eight weeks later, when bulblets 4 Place the pots in a w a r m (21°C/70°F) well-
metal tags (a). Data can be written on these able which print labels on strips of plastic appear at the base, plant the scales upright lit place. New leaves will appear in spring.
tags using a soft lead pencil or wax crayon. or punch letters onto lead strips (d). in John Innes No. 1 or equivalent and Harden off, and in a u t u m n lift and separate
cover the mix with grit. the bulbs. Replant as soon as possible.
The year in a cold greenhouse 1
The year in a cold greenhouse than a protective covering against extremes and biennials can be raised from seed in the degrees above normal; this heat surplus not
This calender details sowing and harvesting of cold, wet and wind. A cold greenhouse can predictable conditions a cold greenhouse only acts as a cushion against the rapid drop
times for basic cold greenhouse crops and form a vital and interesting adjunct to the offers, and various propagation techniques in temperature as night falls, but also im-
lists planting, sowing and potting on times garden provided its limitations are recognized carried out. proves the growing atmosphere. Some of the
for ornamentals. and the plants to be grown carefully selected. Despite the lack of artificial heat, the surplus heat is absorbed by the soil, paths
Regular tasks such as watering, feeding, The most important limitation of the cold gardener has various techniques available to and structure generally, moderating night
damping down, shading and ventilating are greenhouse is that of temperature. In winter, allow him to alter the environment of a cold temperatures as it is given off into the cooling
not listed every month. The timing of these if the outside temperature drops to around greenhouse. The basic principles explained air. This mechanism is exploited by several
procedures is to a large extent dependent 7°C/20°F it is likely that there will be several in the section on Running the Greenhouse solar heating systems
upon day to day conditions and on the crops degrees of frost inside the greenhouse. It is (pages 32-33), apply here, though with the At all times the aim is to produce a buoyant
being grown. Follow the instructions given wise to recognize this and to avoid trying narrow tolerance of many cold greenhouse atmosphere, one in which the air within the
under individual crops, and act according to to over-winter plants which are not frost- plants extra care is needed. greenhouse is moving up and around rather
the basic principles discussed in the first t w o hardy. It is possible to give protection against Ventilation The most effective method of than lying stagnant.
sections of this book. frost by plunging pots and covering plants temperature control available is ventilation. Air movement The circulation of air is a vital
Pest and disease control is another regular with polyethylene or burlap, but these pro- In very cold conditions it can be colder in the factor in cold greenhouse management. Even
task that must be attended to whenever vide limited defense against severe frosts. greenhouse than outside if the doors and in a closed-up cold house in winter, imperfec-
problems arise. The worst period for pests is lower ventilators are not opened for a few tions in glazing can allow air to escape suf-
from April to October, but problems such as Conditions and choice of plants hours in the middle of the day. Cold air is ficiently fast to give t w o complete air changes
whitefly and red spider mite can appear in A cold greenhouse will suit those plants that heavy and collects in a pool at ground level, per hour. In high summer well-ventilated
any of the 12 months. Follow the instructions are hardy outdoors, and will in most cases but will flow out if given the chance. greenhouses can have 120 air changes per
on pages 33-40 for the control of pests and allow them to be grown better. It also suits Most ventilation is concerned with trap- hour, which helps to keep internal tempera-
diseases. annuals, including fruits and vegetables, ping solar heat. Once outside temperatures tures close to those outside. If through a
which are half-hardy outdoors. A cold green- start to rise in spring, ventilators should be deficiency in ventilation air changes drop to
Using a cold greenhouse house can extend the growing season at opened a little in the morning and closed 3 0 - 4 0 per hour, summer greenhouse tem-
A cold greenhouse is one which possesses no either end, allowing crops to be taken earlier some hours before sunset. This regime may peratures can rise as high as 43°C/110°F, to
form of artificial heat. It is, in effect, no more and later than outdoors. Ornamental annuals well cause the thermometer to rise five the detriment of plants.
January February March April May June

Plan the year's crops and order Ventilate as necessary. Water Sow lettuce, celery, carrots, Sow according to needs: lettuce, Plant eggplants, sweet peppers, Harvest lettuce, radish, endive,
seeds and seedlings. Ventilate the sparingly. mustard and cress. radish, mustard and cress, beets, okra and cucumber, melons. mustard and cress, beans, parsley.
greenhouse on sunny days. Sow lettuce, early bunching turnips, Sow in heat: eggplants, sweet endive, parsley. Sow sweetcorn, Harvest early carrots, early Continue to sow biennials. Pot on
Sow onions for transplanting. Sow carrots, parsnips and early beets peppers, dwarf beans, tomatoes if celeriac, dwarf French beans, bunching turnips, beets. cyclamen seedlings.
early radishes in soil borders or (until March), bulb onions (until not sown in February. cucumbers. Plant out tomatoes after last Take cuttings of pinks. Plunge
peat pots. April). Sow tomatoes in heat later Prick out lettuce seedlings. Pot out Harvest early radishes and lettuce, frost. azaleas outside and feed every
Bring in plunged bulbs to flower in in the month. late in month. chicory, seakale and rhubarb. Harden off bedding plants and 14 days.
the greenhouse (Babiana, Bring potted strawberries in to crop Sow for transplanting: broad beans, Complete sowing half-hardy plant out after frosts have ended.
Chionodoxa, Crocus, daffodils, in late spring. runner beans, brassicas, leeks, annuals. Sow biennials for spring Take cuttings from regal
Fritillaria, Iris, Leucojum, Bring in remaining plunged bulbs to celery, peas, sweetcorn, chives, flowering under glass. Prick out pelargoniums. Sow Calceolaria,
Ornithogalum.) replace those which have finished thyme. March-sown seedlings. Begin to Freesia, Schizanthus for winter
Bulbs which have finished flowering flowering. Continue to bring in pot harden off bedding plant seedlings. flowering.
can be planted out into frames. Pot on and divide ferns if necessary. strawberries. Take fuchsia cuttings, pot rooted
Sow lily seed. Begin sequence of Pot on over-wintered coleus, Sow half-hardy annuals and alpines. dahlia and other cuttings. Pot up
chrysanthemum cuttings later in fuchsias and pelargoniums. Pot on over-wintered annuals. Take tuberoses for flowering. Start
the month. Sow and place in a propagating pelargonium and dahlia cuttings. feeding camellias.
case: Abutilons, tuberous and Plant out rooted cuttings taken in
fibrous begonias, Coleus, Celosias, winter. Plant hippeastrum bulbs in
Gloxinias, Streptocarpus. pots.
Pot on annuals sown in autumn.
Re-pot evergreen azaleas.
The year in a cold greenhouse 2
Excessive summer temperatures can be winter weather, is better than that of outdoor Over-wintering Successful over-wintering is for a large part of the year. These plants can
reduced by damping down floors and walls plants. Blooms are more spectacular as wind more likely if certain precautions are taken. be used as the main display or to fill in gaps
with city water, which rarely rises above a and rain damage is not a problem. During the coldest spells, plants must be kept between non-flowering permanent plants or
temperature of 10 L C/50"F. Damping down Alpines and similar plants can also be on the dry side. It is best that the roots do not fruit and vegetable crops. Hardy annuals can
also promotes a degree of humidity enjoyed grown in an unheated greenhouse, but they freeze for these are often more tender than be sown in late summer or early autumn. They
by most plants. Excessive transpiration caused require conditions which preclude the growth the tops. Ground level beds should be deeply will over-winter well in a cold greenhouse and
by very dry, hot conditions gives a severe of many other plants. The running of an mulched with bracken or straw and the bases flower late the following spring, well ahead of
check to plant growth. Shading, used in con- alpine house is described on pages 8 8 - 9 0 . of shrubs and climbers wrapped. Large pots their normal season. This technique can be
junction with ventilation, is also important in Many food crops can be grown in a cold and tubs must be wrapped either with straw, used for hardy biennials, but these need to be
controlling summer conditions. For full de- house, providing cash saving over shop glass fiber, or any other approved insulating sown in early summer and may be grown
tails of shading and ventilation practice, see prices and often produce of a higher quality. material that can be secured in place with outside or in an open cold frame until late
pages 14-16. Tomatoes, the most popular crop, are covered netting or burlap and wire twine. Smaller autumn. Routine seed sowing and pricking
Thus the management of a cold green- in detail on pages 70-71. The following pages pots are best plunged in peat or sand. off into flats or pans is all that annuals and
house is an amalgam of attention to ventila- also detail the cultivation of fruits and other Winter sets limitations on what can be biennials initially require (see pages 55-56).
tion, atmospheric moisture, warmth and salad and vegetables. Another aspect of grown permanently in the unheated green- Thereafter place the young plants singly into
light. Holding the environmental balance is a garden food production that a greenhouse house. From about mid-spring to late autumn 5 in pots, or space three out into 6 or 7 in con-
complicated art in which experience is an can assist is the raising of seedlings for trans- the full range of cool greenhouse plants thrive tainers. A fairly rich soil mix is recom-
important factor. planting outdoors. This frees the gardener happily. From late spring to early or mid- mended, a John Innes potting No. 2 being
from dependence on commercially raised autumn even warm greenhouse plants suc- very satisfactory. Once the y o u n g plants are
Plants for the cold greenhouse plants, and makes the growing of unusual ceed. W i t h a heated propagating case, such 3 - 4 in tall, pinch out their tips to encourage
Most annuals, biennials and shrubs, provided vegetables, and the obscurer varieties of plants can be over-wintered. branching and a more bushy habit. As soon
they are hardy, can be successfully over- c o m m o n ones, possible. As with flowers, the as they are growing more strongly, in late
wintered in a cold house. The advantage of quality of crops grown under glass will be Flowering plants from seed winter or early spring, c o m m e n c e liquid
doing so is that they flower two to three weeks higher than those grown outdoors, due to A wide range of hardy and tender annuals feeding and repeat at 10-14 day intervals.
earlier than plants grown outdoors. Their the lack of weather damage. This is especially and biennials is readily available to provide At about this time, insert twiggy sticks or
condition, not having had to contend with true of salad crops and strawberries. color and interest in the cold greenhouse canes for support. For full details, see page 55.
July August September October November December

Harvest sweet peppers, lettuce, Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and Sow lettuce, radishes, mustard and Sow lettuce for crops in spring. Sow onions for transplanting. Harvest chicory.
radishes, mustard and cress, cress, winter endive. cress, alpine strawberries. Plant fruit trees. Box up rhubarb crowns, chicory Bring in remaining plunged bulbs
parsley, tomatoes left in the Sow cyclamen seeds. Take fuchsia Plant late in month: apricots, Continue to pot up and blanch and remaining seakale. Insulate for spring flowering.
greenhouse. cuttings, pot on half-ripe cuttings. peaches, grape vines. seakale. boxes if necessary. Take advantage of quiet period to
Take hydrangea cuttings. Harvest lettuces, parsley, radishes, Bring in tender bedding perennials Bring in pots of herbs for winter do cleaning and maintenance jobs
Take half-ripe cuttings. mustard and cress. for over-wintering. supply. on greenhouse and equipment.
Lift seakale roots late in month, Repeat sowings of annuals. Prick Plant grape vines.
pot up and blanch. out annuals sown in September. Cut back chrysanthemums to 6 in
Sow hardy annuals for spring Pot on biennials. Sow sweet peas. after flowering to encourage
flowering under glass. Over-winter chrysanthemum stools growth for cuttings. Prick out
Pot on hardy biennials for spring and dahlia tubers. October-sown sweet peas. Pot on
flowering. annuals. Bring plunged bulbs into
Bring in evergreen azaleas, pot- the greenhouse as shoots appear.
grown chrysanthemums. Plant
bulbous irises and hyacinths in
pots.
Fruits
A t o l d greenhouse can be used to grow a to give plants the maximum possible light. It Melons
variety of fruit (Tops, the best c h o k e being will be difficult for plants to thrive, and for
melons, strawberries, grapes, peaches, apri- fruit to ripen, if plants in pots are shaded b)
cots and nectarines. The more stable environ- a thick vine or a vigorous peach.
ment of the greenhouse, and the protection Training and support Except for strawberries
it affords, allows the production of earlier, all the types of fruit suggested for the cold
more reliable fruit crops compared with out- greenhouse will need some system of wire;
door culture, especially in districts with on which they can be trained and this should
cooler than average summer temperatures. be combined with a support system. Always
The greatest limitation of the cold green- remember to arrange the training system
house for growing fruit is that many of the before planting because inserting wires be-
crops, but particularly grapes, peaches, apri- hind growing plants is not only difficult but
cots and nectarines, take up a great deal of can lead to damage.
space. If possible, it may be best to devote a
whole greenhouse to fruit culture but if this Ventilation
is not practical, select fruit that will not The exact needs of fruit crops vary in detail
occupy the whole house or block light from but good ventilation is essential. Peaches, for
other plants. Alternatively, cultivate plants example, ideally need ventilation from the
in pots to restrict their growth to manageable roof and sides of the house. W h e n growing a
proportions. crop that takes up a good deal of space in
the greenhouse always make sure that the
Choosing a greenhouse growth of the plant does not interfere with 1 Prepare a soil mix of 2 oz steamed 2 Stretch wires along the sides 1 ft apart
I or small-growing crops such as melons and the ventilation system or make window; bonemeal and 2 oz compound fertilizer to and 15 in from the glass. Tie in t w o canes
strawberries a house of conventional dimen- difficult to open. one 2 gal bucketful of soil. Place this on top per plant, one from soil to eaves, the other
sions will be suitable but a larger house is For full details of cultural practices see the of the border soil in a ridge 1 ft high. from the eaves to the house ridge. In May
necessary to accommodate other fruit ade- volume Fruit in this series. plant the seedlings raised in heat.
quately unless they are grown in pots. W h e n
choosing a greenhouse for growing fruit
CULTIVATION
remember that a vigorous grape vine will
need a border at least 8 ft long and that a Grapes Construct a training system of
peach, apricot or nectarine will require a horizontal wires 9 in apart and 15 in from
greenhouse with a wall or glass sides at least the glass. Plant in November in well-
12 ft high. When selecting a greenhouse for drained porous border soil containing
fruit growing follow all the general principles loam, peat and grit with added base
described on pages 12-13. Fruit trees should fertilizer and limestone. Water to give a
be grown against a south-facing wall. thorough soaking in early spring. Mulch.
Keep the soil thoroughly damp, watering
Planting every 7-10 days in hot weather, and re-
Vines, peaches and their relations and melons duce watering as fruit ripens. Ventilate
can all be planted direct into the border soil from January to March then close the
of the greenhouse, which should be prepared vents until May or when the air tempera-
according to the individual requirements of ture exceeds 18°C/64°F.
each crop. Strawberries, however, are best Peaches, apricots and nectarines Con-
cultivated in pots or barrels. If space is struct a training system of wires placed
limited it is also possible to cultivate grapes, 10 in apart and 10 in from the glass. Plant
peaches, apricots and nectarines—and even in October in border soil enriched with
plums, apples, pears and cherries—in pots, peat and add lime at 1 lb per sq yd. Mulch.
although for the last four of these it is essen- Water well after planting and from the 3 As the plants grows tie stems to canes 4 Thin the fruit to four of t h e same size per
tial to select varieties grown on dwarfing time growth starts. Ventilate during the and laterals to the horizontal wires. Pinch plant when fruits are walnut-sized. Water
rootstocks. Container culture has the added day only after fruit has set. Close the house out the growing point when plant is 6 ft the plants very well and liquid feed them
advantage that it is possible to provide at night. tall. Pinch back side shoots to t w o leaves every 7-10 days. As fruits enlarge support
exactly the right type of soil but it is important beyond each flower. Increase ventilation. t h e m w i t h netting slings.
Tomatoes 1
Tomatoes are an excellent choice of crop for Pricking out W h e n the seedlings have de- growing bags or straw bales (for full details roof at one end and to the stem of the plant,
a cold greenhouse for they are tender plants veloped their first true leaves 10-12 days after see page 46). If plants are to be grown directly under the lowest true leaf, at the other, Each
that profit greatly from the protection glass sowing, carefully prick them out singly into in greenhouse soil, double dig and enrich plant is then twisted loosely round the string
affords. A heated propagating case can be individual 3 in peat or plastic pots filled with a the lower spade depth with well-rotted com- as it grows. Take care not to damage the plant
used in a cold greenhouse to provide the proprietary potting soil or mix. Insert a small post or manure. For pot or ring culture fill pots stem by pulling the string too tight. Alter
added heat necessary for raising plants from dibble beneath the roots of each seedling and with John Innes No. 2 or 3 or an equivalent natively, plants in pots or g r o w n entirely in
seed. All greenhouse-grown tomatoes need hold the seedling by its leaves to prevent mix. Plant tomatoes when the young plants greenhouse soil may be loosely tied to
careful attention to watering, feeding and damage. Use the dibble to make a hole big are 6 to 9 in tall. This is usually when the bamboo canes for support.
care in controlling pests and diseases. enough to take each seedling without re- flowers on the first truss are just opening.
stricting its roots. Water the seedlings gently Immediately before planting, water plants Watering and feeding
Raising tomato plants to firm the soil round their roots and replace thoroughly and destroy any plants that show The success of greenhouse-grown tomatoes
W i t h o u t the use of a heated propagating case them in the propagator. signs of disease. Make a hole in the chosen depends on meticulous attention to watering
it is usually best to purchase tomato plants Temperature control Keep the seedlings at growing medium big enough to accom- and feeding throughout the life of the plant.
rather than raise them from seed. Choose 18°C/65°F until they begin to shade each modate the roots without crowding. Place Plants will be damaged by drying out which
strong plants with no trace of disease. other, then turn the thermostat down to the top of each rootball level with the soil causes flower drop, or waterlogging which is
Seed sowing Seed may be sown in a heated 16°C/60°F. About a week before planting, surface. Plants raised in peat pots should be a particular hazard for plants grown in iso-
propagating case in early January for plant- reduce the temperature to 10°C/50°F. Apply made thoroughly wet before planting (tear lated systems such as growing bags, for it
ing eight weeks later. Sow seed thinly in a balanced liquid feed (see page 41) and sup- down one side of the pot wall if necessary to quickly kills off plant roots. Plants in growing
John Innes No. 1 compost placed directly in port plants with a small cane if they become prevent drying out) and planted complete bags will only thrive if the growing medium is
the case or in flats or pans which are placed too tall to support themselves. with the pot. Space plants about 18 in apart kept uniformly moist, which may mean water-
in it. Seeds sown too thickly are likely to each way. Give planted tomatoes a thorough ing three or four times a day in hot weather.
suffer from damping-off diseases. Set the Planting watering in and keep them moist to make Ring culture also demands m u c h water be-
propagator thermostat to 18°C/65°F. At this While seedlings are maturing, decide which sure the roots become well established. cause drainage is very rapid. The most stable
temperature germination and emergence growing system will be used. The main choices Support In the greenhouse tomato plants are water supply is achieved with plants grown
should take place in 7-10 days. Keep the are between greenhouse soil, ring culture, usually best supported on soft garden string directly in greenhouse soil. In all systems,
seedlings evenly moist but not waterlogged. 9 in pots placed direct on greenhouse soil, tied to a horizontal wire near the greenhouse irregular watering will cause fruit to split.
Raising from seed Planting
1 Early January Sow 2 - 3 seeds per sq in 2 Prick out seedlings 10-12 days after 3 Place pots in propagator and set 4 Mid-late April W h e n flowers on first
in propagator filled with sieved soil. sowing using a small dibble. Transfer to thermostat to 18°C/65°F. Water sparingly truss are just opening water plants well.
Sprinkle over 1/8 in layer of soil and 3 in pots filled with John Innes No. 1 or but often. Liquid feed before planting. Remove plants from pots and place 18 in
cover with newspaper. an equivalent mix. apart in chosen growing medium.
Tomatoes 2
Greenhouse grown tomatoes should he Pollination and fruit setting Support
liquid fed with a proprietary fertilizer mixed If fruit setting is a problem it can be improved
with the water according to the manufac- by assisting pollen dispersal. Spray the plant
turer's instructions. A balanced fertilizer will with a fine droplet spray, shake the plant
provide nitrogen to encourage vegetative gently or tap the flower trusses.
growth and potassium to improve quality.
Stopping
Trimming and de-leafing In a cold greenhouse tomatoes will not
As tomato plants grow they develop side usually produce more than six or seven fruit
shoots in the junctions (axils) between leaf trusses per season so it is best to snap off the
and stem. These must be removed while they growing point t w o leaves beyond the sixth
are small or they will use up water and or seventh truss. Continue to remove further
nutrients needed by the productive parts of sideshoots, which will often be stimulated
the plant. Snap off each side shoot cleanly into growth by the stopping process.
between finger and thumb, preferably in early
morning when the plants are turgid. Avoid Harvesting
pulling which leaves scars that are easily Ripe fruit should be ready for picking in mid-
invaded by disease-causing fungi. May from seed sown in early January. Harvest
W h e n plants are 4—5 ft tall, remove the time depends upon sowing time. If climate
lower leaves up to the first truss. Use a sharp allows, crops can for instance be sown in
knife and cut cleanly leaving no snags. De- |une for September-December crops.
leafing allows more light to reach the plant 1 Bamboo canes can be 2 Snap off side and basal 3 Spray the flowers with a
base, improves air circulation and helps to Pests and diseases used for support. Tie the shoots between t h u m b and fine droplet spray or shake
combat fungal diseases. As the trusses crop Greenhouse tomatoes are notoriously sus- plant on loosely with soft forefinger. If possible de- the plant gently to disperse
make sure any yellowing or diseased leaves ceptible to pests and diseases which are garden string so that stems shoot in early morning pollen and improve fruit
are removed. described in detail on pages 3 8 - 4 0 . are not damaged. when the stems are turgid. setting.
TRAINING SYSTEMS Stopping
Vertical training Plants are carefully V-training Plants are twisted round strings 4 Liquid feed growing 5 Snap off growing point 6 Pick ripe fruit by snap-
twisted round soft string attached below set alternately at 60° to the ground. This plants following manu- 2 leaves above top truss ping the stalk, leaving the
lowest true leaf and to a horizontal wire system is good for straw bale culture with facturer's instructions. when 6 - 7 trusses have set calyx on the fruit. Ripe fruit
6 - 8 f t above ground level. plants placed closer than 18 in. Water them as necessary. fruit. Remove any lower left under hot sun will soon
leaves that turn yellow. lose its firmness.
Vegetables and salads 1
The greatest advantage of the cold green- Leaf crops Winter endive Sow seed as for lettuce in such protection include parsley, chives, mint,
house in salad and vegetable growing is that Good choices for the cold house include salad late August to early September and put in a French tarragon, pot marjoram, rosemary,
it can be used to extend the growing season greens, seakale and herbs. well-lit position. Ventilate the house and thyme and sage. Water plants well and venti-
at both ends of the year. In warmer parts of Lettuce Sow lettuce seed in pots then prick water the seedlings regularly. When plants late the house during the day in all but the
the country, an unheated greenhouse can them out into peat blocks or pots before are fully grown, tie them round loosely with worst weather. In spring, begin sowing seeds
also provide winter crops. Those summer planting them in greenhouse soil. If seed is raffia and place a large plastic pot over of annual and biennial herbs as soon as the
crops normally grown outside, such as tomato sown in small quantities at fortnightly inter- selected plants to blanch the leaves. Cover greenhouse temperature is high enough.
and cucumber, can be grown under glass for vals from early spring until autumn, a the drainage hole of the pot and support it
faster maturing and protection against rain, constant supply can be assured. To prevent on crocks to allow free air circulation. Root crops and bulbs
hail and wind. W i t h good planning a green- diseases, particularly botrytis, it is important Seakale From late September to late Small quantities of root crops can be raised in
house can provide food for the kitchen to ventilate the house well in all but the worst October, lift seakale crowns from the garden the cold house for harvesting weeks before
almost all the year round. It is also very weather. The crop needs adequate light and and trim off the side roots and any yellowing the main outdoor crops. Seed sowing can
useful for raising young vegetable plants attention to watering. Give a few thorough foliage. Trim the main roots to about 6 in. begin in February-March in peat pots or
which are later planted out into the garden. waterings rather than many small ones. The Allowing 3 crowns per pot, plant the crowns directly into slightly acid greenhouse border
The most significant limitation of the cold crop will be improved by a thorough soaking in 9 in plastic pots filled with rich soil mix soil prepared according to crop requirements.
house is implicit in its description—because about 10 days before harvesting. such as John Innes No. 3. Cover each pot with If the vegetables are to be eaten really young
it is unheated, the gardener must wait until Mustard and cress As long as the greenhouse another of the same size turned upside down and tender, make more sowings at three or
the house temperature reaches a suitable temperature is 10°C/50°F or above, mustard and place under the greenhouse staging. four week intervals. Thoroughly water and
point before certain seeds can be sown. and cress can be sown at weekly intervals. Ideally the crowns need a temperature of well ventilate the house once the tempera-
Also, the winter temperature in the cold Sow seed on a moist tissue in a shallow dish about 10°C/50°F, so if the house gets too cold tures begin to rise in April.
house precludes the growing of many out of and place it in the dark under a bench, lightly insulate the pots with newspaper or burlap.
season crops. When considering which crops covered with a dark cloth or newspaper if Herbs Many herbs will continue growing Pods
to grow, make maximum use of space. Catch necessary to exclude light. Once the seeds through the winter if plants are potted up and Select dwarf varieties of bush beans for cold
crops such as carrots and radishes can be have germinated, move the dish up into a brought into the cold house for protection greenhouse cultivation and make t w o sow-
grown between tall crops before they develop. lighter place and keep the seeds well watered. during winter. Herbs that benefit most from ings, one in spring for early summer cropping,
Lettuces
1 Sow seed in 31/2 in pots filled with potting 2 Prick out as many seedlings as required 3 When plants have 4 - 5 true leaves plant 4 Harvest lettuce by carefully pulling up
soil. Cover the seeds lightly and water into small individual peat blocks or pots. the peat blocks or pots 8 in apart into whole plants and trimming off the roots,
using a fine rose. Repeat sowings every Water well and increase the ventilation the greenhouse border soil. Water well or cut plants below lower leaves. Remove
2 weeks. according to the weather. and ensure good ventilation. discarded matter from greenhouse.
Vegetables and salads 2
the other in July for autumn harvesting. Pre- late the house in warm weather. Watch
WITLOOF CHICORY
germinate the seeds and sow four or five for aphids and red spider mites. Spray with
seeds round the edges of a pot filled with John malathion or derris if pests are seen.
Innes No. 2 or equivalent mix. For the spring Eggplants These need very similar cultural
sowing wait until early April in cool areas, or conditions to peppers, and plants can be
germinate the seeds indoors. Water the raised from seed in the same way or pur-
plants well once flowers appear and ventilate chased from a nursery. Aim for planting in
the house in warm weather. early May and allow two plants to a standard
size growing bag. Pinch out the growing
Vegetable fruits points when plants are 9-12 in high and
Cucumbers, sweet peppers and eggplants, allow only 5 or 6 fruit to develop on each
as well as tomatoes whose culture is des- plant. Remove any extra fruits, leaving the
cribed in detail on pages 70-71, can all be remaining ones well spaced, and pinch off
grown in the cold greenhouse. any extra flowers that form. Water and feed
Cucumbers Pre-germinate cucumber seeds often but sparingly and ventilate the house in
then sow them singly in 3 in pots filled with hot weather. W a t c h out for pests and spray
|ohn Innes No. 1 or a similar mix. Allow against those that appear as for peppers.
4 to 5 weeks from sowing to planting and In November, lift witloof chicory roots plant 3 or 4 chicory roots at weekly
time the operation so that planting can take Raising seed from the garden and cut off the leaves to intervals in a 9 in plastic pot filled with
place in late May, if necessary germinating Seeds of many vegetables can be raised in within \ in of the crown. Trim the roots to sand so that each crown is 1/2 in above the
the seeds indoors. Preferably, plants should the cold house for planting out once the 9 in and take off any side shoots. Store the top of the soil. Water sparingly and cover
be planted in growing bags (2 plants per weather is suitable to provide earlier, more roots horizontally in boxes of dry sand with pot to keep out light. Place under
standard bag) or singly on straw bales. At reliable crops. Sow seed in peat blocks or outside under a north wall until they are the bench and keep well ventilated. The
planting time or before, erect a system of pots for easy planting later on and keep needed. From mid-November onwards chicons will be ready after 4 weeks.
supporting strings tied to horizontal wires house well ventilated. See pages 5 5 - 6 .
near the greenhouse roof, or insert bamboo
canes on to which plants can be loosely tied. Cucumbers
Developing plants should be well watered
and given liquid feed and the atmosphere in
the house should be kept as humid as pos-
sible. Pinch and trim the plants as shown in
the illustrations and remove any male flower.
Sweet peppers These vegetable fruits are
best grown in the cold greenhouse in pots.
Because the seed needs a temperature of
21°C/70°F for germination, seeds must be
germinated in a propagating case and the
seedlings hardened off, or the gardener can
buy plants from a nursery. Allow 10 to 12
weeks between sowing and planting in late
May. Sow seed thinly on moistened soil
covered with 1/8 in of compost and then with
glass and newspaper. W h e n seedlings are
large enough to handle, prick them out into
3 in pots filled with John Innes No. 3 compost
or plant 3 plants in a standard sized growing
bag. Place pots 18 in apart on the border soil
or greenhouse staging. W h e n plants are
about 6 in tall, remove the growing point to
1 Late May Plant seedlings raised in heat in 2 June-July Tie growing plants to canes for 3 June onwards Keep single laterals in each
encourage bushy growth, and support and
9 in pots filled w i t h potting soil. Water support. Pinch out growing points as main leaf axil and stop t h e m at 2 leaves. Remove
tie them to bamboo canes if necessary. Keep
and liquid feed regularly. Keep the stems reach the roof. Ventilate frequently, male flowers if appropriate. Harvest by
plants well watered and liquid fed and venti-
greenhouse humid. but carefully, as humidity is important. cutting the stems with a sharp knife.
The year in a cool greenhouse 1
A cool greenhouse, one provided with a heat- To many gardeners, the cool greenhouse with are the many house plants available, and which burn gas or oil, can harm plants if
ing system that ensures that temperatures do is the norm and a cold or warm house is a sub-tropical flowering plants such as those they are not adjusted correctly. Badly set
not fall below 4.5°C/40°F, provides an en- deviation from it. When gardening literature fostered by Victorian conservatory gardeners wicks and burners can cause the heater to
vironment suitable for a vast range of plants. and catalogs are consulted, it will be noticed for winter blooms. give off poisonous fumes.
Nearly all the plants from the world's t e m - that "greenhouse plants" tends to mean Thermostats The sensible management of a
perate zones can be cultivated, and the those to be grown in a cool house. Management heating system centers around the use of
choice extends into those from the sub- While there are very many plants to choose The principles of cool greenhouse care are thermostats. These devices sense tempera
tropical and tropical regions. A distinction is from for growing in a cold house, it is often those outlined earlier in this book for the ture changes and act as switches, turning the
made between those plants that can be worth experimenting to try to widen the running of any greenhouse. The one main heating system on and off as required. They
grown in winter in a cool house, such as range still further. Plants rarely have an difference in the running of a cool house is are most often used with electrical systems,
salads and chrysanthemums, and those such absolute minimum temperature which kills the need to manipulate the heating system. which are easily controllable and capable "I
as sub-tropical bedding plants which are them, unless it be frost level which, by An inefficient heating system is undesirable producing heat quickly. Gas and oil systems
dormant at cool greenhouse temperatures freezing the cells, can cause physical damage. for three reasons. First, if the system is not can also be fitted with thermostats—as are
but survive the winter undamaged, when Many plants thought to need higher tem- running correctly it will not be able to main- domestic central heating boilers.
they would die in the open garden or an peratures than the cool house minimum can tain the necessary temperature and plants A thermostat is only useful if the system it
unheated house. In addition, all those plants in fact be acclimated to the prevailing con- will suffer. The second reason is that in- controls has sufficient capacity. The heaters
which will tolerate cold greenhouse condi- ditions. A lot depends upon avoiding ex- efficiency in the use of fuel will lead to must be capable of maintaining the desired
tions can be grown in a cool house. In many tremes and sudden changes. If the balance rapidly escalating bills. Heating a greenhouse temperature w i t h o u t running constantly. The
cases their growing seasons will be longer. It of the environment—heat, humidity and is expensive, and if the system used keeps section on heating (pages 18-23) shows how
is possible to raise a wider range of out-of- ventilation—is carefully watched, plants the temperature unnecessarily high, or burns to calculate the size of heating installation
season food crops and ornamentals given the thought tender may survive and go on to fuel inefficiently, the cost will be magnified. necessary. O n c e a large enough system has
minimum temperature of a cool house. flourish. A m o n g those worth experimenting Third, certain kinds of heating system, those been installed, thermostatic control will

Check draft-proofing, insulation Ventilate when possible and Increase watering, ventilate well on Pay attention to ventilation and Water freely, shade as necessary in Turn off and overhaul heating
(if fitted) and heating system. Set gradually increase watering. Day sunny days and maintain a more watering as temperatures increase. sunny weather and encourage a system. Ventilate freely, shade
thermostats to night minimum of length will increase. Maintain humid atmosphere. Be alert for and Keep heating switched on, setting more humid atmosphere. whenever necessary and damp
4.5°C/40°F. Water plants in flower, minimum temperature. combat insect pests such as aphids. thermostat for minimum night Sow cineraria, primula. Plant down and spray to raise humidity.
water others sparingly. Maintain a Sow bedding plants with long Sow sweet pepper, squash, half- temperature. chrysanthemums and move Water as required, twice a day if
dry atmosphere to discourage germination/growing periods, half- hardy annuals, tomato, bedding Sow cucumbers, squashes, outside. Pot on carnations, zonal necessary.
mildew. hardy annuals, sweet peas, begonia, plants, basil. pumpkins, dwarf French beans, pelargoniums, tuberous begonias, Sow calceolaria, Primula nialamides,
Sow canna, fuchsia, pelargonium. calceolaria, salvia, schizanthus, and Transplant rooted cuttings taken in runner beans for transplanting annuals raised from spring-sown zinnia, all for autumn and winter
Bring in bulbs for flowering as they germinate in a propagating case. winter. outdoors, primulas, half-hardy seed. Feed all plants in active flowering.
show growth. Continue to take chrysanthemum Repot orchids and other perennials annuals such as stocks and zinnias, growth. Take precautions against Feed tomato plants and all other
Take cuttings of winter-flowering cuttings. as necessary. and Campanula pyramidalis. insect pests. plants in growth. Pot on plants
chrysanthemums and carnations. Sow brassicas and onions for Begin to take softwood cuttings. Continue re-potting and potting on. Pinch out young fuchsias when raised from seed as necessary.
transplanting outdoors. Sow early Pot up tuberous begonias. Move bulbs which have flowered 4-5 in high. Plant out bedding plants into their
bunching turnips, carrots, parsnips, to a frame. Move over-wintering Remove cucumber laterals and all flowering positions in the open
beets, okra, tomatoes, cucumbers. pot plants outdoors into a male flowers. garden.
Plant tomato plants from middle sheltered position. Tie in tomato plants and pinch out Plunge azaleas, hydrangeas and
of the month. Transplant seedlings from seed side shoots. other pot plants which have
Begin re-potting of ferns and palms. sown earlier in the spring. Take finished flowering.
Bring in more bulbs for flowering. further softwood cuttings. Cut back shoots of regal
Dust tomato flowers to encourage pelargoniums.
pollination.
Move half-hardy plants into a
frame to harden off.
The year in a cool greenhouse 2
ensure that it only operates when the tern humidity by regular damping down and the sun heat is thus needed to raise the tem- be grown in a cool greenhouse. The plants
perature falls below the pre-set level. The installation of damp sand beds under benches. perature to unwanted levels. chosen, especially those illustrated in the
heater will raise the temperature, triggering While summer heat and winter cold have step-by-step sequences, are the most re-
the thermostat again and cutting off the to be countered by active management, the Growing plants warding for the relatively inexperienced and/
system. Thermostats must be placed away most difficult times of the year for the running The following pages deal with the cultivation or those which illustrate a key growing prin-
from drafts and cold spots, where they will of the cold greenhouse can be spring and of ornamentals, including bedding plants ciple. The information given can be adapted
give an artificial reading. autumn. During these seasons the sun has which are covered in detail, and food crops. to cover the cultivation of many other plants.
Balance While the main stress of cold green- power to quickly heat the greenhouse, while All the ornamentals and food crops covered There are other categories of plants of
house management is on maintaining the the nights are cool. Cold daytime tempera- in the preceding cold greenhouse section, interest which are less popular but still worth
winter minimum, thought must be given to tures can easily occur due to sudden weather such as annuals, tomatoes and salad crops, considering if greenhouse space is available.
the other components of greenhouse changes. This combination can be particularly can be added to the list. The difference comes For example, many shrubs can be grown in
management. Shading, ventilation and humi- trying in the late winter and early spring. Sun mainly in timing of sowing and cropping. containers under glass and brought into
dity control are all crucial, especially in heat is becoming more powerful, and the Tomatoes, for instance, can be planted from flower earlier than outside. Examples are
summer. Just as plants have a minimum effect of the sun combined with artificial mid-February onwards in a cool greenhouse, lilac, forsythia and hydrangea. Fruits such as
temperature for healthy growth, so they have heating can quickly raise the temperature, while in a cold house late April is the earliest citrus can be grown in tubs in cool green-
maximum levels of temperature which will often above the level required, unless ventila- possible date. Annuals will flower earlier in house conditions. Most citrus trees will
harm them. Problems caused by high air tion is promptly given. Under these con- the spring in a cool house than in a cold one. tolerate a winter m i n i m u m of 7°C/45°F,
temperatures are often magnified by failure ditions automatic ventilators (see pages 15- Lettuce, radish and other salad crops can be though the lime needs 10°C/50°F. Summer
to ensure adequate humidity. If there is not 16) show their worth. A cold house will not sown in late summer and autumn for autumn temperatures should be maintained at 13°-
enough water vapor in the atmosphere, suffer so much from this problem because it and winter cropping. 16°C/55 0 -61°F for successful cropping. Full
plants will transpire—give out water from does not have the reservoir of artificially Other plants Many more plants than those details of the cultivation of w a r m temperate
their leaves into the air—too quickly. Increase generated heat that a cool house has. More described in detail on the following pages can fruits are given in Fruit in this series.

Maintain a moist atmosphere and Continue summer shading, Reduce watering and damping Switch on the heating system and Maintain minimum winter Fit insulation to greenhouse sides if
attend to watering. Ventilate well watering and damping down down as temperatures drop. set the thermostat to maintain a temperature as October and possible and stop up all drafts.
and shade as required. Sow regime. Watch for cool nights Restart the heating system to minimum night temperature of ventilate sparingly. Further reduce Cover the house with burlap or
sapiglossis and make a repeat towards the end of the month as check it and switch on if necessary 4.5°C/40°F. Ventilate freely on watering of all except plants in mats in very severe weather.
sowing of Primula malacoides days shorten. towards the end of the month. warm days but exclude fog and flower. Protect tender plants with paper,
and calceolaria. Sow annuals for spring flowering, Check winter fuel supplies if damp. Reduce watering and Pot on annuals. Keep in good light polyethylene or burlap if severe
Take hydrangea cuttings. cyclamen, cineraria. necessary. Reduce shading. remove shading completely. and give minimum water. frost is forecast. Cut watering to
Stake plants, especially annuals Prick out calceolarias and other Sow more annuals for spring Pot up the last of the bulbs. Bring in the first batch of bulbs for the minimum.
growing in pots, and train climbers seedlings from earlier sowings. flowering. Feed cyclamen, cinerarias, primulas winter flowering. Ventilate a little when possible and
Pot on pelargoniums reared from Take cuttings of pelargoniums. Pot up remaining bulbs. and camellias. Prune shrubs. run a fan heater to circulate the
spring cuttings and plunge Pot on primulas, cinerarias. Bring in azaleas, camellias, If possible, remove all plants and Sow lettuce. atmosphere.
outdoors. Pot on carnations, and Plant bulbs for winter and spring chrysanthemums and other pot fumigate the house against fungal Bring in fuchsias, begonias and Bring in more bulbs.
repot freesias. flowering, such as freesias, tulip, plants that have spent the summer diseases. hydrangeas and store under the Box up seakale and witloof chicory
hyacinth, narcissi. in the open. Scatter pellets to combat slugs. staging. Keep almost dry. for forcing.
Feed chrysanthemums standing Pot on cyclamen, cinerarias and Cut down chrysanthemums after
outdoors and water well. primulas into final pots and move they have flowered and start to
Repair any structural damage to onto greenhouse shelves. take cuttings of soft growth.
the greenhouse and repaint if Take cuttings of bedding plants Keep cineraria, cyclamen, primulas
necessary. before they are discarded, and of and other plants required for
coleus, heliotropes and fuchsias. Christmas flowering in a warm part
of the house. Water them with
care, avoiding the foliage.
Clear debris, dead leaves and used
pots from the greenhouse. Clean
all pots, trays and propagating
equipment.
Bedding plants 1
The cool greenhouse is an ideal place for the artificial heat provided by the cool without the addition of sand. The larger important until after germination.
raising summer bedding plants. Using the greenhouse, development of seeds sown in seeds, such as those of zinnias—and small As soon as the seeds germinate (this may
greenhouse in this way shortens the pro- the first two months of the year is slow seeds that have been pelleted—are best take one to three weeks depending on
pagation period and, as long as plants are because of low winter light intensity. planted singly by hand. Cover sown seed temperature and the species) remove any
properly hardened off and precautions taken Seeds of bedding plants may be sown in with soil but be careful not to make this covering and put the containers in a well lit
against disease, ensures the production of flats or pans (dwarf pots). Fill the chosen covering layer too thick. Label the con- place but be careful that they do not risk
sturdy plants. The other advantages to the containers with a good seed-growing mix- tainer clearly then water in the seeds with a being scorched by strong sunlight. Water
gardener of raising his own plants from seed ture which should be damp. There is no need dilute mixture of Captan or a copper-based with dilute Captan to c o m b a t damping oil
compared with buying plants direct from the to avoid peat-based soils, with their low fungicide to help prevent damping off disease. and other seedling diseases. If possible
nursery are that he knows exactly what he is nutrient reserves, because the seeds will Use a rose on the watering can so that seeds maintain the temperature at 21*C/70*F to
growing and that there is less risk of plants germinate relatively rapidly in the frost-free are not dislodged from their planting promote speedy development. The seedling)
being damaged as they do not have to be environment of the greenhouse. Once the positions by the water. also need good ventilation and the green
transplanted from overcrowded seed flats. containers are full, press down the soil with house ventilators should be opened for at
the fingers or a presser board to within 1/4 in Germination least an hour a day except in very severe-
Seed sowing of the top, but be careful not to press too Even in a cool greenhouse, developing seeds, weather conditions.
One of the most critical aspects of raising hard as this will restrict the drainage and particularly those sown in mid-winter, will
bedding plants from seed in the greenhouse tend to encourage damping off diseases and benefit from extra warmth. This is best pro- Pricking out
is timing. As a general rule, the sequence of attack by sciarid flies. vided by a propagating case. W h e n using Seedlings should be pricked out as soon as
sowing is determined by the speed at which The best method of sowing seed depends such a case, place the seed containers in- they are large enough to handle. If left in
seeds germinate and by the growth rate of on the size of individual seeds. For small seeds side it and set the thermostat to 21°C/71°F. their original containers they will become
the developing seedlings. For this reason such as those of Begonia semperflorens, mix If a propagating case is not available, either overcrowded and their roots will become so
slow-growing species required for summer the seeds with fine dry sand in the seed packet take the seed containers indoors and put entangled that the gardener will be unable to
bedding are sown in February and March then sow them by broadcasting, keeping the them in a warm place or cover them with avoid damaging them when they are re-
and a monthly sowing plan adopted accord- hand close to the soil surface. Larger seeds a sheet of glass. A piece of newspaper may moved. Prick out seedlings into individual
ing to the scheme shown above. Even with can be broadcast in the same way, but be placed on top of the glass as light is not pots or flats filled with John Innes No. 1 or a
Growing bedding plants from seed
1 Fill a seed flat with seed-sowing soil. 2 Sow the seeds thinly. Small seeds can 3 Sieve soil over medium-sized or large 4 Water the seed flat w i t h a dilute mixture
Firm the soil with the fingertips or a be mixed with fine dry sand and broadcast seeds so that they are just covered. Do of Captan or other fungicide to combat
presser board to within 1/2 in of the top. onto the soil to make sowing easier. not cover small seeds. damping off and other diseases.
Bedding plants 2
similar potting soil, taking care to handle Propagation
then) by one leaf and between finger and While most bedding plants are raised from PEAT BLOCKS PLANTING O U T
thumb. Use a dibble to pry out the seed- seed, several important plants can be propa-
lings and to make a hole in the soil big gated by cuttings or division. Full details of
enough to accommodate each plant. If seed- these methods of propagation are given on
lings are pricked out into flats, allow at least pages 57-63.
11/2 in between them each way to prevent Cuttings can be taken in autumn when
overcrowding. Firm the soil round each the plants are lifted, or in spring from tubers
seedling with the dibble, label and give kept dormant over the winter. Geraniums are
another watering with dilute fungicide to one of many bedding plants that can be
guard against damping off. propagated by cuttings. Keep the cuttings at
Even in ideal conditions the seedlings will a minimum temperature of 4°C/40°F over
suffer some check to their growth after winter, and water sparingly. Pot on as neces- Larger seeds can be sown in peat blocks W h e n seedlings are ready to be planted
pricking out but careful handling and trans- sary into 4 or 5 in pots, harden off and plant formed from damp peat-based soil with out and have been hardened off in a frame
planting when the root system is small and out in the normal way. a blocking device, or in peat pots. Both or been placed outside during the day,
unbranched will help to reduce this to a have the advantage of being planted plant in the flowering positions. If possible,
minimum. After pricking out the temperature Overwintering with the young plant in the flowering remove both plants and soil, allowing
can be reduced to 18°C/65°F but good venti- Some bedding plants can be overwintered in position. The seedlings are therefore not the roots to be gently teased o u t and the
lation is still essential to healthy seedling a cool house for re-use the next season. Lift subject to the disturbance of pricking out. young plants to be inserted with an
development. W h e n seedlings are big enough the plants in autumn and pot or box up. Cut Sow 2 - 3 seeds in each block and water adequate rootball. Make planting holes
and when there is no chance of frost, seed- back the foliage by about one-half, water well. Provide the conditions described in with a trowel and water well after firming
lings should be hardened off in a cold frame very sparingly and ventilate freely to guard the caption sequence below. W h e n the in. Water well until the plants have be-
(see page 91) or by turning off the greenhouse against gray mold. Plenty of light is neces- seedlings have reached first true leaf come established. Pot-grown greenhouse
heating system and gradually increasing the sary to avoid the production of drawn, weak stage, thin to the strongest per block. perennials can be used as dot plants.
ventilation first by day and then at night. growth. Plant out as normal in spring.
5 Place the flat in a propagating case at 6 As soon as the first seedlings emerge, 7 Spray seedlings with Captan or another 8 Prick out seedlings into flats, boxes or
21°C/70°F, or in a warm place indoors if a place the flat in good light. Keep the dilute fungicide to combat damping off individual pots as soon as they are large
case is not available. temperature at 21°C/70°F. disease. Ensure that ventilation is adequate. enough to handle.
Fruits and vegetables 1
The cool greenhouse can be used to best not open the ventilators until the temperature Early strawberries
effect in growing food crops if it is used to reaches 24°C/75°F. As the flowers open,
cultivate not only tomatoes, cucumbers and carry out a daily pollination routine, trans-
the other vegetable fruits described on ferring pollen from flower to flower with a
pages 70-73 but also more tender vegetables small paint brush. During this pollination
such as okra. Melons and early strawberries period do not damp down the house as this
are also good subjects for the cool house and may prevent fruit from forming. To obtain
so, if space allows, are peaches and nec- fewer, but larger fruit, remove the smallest
tarines which often fail to do well in the open. flowers as soon as their petals have fallen off
and leave eight to ten fruits on each plant.
Early strawberries Once fruit begins to set, resume the
The cool house will enable the gardener to damping down routine and water the plants
pick crops of strawberries in March or April. very well in sunny weather. Continue feeding
Propagation In late June, peg down the until the fruits begin to turn pink in order to
runners of plants growing in the open garden improve fruit flavor.
into 3 in pots filled with John Innes No. 1
potting compost buried with their rims level Melons
with the soil surface. After four to six weeks, In the cool house, melons can be cultivated
when the new plants are well established, as described for the cold house on page 69
sever them from the parents and place the except that by maintaining a minimum
pots on well-drained soil or in an open cold springtime temperature of 21°C/70°C fruit
frame. Water them well and as plants grow will be produced much earlier. In the cool
pot them on into their final 6 in pots using house melon seed can be planted in February 1 Mid-December Bring rooted plants in 6 in 2 Two weeks later raise the temperature to
John Innes No. 2 or an equivalent peat-based and March to give earlier fruit in June and pots into the cool house. Make sure they 7°C/45°F. W h e n flower trusses appear raise
mix. Until September, liquid feed the plants July respectively. Remember to damp down are well spaced. Keep the temperature just it to 10°C/50°F. Ventilate and d a m p d o w n
once a week and water frequently. the house well except during pollination and above freezing. Liquid feed twice a week. when the temperature exceeds 21°C/70°F.
Leave the plants undisturbed until Novem- when the fruits start to ripen.
ber then bury the pots up to their rims in peat
or well-drained soil to prevent frost from Okra
reaching their roots. Ideally, this should be Also known as gumbo and ladies' fingers,
done in a cold frame but a sheltered corner okra are unusual vegetable fruits particu-
of the garden (not a frost pocket) will suffice larly good for cooking in curries and other
if necessary. If there is any risk of frost damage, oriental dishes. They are not hard to grow
close the frame or cover the plants with straw. but being tropical plants they need fairly
Greenhouse cultivation In mid-December high temperatures, particularly for germina-
take the pots into the greenhouse and place tion and plant raising.
them well apart on a sunny shelf to allow good Raising from seed Sow seed thinly in a seed
air circulation and maximum light. For a fort- flat filled with moist soil mix or sow them
night keep the temperature just above freez- singly in peat pots from February onwards.
ing then raise it to 7°C/45°F. Do not be Cover the seeds with a thin layer of mix,
tempted to turn the heating up any higher as water them in, then cover the pots or flats
this will create too much foliage at the with a sheet of glass and one of newspaper.
expense of fruiting capacity. When the flower Turn the glass once a day and maintain a
trusses appear in February, raise the minimum temperature of 18°-21 o C/65 o -70°F. The seeds
temperature to 10°C/50°F and ventilate the will take from one to three weeks to ger-
house a little during the daytime if the green- minate, depending on the temperature. As
house air temperature exceeds 21°C/70°F. soon as they are big enough to handle, prick
At this stage plants will benefit if the house out the seedlings into 3 in peat or plastic pots
is damped down once a week and if they are filled with John Innes No. 1 potting compost. 3 When the flowers open stop damping 4 When fruit has set resume d a m p i n g
given a high potash liquid feed twice a week. Greenhouse cultivation In early spring, plant d o w n and increase the temperature to d o w n . Support fruit trusses w i t h forked
W h e n the flowers are open, increase the out okra direct into the greenhouse border 13°C/55°F. Ventilate the house at 24°C/75°F. twigs inserted in the pots. Stop feeding
minimum temperature to 13°C/55°F but do soil or transplant them into 10 in pots of Pollinate the flowers daily with a brush. when fruit begins to color.
Fruits and vegetables 2
John Innes No. 2 compost. Whichever method placed with a preparation made from sods
is chosen, plants should be provided with of fibrous chalky loam stacked for six months
canes for support and placed 21-24 in apart then mixed with one part of rubble to every
in each direction. Throughout the growing ten parts of loam. A fortnight before planting
season, water plants well and when they are in spring, mix in 8oz of John Innes base
9-12 in high, pinch out the growing points to fertilizer to every 2 gal bucketful of soil.
encourage a bushy habit and a good suc- Care of plants A peach will need a minimum
cession of flowers and fruit. W a t c h out for temperature of 7°C/45°F from late winter
signs of whitefly and red spider mite. until fruit is formed. Only ventilate the house
Okra should be harvested when they are when the temperature rises above 18°C/65°F.
young and the seeds inside their pods still Until the flowers open, damp down the house
soft. Harvest between June and September. on sunny days and spray the foliage with
clean water daily. In early summer, mulch
Peaches plants well with rotted manure or garden
In a large greenhouse, especially a lean-to, compost and apply a liquid tomato feed
it is possible to grow a fan-trained peach or every 10 days from bud burst to the start of
nectarine. Both these fruits will crop more fruit ripening.
reliably in the cool house than in the garden. W h e n the flowers open hand pollinate
The best sort of peach to choose for a cool them with a small paint brush and when
house is the common plum rootstock St fruitlets form thin them to about two per
Julien A which is semi-dwarfing and so more cluster when they are about 1/2 in long. Thin
manageable. again at the 1 in stage to leave fruits evenly
Soil The border soil of the greenhouse can be spaced 8-10 in apart. 1 March Transplant young plants raised in 2 Pinch out the growing points to
used but should be enriched with plenty of Care after harvesting After the fruits have heat direct into greenhouse soil or transfer encourage bushy growth and a good
organic matter before a peach is planted. been picked, open the ventilators and leave them to 10 in pots. Space plants 21-24 in succession of fruits when plants are 9-12 in
Alternatively, the border soil may be re- them open until spring. apart and provide canes for support. tall. Guard against pests.
FAN-TRAINED PEACH
If space allows a fan-trained peach may be organic matter and provide wires 6 in
grown against the back wall of a lean-to . apart for support. For early fruiting main-
greenhouse or under the roof of a double tain a minimum temperature of 7°C/45°F
or single-span cool house. Ideally an area from late winter until fruits are formed and 3 Through the growing period water plants 4 June onwards Cut y o u n g pods as soon as
of 15 ft x 10 ft is needed. Plant the tree ventilate only when the temperature regularly. If necessary spray against red they are ready, using sharp scissors, to give
direct into greenhouse soil enriched with exceeds 18°C/65°F. spider mite using malathion or a similar a long cropping period. Remember that old
low-persistence pesticide. pods are stringy and unpalatable.
The year in a warm greenhouse 1
In theory, raising the greenhouse temperature considered to be raising food crops such as cool regime. Ventilators will not need open- Electric fan heaters are also useful back ups
to bring it into the warm category—minimum tomato, melon and lettuce, with a few sub- ing until the temperature reaches 21-24"C/ for solid fuel systems. Fan heaters also have
night temperature 13°C/55°F—greatly in- tropical foliage plants to add interest, a cool 70-75°F. If, on days of cool winds, hot sun the beneficial effect of circulating air, Pests
creases the range of plants that can be house will suffice, with the foliage plants and passing cloud banks the temperature and diseases, especially fungal diseases ,and
grown. However, two important factors must kept in a large propagating case heated to briefly rises to 38°C/100°F, there need be no mildew, can be a problem all the year round
be set against this benefit. First, the cost of warm greenhouse levels. Similarly if a large cause for alarm. Shading, however, is vital in a warm greenhouse. A buoyant atmo-
heating a greenhouse to warm level is very number of seeds are to be raised in the early especially as many of the plants grown come sphere, such as that produced by a fan
high. Second, the range of plants easily spring, a propagating case of soil-heated from forest or jungle environments where heater, helps to prevent such troubles.
available to gardeners and suitable for warm bench bed will be more economical. shade is dense and light intensity low.
greenhouse conditions is relatively small. A medium sized greenhouse can also be Foliage plants
The character of a well-stocked warm fitted with a partition and used as a combined Heating Many of the foliage plants cultivated in warm
greenhouse is quite different from that of cool and warm house. The inner section can The heating system will need careful design greenhouses are widely grown as house
cold and warm houses. Many of the plants then be double-glazed and fitted with a high- to ensure that it is capable of maintaining the plants. Some houses plants require a higher
are grown for their foliage, which is often powered heating system, while the outer minimum temperature necessary. See pages minimum temperature than even a warm
large and handsomely patterned. A warm part of the house is run as a cool house. This 2 0 - 2 1 . Whichever fuel is chosen for the main greenhouse provides, but most will thrive in
greenhouse full of foliage plants, ferns and allows plants to be moved from one to heating system, failures can occur. Electricity the better light and more even environment
orchids has a lush, tropical feeling. The another when they are needed for flowering is subject to power cuts, which can affect of a greenhouse. The many books on house
gardener's response to this markedly different or forcing. Bulbs can be placed in the cool gas and oil systems as well as electric ones plants describe the growing conditions
atmosphere is a matter of taste, but the section after flowering, and plants raised by cutting power to pumps and igniters. needed. Bear in mind that while winter
contrast between a warm house, which from seed in the warm house can be moved Solid fuel and oil systems may be forced out conditions in a warm greenhouse may be
reproduces a different climate, and the cool into the cool section as the first stage in of action by fuel supply problems. A back-up ideal for some house plants, they may find
house, which moderates an existing one, hardening off. system which uses another fuel is vital, for if summer temperatures there t o o hot. Shading
must be appreciated. The routine management of a warm the winter night temperature is allowed to must be considered an essential when
Before deciding on a warm greenhouse, greenhouse follows m u c h the same pattern fall many valuable plants may be lost. A growing foliage plants. A m o n g foliage plants
the gardener should consider the plants to be as any other heated house. In general, kerosene heater, kept well maintained and suitable for warm greenhouse conditions are:
grown. If the main use for a greenhouse is ventilation problems are fewer than under a with a full fuel tank, is a good insurance. Aphelandra squarrosa (zebra plant). Deep

Restrict watering to those plants Water more freely and ventilate in Ventilate freely on warm days and Ventilate for most of the day, but Increase watering, damping down Turn off and overhaul the heating
in flower or active growth. sunny weather. maintain a more humid beware of night frosts, which can and shading as temperatures rise. system. Use a fan or kerosene
Keep humidity low and ventilate Keep up cold weather precautions atmosphere. Shade susceptible still be sharp. Water freely, Continue feeding and pest and heater if unseasonal weather
only around noon, maintain a such as insulation and draft plants from bright sun. Increase increase humidity by damping disease control. occurs. Ventilate freely and shade
buoyant atmosphere. proofing. humidity by syringing, spraying and down and syringing, and shade Continue to sow primula and sow the house. Water twice a day if
Sow begonia, gloxiana, Sow half-hardy annuals and begin damping down, keeping plants in when necessary. Where most cineraria for winter flowering. Sow necessary. Maintain humidity by
strepocarpus in heat, also those sowing bedding plants. Sow celery flower dry. Begin feeding plants in plants require shade permanent Begonia semperflorens for winter damping down, spraying and
seeds listed under Cold and Cool and brassicas for transplanting into active growth and those due for summer shading can be applied flowering. syringing frequently.
greenhouses for sowing in a the open garden. Sow tuberous spring flowering. this month. Continue feeding and Take cuttings of most plants, Continue to sow primula,
propagator. begonia seeds in a propagating Sow tomato, cucumber, pepper, be on the alert for increasing pest especially euphorbia, azalea, calceolaria, cineraria, and zinnia
Bring in bulbs for forcing. Force case. eggplant, melon stocks, aster, and disease problems. Fumigate heaths, and begonia. Pot on for early autumn flowering in pots.
early-flowering azaleas and other Take cuttings of chrysanthemum, zinnia, coleus. Prick off seedlings the greenhouse against pests if rooted cuttings and prick on Sow gloxiana and begonia for
flowering shrubs. Force seakale, fuchsia, salvia and perpetual - grown from previous month's possible. seedlings. Harden off seedlings as flowering the following year.
witloof chicory and rhubarb boxed carnations. sowing. Take softwood cuttings of necessary in a frame. Take cuttings of fuchsia, hydrangea,
up in the autumn. Box up dahlia tubers in peat to Take cuttings of dahlia, fuchsia, camellia, fuchsia, osmanthus and Move remaining potted bulbs into tuberous begonia, rockea and other
Take softwood cuttings of begonia promote growth for cuttings next hydrangea, solanum, salvia. other suitable plants. the open garden or frame for succulents.
and geranium. month. Continue re-potting. Divide ferns Repot azaleas, camellias and other plunging. Pot chrysanthemums into flowering
Root succulents, coleus, Continue re-potting and pot up and cannas if necessary. shrubs after they have finished Pot on gloxiana, celosia, begonia. pots. Pot on as necessary young
philodendron, tradescantia and rooted cuttings. Stop decorative chrysanthemums flowering. Trim plants into shape Pot on chrysanthemums and stand plants grown from seeds and
other plants which develop aerial Bring more bulbs and shrubs in for and perpetual carnations at the same time. Pot on fuchsia, the pots outdoors in full sun. cuttings.
roots. flowering. propagated from cuttings taken petunia and zonal pelargonium. Hand-pollinate melons.
Check perennials and re-pot those Bring in batches of primula, and earlier in the year. Re-pot orchids. Feed tuberous begonias.
that are getting pot-bound. cineraria. Move orchids and camellias into Move seedlings of half-hardy
Clear out unwanted, sickly or Force lily of the valley. shady areas of the greenhouse. annuals and bedding plants to a
overcrowded plants. Bring in begonia tubers, place in frame to harden off before planting
Prepare pots, flats and benches flats of peat and start into growth. out. Move winter-flowering bulbs
for seed sowing and propagation. Pot up as leaves appear. to a frame and plunge.
The year in a warm greenhouse 2
green, broadly white-veined leaves with as foliage plants, both having dark green succeeding pages. Annuals and the other light shade and moderate humidity. For
spikes of yellow bracts and flowers. 2 - 3 f t . leaves felted with purple hairs. C. aurantiaca flowering plants listed in the cool greenhouse propagation, see pages 6 0 - 6 1 .
( alathea spp. Many plants in this genus are is shrubby, C. sarmentosa has a trailing habit. section can be grown in a warm house. Streptocarpus (cape primrose). S. rex/7 and its
grown as house plants. They need a minimum Iresine spp. Several members of this genus Coleus Thyrsoideus. This sub-shrub carries hybrids have dark wrinkled leaves and clusters
temperature of 16"C/60"F. C. Makoyana (pea- are grown as short-term foliage plants in pots. clusters of blue flowers in winter. It is best of funnel-shaped flowers in a variety of
cock plant) is one of the most striking, with The beefsteak plant (/. herbstil) has deep red- raised annually from cuttings in spring. 3 ft. colors. Shade tolerant.
oval leaves yellow-green above with a bold purple oval leaves on red stems. Columnea. These trailing plants are very well
patterning of large and small dark green ovals. Maranta leuconeura (prayer plant). This low- suited to hanging baskets. C. glorosa has Shrubs and climbers
The same pattern is reproduced in red on the growing spreading plant can be used at the pendant chains of small reddish leaves and The following species w h i c h survive at a
undersides of the leaves. 3 ft. front of a bench bed. Species have varied- tubular red flowers in winter and spring. winter minimum of 13°C/55°F.
Cyperus altemifolius (umbrella grass). Not colored leaves. Crossandra infundiluliformis. A shrubby peren- Acalphya hispada. This shrub has large oval
botanically a grass, this plant provides a Peperomia spp. Plants from this genus grown nial, this plant carries fan-shaped pink to red leaves and crimson tassel like flower clusters.
valuable contrast to broad-leaved plants. It for their foliage have shrubby, trailing and flowers for much of the year. The foliage is It will grow to 6 ft, but can be kept to half this
requires plenty of moisture. 2 - 4 f t . climbing habits. Many are epithytes, and all attractive. 2 - 3 ft. height by pruning.
Dieffenbachia (dumb cane). Species include need a free-draining soil mix. lusticia spp. Several are grown as annuals Antigonon leptopus (coral vine). Fast-growing
D. amoena, with white spotted leaves and Pilea. Two species are grown as foliage plants. from spring cuttings. /. carnea has pink to and needing plenty of space, this twining
D. picta with smaller, deep green ivory P. cadierei is a bushy plant with elliptic leaves purple tongue-like flowers in autumn. It can climber has narrow leaves and small bright
flushed leaves. The variety D. p. 'Rudolph patterned with silvery blotches. P. microphylla reach 4 - 6 ft if regularly potted on. J.. rizzenii pink flowers in clusters. 10 ft or more.
Roehrs' has longer, almost entirely yellow has sprays of small leaves. The inconspicuous has an arching habit and clusters of scarlet Coffea arabica 'Nana' (dwarf coffee). The
leaves with whitish blotches and green flowers shed pollen explosively, hence the and yellow flowers for much of the year. coffee tree has shiny dark green leaves,
mid-rib and leaf margins. All thrive best at vernacular name of artillery plant. Rhoeo spathaca (boat lily). Small white flowers fragrant white flowers and red berry-like
above 16°C/60°F. 3 ft or more. are carried on boat-shaped bracts in the leaf fruits. 3 - 6 ft.
Fittonia verschaffelti. This trailing plant has Flowering plants axils. Becomes clump-forming with age. 1ft. Dipladenia spendens. A vigorous twining
olive-green leaves with an elaborate net- Plants listed below are perennials. Other Saintpaulia ionantha (African violet). Easy to climber with large pink flowers. Tuberous-
work of red veins. flowering plants appear in the bulbs list, and propagate, and compact, this plant has rooted, it should be cut back hard each
Gynura (velvet plant). Two species are grown orchids and begonias are discussed on the become very popular. Maintain 16°C/60°F, winter. 10 ft.

Ventilate night and day according Prepare heating system for autumn Remove permanent shading and Reduce watering and cut humidity. Cut ventilation to the minimum, Maintain minimum temperatures,
to temperature. Maintain a moist operation. Order fuel if necessary. start the main heating system, Continue to ventilate and provide opening the house only in the ventilate carefully and water
atmosphere and keep all plants Use a fan or kerosene heater to setting the thermostat to maintain heat as necessary. Do not allow air middle of the day. Water sparingly sparingly. Only those plants in
well watered. Shade as necessary. maintain night temperature in the necessary minimum night to become stagnant through and reduce humidity. Keep bloom or about to bloom will need
If necessary, repaint the greenhouse unseasonal weather. Continue temperature. Continue to water inadequate ventilation, or mildew temperature above the minimum much water. Cure drafts and
interior, choosing a spell of settled watering, shading and pest and and damp down freely and may occur. Wash down the glass, but not too warm. insulate wherever possible.
weather for the task and moving disease control. ventilate when necessary. inside and out, to permit Re-pot lilies. Bring in early bulbs Bring in more bulbs for forcing. Cut
the plants outside or into a frame. Sow more annuals for spring Temperatures may range from maximum light penetration during from the frame. back chrysanthemums as they
Maintain the pest control flowering. Sow cyclamen. very warm to freezing, so control winter. Bring primulas and calceolaria in finish flowering, and place the
program. Look out for and combat Take cuttings of half-hardy ventilation carefully. Pot up tulips and further batches from the frame or cool house for stools in a frame. Bring in azaleas,
fungal diseases. bedding plants such as geranium, Pot up more bulbs for winter of other bulbs for winter and early flowering. deutzia, primula, cineraria and
Continue to sow primula, also take softwood cuttings such flowering. Place cyclamen, spring flowering. Bring in remaining Lift and store begonia tubers. cyclamen for winter flowering.
cineraria, calceolaria, also first as coleus, begonia, tradescantia, cineraria and primula into chrysanthemums. Box up seakale, witloof chicory and Force seakale and witloof chicory.
batches of annuals for winter and regal and fancy pelargoniums. flowering pots. Re-pot all plants that have outgrown rhubarb for forcing.
spring flowering. Feed and water chrysanthemums Bring into the greenhouse azaleas, their pots during the summer.
Take cuttings of hydrangeas and placed outdoors. Tie them in to camellias and other perennials Bring in any perennial bedding
other plants not propagated in stakes to prevent wind damage. which have spent the summer in plants and tub or pot fruit trees
June. Pot up first batch of bulbs for the open garden. Bring in and shrubs needing winter
Re-pot freesias and pot on cuttings winter flowering. Pot on cineraria chrysanthemums for autumn protection.
and seedlings planted earlier in the and primula grown from seed. flowering. Plant climbers and fruit trees and
year as necessary. Pot on perpetual Spray and wipe down the leaves of bushes. Feed cyclamen, camellia,
carnations and place them in an foliage plants. cineraria and primula.
open frame. Prune woody climbers. Pinch out
Move remaining winter-flowering the flower buds on fibrous begonias
shrubs to a frame or outdoor to encourage winter flowering.
plunge bed.
Using frames 1
A frame is a versatile piece of equipment placed round the walls. Whichever heating Growing early carrots in a heated frame
which can be used as an extension <>l the system is chosen (see also pages 18-23) it
greenhouse or on its own. A frame is parti- should always include an accurate thermo-
cularly useful for a gardener without a green- stat to aid careful regulation of the growing
house, especially if it can be heated, for given conditions within the frame.
the restrictions in size, a heated frame can be Insulation To help conserve the heat built up
used for most of the plants that can be grown in a frame during the day, the frame lights can
in a greenhouse. Both heated and unheated be covered on cold nights with burlap sack-
frames can be used for raising new plants, ing or a roll of old carpet. Place blocks of
including early vegetables; for extending the w o o d carefully on top of the sacking or carpet
growing season; for hardening off green- to prevent it from blowing away. Alter-
house-grown plants before they are planted natively, buy a special sheet with eyelet
out in the garden; for overwintering plants holes and tie it to wooden pegs placed in the
such as chrysanthemums and for plunging soil. The sides of the frame can also be
potted bulbs that will later be taken indoors insulated by lining them with bales of straw 1 February Dig garden soil in the frame. 2 Rake in 2 - 3 oz of general fertilizer then
to bloom. The soil, mix or other growing encased in chicken wire. Place heating cables in the frame and cover water well. Close the frame.
medium placed in the frame will depend on them w i t h 6 in of good garden soil.
the exact use to which the frame is put. Ventilation
The main shapes and sizes of frames are Plants grown in heated and cold frames need
described in detail on page 7. The frame good ventilation to encourage free air circu-
should be deep enough to accommodate the lation. Poor ventilation increases air humidity
plants to be grown in it. within the frame and encourages the growth
of disease-causing organisms. Make sure that
Siting the lights of the frame can be opened at
A frame can be placed abutting a greenhouse several different levels and that they can
or on its own. If one wall of the frame is easily be removed altogether. For ventilation
placed against the greenhouse wall the frame the lights may be propped open with a block
will benefit from improved insulation and re- of w o o d , or a brick, or pushed back entirely
duced heat loss. Another advantage is that off the frame and placed at an angle over the
the heating system of the greenhouse can frame w i t h one end on the ground, as long
usually be extended to serve the frame. Place as they will not blow away. In very windy
a frame that is to be used on its o w n in an weather secure the lights with cord wound 3 A week later Sow seed in drills 4 in apart 4 March As seedlings develop t h i n (if
open, sunny, easily accessible position that round cleats screwed to the frame wall, or or broadcast at 1/12 oz per square yard. Set necessary) to 1—11/2 in apart. Remove all
affords plenty of light and some shelter from by hooks and eyes. thermostat to 18°C/65°F. Keep frame shut. thinnings. Water to firm. Replace lights.
high winds. Never place a frame in a corner
of the garden known to be a frost pocket. The Watering
general rules for siting frames and green- To water the plants in a frame the lights can
houses are further explained on pages 12-13. simply be lifted or removed. Always water
plants w i t h a rose fitted to the watering can
Heating or hose so that soil is not washed away from
A cold frame, that is a frame with no form of around plant roots. Semi-automatic watering
heating, is less useful than a heated frame with a perforated hose or capillary watering
which will allow a wider range of plants to be as used in the greenhouse (see pages 24-26)
grown. In a heated frame, early vegetables are also effective and time-saving. In the
will be ready for cropping sooner and there capillary system, water is supplied via a trickle
is less chance of tender plants failing to sur- irrigation line which ensures a slow, steady
vive the winter. A heating system for a frame water supply to the growing medium in the
works by heating the soil and/or the air. Soil frame. W h e n the frame is not in use and in the
heating can be provided by electric cables or, summer, remove the lights so that the soil can
if the frame is abutting a heated greenhouse, get a good natural watering from the rain. 5 As weather warms open lights on sunny 6 April Remove lights completely when all
by hot water pipes. The air in a frame can be This will also help to prevent a damaging days but close them at night. Plants will chance of frost is past. Store lights in a
heated by electric cables or hot water tubes build-up of mineral salts in the soil. now need more water. safe place. Harvest carrots as needed.
Using frames 2
Light and shading drainage or, if a capillary watering system is on a perforated polyethylene sheet placed in tains heat better and is cooled less by the
To ensure maximum entry of light, keep frame used, on a 2 in layer of coarse sand placed on the frame. If necessary, make provision for wind. Vegetables sown in a cold frame will
lights clean at all times and renovate and a thick sheet of polyethylene. Note that seeds any particular needs of the crop to be grown still crop earlier than those sown outdoors
clean them in summer. As in the greenhouse, planted in pots or boxes will need more care —lettuces for example do best in humus-rich with no protection. A m o n g the best crops for
plants in a frame risk being scorched and in watering as they dry out more quickly than soil while carrots prefer soil that has not been the cold frame are cucumbers, zucchinis,
badly damaged by hot sun. To prevent this, those planted direct into the soil. Seedlings of freshly manured. melons, smaller squashes and o u t d o o r tom
apply a shading c o m p o u n d to the inside of tender or half-hardy plants raised in a heated Care of seedlings Freshly sown seed of most atoes. Cucumber and similar seeds are best
the frame lights as necessary, or place a sheet frame will also need hardening off before vegetable crops will germinate best at a tem- pre-germinated at a temperature of 21°C
of muslin or small mesh plastic netting over they are planted out into the garden. perature of 18°C/65°F so this is the ideal 70°F before being planted in the cold frame
the frame on hot, sunny days. The covering thermostat setting for seed planted in late in early May. Ventilate the frame as necessary
can be rolled back in cloudy weather. Early crops in a heated frame winter or early spring. On cold nights, insu- during the day and close it d o w n at night
Carrots, radishes, lettuces, beets and spring late the frame with burlap or similar material. until plants are established then remove the
Raising seed onions are among the many vegetables that The frame should be ventilated during the lights in June.
Seed of all kinds can be sown in a heated or can be grown in a heated frame for early day as long as the weather is not very cold or For outdoor tomatoes, raise seeds indoors
unheated frame in pots, boxes or flats or cropping and for eating when young and windy. In bad weather ensure maximum and plant t h e m out in the cold frame in May
directly into prepared soil. Turn on the heat- tender. Months of planting for heated frames entry of light by washing all debris off the or early June. Ventilate the frame as neces-
ing system, if there is one, for a day or t w o are shown in the list above. lights regularly. As the weather warms the sary but do not remove the lights completely
before sowing to warm the soil. Seeds of Soil Most early crops can be sown in the lights can be opened wider during the day until the plants are well established, by
hardy plants can be sown in a heated frame frame direct into good well-dug garden soil and closed at night. Once all risk of frost is which time they will have probably outgrown
as early as February, seeds of tender plants enriched w i t h well-rotted manure, compost past and plants are well established, the the height of the frame. The lights can be
from late February to March. For an un- or peat, plus 2 - 3 oz of a general well-balanced lights can be removed altogether, cleaned replaced at the end of the season to help
heated frame, add on another month to six fertilizer per square yard. If the garden top and stored and the heating system turned off. ripen the last fruits and c o m b a t frost.
weeks in each case, and more if the spring soil is very stony or shallow, it may be prefer-
is a cold one. Seedlings in pots or boxes are able to replace the top 1-11/2 ft with new Crops in a cold frame Cuttings
best placed in the frame on a 3 in layer of good-quality top soil or to replace the soil For vegetables, a cold frame provides similar Cuttings of all types can be g r o w n in a frame.
gravel or weathered ashes to allow good completely with good sterilized soil placed protection to cloches (see page 94) but re- Use a heated frame for cuttings of tender
Hardening off in an unheated frame
1 Spring As air temperature rises, place 2 During first week (weather permitting) 3 During second week leave lights open a 4 In third week remove plants f r o m the
boxes or pots of greenhouse-reared leave lights half open during the day for little at night. Towards end of week remove frame and plant in their permanent
seedlings or cuttings in the frame. ventilation but close down each night. lights completely except in windy weather. positions in the garden.
Using frames 3
Overwintering and storage The plunge bed
A frame can act as a useful protected storage A plunge bed is a bed of damp sand, peat or a OVERWINTERING
site for plants during the winter and, at the mixture of gravel and weathered coal ashes
Softwood shrub cuttings can be planted in a same time, save valuable space in the green- 1ft deep into which pots are buried or
cold frame in June, semi-hard ones in July house. A heated frame will be needed for plunged up to their rims. A plunge bed in a
and August. See pages 57-59 for details. tender plants such as pelargoniums and cold frame is useful for accommodating
fuchsias which should be placed in the frame plants throughout the year. From spring on-
Hardening off in September. In the same month, freesias wards, as alpines finish flowering in the alpine
Many tender or half-hardy plants raised in the can be potted up and placed in a heated house, transfer them to the plunge bed.
greenhouse need to be put through a "tough- frame. O u t d o o r chrysanthemums can be Plunge the pots up to their rims and keep the
ening-up" process called hardening off before overwintered in an unheated frame after they bed damp but never let it become dry or
they are planted out into the garden. A cold have been cut back and boxed in a pro- waterlogged. The cool moist environment of
frame is ideal for this purpose. In spring, when prietary potting mix. The frame should be well the plunge bed will produce good strong
there is no risk of tender or half-hardy plants ventilated except in very severe weather to growth. Similarly, pot-grown greenhouse Heated and unheated frames are very use-
being exposed to frost once they are in their help prevent diseases such as botrytis, which plants can be plunged in summer, which will ful for storing and protecting flowering
permanent positions in the garden, take pots are encouraged by stagnant air. prevent them from drying out too quickly. plants in winter, so freeing valuable green-
or boxes of young plants from the greenhouse Storage A cold frame can be employed to During the summer there is no need to place house space. Use a heated frame for
and place them in the frame. For one week store dormant bulbs and tubers that are the lights on the frame. tender plants such as pelargoniums. Lift
leave the lights open during the day (as long susceptible to frost damage. After lifting Bulb forcing In winter, use the plunge bed for plants from the garden in a u t u m n , cut
as the weather is not cold or windy) but close dahlia tubers, for example, pack them in forcing bulbs. Plant bulbs in pots, plunge them t h e m back and plant in boxes before
them at night. During the second week, leave boxes of dry peat before storing them in a and cover the pots with a 3 in layer of peat. placing t h e m in the frame. Similarly, make
the lights open a little at night. Towards the heated frame. Store bulbs in a cold frame Place the lights over the frame, leaving them chrysanthemum "stools" by cutting back
end of the second week open the frame as loosely packed in wooden boxes with plenty open a little for ventilation. After eight weeks plants to within 4 - 6 in of the ground
wide as possible at night. In the third week of room for air to circulate between them. the bulbs will have formed good root systems before boxing t h e m up and placing them
the plants can be planted in their permanent M a k e sure the frame is well ventilated but and can be taken indoors in succession for in an unheated frame. Ventilate well..
positions in the garden. guard against damp which can cause rot. flowering.
Plunging bulbs in an unhealed frame
1 October Fill frame with a 1 ft layer of sand, 2 Plant hyacinth bulbs in pots then plunge 3 Place lights over frame to protect pots 4 After eight weeks Remove pots from
peat or a mixture of gravel and weathered up to their rims in the frame. Cover with from heavy winter rainfall. Keep the frame frame and take indoors in sequence for
coal ashes. Water and allow to settle. a 3 in layer of peat to exclude light. well ventilated. flowering.
Using cloches
Cloches provide plants with virtually the same over. Any cloches likely to be overturned by protected according to its specific needs and
protection as cold frames, except that they strong winds should have fittings to anchor make sure that the same crop is not grown STORING CLOCHES
retain heat rather less well and that the air them to the ground or should be secured in the same soil t w o years running. Before
inside them is cooled more quickly by the with string tied to pegs placed in the ground. sowing seed or planting out seedlings raised
wind. The advantage of cloches is that they Leave plenty of room between rows of in a greenhouse or heated frame, put the
are more mobile and versatile to use. Cloches cloches for easy access and watering. cloches in position and leave them for two
can be employed in many ways—to warm to three weeks to dry and warm the soil. A
the soil before seeds are sown; for raising Ventilation dressing of balanced fertilizer can be raked in
seedlings, especially half-hardy annual bed- Ventilation is essential to prevent the build- before cloches are positioned.
ding plants and vegetables to extend the up of stagnant, over-moist airthat encourages
growing season at each end of the year; to disease. If single cloches are placed in rows, Watering
protect individual plants, particularly alpines, always leave a small gap between each one Cloches need only be removed for watering
from cold and wet and to save blooms from if the cloches have no built-in ventilation if they are covering small seedlings which
splashing and spoiling by m u d ; to provide system such as adjustable top or sides. In the need a very even sprinkling of water. Other-
shelter from cold and wind and to ripen off case of a polyethylene tunnel sides can be wise, water can be applied to cloches from
onions and similar crops in poor weather. lifted and supported with a pot or wooden overhead with a watering can or hose if there
Cloches can also be used to spread the season block. The gaps between the cloches can be is insufficient rain. The water runs down the
of cut flowers. Rows of gladioli, for example, increased if necessary to let in more air, but sides of the cloches and is absorbed into the
tend to flower at the same time, but if half is to avoid too much draft, and consequent soil, reaching the roots of the plants which
cloched, the cutting period is lengthened. heat loss, close the ends with purchased grow naturally towards sources of food and
cloche ends or with a sheet of glass or thick water. For long rows of cloches it is also
Using cloches plastic held in place with a wooden stake. possible to supply water via a sprinkler or Store cloches not in use by stacking them
Cloches should be placed in an open position irrigation tubing placed between the rows. on their ends in a sheltered corner of the
away from the shade of trees. Never put them Soil preparation On light soil make a shallow channel on the garden where they will not get broken or
in a very windy place where they will cool Before placing cloches in position, prepare outside of each cloche in which water can blown over by strong winds.
quickly and risk being damaged or blown the soil for the plants or crop that is to be easily collect and drain into the soil.
Year-round uses for cloches
1 January Place cloches over soil prepared 2 Early spring Use cloches to protect newly 3 Autumn In rainy weather place harvested 4 Winter Single cloches can be put over
for seed sowing. Leave for 2 - 3 weeks to dry sown seed and seedlings. Close cloche ends onions under cloches to dry out before alpines such as cushion plants susceptible
and warm soil. Do not close cloche ends. but ventilate well according to type. storage. Ventilate well. Leave ends open. to rotting in w e t soil.
Growing greenhouse seedless cucumbers
in soil and in soilless media
Dr. A. P. Papadopoulos Research Centre Harrow, Ontario
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Publication 1902/E

CONTENTS
Introduction.
The cucumber plant
Origin
Botanical taxonomy
Plant growth habit
The shoot
The root
The flower
The fruit (seeded vs nonseeded)
Seed germination
Plant improvement
Environmental requirements
Temperature
Light
Relative humidity
Carbon dioxide
Air movement
Nutritional needs
Soil plant relationships
Soil as a growth medium
Soil structure and texture
Soil reaction (pH)
Cation-exchange capacity of the soil
Nutrient requirements and effects
Macronutrients
Micronutrients
Nonessential elements
General cultural practices
Crop scheduling
Cultivar selection
Plant propagation
Propagation schedules
Seed sowing and seedling establishment
Soil and soilless mixes
Rock-wool multiblocks
Environment control for seedlings
Seedling transfer (transplanting)
Artificial light
Temperature control
Carbon dioxide enrichment
Grafting
Plant spacing
1
Pruning and training
General principles
Pruning systems
Training systems
Choosing a training and pruning system
Fruit thinning
Harvesting and storage
Conventional cropping in soil
Type of soil
Drainage
Soil pasteurization
Flooding and leaching
Organic matter
Control of pH
Preplant fertilizer application
Cultivating
Watering (soil)
Scheduling the applications of fertilizer
Mulching
Cropping in soil with drip irrigation
Cropping in peat and other organic media
The trough system
Peat bags
Watering (peat)
Feeding
Recycling
The Harrow peat-bag system
Sawdust
Straw bales
Cropping in rock wool and other inert media
Rock wool
Perlite
Vermiculite
Oasis and other synthetics
Expanded clay
Sand and gravel
Nutrient film technique and other hydroponic systems
Acknowledgment
I thank Dr. W.R. Jarvis for his critical review of this
publication.
SECTION 1
Introduction.
Almost all cucumbers grown now in greenhouses are the long, seedless type (English or European),
referred to in this booklet as seedless cucumbers. The seeded-type cucumbers (regular or American),
referred to in this booklet as regular cucumbers, were popular until the mid 1970s. The regular cucumbers
have disappeared from the market except for those from field production (mostly as imports). Seedless
cucumbers are the second most- important greenhouse vegetable crop in Canada not far behind tomatoes.
Cucumbers are grown mainly in spring and fall, but the plants' fast growth and the short time required from
seeding to harvest provide great flexibility in crop planning. The spring crop has always been the most
2
important because of both the high prices in winter and early spring and the long season of production. This
crop is normally seeded in December, set in the greenhouse the 1st week of January, and harvested from
mid February to July; some plantings extended into the fall. When circumstances allow (e.g., artificial
lighting for transplant raising, modern greenhouse, skilled operator), the spring crop is started even earlier
to capture the lucrative winter market. However, poor light conditions during the winter months make the
early spring crop more difficult to grow. The spring crop is also a riskier business venture, because of the
high production inputs (i.e., energy and labor costs). For the grower choosing between cucumbers and
tomatoes, the decision to grow spring cucumbers is a tough one, because this crop must compete with the
equally important spring crop of tomatoes. The choice in the fall is easier, because the season is much
shorter, the anticipated yield correspondingly low, and the prices are usually depressed until late in the
season. Their quick growth in relation to the time available makes cucumbers a good candidate for a fall
crop. Such a crop is normally seeded in July, set in the greenhouse during the 1st
week of August, and harvested from September to December. The recent rise of sweet peppers as a serious
contender makes choosing between cucumbers and tomatoes as a greenhouse crop even more difficult.
The cucumber plant
Origin
Botanical taxonomy
Plant growth habit
The shoot
The root
The flower
Seed germination
Plant improvement
Origin
The cucumber most likely originated in India (south foot of the Himalayas), or possibly Burma, where the
plant is extremely variable both vegetatively and in fruit characters. It has been in cultivation for at least
3000 years. From India the plant spread quickly to China, and it was reportedly much appreciated by the
ancient Greeks and Romans.
Botanical taxonomy
The cucumber ( Cucumis sativus L.) belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family, one of the more important plant
families. The Cucurbitaceae consists of 90 genera and 750 species. The Cucurbitaceae family is divided
into five subfamilies (i.e., Fevilleae, Melothriae, Cucurbiteae, Sicyoideae, and Cyclanthereae). However,
the important cultivated genera are found only in the subfamilies Cucurbiteae (i.e., Citrullus, Cucumis,
Luffa, Lagenaria, and Cucurbita ) and Sicyoideae (i.e., Sechium ). The genus Cucumis contains nearly 40
species including three important cultivated ones (i.e., C. anguria L. [West Indian gherkin], C. sativus
[cucumber], and C. melo L. [cantaloupe]). Other important crop plants in the Cucurbitaceae family are
watermelon ( Citrullus vulgaris Schrad), muskmelon ( Cucumis melo L.), squash and pumpkin ( Cucurbita
pepo L., C. mixta Pang., C. moschata Poir., and C. maxima Duch.), and loofah gourd ( Luffa cylindrica
Roem.). Fig-leaf gourd ( Cucurbita ficifolia Bouche) is also cultivated to some extent, but it is even more
important as a disease-resistant rootstock in the grafting of greenhouse cucumbers.
Plant growth habit
The cucumber responds like a semitropical plant. It grows best under conditions of high temperature,
humidity, and light intensity and with an uninterrupted supply of water and nutrients. Under favorable and
stable environmental and nutritional conditions and when pests are under control, the plants grow rapidly
and produce heavily. The main stem, laterals, and tendrils grow fast. They need frequent pruning to a single
stem and training along vertical wires to maintain an optimal canopy that intercepts maximum light and
allows sufficient air movement. Under optimal conditions, more fruit may initially develop from the axil of
3
each leaf than can later be supported to full size, so fruit may need thinning. Plants allowed to bear too
much fruit become exhausted, abort fruit, and fluctuate widely in productivity over time. Rapid growth,
thick and brittle stems, large leaves, long tendrils, deep green foliage, profusion of fruit, and large, deep
yellow flowers indicate excessive plant vigor. On the other hand, cucumbers are very sensitive to
unfavorable conditions, and the slightest stress affects their growth and productivity. Because fruit develops
only in newly produced leaf axils, major pruning may be needed to stimulate growth; the removal of entire
weakened laterals is more effective than snipping back their tips.
The shoot
The main stem of this herbaceous and annual plant begins growing erect but soon after assumes a prostrate
trailing habit and grows like a vine over the ground. The branching is of the sympodial type (i.e., a lateral
bud at each node grows and displaces the main growing point, the latter assuming a position on the
opposite side of the leaf). From the nodes of the main axis originate primary laterals, each of which can
have their (secondary) laterals, and so on. All stems are roughly hairy, have an angular cross section, may
turn hollow when mature, and bear leaves singly at the nodes. The large, simple leaves (10-20 cm in the
regular cucumber, 20-40 cm in the seedless cucumber) are each borne on long (7-20 cm) petioles. They
have five angular lobes of which the central is the largest, and many trichomes cover the surface. At each
node above the first three to five, a simple unbranched tendril grows from the base of the petiole. The
sensitive tendrils enable the stems, which can not twist themselves, to climb over other plants or objects. A
tendril tip, upon touching a support, coils around it; then the rest of the length of the tendril coils spirally,
pulling the whole plant towards the support. A cross section of the stem reveals 10 vascular bundles
arranged in two rings. The smaller vascular bundles of the outer ring (first five) are located at the angles of
the stem; the larger bundles (remaining five) form the inner ring.
The root
A strong tap root characterizes the root system and may reach 1 m deep. Overall the root system is
extensive but rather shallow; many horizontal laterals spread widely and rapidly producing a dense network
of rootlets that colonizes the top 30 cm of the soil and usually extends farther than the vine. Some of the
lateral roots eventually grow downwards producing a new system of deeper laterals, which replaces in
function the tap root as the plant ages. When the base of the plant is hilled and favorable moisture
conditions exist, adventitious roots arise easily from the hypocotyl as well as from the nodes along the
vines.
The flower
The cucumber plant displays a variety of sex types. Before describing

the most common forms of the greenhouse cucumber, the following terms
need explanation:
Perfect, or bisexual, or hermaphroditic flower: A flower with both male

(stamens) and female (pistil) organs but possibly without a calyx
(green sepals) or corolla (colorful petals).
Male, or staminate, flower: A flower lacking a pistil.
Female, or pistilate, flower: A flower lacking stamens.
Monoecious plant: A plant bearing both male and female flowers.
Dioecious plant: A plant species bearing male flowers on one plant and
female flowers on a different plant.
Androecious plant: A plant carrying only male flowers.
Andromonoecious plant: A plant carrying some perfect and some male
flowers.
Gynoecious plant: A plant carrying only female flowers.
Gynomonoecious plant: A plant carrying some perfect and some female
flowers.
Predominantly female plant: A plant with mostly female flowers, but
also carrying a few male flowers.
4
Hermaphroditic plant: A plant carrying both male and female flowers.
Parthenocarpy: Reproduction without fertilization; in this case,
production of seedless fruit without pollination.
Normally the cucumber is a monoecious plant with male and female flowers borne on the same plant (e.g.,
the American-type greenhouse cucumber, or the pickling cucumber). It reproduces with a high degree of
cross-pollination. Therefore, the regular cucumber and nearly all field cucumbers require pollination, which
is usually assisted by bees; one colony of honey bees per 50 000 plants is recommended. However, the
greenhouse-grown English cucumber is mostly of the gynoecious or, rarely, the predominantly female type.
This parthenocarpic type of cucumber needs no pollination. In fact, pollination is undesirable because it
results in seed set, club-shaped fruit, and loss of revenue. To prevent cross-pollination by stray bees, place
screens on the greenhouse, especially if regular cucumbers are grown close-by. Any factor affecting
growth, including environmental factors, can affect sex expression in cucumbers. Research with
monoecious plants has shown that good conditions, such as high temperature (27°C), long days (14 h),
sunny weather, high nitrogen, and ample water supply, promote male flower development. Poor conditions
promote more female flowers. Predominantly female hybrids generally respond to environmental stress in
the same way. However, gynoecious plants (100% female flowers) are not affected by the environment.
Spraying plants with plant-growth substances (man-made plant hormones) can also influence the sex
expression of cucumbers. It is possible to initiate and maintain a female flowering habit indefinitely by
spraying monoecious plants repeatedly with ethephon at prescribed rates. Ethephon sprays can also ensure
continuous female flower development in predominantly female plants. It is also possible to initiate
development of male flowers, even on gynoecious plants, by spraying them with gibberellic acid at the
proper concentration. This technique is extremely useful in the hands of the breeder because it facilitates
the self-pollination of a female parent line, which otherwise would have been impossible to maintain. Both
male and female flowers have deep yellow, five-lobed petals (Fig. 1). The male flowers, each supported by
a slender peduncle (stem), are generally borne in clusters of 3 5 at leaf-nodes. Each male flower has three
stamens, of which two have two anthers and the other has only one anther. The female flowers are borne
singly at nodes of the main stem and of side shoots. Female flowers have atrophic (small and
nonfunctional) stamens but well-developed pistils (consisting of three bilobed stigmas, the style, and a
three- chambered ovary). They are easily recognizableby the large ovary at the base of the flower. A ring-
shaped nectary surrounds the base of the style. The fruit, being an enlarged ovary, can only develop from a
female or bisexual flower.
Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Morphological and anatomical variation of the cucumber flower.
5
Botanically, the fruit is a false berry or pepo, elongated and round triangular in shape. Its size, shape, and
color vary according to the cultivar (Fig. 2). In the immature fruit, chlorophyll in the cells under the
epidermis causes the rind to be green, but, upon maturity, it turns yellow-white. The epidermal layer may
have proliferated (warty) areas, each bearing a trichome (spiky hair). The fruit cavity (three locules)
contains soft tissue (placenta) in which the seeds are embedded. The regular cucumber bears actual seeds
(seeded cucumber), whereas the English cucumber bears either no seeds (seedless cucumber) or barely
distinguishable atrophic seeds. Regular cucumbers are short (about 15-25 cm) and uniformly cylindrical.
Their thick, deep green skin has light green stripes and a rough surface with strong trichomes. The skin is
bitter in taste and not easily digested, so the fruit needs to be peeled before eating. English cucumbers are
long (about 25-50 cm) and cylindrical, with a short, narrow neck at the stem end. Their rather smooth
surface has slight wrinkles and ridges. The thin skin is uniformly green and not bitter, so the fruit need not
be peeled before eating. The cucumber fruit, like that of other Cucurbitaceae, is noted for its high water
content, which is around 95% of its fresh weight. The nutritive value of 100 g of edible cucumber is as
follows: energy 12 cal, protein 0.6 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrate 2.2 g, vitamin A 45 IU, vitamin B1 0.03 g,
vitamin B2 0.02 g, niacin 0.3 g, vitamin C 12 g, calcium 12 mg, iron 0.3 mg, magnesium 15 mg, and
phosphorus 24 mg.
Fig. 2 xxxxx Fig. 2 Size and shape variation of the cucumber fruit.
Seed germination
The cucumber is a dicotyledonous plant, so its seed consists of the embryo (miniature plant) and two large
cotyledons (food storage for the embryo) enclosed by the seed coat. The seed is fairly large (largest
dimension about 1 cm) and flat in shape. One gram of seed contains about 28 seeds (800 in an ounce). The
seed remains viable for 4 years, but after that its germination rate falls rapidly. Using modern technology,
most seed companies commonly seal seed in airtight containers filled with carbon dioxide, which preserves
it for many years. The appropriate depth of seeding is 1-2 cm. Because of the shape of the seed, it most
likely lies flat at seeding. Under favorable conditions, the primary root takes 2 days to grow out of the seed
coat; it then extends downward at a right angle to the seed. The root grows rapidly and may be more than 3
cm in length by the end of the 3rd day. At this time a parenchymatous outgrowth develops in the angle
formed by the small horizontal part of the hypocotyl and the vertical radicle (Fig. 3). As this outgrowth
(peg) enlarges, the primary root starts to produce lateral roots, and the hypocotyl then elongates upward.
The cotyledons remain in the seed coat until they are eventually freed, as the arching hypocotyl extends
further, and, by their 6th day, the axis becomes straight. This type of germination is termed epigeal.
Fig. 3
6
Fig. 3 Cucumber seed germination.
Plant improvement
Traditionally, the oldest and simplest way to improve crop plants was to save seed from plants that had
desirable characters, e.g., high yield and good flavor. This approach leads to crop improvement only when
genetic diversity exists to begin with and the plants breed true (i.e., desirable characters are transferred
unaltered from generation to generation). Natural outcrossing (hybridization) occurs when a group of plants
from one variety is pollinated by another distinct group of plants by wind, insects, or other natural means.
However, because nature's way of creating variability is too slow, the plant breeder usually resorts to
artificial ways of producing it. Artificial hybridization involves the crossing of two or more parents chosen
for carrying desirable characters. Breeders frequently use this method to generate variation
from which to select useful plants. In contrast to natural hybridization, which is slow and random, artificial
hybridization is controlled and more effective. The cucumber is a cross-pollinated plant characterized by
parthenocarpy (i.e., production of seedless fruits without pollination). Parthenocarpy is of economic
importance in the breeding and production of cucumbers because it bypasses the laborious and costly
process of artificial pollination. Hybrid vigor in cucumbers is particularly pronounced, resulting in 20-40%
yield increase in relation to the parent lines. Thus for commercial production, seed companies release F1
hybrids almost universally. Furthermore, because the monoecious types are too vigorous and need frequent
pruning, nearly all new hybrids are gynoecious types selected for high yield and moderate vigor. Within the
Cucurbitaceae family, plants of the same species and, in rare instances, even plants of different species will
cross pollinate. However, cucumbers will not pollinate with pumpkins, squashes, gourds, and watermelons,
because they are not of the same genus. Neither will they pollinate with some melons that belong to the
same genus but are of different species.
SECTION 2
Environmental requirements
The greenhouse environment has a profound effect on crop productivity and profitability. In this section,
environment includes only temperature, light, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, and air movement. Other
related subjects, such as water and nutrients, are discussed elsewhere.
Temperature
Light
Relative humidity
Carbon dioxide
Air movement
Temperature
Air temperature is the main environmental component influencing vegetative growth, flower initiation, fruit
growth, and fruit quality (Plate I a-i). Growth rate of the crop depends on the average 24-h temperature the
higher the average air temperature the faster the growth. The larger the variation in day night air
temperature, the taller the plant and the smaller the leaf size. Although maximum growth occurs at a day
and night temperature of about 28°C, maximum fruit production is achieved with a night temperature of 19-
20°C and a day temperature of 20-22°C. The recommended temperatures in Table 1P are therefore a
compromise designed for sustained, high fruit productivity combined with moderate crop growth
throughout the growing season. During warm weather (i.e., late spring and early fall), reduce air
temperature settings, especially during the night, by up to 2°C to encourage vegetative growth when it is
retarded by heavy fruit load. This regime saves energy because a 24-h average can be ensured by the
prevailing high temperatures and favorable light conditions.
Table 1P
Recommended air temperatures for cucumber cropping

----------------------------------------------------
Low light High light With carbon
7
(°C) (°C) dioxide (°C)
----------------------------------------------------
Night minimum* 19 20 20
Day minimum 20 21 22
Ventilation 26 26 28
----------------------------------------------------
*A minimum root temperature of 19°C is required, but 22-23°C is
preferable.
Light
Plant growth depends on light. Plant matter is produced by the process of photosynthesis, which takes place
only when light is absorbed by the chlorophyll (green pigment) in the green parts of the plant, mostly the
leaves. However, do not underestimate the photosynthetic productivity of the cucumber fruit, which,
because of its size and color, is a special case. In the process of photosynthesis, the energy of light fixes
atmospheric carbon dioxide and water in the plant to produce such carbohydrates as sugars and starch.
Generally, the rate of photosynthesis relates to light intensity, but not proportionally. The importance of
light becomes obvious in the winter, when it is in short supply. In the short, dull days of late fall, winter,
and early spring, the low daily levels of radiant energy result in low levels of carbohydrate production. Not
only do the poor light conditions limit photosynthetic productivity, but also the limited carbohydrates
produced during the day are largely expended by the respiring plant during the long night. The low supply
of carbohydrates available in the plant during the winter seriously limits productivity, as evidenced by the
profusion of aborted fruit. A fully grown crop benefits from any increase in natural light intensity, provided
that the plants have sufficient water, nutrients, and carbon dioxide and that air temperature is not too high.
Relative humidity
High relative humidity generally favors growth. However, reasonable growth can be achieved at medium or
even low relative humidity. The crop can adjust to and withstand relative humidity from low to very high
but reacts very sensitively to drastic and frequent variation in relative humidity. Its sensitivity to such
variation is greatest when the crop is developed under conditions of high relative humidity. Other
disadvantages of cropping under conditions of high relative humidity include the increased risk of water
condensing on the plants and the development of serious diseases. The resultant low transpiration rates are
blamed for inadequate absorption and transport of certain nutrients, especially calcium to the leaf margins
and fruit. At low relative humidity, irrigation becomes critical, because large quantities of water must be
added to the growth medium without constantly flooding the roots and depriving them of oxygen.
Furthermore, low relative humidity favors the growth of powdery mildew and spider mites, which alone
can justify installing and operating misting devices. Note that relative humidity (RH) is an expression of the
actual water vapor pressure (e) expressed as a percentage of the maximum water vapor pressure possible
(es) under certain air temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions. Therefore, RH comparisons are not
meaningful when air temperature is also changed. A more reliable indicator of the drying power of the
atmosphere is the water vapor pressure deficit (i.e., VPD = es - e). A high VPD indicates a "dry"
atmosphere whereas a low VPD indicates a "wet" atmosphere. As more environmental computers become
available enabling growers to measure (and become familiar with the concept of) VPD, reference to RH
should be avoided.
Carbon dioxide
In cold weather, with no ventilation, have a minimum carbon dioxide concentration of 1000 vpm
(approximately 1000 ppm) during the day. In the summer, with ventilation, supplemental carbon dioxide
applied at a concentration up to 400 ppm has proved economically useful in some countries. However, this
technique is too new in Canada to support definite recommendation. Regions with a moderate maritime
climate, such as British Columbia, can more likely benefit from carbon dioxide applied in the summer. But
in regions with a continental climate, such as southwestern Ontario, the need to ventilate the greenhouse
actively throughout the hot summer renders the practice less economical.
8
Air movement
An approximate air speed of 0.5 m/s, which causes leaves to move slightly, is recommended. Horizontal air
movement helps in several ways. It minimizes air temperature gradients in the greenhouse and removes
moisture from the lower part of the greenhouse (under the foliage). It distributes moisture in the rest of the
greenhouse and helps the carbon dioxide from the top of the greenhouse to travel into the leaf canopy,
where it is taken up and fixed in photosynthesis. Even modest air movement in the greenhouse improves
the uniformity of the greenhouse environment, which generally benefits crop productivity and energy
conservation.
Nutritional needs
Soil plant relationships Soil as a growth medium Soil structure and texture Soil reaction (pH) Cation-
exchange capacity of the soil Nutrient requirements and effects Macronutrients Micronutrients
Nonessential elements
Soil plant relationships

Plants in their natural environment live, almost without exception, in an association known as the soil-plant
relationship. Soil provides for the four basic needs of plants: water, nutrients, oxygen, and support.
Advances in science and technology now allow humans to provide these needs artificially and to
successfully grow plants without soil. The various methods and techniques developed for growing plants
without soil are collectively called soilless methods of plant culture. These methods include diverse
systems, from the purely hydroponic, based on water and nutrients only (e.g., nutrient film technique or
NFT), to those based on artificial mixes that contain various proportions of soil. Between these extremes lie
a great number of soilless methods that make use of some sort of growing medium, either inert (e.g., rock-
wool slabs, polyurethane chunks, and perlite) or not inert (e.g., gravel culture, sand culture, and peat bags).
Soil as a growth medium

Soil consists of mineral and organic matter, water, and air. An average soil in optimum condition for plant
growth might consist of 45% mineral matter, 5% organic matter, 25% water, and 25% air space. The
mineral matter consists of diverse small rock fragments. The organic matter of a soil is a mixture derived
from plant and animal remains at various stages of decomposition. In the process of decomposition, some
of the organic entities oxidize to their end-products and others to an intermediate product called humus.
Both the type and the relative quantity of the mineral and organic constituents of a soil determine its
chemical properties. Chemical properties of a soil are the amounts of the various essential elements present
and their forms of combination, as well as the degree of acidity or alkalinity, known as pH. The amount of
nutrients available to the plants depends not only on the soil's chemical properties but also on its physical
properties.
Soil structure and texture

The physical properties of a soil describe its texture and structure. Texture, i.e., the size distribution of its
mineral constituents, is expressed as a percentage of content of sand, silt, and clay (Fig. 4). Structure
describes the type and extent of formation of the various mineral and organic constituents into crumblike
soil aggregates. The organic matter of a soil plays an important role in soil structure for two reasons. First,
diversity in the size of the organic components produces wide variety in soil structure. Second, the humus
cements together the various soil constituents into crumblike aggregates. Soil structure in turn plays an
important role in soil fertility (the ability of soil to sustain good plant growth and high yields). The structure
determines, to a great extent, the water-holding capacity and aeration of a soil (Table 2). The water held
within the soil pores, together with the salts dissolved in it, make up the soil solution that is so important as
a medium for supplying nutrients and water to growing plants. The air located in the soil pores supplies
oxygen for the respiration of root and soil microorganisms and removes the carbon dioxide and other gases
produced by them. Plant nutrients exist in soil as either complex organic or inorganic compounds that are
unavailable to plants or in simple forms that are usually soluble in water and therefore readily available to
plants (Table 3). The complex forms, too numerous to mention, must first be broken down through
decomposition to simple, soluble forms to be available and therefore useful to plants (Fig. 5).
9
pH.
A pH of 7 indicates neutral conditions; values lower than 7 indicate an acid environment; and values higher
than 7 indicate an alkaline environment on a scale of 0-14.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4 Classification of soils according to texture (particle size in mm).

Table 2
Important growth media properties affected by their structure and

texture.
------------------------------------------------------
Capillary Water
Medium rise absorption Percolation
(cm) (%, v/v)
------------------------------------------------------
Soil 18 21 very slow
Peat-mix 30 27 slow
Vermiculite 29 21 fast
Perlite 41 17 fast
Rock wool 10 17 fast
Expanded clay pellets 2 11 very fast
------------------------------------------------------
Table 3P
Essential elements for the growth of most cultivated plants

-----------------------------------------------
Atomic Available
Element Symbol weight from
10
-----------------------------------------------
Organic elements
(from air and water)
Hydrogen H 1.00 H2O
Carbon C 12.00 CO2
Oxygen O 16.00 O2, H2O
Macronutrients
(needed in large quantities)
Nitrogen N 14.00 NO3-, NH4+
Potassium K 39.10 K+
Calcium Ca 40.08 Ca++
Magnesium Mg 24.32 Mg++
Phosphorus P 30.92 H2PO4-, HPO4-
Sulfur S 32.07 SO4--
Micronutrients
(needed in small quantities)
Iron Fe 55.85 Fe+++, Fe++
Manganese Mn 54.94 Mn++
Copper Cu 63.54 Cu++, Cu+
Boron B 10.82 BO3---,B4O7--
Zinc Zn 65.38 Zn++
Molybdenum Mo 95.95 MoO4++
-----------------------------------------------
Fig. 5 xxxxx Fig. 5 The process of mineralization, solubilization, cation exchange, and nutrient absorption.
Soil reaction (pH)

The reaction of the soil solution (pH) also affects the solubility of the various nutrients and thus their
availability to plants (Fig. 6). In acid soils (pH < 7) the nutrients calcium and molybdenum are less
available, whereas in alkaline soils (pH 7) the nutrients iron, manganese, and zinc are less available.
Excessive amounts of bicarbonate (HC03-) may interfere with the normal uptake of certain nutrients. Most
nutrients are available when the pH measures between 6 and 7, so most plants grow best in soils of that
reaction.
11
Fig. 6
Fig. 6 How soil pH affects availability of plant nutrients (diagram courtesy of Plant Products Ltd.).
Cation-exchange capacity of the soil

When small quantities of inorganic salts such as the soluble mineral matter of soil and commercial
fertilizers are added to water, they dissociate into electrically charged units called ions. The positively
charged ions (cations), such as hydrogen (H+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++),
ammonium (NH4+), iron (Fe++), manganese (Mn++), and zinc (Zn++), are absorbed mostly on the
negatively charged surfaces of the soil colloids (microscopic clay and humus particles). Cations exist only
in small quantities in the soil solution. Thus, the humus-clay colloids serve as a storehouse for certain
essential cations. The negatively charged ions (anions), such as nitrates (N03-), phosphates (HP04--),
sulphates (S04--), and chlorides (Cl-), occur almost exclusively in the soil solution. Anions can therefore
leach away easily with overwatering. The soil solution bathes the roots and root hairs, which are in intimate
contact with the soil colloidal surfaces. Nutrient uptake can take place either from the soil solution or
directly from the colloidal surfaces (cation exchange). The soil solution provides the most important source
of nutrients, but it is so dilute that its nutrients are easily depleted and must be replenished from soil
particles. The solid phase of the soil, acting as a reservoir of nutrients, slowly releases them into the soil
solution by the solubilization of soil minerals and organics, by the solution of soluble salts, and by cation
exchange. A more dramatic increase in the nutrient content of the soil solution takes place with the addition
of commercial fertilizers. As plants absorb nutrients (ions) they exchange them for other ions. For example,
for the uptake of one potassium (K+) or one ammonium (NH4+) ion, one hydrogen (H+) ion is released
into the soil solution or directly onto the soil colloids through cation exchange. Similarly, for the uptake of
one calcium (Ca++) or one magnesium (Mg++) ion, the root releases two hydrogen (H+) ions. As the plant
absorbs these essential cations, the soil solution and the colloidal particles contain more and more hydrogen
(H+) ions. As a result, when crops remove cations (ammonium nitrogen is a good example), soils become
more acidic. Also, as the plant absorbs essential anions such as nitrates and phosphates, the soil solution is
enriched with more and more hydroxyl groups (0H-) and bicarbonates (HCO3-), which explains why the
removal of anions (nitrate nitrogen is a good example) by crops makes soils alkaline.
Nutrient requirements and effects

Growing a successful cucumber crop depends on the grower's ability to maintain an optimum balance
between vegetativeness and reproductiveness. We judge a well-balanced plant by its thick stem, its large
and dark green leaves, and its high number of rapidly sizing-up fruit. A properly nourished and fully
developed plant has a main stem about 1.5 cm thick, two main sideshoots about 1.0 cm thick, and at least
one fruit set and growing fast (7 days from set to harvest) at each node. Thicker stems indicate
overvegetativeness. They are usually associated with profuse fruit setting, which triggers a cycle of
overbearing, carbohydrate depletion, retarded root growth and renewal, arrested growth, widespread fruit
abortion, and slow recovery. Thinner, slow-growing stems indicate overproductiveness or poor growing
conditions. Long, sustained fruit production is not easy, but it can be achieved under optimum
environmental conditions and by timely application of water and nutrients. Although inorganic nutrients
make up a tiny fraction of the total plant weight (approximately 1%), their application, usually as a
chemical fertilizer, is vital. Fertilizers influence greatly how the crop grows and develops and ultimately the
quantity and quality of fruit relative to other greenhouse crops. Cucumbers are heavy feeders (i.e., they
absorb and use large quantities of fertilizers). At the same time they can easily suffer root damage from
fertilizer overdose or wide variation in the fertilizer supply. Because cucumbers are highly sensitive to
salinity, yield declines inversely as the electrical conductivity (EC) of the fertigation solution increases.
Although the fertilizer feeding program needs adjusting throughout the production season to suit the
changing nutritional needs of the crop as environmental conditions change, take care to make any changes
small and gradual (Table 4P). Computer-controlled multifertilizer injectors are now used commercially for
the precise dosing of fertilizers according to crop needs (Plate II). The following sections describe the role
of each nutrient in the growth and productivity of seedless cucumbers.
Table 4P
Content of nutrients in dry matter of leaves from healthy cucumber
12
plants and from plants with deficiency or toxicity symptoms; dry matter
ranges from 80 to 110 g/kg, with 98 g/kg as an average for fresh
leaves.
----------------------------------------------------------------
Health
Nutrient element --------------- Deficiency Toxicity
Range Mean
----------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (mol/kg)
total N 1.8-3.6 2.96
nitrate N 0.07-1.0 0.24 <0.07 1.3
Phosphorus (mol/kg) 0.11-0.25 0.17 <0.07
Potassium (mol/kg) 0.5-1.5 0.97 <0.4-0.5
Magnesium (mol/kg) 0.2-0.8 0.42 <0.10
Calcium (mol/kg) 0.5-2.5 1.19 <0.5
Sulfur (mol/kg)
total S 0.13-0.30 0.19 <0.08
sulphate S 0.05-0.28 0.13
Boron (mmol/kg) 2.8-10.0 7.0 <2.5 25
Copper (mmol/kg) 0.03-0.30 0.20 <0.03
Iron (mmol/kg) 1.7-5.4 4.2 <0.9-2.7*
Manganese (mmol/kg) 0.9-11.0 5.8 <0.4-0.7 10
Molybdenum (mmol/kg) 0.01-0.06 0.032 <0.008-0.010
Zinc (mmol/kg) 0.9-3.0 0.032 <0.3 10
----------------------------------------------------------------
* Not diagnostic.
Source: Roorda van Eysinga, J.P.N.L.; Smilde, K.W. 1981. Nutritional
disorders in glasshouse tomatoes, cucumbers and lettuce. Cent. Agric.
Publ. and Docum., Wageningen, The Netherlands. 130 pp.
Macronutrients
Cucumber plants need the following nutrients in large quantities: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and sulfur.
Nitrogen.
Phosphorus.
Potassium.
Calcium.
Magnesium.
Sulfur.
Nitrogen.
Nitrogen contributes more toward the vegetative organs (leaves and stems) of the plant than the fruit. High
rates of nitrogen induce vigorous vegetative growth to the ultimate detriment of fruit and root growth. The
ammonium form of nitrogen particularly encourages vegetative growth. Ammonium nitrate, or urea,
applied at low, well-planned and regulated concentrations can effectively invigorate a weak, stagnant crop.
However, because a high danger of burning the crop exists with such fertilizers, exercise great caution
(Plate III a-d). Seek expert opinion in advance. The early symptoms of ammonia injury are small chlorotic
spots on the leaves; these later increase in size and merge leaving only the veins green. Refer to the specific
guidelines for fertilizer application rates according to each cropping system, as listed later. Deficiency A
nitrogen deficiency expresses itself in hard plants with woody stems in small and thin leaves and a general
pale color on foliage. Nitrogen being a mobile nutrient within the plant, symptoms of yellowish green
appear first on older leaves. Eventually, the entire plant turns pale green and the younger leaves stop
growing. The fruit becomes short, thick, light green, spiny, and occasionally constricted at the distal end.
Toxicity An excess of nitrogen is expressed by strong thick stems, deep green curly leaves, short internodes,
and a profusion of tendrils, short side shoots, and flowers (or small fruit). In severe cases, growth stops,
13
middle and lower leaves curl and drop slightly, and transparent spots appear between the veins, which later
turn yellow and brown. Eventually marginal and interveinal chlorosis turns into leaf scorching and the
entire plant collapses. In most cases, the plants can be saved, provided they have not wilted permanently,
by heavy irrigation and restricting transpiration through appropriate environmental control. Concentration
Normal levels of nitrogen in plant tissue are 5-6% N in the dry weight of the third leaf from the top (10 cm
in diameter), or, 0.5-1.5% N03 in the dry weight of fully developed young leaves, or, 2-3% N (or 0.6-1.2%
N03) in the sap of mature petioles. Nitrogen-deficient plants contain nitrogen at less than 3% or 2% in the
dry weight of young and old leaves, respectively. Correction Correct a nitrogen deficiency with a foliar
spray of urea dissolved in water at 2-5 g/L; to avoid leaf scorching, ideally spray either under cloudy
weather or late in the afternoon or remove the residues from foliage with water. Immediately seek a
permanent correction of the deficiency; identify the cause of the problem and apply the appropriate amount
of nitrogen fertilizer regularly, depending on the production system.
Phosphorus.
Although phosphorus is used in much smaller quantities than nitrogen its presence is also needed
continuously. Initially, phosphorus is important for early root growth, especially under cool root conditions,
but it also has a profound effect on vegetative growth and fruit production throughout the entire season.
Phosphorus stores well in soil but leaches easily from peat and soilless media. Therefore phosphorus must
always be included in the feed of all soilless media. Deficiency Phosphorus deficiency is initially expressed
as restricted overall growth with no characteristic symptoms. In severe cases, the plants are stunted and the
young leaves become small, stiff, and dark grayish green; the older leaves develop large water- soaked
spots over both the veins and the interveinal areas. Eventually the affected leaves fade, shrivel, turn brown,
and desiccate. Toxicity Phosphorus toxicity is uncommon. Concentration Normal levels of phosphorus in
plant tissue are 0.6-1.3% P in the dry weight of main stem leaves; more phosphorus is found in young
leaves; the third leaf below the top with an approximate diameter of 10 cm is the standard for sampling.
Phosphorus- deficient plants contain less than 0.3% or 0.2% P in the dry weight of young and old leaves,
respectively. Correction Correct a phosphorus deficiency by adding fertilizer to the soil (e.g., triple
superphosphate at 20 g/m²) or in the irrigation water (e.g., 30-50 ppm P as monopotassium phosphate).
Potassium.
Plants need potassium, which is mobile in the plant, in large quantities; it is essential for normal growth and
high fruit quality. As a major nutrient with a positive charge, it plays a major role in balancing the negative
charges of organic acids produced within the cell and of other anions such as sulphates, chlorides, and
nitrates. Potassium also activates several enzymes and controls transpiration by affecting the opening and
closing of stomates. The effects of potassium supply depend on interactions with several elements. In
general, nitrogen and phosphorus have antagonistic effects and induce or accentuate potassium deficiency.
Calcium (and to a smaller extent magnesium) antagonize potassium uptake, but severe calcium deficiency
can also bring potassium deficiency. Ammonium greatly decreases the rate of potassium uptake. Potassium
deficiency tends to induce or accentuate iron deficiency. Deficiency Symptoms of potassium deficiency
appear first on older leaves (which remain the worst affected) and progress from the base towards the top of
the plant. In general, growth is stunted, internodes are short, and leaves are small. Chlorosis almost always
occurs first at the margins of older leaves, which often curve downwards. Later, chlorosis moves into the
interveinal areas towards the centre of the leaf, and necrosis of the leaf margins follows. Although leaf
margins desiccate, the veins remain green for some time. Fruit might appear with enlarged tips but
underdeveloped at the stem end. Potassium deficiency is rare in soil culture (except in sandy soils).
However, it can develop quickly in soilless culture when the potassium supply in the nutrient solution is
inadequate. Toxicity Excess potassium rarely presents a problem unless it induces the deficiency of other
nutrients (e.g., calcium, magnesium, iron). Concentration Normal levels of potassium in plant tissue are 4 ±
1% K in the dry weight of a young (10 cm in diameter) leaf laminae (the petioles contain far higher levels,
e.g., 8-15% K), and 3500-5000 ppm K in the petiole sap. Deficiency symptoms and loss of yield can be
expected if the potassium content in leaf laminae drops below 3.5% (dry weight), or below 3000 ppm K in
the petiole sap. Correction Correct a deficiency by ensuring a good supply of potassium either in the soil as
a base dressing (e.g., apply potassium at 80 g/m²), or in the water supply as a liquid feed (e.g., apply 300-
500 ppm K). For immediate results, the crop may also be sprayed with a solution of potassium sulphate in
water at 20 g/L. However, not all the potassium needs of a crop can be supplied through sprays.
14
Calcium.
Calcium moves in the xylem along with the water, and little translocation occurs from the older to the
younger leaves. Therefore, when the supply of calcium is interrupted or low, deficiency symptoms appear
first at the top of the plant. Calcium is of great importance to the structure and stability of cell membranes
and to the stability and rigidity of cell walls. Deficiency Calcium deficiency is uncommon in cucumbers,
other than under continuously humid conditions in well-sealed energy-efficient greenhouses. At the initial
stages of calcium deficiency, the youngest leaves show transparent white dots near the edges and between
the veins. Interveinal chlorosis is common, while the veins stay green. Plants stop growing and the
internodes are short especially near the apex. The younger leaves remain small with their edges curled
characteristically upwards. Older leaves, though, curl downwards. In severe cases, petioles become brittle
and leaves drop easily, flowers abort, and the growing point of the plant dies back. The roots of calcium-
deficient plants are also poorly developed, thicker, and shorter than normal; they usually turn brown and
have few root hairs. The fruits are small and tasteless and fail to develop normally at the blossom end. The
complex interactions and antagonisms of calcium with other cations are discussed under "Potassium." A
calcium deficiency could develop on soils where leaching depletes calcium reserves, in unlimed peat, or in
soilless culture where the nutrient solution contains insufficient calcium. Concentrations Normal levels of
calcium in plant tissue are 1.5% Ca in the dry weight of young leaves (10 cm in diameter), or, 5.0% Ca in
the dry weight of young fully developed leaves. Deficiency symptoms begin to appear when calcium drops
below 0.5% in the dry weight of young (10-cm) leaves. Correction To correct calcium deficiency quickly,
spray plants with a solution of calcium nitrate in water at 10 g/L, preferably under cloudy conditions or late
in the day to avoid salt burns on foliage. Permanent correction is possible only by identifying the cause of
inadequate calcium uptake and fixing the problem.
Magnesium.
Deficiency Magnesium deficiency expresses itself first with mottled chlorosis and brown spotting on the
lower leaves. Yellow spots initially appear in interveinal areas, while the veins remain green. A green
margin might remain around the leaf even in severe cases where the yellow interveinal areas have dried out
to a pale brown. In soil culture, magnesium deficiency usually exists only in the plant, not in the soil. The
deficiency might be related to high potassium (from excessive potassium fertilizer dressings), or calcium
(from excessive liming), or ammonium, or unfavorable (low) soil pH. These conditions make it difficult for
the plant to take in sufficient magnesium, thereby forcing it to move magnesium from the older to the new
leaves. The deficiency also develops in soilless culture if the magnesium in the nutrient solution is allowed
to drop to the minimum recommended level or to go out of balance with the other cations (i.e., K+, Ca++,
NH4++, H+). Toxicity Magnesium toxicity symptoms, consisting of marginal scorching on dark green
leaves, are rare. They appear in soilless culture if the magnesium concentration in the nutrient reaches
extremely high levels. Concentration Normal levels of magnesium in plant tissue are 0.5-0.7% Mg in the
dry weight of young leaves (10 cm diameter) but higher in olderleaves (e.g., 0.5-0.9% Mg in young leaves,
or 1.5-2.0% Mg in old healthy leaves). Deficiency symptoms appear when magnesium in the young leaves
(10 cm diameter) falls below 0.35% (dry weight). Correction Correct a magnesium deficiency with high-
volume sprays of magnesium sulfate in water at 20 g/L, preferably during cloudy weather or late in the day
to avoid salt burns on foliage. Even better, ensure the proper magnesium supply reaches the roots,
depending on cropping system.
Sulfur.
This element is rarely in deficiency because it is present in many fertilizers as a carrying element and
because it exists as a common pollutant. However, high sulfur levels can produce excessive salt levels and
can be detrimental to the uptake of molybdenum.
Micronutrients
Cucumber plants need the following nutrients in small quantities: iron, manganese, copper, boron, zinc,
molybdenum, and chlorine. Iron. Manganese. Copper Boron. Zinc. Molybdenum. Chlorine.
15
Iron.
A small quantity of iron is essential for chlorophyll synthesis. Iron is immobile in the plant. Deficiency
Deficiency symptoms resemble those of magnesium deficiency but appear almost always as chlorosis of
the young, rapidly expanding leaves. At first, the youngest leaves become yellow-green or yellow, but the
veins remain green. Later, chlorosis spreads to veins, first to the smaller ones, and affected leaves turn
lemon yellow to white. Shoots then stop growing, and necrosis appears on leaves that have lost chlorophyll
completely. Side shoots and fruit also show deficiency symptoms. As with calcium deficiency, in most
cases iron deficiency is induced. Indirect causes of iron deficiency may be - too high pH in the medium -
too much manganese in the medium - anaerobic conditions in the medium - poor root growth - root death in
NFT or overwatered media. In many cases, improved oxygenation of the roots, by improving media texture
and structure, optimizing irrigation, aerating media and nutrient solutions, and ensuring sufficient plant
transpiration rates, corrects the problem. Toxicity An iron overdose (toxicity) usually expresses itself as a
manganese deficiency, which indicates further the strong competition between iron and manganese in the
plant. Concentration The normal concentration of Fe in plant tissue is 100-300 ppm in the dry weight of
fully expanded leaves (fifth leaf from the top). Deficiency symptoms appear when this concentration drops
below 50 ppm, although chlorosis may also occur when the Fe content exceeds 100 ppm. This discrepancy
occurs because not always is all iron in the plant tissue physiologically active. Correction When the
nutrient supply itself is the limiting factor, apply iron salts or iron chelates to the soil (Fe-EDDHA at 5-10
g/m² or Fe-DPTA at 12-20 g/m²) or use foliar sprays (Fe-EDTA in water at 0.2 g/L). However, the best
action is to eliminate the source of the problem. Contrary to general opinion, iron chelates are toxic to
plants at high concentrations, so do not exceed the recommended rates, particularly for the foliar sprays.
Also do not use foliar sprays frequently, because salts can accumulate on the foliage and, over time,
become toxic. To enhance the nutrient absorption and reduce the risk of salt burn, try to spray under cloudy
conditions or late in the afternoon. To avoid stem rots, direct spray only at the top part of the plants where
the deficiency symptoms show.
Manganese.
The plants need manganese, in minute quantities, to activate several enzymes. The most important of these
promote photosynthesis and the production of the plant hormone auxin. Without manganese, hydrogen
peroxide accumulates in the cells and damages them. Like iron, manganese is immobile within the plant,
accumulating mostly in the lower leaves. Deficiency Frequently confused with iron deficiency, true
manganese deficiency is rare. In fact, because of the usual competition between iron and manganese, an
apparent manganese deficiency may be an expression of iron toxicity. Manganese deficiency symptoms
appear mostly on new growth. Diagnosing the actual nutritional disorder is often not easy, because
symptoms among iron deficiency, iron toxicity, and manganese deficiency appear similar. The most
characteristic distinguishing feature of manganese deficiency, as compared to iron deficiency, is that,
although the margin and interveinal parts of the leaf become progressively pale green, yellow-green, and
yellow, the veins remain green. Manganese deficiency in leaves is also distinguishable by the appearance of
characteristic necrotic spotting or lesions. At advanced stages, the entire leaf, with the exception of the
main veins, becomes yellow, and whitish sunken areas develop between the veins. Manganese deficiency
occurs on calcareous soils, on heavily limed peat media, or in soilless media when the nutrient solution
contains no manganese. Toxicity Manganese toxicity symptoms, pale green and yellow areas between the
veins, appear first on the oldest leaves. The veins turn red-brown, and numerous purple spots develop on
the stems, petioles, and veins on the underside of the leaves. Manganese toxicity usually follows steaming
of soil. It occurs particularly in acid soil, or when steaming is prolonged or carried out at too high a
temperature, or when leaching of the soil after steaming is inadequate. Concentration The normal
concentration of manganese in young leaves is 30-60 ppm, and in older leaves 100-250 ppm. When the
manganese concentration in young leaves drops below 50 ppm, loss in yield may occur; when it drops to
12-15 ppm, deficiency symptoms generally appear. Toxicity symptoms appear when the manganese
content reaches 500-800 ppm in young and old leaves, respectively. Expect significant yield loss if the
manganese concentration reaches 2000-5000 ppm in young and old leaves, respectively. Correction
Deficiency symptoms disappear quickly after foliar application of manganese sulfate at 1.5-10 g/L as high-
or low-volume spray, respectively. Generally, nutrient solutions should contain 0.05 ppm Mn. In soil, apply
manganese sulfate at 50 g/m² as a long-term remedy to manganese shortage, along with measures to lower
the soil pH, if higher than normal.
16
Copper.
Several enzymes with diverse properties and functions depend on copper, including those involved in
photosynthesis and respiration. Although copper is mobile in plants well supplied with the element, it is
much less mobile in deficient plants. Therefore copper concentration in young developing tissue is likely
related to plant status. However, soil analysis is a more useful guide to copper deficiency than tissue
analysis. Deficiency Copper deficiency restricts growth and causes short internodes and small leaves.
Initially, interveinal chlorotic blotches appear on mature leaves, but later symptoms spread upwards on the
plant. The leaves eventually turn dull green or bronze, their edges turn down, and the plant remains
dwarfed. Furthermore, bud and flower development at the top of the plant decreases. The few fruits that are
produced develop poorly with small, sunken brown areas scattered over their yellow-green skin. Copper
deficiency is unusual, partly because the widespread use of copper in plumbing and in fungicides ensures
an adequate supply in most cases. Occasionally it becomes a problem with crops in peat media or in all-
plastic hydroponic systems when no copper is added to the nutrient solution. High soil pH reduces available
copper, but this effect is much smaller than for manganese, iron, and boron. Toxicity Copper toxicity,
although rare, can appear as an induced iron chlorosis, where the soil is contaminated with copper either
from industrial sources or after repeated spays of copper-containing fungicides. Toxic effects persist, and
the only partial solution is heavy liming. In hydroponic systems, extensive use of copper plumbing can
produce copper contamination. Concentration Normal levels of copper in the dry weight of the first fully
expanded leaf (fifth leaf) range from 8 to 20 ppm. Deficiency symptoms start appearing when the copper
concentration falls below 7 ppm and become severe at 0.8-2.0 ppm. Copper deficiency can dramatically
reduce yield (20-90%). Correction To prevent copper deficiency in peat media, where it is most common,
add copper sulfate at 10 g/m³, as a precaution. Generally, nutrient solutions should contain 0.03 ppm Cu.
For quick results, spray plants with a solution of copper sulfate using up to 1 g/L, plus calcium hydroxide
(approx. 0.5%) for pH adjustment.
Boron.
The specific biochemical function of boron in plants is not known, but it is generally believed that this
element is essential for some processes of cell division and differentiation in apices (growing points).
Boron is not mobile within the plant. A continuous supply of this nutrient to the roots is essential for
healthy growth. The availability of boron is lowest in sandy soils at high pH. The quality of water also
determines the boron status of the plants. Deficiency Deficiency symptoms appear at growing points and in
reproductive organs. Symptoms appear around the first harvest when middle and lower leaves become
slightly chlorotic and brittle. Although the most characteristic effect of boron deficiency is the death of the
stem apex (growing tip), other effects include: - growth of axillary buds and bushy appearance of plants -
malformed young leaves with prominent veins and cupped stiff older leaves - cupped upwards brittle leaves
of reduced size - yellowing of the lower leaves developing broad cream margins and eventually becoming
brown and curling downwards and inwards - short fruit with longitudinal cracks in the skin - blackened
roots with enlarged root tips. Severe boron deficiency can lead to serious yield losses (up to 90%) and fruit
quality deterioration. Toxicity The narrow margin between deficiency and toxicity causes a particular
problem with boron. The cucumber plant is particularly sensitive to high levels of boron in the substrate, or
in the water supply (1 ppm B). Because boron tends to be immobilized in the plant, boron toxicity
symptoms appear first on older leaves. Careless use of boron fertilizers easily causes boron toxicity.
Initially, the edges of older leaves turn yellow- green, cup downward, and grow more circular than usual.
Later the symptoms progress from the base of the plant upwards, and necrotic spots develop between the
veins. Eventually, growth becomes stunted, upper leaves remain small, and few female flowers develop.
Concentration The normal level of boron in the dry weight of leaves varies from 30 to 120 ppm. Deficiency
symptoms appear when the content falls as low as 6-8 ppm B (top leaves) or <20 ppm B (bottom leaves).
Toxicity symptoms appear when the content exceeds 250-300 ppm B (top leaves) or 500-1000 ppm B
(bottom leaves). Correction Boron deficiencies are easily corrected by adding sodium borate to the soil at 2
g/m² or by spraying with sodium borate in water at 1-2 g/L. Boron toxicities are harder to correct. Heavy
leaching of sandy soils and liming of acid soils may be effective.
17
Zinc.
Several enzymes present in plants contain zinc. Of all micronutrients, zinc, when deficient, has the most
obvious effect on photosynthesis. However, this element is rarely deficient. Deficiency Deficiency occurs
when hydroponically grown plants have no zinc in the nutrient solution. The normal zinc content of soils
usually falls in the range of 10-300 ppm Zn. Zinc in soils becomes less available as the soil pH rises and in
the presence of calcium carbonate. A heavy application of phosphorus can induce zinc deficiency because
insoluble zinc phosphates form. Copper and possibly iron, manganese, magnesium, and calcium hinder the
uptake of zinc. The symptoms of deficiency are not well defined, but usually a slight interveinal mottle
develops on the lower leaves that spreads up the plant. The upper internodes remain short. Small leaf size
most characterizes zinc deficiency; in severe cases, short internodes cause the top of the plant to grow
bushy. Overall growth is restricted and the leaves become yellow-green to yellow except for the veins,
which remain dark green and well defined. Toxicity The potential for zinc toxicity exists where galvanized
pipes release zinc. Toxicity occurs in soils contaminated by their proximity to zinc smelters and mines and
in greenhouses with galvanized frames and plumbing. In the case of zinc toxicity, the entire veinal network,
initially dark green, becomes somewhat blackened. The blackish appearance of the main veins helps
distinguish zinc toxicity from manganese deficiency in which the veins remain green. In severe cases of
zinc toxicity the young leaves become yellow and the symptoms resemble those of iron deficiency.
Concentration The normal concentration in the dry weight of the fifth leaf ranges from 40 to 100 ppm Zn.
Symptoms of deficiency appear when the concentration drops below 20-25 ppm Zn. Toxicity can be
expected when the zinc concentration exceeds 150-180 ppm (old leaves) or 900 ppm (tops of plants).
Correction Spraying with zinc sulphate (5 g/L) easily corrects a zinc deficiency. Applying lime or
phosphate sometimes reduces a zinc toxicity.
Molybdenum.
Molybdenum is involved in many enzymes and is closely linked with nitrogen metabolism. Plants need tiny
amounts of molybdenum - an average 0.2 ppm Mo available in soils is adequate. Molybdenum is present in
soil as an anion, in contrast to most other micronutrients, which are present as cations. It behaves like
phosphate. The availability of molybdenum increases as the pH rises and therefore a deficiency of this
element is more likely to occur in acid (and sandy) soils, in which case liming might be helpful. Deficiency
Molybdenum deficiencies are rare, but have been observed in plants growing in peat. Initially, the green of
the leaves fades, particularly between the veins. Later, leaves can turn yellow and die. In some cases, parts
of mature leaves remain green at first, giving rise to a blotchy appearance. Symptoms start first in lower
leaves and spread upwards, the younger ones remaining green. Growth might appear normal but flowers
stay small. Severe deficiency cases in peat can significantly reduce yield (up to 84%), but raising the pH
(up to 6.7) through liming restores yield to near normal. Toxicity While plants can take up high levels of
molybdenum without harmful effects on growth, there might be concern for health with high molybdenum
levels in the produce. Concentration The normal concentration in the dry weight of leaves is 0.8-5.0 ppm
Mo. Deficient plants contain less than 0.3 ppm Mo. Correction As a preventative measure on peat, apply
sodium molybdate at 5 g/m³. Treat a deficiency either by applying sodium molybdate to the soil at 150
mg/m² or by spraying with a solution of sodium molybdate in water at 1 g/L.
Chlorine.
Chlorine is the latest addition to the list of elements considered essential for plant growth. Deficiency of
chlorine has never been encountered other than in strictly controlled experiments, because of the prevalence
of the element in the environment as a contaminant. Toxicity Excess chlorine is a serious concern,
especially in recirculated hydroponic systems. Normal growth requires only small quantities of chlorine
(similar to iron), but if the supply is plentiful more is taken up. The large quantities of chlorine found in
various fertilizers as a carrying element can easily result in toxic levels of chorine accumulating in the
recirculating solution. Concentration For rock-wool culture, in particular, the recommended maximum
concentration of chlorine in the nutrient feed is 35 ppm Cl; the corresponding maximum in the rock-wool
slab is 70 ppm Cl. However, recent experience suggests that these levels may have been underestimated.
Nonessential elements The following elements are potentially useful, or harmful: silicon and sodium.
Silicon Silicon exists as one of the most abundant elements in soils, most of it tied up in quartz.
Available silicon is present as monosilisic acid [Si(OH)4] and decreases with increasing pH. Although
18
we lack absolute evidence that silicon is an essential element, evidence mounts that it is beneficial in
many ways. Silicon often appears stimulatory, but its abundance in dust makes the study of its effects
on yield difficult. The amendment of hydroponic nutrient solutions with 75-100 ppm of soluble silica
(SiO2) has been reported to result in improved yields and reduced powdery mildew and pythium
root rot. Add potassium or sodium silicate continuously. Sodium Sodium may not be essential for
plant growth, but many plants clearly benefit from sodium when potassium is deficient. Sodium may
substitute for potassium in certain instances. It becomes interesting to know what is the upper limit
of sodium concentration in nutrient solutions prepared with mildly saline water. In the case of rock
wool culture, a maximum concentration of 23 ppm Na is recommended for the nutrient feed and 46
ppm Na in the rock- wool slabs.
SECTION 3
General cultural practices
Crop scheduling Cultivar selection Plant propagation Propagation schedules Seed sowing and
seedling establishment Soil and soilless mixes Rock-wool multiblocks Environment control for
seedlings Seedling transfer (transplanting) Artificial light Temperature control Carbon dioxide
enrichment Grafting Plant spacing Pruning and training General principles Pruning systems
Training systems Choosing a training and pruning system Fruit thinning Harvesting and storage
Crop scheduling
Early spring crop - Sow seed 15 November - 15 December - Set plants in permanent bed 20 December
- 20 January - Harvest February to July - Remove plants 1 July - 20 July
- Sterilize soil, general clean-up 1 July - 25 July.
Late spring crop - Sow seed 15 December - 30 January - Set plants in permanent bed 20 January - 1
March - Harvest March to July - Remove plants 1 July - 20 July - Sterilize soil, general clean-up 1
July - 25 July.
Fall crop - Sow seed 20 June - July 15 - Set plants in permanent bed 15 July - August 15 - Harvest 15
August - 15 December - Remove plants 15 November - 15 December - Sterilize soil, general clean-up
16 November - 31 December.
Sometimes the spring crop, either early or late, can extend up to the following November if plants are
healthy and price holds well through the summer months. A spring or fall crop may also be replaced
by a corresponding tomato crop. In rare instances, even dedicated tomato growers will raise a
summer cucumber crop as a quick fix to revenue loss caused by premature termination of a spring
tomato crop.
Cultivar selection
A large selection of seedless cucumber cultivars exist in the international market, and many more are
introduced every year. Many seed suppliers are from The Netherlands, and most have local
representatives in Canada. The main criteria in selecting the best cultivar are - overall productivity -
plant growth habit and vigor - fruit quality (i.e., length, diameter, shape, color, and smoothness) -
fruit shelf life - disease resistance - energy requirements. Only gynoecious types, or predominantly
gynoecious types (i.e., with few male flowers) rather than the old-fashioned monoecious types (i.e.,
with both male and female flowers) are acceptable. The gynoecious cultivars are preferred because
they are less vigorous (and therefore require less pruning), come into production earlier, produce
more, and can grow at lower temperatures. The choice of cultivar is a complicated decision based on
published research findings and growers' experience with the various cultivars available. The
situation is further complicated because, depending on the crop management strategy followed,
different growers can receive equally satisfying results with different cultivars. The existence of a
large number of cucumber breeding houses guarantees that, at least for the foreseeable future, a
good selection of high-quality cucumber cultivars will continue to be available. For reasons that have
to do with the intrinsic benefits of hybridization and the protection of the commercial rights of the
breeding houses, nearly all seedless cucumber cultivars on the market are sterile hybrids (i.e., it is
not possible to save seed from the previous crop). At the time of writing the most popular cultivars
are Corona, Jessica (mostly a fall favorite), Bronco, Ventura, and Dugan. The recent introduction of
19
new cultivars (e.g., Aramon and Flamingo) with powdery mildew tolerance, and possibly some form
of resistance, has raised expectations for improved overall disease resistance. However, until now,
those cultivars having powdery mildew tolerance appear disadvantaged by inferior vigor and
productivity. Contact your local horticultural crop adviser for current advice on recommended
cultivars.
Plant propagation
Most greenhouse operators in Canada grow their own transplants. This practice reduces the
possibility of importing diseases and insects. However, some specialized nurseries in other countries
have ensured a reliable supply of low-cost high-quality transplants to local growers by applying
modern technology. Plant propagation is a vitally important stage in greenhouse vegetable
production. The success of a crop depends largely on the attention paid to detail and the care taken
during plant raising. Moreover, with early spring crops, propagation must take place in the winter,
when natural light is limited. To make the best use of available light, other factors such as spacing,
temperature, irrigation, and nutrition must be closely and accurately controlled. Artificial light, now
used widely to enhance transplant growth when natural radiation is limited, significantly improves
the performance of early-planted spring crops. The preferred way of raising cucumber transplants is
to sow the seed in small multicell propagation trays and then transfer the seedlings into larger pots
for finishing until final planting into the greenhouse. An alternative way is to sow the seed directly in
the large pots (or rockwool blocks) and to bypass the first stage. The first method, because
the trays take less space than the pots, costs less to provide with the required high temperature
before germination and the high light intensity after germination. The second method saves the labor
cost for transferring the seedlings from the trays to the pots. Base your choice of method on the
relative cost and availability of labor, energy, and proper facilities.
Propagation schedules
In deciding when to seed, consider the desired harvesttime. It usually takes 8-10 weeks from seed to
first pick in a normal spring crop but only 7-8 weeks in a normal fall crop. A spring crop that comes
into production at the beginning of February requires seeding to take place around the end of
November. In recent years, an increasing number of growers plant a late spring crop in plastic
houses. In that case, seeding takes place in January and planting in-house in February. Harvest
occurs during March to July, and later. The late spring crop is easier and less expensive to grow but
comes into production when prices are relatively low. For an average fall crop, seed normally in the
1st week of July.
Seed sowing and seedling establishment
Each gram contains about 28 seeds. To achieve a planting density of 14 000 plants per hectare,
assuming a germination rate of 90% and a safety margin of an additional 10% transplants, sow seed
at about 600g/ha. Because of a peculiarity in the way the root of the cucumber plant (and other
cucurbitaceae) develops, it is unacceptable to raise seedlings in flats, or in some other way that
involves pulling the seedlings and damaging their roots. Instead, multicell trays (e.g., plug trays or
plug strips) must be used throughout the entire propagation cycle so that plants can be transferred in
their entirety with their root systems intact.
Soil and soilless mixes
Select a medium for seedlings that matches the growth medium to be used for growing the crop.
Steamed and subsequently leached soil (preferably sandy-loam) is recommended for soil-based
operations; a proven commercial or a home-made peat mix (Table 5P) is recommended if you choose
to grow the crop in peat-bags. Start by filling a plastic tray (55 x 27cm) divided in individual cells
with approximate cell size of 3 x 3 cm (plug trays or plug strips are convenient, and widely available).
Press the growth medium into the tray cells with a second tray, to create space (impressions of 1.5-2.0
cm) for sowing the seed. Place one seed per cell at least 1 cm below the surface of the medium. Add
more medium over the seed and use a ruler or other similar object to strike off any excess medium.
When soil or peat is the growth medium, apply only water after sowing the seed; ideally, cover the
trays with a thin plastic film to conserve moisture. After germination and until seedlings are
20
transferred to pots, add plain water, or very dilute fertilizer solution as needed (overall EC of about
1200 µS/cm; see recommendations in Table 6P and Table 7P).
Table 5P
Ingredients of a standard peat-mix for raising cucumber seedlings

---------------------------------------------------------------------
Medium Amount
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Peat 1.0 m³ (4 bales of 0.17 m³)*
Horticultural vermiculite 0.5 m³ (4.5 bags of 0.11 m³)
Limestone (pulverized FF) 10 kg
---------------------------------------------------------------------
* Expansion of compressed bales is estimated at 50% over the original
volume.
Table 6P
Stock solutions required for the preparation of complete nutrient

solutions for cucumber transplants in soil and soilless mixes
---------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer* Salt in stock
(kg / 1000 L)
---------------------------------------------------
Stock A
Calcium nitrate 67.0
Potassium nitrate 74.0
Stock B
Potassium sulphate 13.5
Stock C
Monopotassium phosphate 22.5
Magnesium sulphate 50.0
Micronutrient mix** 2.0
---------------------------------------------------
* The stock solutions can be used, as described in Table 7P, to prepare
nutrient solutions of various ECs for raising transplants in soil and
soilless mixes.
** A typical micronutrient mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated
Micronutrient mix) contains 7% Fe, 2% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and
0.06% Mo.
Table 7P
Amount of each stock solution required to prepare 1000 L of final

nutrient solution with various conductivities for raising cucumber
transplants in soil or soilless media, and corresponding nutrient
concentrations
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Target EC in final nutrient solution (µS/cm)*
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of each stock to be added
(L / 1000 L of final solution)
---------------------------------------------------------
Stock A 3.8 5.8 7.5 9.0 12.0
Stock B 3.8 5.8 7.5 9.0 12.0
21
Stock C 3.8 5.8 7.5 9.0 12.0
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Anticipated nutrient concentrations in final solutions (ppm)
------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (NO3-) 73 112 145 174 232
Nitrogen (NH4+) 3 4 5 6 8
Phosphorus 19 29 37 45 60
Potassium 152 232 300 360 480
Calcium 48 74 95 114 152
Magnesium 19 29 37 45 60
Iron 0.53 0.81 1.05 1.26 1.68
Manganese 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.36 0.48
Zinc 0.030 0.046 0.060 0.072 0.096
Copper 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.024
Boron 0.099 0.151 0.195 0.234 0.312
Molybdenum 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.011 0.144
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has not been included; to obtain the final EC of
the nutrient solution add to the ECs listed the EC of your water source
(e.g., if your water has an EC of 400 µS/cm and you add 7.5 L of each
stock to 1000 L of water then your final nutrient solution will have an
EC of 2400 µS/cm).
Rock-wool multiblocks
In the case of rock wool and various other soilless systems, sow the seed and raise the seedlings in
special rock-wool multiblocks. These small blocks (e.g., 3.6 x 3.6 x 4.0 cm) are held together as slabs
of the same size and shape as the common plastic tray. Each comes with the necessary cavity for
placing the seed, but, on delivery from the factory, their pH is too alkaline for immediate use. Start
by soaking the multiblocks in nutrient solution with an overall EC of 1500 µS/cm and a pH of 5.0-5.5.
Table 8 and Table 9 give the recommended nutrient concentrations as well as the quantities of
fertilizer needed for preparing the nutrient solution for soaking fresh rock wool. Sowing the seed
entails placing one seed in each cell cavity and covering it with fine vermiculite; this process can
easily be automated. The seed covering has been omitted in some cases without any loss in
germination, but such practice is not recommended; under certain conditions uncovered seed might
dry out before germination or be eaten by small animals. After the seed germinates, monitor the
moisture content in the rockwool and apply nutrient solution with an overall EC of 1500-1800 µS/cm
and a pH of 5.5, according to need. Judge the need to apply more nutrient solution by how easily you
can squeeze nutrient solution out of the rock wool and by the EC of that nutrient solution. Monitor
the EC and pH of the nutrient solution in the rock wool by extracting samples of the solution
frequently and testing them with portable EC and pH meters. Maintain the EC and pH below 2500
µS/cm and 6.0, respectively, by always applying fresh nutrient solution, in excess of that required to
wet the rock wool. Leaching excess nutrients from the rock wool by applying excess nutrient solution
is an effective technique for avoiding salt accumulation and seedling damage from too high an EC,
but it results in fertilizer waste and must be used responsibly.
Table 8
Stock solutions required for the preparation of complete nutrient

solutions for cucumber transplants in rock wool
------------------------------------------
Fertilizer Salt in stock
(kg / 1000 L)
------------------------------------------
Stock A*
Calcium nitrate 100
22
Potassium nitrate 45
Stock B**
Monopotassium phosphate 22
Magnesium sulphate 33
Micronutrient mix** 2
------------------------------------------
* The stock solutions can be used, as described in Table 9, to prepare
nutrient solutions of various ECs for raising transplants in rock wool.
** A typical micronutrient mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated
Micronutrient
mix) contains 7% Fe, 2% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and 0.06% Mo.
Table 9
Amount of each stock solution required to prepare 1000 L of final

nutrient solution with various conductivities for raising cucumber
transplants in rock-wool blocks, and corresponding nutrient
concentrations
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Target EC in final nutrient solution (µS/cm)*
---------------------------------------------------
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
------------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of each stock to be added (L / 1000 L)
---------------------------------------------------
Stock A 5.0 8.5 12.0 16.0 19.0
Stock B 5.0 8.5 12.0 16.0 19.0
------------------------------------------------------------------
Anticipated nutrient concentrations in final solutions (ppm)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (NO3-) 101 172 244 325 386
Nitrogen (NH4+) 5 8 12 16 19
Phosphorus 25 42 60 80 95
Potassium 117 200 282 376 446
Calcium 95 161 228 304 361
Magnesium 16 28 40 53 63
Iron 0.7 1.2 1.68 2.24 2.66
Manganese 0.2 0.34 0.48 0.64 0.76
Zinc 0.04 0.068 0.096 0.128 0.152
Copper 0.01 0.017 0.024 0.032 0.038
Boron 0.13 0.221 0.312 0.416 0.494
Molybdenum 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.019 0.023
------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has not been included; to obtain the final
EC of the nutrient solution, add to the ECs listed the EC of your water
source (e.g., if your water has an EC of 400 µS/cm and you add 8.5 L of
each stock to 1000 L of water then your final nutrient solution will
have an EC of 1900 µS/cm).
Environment control for seedlings

Regardless of the growth medium, place the trays with seed in a small greenhouse or special
propagation room (no light is needed at this stage) and maintain day and night temperature at 26-
28°C until daily inspection proves seedlings to be breaking the surface of the growth medium. If
heating the propagation house to 26°C proves uneconomical or technically impossible, provide the
extra heat to the germinating seed with bottom heat (i.e., heating pipes or heating cables under the
23
table of the seeding trays). The higher the air temperature of the propagation room during
germination the faster and more uniform the germination will be. However, seedlings grow fast at
high temperatures, which makes the use of a high germination temperature risky because a delay of
a few hours in removing the seed tray cover can result in excessive elongation of the seedlings and
carbohydrate depletion. When seedlings have emerged, remove the seed tray covers, reduce the day
and night air temperature to 22°C, and supply as much light as possible continuously. Maintain these
conditions for the next several (5-7) days until seedlings grow enough that they can safely be handled,
but not for too long because seedlings can get crowded, etiolate (stretch tall), and grow too slender.
Seedling transfer (transplanting)
If you have chosen to sow the seed directly into pots (preferably those 10 cm in diameter), you need
not transfer the seedlings. If you sow the seed in trays, then you need to transfer the small seedlings
from the trays to pots or rock-wool blocks. Note that seedlings transferred intact do better than those
transplanted or pricked out. Transferring the seedlings keeps their root systems intact; pulling the
seedlings up from the growth medium and transplanting them into pots disturbs and severs many of
the roots in the process. Take particular care in transferring cucumber seedlings because the
cucumber root develops quickly. If the young root portions, which are most functional, are severed
during transplanting, then the transplant can not absorb enough water after transplanting, usually
experiences serious shock, and in many cases collapses. Transplanting with pots and soil
Transplanting with rock-wool blocks
Transplanting with pots and soil
Choose from reusable plastic, clay, or paper pots, single-use pots of compressed peat, or peat-blocks.
Good topsoil and peat mixes are used extensively as growth media after proper sterilization. A
worldwide trend toward peat-based mixtures is replacing those based on soil, because soil of
desirable specifications is difficult to obtain year after year. Do not change frequently the substrate
used for raising transplants because seedlings respond differently to different substrates. The
experience gained over the years using one substrate may not be entirely transferable to other
substrates. Larger (10-cm) pots, although they appear to increase costs, allow growers to hold their
plants longer in the propagation house, which is cheaper to heat than the entire greenhouse.
Furthermore, longer propagation time results in greater use of artificial light whenever available.
Finally, the use of large pots for transplant raising has frequently been associated with increased
early yields. Pots can be used again the following season, but they should first be washed and soaked
in a solution of bleach (10%) or any other approved disinfectant. For transplants designated for soil,
use topsoil to fill the pots. Avoid modifying recommended mixtures, as the results could be
disastrous. Properly sterilized greenhouse soil that has good texture and structure is valuable as a
growth medium for transplant raising. Heavy leaching following soil sterilization is highly
recommended. This treatment removes excess salt, which can harm young seedlings and results in
low levels of nutrients, especially nitrogen, in the growth medium. Low nutrient levels allow for
better control of plant growth through the manipulation of liquid feeding. For transplants designated
for peat-bags, or other peat-based systems, use a proven commercial peat-mix, or prepare your own
following the recommendations in Table 5P to fill the pots. Immediately after transferring the
seedlings into the pots, water them thoroughly to bring the growth medium to field capacity and to
settle it around the roots. Subsequently apply fertilizer at low concentration with every irrigation;
use a nutrient solution with an overall EC below 2000 µS/cm, as prescribed in Table 6P and Table
7P. Careful watering is needed during propagation. Keep the young plants well supplied with water
without depleting the growth medium of its oxygen by overwatering. Because it is difficult to judge
the moisture content of growth media in plastic pots, pull out two or three plants regularly and keep
the medium at the bottom of the pots moist but not too wet. Transplants raised in 10-cm pots require
watering daily in good weather; in very bright weather, they may need more than one watering a
day; in dull winter weather, watering as infrequently as once every 3 days may be enough. The use of
smaller pots requires more-frequent watering.
24
Transplanting with rock-wool blocks
When seedlings are ready, transfer them with their roots intact into 10-cm rock-wool blocks. These
blocks come with cavities of various sizes, so when ordering rock-wool supplies, match the size of the
individual cells in the multiblock units with the size of the cavity in the rock-wool propagation block.
If you choose to seed directly into the propagation block, select the cavity size just big enough for the
seed. Place the rock-wool blocks, with seedlings, ideally on an ebb and flow system, and subirrigate
them with the nutrient solutions prescribed in Table 8 and Table 9. Use complete flooding, or
watering from the top, from time to time to prevent excessive salt accumulation at the top of the
rock-wool blocks that may burn the seedlings. However, where an ebb and flow system is not
available, cover carefully leveled tables with a plastic film and place the blocks on the plastic. To
improve on this system, provide a raised border around the perimeter of the table so that excess
solution applied can be collected and saved. Perfect leveling of the tables is essential to facilitate
complete drainage of the excess solution after every irrigation. Complete drainage prevents excessive
variations in water and oxygen supplies to the transplants, which lead to unacceptable variation in
the growth of the transplants. Check carefully any excess fertilizer solution that is saved, and
pasteurize it, adjust its nutrient content, before applying it again to the transplants. Implementing
fertilizer recycling in transplant raising is more economically justifiable for the large operator.
Placing the rock-wool blocks, with seedlings, on a layer of vermiculite (or any other water absorbent)
reduces the frequency of required irrigation. However, it is not recommended because some roots
grow outside the rock-wool blocks, which causes great delay and inconvenience at planting time.
Artificial light
Use artificial light first, as mentioned earlier, immediately after germination. Because you need only
a relatively small installation at this stage, high light intensity is economically feasible. Both
fluorescent (ideally in mixture with some incandescent) and high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are
acceptable and are widely used to generate a minimum light intensity of 100 µmol/s·m² (equivalent to
20 W/m² or 8000 lux or 760 fc) in growing rooms. The fluorescent lamps produce slightly shorter
plants with a deeper bluish green color than HPS lamps; but the latter are the most economical to
install and operate. During the first few days after the transfer, when the pots can be arranged close
together, it is still economical to maintain a high light intensity (100 µmol/s·m²) continuously.
However, as the plants grow they are spaced progressively to avoid crowding and becoming spindly,
which makes the use of high light intensity less and less cost effective. For the rest of the time, while
the plants are in the propagation house, provide supplemental light (artificial light in addition to
natural light) at a light intensity of about 50 µmol/s·m². Whenever cost is not a factor, provide
continuously the highest light intensity available. This treatment results in shorter propagation time
and heavier, stronger, sturdier transplants. There is no advantage in using low-intensity incandescent
light on cucumber plants in midwinter to extend the daylight period.
Temperature control
Recommended temperatures for transplant raising, along with those mentioned earlier for seed
germination and seed establishment, are summarized in Table 10.
Table 10 Recommended temperatures for raising cucumber transplants

---------------------------------------------------------------------
Air Root
temperature temperature
Growth stage Light conditions (°C)* (°C)*
----------- ------------
Day Night Day Night
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Seed germination Not critical 28 28 28 28
After germination Maximum available 24 22 26 26

continuous
25
After transplanting Good light conditions 23 21 24 24
into pots (summer or with
artificial light)
Poor light conditions 22 20 24 22

(winter, with no
artificial light)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
* When continuous artificial light is supplied, the recommended daytime temperatures apply.
Carbon dioxide enrichment
During propagation, an atmosphere enriched with carbon dioxide at a nominal concentration of 1000
vpm (approximately 1000 ppm) increases plant vigor and early fruit production and may partly
compensate for poor light conditions. The beneficial effects of carbon dioxide enrichment are more
evident when air temperatures are on the high side and are proportional to the duration of
enrichment. Apply carbon dioxide during the day or any part of the night when artificial light is
supplied. Because raising transplants occupies only a small area, it is economically feasible and
highly advisable to use liquid carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide gas liquefied under pressure) because
of its guaranteed purity and amenity to accurate concentration control. Liquid carbon dioxide is also
preferred because burning natural gas or propane to generate carbon dioxide increases the risk of
plant injury from gaseous pollutants.
Grafting
Grafting is a useful technique when soil sterilization is not available or when certain diseases, e.g.,
black root rot, cannot always be controlled effectively by soil steaming. Cucumber seedlings of
popular hybrids are usually grafted onto resistant rootstocks, such as Cucurbita ficifolia. The seed of
C. ficifolia is normally sown a few (5-6) days later than the cucumber hybrid and may have to be
chitted (a small part of the seed coat is cut away) and pregerminated because of its hard seed coat.
Fig. 7A, Fig. 7B, and Fig. 7C show various grafting methods suitable for cucumbers. All types of
grafting require a sharp knife and a clean working surface; a razor blade or scalpel are ideal tools.
Avoid contaminating cuts with soil. Type A grafting (Fig. 7A) is the fastest but is associated with the
most check in the growth of the transplant. Type B grafting (Fig. 7B) is also fast and results in a
stable grafting union, but some check in the growth of the transplants can be found. Type C grafting
(Fig. 7C) is the slowest but is usually associated with the greatest success in grafting. Grafting can be
helpful in saving the cost of soil sterilization and in allowing the cropping of cultivars that are
productive but devoid of adequate disease resistance. However, it poses its own problems. The graft
union becomes an obstacle to water and nutrients moving from the roots to the top of the plant and
to photoassimilates moving from the top of the plant to the root. Grafting is therefore a potential
limiting factor in maximizing yield. Grafting also requires skilled labor, which is either expensive or
not readily available. The difference in vigor between scion and rootstock can result in significant
differences in stem diameter (a minimum diameter of 5mm is desirable), which slows down the speed
of grafting and reduces the success rate. Finally, repeated handling of plants at grafting may help
spread diseases. It is therefore extremely important to clean the knife regularly and to wash the
hands frequently with milk during grafting. Make every effort to start with clean seed.
26
Fig. 7A
Fig. 7A Bare-rooted plants, bench graft. Step 1 Select a rootstock (R) and a scion (S) plant of similar
size. Make an upward cut in the stem of one and a downward cut in the stem of the other. Step 2 Join
the two stems, which are then held together by the flaps of tissue. Step 3 Bind both plants together
with adhesive tape, and plant them in a pot with the graft union well above soil level. Step 4 Remove
the top of the rootstock and the adhesive tape when the graft union has healed.
Fig. 7B
27
Fig. 7B Rootstock and scion-plants grown in same pot; immediate detopping of the root-stock. Step 1
Make an upward cut in the scion (S) and remove the rootstock (R) top with a diagonal cut. Step 2
Place the top of the rootstock stem into the cut of the scion stem. Step 3 Remove obstructing leaves
and bind the two plants together with adhesive tape. Step 4 Remove adhesive tape when the graft
union has healed.
Fig. 7C
Fig. 7C Rootstock and scion plants grown together in same pot; delayed detopping of the rootstock.
Step 1 Plant scion (S) and rootstock (R) 10 mm apart in the same pot and grow them until they are
ready for grafting. Make an upward cut in the scion and a downward cut in the rootstock. Step 2
Join the two stems, which are then held together by the flaps of tissue. Step 3 Bind both plants
together with adhesive tape. Step 4 Remove the top of the rootstock and the adhesive tape when the
graft union has healed.
Plant spacing
The optimum space per plant is generally agreed to be 0.70-0.80 m². Ideally, use the same spacing
between rows of plants as between plants in the row. However, to facilitate working among the
plants, use double rows for planting. Place the first two rows 80-120 cm apart and allow 140-200 cm
for a walking path before repeating two more rows spaced at 80-120 cm apart; repeat the process as
necessary. The location of posts, heating pipes, and other physical limitations of the greenhouse
structure may influence plant density, especially row spacing. Factors such as cultivar, season, and
growth medium influence plant spacing. Space the plants in the rows at 45-60 cm. Space farther
apart cultivars that are vigorous (large leaves). Late spring and early fall crops enjoy favorable light
conditions and therefore, plant spacing can be closer. Also, crops planted in rock wool or finely
textured soils (high clay content) tend to be of low vigor (small leaves); therefore spacing must be
close. Actual-row and within-row plant spacing depends on the training system chosen. Although it is
important to use the space in the greenhouse as efficiently as possible, excessive crowding usually
results in small fruit and outbreaks of leaf disease. Pruning and training General principles Pruning
systems Original umbrella system Modified umbrella system Training systems Canopy system
Vertical cordon Inclined cordon (V-cordon, V-training) system Guernsey arch
28
General principles
Pruning involves making a series of decisions based upon the basic concepts of plant growth. Growth
is accomplished when water and nutrients absorbed by the plant are transported to the leaves and
combine with carbohydrates (formed through photosynthesis) to produce various plant foods. Any
reduction in leaf area therefore reduces the amount of plant food manufactured, which in turn
reduces growth. Although pruning usually causes the remaining shoots to increase their length and
their leaf area, especially near the cuts, the total plant size and weight is greatest without pruning.
Thus, pruning is a dwarfing process. The main reasons for pruning plants are as follows: - to help
recovery from injury to the roots - to remove dead or injured growth - to remove or restrict
unwanted growth - to encourage or train growth where it is desired - to rejuvenate old plants - to
promote flower and fruit production - to facilitate light penetration throughout the leaf canopy for
more efficient use of light - to expose fruit to light when beneficial. Pruning and training greenhouse
cucumber plants create conditions for maximum yield production of high-quality fruit by
establishing and maintaining - optimum fruit load - complete leaf coverage (i.e., no light reaching the
ground) - uniform exposure of all foliage (for efficient light absorption). Although training is, for
practical reasons, uniform for all plants, pruning offers the opportunity to adjust the fruit load of
each individual plant according to its vegetative vigor. Maintaining the proper balance in each plant
is essential for maximum productivity and best fruit quality. Under a heavy fruit load, many fruits
do not develop properly (fruit is malformed, curved, short, or of poor color). When eventually the
load becomes excessive, abortion prevents any further development of fruit. Avoid overloading the
plants by removing excess fruit, as early as possible, starting with curved and pointed fruit. Allow
only one fruit per axil. Because fruit will not develop without a continuous production of leaf axils,
you may need to resort to drastic pruning to stimulate growth. In this case, it is more practical and
equally effective, to remove whole laterals than to trim back the tips of all laterals. Maintaining the
proper fruit load prevents overall plant stress and wastage of photosynthates and ensures steady
fruit production throughout the season. When vegetative growth is strong, fruit production suffers at
the expense of excessive leaf development, which fuels an already overvegetated plant. Also, excessive
vegetative growth results in extensive shading of the fruit causing it to be of poor quality (i.e., slow
growth, pale color, and possibly excessively ribbed).
Pruning systems
Always prune cucumber plants to a single stem and support them by plastic twine. Place one end of
the twine under the pot at planting time; attach the other end to an overhead wire supported 1.8-2.5
m above the plant row. As a plant grows, it winds around the twine. Remove side shoots or fruit, or
both, according to the pruning and training system, at least every week. As the plant becomes larger
and carries a lot of fruit, use twist ties or plastic snap-on clips to attach it to the twine. Avoid
removing the lower leaves as long as they are healthy and productive unless necessary for improving
air circulation. When the overhead wires are low (less than 2 m), the early removal of the lower
foliage may be detrimental to yield; keep a minimum of 1.5 m of leaf-bearing stem. The dilemma of
adequate leaf area versus sufficient air circulation is avoided in modern (tall) greenhouses by fixing
the support wires much higher than 2 m. The main pruning systems practiced on greenhouse
cucumbers are the original umbrella system and the modified umbrella system and their variants. A
short description follows. Original umbrella system Modified umbrella system
Original umbrella system
To prune a plant according to the original umbrella system (Fig. 8a), follow these step-by-step
instructions. Step 1 When the main stem reaches the horizontal wire (i.e., 2.0-2.5 m high), pinch out
the growing point allowing an extra two or three leaves above the wire. Use a small piece of a string,
or a plastic clip, to tie the main stem to the wire; the extra two or three leaves above the point of
attachment will help prevent the plant, when fully loaded with fruit, from slippingdown. Step 2
Remove all fruit and laterals from the lowest 60 cm of the main stem. Step 3 Remove all fruit from
the next 60 cm of the main stem but allow the laterals to grow to their first leaf and then pinch them;
allow one fruit to develop on each lateral. Step 4 Allow one fruit and a lateral to grow from each leaf
axil of the rest of the main stem; pinch the laterals after the second leaf and allow two fruit on each
29
lateral (i.e., one in each leaf axil of the lateral). Step 5 Allow the two strongest laterals from the top of
the plant to grow over the horizontal wire and then to hang down along the main stem; pinch these
primary laterals when they grow one-half to two-thirds of their way down to the ground. Step 6
Allow a secondary lateral from the axil of each leaf on the primary lateral to develop, pinch each
secondary lateral after the second leaf and allow two fruit to develop on each secondary lateral. Step
7 Remove any lateral if its fruit touches the ground. Variations In the first variation of the original
umbrella pruning system (Fig. 8b), allow the main stem to grow along the horizontal wire (twisting it
around the wire) and let it continue growing downwards as a primary lateral. Then train a sideshoot
from a leaf axil at the top of the plant as a second primary lateral on the other side of the main stem.
In a second variation of the original umbrella pruning system (Fig. 8c), train the main stem along the
horizontal wire until it reaches the next plant and then pinch its head. Then allow two sideshoots
from leaf axils on the segment of the main stem trained along the horizontal wire to grow downwards
in the usual way.
Fig. 8
Fig. 8 Original umbrella pruning system: a standard form; b first variation; c second variation.
Modified umbrella system
To prune a plant according to the modified umbrella (stem fruit) system (Fig. 9a), follow the step-by-
step instructions. Step 1 When the main stem reaches the horizontal wire (2.0-2.5 m high), pinch out
the growing point allowing an extra two or three leaves above the wire. Use a small piece of a string,
or a plastic clip, to tie the main stem to the wire. The extra two or three leaves above the point of
attachment help prevent the plant, when fully loaded with fruit, from slipping down. Step 2 Remove
all fruit and laterals from the lowest 0.8-1.0 m of the main stem. Step 3 Continue removing all
laterals, but allow one fruit to develop from each leaf axil of the rest of the main stem. Step 4 Allow
two laterals from the top of the plant to grow over the wire and then to grow down along the main
stem (one on each side). Pinch the primary laterals before any fruit developing on them could touch
the ground. Step 5 Remove all sideshoots from the primary laterals and allow only one fruit to
30
develop at each leaf axil of the lateral. Step 6 When the primary laterals get old and unproductive,
allow new sideshoots to develop at the top of the plant and repeat the cycle of steps 4 and 5. Before
allowing new laterals to grow downwards, make sure they first grow over the horizontal wire for
better support and light exposure. Variations In a first variation to the modified umbrella (stem fruit)
system (Fig. 9b), allow the main stem to grow along the horizontal wire (twisting it around the wire) and
then let it continue growing downwards as a primary lateral. Then train a side-shoot from a leaf axil at the
top of the plant as a second primary lateral on the other side of the main stem. In a second variation (Fig.
9c), train the main stem along the horizontal wire until it reaches the next plant and then pinch its head;
then allow two sideshoots from a leaf axil on the segment of the main stem trained along the horizontal
wire to grow downwards in the usual way.
Fig. 9
Fig. 9 Modified umbrella (stem fruit) pruning system: a standard form; b first variation; c second
variation.
Training systems
Modern cucumber cultivars grown as greenhouse crops retain the characteristic weak stem of their wild
ancestors, so they require support when grown with a single vertical stem. The main cucumber training
systems are the canopy system, the vertical cordon, the inclined cordon (V-cordon), and the Guernsey arch.
A short description of each follows. Canopy system Vertical cordon Inclined cordon (V-cordon, V-
training) system Guernsey arch
Canopy system
Set plants to be trained according to the canopy system (Fig. 10) in double rows 120-140 cm apart, with
walking paths 180-200 cm wide separating the double rows. In-row spacing can vary between 40-60 cm
depending on desirable planting density. Position horizontal support wires directly over the rows of plants,
at a height of 2.0-2.5 m (depending on greenhouse structure and convenience, the higher the better). At the
same height, extend a variable number of horizontal wires in the same direction as the rows, over the
walking paths, to provide a convenient support and to give form to the canopy. Train plants initially
vertically along and around the support (plastic) strings. When they reach the horizontal wires, train them
31
horizontally over and across the walking paths. Terminate the main stem, depending on in-row plant
spacing, either half way across the walking path or after it runs the full width of the walking path. Prune
these plants according to the modified umbrella system. However, train the primary laterals, and any
subsequent growth, over the horizontal wires, rather than allowing them to grow vertically, and allow only
the fruit to hang down. The constant need for training new growth over the wire to maintain the canopy,
especially during the heavy harvest period, is a serious disadvantage of this training system. The
advantages are a smaller number of rows (i.e., substantial savings in growth media and labor) and a
potential for straight (high-quality) fruit.
Fig. 10
Fig. 10 The canopy training system.
Vertical cordon
Set plants to be trained according to the vertical cordon system (Fig. 11) in double rows 100-120 cm apart
with walking paths, 140-160 cm wide, separating the double rows. In-row spacing can vary between 50-70
cm depending on desirable planting density. Position horizontal support wires directly over the rows of
plants, at a height of 2.0-2.5 m (depending on greenhouse structure and convenience, the higher the better).
Initially train each plant vertically along and around the support (plastic) string and then along and
around the horizontal wire until it reaches the next plant. Prune these plants according to the modified
umbrella system, or, under conditions of exceptionally good light and low cost for trained labor, according
to the original umbrella system. The minimal plant support infrastructure needed and the system's
simplicity make it the most attractive and popular training system. However, research and practical
experience in most parts of Canada indicate that this system may not always be the best for maximizing
light absorption or the most productive. The vertical cordon training system has a definite advantage in
producing high early yield, but its actual effect on the final yield is still debated.
Fig. 11
32
Fig. 11 The vertical cordon training system.
Inclined cordon (V-cordon, V-training) system

Set plants to be trained according to the inclined cordon system (Fig. 12) in double rows, 140-160 cm
apart with walking paths, 160-180 cm wide, separating the double rows. In-row spacing can vary between
40-60 cm depending on desirable planting density. Position two horizontal wires, 60-80 cm apart, over
each row of plants at a height of 2.0-2.5 m (depending on greenhouse structure and convenience, the
higher the better). Initially train plants on an angle, along and around strings that are stretched
alternatively to the overhead wires, and later along and around the horizontal wire (for twice the in-row
spacing) until they reach the next plant inclined in the same direction. As a result, plants incline away from
the row of planting, guided by the offset support wires above, and form a canopy V-shaped in cross section.
As with the canopy training system and because of the reduced number of rows, there are substantial
savings in growth media and labor. Besides, because of the alternate inclination of the main stems, - light
can penetrate better down the plant canopy and be distributed more uniformly over the leaf area - fruit
hangs away from the main stem becoming straight and of better color (quality) - stem to stem distance
effectively doubles that of the actual plant spacing, so plant pruning and training become more convenient.
Prune plants trained according to the inclined cordon system according to the modified umbrella system.
Under conditions of exceptionally good light and low cost of trained labor, they are trained according to
the original umbrella system. Variations In one possible variation of the inclined cordon system, use two
rows of growth medium at a small distance from each other (e.g., 20-40 cm) instead of one. This approach
is preferable when the growth medium allotment per plant must be increased, or, when the slope of the
main stems must be reduced. In a second possible variation of the inclined cordon system, install an extra
two or three horizontal wires. These wires provide extra support to the main stem and prevent plants from
distorting the ideal V-shape, sagging into the pathway, and obstructing traffic in the walking paths. They
also prevent excessive stem and fruit breakage by the harvesting crews. The inclined cordon system,
especially its variation with the extra horizontal wires, has become popular in some European countries,
where it is believed to have a high yield potential.
Fig. 12
Fig. 12 The inclined cordon, V-cordon, or V-training system.
Guernsey arch
This training system (Fig. 13), as the name indicates, originated on Guernsey (one of the Channel Islands)
where it was popular for many years. However, this training system is rarely used today since the demise of
the greenhouse vegetable industry in those islands, and because it requires considerable quality labor to
33
establish and maintain the arch. The system is described briefly here primarily for historical reasons. Set
plants to be trained according to this system in single rows spaced 3.5-4.5 m apart. Traditionally one arch
was practiced in each narrow greenhouse or two arches in wide-span (e.g., 30-ft) greenhouses. Keep in-
row spacing close (e.g., 20-30 cm), unless two parallel rows of plants are grown at a short distance from
each other to facilitate a larger allotment of growth medium per plant (in that case, provide in-row spacing
of the usual 40-60 cm). The arch, a series of inverted Vs, normally has a width at the base of 3.5-4.5 m, a
height at the apex of about 2.2-2.5m, and a height of about 70-80 cm at the sides. The skeleton of the arch
is provided by an elaborate system of horizontal wires extended over wooden (or metal) supports having
the shape of an inverted V or U. Initially allow the main stems to grow vertically in front of the first couple
of wires. In this way the lower part of the plant can allow for some movement at a later time without the
main stem breaking or the plant pulling out of the growth medium. Subsequently, train the main stems over
the remaining horizontal wires, tie with string or plastic clips, and pinch when they reach the apex of the
arch. Train the primary laterals developing out of each leaf axil of the main stem at right angles to the
main stem. Tie them in the usual manner on the horizontal wires, and stop them after the second leaf. Train
and tie secondary laterals developing out of each leaf axil of the primary laterals at right angles to the
primary laterals (and support wires). Stop them after one or two leaves depending on plant vigor, fruit
load, and coverage of the arch with foliage. During this tying-in period, which usually takes 4-5 weeks
from planting, remove all fruit developing in the leaf axils of the main stem at an early stage. The first fruit
to be harvested develops from the leaf axils of the primary laterals. Because stems and foliage now cover
the arch, no further tying-in is required. Now simply trim (i.e., stop sideshoots, remove dead or aging
leaves and stems, and remove unmarketable fruit) and pull fruit through the wires to hang inside thearch.
Developing the arch requires much labor and skill, but maintaining the canopy is relatively easy. Definite
advantages are the high quality of fruit, ease of harvest, economy in growth medium because of the small
number of rows, and the potential for high yield over an extended cropping season. Several variations of
the Guernsey arch exist but their description is beyond the scope of this publication.
Fig. 13
Fig.13 The Guernsey arch training system.
Choosing a training and pruning system

Although the training and pruning systems described appear very different, all aim to produce an optimum
foliage coverage and distribution and an optimum balance between vegetative growth (plant vigor) and
34
fruit load. Choosing a training system is difficult; research results are limited because of the large size of
the trials needed and because many factors, including availability and cost of trained labor, must be taken
into account. In general, the vertical cordon and canopy systems require little labor and, especially during
the busy harvesting season, are easiest to apply. They also require only simple support systems and little
technical skill in training. The inclined systems (inclined cordon and Guernsey arch) require definite
technical skill in training and elaborate support systems (especially in the case of the Guernsey arch).
However, the extra time needed for applying these training systems is mostly invested during the early part
of the season. Much of that investment in time is recouped later by the shorter time spent in harvesting the
fruit, which is more exposed and accessible. Because of the way the fruit hangs out in the open, fruit quality
is high. With regards to the pruning systems, the modified umbrella system and its variants require little
technical skill and in most cases produce satisfactory results. The original umbrella system may be
preferable when light conditions are exceptionally good (late spring, summer, and early fall) and a short
crop is planned.
Fruit thinning
Overbearing can sometimes be a problem. To prevent the plants becoming exhausted and to improve fruit
size, control the number of the fruit per plant through selective fruit thinning. This technique is powerful, so
use it with great caution. The optimum number of fruits per plant varies with the cultivar and, even more,
with the growing conditions. Although, limiting the number of fruits per plant invariably results in
premium-priced large fruit, growers risk underestimating the crop's potential or failing to forecast good
weather. They may decide to remove too many fruits and thus unnecessarily limit production. Fruit
thinning is undoubtedly most useful in the hands of experienced growers who can use it to maximize their
financial returns. Fruit to be pruned must be removed as soon as it can be handled, before it grows too
large.
Harvesting and storage

After all the effort and money invested in production, it is essential that fruit be handled well at harvesting
and during transportation to the market. Most growers pick twice and even three times a week in hot
weather. Pick fruit carefully and place them in soft plastic, or better, padded containers to avoid bruising
and damage. The size of the fruit at harvest is important. Harvesting underdeveloped fruit loses revenue
because larger fruit sells easier and at a better price. However, fruit left on the plants for too long not only
prevents new cucumbers from developing but also has a short shelf life expectancy when harvested. Make
every effort to minimize losses in fruit quality during harvest and transit. Overfilling the crate or stacking
the produce too high may damage the bottom layer. Harvest fruit in the early morning, while the day is still
cool. Move produce immediately out of direct sunlight and into cool, shaded, ventilated areas so that fruit
temperature does not rise. Wrap each fruit individually with thin plastic film to conserve its water and
extend its shelf life. Use a covered vehicle to transport the produce to the packing shed, thus protecting the
fruit from direct sunlight and exposure to the drying effect of air. Do not park a loaded truck in direct
sunlight for any length of time. During transportation, minimize heat gain and place produce in cold
storage (12°C) as soon as it arrives at its destination. Fruit stored under ideal conditions (i.e., 10-13°C
and 90-95% RH) has a life expectancy of 10-14 days. Stacking the crates too high or too tight prevents the
crates in the middle from cooling down adequately when the product is stored in a cooler. Packing and
storing produce in the same place as active ethylene producers, such as apples, accelerates ripening and
results in yellowing of the fruit. Avoid storing and shipping tomatoes and cucumbers together. After
removing fruit from cold storage, do not allow water to condense on it, especially if fruit is not shrink-
wrapped. Prevent condensation by keeping the environment dry through ventilation or by raising the
storage temperature gradually before the fruit is removed. After harvest, the quality of cucumbers can
only be preserved, not increased.
35
Plate I
Effect of the day and night air temperature (DAT and NAT, respectively) on the growth and development of
greenhouse seedless cucumbers; Spring 1993, nine mini greenhouse complex, Harrow Research Station. a
Cover: glass (DAT=18°C, NAT=16°C); b Cover: double polyethylene (DAT=18°C, NAT=18°C); c Cover:
acrylic (DAT=18°C, NAT=20°C); d Cover: acrylic (DAT=21°C, NAT=16°C); e Cover: glass (DAT=21°C,
NAT=18°C); f Cover: double polyethylene (DAT=21°C, NAT=20°C); g Cover: double polyethylene
(DAT=24°C, NAT=16°C); h Cover: acrylic (DAT=24°C, NAT=18°C); i Cover: glass (DAT=24°C,
NAT=20°C).
Plate I
36
Plate II
The Harrow Fertigation Manager#174 (HFM#174), a computerized multifertilizer injection system (U.S.
Patent ## 5 184 420) for the precise application of water and nutrients according to the changing needs of
various crops. (Harrow Fertigation Manager#174 and HFM#174 are registered trade marks of Labbate
Climate Control Systems Inc., 509 Hwy ## 77, R.R. ## 5, Leamington, Ont.)
37
Plate III
Effect of the form (nitrate vs. ammonium) and rate of nitrogen on the growth of greenhouse seedless
cucumber transplants in rock wool. Rates of fertilizer application (from left to right): 1. Plain water (no
fertilizer) 2. Half strength of complete nutrient solution (HSCNS) (see Table 9, approx. EC=1000 µS/cm) 3.
HSCNS + 1 g/L of additional nitrogen source 4. HSCNS + 2 g/L of additional nitrogen source 5. HSCNS +
4 g/L of additional nitrogen source a Effect of calcium nitrate (100% nitrate); b Effect of potassium nitrate
(100% nitrate); c Effect of ammonium nitrate (50% nitrate, 50% ammonium); d Effect of urea (100%
ammonium).
38
Plate IV
Cropping of greenhouse seedless cucumbers in soil and soilless media: a conventional cropping in soil; b
cropping in soil with drip irrigation and in Harrow peat bags; c cropping in upright bags filled with
sawdust; d cropping in rock-wool slabs; e cropping in large pots filled with expanded clay pellets; f test
plants in NFT experiencing sudden collapse (due to root death).
Growing greenhouse seedless cucumbers in soil and in soilless media
Sections 4 & 5

Type of soil
Drainage
Soil pasteurization
Organic matter
Control of pH
Cultivating
Watering (soil)
39
Mulching
The trough system
Peat bags
Watering (peat)
Feeding
Recycling
Sawdust
Straw bales
Rock wool
Perlite
Vermiculite
Expanded clay
Sand and gravel
SECTION 4
Conventional cropping in soil (Plate IV a) is the simplest cropping system and involves the planting and
raising of a crop as would be done outdoors. The actual planting is an important stage in the growth of the
crop. First, dig a trench at least 10 cm deep and 15 cm wide. Then place the plants in soil blocks or peat
pots in the trench and heel in with 0.25 L per plant of starter fertilizer solution (10-52-17 in water at 5 g/L);
pull only a little soil around them. Spot-water plants as needed for about 1 week after transplanting. Once
the plants are established and the risk of damping off is reduced, irrigate regularly according to soil type
and light intensity. On light soils general irrigation begins sooner than on heavier soils.
Type of soil
To achieve maximum production, greenhouse vegetables in general need a well-aerated soil with a high
water-holding capacity, rich in nutrients and free of pathogens. Although greenhouse cucumbers can be
grown on awide variety of soils, the most suitable are those classified as loams, sandy loams, and some
silty loams, all with a high organic-matter content (Fig. 4). Other types of soils can be used, but they are
more difficult and expensive to manage. For example, coarse sandy soils have low water-holding capacity,
poor nutrient retention, and poor water cone formation when drip-irrigated; silty soils have an unstable
structure that breaks down with heavy watering; and clay loams are poorly drained, difficult to leach, and
their structure is damaged by cultivation when wet. Proper management can render almost any soil suitable
for greenhouse production. For example, both light and heavy soils can be improved by adding organic
matter. If natural drainage is poor, as in most clay, silty clay, and sandy clay loams, a tile or pipe drainage
system is needed. The soil provides a medium in which a proper balance exists between air, water, and
nutrients. If this balance is ensured, the roots can easily obtain water and nutrients, resulting in rapid
growth.
Drainage
Install tile drainage in ground beds to ensure that all excess water drains away. For drainage, use perforated
or nonperforated clay tiles, 10 cm in diameter, and lay them with a small space between them to allow for
expansion; a few 7.5-cm tiles make effective slip joints for 10-cm tiles. To improve the effectiveness of
drainage, cover the tile lines with glass fiber matting made for this purpose or with 2-cm gravel. Set tiles at
a depth that prevents their being broken by rototilling or other cultural practices. Place tiles 35 cm deep and
45 cm apart, with a slope of 10 cm for every 150 m of 10-cm clay tiles. The same tiles, with perforations on
40
the bottom or the sides, are also used for steam sterilization. Loop adjacent rows of tile together at the ends,
with elbows and tees for more equalized steaming from line to line. Introduce steam into the rows of tile
through a header. This header, with a 50-cm capped riser on each end for steam input, extends across the
width of the house and is equipped with nipples 2-3 cm in diameter and about 25 cm long; one nipple
corresponds to, and is cemented into, each row of tile. Make both the header and the rows of tile no longer
than 15 m, because beyond that length steam condenses into water and gives poor sterilization.
Soil pasteurization
Greenhouse soils may contain weed seeds, insects, and bacteria and fungi that are harmful to the plants.
This warning includes potting mixes unless they are guaranteed sterilized or pasteurized by the
manufacturer. Soil and potting mixes can be pasteurized to eliminate harmful organisms, ideally without
injuring beneficial soil organisms. Soils free of clods, large lumps, and undecomposed crop remains and in
fine tilth allow the steam or fumigant to penetrate rapidly and uniformly. The time-temperature
relationships needed to destroy undesirable organisms are as follows:
Weeds (most) 70º 80ºC for 15 min.

Insects & mites 60º 71ºC for 20 min.
Bacteria (most) 60ºC for 10 min.
Fusarium 57ºC for 30 min.
Botrytis 55ºC for 15 min.
Nematodes 55ºC for 15 min.
Rhizoctonia 52ºC for 30 min.
Sclerotinia 50ºC for 5 min.
Pythium 46ºC for 40 min.
Thus, growers can eliminate most organisms of concern (except viruses)
using ideal conditions of 60ºC for 30 minutes. Heating above 82ºC
begins to destroy beneficial soil organisms. Soil heated at too high a
temperature for too long becomes sterile and subject to a greater
degree of infection by pathogens than previously, simply because all
organisms have been destroyed. Other undesirable effects of over-
steaming include
- excessive ammonia release

- manganese toxicity
- high total-salts levels
- destruction of organic matter.
Steam method
Aerated steam method
Electric soil pasteurizers
Chemical fumigants
Steam method
Steam is the most common source for heat pasteurization. When
pasteurizing soil for vegetable seedlings, growers find it efficient to
inject steam into the bottom of a wagon or old truck body filled with
soil. After cooling, the pasteurized soil can be moved to the area in
which it will be used. For steaming greenhouse soils where the crop is
to be grown, growers follow two main techniques. If the ground beds are
drained with agricultural tile (top of the tile 30-40 cm below the
surface and rows on 40-60-cm centres), steam injected into the tiles
effectively pasteurizes the soil to the sides and above them. Covering
the area with a plastic sheet enhances the efficiency of this method by
confining the steam when it reaches the soil surface. If tiles are not
installed, a coarse, well-drained greenhouse soil can be adequately
41
pasteurized by injecting steam directly under a specially formulated
plastic "steam tarp." For even distribution inject the steam through a
canvas hose or a perforated, flexible field tile. Bury the edges of the
tarp 10-12 cm so that it will confine steam up to 41-48 KPa (6-7 psi)
pressure. With either steaming method, check the temperature accurately
in several locations beneath the plastic, using specially designed
thermometers where the sensitive element is attached to the dial by a
few metres of cable. A soil temperature reading of 80ºC at a depth of
30 cm sustained for 30 min provides sufficient soil pasteurization.
Aerated steam method
Aerated steam is being used more widely today. In this system live
steam is mixed with air in a chamber, and the mixture (at 70ºC) is used
to pasteurize soil. The lower steam temperatures allow the soil to be
pasteurized yet avoid the hazards of oversteaming. Unless there are
specific problems, soil temperatures of 70ºC adequately destroy most
insect and disease organisms.
Electric soil pasteurizers
Electric soil pasteurizers are useful for small volumes of soil when no
other method is available. In this method, over-cooking the soil can
easily occur because, for the temperature between the finned heat
source to reach 82ºC, the fins themselves must be at a higher
temperature.
Chemical fumigants
With the high cost of steaming, the use of chemical fumigants as a
method of soil pasteurizing has become more popular. Each fumigant has
a specific rate and activity against soilborne insects, diseases,
nematodes, and weeds. Directions for use, as provided by the
manufacturer, must be closely followed. Crops in adjoining beds or
greenhouses may need guarding against the drift of toxic vapors from
the fumigant. Recommended fumigants, their use, and rates of application are subject to
government regulations, which can vary from province to province. Licensing is required before
certain fumigants (e.g., methyl bromide) can be used. Pay strict attention to regulations governing
fumigant use and take precautions during application.
To achieve the best results with steam sterilization, first cultivate the soil and bring its water content to field
capacity. The amount of water required varies with the original moisture content of the soil and the soil
type but is generally between 20 and 50 L/m#178. Steam sterilization, particularly oversteaming, often
releases toxic amounts of ammonia and manganese. The content of other elements, such as potassium, iron,
and zinc, may also increase. When soil analysis shows an undesirable excess of soluble salts, leaching with
water usually helps to remove an excess of these substances, and to cool the soil following steam
sterilization. Use the amounts given in Table 11P as a guide.
Table 11
Leaching requirements after steaming

----------------------------------------------------------
Electrical conductivity (#181S/cm) Water required (L/m#178)
------------------------------- ------------------------
Saturated-paste 1:2 water
method extract Sandy soils Other soils
----------------------------------------------------------
42
Up to 1.5 Up to 0.5 15 25
1.5 3.0 0.5-1.0 30 50
3.0 5.0 1.0-1.5 70 100
Over 5 Over 1.5 100 150
----------------------------------------------------------
Notes:
- The numbers suggested for required water (L/m#178) also indicate
equivalent rates of rain in millimetres.
- The rates apply to leaching and are added to the requirement for
bringing the soil to field capacity (usually 20-50 L/m#178).
- The rates apply to use of overhead sprinklers at intervals over 2-5
days.
- It is difficult to leach salts from heavy-textured soils, especially
if no effort is made to improve their structure.
- If the conductivity before leaching is higher than the recommended
range, it must be checked again after leaching and before planting.
- Flooding reduces nitrates and conductivity markedly and may reduce
potassium reserves slightly, but it produces little change in other
nutrient levels.
Organic matter
A high level of organic matter helps to maintain a stable soil structure and improves the water-holding
capacity of the soil. In the past, growers used to steam sterilize greenhouse soils and then add well-rotted
manure after sterilization. This procedure reduced the release of ammonia and other toxic substances, and it
also helped to reinoculate the soil with beneficial organisms. However, the danger of introducing disease
organisms and weed seeds always remained. As an added complication, the use of manure or muck soil as a
source of organic matter has the inherent potential for contaminating the greenhouse soil with herbicide
residues. The recommended amounts of manure varied from 45 to 225 t/ha, depending on the kind of
manure and the soil conditions. For example, spent mushroom compost has a high nutrient content and can
cause soil conductivity problems, whereas undecomposed straw may induce nitrogen deficiency.
Depending on grower experience, intricate planning, and good luck, crops of exceptional vigor and
productivity have been achieved in the past with the timely application of manure. However, the success of
the crop is not easily predictable because it depends on the timing and quantity of nitrogen release as well
as the prevention of high salt and ammonia release from the applied manure. The liberal application of
manure, along with the use of straw as mulch, provided also for the release of significant quantities of CO2.
This gas must have contributed further to the impressive productivity of past crops, despite the limited
environmental controls of old greenhouse structures. In recent years, the addition of organic matter has
been seen more as a means of improving the soil condition (structure) than of increasing the nutrient
content of the soil. In fact, the nutrient content of most manures and other nonstandardized sources of
organic matter is extremely variable. Their use is considered a liability rather than an asset because of the
unpredictable effects on the crop. Now, the benefit from the circumstantial evolution of CO2 from decaying
organic matter is not as important, because of the widespread use of CO2 enrichment in modern
greenhouses. At present, coarse peat is the most satisfactory material as a source of organic matter. When
used to improve the soil conditions, e.g., on new sites, apply peat generously at rates of up to 500
m#179/ha. When the soil reaches the desired condition, reduce the rate; the need for an annual dressing
remains because soil organic matter decomposes rapidly under glass. Apply loose peat to soil at a yearly
rate of 100 m#179/ha. Peat is acid, with a pH of about 4, and therefore has the added benefit of reducing
the pH of calcareous soils; where the soil is noncalcareous, add ground limestone to the loose peat at a rate
of 5 kg/m#179 to neutralize the peat's acidity. Broadcast peat and lime before the main cultivation and
incorporate them into the top 30 cm of the soil.
Control of pH
Greenhouse vegetables generally grow quite well in a wide range of soil pH (5.5-7.5), but a pH of 6.0-6.5
for mineral soils and a pH of 5.0-5.5 for organic soils are generally accepted as optimum. When the pH is
too low, add ground calcitic limestone, or an equal amount of dolomitic limestone when the magnesium
level in the soil is low, to raise it to a desirable level. Use the rates given in Table 12P only as a guide; the
43
actual lime requirement is best assessed by an appropriate laboratory test. Usually the pH in most
greenhouse mineral soils is above the optimum pH range (6.0-6.5). A simple, though temporary, solution to
a high pH problem is to add peat, without neutralizing its acidity with limestone. Peat also helps to
maintain a good soil structure, but it must be added yearly to make up for loss through decomposition. If
needed, supply more calcium either as calcium sulfate (gypsum), which has no affect on soil pH, or in
soluble form (e.g., calcium nitrate), with each irrigation. Adding elemental sulfur, i.e., flowers of sulfur,
provides a more long-term solution to a high pH soil. No definite recommendations can be made about how
much sulfur to apply; it depends on the buffering (cation exchange) capacity and original pH of the soil,
both of which vary from one soil to the next. In general, apply flowers of sulfur at a rate of 50-500 kg/ha.
Theoretically, 320 kg of elemental sulfur could neutralize 1000 kg of limestone, assuming that all sulfur
converts instantly to sulfuric acid. However, this conversion, performed by soil microorganisms#ri
(Thiobacillus), takes time; it goes more rapidly in moist, warm, well- aerated soils. Broadcast and
thoroughly mix ordinary ground sulfur with the top 15-30 cm of soil several weeks before planting the
crop, because the initial velocity of the reaction may be slow in cold soils. For acidification of soils, you
can also use iron sulfate at rates up to 1500 kg/ha. When hydrolyzed, this salt releases sulfuric acid, which
drastically lowers the pH and liberates some of the iron already present in the soil. At the same time,
soluble (i.e., available) iron is added. However, on a weight basis, iron (ferrous) sulfate is four to five times
less effective than sulfur and is usually more expensive. Sulfuric acid can be added directly to the soil, but
it is unpleasant and dangerous to work with and requires the use of special acid-resistant equipment. In
some areas it can be applied by custom suppliers who have the equipment necessary for handling it.
Sulfuric acid has the advantage of reacting quickly with the soil. Under most conditions, only a zone near
the plant roots need be acidified, which takes much smaller amounts of chemicals. Use this method
particularly with drip irrigation; there the root systems occupy a restricted, well-defined, area of soil.
Injecting phosphoric or nitric acid, appropriately diluted for convenience and safety, offers an attractive
method for lowering the pH of the soil near the plants. Furthermore, these acids prevent salts from
precipitating and clogging the irrigation lines and add useful nutrients to the plants. To determine the rate at
which to inject acid, add a known amount of acid to a known volume of water until you obtain the desired
pH. Alternatively, start injecting small amounts of acid into the irrigation line while checking the pH with
an in-line pH sensor; gradually increase the amount of acid injected until the desired water pH is obtained.
When conditions allow, select the regularly applied fertilizers for their ability to lower or increase the soil
pH according to individual soil needs. For example, ammonium sulfate and ammonium phosphate tend to
decrease the soil pH, whereas calcium nitrate tends to increase it.
Table 12
Lime requirements for correcting soil pH to 6.5

------------------------------------------
Lime (t/ha)
---------------------------------
Sandy Loam, Clay loam,
Soil pH loam silty loam organic
------------------------------------------
6.0 3.0 4.5 6.0
5.5 6.0 9.0 12.0
5.0 9.0 12.0 18.0
4.5 12.0 15.0 24.0
4.0 15.0 18.0 30.0
------------------------------------------
Note: The rates of lime suggested are for the top 15 cm of soil. If
acidity has to be corrected to a greater soil depth, increase the rates
accordingly.

Apply precrop fertilizers after soil steaming and leaching, and rototill them into the greenhouse soil. Add
these fertilizers to the limestone that may be needed for adjusting the pH level of the soil (Table 12P). Add
as much of the required calcium and phosphorus as possible as a base dressing, because these nutrients
44
store effectively in the soil and their absence from liquid feeds prevents most clogging problems of the
irrigation system. Provide the calcium in the form of limestone and the phosphorus in the form of
superphosphate, both finely ground. Furthermore, these nutrients, by nature of their source and their ability
to bind to soil particles, are released slowly into the soil solution and therefore do not raise the total amount
of salts dramatically, nor do they upset the nutrient balance of the soils to which they are added as a base
dressing. Also, supply a good portion of potassium along with magnesium, as base fertilizer; the ratio of
potassium to magnesium in the soil should be 2:1. Avoid applying nitrogen. Make the final decision on
base fertilization after receiving the soil test results and consulting with your horticultural crop adviser.
Treat the recommended rates of base fertilizers (Table 13P) as a general guide only.
Table 13
Recommendations for base fertilizer

---------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer Amount
(kg/ha)
---------------------------------------------------------
Superphosphate (0-20-0, fine grade) 250
Potassium sulfate 500
Magnesium sulfate 250
Add the following in combination, if needed

Calcitic limestone 800
Peat 800 bales/ha
---------------------------------------------------------
Cultivating
The soil needs some cultivation to prepare it for sterilization; to incorporate organic matter, lime, and
fertilizers; and to produce planting tilth. Rotary diggers are generally preferred because they provide more
uniform cultivation with less damage to the soil structure. However, repeated cultivation at the same depth
with rotary diggers can lead to a compacted soil layer, so alter the depth of cultivation occasionally.
Watering (soil)
Irrigation is usually of the flood type, although some automated equipment may be used. The objective of
watering is to maintain a fully adequate supply of water to the plant roots without soaking the soil to the
extent that air cannot get to the roots. Do not wait until the plants start to wilt. A good practice is to dig into
the soil and judge how much water remains before starting the next irrigation. Regular watering on the
same day of the week is unwise. The needs of the plants change daily and seasonally. Water young plants
planted in the greenhouse in January or February only once every 5-10 days, and then only enough to wet
15-20 cm of the soil. Similar plants growing in June may need five to ten times as much water. Let the soil
texture and structure determine how much water to add at each application. By examining the soil before
watering and several hours thereafter, you can assess the effectiveness of the water application.

Besides preplant application, fertilizers must also be added regularly throughout the production season. To
apply fertilizers to a growing crop, use the dry form, and broadcast it on most or all the cropped greenhouse
soil. Recommended rates are listed in Table 14P. Note that the rates of fertilizer prescribed in Table 14P
assume that the fertilizers will be applied over most of the greenhouse soil and that they will#ri not be
applied in restricted areas close to the plants, possibly through a drip-irrigation system. Calculations can
show that if the fertilizer prescribed for week ##4, for example, were applied through a drip irrigation
system, in a single operation, supplying water at 4 L per plant, the concentration of major nutrients in the
fertigation solution would be 685 ppm N, 100 ppm P, 980 ppm K, 190 ppm Ca, and 200 ppm Mg. These
concentrations are unacceptably high. Similar calculations show that if the same fertilizers were applied
through a drip irrigation system continuously, assuming that 2 L of water were applied per plant per day,
then the concentration of the major nutrients in the fertigation solution would be 195 ppm N, 28 ppm P, 280
45
ppm K, 54 ppm Ca, and 57 ppm Mg. These concentrations are more reasonable. However, to repeat, the
application rates prescribed for the fertilizers in Table 14P are#ri not intended for delivery through a drip
irrigation system. (Guidelines for fertilizer application through a drip irrigation system are given in the next
section.) The soil has a large buffering capacity, so when fertilizers are spread properly over all the
greenhouse ground area, the given rates (Table 14P) will bring the soil's fertility to a level that can support
a vigorous and productive crop.
Table 14
Recommended fertilizer application rates for spring or fall crops, in

soil
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock solution A* (kg/ha) Stock solution B* (kg/ha)
---------------------------- ----------------------------
Week
from Potassium Calcium Ammonium 10-52-10 20-5-30 Magnesium

planting nitrate nitrate nitrate sulfate
------------------------------------- ----------------------------
1 150
2 50 50 100 100
3 50 100
4 50 100 100 100
5 50 100
6 100 100 100 100
7 100 100
8 100 100 50 100
9 100 100 100
10 100 100 50 100
11 100 100
12 100 100 50 100 100
13 100 100
14 100 100 50 100
15 100 100 100
16 100 100 50 100
17 100 100
18 100 100 50 100 100
19 100 100
20 100 100 50 100
21 100 100
22 150
23 150
--------------------------------------------------------------------
* Caution: If fertilizers are first mixed in thick stock solutions
before they are applied to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not
mix in the same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium
and one containing sulfate or phosphate, because such a mixture forms a
thick suspension that can plug watering equipment. Note: Choose soluble
fertilizer formulations that are as free as possible of chlorides,
sulfates, and carbonates.
Mulching
Mulch the soil when cucumber plants grow about 0.5 m tall and only after soil temperature is sufficiently
high. Straw is the most common mulch material, but ground corn cobs are also acceptable. The mulch
reduces evaporation and soil compaction. Also, with mulch present, little soil splashes onto plants during
watering, which avoids dust in the greenhouse. Furthermore, mulch releases a considerable amount of
46
carbon dioxide as it breaks down, which helps plant growth. Mulch incorporated into the soil at the end of
the cropping season also provides useful organic matter. However, mulching with organic byproducts gives
rise to the well-known problems associated with adding any organic matter to intensely cultivated soils, as
discussed earlier. In recent years, traditional mulching has not been practiced widely. Instead, a white
polyethylene film is used to cover the ground whenever the irrigation method permits it. This mulching
alternative has several advantages and is best practiced in conjunction with drip irrigation.
The drip irrigation cropping system (Plate IV b) is similar to, but better than, the conventional soil cropping
system, because it can be used to control crop growth by regulating the supply of water and nutrients. The
system also allows reduced relative humidity in the greenhouse, because not all the soil is irrigated and
because the system is compatible with the use of white polyethylene film as a light-reflecting mulch.
Resources, including energy, are thus used more efficiently with this system. In most cases, use common
in-line drippers with a standard flow of 2L/h and one dripper per plant. However, because of the
shallowness and extensiveness of the cucumber root system, consider a 4-L/h dripper, which usually results
in more lateral movement of the irrigation water; even better, provide two drippers (2 L/h each) per plant.
Microsprinklers, or misters, have also been tried at ground level along the row of plants, with favorable
results on root growth, plant vigor, and productivity. However, such irrigation systems, if not properly
managed, can easily lead to overwatering and then to disease outbreaks caused by excessive humidity and
plant stem wetness. Another alternative is to use lay-flat polyethylene tubes (about 5 cm ID), with small
holes spaced 10 cm apart. This system usually applies water to a much larger area than the drip system but
does not raise the RH as much as a microsprinkler or micromister system. Although fairly inexpensive, the
lay-flat tube irrigation system has a short lifespan, which requires its frequent replacement. It is not a good
choice for large greenhouses, because the water delivery rates vary significantly along the length of the line
(i.e., not pressure compensating). Irrigate the crop up to four times a day, and use the irrigation system to
apply fertilizer to the crop. Fertigation (the application of fertilizer through the irrigation system) is now a
popular method of fertilizing greenhouse vegetables. Fertilizers are either dissolved in a large holding tank
and the solution pumped to the crop or they are mixed in concentrated stock solutions, which are then
incorporated, using fertilizer injectors, into the irrigation water (Table 15P and Table 15aP). Several makes
and models of fertilizer injectors are available at varying costs and offer varying degrees of fertigation
control. A sophisticated fertilizer injection system capable of meeting the nutrient requirements of a series
of crops automatically from the same set of stock solutions was developed recently at the Agriculture
Canada Research Station in Harrow, Ont. (Plate II). The Harrow FM uses an IBM-compatible computer to
activate a series of dosimetric pumps at varying frequencies for the preprogrammed application of a desired
concentration of individual nutrients. It also automatically adjusts the supply of water and nutrients to the
crops in accordance with crop and environmental conditions. Introducing drip irrigation and fertigation has
made it necessary to consider the fertilizer needs of a crop in terms of the concentration of fertilizer (and
therefore the concentration of nutrients) in the irrigation water rather than on the basis of the cropped area.
Furthermore, the recommendations regarding the nutrient content of the fertigation solutions of drip-
irrigated crops are based mainly on the physiological responses and commercial productivity of the crops.
Most earlier recommendations for fertilizer application to traditionally grown crops in soil were based on
estimates of nutrient removal by the crop. Base fertilizers are not normally applied when drip irrigation is
used. The exceptions are peat and lime, which may be needed to improve soil structure and adjust soil pH.
Table 15
Fertigation schedule for drip-irrigated cucumbers grown in soil

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer in stock Fertilizer in stock
solution A* solution B* Irrigation
(kg/1000 L) (kg/1000 L)
------------------- --------------------------- -----------
Week Cal- Potas- Ammo- Mono- Magne- Magne- Volume EC
from cium sium nium potassium sium (L/plant (#181S/
plant- nit- nit- nit- phos- sulfate nitrate /day) cm)
ing rate rate rate phate
47
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.4 1300
2 50 35 15 25 0.6 1400
3 35 50 10 15 25 0.8 1500
4 35 50 15 15 25 1.0 1650
5 35 55 15 15 25 1.2 1700
6 35 60 15 15 25 1.6 1750
7 35 65 15 15 25 2.0 1800
8 35 70 15 15 25 2.2 1850
9 35 70 15 15 25 2.4 1850
10 35 70 15 15 25 2.6 1850
11 35 70 15 15 25 2.8 1850
12-17 35 60 15 15 35 4.0 1650
18-22 35 55 15 15 35 5.0 1600
23-end 35 50 15 15 35 4.0 1550
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.4 1300
2 50 35 15 25 0.8 1400
3 35 50 10 15 25 1.0 1500
4 35 50 15 15 25 1.2 1650
5-12 35 55 15 15 35 3.0 1650
13-end 35 55 15 15 35 2.0 1600
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* Caution: If fertilizers are first mixed in thick stock solutions

and one containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
thick suspension that can plug watering equipment.
Notes:
Trace elements must also be added to all the above fertilizer feeds; a
typical trace element mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix) contains 7.0% Fe, 2.0% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and 0.06% Mo;
when added to the stock solution at the rate of 1 kg/1000 L it
contributes to the final solution 0.7 ppm Fe, 0.2 ppm Mn, 0.04 ppm Zn,
0.01 ppm Cu, 0.13 ppm B,and 0.006 ppm Mo, with a 1:100 dilution ratio.
Dissolve the given amount of each fertilizer, including trace

elements, in 1000 L of water and add to the irrigation water in equal
doses, ideally with a multihead
fertilizer injector. Start injection at a very low rate and increase
the rate of injection progressively, and uniformly on all heads, until
the desired EC is achieved. Adjust the pH of the fertigation solution
to 5.5 by injecting a dilute solution of phosphoric, nitric, or
sulfuric acid. Alternatively, dissolve the prescribed fertilizers,
including the micronutrient mix, into 100 000 L of water, adjust the
pH, and apply directly to the crop.
The recommended strength of the stock solutions is within the
working range of a fertilizer injector with a 1:100 mixing ratio. If a
fertilizer injector with a 1:200 mixing ratio is used, double the
amount of each fertilizer. Make similar adjustments for fertilizer
injectors with other mixing ratios. If the solubility limit of a
fertilizer (e.g., potassium nitrate) is exceeded, prepare more than one
48
stock solution of the same fertilizer and divide the amount of the
fertilizer equally between the stocks.
Table 15a
Nutrient concentration in the final nutrient solution when one part of

each of stock solutions A and B, prepared as prescribed in Table 15P,
are mixed with 98 parts of water (i.e. 1:100 dilution ratio)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient concentration (ppm) Expected
------------------------------------------------------------------- EC*
N- N- (#181S/
Week NO3 NH4 P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn Cu B Mo cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1300
2 117 5 35 175 95 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1400
3 140 15 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1500
4 145 25 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
5 151 25 35 251 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1700
6 158 25 35 270 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1750
7 164 25 35 289 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1800
8-11 170 25 35 308 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1850
12-17 196 25 35 270 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
18-22 189 25 35 251 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1600
23-end183 25 35 233 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1550
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1300
2 122 12 35 175 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1400
3 140 15 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1500
4 145 25 35 233 67 25 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
5-12 196 25 35 270 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1650
13-end189 25 35 251 67 32 0.7 0.2 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.006 1600
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has been assumed at 300 #181S/cm and is included.

Peat is an abundant, readily available, lightweight Canadian resource. It provides good water-holding
capacity, drainage, aeration, and biological and chemical stability. Peat has been used alone or combined
with other materials such as vermiculite, perlite, turface, polystyrene beads, and other materials, in various
mixtures with diverse physical characteristics. Besides a high water-holding capacity, peat has a high
cation-exchange capacity and maintains an adequate structure during cropping. Horticultural-grade
vermiculite releases some potassium and magnesium during the crop season, which could be more
problematic than beneficial because of reduced control over the availability of those nutrients. However,
vermiculite has a high cation-exchange capacity, which increases the buffering capacity of the mix and thus
reduces the risk of over fertilization. On the other hand, perlite, turface, and styrofoam beads are
completely inert and do not affect the nutrient availability in the mix other than by improving the degree of
aeration. These materials are now preferred because they do not break down as quickly as vermiculite and
thus allow for more exact nutrition of the crop. Recent research has shown that the porosity of peat plus
perlite declines steadily over time, but the porosity of peat plus polystyrene does not. Although polystyrene
effectively increases the air content of the substrate, much of that air - in the polystyrene beads themselves -
is of no use to the plants. Perlite, vermiculite, turface, and styrofoam beads are sterile on delivery because
of the high temperatures used during their manufacture. Sand also behaves almost as an inert material and
49
has been used extensively in the past. Like any soil, it is not recommended unless sterilized. Sawdust is also
an important organic medium for cucumber cropping, especially in Canada. However, this system is
described only in general terms (under "Sawdust") because it has already been treated in detail in other
publications.
The trough system

After mixing the growing medium, place it in a container. When soilless mixes were first developed, a
wooden trough (15-20 cm deep and lined with polyethylene) was the most common container used. A
drainpipe laid along the centre of the trough drained the water and acted as a duct for steam during
sterilizing (Fig. 14). A layer of gravel provided general drainage and protected the polyethylene during
cultivation. Since soilless mixes are naturally low in nutrients, fertilizers must be added to promote
optimum plant growth. Two main methods have been used for supplying fertilizers to crops grown in peat
media. The simplest is to add all the nutrients required by the crop as you prepare the peat mix (Table 16P).
The success of this technique depends on slow-release fertilizers providing a continuous supply of nitrogen,
phosphorous, and potassium throughout the growing season. The calcium requirements of the crop are met
mostly by the calcitic limestone normally added to the peat for pH adjustment. Micronutrients are also
added as fritted trace elements, which ensures their slow release during the cropping season. Thus, regular
feeding throughout the cropping season is not required unless the presence of nutrient deficiencies indicates
a need. The most serious disadvantages of this method are - the low level of nutrition control - the potential
for crop failure caused by excessive salts resulting from rapid breakdown of the delayed-release fertilizer at
high to medium temperatures. A more popular approach to nutrition is to apply some of the fertilizer when
the peat is mixed (Table 17P) and to add soluble fertilizers at regular intervals through the irrigation system
(Table 18P). The crop's vigor, and the balance between vegetative growth and fruit development, can be
adjusted to some extent by the composition of the feed. For example, high-potash (1-0-3.5) feed is normally
used to control growth for a short time after planting, when light conditions are poor. Conversely, high-
nitrogen (1-0-1) feed is used to maintain adequate vigor throughout much of the summer, when light and
productivity are high. A major difference between the feeding requirements of peat- and soil-grown crops
is the need for a regular supply of phosphate; this nutrient readily leaches from peat and has to be replaced
to maintain adequate levels. Alternating a phosphate-containing feed (e.g., 1-0.5-2) with a standard feed,
such as 1-0-2, supplies phosphate throughout the season. Phosphorus can also be supplied continuously in
the form of a special phosphate-containing feed, but this system necessitates supplying calcium or
magnesium in separate feeds. Always remember that concentrated solutions containing calcium that come
in contact with phosphate- containing solutions can result in insoluble calcium phosphate, which blocks the
irrigation system. Likewise, magnesium sulfate should not be mixed in high concentrations with phosphate-
containing feeds. Minor elements are generally provided in peat substrates as glass-fritted mixes that
release their nutrients slowly over a cropping season. Correct trace- element deficiencies by applying
chelated trace element mixes. Apply chelates either continuously in the liquid feed or as a foliar spray for
corrective action. The rate used depends on the product. It is usually best to follow the manufacturer's
recommendations. In general, the feeding guidelines already given in this publication should suffice for
crops grown in peat substrate throughout the season. However, if nutrient levels in the substrate become too
high or too low, reduce or increase the strength of the liquid feed to compensate accordingly. Ideally, use a
multifertilizer injection system for supplying optimum water and nutrient to the substrate in accordance
with the needs of the crop (e.g., HFM#174, see Plate II). If an initial peat-substrate analysis shows nutrient
levels outside the acceptable ranges, the medium may still be suitable for vegetable growing, provided that
you modify the feeding program to bring the nutrient status back within acceptable limits. After attaining
an optimum analytical range for the peat substrate, devise a feeding program that maintains optimum
nutrient levels in the substrate. In general, apply the medium potash with phosphate feed (i.e., 175-85-350-
0-30), alternatively with the medium potash with magnesium (i.e., 175-0-350-0-30) and with the medium
potash with calcium (i.e., 175-0-350-70-0). This mixture will provide an average feed of 175 ppm N, 42
ppm P, and 350 ppm K, along with 35 ppm Ca and 15 ppm Mg.
Table 16
Ingredients for a complete soilless mix based on peat and vermiculite

(for trough culture)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
50
Medium Amount
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Peat 0.5 m#179 (2 bales of 0.17 m#179)*
Horticultural vermiculite 0.5 m#179 (4.5 bags of 0.11 m#179)
Ground limestone (dolomitic) 7.5 kg
Gypsum (calcium sulfate) 3.0 kg
Calcium nitrate 0.9 kg
Superphosphate 20% 1.5 kg
Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate) 0.3 kg
Osmocote#174 18-6-12 (9 months) 5-6 kg
Fritted trace elements (FTE 503) 225 g
Chelated iron (NaFe 138 or 330) 30 g
---------------------------------------------------------------------
* Expansion of compressed bales is estimated to be 50% above original
volume.
Fig. 14
Fig. 14 Trough culture of cucumbers.
Table 17
Ingredients for a base mixture of peat and vermiculite (1 m#179) (for

trough culture and peat bags)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Medium Amount
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Peat 0.5 m#179 (2 bales 0.17 m#179)*
Horticultural vermiculite 0.5 m#179 (4.5 bags of 0.11 m#179)
Limestone (pulverized FF) 5.9 kg
Superphosphate 20% 1.2 kg
Potassium nitrate 0.9 kg
Magnesium sulfate 0.3 kg
Chelated iron 10% 35 g
Fritted trace elements (FTE 503 or FTE 302) 110 g
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* Expansion of compressed bales is estimated to be 50% above original
51
volume.
Table 18
Fertilizer feedings for cucumbers grown in peat troughs (and peat bags)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Type of Ratio Amount N:P:K:Ca:Mg
feed (N:P:K) Fertilizer in stock (kg/1000 L) (ppm)
solution
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
High potash 1:0:3.5 potassium nitrate 110 145:0:500:0:0
potassium sulfate 20
Medium potash potassium nitrate 90

with magnesium 1:0:2 ammonium nitrate 20 175:0:350:0:30
magnesium sulfate 30
Medium potash potassium nitrate 90

with phosphate 1:0.5:2 monoammonium phosphate 30 175:85:350:0:0
ammonium nitrate 7
Medium potash 1:0:2 potassium nitrate 90 175:0:350:70:0

with calcium calcium nitrate 40
High nitrogen 1:0:1 potassium nitrate 65

with magnesium ammonium nitrate 50 250:0:250:0:30
magnesium sulfate 30
High nitrogen 1:0.5:1 potassium nitrate 65

with phosphate monoammonium phosphate 45 250:125:250:0:0
ammonium nitrate 33
High nitrogen 1:0:1

potassium nitrate 65
with calcium calcium nitrate 45 250:0:250:85:0
ammonium nitrate 28
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Stock solutions have been formulated assuming that a fertilizer
injector with a feeding ratio of 1:100 (one part stock per 100 parts of
water) is used to incorporate one stock solution at a time into the
irrigation water. Alternatively, dissolve the recommended fertilizers
in each feed in 100 000 L of water for direct application to the crop.
Peat bags
Plastic bags filled with a peat-based medium are now generally available. Each peat bag, which measures
35 cm x 105 cm when flat and contains 42L of fertilized peat (or a mixture of peat with vermiculite, perlite,
or polystyrene). Each can support up to two cucumber plants as long as regular watering and fertilizing
through a drip irrigation system are provided. Cover the greenhouse floor with polyethylene film and lay
the bags on it. Some growers use a double-layered polyethylene material as a floor covering - a black
bottom layer to prevent weed growth and a white top layer to reflect sunlight into the crop canopy. Make
two or three 4-cm slits in the sides of the bags to provide drainage for the wet medium. The planting depth
in the peat substrate is an important factor that affects later growth. The shallower the depth of peat, the
more critical the planting depth becomes; a permanent reservoir of water makes part of the peat bag
unavailable for active root growth. This water reservoir develops below the level of the drainage holes. A
minimum substrate depth of about 10 cm, a planting depth of 2.5 cm, 5 cm of drained peat beneath the pot,
and a water reservoir of 2.5 cm below the drainage level are recommended. Research and practical
52
experience have shown that the upright bags are preferable because they provide a greater depth of useful
substrate, which translates into stronger root systems, less water stress, and higher productivity than the lay
flat (bolster type) peat bags. Upright bags can conveniently be made by cutting, and sealing one side of,
appropriate lengths from a 45-cm- wide (when flat) black (or coextruded black and white) polyethylene
tube. Two aspects of the general culture in peat bags differ from those of soil: watering and feeding.
Watering crops grown in peat is easy, provided you - follow some basic rules - examine the moisture
content of the peat substrate frequently, and - take appropriate action when necessary.
Watering (peat)
Crops in peat may be easier to water than crops grown in soil because the moisture content of the latter is
more difficult to assess; also the drainage characteristics of the soil and subsoil make decisions on watering
less certain. Because peat bags contain only a small volume of growth medium, they offer a much lower
water-holding capacity than most soils. Failure to apply water when needed can therefore have a more rapid
detrimental effect on the crop than with soil-grown crops. The following recommendations apply to
watering crops grown in peat bags: - Use a drained peat bag with a water reservoir beneath. - Provide
additional irrigation outlets to areas that need extra water. - Maintain an efficiently operating irrigation
system by preventing or clearing blockages as soon as they occur. - Check the moisture level of the
substrate frequently and modify the watering regime if necessary. - Vary the frequency of watering rather
than the quantity applied each time, so that the substrate aerates between waterings and the moisture
content remains uniform from one bag to another. A faulty watering program leads to waterlogging,
excessive drying back, and excessive variation of moisture from bag to bag. Waterlogging is easy to detect,
as it results in slow growth and thin plant heads. When this problem persists, the plants develop yellow
heads characteristic of iron deficiency. Waterlogging problems usually develop when the watering regime
does not allow enough time for proper soil aeration between applications. An excess amount of water
applied on one occasion may not matter, as the surplus drains to waste, but a second application made
before the substrate has dried to its normal minimum water content reduces root action and starts the cycle
of waterlogging. Regular and frequent checks to control water frequency help to avoid this problem. Once
waterlogging has occurred and the plants show symptoms, correcting the problem is a slow process; hold
back the water to the substrate until it has dried to its normal minimum level, however long this takes.
Invariably, crop yield declines while the problem is corrected. The problem of excessive dryness is equally
serious but just as easy to avoid, provided the irrigation system works effectively and you allocate
sufficient time to manage the watering program. If the medium often dries to below the normal minimum
water level, when water can no longer be squeezed out by hand, plant growth will be impaired, especially if
the salt content of the medium is high. Media that are frequently allowed to dry too much also cause a
general stunting of growth and considerable yield loss. The remedy is easy - apply more water by
increasing the frequency of irrigation. Initial recovery may take several days; nothing can be gained by
applying large volumes of water at every single irrigation, as most of it will run off to waste. The third
potential problem comes from excessive variation in water content within the crop. The application of
water can never be accurate enough to cover all variation within a crop, and extreme imbalances can
develop. In addition, fast-growing plants can produce their own localized water-deficiency problems, and
weak, diseased, or removed plants can precipitate local waterlogging. Where the problem is not extensive,
rebalance a crop by occasional hose watering to top up dry areas and by temporarily removing one or more
irrigation outlets from areas of waterlogging. Occasionally inducing waterlogging can prevent or correct
large-scale water imbalance, but use the technique only on an actively growing crop with a strong root
system. This practice is also valuable for leaching out excess salts from the substrate. As a general rule for
irrigation, apply water until the driest area of the crop has recovered its full water requirement at each
application. In this way, you can prevent water from building up, and areas of substrate with a lower water
requirement drain off any surplus without danger. Anyone considering peat substrate culture of greenhouse
cucumbers for the first time should be aware that watering requires considerable managerial effort and a
dependable irrigation system. You might decide that the risk of mistakes does not justify the change from
soil to peat substrates. However, the fact that water management errors in substrate culture quickly manifest
themselves into visible symptoms makes peat substrate and other soilless culture systems attractive. In soil
culture, incorrect watering usually becomes evident only after the crop has changed its growth habit
significantly. Consequently, although soil has a greater water-holding and buffering capacity, greater crop
losses can still be incurred without the grower's awareness of any mistakes having been made. A competent
grower using substrate culture can see potential errors in irrigation when they first appear in the peat
53
mixture and correct them before they have any effect on the plants. The recent development of
computerized irrigation controllers equipped with properly adapted soil water tensiometers has made the
scheduling of irrigation of crops grown in peat bags much simpler. Significant water and nutrient savings
haveresulted while minimizing excessive nutrient leaching into the environment.
Feeding
Nutrition is the other major area in which peat-grown cucumbers differ significantly from cucumbers
grown in soil. Peat substrates have a much lower buffering capacity than most soils in relation to both
major and minor elements. The grower therefore needs to monitor continually the nutrient availability in
the substrate and to adjust accordingly the composition of the feed applied to it. This work requires a rapid
and reliable analytical service, and a dependable and accurate technique for frequent application of
fertilizers. The results of peat substrate analysis enable you to take corrective action for an optimum root
environment before adverse symptoms appear in the crop. To depend on crop symptoms alone for
determining a necessary change in the feeding program greatly increases the risk of yield loss. As important
as the analytical service is the ability of the grower to interpret the results and take any corrective action
needed. Although the initial nutrient levels in peat substrates vary according to the supplier, the source, and
type of peat used, regard the ranges in Table 19P as normal and use them only as a guide. The results of
peat analysis vary according to sampling and analysis procedures. The comparability of any peat-sample
analytical results with the guidelines in Table 19P therefore depends on the following conditions: - Take a
peat sample from the full depth of substrate in the bag. - Locate the sampling point near a growing plant
and let it extend through the rooting zone. - Take several samples throughout the greenhouse area to be
tested and mix them together to supply at least 0.5 L of substrate for analysis. - Do not take samples
immediately after watering or from areas that are clearly wetter or drier than the average for the house. -
Bring peat substrate samples taken as described above to a uniform water content either by adding distilled
water to them or by allowing them to dry out as needed before proceeding with analysis; on squeezing
moderately a handful of peat, the release of a small amount of water indicates a desirable water content. -
Perform all analytical tests on an aqueous suspension of the peat substrate sample, at a peat-to-distilled-
water ratio of 1 : 1.5, by volume (Table 19P). The recommendations already given in Table 17P and Table
18P, for the composition of the peat mix and the liquid nutrient feeds, also apply to cucumber cropping in
peat bags.
Table 19
Desirable nutrient levels in the substrate of peat bags, based on a

substrate-to-water dilution of 1:1.5
----------------------------------------------------
Nutrient Concentration (ppm)
---------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (nitrate) 30-80
Phosphorus 20-50
Potassium 140-400
Calcium 140-200
Magnesium 25-35
Acidity (pH) 5.5-6.6

Electrical conductivity (#181S/cm) 1000-2500
---------------------------------------------------------
Recycling
Experimental and commercial evidence suggests that you can recycle the peat substrate without reducing
the crop yield. However, the following factors can influence the cropping potential of recycled peat
substrate: -
the level and uniformity of nutrients in the peat
54
- the salt level in the medium
- the pest and disease status of the substrate.
If you plan to reuse the bags, reduce the strength of the fertilizer feed by half, starting about 4 weeks before
the planned termination of the first crop; apply plain water during the last 1-2 weeks. This extended period
of gradual nutrient leaching reduces the nutrient levels in peat substrates. The degree to which the nutrient
levels fall varies depending on how easily they leach. For example, in a well-leached substrate the nitrate
level is very low, the phosphate and potassium levels are low, and the calcium and magnesium levels
remain high. To minimize the problems caused by a lack of uniformity in the nutrient content of reused
peat bags, sterilize the leached peat medium in bulk. After sterilization, analyze the peat medium and add
base fertilizers as needed before rebagging. The principles of steaming are similar for both soil and peat.
The objective is to destroy harmful organisms while preserving most of the beneficial organisms and
nutrients, without allowing salts to build up. Therefore, avoid excessive steaming. Raising the temperature
through the substrate to 82ºC for 20 min is all that is needed. As with soil, the peat should be neither too
wet nor too dry at steaming, otherwise the cost of the operation is unnecessarily high or its efficiency
unnecessarily low. Because of the small amount of peat substrate used in a greenhouse, compared with soil,
both the energy and labor expended in steaming peat are considerably less.

In the early 1980s, the Harrow Research Station developed a peat-bag system for producing greenhouse
cucumbers (Plate IV b). The recommendations for the peat-based growth medium and the corresponding
fertigation schedule and nutrient concentrations are presented in Table 20P, Table 21P, and Table 21aP,
respectively.
Table 20
Peat-bag growth medium recommended for cucumbers

------------------------------------------------------------------
Mixes Ingredients Quantities
------------------------------------------------------------------
A Peat (57% of total volume) 3.0 bales (0.17 m#179)
Vermiculite (25% of total volume) 3.0 bags (0.11 m#179, 7 kg)
Perlite (18% of total volume) 2.0 bags (0.11 m#179, 7 kg)
B Limestone (pulverized FF) 7.0 kg
Ground limestone (dolomitic) 5.0 kg
Ground superphosphate
(20% phosphorus) 1.5 kg
Potassium sulfate 1.0 kg
Fritted trace elements (FTE 302) 150.0 g
C 18-6-12 slow-release
(9-month) fertilizer 2.0 kg
D Potassium nitrate 0.6 kg

Chelated iron
(iron EDTA, 13% iron) 35.0 g
E Wetting agent 0.1 L

------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Mix ingredients of A and B separately; dissolve ingredients of D
and E in 20 L each of water; combine A, B, and C and wet with solutions
D and E, adding more water (if needed) as you mix. This mixture
provides enough medium for at least 32 peat bags measuring 0.35 m x
1.05 m, when flat.
55
Table 21
Fertigation schedule for cucumbers grown in Harrow peat bags.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer in stock Fertilizer in stock
solution A* solution B* Irrigation
(kg/1000 L) (kg/1000 L)
------------------- --------------------------- --------------
Week Cal- Potas- Ammo- Mono- Magne- Magne- Volume EC
from cium sium nium potassium sium sium (L/plant (#181S/
plant- nit- nit- nit- phosphate sulfate nitrate /day) cm)
ing rate rate rate
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.4 1300
2 50 35 30 25 0.6 1450
3 50 50 10 30 25 0.8 1750
4 50 50 15 30 25 1.0 1850
5 50 55 15 30 25 1.2 1900
6 50 60 15 30 25 1.4 1950
7 50 65 15 30 25 1.6 2000
8 50 70 15 30 25 1.6 2050
9 50 70 15 30 25 1.8 2050
10 50 70 15 30 25 2.0 2050
11 50 70 15 30 25 2.0 2050
12-17 50 60 15 30 35 2.0 1950
18-22 50 55 16 30 35 3.0 1900
23-end 50 50 15 30 35 2.6 1850
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 50 100 25 0.6 1300
2 50 35 30 25 0.8 1450
3 50 50 10 30 25 1.2 1750
4 50 50 15 30 25 1.6 1850
5-12 50 55 15 30 35 2.0 1900
13-end 50 55 15 30 35 1.4 1900
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* Caution: If you first mix fertilizers in thick stock solutions before
applying them to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not mix in the
same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium and one
containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
Notes:
Trace elements must also be added to all the above fertilizer feeds; a
typical trace element mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix) contains 7.0% Fe, 2.0% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3 B, and 0.06% Mo
and, when added to the stock solution at the rate of 2 kg/1000 L,
0.02 ppm Cu, 0.26 ppm B, and 0.012 ppm Mo, with a 1:100 dilution ratio.
Dissolve the given amount of each fertilizer, including trace elements,
in 1000 L of water and add to the irrigation water in equal doses,
ideally with a multihead fertilizer injector. Start injecting at a very
low rate and increase the rate of injection progressively, and
uniformly on all heads, until the desired EC is achieved. Adjust the pH
of the fertigation solution to 5.5 by injecting a dilute solution of
phosphoric, nitric, or sulfuric acid. Alternatively, dissolve the
56
prescribed fertilizers, including the micronutrient mix, into 100 000 L
of water, adjust the pH, and apply directly to the crop.
amount of each fertilizer. Similar adjustments can be made for
fertilizer injectors with other mixing ratios. If the solubility limit
of a fertilizer (e.g., potassium nitrate) is exceeded, more than one
stock solution of the same fertilizer can be prepared and the amount of
the fertilizer divided equally between the stocks.
Table 21a

each of stock solutions A and B, prepared as prescribed in Table 21P,
are mixed with 98 parts of water (i.e., 1:100 dilution ratio)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient concentration (ppm) Expected
------------------------------------------------------------------- EC*
Week N- N- #181S/
NO3 NH4 P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn Cu B Mo cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1300
2 117 5 69 218 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1450
3 162 22 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1750
4 170 30 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1850
5 176 30 69 294 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1900
6 182 30 69 313 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1950
7 188 30 69 332 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 2000
8-11 194 30 69 351 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 2050
12-17 182 30 69 313 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1950
18-22 176 30 69 294 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1900
23-end170 30 69 275 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.02 0.26 0.012 1850
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 72 3 235 300 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1300
2 117 5 69 218 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1450
3 162 22 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1750
4 170 30 69 275 95 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1850
5-end176 30 69 294 95 32 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.04 0.26 0.012 1900
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has been assumed at 300 #181S/cm and is included.
Sawdust
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Saanichton and Agassiz research stations developed a method of cropping
greenhouse cucumbers in sawdust (Plate IV c). This method received general commercial acceptance in
British Columbia, and to some extent in Alberta, in the 1970s and 1980s, but it is now being replaced by
rock wool. Some advantages of sawdust culture are its low cost, light weight, and its wide availability.
Although rock wool also claims some of these qualities, sawdust could again receive renewed attention
because it is easier to dispose of than rock wool. The sawdust used as a growing medium in the past was
derived from Douglas-fir and western hemlock. Sawdust from western red cedar proved toxic, especially
when fresh, so avoid its use. Other organic or inorganic media can be mixed with sawdust to improve its
57
chemical and physical properties. However, the various substrate mixtures must be formulated and tested
on a small scale under well-controlled conditions. The uncontrolled distribution of a many organic media
mixtures with diverse chemical and physical characteristics confuses growers and detracts from the
profitable use of this valuable Canadian resource. Use only the horticultural-grade sawdust and ensure that
it is free from contaminants that are toxic to plants (e.g., antifungal chemicals used by the lumber industry).
If in doubt, have a sample of the sawdust analyzed and ensure that neither the EC nor any particular
element (e.g., manganese) are outside normal levels. Place the sawdust in troughs, beds, upright bags,
bolsters, or even large pots. Regardless of the container, use a minimum of 10 L of medium for each plant.
The practices followed in sawdust culture are similar to those described earlier for peat. Apply fertilizer in
two ways: either, supply all nutrients in solution at each irrigation (Table 22P and Table 22aP); or,
incorporate some of the fertilizer into the growth medium before planting and deliver the rest through the
irrigation system (Table 23P and Table 23aP). The fertilizer rates described in Table 22P are recommended
for cucumber production in unfertilized sawdust. Those described in Table 23P are recommended for
cucumber production in sawdust enriched with superphosphate (0-19-0) at 2.4 kg/m#179 and dolomitic
limestone at 4 kg/m#179. To ensure the long-term availability of calcium and magnesium, supply half the
limestone ground coarse and half ground fine. You can prepare the solutions described in Table 22aP and
Table 23aP in two ways. One is to dissolve the fertilizers at the prescribed rates in water and apply the
resulting nutrient solution directly to the crop. The other is to prepare concentrated stock solutions (e.g.,
100 times the prescribed rates) and incorporate these solutions into the irrigation water using a fertilizer
injector with a 1:100 mixing ratio. Table 24P outlines revised quantities both for making stock solutions for
dilution at a mixing ratio of 1:100 before application, and for preparing the final solution directly. Always
remember that calcium and sulfates cannot be mixed together at high concentrations without some
precipitation of calcium sulfate, and therefore at least two stock solutions must be prepared.
Table 22
Fertilizer application rates for cucumber production in unfertilized
sawdust
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen level in final solution
----------------------------------------
Stock* Fertilizer N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Amount of fertilizer in final solution
(g/1000 L)
----------------------------------------
A Potassium nitrate 160 500 550
Calcium nitrate 680 680 680
Ammonium nitrate --- --- 100
B Potassium sulfate 360 44 ---
Magnesium sulfate 500 500 500
Volume of stock added (mL/1000 L)
----------------------------------------
C Trace element stock** 220 220 220
Phosphoric acid (75%)*** 100 100 100
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
*#ri Caution: If you first mix fertilizers in thick stock solutions
before applying them to the crop, group them as indicated. Do not mix
in the same concentrated solution a fertilizer containing calcium and
one containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
** The trace element stock solution is prepared by dissolving the
following elements in 1 L of warm water: 100 g iron chelate (7% Fe), 15
g manganese sulfate, 12 g boric acid, 2.2 g zinc sulfate, 0.6 g copper
sulfate, and 0.2 g molybdic acid. When this trace element stock
solution is added to the final nutrient solution at a rate of 220 mL/L,
the concentration of trace elements in the final nutrient solution is
58
as follows: 1.54 ppm Fe, 1.07 ppm Mn, 0.46 ppm B, 0.11 ppm Zn, 0.034
ppm Cu, and 0.023 ppm Mo.
*** Concentrated phosphoric acid (75%) can be carefully added directly
to the final nutrient solution without prior dilution.
Table 22a
Concentrations of nutrients provided by the final solution when

fertilizers are added at the rates prescribed in Table 22P
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient level in final solution (ppm)
------------------------------------------
Nutrient N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (from N03) 119 162 189
Nitrogen (from NH4) 7 6 21
Phosphorus 47 47 47
Potassium 208 208 208
Calcium 129 129 129
Magnesium 50 50 50
Iron 1.54 1.54 1.54
Manganese 1.07 1.07 1.07
Boron 0.46 0.46 0.46
Zinc 0.11 0.11 0.11
Copper 0.034 0.034 0.034
Molybdenum 0.023 0.023 0.023
---------------------------------------------------------------
Table 23
Fertilizer application rates for cucumber production in fertilizer-

amended sawdust
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen level in final solution
------------------------------------------
Fertilizer N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Amount of fertilizer in final solution
(g/1000 L)
------------------------------------------
Potassium nitrate 550 550 550
Ammonium nitrate 160 280 410
Volume of stock added (mL/1000 L)

------------------------------------------
Trace element stock* 220 220 220
Phosphoric acid (75%)** 100 100 100
-------------------------------------------------------------------
* The trace element stock solution is prepared by dissolving the
following elements in 1 L of warm water: 100 g iron chelate (7% Fe), 15
g manganese sulfate, 12 g boric acid, 2.2 g zinc sulfate, 0.6 g copper
sulfate, and 0.2 g molybdic acid. When this trace element stock
solution is added to the final nutrient solution at a rate of 220 mL L
1, the concentration of trace elements in the final nutrient solution
is as follows: 1.54 ppm Fe, 1.07 ppm Mn, 0.46 ppm B, 0.11 ppm Zn, 0.034
59
ppm Cu, and 0.023 ppm Mo.
** Concentrated phosphoric acid (75%) can be carefully added directly
to the final nutrient solution without prior dilution.
Table 23a
Concentrations of nutrients provided by the final solution when

fertilizers are added at the rates prescribed in Table 23P
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient level in final solution (ppm)
-------------------------------------------
Nutrient N at 126 ppm N at 168 ppm N at 210 ppm
---------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (from N03) 98 121 140
Nitrogen (from NH4) 27 47 70
Phosphorus 47 47 47
Potassium 209 209 209
Calcium 0 0 0
Magnesium 0 0 0
Iron 1.54 1.54 1.54
Manganese 1.07 1.07 1.07
Boron 0.46 0.46 0.46
Zinc 0.11 0.11 0.11
Copper 0.034 0.034 0.034
Cobalt 0.023 0.023 0.023
---------------------------------------------------------------
Table 24
Fertilizer application rates for cucumber cropping in sawdust

(according to the revised recommendations of the B.C. Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer in stock
sol. (for 1:100 Fertilizer in final
dilution) solution
Stock Fertilizer (kg/1000 L) (g/1000 L)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
A Potassium nitrate 50.0 500.0
Calcium nitrate 75.0 750.0
Iron chelate (7% Fe) 1.4 14.0
B Monopotassium phosphate 20.0 200.0

Potassium sulfate 9.6 96.0
Magnesium sulfate 25.0 250.0
Manganese sulfate (28% Mn) 0.107 1.07
Boric acid (20.5% B) 0.243 2.43
Zinc sulfate (36% Zu) 0.027 0.276
Copper sulfate (25% Cu) 0.012 0.120
Molybdenum (54% Mo) 0.009 0.092
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: When the fertilizers are added at the prescribed rates, the final
solution will deliver nutrients at the following concentrations: 168
ppm N (N03), 7 ppm N (NH4), 46 ppm P, 286 ppm K, 142 ppm Ca, 25 ppm Mg,
1.0 ppm Fe, 0.3 ppm Mn, 0.5 ppm B, 0.1 ppm Zn, 0.03 ppm Cu, and 0.05
ppm Mo.
60
Straw bales
The use of straw bales was popular a few decades ago in several countries, especially the United Kingdom,
as a soilless medium for cucumber production where soilborne diseases seriously limited productivity. The
universal availability and low cost of straw made it an attractive alternative to soil for several years, but as
new and better substrates became available it gradually lost its appeal. Today straw is used only by growers
using a low- input cropping system in old greenhouses. A brief description is given here both for historical
reasons and for the benefit of growers who may not have access to modern greenhouse technology. For
long-term crops, use bales of wheat straw (each bale contains about 20 kg of straw packed heavily in the
form of a brick and held together by polypropylene string). For short-term crops, use barley or oat straw,
which breaks down faster. The straw must be completely free of all traces of herbicide residue (especially
the plant hormone type), which can distort growth or totally destroy the crop. Place the bales end-to-end, in
rows, in either shallow trenches (5-10 cm) or on leveled ground, which has been first covered with white
polyethylene film; row spacing depends on the training system to be followed. Condition the straw bales
for 2-3 weeks before planting the crop. Conditioning entails: -
adding water to initiate fermentation of the straw
- fueling the fermentation with nitrogenous fertilizers
- leaching any excessive salts released by the fermentation process
- dressing the straw substrate with base fertilizers.
The day-by-day procedure for preparing the straw bales for planting follows:
Day 1: move straw bales into the greenhouse, raise greenhouse temperature to a minimum of 12-
13ºC to promote fermentation.
Days 2-5: apply water daily, in frequent small applications to thoroughly wet the straw; dry straw
is difficult to wet.
Days 4-5: apply (spread over) 120-150 g of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on each straw balee.
Days 6-8: apply more water daily in frequent small applications to prevent nitrogen leaching.
Day 9: apply more nitrogen (ammonium nitrate at 70-80 g per bale); by now the temperature of
the straw, internally, may have reached 50-60ºC.
Days 10-12: apply more water.
Day 13: test total salts in straw bale and leach, if necessary.
Day 14: apply base fertilizers at the rate (per bale) of 70-80 g ammonium nitrate, 200 g of triple
superphosphate, 100 g of magnesium sulfate, and 400 g of potassium nitrate.
Days 14-15: apply water to wet-in the base fertilizers.
Days 16-17: prepare soil or soilless mix and apply as a top cap (5-10 cm of growth medium
applied over the bales to facilitate planting and to assist in establishing a good conduct between
the root system of the transplants and straw substrate).
Days 18-20: plant crop, provided the temperature of the straw has subsided to below 35ºC.
As plants grow, twist them loosely around the crop support strings, which must be left slack to prevent the
roots from pulling out of place when later in the season the straw decomposes further and settles. After
planting the crop, limit fertilizer application to nitrogen feeding, as was done originally by the pioneers of
this production system. Table 25P outlines a simple schedule, and Table 25aP provides an analysis of the
nutrient concentration achieved using this method. The original straw-bale culture system as described
above was later improved by substituting the use of solid fertilizers with continuous liquid fertilizer
feeding. In this method, about 10-14 days are still needed for completely wetting the straw bales with a
nutrient solution of low EC (1600 #181S/cm) having a 2-1-2 analysis; the initial break-down (fermentation)
of the straw is minimized. After planting, continue liquid feeding for 2-5 weeks at a lower EC of 800
#181S/cm; then raise the EC again to 1600 #181S/cm. The main reasons for the recent decline in the use of
straw bales as a substrate for cucumber production are - the time needed to prepare the straw bales and
consequently the loss in time between crops - the difficulties in controlling the speed and timing of the
fermentation and, therefore, nutrient use or release by the straw - the bulkiness of the medium resulting in
loss of usable space for the vertical training of the plants - the high labor rquirement in handling the bales -
61
the availability of more convenient and inert media, conducive to much more accurate nutritional control.
Straw-bale culture offers many advantages and, if some of the disadvantages were minimized, this substrate
could become popular again. Some attractive features of the straw-bale culture system are - straw is an
inexpensive natural organic product, widely available, easily recyclable, and nonpolluting - the gradual
fermentation of straw, when controlled successfully, provides heat that helps maintain warm roots and
contributes to the overall energy needs of the greenhouse - the fermentation of straw provides carbon
dioxide which helps raise the C02 concentration in the greenhouse with beneficial effects on productivity -
straw provides excellent aeration for root growth and ample space for root development. Further research
could develop better methods for controlled straw fermentation using our vastly improved greenhouse
environment and fertigation controls. Developing better ways for continuously applying complete nutrient
solutions could remove the need for the 2-3 week waiting period before planting the crop. Quicker
turnaround would eliminate one of the most serious obstacles to the profitable use of straw bales in
cucumber production.
Table 25
Fertilizer application schedule for cucumbers grown in straw bales

------------------------------------------------------------------
Fertilizer*
-------------------------------
Ammonium Potassium Magnesium
Weeks nitrate nitrate sulfate
------------------------------------------
1-3 17
4-6 40
7-end 27 7 7
------------------------------------------------------------------
* Fertilizer in stock solution at kg/1000 L, to be applied with a
fertilizer injector with 1:100 ratio.
next topic: Cropping in rock wool and other inert media
Table 25a
Nutrient concentration in the final nutrient solution when fertilizers

are applied as prescribed in Table 25P
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nutrient concentration in final solution (ppm)
----------------------------------------------
Weeks N-NO3 N-NH4 K Mg
--------------------------------------------------------
1-3 28 28
4-6 78 78
7-end 55 46 27 7
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Rock wool consists of a fibrous material produced from a granitelike rock known as diabase, or basalt.
During manufacture the minerals are melted at about 1600 ºC and transformed into fibers bonded together
with resins. Initially made for the building trade as an insulator, this spongy material has recently become
available in cubes or slabs; an added wetting agent makes it water-absorbent for horticultural use (Plate IV
d). Other inert products that have been used as growing media, singly or combined, include perlite,
vermiculite, polyurethane (Oasis#174), expanded clay pellets, and polystyrene beads. All these inert
materials are made in the same way as rock wool and share physical and chemical characteristics. All are
sterile (free of pathogens and weed seeds). They offer a low cation-exchange capacity and a high water-
holding capacity. They permit adequate root aeration and a high degree of control over watering and
62
feeding. Furthermore, because of their light weight and ease of handling, the interval between crops can be
shorter than usual. Finally, they allow energy savings for two reasons: first they eliminate soil steaming;
second their use makes root heating practical. The latter allows for more precise control of air temperature
on the basis of minimum temperature requirements of the shoots rather than the roots. Vermiculite cannot
be considered entirely inert because it contains some potassium and magnesium, which gradually become
available to plants as it breaks down. Other not entirely inert media that have been used commercially as
growth substrates include various grades of sand and gravel. Rock wool is by far the most important inert
medium. It is used commercially around the world, and a wealth of information on its use is available from
experienced growers and plant scientists. However, with proper management, all the media mentioned have
similar yield potential. Because most of the technology used in producing greenhouse cucumbers in inert
media is similar, the detailed procedure described for rock wool also applies to managing the other media.
References are made to other media where necessary. The general guidelines on "Watering (peat)"
discussed under "Peat bags" apply also to other soilless media used in small quantities and must always be
kept in mind. Rock wool Perlite Vermiculite Oasis and other synthetics Expanded clay Sand and gravel
Rock wool
Horticultural-grade rock wool is manufactured in several countries (United Kingdom, Denmark, Holland,
Germany, France, United States, and recently, Canada) under various trademarks (e.g., Basalan, Capogro,
Grodan, Pargro). Although the chemical composition of rock wool varies with the manufacturer, the
ingredients making up the fibers are unavailable to the plants, so all nutrients must be added regularly to the
crop in solution. Rock wool is available in the form of slabs, blocks, or granules. The rectangular slabs vary
in length and width but are usually 7.5 cm deep for raising long-season crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers,
peppers, and eggplant, among others. Typical dimensions are 100 x 15 x 7.5 cm, 90 x 15 x 7.5 cm, 100 x 20
x 7.5 cm, 90 x 20 x 7.5 cm, and 90 x 30 x 7.5 cm. The blocks also come in various sizes and are used for
seed germination and transplant raising. The granular form is added to soil or used in a soilless mix; it can
also be used in bags as a partial or complete substitute for peat. The new rock wool has a pH of about 7.0-
8.5, which must be corrected to about 5.5 with a slightly acid fertilizer solution before use. The exact
concentration of acid required can be determined by trial and error tests on a small scale, or the necessary
information can be obtained from the manufacturer. The lack of a significant cation exchange capacity in
inert media makes adjusting their pH simple and inexpensive, because small amounts of chemicals are
required. Before the crop is started, water the growth medium thoroughly to allow for pH adjustment, to fill
the capillary tubes, and to ensure that the irrigation water added later will spread uniformly in the growth
medium. For example, each litre of rock wool needs about 0.8 L of water added to fully saturate it. Its high
water-holding capacity (80%) combines with adequate aeration (17%), even when fully wet. A crop both
propagated and grown in the same type of medium ensures that the capillary connections between the
transplant pot and cropping media establish quickly at transplanting. Also no excessive drying out or water
saturation occurs around the stems. Rock-wool blocks are available in many sizes; for cucumber
propagation the most commonly used size is the 10-cm cube, individually wrapped in polyethylene to
prevent excessive drying out. Raise seedlings in vermiculite or perlite and then prick them out into rock-
wool blocks with a cavity at the top. Alternatively, raise seedlings by placing individual seeds into tiny
rock-wool blocks (plugs), specially made to fit into the cavity of the transplant blocks, and cover them with
fine vermiculite. Before using the rock-wool blocks, place them on polyethylene and wet them with an
acidic nutrient solution, or better dip them into acidic nutrient solution, to adjust their pH. After pricking
out the seedlings, apply nutrient solution at each watering. Use some form of bottom heat to raise the
substrate temperature to 22-24ºC, which is beneficial and always holds some promise for energy savings
(see "Seedling transfer (transplanting)" under "General cultural practices"). When transplants are ready,
stand the plants on the rock-wool slabs through precut holes on the plastic liner, and ensure good contact
between the propagation blocks and the slabs. Place one or more drippers of the irrigation system on each
propagation block (Fig. 15). It may also be advisable to stand the transplants on the rock-wool slabs for
several days before cutting holes in the plastic liner. This procedure limits root growth to within the
transplant block and slows growth by holding back water at the early stage of the spring crop, while light is
limited. After the plants have established a good root system in the slabs, make slits for drainage on the
sides of the plastic wrapping near the bottom of the slabs. The distance of the slits from the bottom of the
rock-wool slabs determines the volume of nutrient solution on reserve and plays a major role in
establishing the specifications of the irrigation system and the irrigation regime: the lower the slits, the
smaller the size of the nutrient solution reservoir in each slab and the more frequent the irrigation needed.
63
However, the lower the location of the slits, the less the volume of saturated rock wool and therefore the
greater the efficiency in using the rock wool as a rooting substrate, which theoretically should result in
higher productivity. Growers inexperienced in using rock wool with drip irrigation systems of modest
performance should start by cutting drainage holes some distance (1-3 cm) up from the bottom of the slabs.
As these growers gain experience, they could progressively extend the slits downward to maximize the use
of the available rock wool. The general guidelines on "Watering (peat)" discussed under "Peat bags" are
also applicable to rock wool and must always be kept in mind (Fig. 16 and Fig. 17). Make the rows of rock-
wool slabs as level as possible and stand them on boards of polystyrene, which help level off small
imperfections in the soil surface. These boards form part of a substrate heating system, which circulates
warm water through polyethylene tubing set into grooves carved in the polystyrene. The polystyrene
insulates the warm rock- wool slabs from the cold soil underneath. The nutrient composition of the
fertilizer solution used in rock-wool culture depends on the chemical composition of the existing irrigation
water, the stage of plant growth, and the season. Once the original water has been analyzed, calculate
fertilizer and acid application rates based on the most desirable nutrient formula as determined by research
and experience (Table 26P and Table 26aP). Always consider the quality of the irrigation water when
establishing a feeding program; it is more important in rock-wool culture than in soil. For example, if the
water contains a large amount of calcium or magnesium, reduce the rates of calcium nitrate and magnesium
sulfate accordingly, and make up the nitrogen lost in these adjustments by increasing the amount of another
nitrogen- containing fertilizer. Other nutrients, such as potassium and nitrogen, rarely occur in significant
quantities in the water to require adjusting the nutrient formula. Sometimes the water supply contains a
large amount of certain trace elements such as iron, zinc, and manganese. If so, the fertilizer feed needs
some correction. Avoid saline water that contains more than 50 ppm sodium or 70 ppm chloride; when the
concentration of these two ions reaches 100 and 140 ppm, respectively, the water cannot be used easily in
rock-wool culture. When using rainwater, raise the usually low level of bicarbonate by adding potassium
bicarbonate to the final solution, not to the stock solutions, to increase the buffering capacity of the solution
for a more stable pH in the rock-wool slabs. On the other hand, when the bicarbonate in the water supply
exceeds 60 ppm, add phosphoric or nitric acid (or both) to neutralize it. For a proper solution to these
special problems, seek a second opinion, preferably that of a horticultural adviser or of an experienced
grower. Although rock-wool systems function well with either recirculating or nonrecirculating nutrient
solutions, the use of the latter system is simpler and more reliable. However, even a nonrecirculating, open-
ended system needs checking and repairing regularly. Check the pH and electrical conductivity (EC) of the
solution daily, given the inert nature of the substrate and the quick response of the crop to human error and
mechanical failure. A recirculated system (Fig. 18) results in less fertilizer run-off into the environment
and, in the future, its use might become mandatory. Make up at least two stock solutions from readily
available fertilizers, to avoid precipitation in the concentrate storage tank that results from the mixing of
calcium- or magnesium-containing fertilizers with those containing sulfates or phosphates. Dilute the stock
solutions and combine them in a mixing tank before applying them to the crop, thus providing a complete
nutrient solution at every watering. Monitor the total concentration of nutrients in the irrigation water
continually by a salt sensor (electrical conductivity cell) and, if necessary, adjust the mixing ratio of the
fertilizer diluter to achieve an optimum feeding strength for the crop; automatic adjustment is technically
available. Similarly, monitor, with a pH meter, the pH of the irrigation water after adding all fertilizers and
any acid. Adjust the rate of acid application to achieve a desirable pH for the nutrient solution; automatic
adjustment is technically available. Choose from many alternative feed recipes, depending on the cultivar
grown, the water source, the stage of crop growth, and the season. The fertigation recommendations in
Table 26P and Table 26aP rely on using rainwater. Treat them only as a starting point in the search for
finding the optimum for a given operation. Check daily the pH and salt concentration (EC) of the slab
solution, and run an analysis every 2 weeks for all essential nutrients. Correct serious nutrient imbalances
by making appropriate changes to the nutrient formula, but the changes should deviate as little as possible
from the normal solution. Have an experienced person double-check the contemplated changes to the
nutrient feed before implementation; then implement them only until the imbalance is corrected. Changes
in the nutrient formula based on crop growth and appearance are also possible, but allow only persons with
experience in rock-wool culture to make such changes. To reduce costs, use rock-wool slabs for more than
one season, provided they get effectively steam-sterilized in between crops. Thoroughly flush out
accumulated salts with plain water for 1-2 h before sterilization. Methyl bromide, if available, can also
function to sterilize rock wool between crops, but steaming is more effective over a greater variety of
pathogens and is preferred when available. Recommended fumigants, their use, and rates of application are
64
subject to government regulations, which can vary from province to province. Licensing is required before
certain fumigants (e.g., methyl bromide) can be used. Pay strict attention to regulations governing fumigant
use and take precautions during application. After sterilizing the slabs, rewrap them with polyethylene film
so that they are ready again for use. Reused slabs require no further pH adjustment and are easier to rewet
than new ones. Rock-wool slabs can be reused only a limited number of times, usually once. Some
breakdown in their fiber structure occurs with handling and sterilization, and as a result the air pore space
in the slabs decreases with every reuse. An interesting alternative to the reuse of rock-wool slabs for
reducing production cost is the recently introduced low-density, low-cost rock-wool slab that is used for a
single cropping season. The ideal micronutrient concentrations in the final solution are 0.6-1.2 ppm Fe, 0.3-
0.6 ppm Mn, 0.2-0.7 ppm Zn, 0.4-0.7 ppm B, 0.02-0.07 ppm Cu, and 0.01-0.02 ppm Mo. Fig. 15
Fig. 15 Typical layout of plants for rock-wool culture. Option 1: Plants are trained to the canopy system
giving each plant about 50 cm x 160 cm = 0.8 m#178. Option 2: Plants are trained to the vertical cordon
system giving each plant about 60 cm x 130 cm = 0.78 m#178. Fig. 16
Fig. 16 Methods of irrigation control in rock-wool culture. Fig. 17
65
Fig. 17 Typical set up for monitoring amounts of water delivered, and leached out, per plant, in rock-wool
culture.
Fig. 18
Fig. 18 Methods of nutrient solution recycling in rock-wool culture.
Table 26
Fertigation schedule for cucumber production in rock wool

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock A* Stock B* Recommended
(kg/1000 L) (kg/1000 L) irrigation**
------------------ --------------------------- --------------
Mono-
Cal- Potas- Ammo- potas- Potas- Magne- Magne-
Appli- cium sium nium sium sium sium sium Volume EC
cation ni- ni- ni- phos- sul- sul- ni- (L/plant (#181S/
time trate trate trate phate fate fate trate /day) cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 110 32 0 17 15 33 0 5 2200
Week 1 80 46 0 13 4 25 0 0.6 1800
2 90 50 0 14 5 27 0 0.8 2000
66
3-4 100 50 0 16 12 33 0 1.0-2.0 2200
5-6 100 78 0 20 0 37 0 2.0-3.0 2400
7-9 95 78 3 19 0 35 0 3.0-4.0 2400
10-12 83 73 6 16 0 30 0 3.0-4.0 2200
13-19 74 66 6 14 0 14 14 3.0-4.0 2000
20-end 66 60 4 10 0 0 27 3.0-5.0 1800
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 110 32 0 17 15 33 0 5 2200
Week 1 80 46 0 13 4 25 0 0.8 1800
2 90 50 0 14 5 27 0 1.2 2000
3 100 50 0 16 12 33 0 1.0-2.0 2200
4-8 95 78 3 19 0 35 0 2.0-3.0 2400
9-end 83 73 6 16 0 30 0 1.0-2.0 2200
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
*#ri Caution: If fertilizers are first mixed in thick stock solutions
and one containing sulfate or phosphate, as such a mixture results in a
** Actual volume of irrigation water will be guided by the EC in the
slab and volume of the excess solution being leached out; the EC of the
slab is targeted at no higher than 20% of the EC of the applied
solution, and, the volume leached at no more than 20-30% of the
solution applied.
#ri Notes:
Trace elements must also be added to all the above fertilizer feeds;
a typical trace element mix (e.g., Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix) contains 7.0% Fe, 2.0% Mn, 0.4% Zn, 0.1% Cu, 1.3% B, and 0.06% Mo;
when added to the stock solution at the rate of 1 kg/1000 L it
0.01 ppm Cu, 0.13 ppm B, and 0.006 ppm Mo, with a 1:100 dilution ratio.
Dissolve given amount of each fertilizer, including trace elements,
in 1000 L of water and add to the irrigation water in equal doses,
ideally with a multihead fertilizer injector. Start injecting very
slowly and increase the rate of injection progressively, and
uniformly on all heads, until the desired EC is achieved. Adjust the pH
of the fertigation solution to 5.5 by injecting a dilute solution of
phosphoric, nitric, or sulfuric acid.
Alternatively, dissolve the prescribed fertilizers, including the
micronutrient mix, into 100 000 L of water, adjust the pH, and apply
directly to the crop.
amount of each fertilizer. Similar adjustments can be made for
fertilizer injectors with other mixing ratios. If the solubility limit
of a fertilizer (e.g., potassium nitrate) is exceeded, prepare more
than one stock solution of the same fertilizer and divide the amount of
the fertilizer equally between the stocks.
Table 26a
67
each of stock solutions A and B, prepared as described in Table 26P,
are mixed with 98 parts of water (i.e., 1:100 dilution ratio)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Application Nutrient (ppm) EC*
time ------------------------------------------------------------#181S/
cm)
N- N- P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
NO3 NH4
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 201 11 39 231 209 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
Week 1 176 8 29 228 152 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 1800
2 195 9 32 250 171 27 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2000
3-4 210 10 37 284 190 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
5-6 246 10 46 353 190 37 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2400
7-9 244 15 44 350 180 35 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2400
10-12 226 18 37 323 158 30 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
13-19 230 17 32 291 141 27 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2000
23-end 211 13 23 256 125 24 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 1800
Fall crop
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Saturation
of slabs 201 11 39 231 209 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
Week 1 176 8 29 228 152 25 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 1800
2 195 9 32 250 171 27 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2000
3 210 10 37 284 190 33 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
4-8 244 15 44 350 180 35 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2400
9-end 226 18 37 323 158 30 1.4 0.4 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.012 2200
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* The EC of the water has been assumed at zero (i.e., rain water).
Note: The ideal micronutrient concentrations (ppm) in the final
solution are 0.6 1.2 Fe, 0.3 0.6 Mn, 0.2 0.7 Zn, 0.4 0.7 B, 0.02 0.07
Cu, and 0.01-0.02 Mo.
Perlite
Perlite is volcanic glass. When this rock is crushed and heated (to about 1000ºC), the small quantity of
water trapped in it vaporises and puffs out the granules (just like popcorn) to form white foamy beads. This
product was used initially in the construction industry for insulation and the preparation of light weight
building components. The grain size of horticultural-grade perlite ranges between 1 and 5 mm. Expanded
perlite is light, physically stable, and chemically inert; it holds large quantities of readily available water,
has a strong capillary attraction to water, and, because it drains easily, is also well aerated (Table 2P). The
material has a closed cellular structure, and therefore most of the water retained after drainage is held
superficially. Two primary sources of perlite are the island of Milos in Greece and the island of Sardinia in
Italy. Although perlite has been used extensively worldwide in soil and peat mixes for plant raising, its use
as a substrate for soilless production of cucumbers received particular attention in Scotland, Greece, and
other European countries. The cropping techniques and fertilizer application schedules have been described
in specialized publications. Crop growth and productivity, which have been reported as encouraging,
compete with those of the widely used rock wool. Containers of various shapes and sizes can be used for
holding the growth medium. Most commonly used are large pots, upright plastic bags, troughs (similar to
those used for peat, Fig. 14), and bolster bags of various sizes. Extensive studies, reports, and practical
experience exist on the bag- and gulley-reservoir methods pioneered in Scotland. The bag-reservoir method
68
is based on 30-L polyethylene growing bags (bolsters) filled with perlite and supporting three plants each.
Its key feature is that horizontal slits are cut at about 3-4 cm up from the base of the bag. In this open
system, any excess nutrient solution applied collects to a depth of 3-4 cm in the bottom of the perlite in
each bag. Aided by the high capillary action of perlite, this reservoir ensures an uninterrupted water supply
to the plants with just a few irrigations per day and without placing a high demand on the irrigation system
for uniform water delivery. European recommendations for the nutrient concentration of the main season
feed of cucumbers grown in perlite call for 190 ppm N, 42 ppm P, 260 ppm K, 145 ppm Ca, 35 ppm Mg, 2
ppm Fe, 0.75 ppm Mn, 0.5 ppm Zn, 0.4 ppm B, 0.1 ppm Cu, and 0.05 ppm Mo. The gulley-reservoir
system is a closed system better suited to nutrient recirculation. The distinguishing feature of this system is
the use of an extra sheet of plastic wrapped around the growing bags. This plastic maintains an even larger
reservoir of nutrient solution or even allows for subirrigation to be practiced when the greenhouse floor is
reasonably level. The same schedule used for applying fertilizer to cucumbers grown in rock wool is
believed applicable to cucumber production in perlite. However, interested growers should proceed
cautiously because there is little experience with this approach in Canada.
Vermiculite
Vermiculite, a hydrated magnesium aluminium silicate, appears in nature as platelike crystals. Large
deposits of this mineral occur in the United States, South Africa, and elsewhere. When heated
appropriately, the water trapped in it vaporizes and causes the mineral to exfoliate (puff-out). The
exfoliated vermiculite is a lightweight material of alkaline reaction, with high cation-exchange and water-
holding capacities. Because of these qualities, vermiculite has become a popular ingredient insoil and peat-
based mixes for plant production. Vermiculite is rarely used as growth substrate by itself. When price
permits, it can be used to fill troughs, bags, or pots for growing cucumbers. The general cultural technique
described for peat and the fertilizer application schedule recommended for rock-wool culture can serve as a
basis in developing an appropriate strategy for crop management. The main reasons for the limited use of
vermiculite as a substrate for cucumber production are its initial alkaline reaction and its tendency to
collapse over time. Structural collapse leads to reduced aeration and drainage.

Synthetic organic materials, such as expanded polystyrene, urea- formaldehyde, and polyurethane foams,
are inert. With proper treatment, they form useful substrates for cucumber production. Some of these
materials are available as slabs (e.g., polyurethane foam) and have been used commercially in a manner
similar to rock wool. Other materials come in granular form (e.g., Oasis#174) and have been used in place
of the peat-mix in peat-bag culture. Oasis#174, a phenolic-based foam, has stable structure, high porosity
(97-98%), good aeration, high water-holding capacity, light weight, and acidic pH. It is available in block
form, for transplant raising, and in granular form, for filling bags; it is not readily available as a slab. The
plastic bags used to contain oasis have been narrower than the peat-bags (typically about 15 cm in
diameter) and their length has varied between 80 and 120 cm. With two or three plants grown in each bag,
the volume of substrate available to each plant has been on the low side (e.g., 7 L), but results have been
satisfactory even when the same material was used for several crops (i.e., with proper sterilization of the
medium in between crops). Because the pH of new Oasis#174 is on the acid side (well below 7), use an
alkaline solution, usually of potassium bicarbonate in water at 1 g/L, to soak the material for 24 h before
slitting the bags. Then cut horizontal drainage slits at about 2-3 cm from the base. Once the bags have
drained, planting, drip irrigation, fertigation, and all other cultural practices resemble those described for
peat bags and rock wool. No specific schedule for fertilizer application has been described, but the
recommendations for rock-wool-grown crops should also apply to this medium.
Expanded clay
Expanded clay pellets, like rock wool, were initially designed as insulating building material. They are
produced by baking clay at 1100ºC at which temperature it expands into porous granules. The granules
have been marketed at various sizes for different horticultural uses. Intact granules have a closed-cell
structure; their low water-holding capacity, fast drainage, and high aeration make them an attractive
medium for closed (recirculated) systems and for systems using subirrigation. Crushing the granules
exposes the porous material, and the water-holding capacity of the medium increases significantly.
Commercial systems use large, drained pots to contain the medium, and drip irrigation for fertigation (Plate
69
IV e); rapid percolation makes spray nozzles preferable to drippers. Some growers use plastic troughs to
collect excess nutrient solution, but the management of a cucumber crop with nutrient solution recycling
requires some skill. Following management practices and the fertilizer application schedule for rock-wool,
crop performance in clay pellets, used as an open system, has been very satisfactory. The stable structure of
the clay granules, especially when intact, ensures the long-term use of the medium over several seasons,
provided that you sterilize it effectively between crops.
Sand and gravel
Other nearly inert media such as sand and gravel have also been used as growing substrates for greenhouse
vegetables. Information on sand and gravel culture comes mostly from other countries; a few Canadian
growers have experimented with them. These media are heavy, difficult to handle, difficult to sterilize
between crops, and usually require extensive and permanent modifications to the greenhouse floor. Like
most other media, sand and gravel have an equally high yield potential when managed properly and can
prove the best choice under certain conditions.
Section 5
WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term cucumber crops because of
frequent, and unresolved, crop losses from widespread root death; consult your local horticultural
crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV f).
Of all the soilless methods, water culture, by definition, is a true hydroponic system. The nutrient film
technique (NFT) is a relatively new water-culture system based on the simple principle of circulating a
shallow stream, or film, of nutrient solution over the roots of growing plants to provide an adequate supply
of water, nutrients, and oxygen (Fig. 19). The concept of the nutrient film is credited to A.J. Cooper, who
while at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute in Littlehampton, England, recognized its value and called
international attention to its commercial potential as early as 1973. Since then, NFT has undergone
intensive testing by scientists and commercial growers in many countries, including Canada, and is now
considered a commercially viable form of water culture for several crops, but not cucumbers.
Fig. 20 illustrates the general layout of an NFT installation, with its various components. Although many
versions of NFT are in current use, the basic components of a typical NFT installation are as follows:
- Parallel gullies, or troughs, in which to grow the plants are laid on a 1-2% slope, on which the nutrient
solution flows. Originally, producers grew the plants with their roots in lay-flat tubing, but this method
failed to provide maximum aeration of the roots. Later, they used gullies made from a strip of polyethylene
folded lengthwise (Fig. 21). The gullies may also be prefabricated from semirigid plastic.
- A catchment tank contains nutrient solution where fertilizers, water, and acid are added.
- A circulation pump draws solution from the catchment tank and delivers it to the upper ends of the
gullies.
- A catchment pipe collects solution discharged from the gullies.
- Fertilizer and acid supply tanks store concentrated fertilizer stock solutions and an acid solution.
- Monitoring and control equipment maintain nutrient concentrations (including total amount of salts), pH,
and water level. An electrical conductivity (EC) controller and a pH controller are commonly used to
regulate the operation of dosimetric pumps or solenoid valves. These pumps, or valves, control the transfer
of fertilizers and acid to the catchment tank. A mechanical floating valve or a variety of electronic controls
easily maintain a constant water level in the catchment tank.
NFT has many advantages over other systems of crop production. It has been designed for simplicity, low
cost, and dependability. In particular, it gives absolute control of the root environment; it greatly simplifies
watering, and ensures a uniform nutrient supply across the whole crop. Root temperature can be raised
easily whenever required merely by warming the nutrient solution, which can be circulated either
continuously or intermittently to further conserve energy and to control the vegetative growth of young
winter-grown plants.
Other advantages include a rapid turnaround between successive crops, the potential for more efficient use
of greenhouse space because of the possibility of plant mobility, and the potential for more efficient use of
water. NFT's high degree of control over nutrition, water availability, and root environment makes it the
70
most sophisticated of all commercial plant-culture systems in practice today. Theoretically it offers the
highest yield potential. However, many of the advantages of NFT are also offered, to some degree, by other
soilless methods, notably rock wool. Much scepticism therefore persists about the future of NFT, because it
is generally perceived as a technique that requires a high level of technical skill. Growers have some
concern about the possibility that the recirculating nutrient solution may amplify and spread diseases in the
system, resulting in disastrous crop losses. Unexplainable outbreaks of root death have repeatedly occurred,
which have fueled concern over potential spread of diseases in NFT cucumbers. The NFT method, the
deep-culture technique (pioneered in Japan), and other closed-loop hydroponic methods are now being
reexamined with renewed interest because of their potential for minimizing fertilizer waste and
environmental pollution. NFT was originally developed as a low-cost system using lightweight, disposable
gullies and simple salinity and pH controllers. However, as the system became a commercial reality, it
became inceasingly automated, standardized, and sophisticated, which made the capital cost of the initial
installation a major concern for growers contemplating its use. Fortunately, the original simple and low-
cost NFT system is nearly as good as the high-cost ready-to-use ones in the international market. It still
offers the best opportunity to the average grower who would like to try NFT on a small scale without
risking great losses. Many publications now describe the NFT technique in great detail. Also, several
Canadian companies are offering turn-key operations or are well stocked with all NFT-related instruments
and supplies. The following summary gives some general rules and recommendations for NFT use, for the
benefit of those who may not have access to more-detailed, specialized publications. It emphasizes
particularly aspects of NFT that proved problematic during its development.
Make the base of the gullies about 25-30 cm wide. A maximum length of 20 m works well for gullies set
on a nominal 1% slope; longer gullies can be used for the nutrient solution, but with higher slopes or with
several introduction points along the length of the gullies. For constructing the gullies, especially for the
fall crop, use coextruded polyethylene film (white on black) 0.1 mm thick, when available. Lay the plastic
film (a strip about 75 cm wide) in position, black side uppermost, on the prepared supporting surface (e.g.,
polystyrene sheets on graded soil or elevated tray-supports manufactured from galvanized metal and other
materials); raise the sides and staple them together between the plants to form a gully of triangular cross
section (Fig. 21). The inside black surface of the plastic serves to keep the light out of the gully, which
prevents algae from growing in the nutrient solution. The white outside surface of the plastic reflects the
incoming light, which enhances plant growth and prevents the plastic from getting too hot. Overheated
plastic gullies have burned the stems of transplants started in the summer. A thin plastic film, as
recommended previously, is preferred over a thicker film. Wrinkles in the former help to disperse the
nutrient solution while a crop becomes established and until enough roots grow outside the propagation
blocks.
Various approaches have been tried to prevent young transplants from drying out during the first few days
after transplanting. For a simple and effective solution to the problem, place the transplants on a narrow
strip of capillary matting at planting time. A second set of crop-supporting wires are usually necessary at a
low level to help lay down a crop without moving the plastic gullies out of place, which can lead to serious
losses of nutrient solution. Transfer the nutrient solution from the supply line into the gullies through at
least two small-bore (2-3 mm inside diameter) flexible tubes, to guard against blockage. Of the NFT
components that come in contact with the nutrient solution, have as many as possible made of plastic
because metal can release potentially toxic levels of certain micronutrients, such as zinc and copper, into
the solution.
Because of the widespread use of plastics, select only materials that are not phytotoxic. As a general
recommendation, PVC and low- and high-density polyethylene or polypropylene are acceptable, but do not
use plasticized PVC (used in the manufacture of flexible hose) or butyl rubber sheet lining (used for
waterproofing reservoirs) in NFT because they may be phytotoxic. Plastics are more likely to cause
phytotoxicity when new. Plastic surfaces quickly lose their potential phytotoxicity when exposed to
nutrient solution. Therefore, before planting a crop, flush out the new hydroponic installation entirely for 1
day with a dilute nutrient solution that is then discarded.
To ensure good root aeration, allow an adequate rate of flow in the gullies (e.g., 2 L/min) and a depth of
solution of no more than 1 cm, even when the root mat is well developed. To provide a suitable slope,
71
grade the surface carefully before laying the gullies to avoid localized areas of deeper, stagnant solution. In
planning the layout, take advantage of any natural slopes in the greenhouse. A second slope at right angles
to the flow in the gullies facilitates the return flow to the main (catchment) tank, which is most
conveniently located at the lowest corner of the greenhouse complex. Although NFT at first relied on
sloping soil surfaces, occasionally made of concrete, an increased interest is now evident in raised systems
using rigid platforms, which support the gullies, and in adjustable stands. Such systems eliminate pockets
of deeper solution resulting from poor soil leveling and allow for slope adjustment, even during cropping.
Furthermore, a raised NFT system can be installed and operated in an old greenhouse, where grading the
soil might be difficult or even impossible. Widely available fiber glass or plastic containers have been used
as catchment tanks, but because they are usually small their usefulness is limited to small NFT installations.
For larger installations, deep holes or pits in the soil lined with polyethylene film are sometimes used.
Avoid this system, however, because the film often develops leaks and can create other problems. A pit-
liner made of polyethylene film reinforced with fiber glass or nylon fiber is a much better alternative.
A concrete tank, properly sealed with resin, or a tank prefabricated in plastic with external reinforcement,
makes an excellent choice for a permanent catchment tank in most NFT installations. Cover the tank to
exclude light, to prevent algae growth, and to limit contamination of the solution by soil organisms.
Adequately insulate the catchment tank to prevent the solution from becoming too cold and to conserve
energy when the nutrient solution is heated. An NFT system that supports 1 ha of mature vine crop contains
about 50 m#179 of nutrient solution, of which only 5-8 m#179 is in the catchment tank; the rest circulates
in the gullies. When designing an NFT system, allow a minimum catchment tank capacity of 10 m#179 for
every hectare of greenhouse area; if you contemplate using an intermittent flow of nutrient solution, you
will need to increase the capacity substantially. Although larger tanks would increase the nutrient supply
and pH stability of the system, consider the tank's cost-to-benefit ratio also before you make your final
decision. Like all aspects of NFT, the design of catchment tanks is still being developed, with the objective
of improving mixing and aeration of the nutrient solution and ensuring optimum pH and EC control.
Various techniques have been developed to further increase oxygenation of the nutrient solution. Two
separate return pipes can be arranged to enter the catchment tank at right angles to each other so that the
nutrient solution streams converge well above the solution in the tank. Also, instead of discharging the
nutrient solution into the catchment tank through an open-ended pipe, a tee or other pipe modifications can
be used to encourage dispersion. A more deliberate attempt to increase mixing and aeration of the nutrient
solution in the catchment tank involves the direct return, under pressure, of some of the nutrient solution
pumped by the main circulation pump. As with every component in contact with the nutrient solution,
ensure that the main pump can handle corrosive solutions; therefore use stainless steel or plastic-bodied
pumps. Self-priming pumps are preferable, but avoid the submersible types because they eventually
corrode and can fail. By using several smaller pumps instead of a single large one, the solution continues to
flow even when one pump fails. Also, a pressure-sensitive switch can activate a spare pump if the main one
fails and the pressure in the system drops. To guard against total power failure, a stand-by generator is
essential for large installations and for areas that experience frequent and extended blackouts. A small
operator might avoid the extra cost of a stand-by generator by connecting the main water supply through a
one-way valve to the NFT system. Then at least the crop receives plain water during a power interruption;
but providing appropriate drainage is essential in this case. View this approach, however, only as an added
safety feature built into the NFT system rather than as a first line of defence against power and pump
failures.
Supply the catchment tank with an overflow of at least the same capacity as the maximum rate of the
nutrient solution being returned from the crop to the catchment tank. Although providing an overflow
might seem expensive and complicated, it is absolutely necessary as a last resort to avoid disastrous
floodings when all other safety measures to keep the nutrient solution flowing fail.
Fertilizers and acid are normally added into the catchment tank in the form of concentrated stock solutions.
The dosimetric pumps used to inject nutrients and acids into the catchment tank should be chemically
resistant at least in those parts that come in contact with the relatively concentrated solutions. Use two
pumps for fertilizer and one for acid; their size depends on the size of the operation, but most growers need
an average capacity of 10 L/h. The two nutrient pumps used for fertilizer injection should be adjustable so
72
that they can be set to deliver exactly the same volume of liquid. Regulate the operation of the fertilizer and
acid injection pumps by their respective controllers. In large installations it may be more economical to
replace the dosimetric pumps with solenoid valves that control the gravity-driven flow of stock solutions.
Several suppliers now have available complete nutrient and acid dosing sets in ready-to-use packages.
However, growers can easily assemble tailor-made systems that suit individual needs because most of the
needed components are widely available.
Salinity and pH controllers are also required. A salinity controller provides the best method for determining
the salt concentration by measuring and controlling the electrical conductivity (EC) of the solution. This
method uses the principle that the electricity conducted between two electrodes, immersed at a fixed
distance (usually 1 cm) in a solution, is proportional to the total ionic (salt) concentration in that solution.
The EC controller monitors and displays the conductivity of the nutrient solution and activates the metering
(dosimetric) pumps when the measured conductivity falls below a preset value and only until the measured
value regains the preset value. Electrical conductivity is usually reported in either microSiemens per
centimetre (#181S/cm) or micromho per centimetre (#181mho/cm). Other units and conventions are used
occasionally to express EC, but the relationships between them are straightforward: for example, 1
milliSiemen (mS) = 1 millimho (mmho) = 1000 microSiemens (#181S) = 1000 micromho (#181mho) = 10
conductivity factor (CF) units; reference to centimetres is usually omitted, but implied. The cells (sensors)
used in conductivity measurements are encased in plastic, which makes them sturdy, requiring only
minimal maintenance.
Two main types of conductivity cells are available: a dip cell suspended in the solution and suitable for
small installations, and a flow-through type cell incorporated in the pipeline. In the latter case a sampling
loop returns some of the main circulating pump's output solution directly back into the catchment tank after
it has passed through the conductivity cell. The electrical conductivity of a solution increases by about 2%
for every degree Celsius that the temperature increases. Therefore equip the conductivity controller with
automatic temperature compensation a standard option in most conductivity controllers. A general
recommendation for the optimum conductivity setting on the salinity controller is difficult to provide
because the setting varies according to the cultivar grown, the season, the stage of growth, and the quality
of the water. First measure the electrical conductivity of the water (assume an x reading is obtained) and
then set the salinity controller at x + 1500 #181S. A balanced nutrient solution suitable for the growth of
most plants has a conductivity of about 1500 #181S. Where the water supply contains nutrients in excess of
plant requirements, or where the fertilizers are not supplied in a ratio proportional to nutrient uptake by the
crop, a buildup of certain nutrients inevitably results. Nutrients that can accumulate over time include
calcium (from hard water), sulfate (from fertilizers), sodium and chloride (from saline water), and possibly
others. Under these conditions the background conductivity rises progressively, so proportionate increases
in the EC setting of the salinity controller are needed to maintain an adequate nutrient supply.
Unfortunately, no simple and practical procedure exists to determine the changes in background
conductivity. Therefore discard the nutrient solution periodically and add new solution into the system.
The frequency at which to renew the nutrient solution depends on the stage of crop growth and the season,
both of which affect the rate of nutrient and water uptake by the crop. Generally, renew the solution every
month at the beginning of a crop and twice a month later, when the crop is fully grown or whenever the
crop appears to have stopped growing. As the grower gains experience with the system, the solution may
need less frequent renewal.
While the NFT operation is being established, weekly chemical analysis of the nutrient solution is essential
for crop safety and for familiarizing the grower with the operation; as the grower gains experience, less
frequent analysis can be conducted, e.g., twice a month. The pH of the nutrient solution also influences
considerably crop growth, and therefore it is monitored and controlled continually within the range of 5.5-
6.5. Avoid values below 5; a pH below 4 damages most crops. At the other end of the pH range, the
availability of trace, or minor, elements (except molybdenum) decreases when the pH rises above about
6.5, establishing the upper limit of a desirable pH level in the solution. Where the main source of nitrogen
is nitrate or where the pH of the water is high (7.0), the pH of the solution rises during cropping; a control
system consists of a pH monitor- controller and a metering pump that adds an acid, usually phosphoric or
nitric. However, when a significant portion of the nitrogen is supplied as ammonia and the buffering
73
capacity of the water is low, the pH can drop below the lowest value acceptable and a base, such as sodium
hydroxide, may have to be added to raise the pH to within the acceptable range. Dilute the concentrated
acids as purchased at a ratio of 1:10 or preferably 1:20 before use; the exact concentration required varies
according to the capacity of the metering pump or solenoid and the size of the catchment tank. For large
installations seek the advice of a chemical engineer who specializes in designing the proper storage and
handling procedures for dangerous chemicals.
WARNING: Both acids and bases can cause serious burns to workers if handled carelessly; always
wear protective clothing, masks, and glasses when handling these chemicals. When diluting
concentrated chemicals, always add the acid or base to the water; never add water to a concentrated
acid or base because the solution could get overheated and explode, causing serious burns.
A great variety of safety devices and precautions are available to guard against failure of the pH and
salinity controllers. Timers are routinely installed that can override either of the two controllers and prevent
the continuous addition of fertilizer or acid to the solution for periods that exceed a normal, expected time
span. Also, small tanks for the stock and acid solutions can be used, so that the crop would not be damaged,
even if all their contents were added to the catchment tank; the disadvantage of this approach is that the
stock solution tanks must be topped up regularly. Experiments at the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute
(GCRI) in Littlehampton, England, have shown that plants grown with the NFT technique can tolerate a
wide range of nutrient concentrations. For example, in one study on tomatoes they found no significant loss
of yield when the nitrogen (as NO3-) concentration was reduced from 320 to 10 ppm, provided that the
concentrations were effectively maintained. In commercial practice, however, an average nutrient
concentration is preferred because it ensures an adequate reserve of nutrients within the system.
Some general recommendations, based on commercial experience and on research carried out at GCRI, are
available on the optimum concentration of nutrients in the NFT solution; they are summarized in Table
27P. On the basis of the nutrient content of the water supply, two major recommendations are available
regarding the composition of the NFT fertilizer and acid-concentrated stock solutions. The fertilizer
concentrations given in Table 28P apply to areas with a moderately hard water supply, with alkalinityin
excess of 100 ppm calcium carbonate equivalent.Where routine analysis of the nutrient solution shows that
calcium has accumulated in the solution, it might be necessary to reduce the amount of calcium nitrate in
stock solution A. For each kilogram of calcium nitrate omitted from solution A, increase the potassium
nitrate by 0.86 kg, to compensate for the NO3- lost in the reduction of calcium nitrate; and decrease the
potassium sulfate by 0.74 kg, to counterbalance the increase in potassium from the added potassium nitrate.
The water supply could contain enough calcium, i.e., more than 120 ppm, to preclude adding calcium
nitrate.
However, in areas where the water supply has an alkalinity of less than 100 ppm calcium carbonate
equivalent, increase the calcium nitrate in stock solution A. The fertilizer formula then takes a new form, as
shown in Table 29P. The grouping of fertilizers and acids in Table 28P and Table 29P can be altered to
include some or all of the potassium nitrate in stock solution A, which may be desirable when using little
calcium nitrate. Also, when you know the acid requirement from previous experience, include a portion of
it (but only as nitric) in stock solutions A and B. This practice has the dual benefit of preventing
precipitates in stocks A and B and allowing the nitrogen content of the nitric acid to be taken into account
when formulating stock solutions. In fact, fertilizers can be grouped into stock solutions in a variety of
ways, the only limitation being that calcium be kept apart from phosphate and sulfate.
The formulas in Table 28 and Table 29 are good examples of how to vary the composition of the nutrient
concentrates for particular purposes. Beginners who cannot or do not wish to prepare their own stock
solutions can buy various commercial nutrient formulations. These products, because they are made for
universal application, may not prove the ideal choice for every crop, but they have given good general
results. However, commercial growers with a significant part of their cucumber crop in NFT should make
every effort to obtain basic fertilizers and mix them to provide the plants with the best nutrient mix
according to the latest research findings. Table 30P constitutes the latest fertilizer feeding recommendations
for NFT cucumber cropping at the time of writing.
74
WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term cucumber crops because of
frequent, and unresolved, crop losses from widespread root death; consult your local horticultural
crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV f).
Fig. 19
Fig. 19 The concept of NFT. Fig. 20
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
75
Fig. 21 Gully construction for NFT.
Table 27
Target nutrient levels in NFT solution

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Minimum* (pH 5.5, Optimum (pH 6.0, Maximum (pH 6.5,
Element EC 1800 #181S/cm) EC 2000-2500 #181S/cm) EC 3500 #181S/cm)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Nitrogen (N03) 50 150-200 300
Nitrogen (NH4) 5 10-15 20
Phosphorus 20 50 200
Potassium 100 300-500 800
Calcium 125 150-300 400
Magnesium 25 50 100
Iron 1.5 6 12
Manganese 0.5 1 2.5
Copper 0.05 0.1 1
Zinc 0.05 0.5 2.5
Boron 0.1 0.3-0.5 1.5
Molybdenum 0.01 0.05 0.1
Sodium ** ** 250
Chloride ** ** 400
Sulfur --- 50-200 ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* Regard concentrations listed as minimum as the approximate lower
limit of a preferred range; in general, these minimum values are above
those at which symptoms of deficiency develop.
** As little as possible.
WARNING: The NFT system is not recommended for long-term

cucumber crops because of frequent, and unresolved, crop
losses from widespread root death; consult your local
horticultural crop adviser before using NFT (Plate IV
76
f).
Table 28
Fertilizer formulation for NFT used with hard water*

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock A Stock B Stock C
(1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume)
-------------------- ------------------------ -------------------
Chemical Amount Chemical Amount Chemical Amount
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Calcium nitrate 50 kg Potassium nitrate 80 kg Nitric acid(67%) 54 L
Potassium sulfate 40 kg Phosphoric acid 24 L
Magnesium sulfate 60 kg (85%)
Ammonium nitrate 0.6 kg
Iron chelate (15% Fe) 3.0 kg
Manganese sulfate 0.4 kg
(25% Mn) 0.4 kg
Boric acid (14% B) 0.24 kg
Copper sulfate 80 g
(25% Cu)
Zinc sulfate (23% Zn)40 g
Ammonium molybdate 10 g
(57% Mo)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* No phosphatic fertilizer has been included other than the phosphoric
acid in stock solution C. Where the water is not particularly hard and
the acid requirement is correspondingly low, include 1.5 kg of
monopotassium phosphate in stock solution B while decreasing the amount
of potassium sulfate from 4.0 to 3.0 kg.
Note: Assuming a dilution ratio of 1:100 for stock solutions A and
B, the theoretical nutrient concentrations in the circulating diluted
NFT solution are as follows:
Nutrient (ppm)
------------------------------
Nitrogen* 192
Phosphorus** ---
Potassium 490
Magnesium 59
Calcium*** 85
Iron 4.5
Manganese 1
Boron 0.34
Copper 0.20
Zinc 0.09
Molybdenum 0.05
------------------------------
* The nitric acid of stock solution C supplies additional nitrogen.
** The phosphoric acid of stock solution C supplies some phosphorus.
*** The calcium content of the water supply has not been taken into
account.

77
f).
Table 29
Fertilizer formulation for use with NFT in soft water areas

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock A Stock B* Stock C
(1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume)
-------------------- ------------------------- ----------------------
Chemical Amount Chemical Amount Chemical Amount
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Calcium nitrate 75 kg Potassium nitrate 90.0 kg Nitric acid(85%)89 L
Monopotassium
phosphate 30.0 kg
Iron chelate (15% Fe) 3.0 kg
Manganese sulfate 0.4 kg
(25% Mn)
Boric acid (14% B) 0.24kg
Copper sulfate 80 g
(25% Cu)
Zinc sulfate (23% Zn) 40 g
Ammonium molybdate 10 g
(57% Mo)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
* It may be necessary to slightly acidify stock solution B with a small
amount of nitric acid (20 mL) to prevent salt precipitation, e.g.,
magnesium phosphate.
Note: Assuming a dilution ratio of 1:100 for stock solutions A and
B, the theoretical nutrient concentrations in the circulating diluted
NFT solution are as follows:
Nutrient (ppm)
-----------------------------
Nitrogen* 214
Phosphorus 68
Potassium 434
Magnesium 59
Calcium** 128
Iron 4.5
Manganese 1.0
Boron 0.34
Copper 0.20
Zinc 0.09
Molybdenum 0.05
-----------------------------
* The nitric acid of stock solution C supplies additional nitrogen;
however, the amount is small because the amount of acid needed to
control the pH of soft water is far less than that required for hard
water.
** The calcium content of the water supply has not been taken into
account.
78
f).
Table 30
Recommended nutrient levels for cucumbers in NFT solution

------------------------------------------------------------------
Stock solution A Stock solution B
(1000 L total volume) (1000 L total volume)
-------------------------- -------------------------------------
Chemical Amount Chemical Amount
------------------------------------------------------------------
Calcium nitrate 44.4 kg Monopotassium phosphate 22.0 kg

Potassium nitrate 62.7 kg Magnesium sulfate 50.0 kg
Ammonium nitrate 5.0 kg Iron chelate (13% iron)* 1.0 kg
Manganese sulfate (25% Mn)* 250.0 g
Boric acid (14% B)* 90.0 g
Copper sulfate (25% Cu)* 30.0 g
Zinc sulfate (23% Zn)* 35.0 g
Ammonium molybdate (57% Mo)* 8.0 g
------------------------------------------------------------------
Notes:
- Prepare the final solution by adding equal volumes of both stock
solutions in water until a recommended final solution EC of 2200
#181S/cm is achieved; adjust the pH to 6.2 by adding phosphoric (low-
light conditions) or nitric (high-light conditions) acid. Ideally,
stock solutions are mixed and pH is adjusted automatically by
electrical conductivity and pH controllers.
- When starting a new crop, begin with an EC of 1500 #181S/cm and
gradually increase to 2200 #181S/cm over 1 week.
- A background EC of 300 600 #181S/cm from the water supply is
assumed.
Nutrient (ppm)
--------------------------------
Nitrate (NO3-N) 156
Ammonium (NH4-N) 12
Phosphorus 50
Potassium 302
Calcium 84
Magnesium 50
Iron 1.3
Manganese 0.62
Boron 0.12
Copper 0.07
Zinc 0.08
Molybdenum 0.03
--------------------------------
* Alternatively, include 2.0 kg of Plant Product Chelated Micronutrient
mix; which provides the following micronutrient concentrations: 1.4 ppm
Fe, 0.4 ppm Mn, 0.08 ppm Zn, 0.26 ppm B, 0.02 ppm Cu, and 0.012 ppm Mo.

79
Agricultural Extension Service
The University of Tennessee
PB1068
Hobby
Greenhouses
in Tennessee
1
Table of Contents
Introduction 3
Pros and Cons of a Hobby Greenhouse 3
Greenhouse Size 4
Greenhouse Type 5
Frame Materials 7
Foundations 7
Floors and Walks 7
Benches 7
Covering Materials 8
Utilities 8
Drives and Walkways 9
Aesthetic Value 9
Locating and Orienting 9
Heating Considerations 12
Size of Heaters 13
Type ofHeat 13
Ventilation 15
Cooling 15
Managing a Hobby Greenhouse 18
Organizations and Further Information 19
Appendix 19
Use Heated Growing Frames to Produce Early Plants 19
A Plastic-Covered Greenhouse, No. 5946 23
Plastic Covered Greenhouse, Coldframe, No. 5941 24
2
Hobby Greenhouses
in Tennessee
Mary Lewnes Albrecht, Professor and Head
Originally developed by James L. Pointer, Professor Emeritus
Ornamental Horticulture and Landscape Design
Introduction
For the avid gardener or plant lover, a hobby greenhouse can be like the icing on the cake. A greenhouse
allows you to extend the gardening season by growing plants inside when outside weather conditions make plant
growing impossible. It will also provide many hours of pleasure and relaxation while growing your favorite plants.
There are other factors you should consider. Does your plant growing interest span the whole year, or do you
get excited about growing plants only during the spring gardening season? If you are only interested in growing
annual flowers and vegetable plants, you may want to consider a hot bed or a coldframe. They are cheaper to build
and maintain, yet a good quality plant can be grown with little difficulty.
Pros and Cons of a Hobby

Greenhouse
If you want to grow plants all year, consider the Will county and city building codes permit you to
following: build a greenhouse on your premises? Are there any
An adequate greenhouse structure may cost from a restrictions as to type of house, covering or materials?
few hundred up to several thousand dollars, depending Check with your insurance agent to determine the
on the type of house, covering materials, heating, impact on your home-owner’s insurance. Can you
cooling, ventilation and other equipment. afford the increase?
A greenhouse used for year-round production can Will it affect the real estate appraisal upon which
be time consuming. Plants should have daily attention. taxes are based?
Who will look after your plants when you are on After considering all these factors, if you are still
vacation and during other absences? enthusiastic about building a hobby greenhouse, look
A hobby greenhouse, like many other hobbies, at some other important factors and study how they
can be expensive to operate, especially heating and relate to your particular situation before you purchase
cooling. or build a greenhouse.
A hobby greenhouse should have a minimum of
100 square feet (Fig. 1).
Can a greenhouse be added to your landscape
without detracting from the aesthetic value of your
property as well as your neighbors?
Will neighborhood covenants allow you to build a
greenhouse?
3
Greenhouse Size
The specific size of a hobby greenhouse
depends on each individual’s need. Most hobby
houses are arranged so that about 70 to 80 percent
of the total floor area is devoted to benches or
growing area. Most annuals can be grown in
bedding plant trays (about 11/2 square feet per tray)
or 3- or 4-inch pots (about three to five pots per
square foot). A larger area is needed for pot plants.
For chrysanthemums and poinsettias in 6-inch pots,
a space of about 11/2 square feet is needed to finish
the plant to full flower. Ten-inch hanging baskets
grown on a bench will need about 2 square feet.
Multiplying your desired volume of plants by
space required for each plant will give you the total
size house needed. A house of less than 100 square
feet would probably not be economical to build and
maintain. If you need less space, you should Figure 1. Lean-to greenhouse. A greenhouse may
consider a window greenhouse (Fig. 2) or a lighted be from 6 to 12 feet wide and suggested minimum
plant cart (Fig. 3). area of 100 square feet.
Figure 2. Window greenhouses
Figure 3. A lighted cart for plants.

Fluorescent lamps can supplement
indoor lighting to make an area of
the home an attractive greenhouse.
4
Greenhouse Type
The type of house that would be desirable for you
may not be suitable for someone else. Many
homeowners design and build their own greenhouses by
using materials that can be secured at bargain prices, Figure 4.
Straight side
such as old picture windows, sliding glass doors, etc.
lean-to
This is not the best way to build a greenhouse, especially greenhouse
if the aesthetic values are considered, but can be done if
planned properly.
The following designs or modifications are the
norm in greenhouse designs:
Lean-to or attached greenhouses (Figs. 4 and
5) suit many people, especially where space is limited.
They can be designed and built onto a new home or
added to older homes to fit into the landscape. If they are
attached to a wall with a doorway, entry into the green- Figure 5.
house can be made conveniently without going outside. Slant side
lean-to
Water, electricity and heating from the house greenhouse
usually can be shared at a moderate cost. The cost of
heating an attached house is cheaper than a free-standing
greenhouse of the same size due to the attachment of one
side of the greenhouse to an existing wall.
Pit houses (Fig. 6) are unusual in Tennessee, yet
have some very definite advantages. They are built
partially below ground (usually 3 to 4 feet), often Figure 6.
attached on the south side of another building and are Pit houses:
normally used like a coldframe with only bottom heat (a) gable design,
provided.They are less expensive to build and require (b) slant frame.
less heat if you want to maintain a constant temperature.
Pit houses require proper drainage for the pit or
trench. Ventilation needs can be taken care of by provid-
ing end windows or a roof that will open. If a pit house
can be connected with a doorway from the basement
into the pit or trench, it adds convenience and is easier to
heat by hooking into the existing heating system.
A-frame houses (Fig. 7) have too many disadvan-
tages, except in very unusual circumstances, to consider
for plant growing. If protection is desired for a special
plant such as camelias, gardenias, or hibiscus, an
A-frame house may be considered due to its simple
frame design, good head room and easy construction.
They are not unattractive, but do not readily blend
into the normal surroundings. The side walls are hard
Figure 7.
to reach, and the growing area in relation to the
A-frame greenhouses.
outside exposed surface is small.
5
Free-standing greenhouses (Fig. 8) can be
purchased or built in many different dimensions and
designs. These houses allow more flexibility because
they can be of any size desired and placed where they
receive more sun, or be sheltered from the wind. They
can be screened off from the home and therefore will
not interfere with existing home landscaping.
There are several different designs of free-sanding
greenhouses: A-frame (Fig. 7), gable house (Fig. 9),
Figure 8. Slanted free-standing greenhouse.
slant leg (Figs. 8 and 10), quonset (Fig. 12) or combi-
nations of some of these.
Attached greenhouses (Fig. 11) can be of any
of the previously-mentioned designs or adaptation of
them.
Quonset greenhouses (Fig. 12) are popular as
hobby- or commercial-growing structures. They are
the cheapest per square foot to construct. They may be
covered with fiberglass or polyethylene. Double-
layered, air-inflated polyethylene is the covering most
used. A quonset greenhouse can be built to the size
that meets the need of the builder. A cheap-and-easy-
to-construct quonset plan may be found on page 26. Figure 9. Gable roof.
Figure 10. Slant leg.
Figure 11. Another version of attached greenhouse.
Figure 12. Quonset
6
Frame Materials Floors and Walks
A few years ago, framing materials for green- A solid floor in greenhouses is not necessary and
houses were exclusively wood. Now most green- in many cases may be undesirable, unless attached to
houses are framed with metal — aluminum, galva- the home and used as a sunroom or solarium.
nized pipe or tubing — and PVC pipe. Any one of A 2- to 4-inch layer of 3/4-inch crusher-run stone or
these materials will make satisfactory frames if they pea gravel up to 3/4-inch in diameter makes a very
are built strong enough to withstand the wind, snow desirable greenhouse floor. It does not hurt your feet to
and the weight of hanging plants which in many cases walk on, yet allows excellent percolation of water.
are hung from the frame. The weight of hanging Flat stone, concrete stepping stones or brick laid
baskets in many greenhouses exerts more load on the on sand also makes a good floor but may eventually
frame than snow or wind. But when the forces of all become uneven due to water eroding the sand base.
three are combined, damage or collapse of the green- The idea of having a surfacing material on top of the
house might occur unless this is taken into consider- soil is for sanitation purposes, and to keep the walk-
ation in planning or selecting a greenhouse. ways free of mud. Covering only the walk areas and
using gravel under the benches provides both conve-
Foundations nience and good drainage.
Foundations for greenhouses covered with A solid concrete floor is very easy to keep clean,
fiberglass or plastic are usually unnecessary (see helps reduce weeds, insects and disease problems and
anchor detail, page 27). However, a house attached to is most desirable when the greenhouse is attached to
an existing building or covered with glass requires a the residence or doubles as a living space. When a
good strong foundation. Concrete or concrete blocks poured concrete floor is selected, make sure floor
are the most commonly used. If the greenhouse is to be drains are installed before the concrete is poured. A
attached to a brick home, then it is advisable to use vapor barriar and insulation can be installed before
matching brick veneer for the foundation. concrete is poured. This will help reduce heat demands
The foundation should extend below the frost line in the winter.
and may extend up to 6 inches above the height of
inside benches. If plants are to be grown on the Benches
ground, the foundation wall should be a minimum of 6 Many different types of benches can be used in a
inches and not extend higher than 12 inches above hobby greenhouse as illustrated on page 25. The type
floor level (Fig. 13). of bench to be built will depend on its use. Benches
Greenhouses with low or no foundation provide are usually constructed of cypress, redwood or
more growing space under the benches. recycled, preformed plastic board. Snow fence is being
used with very good results. The fencing is made of
redwood or treated wood laths about 1/2 inch thick and
11/2 inches wide and 4- or 6-foot lengths. These
wooden strips are spaced about 1 inch apart and
interwoven with wire, and come in 50-foot rolls. If
built according to recommendations, it is strong
enough to support pot plants. Very attractive benches
are made with pressure-treated lumber with welded 1
inch x 1 inch mesh or expanded metal used as bench
tops. There are bench tops made from recycled plastics
available.
Figure 13. Typical masonry foundations
7
Covering Materials up to 50 percent for the 16 mm-thick sheets. They are
Glass is the preferred covering material for made from two types of plastic resins: polycarbonates
greenhouses. Clear single, double or triple pane glass and acrylics. The polycarbonates are more resistant to
provides high interior light level, long life, stability, hail damage and are not flammable. Both are available
durability and strong aesthetic quality. Tempered glass in bronze colors that reduce light intensity. Fewer
is strong enough to withstand most hail. The major structural members are needed in greenhouse roofs and
drawbacks are the weight and narrow widths that side walls than if glass construction is used, helping to
necessitate more roof and side bars and a stronger, reduce the cost of the structure. These materials are
more expensive structure. Single-pane glass has no very expensive in comparison to double-layer polyeth-
insulation value adding to the heat load. Double-pane ylene but comparable to glass.
and triple-pane glass is available to reduce the heat
demand. Glass that has reflective properties to reduce Utilities
light infiltration also reduces cooling needs in the Electricity may or may not be a problem, depend-
summer, but might not provide enough light during ing on where you live and strictness of local electrical
winter months. codes. In some areas, the utility company may request
Polyethylene films are less expensive than glass that you have a separate meter for the greenhouse if
and when used as an air-inflated, double layer can save electricity is the main energy source. All wiring should
as much as 40 percent of heating costs in comparison be done in accordance with the local electrical codes.
to glass. A major drawback is that they are not as In some cases, a utility pole will be needed to extend
aesthetically pleasing for residential applications. If electrical services. Underground cable may be cheaper
ultra-violet light resistant (UVR) plastics are not used, or required by zoning codes.
they will become brittle after one growing season and Water can usually be taken from the home supply
will need to be replaced. Some of the newer materials line, provided it is large enough to give you the
will last up to five years depending upon care, thick- volume and pressure needed. All lines should have a
ness and the manufacturer. Greenhouses covered with backflow preventer valve installed to prevent contami-
polyethylene films are less costly to build because the nation of the household water supply. Install at least
support structure requires fewer members due to the two spigots to meet all needs.
low weight of the films. Gas, if hooked onto natural gas from existing
Rigid plastics are becoming more common. lines, will save a considerable amount over having a
Fiberglass has been available for several decades. It meter installed. If natural gas is not available, check
comes in flat and corrugated sheets up to 4 feet wide. with your local propane gas company to see if it will
The outer surface needs to be treated to prevent supply you a free storage tank, or if you will be
degradation from ultra-violet light. Fiberglass does not required to rent or purchase your own. If you purchase,
have any insulation value and loses heat at the same consider which size tank is the most economical for
rate as glass or single-layer polyethylene film. Fiber- your operation.
glass is also extremely flammable because of the Unfortunately, plumbing for sinks and drains is
acrylic resin used to bind the glass fibers, thus increas- sometimes overlooked when planning for a hobby
ing the cost of insuring the structure. Check local greenhouse. After the house has been constructed,
building codes and your homeowner’s insurance installation costs may be several times more expen-
carrier to find out if this is an acceptable covering sive. These should be considered before beginning
material. construction.
Newer, structured rigid plastics are available.
The structured rigid plastics are double-layered and
ribbed for strength, creating an air pocket and reducing
heat loss. These come in thicknesses of 6 to 16 milli-
meters and panels that are up to 6 feet wide. Heat
savings are from 30 percent for the 6 mm-thick sheets
8
Drives and Walkways Locating and Orienting
If a driveway is needed to receive supplies or haul One of the most important requirements for good
out plants, it should be considered in the overall plan plant growth is light. Therefore, be sure that you locate
of locating your greenhouse. Walks are also to be a greenhouse where you take advantage of the most
considered before building a greenhouse. Walks or desirable exposure. For a lean-to or a window green-
driveways in many cases can be built with simple house, an eastern, southern or western exposure is
materials. These could range from crushed stone to acceptable, but a southern exposure is preferred. A
blacktop to concrete. Plan in advance; know what you northern exposure may be used but due to limited
are going to build and how it fits into your landscape. light, especially in winter, the plant species grown
successfully will be somewhat limited and the number
Aesthetic Value of plants grown in a given area will be reduced unless
Will a greenhouse add or detract from the aes- supplemental light is used.
thetic value of your surroundings? A greenhouse can All greenhouses should be located to receive
be constructed from many different materials and direct sun; therefore, avoid shade cast by evergreen
shapes. If proper consideration is given to the existing trees. Light shade from deciduous trees is tolerated
surroundings, a greenhouse can be purchased or built because they cast very little shade during winter. You
that will add to the beauty of your surroundings and can figure whether a tree or a group of trees are too
blend into the existing landscape. Check local zoning close to your greenhouse by using the data shown in
codes prior to selecting and building the home Figure 14.
greenhouse. excellent
summer noon location
Solar Altitude Angle, B Shadow Length good
(see Fig. 18) location
poor
7.5 7.60 x H winter location
15 3.73 x H noon winter
20 2.75 x H sunset summer sunset
30 1.73 x H
45 1.00 x H
solar altitude (B)
winter
height sunrise summer
obstruction sunrise
(H)
Figure 15. Location of the greenhouse; a sunny area is best.
shadow length (L)
Figure 14. Ratio of shadow length and obstruction height

for selected solar altitudes.
9
In Figure 15, the location priorities are shown. In As mentioned in Pros and Cons, the greenhouse
Figure 16, you can compare the horizontal angles of location, structure, material and design affect the
the sun on June 21 at latitude for Tennessee of 36°, and aesthetics of the landscape on both your property and
in Figure 17, you can compare the reduced horizontal your neighbors’ property. Use reason and care to select
angles of the sun on December 21 at the same latitude. a greenhouse that will not lower the aesthetic value of
By spending a little time studying these figures, and your landscape or your neighbors’.
with a compass, you can stake out the angles of the
sun to determine the need to remove trees and other
obstructions. Figure 18 shows the altitude angles of the
sun at different times of the day on June 21 and
December 21 at 36° latitude (Tennessee). Note that all
times are for local solar time. In Tennessee solar time
is approximately one-half hour earlier than Eastern
standard time and one-half hour later than Central
standard time.
Proximity and accessibility of roadways, walks,
water lines, gas and electrical utilities and drainage
pipes are important because an extension of any of
these can be costly. Gas, water, electrical and drainage
lines should be placed in separate trenches. The water
line should be below the frost line, usually 12 to 18
inches deep.
Figure 16. Horizontal angles of the

sun July 21; latitude 36°.
10
Figure 17. Horizontal angles of the sun December 21;latitude 36°.
Figure 18. Altitude angles of the sun, latitude 36°.
11
Heating Considerations
Greenhouses must be heated in Tennessee from about
October through April. Heating for a hobby greenhouse
does not usually present a big problem because of the
small area heated and the alternate sources of heat we
may use. The heat source may be from electricity, bottled
or natural gas, oil or kerosene, or by hooking into the
home heating system. Each has its advantages and
possible disadvantages.
Heat exchange with benches, floor and plants in a
greenhouse does occur when the temperature changes.
However, the heat released or absorbed is so small, when
compared to the heat loss through the outer surface of the
greenhouse, that this is ignored. Therefore, it is an ac-
cepted practice to figure the heat loss that occurs through
the outside exposed greenhouse surface to determine the
heat requirements.
As a general rule, a heat loss factor for glass or
fiberglass of 1.2 BTU’s per hour per square foot of
outside greenhouse surface times degree differential
desired (inside and outside temperature difference) should
provide maximum heat needed. In Figure 19 an 8-foot x
12-foot lean-to house covered with glass has an exposed
area of (A+B+2C) 283 square feet.
If you plan to grow plants that require warm tem-
peratures, such as African violet, begonia, Christmas
cactus, chrysanthemum and most foliage
plants, a 70 F daytime temperature and a 60
F night temperature should be maintained.
Therefore, if we expect the lowest outside
temperature to be 0, the night temperature
differential would be 60 F; heat require-
ments would be determined by the follow-
ing formula:
Heat loss per square foot X total exposed
area and temperature differential desired =
required BTU’s per hour.
Example: 1.2 BTU’s X 283 sq. ft. X 60 =

20,367 BTU’s or 6 KW of electricity
per hour.
Figure 19. A lean-to greenhouse
12
Comparing values of different fuels.
The cost of fuel will vary from area to area throughout Tennessee due to availability,
transportation charges and other factors. The cost of heat must be considered locally and
compared to determine the economics of alternative energy sources. The energy source you
choose will depend on the convenience, availability and cost. In Table 1, a comparison is
made of four energy sources that may be used in heating a hobby greenhouse.
Table 1. Comparing values of different fuels

Fuel units per
Heat capacity Percentage of average 100,000 BTU
Fuel Units BTU’s/unit burn efficiency heat output
Electricity KWH 3,413 100 29.3 KWH
Natural Gas Cu. Ft. 1,050 75 127.0 Cu. ft.
LP-Gas Gal. 92,000 75 1.45 Gal.
No. 2 Fuel Oil Gal. 138,000 70 1.04 Gal.
Heat Cost The best idea is to use known energy conservation

The cost to heat a hobby greenhouse depends methods in construction to reduce heating costs. Many
on many factors — covering material, location, how passive solar systems help to supplement conventional
well the house is sealed, insulation of flooring and heating systems.
side walls, etc.
Electric. Electric heaters (Fig. 20) are clean,
Size of Heaters efficient and easier to install than other heating units.
To make a positive statement that a greenhouse They may be purchased in several different models,
would require a certain size heater would be errone- sizes and for 115V or 220V current. Wall-mounted or
ous. There are several factors to be considered, such as suspended units with a fan and built-in thermostat
type of building material, location, exposure to wind, usually meet all the expectations of the most discreet
whether it is attached to a heated building, whether hobbyist. The fan circulates the heat and at the same
heat-conserving practices are being used and the area time provides air circulation. They are easy to install
of the outside exposed surface. The heating system for without the need for vents or
each house should be determined by using the formula plumbed fuel lines. Electric heat
provided in the previous section. is safe and practically troublefree.
Cost is a disadvantage to the
Type of Heat use of electric heat. However, if
Solar. Solar heat has received considerable electricity costs more in the
publicity and interest as an alternative to conventional future, other energy sources will
energy heat sources for greenhouses. To date, there are increase in proportion.
no economical, active solar systems that can be Figure 20. Wall-mounted electric heater.
recommended for a greenhouse.
13
Kerosene. Small portable kerosene heaters (Fig. 21)
may be used only as emergency heaters in small green-
houses. If kept in proper condition and used for a short
period of time, a chimney vent is not required. However,
they do produce fumes that might injure plants, especially
those that are sensitive to low concentrations of ethylene
such as cucumbers, tomatoes, fuchsias and others.
These heaters do not have thermostatic controls or fans
to help regulate and distribute the heat; therefore, those
plants closest to the heater may be burned while those
farthest away may be chilled. Some of the heaters on the
Figure 21. Two types of kerosene heaters.
market do not have a UL label and may be unsafe.
Portable Oil. Oil-fueled portable space heaters

(Fig. 22), such as Salamanders used in the building trades,
should not be used in hobby greenhouses. They give off
vast amounts of harmful fumes and soot. Heat radiates
away from their surface and could damage plants nearest
the heaters.
Space (Natural or LP Gas). Space heaters (Fig. 23)

are used extensively to heat greenhouses. Some heaters are
completely self-contained units with a fan and heat ex-
changer.
Space heaters, like electrical heating units, should be
suspended overhead for space conservation if they cannot
be placed in the greenhouse wall. They must be vented to
the outside in accordance with local city and county build-
Figure 22. (a) Radiant heater, (b) hot-air heater.
ing codes. Heaters installed through the wall require no
additional venting, since the fumes are released to the
outside through special vents built into the heating unit.
The extension of the home heating system to a small
attached hobby house is sometimes possible. The feasibility
of extending the home heating system will depend on
whether or not adequate capacity exists and the proximity
of air ducts to the greenhouse. The company which services
your heating system can advise you about this alternative.
Figure 23. Gas heater.
14
Ventilation
Many people confuse greenhouse cooling with ventilation and vice versa, but look
upon these as two entirely different functions. Cooling is, as the name implies, for tempera-
ture reduction. This is not to deny that some decrease in temperature does occur during the
ventilation process in changing of the air.
Adequate ventilation is essential for healthy plant growth since the primary purpose is
to supply carbon dioxide and control humidity to some
extent. Ventilation should be given special attention in
tightly constructed greenhouses. The most convenient
way to ventilate a hobby greenhouse is by a thermostati-
cally controlled two-speed fan to change the inside air.
Selecting a fan. It is not always easy to find an

appropriate fan to install in a hobby greenhouse due to
fanhousing, motor size and fanspeed.
To determine the fan capacity of one air change per
minute for the house used in Figure 19, we use the
following formula:
width x length x height = cubic feet;
therefore 8' x 12' x 7' = 672 cu. ft. inside area.
A fan with a capacity to move 672 cubic feet of air
per minute (CFM) is needed. A two-speed fan is pre- Figure 24.
ferred. The fan would move 336 CFM on low speed and Exhaust fan
and Louver.
672 on high speed. Early in the morning and late afternoon when the temperature is too
cool for maximum cooling, the low speed would reduce cool shock on the plants.
Once you have determined the fan capacity, look for a fan (Fig. 24) with a housing
dimension that can be installed in your greenhouse with the least amount of trouble and
requiring the least amount of greenhouse frame alteration to install. In most cases, you will
need to alter the greenhouse frame so the fan housing fits appropriately.
Make sure the fans come with appropriate guards to avoid personal injury
during operation.
Cooling
Cooling takes over after the temperature cannot be controlled by the normal ventilation
process. Temperatures can be changed quickest by the positive action of appropriately sized
fans placed on the leeward side of the greenhouse, with appropriately sized louvers on the
opposite end. They may serve as ventilation fans on low speed and cooling fans at high
speed, or a combination of both. The temperature may be kept 5 to 10 degrees lower than
the outside air temperature. Two-speed fans are desirable because during the fall and
spring, the low speed reduces the air exchange rate to one-half the total fan capacity.
Fans cannot do an adequate job of cooling during the summer months without an assist
by shading or the use of an evaporative cooling system. The sun’s rays can add as much as
300 BTU’s per hour per square foot of surface area inside a greenhouse. Therefore, shading
reduces the heat load coming inside the greenhouse. Shade cloth with different percentages
of shading, or other adjustable shades made of wood, aluminum or fiberglass are most
commonly used on hobby greenhouses. The shading plus moisture evaporation from the
floor, benches and plants can lower greenhouse temperatures as much as 10 to 15 degrees.
15
Shading compounds (paint) are available from green- Table 2. Cooling capacity of 85 percent
house supply companies. However, they are not efficient evaporative coolers*
recommended due to their unattractiveness and the
difficulty in removing the paint to permit more light to Relative humidity (percent)
enter during fall and winter. If you decide on a green-
house shading compound, it must be compatible with Outside air 30 50 70 90
the type of greenhouse covering. They are not used on
polyethylene film plastics. Outside air temperature F Cooled air temperature F
100 79 86 91 97
Evaporative cooling. Cooling by pulling air 90 71 77 83 88
through wet pads is recommended in Tennessee since 80 63 69 74 78
summer temperatures rise above 90 F for several days 70 56 60 64 68
during the year. Evaporative cooling is most effective
when used with some type of greenhouse shade. *”Greenhouse — Heating, Cooling and Ventilation,” by Cecil Hammond
Cooling of the inside temperature to 10 or 15 degrees and Douglas Crater. Bull. 792, 1976, University of Georgia
below the outside air temperatures by evaporation may

be generally expected. In extremely hot weather, an enters a greenhouse on a bright, hot day is trapped
inside temperature equal to the outside air temperature inside the greenhouse and causes the temperature to
is considered good. The process of moving cool moist increase as much as 25 to 30 F above the outside
air through the plants increases the humidity and temperature. By moving dry air through a wet pad,
reduces the rate of plant transpiration (giving off water evaporates. It takes approximately1,000 BTU’s
water), which reduces wilting. of heat to evaporate one pound of water. When the
The process of lowering the inside greenhouse heat is removed from the air by evaporating the water,
temperature is sometimes misunderstood. The heat that the air is cooled. The lower the relative humidity of the
Figure 25. Evaporative cooling pad installation diagram.
16
Figure 26. Box cooler.
Figure 27. Louver.
Figure 28. Watering devices.
Figure 28b. Time clock.

Figure 28a. 180° spray watering system.
Figure 28c. Spaghetti Tube watering system.
Figure 28d. Mist-a-matic mister.
17
outside air, the greater the water evaporation from the Managing a Hobby
pad and the lower the air temperature. Greenhouse
A one-square-foot pad area should be provided for Now that you have decided to buy or build a
each 15 CFM of air circulation to provide a cooling
hobby greenhouse, give some consideration to man-
efficiency of 85 percent (Table 2).
agement. The following is a “Do and Don’t” list that
can help reduce your potential problems.
In Tennessee greenhouses, the relative humidity is
usually lowest in summer, except during a rain and a
DO
short time thereafter. Therefore, the evaporative 1. Keep greenhouse clean at all times.
cooling pad system for a hobby greenhouse should be
2. Spend enough time with your hobby to assure
correctly designed to give maximum cooling at one air
success in growing.
change per minute. A solar heat gain of 10 F can be
3. Read and learn how others have operated their
expected using one air change per minute. If the
hobby houses.
outside air was 90 F and the relative humidity 50
4. Keep your greenhouse in a good state of repair and
percent, the resultant temperature inside the green- keep all equipment working.
house would be about 87 F (77 F taken from Table 2 +
5. Discard weak and diseased plants.
10 F solar heat gain = 87 F).
6. Maintain a good disease-and-insect eradication
An efficient and properly installed evaporative
program.
cooling pad system shown in Figure 25 is made from a
cellulose material. It has a crossfluted configuration
DON’T
which gives maximum flow of air and water. It takes 1. Don’t run a sick-plant hospital for your friends. If
about one-third less pad area to give the equivalent
you do, you are asking for constant trouble.
cooling compared to Aspen Pad systems that have
2. Don’t try to grow many different plants, at least
been used for many years. The life expectancy for the
while you are an amateur grower.
new material is about five years. The complete pump
3. Don’t neglect your greenhouse. If you do, it will
kit can be purchased from any greenhouse supplier.
probably wind up a junk house for plants.
Packaged or box-type evaporative coolers are 4. Don’t think you can leave your plants without care;
practical for hobby greenhouses with 300 square feet
they need daily attention.
or less. The box cooler shown in Figure 26 has evapo-
5. Don’t overwater, overfertilize, overheat or overcool
rative pads on three sides. The water reservoir, pump
your plants.
and distribution lines are built into the unit. The fan is
6. Don’t think of the operational cost; think of the joy
located inside the box to draw the air through the pads
of growing your own plants.
and blow the cool air into the greenhouse. A louver
(Fig. 27) must be placed in the opposite end of the
greenhouse to permit an equal amount of air to move
outside as the fan is pulling air into the house.
This type of cooler is usually cheaper and easier
to install in a hobby greenhouse and the appearance is
better than the pad systems previously described.
18
Organizations and Further 2. The National Gardening Association
Information http://www2.garden.org/nga/
The Hobby Greenhouse Association is a non- This site includes information on “Kids & Class-
profit organization of gardeners in hobby greenhouses, rooms” and other “Gardening Links” from alpine
window greenhouses and other indoor areas. Member- plants to vegetables. It also accesses plant societies,
ship in HGA includes a subscription to Hobby Green- colleges and universities and cooperative extension
house and HGA News. Other membership benefits services. It includes searchable plant data bases
include round robin letters, help and advice on green- including the Time-Life® Electronic Encyclopedia.
house gardening, a seed exchange, videotape and book Many state cooperative and agricultural extension
libraries and access to certain print materials at dis- services have their publications posted on the Internet.
count. They can be contacted at HGA, 8 Glen Ter- They are posted in various formats, most commonly
race, Bedford, MA 01730-2048. They have a web site html or pdf formats. Just follow instructions for
at: http://www.hortsoft.com/HGA.html viewing or downloading provided at the different web
There are numerous books and gardening maga- sites.
zines available at your public library about hobby
greenhouses. Check the library catalog under the
following topics: indoor gardening, hobby green- APPENDIX
houses, foliage plants, horticulture. If you have an
interest in a specific group of plants, check the library Use Heated Growing Frames to
catalog using that name, such as cacti and succulents, Produce Early Plants
bromeliads or orchids. A basic reference to start with is
Let’s take a look at growing plants in heated
Greenhouse Gardener’s Companion: Growing Food &
growing frames. They can be built to suit the needs of
Flowers in Your Greenhouse or Sunspace by Shane
the home gardener. Electrically heated growing areas
Smith (1992, Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colorado).
are relatively cheap to build and operate from an
Other places to start are the Time-Life gardening
energy standpoint. Temperature can be kept uniform
series, Ortho gardening series and Sunset Books
with positive controls. Therefore, more uniform plants
gardening series. Two magazines to look for are
of the desired quality can be produced.
Horticulture and The American Gardener (formerly
Heated growing frames can also help during those
American Horticulturist).
few weeks before the plants are moved to the garden.
If you have access to the Internet, searches on
Plants can be hardened off or acclimated to withstand
various key words including horticulture, specific
the garden climate.
groups of plants (e.g., bromeliads), greenhouse gar-
There are many different designs of growing
dening, gardening and related terms will locate many
frames but the two offered should serve the needs of
sites with useful information. Many states’ cooperative
most hobbyists, since they can be decreased or
and agricultural extension services also have publica-
increased in size to meet individual needs.
tions posted on the Internet. Two sites to start your
The frame is covered with 6 ml. Polyethylene
Internet gardening library are:
UVR film. The film is fastened permanently down the
1. The Virtual Garden
ridge or top of the frame with lath strips (use double-
http://pathfinder.com/vg/
headed nails to make replacement easier) and roll each
The Virtual Garden provides extensive, searchable
side up from the bottom edge to the ridge as ventila-
databases for gardening accessories (e.g., clothing,
tion is needed. The bottom edge of the polyethylene is
tools and supplies, seeds, plants and heirloom variet-
anchored to a 2" x 2" x 21' piece of redwood which
ies), monthly gardening information by USDA,
holds the cover down and is used to wind up the cover.
hardiness zones and a search engine for gardening
Flexible rubber straps nailed to the end of the frame
information.
are stretched over the 2" x 2" at whatever point the
edges are raised. This firmly anchors the cover and
prevents wind damage.
19
Thermostatically controlled electrical heaters may Material List for Frame 2
be installed as needed. CAUTION: Use redwood or pressure-treated
The frame should be placed on a 2" x 8" x 16" solid lumber. Do not use material treated with creosote,
block at each corner and in the center of the side wall to pentachlorophenol or similar preservatives.
hold the wood off the ground to prevent decay. Cover
the inside floor with about 2 inches of 3/4-inch crusher- 1 piece 20' x 21' 6 ml. UVR polyethylene cover
run gravel for drainage and to prevent an accumulation *6 pieces 3/ 8 " x 4' x 8' marine plywood
of mud. 2 pieces 2" x 6" x 16' bottom rail
To summarize, growing frames give us these 2 pieces 2" x 6" x 20' top rail
advantages: 1 piece 2" x 4"x 20' side rail
1. Cheap to build and provide adequate conditions to 10 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' end frame
harden off plants 2 pieces 1" x 3" x 10' anchor plastic or top rail
2. Allow additional space so plants will grow larger 3 pieces 3/4" x 21' pipe bows
before planting in the garden 6 pieces 1" x 2' pipe anchor
3. Quality of plants can be improved by providing 8 pieces 2" x 8" x 16" solid concrete blocks
adequate room to space plants farther apart
4. Plant quality is not affected if weather prevents *Tongue-and-grooved lumber may be used instead
movement to the garden of the plywood.
All lumber should be painted white, inside and
outside the greenhouse.
Material List for Frame 1
CAUTION: use redwood or pressure-treated
lumber. Do not use material treated with creosote,
pentachlorophenol or similar preservatives.
1 piece 18' x 20' 6 ml UVR polyethylene cover

2 pieces 2" x 6" x 20' bottom rail
2 pieces 2" x 6" x 16' bottom rail
2 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' side post
6 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' end post
6 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' end frame
1 piece 2" x 4" x 20' top rail
12 pieces 2" x 4"x 9' top rafters
*6 pieces 3/ 8 " x 4' x 8' marine plywood ends and side
1 piece 2" x 4" x 22' polyethylene anchor
8 pieces 2" x 8" x 16" solid concrete blocks
2 pieces 1" x 3" x 10' plastic anchor — top rail
*Tongue-and-grooved lumber may be used instead of

the plywood.
All lumber should be painted white, inside and
outside the greenhouse.
20
21
22
Plastic-Covered
Greenhouse
This portable greenhouse is attractive, easily Two small ventilators at the top of the door
constructed and inexpensive. Its roof slope approxi- provide limited ventilation. When more air is needed
mates that of a gothic arch extending from the ground on hot days, the doors can be opened or the house can
to the ridge. This surface is steep enough to shed snow, be raised off the ground.
water and debris. However, a large accumulation of The width (8 feet) allows space for a walkway
snow may pile up against the sides and apply lateral with a row of flats on each side, and the height (7 feet)
pressure to the plastic film. allows most people to stand without touching the top.
The structure resists wind very well. A low-cost With doors in each end, several units of this green-
polyethylene cover has a service life of three to eight house can be placed in a series, and tools can be
months. More expensive films last two to three years moved from section to section.
or even longer. The film must be securely fastened to Two persons can move the greenhouse short
the frame; and the house must be staked down to distances, and three or four persons can lift it above
prevent the wind from blowing it away. their heads. Construction is rather simple; only a little
In late summer, the house can be used as a propa- experience with common tools is required. The most
gating frame by replacing the plastic film with a lath- complicated job — forming the ridge beam — is easy
type snow fence. if a table saw with an adjustable table or blade is
available to rip the board.
23
Plastic-Covered
Greenhouse coldframe
This plan features a removable top that can be
used as a coldframe. For example, tomato plants may
be given a head start on the frost-free season.
To germinate seeds and grow starter plants, install
a heating cable in the assembled unit. When the plants
are about 3 inches high, they should be moved to a
coldframe.
Select a 5- by 7-foot plot of ground favorably
located in the corner of the garden. Remove the
coldframe portion from the top of the greenhouse.
Place it over the plants to protect them from the night
frost.
If everything is timed right, they will be of proper
size for field planting at the frost-free date.
The wooden parts for the frame should be pres-
sure treated to prevent rotting. All hardware, including
nails, should be galvanized.
The greenhouse should be anchored to the ground
with steel rods.
24
PB1068- 3M-5/98(Rev)
E12-2015-00-031-98
A State Partner in the Cooperative Extension System
The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race, color, age, national origin, sex or disability
and is an Equal Opportunity Employer.
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS
The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914.
Billy G. Hicks, Dean
25
The University of Tennessee
PB1616
Plant Nutrition
& Fertilizers
For
Greenhouse
Production
1
Table of Contents
Plant Nutrition: The Basics______________________________________________________________ 3

Fertilizer Salts ______________________________________________________________________ 3
pH__________________________________________________________________________________ 6
Factors Affecting Media Solution pH__________________________________________________ 5
Water Quality/Alkalinity__________________________________________________________ 6
Media Components _______________________________________________________________ 7
Fertilizers Applied________________________________________________________________ 7
Fertilization and Fertilizers______________________________________________________________ 7
Water-Soluble Fertilizers_____________________________________________________________ 7
Slow-Release Fertilizers______________________________________________________________ 7
Fertilizer Labels_____________________________________________________________________ 8
Nutrient Analysis_________________________________________________________________ 8
Nitrogen Form____________________________________________________________________ 8
Potential Acidity/Basicity_________________________________________________________ 8
Proper Dilution Rate______________________________________________________________ 9
Fertilizer Injectors____________________________________________________________________9
Multiple Injectors_________________________________________________________________ 10
Injector Accuracy and Calibration_________________________________________________ 10
Starting a Fertilization Program__________________________________________________________ 11
Pre-plant Nutrition Programs_________________________________________________________ 11
Post-plant Nutrition Programs________________________________________________________ 12
Nitrogen__________________________________________________________________________ 12
Phosphorus______________________________________________________________________ 13
Potassium________________________________________________________________________ 13
Calcium and Magnesium__________________________________________________________ 13
Micronutrients___________________________________________________________________ 13
Appendices:
Fertilizer Calculations_______________________________________________________________ 14
Conversion of Units__________________________________________________________________ 14
2
Plant Nutrition & Fertilizers
For Greenhouse Production
James E. Faust, Assistant Professor
Elizabeth Will, Graduate Student
Ornamental Horticulture and Landscape Design
This publication is one of three in a series that covers the basics of developing a
nutritional program for producing container-grown plants in greenhouses. A complete
nutrition program encompasses the fertilizers, media and water used. The first section
in Plant Nutrition and Fertilizers for Greenhouse Production develops background
information about plant nutrition that growers need to understand before discussing
which fertilizers to use. The second section covers the range of fertilizers that growers
can choose from.
The second publication in the series, Irrigation Water Quality for Greenhouse
Production (PB 1617), examines the effect of water quality on a greenhouse nutritional
program. The third publication, Growing Media for Greenhouse Production (PB 1618),
describes the important physical and chemical properties of growing media, media
testing procedures and interpretation of test results. The objective of this series of publi-
cations is to provide basic information that will allow greenhouse operators to develop a
nutritional program for their specific business.
calcium nitrate, which contains one calcium

Plant Nutrition: The Basics
cation and a nitrate anion. Other ex-
amples include: ammonium phosphate,
Fertilizer Salts
magnesium sulfate, potassium nitrate
Fertilizers are salts. Salts are chemical
and ammonium nitrate.
compounds that contain one positively
Fertilizer concentration (or saltiness) of a
charged ion (cation) bonded to one nega-
solution can be determined by measuring
tively charged ion (anion). When a salt is
the ability of a solution to conduct an elec-
placed into water, the two ions separate and
trical signal (electrical conductivity). Electri-
dissolve. An example of a fertilizer salt is
cal conductivity meters, often called soluble
CALCIUM NITRATE
++
Ca NO3-
++ NO -
Ca 3
++
Ca
NO3-
3
salts meters, measure the concentration of growth. The most common example of plant
salts/ions in solution; therefore, a grower metabolism involves photosynthesis, during
can always measure the amount of fertilizer which water (hydrogen and oxygen) is com-
being applied to a crop. However, electrical bined with carbon dioxide (carbon and oxygen)
conductivity meters do not specifically to form starch or sugars (carbon, hydrogen and
measure which specific salts are in solution. oxygen). Another example is the chlorophyll
For example, an electrical conductivity molecule shown below that contains:
1 2 1 2
3
3
0
meter can not tell the difference between 55 carbon atoms

table salt (sodium chloride), which is dan- 60 hydrogen atoms
gerous to plants, and potassium nitrate, 5 oxygen atoms
which is useful for plants. 4 nitrogen atoms
Ions dissolved in water are taken up 1 magnesium atom
through the roots and distributed within the
plant. Plants actually expend energy to take Therefore, for the plant to build one
up most ions, however, calcium is thought chlorophyll molecule, the leaves must take
to only come along for the ride, i.e., plants in carbon dioxide, for the carbon and oxy-
don’t actively take up calcium, it just comes gen; the roots must take in water, for the
into the root with the water. hydrogen and oxygen; and the roots must
Once inside the plant, ions are recom- take up nitrogen and magnesium provided
bined into compounds useful for plant from the fertilizer applied.
4
in the older leaves, since the mobile nutrients
move from the old leaves to the new leaves.
Plants require different amounts of each
nutrient. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are
required in the greatest amounts; however,
these are taken up by the plant in the form
of water and carbon dioxide. Nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magne-
sium and sulfur are required in large
Table 1. Mobility of individual nutrients

within plants.
Mobile Immobile
Nitrogen Calcium
Phosphorus Iron
Potassium Manganese
Magnesium Zinc
Sulfur Copper
Boron
Molybdenum
amounts, thus are called macronutrients.

Iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, chlo-
ride, molybdenum are required in relatively
Once inside the plant, some nutrients small amounts, thus are called micronutri-
can be mobilized to support new growing ents, or minors.
tissues, while other nutrients are fixed in
older plant tissues. This fact helps us to pH
diagnose some plant nutrient deficiencies. pH is a measure of the concentration of
For example, if a plant is deficient in an hydrogen (H+) ions, sometimes called pro-
immobile nutrient, then deficiency symp- tons. The greater the H+ ion concentration,
toms (yellowing/chlorosis) occur in the new the more acid the solution, hence a lower pH.
growth, since the older tissues “hold” on to pH controls the uptake of nutrients. If
the immobile nutrients. In contrast, defi- the pH is not in the desired range, indi-
ciencies of mobile nutrients typically occur vidual nutrients can not be taken up, creat-
5
100 5
4
Percentage of Plant Dry Weight
80
Percentage in Plant Tissue

60 3
40 2
20 1
0 0
C,H,O N,P,K, et al... N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn B Zn Cu Mo
ing a nutrient deficiency, or the nutrient can from solution. This process effectively
be taken up too readily, resulting in a nutri- decreases the H+ ion concentration in
ent toxicity. These nutrient imbalances will the media and thus increases the media
occur even when proper amounts of nutri- solution pH.
ents are applied to the media, if the pH is The reverse situation can also occur.
too high or too low. The figure below demon- Very pure water (low bicarbonates) can
strates the availability of nutrients to plants cause media solution pH to decrease
at different media pH. Nitrogen and potas- over time. The pH drops, because there
sium are readily available at a wide pH may not be enough bicarbonates to
range. Although phosphorus is more readily absorb excess hydrogen ions. Thus, the
available at a low pH, phosphorus problems H+ concentration in the media increases.
are not commonly observed in greenhouse The most common solution for pure
crops. Calcium and magnesium are more water sources is to increase the amount
readily available at a higher pH. At a low pH, of pulverized dolomitic limestone incor-
the minor nutrients (iron, manganese, porated into the media prior to trans-
boron, zinc and copper) are readily avail- planting plants into the media. Another
able. Minor nutrient toxicities are relatively solution is to top-dress containers with
common at a low pH (<5.8), while deficien- the limestone. Finally, bicarbonate can
cies frequently occur at a high pH (>6.5) be added to irrigation water in the form
of potassium bicarbonate to improve the
Factors affecting media solution pH: buffering capacity of the media solution
1. Water Quality/Alkalinity: Alkalinity is (i.e., reduce pH fluctuation).
one measure of the quality of water Water quality issues are covered in
used for irrigation. Alkalinity is the measure more depth in Irrigation Water Quality for
of the concentration of bicarbonates and Greenhouse Production (PB 1617).
carbonates in water which determine the 2. Media Components. Peat tends to be
water’s capacity to neutralize acids. In other acidic. Pulverized dolomitic limestone
words, irrigating with bicarbonates in (CaMg(CO3)2) is incorporated into most
water is equivalent to applying lime with amended media to adjust the starting pH
each irrigation. The bicarbonates react to ~6.0. Coarser grades of dolomitic
with hydrogen ions and remove them
6
Bicarbonate
H H H H
H H
H H
H H
+
H H
HH H H
H H
limestone change the media pH more as a constant liquid fertilizer (CLF) program.
slowly, and thus are not often used in A specific fertilizer program must be devel-
peat-based media. A relatively new, but oped around the irrigation water, media and
popular media component, coconut coir, crops grown. Following is a typical CLF
is less acidic than peat, so less limestone program:
needs to be used. 200 ppm N from 20-10-20 Peat-Lite
The role of media in a greenhouse Special applied each irrigation for one week.
nutritional program is covered in more 200 ppm N from 15-0-15 applied each
depth in Growing Media Quality for irrigation the following week.
Greenhouse Production (PB 1618). 100 ppm Mg from Epsom salts (magne-
3. Fertilizers Applied.Fertilizers are catego- sium sulfate) applied once.
rized into one of two groups: acid-residue Repeat.
or alkaline-residue. The fertilizers them- The 20-10-20 Peat-Lite Special supplies
selves are not acidic or alkaline, but they nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and minor
react with microorganisms in the media nutrients. The 15-0-15 fertilizer supplies
and plant roots to affect media solution nitrogen, potassium, calcium and minor
pH. Fertilizers with ample ammonium or nutrients. The epsom salts supply magne-
urea tend to acidify the media, i.e., lower sium and sulfur. Rotating these three prod-
the pH. Fertilizers with ample nitrates tend ucts provides all essential nutrients re-
to raise the pH of the media solution slowly quired for plant growth. Recently available
over time. are water-soluble fertilizers that supply all
essential nutrients in one fertilizer. Ex-
amples include 15-5-15 Cal-Mag Special
Fertilizers and Fertilization and 13-2-13 Plug Special.
Water-Soluble Fertilizers Slow-Release Fertilizers

Most greenhouse fertilization programs Slow-release, or controlled-release,
rely on water-soluble fertilizers to provide fertilizers are usually used when crops are
most of the nutrients required for plant grown outdoors. Slow-release fertilizers are
growth. Water-soluble fertilizers are often beneficial because they create less environ-
applied at each irrigation. This is referred to mental pollution, e.g., fertilizer run-off,
7
when sprinker irrigation is used, and they provided by 20-20-20 is usually wasted, thus
continue to supply nutrients during rainy creating potential environmental concerns.
weather. Slow-release fertilizers are mar- Nitrogen Form. Nitrogen is provided in
keted based on the time of release, for ex- three different forms: nitrate-nitrogen (NO3),
ample, 3- to 4-month longevity. The actual ammoniacal-nitrogen (NH4) and urea-nitro-
fertilizer release rate is determined by the gen. The nitrogen form affects plant growth
temperature and water content of the media. and media solution pH. Ammoniacal nitro-
Therefore, the actual effective release time of gen, sometimes called ammonium, tends to
the fertilizer may vary from the labeled time. contribute to “lush” plant growth, for ex-
Slow-release fertilizers can be incorpo- ample, greater leaf expansion and stem
rated into the media prior to filling the elongation, whereas nitrate nitrogen pro-
containers or top-dressed after planting. duces a “hard” or well-toned and compact
Slow-release fertilizers are often incorpo- plant. High ammonium can be toxic to
rated into the media for garden mum pro- plants during cold, cloudy growing condi-
duction as an insurance policy against tions. Therefore, ammonium and urea
rainy weather. should make up <40 percent of the nitrogen
during winter months. “Dark-Weather” or
Fertilizer Labels “Finisher” fertilizers tend to have high ni-
This section will discuss information that trate and low ammonium nitrogen.
is critical to understand as you develop a The following equation demonstrates
nutritional program for containerized green- how to calculate the percentage of the total
house crops. A useful place to start when nitrogen that is in the ammoniacal form.
discussing fertilizers is the fertilizer label Note: When calculating the percentage
itself. These labels contain several very nitrate versus ammonium, assume urea will
useful pieces of important information for all break down to ammonium.
growers. % N in ammonium form = (% Ammo-
Nutrient Analysis. The fertilizer analy- nium + % Urea) ÷ % Total N X 100
sis indicates the percentage of a particular For example, a 15-5-15 label indicates
nutrient contained within the fertilizer (on a the following nitrogen breakdown:
percent weight basis). The fertilizer analysis Total Nitrogen (N)……15%
typically refers to the percentage of nitrogen 1.20 % Ammoniacal Nitrogen
(N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O) 11.75 % Nitrate Nitrogen
contained in a given fertilizer. A balanced 2.05 % Urea Nitrogen
fertilizer should provide nutrients in (2.05% Urea + 1.20% Ammonium) ÷
amounts relative to plant requirements. 15% Total N X 100 = 21.7% N in ammonium
Since nitrogen and potassium are used in form
relatively similar amounts (on a weight Potential Acidity or Basicity. The
basis), a fertilizer should have a nitrogen to potential acidity or basicity indicates how
potassium ratio of approximately 1:1. Phos- the fertilizer will affect media solution pH. A
phorus is required to a lesser degree, so the fertilizer label will indicate that the fertilizer
nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio should be has either a potential acidity or a potential
approximately 2:1 to 4:1. Therefore, a 2:1:2 basicity. The potential acidity refers to the
(N-P2O5-K2O) is suitable for most green- fertilizer’s tendency to cause the media pH
house crops. An example of this type of to decrease, while the potential basicity
fertilizer is 20-10-20. While 20-20-20 is still refers to the fertilizer’s tendency to cause a
commonly used, 20-10-20 is preferred, since media pH increase. The larger the number,
the N-P2O5-K2O ratio is closer to that the greater the tendency for the media pH to
required by plants. The extra phosphorus be affected by the fertilizer (Table 2). Fertiliz-
ers high in ammonium cause the pH to
8
decrease (become more acidic), while fertiliz- concentration, then all fertilizers are com-
ers high in nitrate cause the pH to increase patible and thus can be mixed together.
(become more basic or alkaline). Multiple Injectors. Multiple injectors
Several trends are apparent in Table 2. or multiple-headed injectors can be used to
Fertilizers with a considerable percentage of inject incompatible stock solutions. If sepa-
the nitrogen in the ammonium form tend to rate injectors are plumbed serially, i.e., one
leave an acid residue in the media, indicated after the other, then fertilizer stock solutions
by the potential acidity. Fertilizers that have can be mixed at the same concentration as
low ammonium, and thus high nitrate form if one injector is being used. For example,
of nitrogen, tend to leave an alkaline, resi- one head can inject calcium nitrate, while
due indicated by the potential basicity. The the other head injects magnesium sulfate.
high-ammonium fertilizers tend to have very However, if two injector heads are placed
little or no calcium or magnesium, while the into one stock solution, then the final con-
low-ammonium, alkaline-residue fertilizers centration delivered to the plants will be
contain higher levels of calcium or magnesium. twice the desired concentration, unless
Proper Dilution Rate. The proper dilu- proper dilution occurs, e.g., mix the stock
tion rate is indicated on the fertilizer label solution for 100 ppm N if 200 ppm is desired.
and can be tested with a soluble salts meter. Injector Accuracy and Calibration.
The soluble salts concentration of the fertil- It is very common for injectors to lose cali-
izer solution increases as the amount of bration accuracy over time. Growers should
fertilizer increases. For example, 20-10-20 test the calibration accuracy with a soluble
Peat Lite Special will have an electrical salts meter every time a new batch of fertil-
conductivity (EC) of 0.33 mmhos/cm for izer is mixed. If a soluble salts meter is not
every 50 ppm of nitrogen. Therefore, a available, then Calibration Method #2 can
fertilizer mixed to provide 250 ppm nitrogen be performed.
will have an EC of 1.65 mmhos/cm [(250 ÷ Calibration Method 1. Use a soluble
50) ¥ 0.33]. Note: Each fertilizer has a differ- salts/electrical conductivity (EC) meter to
ent soluble salts to nitrogen relationship, so determine concentration of fertilizer coming
the specific fertilizer label must be examined. from the end of the hose. The EC of the
water must be subtracted from the EC of
Fertilizer Injectors fertilizer solution. The correct EC for a
Injectors mix precise volumes of concen- given concentration is usually found on
trated fertilizer solution and water together. the fertilizer label.
Injectors or proportioners are commonly Calibration Method 2. Place the siphon
available in a mixing range of 1:16 to 1:200. into a known volume of solution, e.g., a
For example, 1:100 injection ratio indicates quart or a gallon. Turn the water on through
that one gallon of concentrated fertilizer will the injector and fill up a large container,
produce 100 gallons of final fertilizer solu- such as a 20- or 40-gallon garbage can.
tion. Injectors allow growers to have a When the siphon has removed all of the
smaller stock tank and mix their fertilizer solution from the small container, turn off
stock solutions less frequently. However, not the water. If using a Hozon Injector (1:16),
all fertilizers can be mixed together. Calcium then one gallon of stock solution should
and magnesium fertilizers typically can not empty into 16 gallons final solution. If a 1:100
be mixed with phosphate and sulfate fertiliz- injector is used, then one quart of stock
ers while concentrated. A solid precipitate solution should fill 25 gallons of final solution.
will form in the bottom of the stock tank if
the fertilizers are not compatible. Once the
individual fertilizers are diluted to their final
9
Table 2. The fertilizer analysis for the percentage (weight basis) of Ca, Mg, S and ammo-
nium (NH4) provided in several commercially-blended fertilizers. Also, the potential acidity or
basicity are listed for each fertilizer.
Potential Acidity Potential Basicity
Fertilizer Ca Mg S NH4 (lbs. Calcium (lbs. Calcium
(N-P2O5-K2O) (%) (%) (%) (%) carbonate equiva- carbonate equiva-
lent per ton) lent per ton)
21-7-7 acid 0 0 0 90 1700 -

24-9-9 0 0 10 50 822 -
20-2-20 0 0 0 69 800 -
20-18-18 0 0 1 73 710 -
24-7-15 0 1 1 58 612 -
20-18-20 0 0 1 69 610 -
20-20-20 0 0 0 69 583 -
20-9-20 0 0 1 42 510 -
20-20-20 0 0 0 69 474 -
16-17-17 0 1 1 44 440 -
20-10-20 0 0 0 40 422 -
21-5-20 0 0 0 40 418 -
20-10-20 0 0 0 38 393 -
20-8-70 0 1 1 39 379 -
15-15-15 0 0 0 52 261 -
17-17-17 0 0 0 51 218 -
15-16-17 0 0 0 47 215 -
15-16-17 0 0 0 30 165 -
20-5-30 0 0 0 56 153 -
17-5-24 0 2 3 31 125 -
20-5-30 0 1 0 54 118 -
17-4-28 0 1 2 31 105 -
20-5-30 0 0 0 54 100 -
15-11-29 0 0 0 43 91 -
15-5-25 0 1 0 28 76 -
15-10-30 0 0 0 39 76 -
20-0-20 5 0 0 25 40 -
21-0-20 6 0 0 48 15 -
20-0-20 7 0 0 69 0 -
16-4-12 0 0 0 38 - 73
17-0-17 4 2 0 20 - 75
15-5-15 5 2 0 28 - 135
13-2-13 6 3 0 11 - 200
14-0-14 6 3 0 8 - 220
15-0-15 11 0 0 13 - 319
15-0-15 11 0 0 13 - 420
10
Table 3 provides assistance in calcu- mote rooting or flowering! Specifically, phos-
lating the amount of fertilizer to mix to make phorus does not promote rooting and potas-
different stock solutions using different sium does not promote flowering. Excess
injection ratios. nitrogen can potentially reduce flowering
To use this chart: and produce excessive vegetative growth.
•Select your injector’s ratio setting across
the top of the columns. Pre-Plant Nutrition Programs
•Select percentage of nitrogen (N) formula Nutrients can be supplied in limited
used in left column. quantities, while the media components are
•Read across and down to find ounce re- being mixed. Calcium and magnesium are
quired per gallon of concentrate. provided when dolomitic limestone is used
•Multiply this amount by the number of to adjust the starting pH. Phosphorus and
gallons of concentrate used in your fertilizer sulfur are provided with superphosphate
stock tank. plus gypsum (calcium and sulfur). (Single
The table is based on 100 ppm N. For phosphate is 50 percent gypsum by weight).
150 ppm, multiply amounts to be used by Iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and
1.5; for 200 ppm, multiply amounts to be molybdenum are provided with micronutri-
used by 2, etc. ent formulations (e.g., Micromax or
Esmigram). Nitrogen and potassium are
provided with potassium nitrate.
Starting a Fertilization Program Typical pre-plant recipe for 1 cubic yard
of soilless media:
Nutrients can be placed into the media
prior to planting, i.e., a pre-plant nutrition Dolomitic limestone 10 lbs.
program, and during plant growth, i.e., a Treble Superphosphate 2.25 lbs.
post-plant nutrition program. Do not forget Gypsum 1.5 lbs.
that irrigation water can also be a signifi- Micromax 1.25 lbs.
cant source of plant nutrients, especially Potassium Nitrate 1 lb.
calcium and magnesium.
Despite considerable gardening advice to (The additional nitrogen and potassium
the contrary, specific nutrients do not pro- will last ~1 to 2 weeks.)
Table 3. A quick chart to determine the number of ounces of fertilizer required per gallon
of stock tank solution based on the percentage of nitrogen in the fertilizer and the injection
ratio. See Appendix A for more specific calculations.
Ounces of fertilizer to make 100 ppm nitrogen
at an injector ratio of:
%N
1:16 1:50 1:100 1:200
10 2:16 6.75 13.5 27.0

15 1:44 4.5 9.0 18.0
20 1:08 3.38 6.75 13.5
25 0.86 2.7 5.4 10.8
30 0.72 2.25 4.5 9.0
Note: Acid injection is discussed in Irrigation Water

Quality for Greenhouse Production.
11
Post-Plant Nutrition Programs The concentration applied is determined by
Most small to medium-sized commercial the amount of leaching. For example, in a
greenhouses use commercially blended constant liquid feed program using a sub-
fertilizers for convenience and dependability; irrigation system (0 percent leaching) 100 ppm
however, for some growers it is economical N may produce adequate growth, while 300
to buy individual fertilizers and mix them ppm N may be needed if overhead irrigation
together. Table 4 shows some of the com- results in 25 percent leaching.
mon ingredients in a variety of different Crop requirements:
commercial fertilizers. Bedding Plants Light
Following are some important notes New Guinea Impatiens Light
about each of the essential plant nutrients: Geranium Moderate
Poinsettias Moderate
Nitrogen (N) to heavy
Sources: ammonium nitrate, urea, Chrysanthemums Heavy
calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, magne-
sium nitrate.
Table 4. Some common ingredients found in a variety of commercially blended fertilizers.

Note: Each fertilizer may contain several other ingredients not listed below.
Commercial Urea Ammonium Calcium Potassium Magnesium Ammonium

Sources Nitrate Nitrate Nitrate Nitrate Phosphate
Plug Special X X X X
13-2-13
Cal-Mag Special X X X X
14-0-14
High Calcium Spec. X X X
15-0-15
Pansy Special X X X X X
15-2-20
Poinsettia Spec. X X X
22-8-20
Poinsettia Finish. X X X
15-11-29
Pot Mum Special 1 X X X
5-11-29
Geranium Spec.
15-15-15 X X X
Plant Starter X X
15-50-5
Fern Special X X X
18-24-18
General Purpose X X X
20-10-20
All Purpose X X X
20-20-20
12
12
Phosphorus (P) and potassium. These fertilizers often list
Sources: Ammonium phosphate, urea five numbers in the analysis. These num-
phosphate bers represent N, P2O5, K2O, Ca and Mg,
A nitrogen-to-phosphate (P2O5) ratio of respectively. For example, (15-5-15-5-2, 14-
2:1 is acceptable for most crops. Fertilizers 0-14-6-3, 13-2-13-6-3). Note: Epsom salts
with high concentrations of ammonium are 10 percent magnesium by weight.
phosphate, such as 9-45-15, appear to
promote stem stretching. Micronutrients
Micronutrients are sold in different
Potassium (K) formulations; for example, Micromax,
Sources: Potassium nitrate, potassium Esmigran and Soluble Trace Element Mix
sulfate contain only inorganic sources, while Com-
A nitrogen-to-potash (K2O) ratio of 1:1 is pound 111 contains chelated sources. Che-
acceptable for most crops. lated forms are superior in that the micro-
nutrients are more soluble, therefore more
Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) readily available to the plant. Consequently,
Sources: Dolomitic limestone, irrigation chelated micronutrients are applied at lower
water, calcium nitrate, magnesium sulfate rates. Compound 111 and STEM are labeled
(Epsom salts), magnesium nitrate. for use in constant liquid feed programs.
Calcium and magnesium provided by The rates are based on adding a certain
dolomitic limestone are released slowly over amount of micronutrient mix per 100 ppm
several months. These two nutrients can of N used in the fertilization program.
have an antagonistic relationship (i.e., they Micronutrient deficiencies are closely
compete within the plant), thus a Ca:Mg related to media pH. High pH (greater than 6.5)
ratio of 3:1 to 5:1 is desirable. Calcium and can produce deficiencies, while low pH (less
magnesium are commonly found in irriga- than 5.8) can cause toxicities. Adjusting the
tion water, especially high alkalinity water. media pH is the best solution to avoid micro-
Calcium and magnesium deficiencies are nutrient toxicities or deficiencies.
most common when the pH is low (less than
5.8). Calcium and magnesium fertilizers can
not be mixed in the concentrated form with
phosphate or sulfate fertilizers, thus cal-
cium and magnesium are frequently omitted
from commercial fertilizers. A few relatively
new fertilizers contain calcium and magne-
sium along with the nitrogen, phosphorus
Table 5. The micronutrient concentration (ppm) to be applied with each 100 ppm nitrogen.
Micronutrient ppm at 100 ppm N liquid feed
Fertilizer Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Boron Molybdenum

(Fe) (Mn) (Zn) (Cu) (B) (Mo)
Soluble Trace 0.25 0.27 0.15 0.11 0.05 0.001

Element Mix (STEM)
Compound 111 0.25 0.13 0.012 0.019 0.04 0.004
13
Appendices: Example 1: How many pounds of 21-5-20
fertilizer should one add to a 20 gallon stock
A. Fertilizer calculations tank in order to irrigate with 200 ppm N
1. Calculating the parts per million for using a 1:100 injector?
a fertilizer solution:
Actual ppm = pounds fertilizer X %N X 200 ppm N X 20 gal. X 100 (injector ratio)
Z ÷ gallons stock ÷ proportioner ratio ÷ 21%N ÷ 1200 = 15.9 pounds of fertilizer
(21-5-20) added to a 20-gallon stock tank
For N, Ca, Mg, Fe, Z=1200 will produce 200 ppm N when injected at a
For Phosphorus (P), Z= 528 1:100 ratio.
For Potassium (K), Z= 996
B: Conversion of Units
Example 1: Calculate the concentration Liquid
(ppm) of nitrogen applied when 1 pound of 1 ounces = 29.6 milliliters = 2 table
15-0-15 is mixed into a 5 gallonstock tank spoons
and a 1:16 proportioner is used. 8 ounces = 1 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
1 lb. Fert. X 15%N X 1200 ÷ 5 gal. stock ÷ 2 pints = 1 quart
16 proportioner = 225 ppm nitrogen. 4 quarts = 1 gallon
10 liters = 2.64 gallons
Example 2: Calculate the concentration 1 gallon= 128 ounces = 3.785 liters =
(ppm) of potassium applied when 1 pound of 8.34 pounds of water
15-0-15 is mixed into a 5 gallon stock tank 1 gallon concentrate per 100 gallons
and a 1:16 proportioner is used. of spray = 2.5 tablespoons per
gallon
1 lb. Fert X 15%K ¥ 996 ÷ 5 gal. stock ÷
16 proportioner = 187 ppm potassium Dry Weight
1 ounce = 28.35 grams
Example 3: Calculate the concentration 1 pound = 454 grams = 16 ounces
(ppm) of calcium applied when 1 pound of 1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons
15-0-15 is mixed into a 5 gallon stock tank 1 ppm = 1 milligram per 1 kilogram
and a 1:16 proportioner is used. (Note from or 1 milliliter per liter or 1 milligram
Table 2, 15-0-15 contains 11% calcium). per liter
Also note that the irrigation water has 15
ppm calcium.
1 X 11 X 1200 ÷ 5 ÷ 16 = 165 ppm cal-

cium from fertilizer plus and additional 15
ppm calcium from the irrigation water = 180
ppm calcium applied
2. Calculating the amount of fertilizer

to add to a stock tank:
lbs. of fert. = desired ppm X gal. stock
soln. X proportioner ratio ÷ %N ÷ Z
14
15
PB1616-1M-2/99 E12-2015-00-104-99
A State Partner in the Cooperative Extension System
The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons
regardless of race, color, national origin, sex or disability and is an Equal Opportunity Employer.
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS
The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914.
Billy G. Hicks, Dean
16

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A Small Backyard Geenhouse For the Home

Figure 1. A backyard greenhouse constructed from inexpensive materials.

Constructing the Greenhouse

Operating the green house

Climate Guide for Vegetables & Fruits

"Cold Greenhouse" (night temp. 35°-45° F)

"Moderate Greenhouse" (night temp. 55°-60° F)

Many options are available, and some plants will propagate.

"Warm Greenhouse" (night temp.

While more expensive to heat (we recommend insulated glazing), there

Questions? e-mail Charley's or Call 1-800-322-4707 24 hours, 7 Days A Week

Greenhouse Cucumber Production - Florida Greenhouse

Two evaluations of twelve cultivars were

avoiding major problems, both toxicities and

Several research articles report a sudden

Crop Production, HS769 Operational Considerations for Harvest, HS792

General Considerations, HS774

Site Selection, HS775

Physical Greenhouse Design Considerations,

Production Systems, HS777

Greenhouse Environmental Design

Environmental Controls, HS779

Materials Handling, HS780

Other Design Information Resources, HS781

Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production

General Aspects of Plant Growth, HS784

Production Systems, HS785

Irrigation of Greenhouse Vegetables, HS786

Fertilizer Management for Greenhouse

Production of Greenhouse Tomatoes, HS788

Generalized Sequence of Operations for

Greenhouse Cucumber Production, HS790

Alternative Greenhouse Crops, HS791

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Steps in training with the umbrella system:

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Steps in training with the umbrella system:

Greenhouse Floors and Benches

Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University

Figure 1. A backyard greenhouse constructed from inexpensive materials.

Constructing the Greenhouse

Operating the green house

ceac : research : archive : Greenhouse Structures

Dr. Gene A. Giacomelli

Basic Design Requirements (top)

An important consideration for future expansion is whether a ground-to-ground (Quonset style), or

Greenhouse Orientation (top)

Glazings and Coverings (top)

Environmental Control (top)

Automation, Mechanization and Labor Aids (top)

504 Shantz, University of Arizona

Paper # E-125933-04-01. (Greenhouse Structures.doc)

ceac : research : archive : Greenhouse Structures

Copyright 2002, UA Controlled Environment Agriculture Center

Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources • Oklahoma State University

Plan for Success ....................................................................................................................................1

Plant Population ....................................................................................................................................2

Growing in Aggregate Media ................................................................................................................3

Planting Schedule ..................................................................................................................................3

Pruning and Training ............................................................................................................................4