CORRUPTION

PERCEPTIONS
INDEX
2021
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#cpi2021
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CORRUPTION
PERCEPTIONS
INDEX 2021

2-3 11-14 16
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Map and results Regional highlights Endnotes

Americas

4-5 Asia Pacific

Eastern Europe and
Executive summary
Central Asia
Recommendations
Middle East and North
Africa

6-7 Sub-Saharan Africa

Global highlights Western Europe and

European Union

8-10
Human rights and
15
corruption Methodology
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

180 COUNTRIES.
180 SCORES.
HOW DOES
YOUR COUNTRY
MEASURE UP?

The perceived levels of public sector corruption

in 180 countries/territories around the world.

SCORE
Highly Very
Corrupt Clean

0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-100 No data

SCORE COUNTRY/TERRITORY 69 United Arab 55 Dominica 45 Vanuatu

88 Denmark Emirates 55 Fiji 44 Jamaica
88 Finland 68 Bhutan 55 Georgia 44 South Africa
88 New Zealand 68 Taiwan 54 Czechia 44 Tunisia
85 Norway 67 Chile 54 Malta 43 Ghana
85 Singapore 67 United States of 54 Mauritius 43 Hungary
America
85 Sweden 53 Grenada 43 Kuwait
65 Barbados
84 Switzerland 53 Cyprus 43 Senegal
64 Bahamas
82 Netherlands 53 Rwanda 43 Solomon Islands
63 Qatar
81 Luxembourg 53 Saudi Arabia 42 Bahrain
62 Korea, South
80 Germany 52 Oman 42 Benin
62 Portugal
78 United Kingdom 52 Slovakia 42 Burkina Faso
61 Lithuania
76 Hong Kong 49 Armenia 42 Bulgaria
61 Spain
74 Canada 49 Greece 41 Timor-Leste
59 Israel
74 Iceland 49 Jordan 41 Belarus
59 Latvia
74 Ireland 49 Namibia 41 Trinidad and
59 Saint Vincent and Tobago
74 Estonia the Grenadines 48 Malaysia
40 India
74 Austria 58 Cabo Verde 47 Croatia
40 Maldives
73 Australia 58 Costa Rica 46 Cuba
39 Kosovo
73 Belgium 57 Slovenia 46 Montenegro
39 Colombia
73 Japan 56 Italy 45 China
39 Ethiopia
73 Uruguay 56 Poland 45 Romania
39 Guyana
71 France 56 Saint Lucia 45 Sao Tome and
Principe 39 Morocco
70 Seychelles 55 Botswana

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 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

39 North Macedonia 34 El Salvador 29 Liberia 23 Zimbabwe

39 Suriname 34 Sierra Leone 29 Mali 22 Eritrea
39 Tanzania 33 Egypt 29 Russia 21 Congo
39 Vietnam 33 Nepal 28 Mauritania 21 Guinea Bissau
38 Argentina 33 Philippines 28 Myanmar 20 Chad
38 Brazil 33 Zambia 28 Pakistan 20 Comoros
38 Indonesia 33 Algeria 28 Uzbekistan 20 Haiti
38 Lesotho 32 Eswatini 27 Cameroon 20 Nicaragua
38 Serbia 32 Ukraine 27 Kyrgyzstan 20 Sudan
38 Turkey 31 Gabon 27 Uganda 19 Burundi
37 Gambia 31 Mexico 26 Bangladesh 19 Democratic
37 Kazakhstan 31 Niger 26 Madagascar Republic of the
Congo
37 Sri Lanka 31 Papua New 26 Mozambique
Guinea 19 Turkmenistan
36 Cote d'Ivoire 25 Guatemala
17 Equatorial Guinea
36 Ecuador 30 Azerbaijan 25 Guinea
17 Libya
36 Moldova 30 Bolivia 25 Iran
16 Afghanistan
36 Panama 30 Djibouti 25 Tajikistan
16 Korea, North
36 Peru 30 Dominican 24 Lebanon
16 Yemen
35 Albania Republic 24 Nigeria
14 Venezuela
35 Bosnia and 30 Laos 24 Central African
Republic 13 Somalia
Herzegovina 30 Paraguay
13 Syria
35 Malawi 30 Togo 23 Cambodia
11 South Sudan
35 Mongolia 30 Kenya 23 Honduras
35 Thailand 29 Angola 23 Iraq

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TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
Two years into the devastating COVID-19 pandemic, this year’s
Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) reveals that corruption levels
have stagnated worldwide. Despite commitments on paper, 131
countries have made no significant progress against corruption
over the last decade and this year 27 countries are at historic
lows in their CPI score.1 Meanwhile, human rights and democracy
across the world are under assault.2

This is no coincidence. Corruption checks and balances are being important checks and balances.
enables human rights abuses,3 undermined not only in countries And despite the increasing
setting off a vicious and escalating with systemic corruption and international momentum to end
spiral. As rights and freedoms are weak institutions, but also among the abuse of anonymous shell
eroded, democracy declines and established democracies. companies, many high-scoring
authoritarianism takes its place,4 countries with relatively “clean”
which in turn enables higher Respecting human rights public sectors continue to enable
levels of corruption.5 is essential for controlling transnational corruption.
corruption because empowered
The past year has brought citizens have the space to There is an urgent need to
disturbing examples of this, challenge injustice. accelerate the fight against
from the killing of human rights corruption if we are to halt
defenders6 and the closing of The global COVID-19 pandemic human rights abuses and
media outlets,7 to government has also been used in many democratic decline across
spying scandals like the Pegasus countries as an excuse to curtail the globe.
Project.8 Increasingly, rights and basic freedoms9 and side-step

180
100

0
THE CPI USES A SCALE
COUNTRIES SCORED FROM 0 TO 100

The CPI scores 180 countries and territories by their 100 is very clean and 0 is highly corrupt
perceived levels of public sector corruption, according
to experts and business people.

2/3 OF COUNTRIES SCORE BELOW THE AVERAGE SCORE IS

50/100 43/100
4
 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

In authoritarian contexts where control rests

with a few, social movements are the last
remaining check on power. It is the collective
power held by ordinary people from all walks of
life that will ultimately deliver accountability.

Daniel Eriksson
Chief Executive Officer, Transparency International Secretariat

Photo: Transparency International

Recommendations

Corruption may be a multifaceted problem, but it is one we know how to solve. To end the vicious cycle of
corruption, human rights violations and democratic decline, people should demand that their governments:

1. UPHOLD THE RIGHTS NEEDED TO 2. RESTORE AND STRENGTHEN

HOLD POWER TO ACCOUNT INSTITUTIONAL CHECKS ON POWER

Governments should roll back any disproportionate Public oversight bodies such as anti-corruption
restrictions on freedoms of expression, association agencies and supreme audit institutions need to be
and assembly introduced since the onset of the independent, well-resourced and empowered to
pandemic. Ensuring justice for crimes against human detect and sanction wrongdoing. Parliaments and the
rights defenders must also be an urgent priority. courts should also be vigilant in preventing executive
overreach.

3. COMBAT TRANSNATIONAL 4. UPHOLD THE RIGHT TO

CORRUPTION INFORMATION IN GOVERNMENT
SPENDING

Governments in advanced economies need to fix As part of their COVID-19 recovery efforts,
the systemic weaknesses that allow cross-border governments must make good on their pledge
corruption to go undetected or unsanctioned. They contained in the June 2021 UNGASS political
must close legal loopholes, regulate professional declaration to include anti-corruption safeguards in
enablers of financial crime, and ensure that the public procurement. Maximum transparency in public
corrupt and their accomplices cannot escape justice. spending protects lives and livelihoods.

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TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

GLOBAL HIGHLIGHTS
The results of this year’s CPI show that countries with well-
protected civil and political liberties generally control corruption
better. The fundamental freedoms of association and expression
are crucial in the fight for a world free of corruption.

The index ranks 180 countries More than two-thirds of countries Meanwhile, the scores of several
and territories by their perceived (68 per cent) score below 50 and democracies that used to top
levels of public sector corruption the average global score remains the index and champion anti-
according to experts and static at 43. Since 2012, 25 corruption efforts around the
business people. It relies on 13 countries significantly improved world are deteriorating. Many
independent data sources and their scores, but in the same of these high-scoring countries
uses a scale of zero to 100, where period 23 countries significantly remain safe havens for corrupt
zero is highly corrupt and 100 is declined.10 individuals from abroad.
very clean.

HIGHEST SCORING REGION LOWEST SCORING REGION

WESTERN EUROPE & SUB-SAHARAN

EUROPEAN UNION AFRICA

66 /100 33 /100
AVERAGE REGIONAL SCORE AVERAGE REGIONAL SCORE

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 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

This year, the top countries are

Denmark, Finland and New CPI SCORE CHANGES, 2012-2021
Zealand, each with a score of
88. Norway, Singapore, Sweden,
Switzerland, the Netherlands, Number of countries that the underlying data sources largely agree improved or
Luxembourg and Germany declined, over the period 2012 to 2021, for all 179 countries with data available.
complete the top 10.
25 23 131
South Sudan, Syria and
Somalia remain at the bottom
of the index. Countries
experiencing armed conflict or
authoritarianism tend to earn
the lowest scores, including
Venezuela, Yemen, North Korea,
Afghanistan, Libya, Equatorial
Guinea and Turkmenistan.

Overall, the CPI shows that

control of corruption has
stagnated or worsened in 86 COUNTRIES COUNTRIES COUNTRIES
per cent of countries over the IMPROVED DECLINED STAYED THE SAME
last decade.

MOST SIGNIFICANT FIVE-YEAR MOVERS

Countries that the underlying data sources largely agree improved or declined, over the period 2017 to 2021. A full list of all
statistically significant changes is available in the CPI 2021 dataset.

80 CPI 2021 CPI 2017 CPI GLOBAL AVERAGE

70 -8
+8
60

50
+14
CPI SCORE

+4
40
+5

30
+10 +6

20 -6
-6
10 -4

0
A

LA

EA

PI A

AS

DA
OV

GU
NI

EL
TA
GO

OR

UR

NA
HI O
ME

ZU
K IS

LD

RA
HK

ND
AN

CA
NE
MO
AR

ET

CA
BE

HO
UT

VE

7
NI
UZ
SO
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

HUMAN RIGHTS AND

CORRUPTION
Transparency International’s analysis demonstrates that
upholding human rights is crucial in the fight against corruption,
with countries who violate civil liberties scoring lower on the CPI.

From the repression of opposition corruption committed by high- 2. Launder their reputation
supporters in Belarus,11 to the level officials usually combines abroad. By bribing foreign
closing of media outlets12 and the large-scale, transnational politicians and employing
civil society organisations13 in theft of public funds with gross western public relations firms
Nicaragua, the deadly violence human rights violations. and lobbyists,18 authoritarian
against protesters in Sudan14 and kleptocratic regimes soften
and the killing of human rights Our analysis shows that such international pressure on their
defenders in the Philippines,15 corruption schemes – often human rights record.
human rights and democracy are facilitated by advanced
under threat. Since 2012, 90 per economies who score well on the 3. Evade accountability.
cent of countries have stagnated CPI – exacerbate repression by Through the abuse of secret
or declined in their civil liberties allowing autocrats to: companies and anonymous
score.16 investments, the corrupt can
1. Enjoy looted funds. hide their wrongdoing from law
Corruption undermines the ability Employing complicit bankers, enforcement or judicial bodies
of governments to guarantee the lawyers and real-estate brokers and escape consequences.
human rights of their citizens.17 in major financial centres, the
This affects the delivery of public corrupt can store their illicit
services, the dispensation of gains, reward cronies and further
justice and the provision of concentrate their power.
safety for all. In particular, grand

Human rights are not simply a nice-to-have in

the fight against corruption. Authoritarianism
makes anti-corruption efforts dependent
on the whims of an elite. Ensuring that civil
society and the media can speak freely and
hold power to account is the only sustainable
route to a corruption-free society.

Delia Ferreira Rubio

Chair, Transparency International

Photo: World Economic Forum/Benedikt von Loebell / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

8
 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

Fundamental rights such as violence, but by gradual efforts Such attacks allow corrupt
freedom of expression, freedom to undermine democracy.19 This regimes to evade accountability
of assembly and access to justice usually begins with attacks on and criticism, creating an
guarantee public participation civil and political rights, efforts environment for corruption to
and keep corruption in check. The to undermine the autonomy of flourish.
current wave of authoritarianism oversight and election bodies,
is not driven by coups and and control of the media.20

CORRUPTION AND BREACHES OF CIVIL LIBERTIES

Higher levels of corruption, as measured by the CPI, are strongly associated with breaches of civil liberties. Outliers exist, but in
most cases the relationship is causal in both directions: more corruption can lead to restrictions on civil liberties, while having
fewer civil liberties makes it harder to fight corruption.21

10

7
CIVIL LIBERTIES 2020

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

CPI 2021

Armenia Uzbekistan Singapore

Armenia is a success story of Uzbekistan is one of the most A modernised economy, efficient
the CPI in the last five years, consistent improvers in the bureaucracy and strong rule of
improving 14 points since 2017 CPI, from a score of just 17 in law all contribute to Singapore’s
to a score of 49. Mass protests in 2012 to 28 this year. Reforms success. However, it continues to
2018 forced out an entrenched adopted since 2016 contributed fall far behind on human rights
political elite in favour of a to modest increases in civil such as freedom of expression
reform-minded government.22 liberties, particularly freedom and association,25 which means
Armenia has since expanded civil of expression.24 However, that any anti-corruption success
liberties, paving the way for more Uzbekistan remains an autocracy is tied to the political will of
sustainable civic engagement and and much more is needed to the ruling elite and may not be
accountability.23 Despite progress, achieve lasting wins against sustainable.
the reform agenda has stalled in corruption.
the past year and the government
must recommit.

9
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

Corruption and impunity make levels of public sector corruption,

it unsafe for people to speak up as shown by a CPI score of below
and demand justice. Ninety-eight 45. At least 20 of these cases
per cent of the 331 murders of were human rights defenders
human rights defenders in 2020 specifically focusing on anti-
occurred in countries with high corruption issues.26

CORRUPTION AND MURDERS OF HUMAN RIGHTS DEFENDERS

Highly corrupt countries account for almost all murdered human rights defenders around the world. Corruption in law
enforcement and the judiciary, as well as impunity for serious crimes, contribute to a dangerous climate.27

= 1 murdered human rights defender = country with CPI ≤ 45 = country with CPI > 45

Nicaragua Philippines Azerbaijan

Nicaragua has dropped 9 points With a score of 33, the Philippines Azerbaijan has remained in
in the index since 2012, to a is a significant decliner, having the bottom third of the CPI
low of just 20. The long-serving lost 5 points since 2014. Since the since 2012, its score oscillating
president, Daniel Ortega, election of Rodrigo Duterte, the between 25 and 30. In 2017,
has responded to corruption Philippines has also seen a sharp the Azerbaijani Laundromat
allegations with a crackdown on decline in freedom of association investigation31 revealed how
media, civic space and oversight and freedom of expression, a vast slush fund financed the
institutions. Nicaragua’s scores making it harder to speak up regime’s reputation laundering
on the Freedom of Expression, about corruption.29 In 2020, it by making payments – mostly
Freedom of Association and was the country with the second through Danske Bank – to
Access to Justice indices have now highest number of murdered politicians across Europe, while
dropped to record lows.28 human rights defenders, with a jailing outspoken opposition and
total of 25 deaths.30 media figures at home.

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 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

REGIONAL
HIGHLIGHTS
While corruption takes vastly different forms from country to
country, this year’s scores reveal that all parts of the globe are at a
standstill when it comes to fighting public sector corruption.

At the top of the CPI, countries measures and basic civil any significant progress. In Sub-
in Western Europe and the freedoms allow corruption to go Saharan Africa, armed conflict,
European Union (EU) continue unchecked, and even historically violent transitions of power
to wrestle with transparency and high-performing countries are and increasing terrorist threats
accountability in their response showing signs of decline. combined with poor enforcement
to COVID-19, threatening the of anti-corruption commitments
region’s clean image. In the Middle East and North rob citizens of their basic rights
Africa, the interests of a powerful and services.
In parts of Asia Pacific, the few continue to dominate the
Americas, Eastern Europe political and private sphere, and
and Central Asia, increasing the limitations placed on civil and
restrictions on accountability political freedoms are blocking

RESULTS BY REGION

Average regional scores, with top and bottom performers in each region.

36
66 EASTERN EUROPE
& CENTRAL ASIA
Average score
WESTERN EUROPE Top: Georgia (55/100)
& EU Bottom: Turkmenistan (19/100)
Average score

Top: Denmark, Finland (88/100)

Bottom: Bulgaria (42/100)

39
43
MIDDLE EAST
AMERICAS & NORTH AFRICA
Average score Average score

45
Top: Canada (74/100) Top: United Arab Emirates (69/100)
Bottom: Venezuela (14/100) Bottom: Syria (13/100)

33 ASIA PACIFIC
SUB-SAHARAN Average score
AFRICA Top: New Zealand (88/100)
Average score
Bottom: North Korea,
Top: Seychelles (70/100) Afghanistan (16/100)
Bottom: South Sudan (11/100)

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TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

TOP SCORERS
AMERICAS CANADA
74/100
With no progress on an average
score of 43 out of 100 for the URUGUAY

third consecutive year, even 73/100

high performers in the Americas
CHILE
are showing signs of trouble.
While the worst scores in the 67/100
region belong to non-democratic
UNITED STATES
countries – many of which are
facing humanitarian crises – 67/100
major consolidated democracies
have also remained stagnant or
BOTTOM SCORERS

HAITI
fallen down the CPI.
20/100
NICARAGUA
20/100

32
VENEZUELA
14/100

COUNTRIES ASSESSED

ASIA PACIFIC
TOP SCORERS

NEW ZEALAND
88/100
While the Asia Pacific region has
made great strides in controlling SINGAPORE
petty corruption over the last 85/100
decade, a failure to address grand
corruption has kept the average HONG KONG
score stalled at 45 out of 100 76/100
for the third year running. Some
higher-scoring countries have
BOTTOM SCORERS

dropped down the index, amid CAMBODIA

the erosion of the very freedoms
23/100
that once facilitated successful
mass movements against AFGHANISTAN
corruption in the region.
16/100

31
NORTH KOREA
16/100

COUNTRIES ASSESSED

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 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

TOP SCORERS
EASTERN EUROPE AND GEORGIA

CENTRAL ASIA 55/100

ARMENIA
With an average score of just 36
out of 100, Eastern Europe and 49/100
Central Asia is still the second
MONTENEGRO
lowest performing region on the
CPI. In Central Asia, governments 46/100
have used COVID-19 as an excuse
to introduce restrictions on rights
BOTTOM SCORERS
KYRGYZSTAN
and accountability, while populist
governments in Eastern Europe
27/100
have severely cracked down
TAJIKISTAN
on the freedoms of expression
and assembly needed to call out 25/100
corruption.
TURKMENISTAN

19
19/100

COUNTRIES ASSESSED

MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH

TOP SCORERS

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

AFRICA 69/100
With an average score of 39 out QATAR
of 100 for the fourth consecutive 63/100
year, the Middle East and North
Africa region is struggling to
achieve tangible results in the
fight against corruption. Systemic
BOTTOM SCORERS

political misconduct and private LIBYA

interests overtaking the common 17/100
good have allowed the region –
already devastated by various YEMEN
conflicts – to be ravaged by 16/100
corruption and human rights
abuses during the COVID-19 SYRIA

pandemic. 13/100

18
COUNTRIES ASSESSED

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TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

TOP SCORERS
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA SEYCHELLES
70/100
With an average score of 33 out
CABO VERDE
of 100, Sub-Saharan Africa shows
no significant improvement from 58/100
previous years. The gains made
BOTSWANA
by top scorers are overshadowed
by the region’s poor performance 55/100
overall – 44 out of 49 countries
still score below 50. This
BOTTOM SCORERS EQUATORIAL GUINEA
reinforces the urgent need
for African governments 17/100
to implement existing anti-
SOMALIA
corruption commitments if they
are to alleviate the devastating 13/100
effect of corruption on millions of
SOUTH SUDAN
citizens living in extreme poverty.
11/100

49
COUNTRIES ASSESSED
TOP SCORERS

DENMARK
WESTERN EUROPE AND 88/100
EUROPEAN UNION
FINLAND
With an average score of 66 out 88/100
of 100, Western Europe and the
EU still tops the CPI, but progress SWEDEN
in recent years has flatlined. 85/100
The COVID-19 pandemic has
threatened transparency and NORWAY
accountability across the region, 85/100
leaving no country unscathed
and exposing worrying signs
BOTTOM SCORERS

of backsliding among even the ROMANIA

region’s best performers. 45/100
HUNGARY
43/100

31
BULGARIA
42/100

COUNTRIES ASSESSED

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 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

METHODOLOGY

The CPI aggregates data from + Considers only the 3. Calculate the average. For a
a number of different sources assessments of country country or territory to be included
that provide perceptions among experts or business people in the CPI, a minimum of three
business people and country sources must assess that country.
experts of the level of corruption + Is regularly updated. A country’s CPI score is then
in the public sector. The following calculated as the average of all
steps are taken to calculate the The CPI 2021 is calculated using standardised scores available for
CPI: 13 different data sources from 12 that country. Scores are rounded
different institutions that capture to whole numbers.
1. Select data sources. Each perceptions of corruption within
data source used to construct the past two years. 4. Report the measure of
the CPI must fulfil the following uncertainty. The CPI score is
criteria to qualify as a valid 2. Standardise data sources accompanied by a standard error
source: to a scale of 0-100. This and confidence interval. This
standardisation is done by captures the variation across
+ Quantifies risks or subtracting the mean of each the data sources available for a
perceptions of corruption in source in the baseline year from country or territory.
the public sector each country score, then dividing
by the standard deviation of that
+ Is based on a reliable and source in the baseline year. This
valid methodology subtraction and division using
the baseline year parameters
+ Comes from a reputable ensures that the CPI scores are
organisation comparable year on year since
2012. After this procedure,
+ Allows for sufficient variation the standardised scores are
of scores to distinguish transformed to the CPI scale by
between countries multiplying them with the value
of the CPI standard deviation in
+ Ranks a substantial number 2012 (20) and adding the mean
of countries of the CPI in 2012 (45), so that the
dataset fits the CPI’s 0-100 scale.

15
TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL

ENDNOTES

1 The 2021 CPI score for each of knowledgehub.transparency.org/ 11 Euronews (2021). ‘Revolt,
these 27 countries was the lowest helpdesk/corruption-and-the-crisis-of- repression and reprisals: A look
score they had achieved since the democracy. back at a year of turmoil in Belarus’.
earliest comparable year of available Available at: www.euronews.
data (2012) : Australia, Belgium, 6 Lawlor, M. (2020). Final warning: com/2021/08/09/revolt-repression-
Botswana, Canada, Comoros, Cyprus, death threats and killings of human and-reprisals-a-look-back-at-a-year-of-
Dominica, Eswatini, Honduras, rights defenders: report of the turmoil-in-belarus.
Hungary, Israel, Lebanon, Lesotho, Special Rapporteur on the Situation
Mongolia, Netherlands, Nicaragua, of Human Rights Defenders, Mary 12 International Press Institute
Niger, Nigeria, Philippines, Poland, Lawlor, United Nations. Available (2021). ‘Nicaragua: Crackdown on
Serbia, Slovenia, South Sudan, at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/ independent media escalates ahead
Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, record/3898237?ln=en. of elections’. Available at: https://
Venezuela. ipi.media/nicaragua-crackdown-on-
7 Reporters without Borders (2021). independent-media-escalates-ahead-
2 Freedom House (2021). Freedom ‘At least 22 newspapers “murdered” of-elections.
in the World 2021: Democracy in the past five years’. Available at:
under Siege. Available at: https:// https://rsf.org/en/news/least-22- 13 AP News (2021). ‘Nicaragua
freedomhouse.org/report/freedom- newspapers-murdered-past-five- orders closure of 15 more NGOs’.
world/2021/democracy-under-siege. years. Available at: https://apnews.com/
article/entertainment-music-
3 Transparency International and 8 Committee to Protect Journalists caribbean-nicaragua-705301837f2701
International Council on Human (2021). ‘Pegasus Project revelations bfbd2ecf95fbcb6da5.
Rights Policy (2009). Corruption show added layer of risk for
and Human Rights: Making the corruption reporters’. Available at: 14 UN News (2021). ‘Sudan coup:
connection. Available at: https:// https://cpj.org/2021/07/pegasus- Human Rights Council hears calls
papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. project-risk-corruption-reporters. for return to democratic rule’.
cfm?abstract_id=1551222. Available at: https://news.un.org/en/
9 V-DEM (2021). ‘Pandemic story/2021/11/1105012.
4 Lührmann, A. and Lindberg, S. backsliding’. Available at: www.v-dem.
I., Democratization (2019). ’A third net/pandem.html. 15 Human Rights Watch (2020).
wave of autocratization is here: what ‘Philippines: Events of 2020’. Available
is new about it?’. Available at: www. 10 This refers to countries that at: www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/
tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/135 registered statistically significant country-chapters/philippines.
10347.2019.1582029. improvements or declines considering
a 90 per cent confidence interval. 16 Economist Intelligence Unit
5 Drapalova, E. (2019). ‘Corruption While other countries may register (2020). Democracy Index 2020.
and the crisis of democracy’, changes of the same magnitude, their Available at: www.eiu.com/n/
Transparency International, 7 scores show substantial variation campaigns/democracy-index-2020.
March 2019. Available at: https:// among the CPI’s underlying sources.

16
 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX 2021

17 Transparency International and Version 11.1’. Available at: www.vdem.

International Council on Human net/vdemds.html.
Rights Policy (2009).
30 Frontline Defenders (2020).
18 Transparency International UK
(2019). At Your Service. Available 31 OCCRP (2017). ‘The Azerbaijani
at: www.transparency.org.uk/ Laundromat’. Available at: www.occrp.
publications/at-your-service. org/en/azerbaijanilaundromat.

19 Lührmann and Lindberg (2019).

20 V-DEM (2021). ‘Pandemic

backsliding’. Available at: www.v-dem.
net/pandem.html.

21 The data for the Civil Liberties

Score is taken from the Economist
Intelligence Unit (2020). Democracy
Index 2020. Available at: www.eiu.
com/n/campaigns/democracy-
index-2020.

22 Freedom House (2021). Armenia

– Country Profile. Available at: https://
freedomhouse.org/country/armenia.

23 Freedom House (2021).

24 Reporters without Borders

(2021). ‘Uzbekistan: Erratic Thaw’.
Available at: https://rsf.org/en/
uzbekistan.

25 Amnesty International (2021).

Singapore 2020. Available at: www.
amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-
the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-
pacific/singapore/report-singapore.

26 Frontline Defenders (2020).

Global Analysis 2020. Available at:
www.frontlinedefenders.org/sites/
default/files/fld_global_analysis_2020.
pdf.

27 The data is taken from Frontline

Defenders (2020).

28 V-DEM (2021). ‘V-DEM Dataset

Version 11.1’. Available at: www.v-
dem.net/vdemds.html.

29 V-DEM (2021). ‘V-DEM Dataset

17
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