Course Information

Pre-requisite: NIL

Mode of Assessment

One Main Timed Test: 30%

Final Examination: 70%

Course Content

SECTION ONE: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION

Lecture 1: Communication and Processes of communication

1.1 Meaning of communication

1.2 Objectives of communication

1.3 Significance f communication

Lecture 2: Cycle of Communication

2.1 Context and participants in communication

2.2 Elements of communication

2.2.1 Sender

2.2.2 Receiver

2.2.3 Message

2.2.4 Medium

2.2.5 Channel

2.2.6 Feedback

Lecture 3: Channels of communication

3.1 verbal communications

3.1.1 Oral and written communication

 3.2 Visual communication

3.3 Audio-visual communication

3.4 Non-verbal communication

SECTION TWO: COMMUNICATION TYPES AND MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Lecture 4: Communication Models

4.1 Linear models of communication

4.2 Interactive Model

4.3 Transactional Model

Lecture 5: Types of communication

5.1 Inter – personal communications

5.2 Intra-personal communication

5.3 Inter – group communication

5.4 Mass Communication

Lecture 6: Barriers of communication

6.1 Physical barriers

6.2 Semantic barriers

6.3 Social barriers

6.4 Psychological barriers

SECTION THREE: COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILLS

Lecture 7: Reading and study skills

7.1 Types of reading

7.2 Skimming and Scanning

7.3. Specific reading

7.4 in-depth and critical reading

7.5 Mind mapping

7.6 The SQ3R reading strategy

Lecture 8: Listening skills and strategies

8.1 Types of listening

8.1.1 Attentive listening

8.1.2 Critical listening

8.2 The process of listening

8.3 barriers to listening

8.4 How to be a good listener

Lecture 9: Oral Presentation

9.1 Types of oral presentation

9.2 Methods of oral presentation

9.3 General purposes of oral presentation

9.4 Qualities of a good speaker

9.5 Job search interviews

9.6 preparation and attending interviews

Lecture 10: Note Taking

10.1 The purpose of making and taking notes

10.2 Tools for Note taking

10.3 Arranging notes

10.4 Summarizing Information

SECTION FOUR: WRITING DISCOURSE

Lecture 11: Letter Writing

11.1 Types of letters

11.2 Formal letter

11.3 Informal letter

11.4 Application letter

11.5 Curriculum vitae (CV)

11.6 Request-invitation letter

Lecture 12: Essay writing

12.1 Types of Essays

12.2 Skills in essay writing

12.3 Parts of an essay

12.4 Features of a good essay

Lecture 13: Report writing

13.1 Types of reports

13.2 Purposes of writing reports

 13.3 Essential elements of a report

13.4 Qualities of effective report writing

Lecture 14: Text coherence and writing conventions

14.1 Conventions of writing

14.2 Punctuation

14.3 Cohesive devices

SECTION FIVE: ACADEMIC WRITING AND INFORMATION SEARCH

Lecture 15: Academic Writing Skills

15.1 Book titles, table of content, appendixes and glossary

15.2 Citations

15.3 Quotations

15.4 Paraphrases

15.5 Referencing and bibliographies

Lecture 16: Stages of writing academic text

16.1 Drafting

16.2 Revising

16.3 Rewriting

16.4 Editing

16.5 Proof reading

Lecture 17: Understanding plagiarism

17.1What is plagiarism?

17.2 Ways of avoiding plagiarism

 17.3 Paraphrasing

17.4 Ways of paraphrasing

17.5 Writing summary

Lecture 18: Sources of Information

18.1Ways of acquiring information

18.2 Library

18.3 Digital sources of information

18.4 Internet

18.5 Print media

18.6 Reference materials

SECTION SIX: SOME FUNDAMENTALS ABOUT GRAMMAR

Lecture 19: The major/open word class

19.1 Nouns

19.2 Adjectives

19.3 Adverbs

19.4 Verbs

Lecture 20: Minor/closed word

20.1 Prepositions

20.2 Pronoun

20.3 Conjunctions

20.4 Determiner
Lecture 1: Notes

LECTURE ONE

MEANING AND THE ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The term is quite familiar to most of us. It refers to an activity that people perform
everyday. Actually it is said that as humans we begin to communicate the moment we are
born. For example, the cry of a baby draws the attention of its mother thus making the
mother to either feed or comfort it. In this case the baby’s cry communicates a message to
its mother.

Communication refers to an activity or process that serves to connect people

through space and time. All communication involves a person understanding others
and having others understanding him/her. In this way it unites person and person, person
and group or group and group.

Studies have found out however that even through people communicate since their infancy,
they are not as affective as they should be, The process of transmitting information from an
individual (or group) to another is a very complex process as it involves different stages
hence the purpose of this unit of study, to train you on how best to communicate with
others.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:

(i) Define communication;

(ii) Describe the process of communication;

(iii) Describe essential elements of communication; (iv) Explain the importance

of communication.

1.2 Body
1.2.1 MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

The word communication derives from the word “common” which infers to share, exchange,
send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, put in use, relate, etc. Humans
communicate in order to share knowledge and experiences. Since time immemorial
human beings are known to have communicated in a number of ways. In the tradition African
society people used to communicate in different ways. For
example in some communities, a certain form of wailing or cry denoted occurrence of a
dangerous situation in the society, like an attack by a wild animal or some other calamity.
Likewise different forms of drum-beat carried different messages e.g. joy and celebration,
sorrow and grief, invitation and reception. In some cases the drum was used to announce the
demise of the ruler of the land like the chief or king.

In modern times, communication between people and groups has evolved very much especially
after the establishment of the print, audio and the visual media. Further more the advent of the
internet has, metaphorically speaking, reduced the size of the world by making it possible for
people from different places in the

world to carry out face-to-face interaction.

1.2.2 The concept of communication

What is communication?

In this unit, the term communication is used to refer to the process by which people are able to
transfer meaning between themselves. It is the process that allows people to share information
ideas and feelings. Where no meaning is transferred no communication has taken
place. Communication is a learnt skill. Most people are born with the
physical ability to talk but we must learn to speak well and communicate effectively.

Speaking, listening and our ability to understand verbal and non-verbal meanings are skills we
develop in various ways. We learn basic communication skills by

observing other people and modelling our behaviours based on what we see.
Communication as an academic discipline embraces a large body of study and knowledge that
relate to all the ways we communicate. It focuses on how people use messages to generate
meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels and media. In all, the field
promotes the effective and ethical practice of human communication.

TAKE NOTE

WHY IS COMMUNICATION IMPORTANT?

In our daily undertakings, we spend most of the time communicating with one another. It is
estimated that 75% of a person’s day is spent communicating in some way. Most of
our communication time is in spent in listening and speaking, while a minority of that time is
spent in reading and writing. These communication actions reflect skills which foster our
personal, academic and professional success. The ability to speak clearly and eloquently on one
hand and to write effectively on the other, have been recognized as the hallmarks of an educated
person. Put in other words, these actions of communication are central in determining a person’s
ability to succeed or fail in life.

Explore how you interact with others in various kinds of contexts as a university student, an
employee or member of society in
general. Who do you interact with and what information is exchanged?

1.3 ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION

The purpose of communication is to pass on your intended meaning to others. Studies conducted
on the way communication takes place have shown that it is a well defined process that
comprises a number of components.

The main components of communication are summarized in the following diagram which shows
that communication takes place through a staged process of five

essential elements shown below:

SENDER MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER

FEEDBACK

Sender

This is the source where information comes from; it could be an individual speaking, writing,
signaling or gesturing.

Message

This refers to the ideas, data or feelings that the sender intends to share with others.

Channel

This is the route travelled by or used to send the message as it goes from the
sender to the receiver. It refers to the form in which the idea, or feeling is delivered
across. In spoken communication this could include face-to-face, meetings, telephone or video
conferencing. In written communication it includes letters, emails, memos and reports.

Receiver

This refers to one or more individuals for whom the message is intended. This is the goal to
which the message is targeted.

Feedback

This refers to the verbal or non-verbal reactions from the audience who receive the message.
This gauges whether or not the receiver has understood the message.

Noise

This is the interference that keeps the message from being understood.
Interference to communication may be physical or psychological in nature. Physical
interference keeps a message from being heard properly. Psychological interference occurs when
the communication receivers are distracted by feelings that disturb the mind of the receiver. This
explains for instance, why a hungry person cannot be able to read, listen or write effectively.
1.4 MAIN CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION

We send or receive information through a number of ways. These ways can be categorized
as verbal-communication and non verbal-communication.

In order to become a successful communicator you should make sure that you understand well
the verbal and non-verbal communication strategies of communication. In any organization like
a school or workplaces, these types of communication are continually exchanged often times
without much planning or even thought that such communications are taking place.

Verbal communication

This refers to the various modes of sending and receiving by using words. This includes both
spoken and written modes of communication.

Nonverbal Communication

This refers to forms of communication which make use of body movements or gestures instead
of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language, or other forms of communication. It includes all
manners of interaction that allows us to communicate without using words. Facial expressions,
gestures, and eye contact are examples of non-verbal communication.

Non-verbal language is important in one-on-one communications, and may be even more

important in group communications. In group situations, often only one person at a time is
speaking, while non-verbal response is coming from each individual in the group. The larger the
group, the more impact body language may have.

In social communication we understand spoken remarks within the context of an exchange of

ideas between rational and emotional beings in a social situation. We become aware not only of
what one says, but what one does by uttering such a remark, and the effect they might bring
about by such a remark.

There are many reasons to believe that verbal language is not always
adequate. Communication experts have conducted studies to try to find out
which communication mode is practised more in our daily life?” Is it
verbal communication or non-verbal communication? One such study revealed that almost
55% of what we emotionally try to communicate in a conversation is communicated through
facial expressions and gestures (Mehrabian, 1972). It was shown that the total impact of a
message is about 7 percent verbal (words only) and 38 percent vocal (including tone of voice,
inflection, and other sounds) and 55 percent non-verbal.

Another study also done in the United States showed that 93 percent of a message was
transmitted by the speaker’s tone of voice and facial expressions. Only 7 percent of the person’s
attitude was conveyed by words.

These studies draw us to conclude that apparently, we express our emotions and attitudes more
non-verbally than verbally.

1.5 Summary

Your ability to transfer meaning or information to others and from them to you requires you to
master communication skills which include reading, listening, thinking, studying, writing,
remembering, speaking and mastery of the grammar of the particular language you communicate
in. Hence these aspects form the main body of the subject matter of this course unit.

1.6 References

Grönroos, C. (2004). The relationship marketing process: communication, interaction, dialogue,

value. Journal of business & industrial marketing, 19(2), 99-113.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1995). Fundamentals of human communication: An
interpersonal perspective
ASSIGNMENT FOR SECTION 1

Dear students,

Attempt the following assessment to reflect on the content covered in the knowledge area one of
the course

1. In not more than a page, explain your understanding of effective communication

2. In just a paragraph, write short notes on the following terms in relation
to communication skills
1. Multimodal text
2. Oral communication
3. Facial expression
4. Color
5. Word

3. Review Question
4. 1. what is encoding?
5. 2. what is communication?
6. 3. what is decoding?
7. 4. what are the important elements for communication?
8. 5. Discussion barriers to communication
9. 6. Briefly highlight key arguement stated in communication models

10. Review Questions

11. 1. What strategies could be deployed to improve communication effectiveness?

12. 2. Discuss psychosocial barrier in relation to physical barriers

13. 3. Explain with relevant examples of the term semantic barriers

14. 4. Using the models described in this lecture, analyse the communication that takes place
in your family.

15. 5. Which model best reflects the communication between family members?
16. 6. Jot down notes and present your analysis to your group members. You may want to
show pictures of your family members when you make your presentation.

17. 7. Discuss the relevance of the communication models discussed in this lecture.
 Lecture 2: Notes

Channels of communication

2.0 Introduction

In the previous lecture, you have learnt about meaning of communication and
the communication process in relation to elements of communication. In this lecture, we will
dwell much on forms of communication which are important channels used
in communication. We will explore the differences and similarities of categories
of communication and how they are used in communication to ensure effective communication.

2.1 Objectives

 understanding similarities and differences of communication category

 Uses of different forms of communication

Activity

How effective is your communication style? Are you giving away thoughts you don't mean to?

2.3 Body

2.3.1 forms of human communication

Humans communicate in a variety of ways, both verbally and non-verbally. Primates and other
animals have been communicating without the use of language since long before humans
invented verbal communication. Some scientists believe that even today,
most communication between humans is non-verbal. Both types of communication differ
significantly between genders and across cultures.

The communication in which the sender uses words, whether spoken or written, to transmit the
message to the receiver is known as Verbal Communication. It is the most effective form
of communication that leads to speedy interchange of information and feedback. There are less
chances of misunderstanding as the communication between parties is clear, i.e. the parties are
using words for saying anything.
Verbal communication makes the process of conveying thoughts easier and faster, and it remains
the most successful form of communication (Steinberg, 2007). Yet, this makes up only seven
percent of all human communication!

Verbal communication entails the use of words in delivering the intended message. The two
major forms of verbal communication include written and oral communication.

The communication can be done in two ways (i) Oral – like face to face communication,
lectures, phone calls, seminars, etc. (ii) Written – Letters, E- mail, SMS, etc.

2.3.1.1 Written communication

Written communication is the process of communication in which messages or information is

exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through written form. It includes
traditional pen and paper letters and documents, typed electronic documents, e-mails, text chats,
SMS and anything else conveyed through written symbols such as language. This type
of communication is indispensable for formal business communications and issuing legal
instructions.

Communication forms that predominantly use written communication include handbooks,

brochures, contracts, memos, press releases, formal business proposals, and the like. The
effectiveness of written communication depends on the writing style, grammar, vocabulary, and
clarity

Written communication requires years of training and the development of basic writing
skills. Over time and with much practice one can attain confidence in a writing style that is clear
and easy to understand. Written communication is a slower process than just speaking what
comes to our mind. It is more professional. Psychology has proven that our human tendency is
to believe what is written more than the spoken word. The
first steps to learning written communication begin with the first, creative scribbles of a
toddler. The deliberate and not so well-formed letters of a kindergartener when he writes his
name are awkward and not so legible. As a child grows his writing skills grow also. Overtime,
techniques are developed to select a topic, with specific information in mind. A target audience
is determined. Keywords are carefully chosen. Sentence structure is evaluated
2.3.1.2 Oral Communication

The other form of verbal communication is the spoken word, either face-to-face or through
phone, voice chat, video conferencing or any other medium. Various forms of informal
communications such as the grapevine or informal rumor mill, and formal communications such
as lectures, conferences are forms of oral communication. Oral communication finds use in
discussions and causal and informal conversations. The effectiveness of oral conversations
depends on the clarity of speech, voice modulation, pitch, volume, speed, and even non-verbal
communications such as body language and visual cues.

Basically, oral communication is the process of communication in which messages or

information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through the word of
mouth.

It is a fact that 75% percent or more of our actual exchange of words is found in
oral communication. It comes naturally without prompting, as anyone who has been around a
demanding baby can attest. There is a continual barrage of words that are communicated on a
daily basis. It is estimated that the average two year old already owns a vocabulary of sixty
words or more. By the time the child’s age doubles, his vocabulary has grown to 1,500 words.
Imagine a child trying to formulate sentences with pen and paper at that age. Effective
written communication would be impossible.

Oral communication is not concerned with the proper spelling of words. There is no need to
deliberate over the use of capital letters. Nor do we bother ourselves with which punctuation
mark to use at the end of a sentence. Words just fall from our lips, as quickly as they are
formulated with our thoughts, unless we have learned the art of thinking before we speak.
Oral communication is more personal and informal, with contractions and slang acceptable.

2.3.13 Non-verbal communication

Nonverbal communication is more immediate than verbal communication, but its meaning is
typically more ambiguous, notwithstanding the fact that certain forms of
nonverbal communication, such as the use of the eyes, can convey emotions more effectively
than words can. Some technological means of communication, such as film, can effectively
convey many forms of nonverbal communication.
Non-verbal communication is based on the understanding of the parties to communication, as the
transmission of messages from the sender to receiver is wordless i.e. the communication uses
signs. So, if the receiver understands the message completely and proper feedback is given
afterwards, then the communication succeeds.

It complements the verbal communication many times, to understand the mindset and the status
of the parties, which is not spoken by them, but it is an act of understanding. The types of Non-
verbal communication are as under:

 Chronemics: The use of time in communication is chronemics, which speaks about the
personality of the sender / receiver like punctuality, speed of speech etc.
 Vocalics: The volume, tone of voice and pitch used by the sender for communicating a
message to the receiver is known as vocalics or paralanguage.
 Haptics: The use of touch in a communication is the expression of feelings and emotions.
 Kinesics: It is the study of body language of a person, i.e., gestures, postures, facial
expressions, etc.
 Proxemics: The distance maintained by a person while communicating with others,
communicates about the relationship of the person with others like intimate, personal, social
and public.
 Artifacts: The appearance of a person speaks about his personality, i.e. by way of clothing,
carrying jewelry, lifestyle etc. This kind of communication is known as
artifactual communication.

2.3.1.4 Visual Communication

Visual communication is all around us. It is a survival skill that we tend to take for granted. We
do not have to visit an art gallery, read an art/design book to experience visual communication.
We use visual communication to navigate and understand the world (Tam, 2008). Packaging,
signs, logos, bills, receipts, leaflets, books, mobile phones, appliances, advertisements . . . , to
name but a few, are all examples of visual communication. A watch or clock is a classic example
of visual communication that we have grown used to depend on every day. Whether consciously
‘designed’ or not, they play an important part of shaping our very existence. Indeed, ‘noticing’ or
being aware of design is not an essential criteria for a piece of visual communication to fulfil its
function.

There are essential differences between ‘expression’ and ‘communication’. Expression appeals
to our emotions, engaging the audience in a deeper level, but it tends to be more ambiguous and
often less precise. The word ‘communication’ came from the Latin word communicatio meaning
‘to share’. There has to be a mutual agreement between the sender and the receiver of a message
in order for communication to function.

Visual communication is therefore similar to how verbal or written language works. We use
‘visual language’ to communicate to an audience. However, visual language might not be as
reliable or consistent as written language, which has a more formalized set of conventions and
rules.

When we talk about visual communication, we speak of a unification of content (the message)
and the form (how it looks). We as designers are ‘senders’ of the message. Through a medium,
we deliver the message to the receiver. This is not necessarily a one-way process; the receivers
could provide feedback to the sender and in turn the process is reversed. There are many ways in
which the meaning of the message is impaired during the process of delivery. This is called
‘noise’. Such situations happen when the receiver is unable to decode the visual language and
hence not able to gain the correct (intended) meaning of the message.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity means that a visual has multiple meanings. This is sometimes the intention of a
designer, but very often it is not. Clear communication attempts to avoid ambiguity as much as
possible, but never completely.

Viewing/reading; images/text (Multimodality)

When we talk about visual communication, we also talk about the use of text. Typography
(designing with text) gives visual form to written language. Typography is therefore an
extremely complex set of signs. Text communicates more precisely and accurately than visual
imagery, especially abstract ideas. Using a combination of images and text is therefore a
powerful way to communicate. An audience combines the acts of viewing and reading when they
are faced with a piece of visual communication. Such multiple communicative forms are well
explained by the term multimodality. Multimodality refers to the texts which use multiple forms
of visual and written texts within the same text to convey multiple meanings (Jewitt and Kress,
2003: 6). Stenglin and Iedema (2001: 194) state that

a multimodal text is one in which a number of different modes (words in headings and headlines;
images and the written texts themselves) are integrated to form a composite whole.

This means that any type of texts including written language texts reveals various modes within a
single text.

Appropriateness

The appropriateness of a piece of visual communication refers to the fitness of a visual form for
its intended purpose. An inappropriate use of visual language might get unexpected reactions
from the audience or user.

Conventions

Conventions are accepted ‘unwritten rules’ for understanding things that are learned.
Visual communication relies on conventions in order to function. Some examples of
visual communication are more governed by conventions, for example road signs. Others are less
reliant on conventions, for example a painting. In order for a piece of visual communication to
function as such, the use of conventions is unavoidable. Humans can only understand something
through connecting with something that they have previously learnt.

Semiotics

The term ‘semiotics’ refers to the study of signs, first used by Americam philosopher Charles
Morries in the 1930s. Morris believed that by analyzing visual and verbal
signs, communication could be improved. There are three aspects of semiotic theory namely
syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. All three aspects work together. The relationship between the
signified (e.g. the animal ‘dog’) and signifier (e.g. the word d-o-g and/or an image/icon of a dog)
is arbitrary and is learnt. A signified could be read on the denotative and connotative levels. For
example, the meaning of a sign such as the image of an apple is beyond the object ‘apple’ that it
represents (denotation). Connotatively it could mean the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge in the
biblical story in Genesis, which in turn can symbolize temptation or sin. It could also convey
‘health’ (as in the saying, ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor away’). Therefore,
visual communication can reflect two related features of signifier (form) and signified (the
meaning).

Perception

Sensation is a lower-level function of our brain, referring to Reponses to simple properties of

stimuli such as warmth, colour, taste, etc. Perception, on the other hand, is a high-order function
that deals with more complex characteristics. We use prior knowledge and experience to
interpret, understand and create meaning from what we see, hear, etc. We have an innate ability
to establish order according to certain laws of perception, such as Gestalt psychology. We
constantly construct relationships and groupings between things in an organized way.

2.4 Summary

references

Jewitt,C & Kress, G. 2003. Multimodal Literacy. New York: Peter Lang publishing.

Stengling, M and Iedema, R. 2001. How to analyse visual images: A guide for TESOL teachers.
In: Burns, A and Coffin, C (eds.) Analysing English in a global context. London and New York:
Routledge, 194-210.

Tam, K. 2008. How does visual communication work?: Understanding visual arts work with
functions from various perspectives. Hong Kong polytechnic University: school of design

White, A.W. 2002.The elements of graphic design: space, unity, page architecture and type.New
York: All Worth Press
Lecture 3: Notes

Reading strategies

3.0 Introduction

Reading is going to be an essential element during the course of your university studies. This is
not only because reading is a principal means of obtaining information, expanding your
knowledge and understanding of your subjects but also because a large proportion of your time
of study will be spent working with written sources of information and because you have to
cover a great deal of material in a short amount of time. For these reasons, it is essential that you
develop a reading capability that is both purposeful and efficient. People generally tend to
assume that “every one knows how to read”, the truth is that not everyone does and those who do
are often not reading as effectively as they should be. This lecture intends to provide you with
guidelines that will turn you into a more effective reader.

3.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Define reading;
 Note the relation between reading and communication;
 Describe the main types of reading.

3.2 Body

3.2.1 The Meaning and Nature of Reading

People conceptualize reading in a number of ways. We need not necessarily be tied to one
particular definition. It is necessary, however, to review some of the perspectives before we opt
for one working definition.

The Wikipedia definition of reading categorizes it as “a way of getting information from

something that is written”. It is a process that involves recognizing the symbols that make up the
language. The Michigan language programme, on the other hand, defines reading as “a process
of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among the reader’s existing knowledge,
the information suggested by the text and the context of the reading situation”.
3.2.2 Author’s Purpose and Reader’s Purpose

A number of assumptions underlie these definitions. The first assumption is that reading is a
component of communication. That the meaning constructed by the reader; is dependent to a
large extent on the relationship between the author’s purpose of writing the text, and the reader’s
purpose of reading. Consider for example, the differences in meaning a reader might construct
regarding information about “a flower” as presented by the author of a poem, an encyclopedia
entry, or a science fiction. A person reading these sources will construct different senses and
images of the word “flower”.

3.2.3 External and Internal Factors

The second assumption is that the characteristics of the reader (e.g. psychological social, cultural
or linguistic background) interact with the characteristics of the reading task (e.g. purpose of
reading the assignment, characteristics of the reading material, the setting in which the reading
occurs, nature of reading instructions, etc.) to influence the process. In this sense, reading
involves a dynamic interaction that changes depending on both the internal and external factors
of the reader. For example, the ability of one to understand the main idea of a text and his/her
consequent performance may vary considerably depending on the interaction among factors such
as the reader’s familiarity with the topic.

Interest in the purpose of reading and the content and structure of the text itself – this principle
explains the factors that increase or decrease the motivation for the reader to read a particular
text. There is a wide range of information that one could gain through reading. This includes
news, entertainment, autobiography and academic information.

3.3 Different Types of Reading

When we read, we usually do so with a purpose, therefore, depending on our purposes of reading
different texts, we deploy different methods of reading them. Think of the various items you may
have read just today. They might include a newspaper, a lecture hand out, a course material text
or a poster. Did you read them all in the same way? At the same speed and in the same detail?
Your answer to those questions would probably be “No”.

Take Note
The way we read different texts differs because we always read for different purposes.

In general, we do not read something without first having a good reason for doing so. We read
posters found along the road because they catch our eye and awake our interest. Likewise, when
we read newspapers we do so for various reasons including finding out the political situation of
the day or following up developments in our areas of interest like sports, drama or even
continuation of a story.

On the other hand, when we read for academic purposes, we do so because we have to, but we
are still doing it for a purpose, like preparing for an examination, writing an essay, gaining an
insight into different authors’ opinions, or just trying to understand a subject. Some of the major
types of reading are discussed below.

3.3.1 Scanning

This is a fast reading technique. It is a way of reading to look for specific information in a text.
When you scan read, you ‘see’ every item on the page, but you don’t necessarily read the pages.
You ignore anything you are not looking for. In this way, when you discover the key words
being searched for, you will be unable to recall the exact content of the page.

Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or
dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you’re looking for,
so you’re concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes
quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first
find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions.

When scanning, look for the author’s use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the
words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italicised, or in a different font
size, style, or colour. Sometimes, the author will put key ideas in the margin.

Uses of Scanning

There are many areas where the use of scanning would be of necessary importance. Reading off
a computer screen has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have more
difficulty reading off a computer screen than off paper. Although they can read and comprehend
at the same rate as on paper, scanning on the computer is much slower than on paper.
Similarly, scanning skills are valuable for students studying at university level. First, they are an
aid in locating new terms, which are introduced in the lecture. Unless you understand the new
terms, it is impossible to follow the author’s reasoning without a dictionary or glossary. Thus, a
preliminary scanning of the lectures will alert you to the new terms and their sequence. When
you locate a new term, try to find its definition. If you are not able to figure out the meaning,
then look it up in the glossary or dictionary.

Take Note

Usually new terms are defined as they are introduced in academic texts. If your text does not
have a glossary, it is a good idea to keep a glossary of your own in the front page of the book.
Record the terms and their definition or the page number where the definition is located. This is
an excellent aid to refer to when you are reviewing for an examination, as it provides a
convenient outline of the course.

Secondly, scanning is useful in locating statements, definitions, formulas, etc., which you must
remember completely and precisely. Scan to find the exact and complete statement of a chemical
law, the formula of a particular compound in chemistry, or the stages of cell division. Also, scan
the charts and figures, for they usually summarize in graphic form, the major ideas and facts of
the lecture.

Scanning can be used to look up a telephone number, read through the small adverts in a
newspaper or for browsing TV or radio programmes, timetables, lists, catalogues or web pages
for information. For these tasks, you don’t need to read or understand every word. Scanning is
also useful when studying or looking to find specific information from a book or article quickly
as there is not always time to read every word.

Hints and Tips for Better Scanning

l Don’t try to read every word. Instead let your eyes move quickly across the page until you
find what you are looking for.

l Use clues on the page, such as headings and titles to help you.

l In a dictionary or phone book, use the ‘header’ words to help you scan. You can find these in
bold type at the top of each page.
l If you are reading for study, start by thinking up or writing down some questions that you
want to answer. Doing this can focus your mind and help you find the facts or information that
you need more easily.

l Many texts use an alphabetical order. These include everyday materials such as the phone
book and indexes to books and catalogues.

l There are many ways to practise scanning skills. Try looking up a favorite recipe in the index
of a cookbook, search for a plumber in your local Yellow Pages, or scan web pages on the
Internet to find specific information.

3.3.2 Skim Reading (or Skimming)

Skimming is a reading technique that can help you to read more quickly or decide if the text is
interesting and whether you should read it in more detail. Skimming is when you “browse”, or
glance randomly through a book. It has great importance in learning and is emphasized as a
strategy in speed reading particularly for exam taking.

The purpose of skimming is to get an “overview” not the specific details of the material. We use
it to decide if the book, article or report is worth our time, and has anything new and worthwhile
to tell us. Why waste time on an item if it is something that we already know?

You use skimming when you want to quickly find the main ideas of a text. When you read a
newspaper for example, you’re probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you’re skimming
the text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often
skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when
you want to see if an article would be of interest in your assignment or research.

They are many strategies that you may use when skimming. Some people read the first and last
paragraphs using headings, summaries and other organizers as they move down the page or
screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the
first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you’re seeking specific
information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names,
and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.

How Do You Skim Read?

Don’t read the whole text word-by-word. Use as many clues as possible to give you some
background information. There might be pictures or images related to the topic, or an eye-
catching title. Let your eyes skim over the surface of the text and, whilst thinking about any clues
you have found about the subject, look out for key words.

Take Note

1. Read the title, sub-titles and subheading to find out what the text is about.

2. Look at the illustrations to give you further information about the topic.

3. Read the first and last sentence of each paragraph.

4. Don’t read every word or every sentence. Let you eyes skim over the text, taking in key
words.

5. Skim by zooming through the text quickly trying to spot the key words.

6. Don’t start at the beginning and plod or shuffle through the text. After you have scanned
the text and found the bits that you think look relevant and interesting, then skim read.
Concentrate to keep the keywords and questions in your mind.

7. Continue to think about the meaning of the text.

When reading extensive material, you can first skim through the lecture and section titles to give
you an idea of what the material is about. Then quickly scan through the material again to get a
better idea of the topic. Finally, read the assignment, but still reading rapidly.

Skimming is a step you should always take before you read any article of factual or practical
narrative. You will soon be able to detect most important facts, strange vocabulary, and words
that are clues to important relationships.

It’s a good practice to skim everything in mass media after reading the title and first paragraph.
You may get all the information you want. This keeps your skimming skills from deteriorating,
or will give you the practice you need to develop necessary skills.

Skim everything you intend to read before you make a final decision to read, discard, or study
the material.
Skim all highlighting and develop a read-skim pattern to use for rapid review. And don’t
overlook this! Reviewing frequently and rapidly is the best way to memorize (or simply
remember information) from notes and long text assignments.

Some speed reading methods require you to first skim-read the material and then read it over a
second time more carefully, but yet still at a high speed. In skim reading, you often just scan
through the material, letting your eyes catch key words that give you the crux of the written
material.

Take some reading material and read it as fast as you can for a minute. When reading at this pace
you do not have to understand a single word of what you are reading. Then start over for another
minute and try to get to a further point than you did, the last time. Repeat this step over and over.
Eventually time yourself for a minute and read for comprehension and you will see how fast you
can really read.

Like scanning, skimming requires you to read quickly. When you skim a text, you are not
looking for specific information, but rather, you are trying to get the main idea or point of the
text you are reading. When skimming a reading section, start with the title of the text. Then read
the topic sentence of each paragraph. Skimming is a skill that is especially suited for doing
research. By skimming a few pages of a reference book or novel, you can generally tell if the
same will be useful or interesting respectively.

How is Skimming Different from Scanning?

The term skimming is often confused with scanning. It is important to remember that skimming
is used to obtain the gist (the overall sense) of a piece of text, e.g. use skimming to get the gist of
a page of a textbook to decide whether it is useful and should therefore, be read more slowly and
in more detail. Scanning is used to locate specific information from a piece of text, e.g. use
scanning to find a particular number in a telephone directory.

Sometimes you can use both reading methods. After you have skimmed a piece of text to decide
whether the text is of interest, you may wish to use scanning techniques to locate specific
information.
3.3.3 Specific Reading

This strategy is usually employed in conjunction with skim reading. It is especially useful if you
are looking for specific information which may be contained in a variety of books, journals or
articles. The process is one of search and discovery. It requires you to skim read, locate, mark
and then return to close reading. When doing this across a number of texts, you will need to
reference the materials as you proceed.

3.3.4 In-depth (or Intensive) Reading

This is the most essential of all reading skills. It involves reading a text thoroughly in order to
comprehend the ideas and arguments it contains.

In-depth reading is consequently much slower than skim reading, and you may find that you
need to read certain sections of a difficult text more than once. When reading in-depth it is useful
to:

1. Read the opening paragraphs and conclusion first. This will help you to digest the
intention and conclusion of the writer prior to a closer reading of the text.

2. Go back to the beginning, and read through the whole text, marking out and noting:

v Key words and phrases;

v Ideas, facts, and data you think are important;

v The structure of the argument.

Make sure you understand the writer’s main ideas and arguments, and the overall
message of the text.

3.3.5 Critical Reading

Critical reading is a further dimension of in-depth reading. Reading a text critically means that
you do not accept what you are reading at face value. This does not necessarily mean that you
should find fault with a text, but rather that you should question and judge the merit and worth of
the information it contains. A number of inter-related processes are involved in critical reading.
They are interpretation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Whether you use all or only some of
these processes; will depend on both the particular reading situation, and your purpose for
reading.

1. Interpretation: When we read critically for interpretation, we read to discover meaning

in a text, that is, to determine what conclusions can be drawn about the various messages the text
contains. Sometimes, there is more than one possible interpretation, and in such cases, it is
possible that our reading may be directed at the best, or most likely meaning. Interpreting a text
will also frequently involve the processes of analysis and synthesis.

2. Analysis: This is the process by which we examine the way the ideas and messages in a
text fit together to create the overall meaning. When analyzing a text we focus on:

(i) Identifying Assumptions: The hidden values that underlie what a writer is saying e.g. that
everyone who cleans their teeth uses toothpaste, or that anyone who loves Africa supported
Ghana during the world cup matches.

(ii) The Structure of the Argument: The development and sequence of ideas, the relationship
between ideas, whether the argument is inductive or deductive.

(iii) The Relationship between Evidence/Data and Argument: Whether the evidence
supports and illustrates the argument, and whether it supports any conclusions that are drawn.
Synthesis usually occurs in conjunction with analysis, and involves the drawing together of the
results of the analysis into a conclusion on which to base an interpretation or evaluation.

3.4 Summary

In this lecture, we have identified the meaning and nature of the act of reading. The lecture
details the link between reading and communication. Reading is a principle

References

Afolayan, A. & H. Newsum (1983), The Use of English: Communication Skills for University
Students, Longman, London.

Harris, (1966), Reading Improvement Exercises for Students of English as a Second Language,
Englewood Cliffs, California.

Hewett R. P. (1960), Reading and Response, London Hwrrap: London.

Nuttall, C. (1982), Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language (Practical Teaching No. 9)
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd; London.
 Reading strategies

3.0 Introduction

Reading is going to be an essential element during the course of your university studies. This is
not only because reading is a principal means of obtaining information, expanding your
knowledge and understanding of your subjects but also because a large proportion of your time
of study will be spent working with written sources of information and because you have to
cover a great deal of material in a short amount of time. For these reasons, it is essential that you
develop a reading capability that is both purposeful and efficient. People generally tend to
assume that “every one knows how to read”, the truth is that not everyone does and those who do
are often not reading as effectively as they should be. This lecture intends to provide you with
guidelines that will turn you into a more effective reader.

3.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Define reading;
 Note the relation between reading and communication;
 Describe the main types of reading.

3.2 Body

3.2.1 The Meaning and Nature of Reading

People conceptualise reading in a number of ways. We need not necessarily be tied to one
particular definition. It is necessary, however, to review some of the perspectives before we opt
for one working definition.

The Wikipedia definition of reading categorizes it as “a way of getting information from

something that is written”. It is a process that involves recognizing the symbols that make up the
language. The Michigan language programme, on the other hand, defines reading as “a process
of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among the reader’s existing knowledge,
the information suggested by the text and the context of the reading situation”.

3.2.2 Author’s Purpose and Reader’s Purpose

A number of assumptions underlie these definitions. The first assumption is that reading is a
component of communication. That the meaning constructed by the reader; is dependent to a
large extent on the relationship between the author’s purpose of writing the text, and the reader’s
purpose of reading. Consider for example, the differences in meaning a reader might construct
regarding information about “a flower” as presented by the author of a poem, an encyclopedia
entry, or a science fiction. A person reading these sources will construct different senses and
images of the word “flower”.

3.2.3 External and Internal Factors

The second assumption is that the characteristics of the reader (e.g. psychological social, cultural
or linguistic background) interact with the characteristics of the reading task (e.g. purpose of
reading the assignment, characteristics of the reading material, the setting in which the reading
occurs, nature of reading instructions, etc.) to influence the process. In this sense, reading
involves a dynamic interaction that changes depending on both the internal and external factors
of the reader. For example, the ability of one to understand the main idea of a text and his/her
consequent performance may vary considerably depending on the interaction among factors such
as the reader’s familiarity with the topic.

Interest in the purpose of reading and the content and structure of the text itself – this principle
explains the factors that increase or decrease the motivation for the reader to read a particular
text. There is a wide range of information that one could gain through reading. This includes
news, entertainment, autobiography and academic information.

3.3 Different Types of Reading

When we read, we usually do so with a purpose, therefore, depending on our purposes of reading
different texts, we deploy different methods of reading them. Think of the various items you may
have read just today. They might include a newspaper, a lecture hand out, a course material text
or a poster. Did you read them all in the same way? At the same speed and in the same detail?
Your answer to those questions would probably be “No”.

Take Note

The way we read different texts differs because we always read for different purposes.
In general, we do not read something without first having a good reason for doing so. We read
posters found along the road because they catch our eye and awake our interest. Likewise, when
we read newspapers we do so for various reasons including finding out the political situation of
the day or following up developments in our areas of interest like sports, drama or even
continuation of a story.

On the other hand, when we read for academic purposes, we do so because we have to, but we
are still doing it for a purpose, like preparing for an examination, writing an essay, gaining an
insight into different authors’ opinions, or just trying to understand a subject. Some of the major
types of reading are discussed below.

3.3.1 Scanning

This is a fast reading technique. It is a way of reading to look for specific information in a text.
When you scan read, you ‘see’ every item on the page, but you don’t necessarily read the pages.
You ignore anything you are not looking for. In this way, when you discover the key words
being searched for, you will be unable to recall the exact content of the page.

Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or
dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you’re looking for,
so you’re concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes
quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first
find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions.

When scanning, look for the author’s use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the
words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italicised, or in a different font
size, style, or colour. Sometimes, the author will put key ideas in the margin.

Uses of Scanning

There are many areas where the use of scanning would be of necessary importance. Reading off
a computer screen has become a growing concern. Research shows that people have more
difficulty reading off a computer screen than off paper. Although they can read and comprehend
at the same rate as on paper, scanning on the computer is much slower than on paper.
Similarly, scanning skills are valuable for students studying at university level. First, they are an
aid in locating new terms, which are introduced in the lecture. Unless you understand the new
terms, it is impossible to follow the author’s reasoning without a dictionary or glossary. Thus, a
preliminary scanning of the lectures will alert you to the new terms and their sequence. When
you locate a new term, try to find its definition. If you are not able to figure out the meaning,
then look it up in the glossary or dictionary.

Take Note

Usually new terms are defined as they are introduced in academic texts. If your text does not
have a glossary, it is a good idea to keep a glossary of your own in the front page of the book.
Record the terms and their definition or the page number where the definition is located. This is
an excellent aid to refer to when you are reviewing for an examination, as it provides a
convenient outline of the course.

Secondly, scanning is useful in locating statements, definitions, formulas, etc., which you must
remember completely and precisely. Scan to find the exact and complete statement of a chemical
law, the formula of a particular compound in chemistry, or the stages of cell division. Also, scan
the charts and figures, for they usually summarize in graphic form, the major ideas and facts of
the lecture.

Scanning can be used to look up a telephone number, read through the small adverts in a
newspaper or for browsing TV or radio programmes, timetables, lists, catalogues or web pages
for information. For these tasks, you don’t need to read or understand every word. Scanning is
also useful when studying or looking to find specific information from a book or article quickly
as there is not always time to read every word.

Hints and Tips for Better Scanning

l Don’t try to read every word. Instead let your eyes move quickly across the page until you
find what you are looking for.

l Use clues on the page, such as headings and titles to help you.

l In a dictionary or phone book, use the ‘header’ words to help you scan. You can find these in
bold type at the top of each page.
l If you are reading for study, start by thinking up or writing down some questions that you
want to answer. Doing this can focus your mind and help you find the facts or information that
you need more easily.

l Many texts use an alphabetical order. These include everyday materials such as the phone
book and indexes to books and catalogues.

l There are many ways to practise scanning skills. Try looking up a favorite recipe in the index
of a cookbook, search for a plumber in your local Yellow Pages, or scan web pages on the
Internet to find specific information.

3.3.2 Skim Reading (or Skimming)

Skimming is a reading technique that can help you to read more quickly or decide if the text is
interesting and whether you should read it in more detail. Skimming is when you “browse”, or
glance randomly through a book. It has great importance in learning and is emphasized as a
strategy in speed reading particularly for exam taking.

The purpose of skimming is to get an “overview” not the specific details of the material. We use
it to decide if the book, article or report is worth our time, and has anything new and worthwhile
to tell us. Why waste time on an item if it is something that we already know?

You use skimming when you want to quickly find the main ideas of a text. When you read a
newspaper for example, you’re probably not reading it word-by-word, instead you’re skimming
the text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often
skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when
you want to see if an article would be of interest in your assignment or research.

They are many strategies that you may use when skimming. Some people read the first and last
paragraphs using headings, summaries and other organizers as they move down the page or
screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the
first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you’re seeking specific
information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names,
and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts.

How Do You Skim Read?

Don’t read the whole text word-by-word. Use as many clues as possible to give you some
background information. There might be pictures or images related to the topic, or an eye-
catching title. Let your eyes skim over the surface of the text and, whilst thinking about any clues
you have found about the subject, look out for key words.

Take Note

1. Read the title, sub-titles and subheading to find out what the text is about.

2. Look at the illustrations to give you further information about the topic.

3. Read the first and last sentence of each paragraph.

4. Don’t read every word or every sentence. Let you eyes skim over the text, taking in key
words.

5. Skim by zooming through the text quickly trying to spot the key words.

6. Don’t start at the beginning and plod or shuffle through the text. After you have scanned
the text and found the bits that you think look relevant and interesting, then skim read.
Concentrate to keep the keywords and questions in your mind.

7. Continue to think about the meaning of the text.

When reading extensive material, you can first skim through the lecture and section titles to give
you an idea of what the material is about. Then quickly scan through the material again to get a
better idea of the topic. Finally, read the assignment, but still reading rapidly.

Skimming is a step you should always take before you read any article of factual or practical
narrative. You will soon be able to detect most important facts, strange vocabulary, and words
that are clues to important relationships.

It’s a good practice to skim everything in mass media after reading the title and first paragraph.
You may get all the information you want. This keeps your skimming skills from deteriorating,
or will give you the practice you need to develop necessary skills.

Skim everything you intend to read before you make a final decision to read, discard, or study
the material.
Skim all highlighting and develop a read-skim pattern to use for rapid review. And don’t
overlook this! Reviewing frequently and rapidly is the best way to memorize (or simply
remember information) from notes and long text assignments.

Some speed reading methods require you to first skim-read the material and then read it over a
second time more carefully, but yet still at a high speed. In skim reading, you often just scan
through the material, letting your eyes catch key words that give you the crux of the written
material.

Take some reading material and read it as fast as you can for a minute. When reading at this pace
you do not have to understand a single word of what you are reading. Then start over for another
minute and try to get to a further point than you did, the last time. Repeat this step over and over.
Eventually time yourself for a minute and read for comprehension and you will see how fast you
can really read.

Like scanning, skimming requires you to read quickly. When you skim a text, you are not
looking for specific information, but rather, you are trying to get the main idea or point of the
text you are reading. When skimming a reading section, start with the title of the text. Then read
the topic sentence of each paragraph. Skimming is a skill that is especially suited for doing
research. By skimming a few pages of a reference book or novel, you can generally tell if the
same will be useful or interesting respectively.

How is Skimming Different from Scanning?

The term skimming is often confused with scanning. It is important to remember that skimming
is used to obtain the gist (the overall sense) of a piece of text, e.g. use skimming to get the gist of
a page of a textbook to decide whether it is useful and should therefore, be read more slowly and
in more detail. Scanning is used to locate specific information from a piece of text, e.g. use
scanning to find a particular number in a telephone directory.

Sometimes you can use both reading methods. After you have skimmed a piece of text to decide
whether the text is of interest, you may wish to use scanning techniques to locate specific
information.
3.3.3 Specific Reading

This strategy is usually employed in conjunction with skim reading. It is especially useful if you
are looking for specific information which may be contained in a variety of books, journals or
articles. The process is one of search and discovery. It requires you to skim read, locate, mark
and then return to close reading. When doing this across a number of texts, you will need to
reference the materials as you proceed.

3.3.4 In-depth (or Intensive) Reading

This is the most essential of all reading skills. It involves reading a text thoroughly in order to
comprehend the ideas and arguments it contains.

In-depth reading is consequently much slower than skim reading, and you may find that you
need to read certain sections of a difficult text more than once. When reading in-depth it is useful
to:

1. Read the opening paragraphs and conclusion first. This will help you to digest the
intention and conclusion of the writer prior to a closer reading of the text.

2. Go back to the beginning, and read through the whole text, marking out and noting:

v Key words and phrases;

v Ideas, facts, and data you think are important;

v The structure of the argument.

Make sure you understand the writer’s main ideas and arguments, and the overall
message of the text.

3.3.5 Critical Reading

Critical reading is a further dimension of in-depth reading. Reading a text critically means that
you do not accept what you are reading at face value. This does not necessarily mean that you
should find fault with a text, but rather that you should question and judge the merit and worth of
the information it contains. A number of inter-related processes are involved in critical reading.
They are interpretation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Whether you use all or only some of
these processes; will depend on both the particular reading situation, and your purpose for
reading.

1. Interpretation: When we read critically for interpretation, we read to discover meaning

in a text, that is, to determine what conclusions can be drawn about the various messages the text
contains. Sometimes, there is more than one possible interpretation, and in such cases, it is
possible that our reading may be directed at the best, or most likely meaning. Interpreting a text
will also frequently involve the processes of analysis and synthesis.

2. Analysis: This is the process by which we examine the way the ideas and messages in a
text fit together to create the overall meaning. When analyzing a text we focus on:

(i) Identifying Assumptions: The hidden values that underlie what a writer is saying e.g. that
everyone who cleans their teeth uses toothpaste, or that anyone who loves Africa supported
Ghana during the world cup matches.

(ii) The Structure of the Argument: The development and sequence of ideas, the relationship
between ideas, whether the argument is inductive or deductive.

(iii) The Relationship between Evidence/Data and Argument: Whether the evidence
supports and illustrates the argument, and whether it supports any conclusions that are drawn.
Synthesis usually occurs in conjunction with analysis, and involves the drawing together of the
results of the analysis into a conclusion on which to base an interpretation or evaluation.

3.4 Summary

In this lecture, we have identified the meaning and nature of the act of reading. The lecture
details the link between reading and communication. Reading is a principle

References

Afolayan, A. & H. Newsum (1983), The Use of English: Communication Skills for University
Students, Longman, London.

Harris, (1966), Reading Improvement Exercises for Students of English as a Second Language,
Englewood Cliffs, California.

Hewett R. P. (1960), Reading and Response, London Hwrrap: London.

Nuttall, C. (1982), Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language (Practical Teaching No. 9)
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd; London.

Last modified: Friday, 16 December 2016, 9:01 PM

ASSIGNMENT FOR SECTION 2

Dear students,

This is your assignment two in the course which is meant to assess the knowledge, skills and
values achieved in section 2

1. Explain briefly how you would use any of the five reading strategies covered in this
course (write on one page only)

2. Review Questions

3. 1. What strategies could be deployed to improve communication effectiveness?

4. 2. Discuss psychosocial barrier in relation to physical barriers

5. 3. Explain with relevant examples of the term semantic barriers

6. 4. Using the models described in this lecture, analyse the communication that takes place
in your family.

7. 5. Which model best reflects the communication between family members?

8. 6. Jot down notes and present your analysis to your group members. You may want to
show pictures of your family members when you make your presentation.

9. 7. Discuss the relevance of the communication models discussed in this lecture.

Lecture 4: Notes

Listening

4.0 Introduction

Somebody once told me that we were given two ears and only one mouth for a purpose. The
saying; “we can expect to listen twice as much as we speak” for this matter, therefore, implies
that one ear would not be able to carry out effectively the task of listening.

Humour aside, it remains amply true that listening is a communicative activity that we carry out
more often than any other in our daily life.

As explained earlier, skill in communication demands that one masters a number of specific sub-
skills. The first skill we will discuss in this course is the listening skill.

Expressing our needs, feelings, thoughts and opinions clearly and effectively is only part of what
is required to complete a communication cycle. The other part is listening and understanding
what others communicate to us. Listening is the communication skill most of us use more
frequently. This makes listening one of the most important
sub-skills of communication. Various studies point to the importance of listening as
a communication skill. As already said in the previous lecture, in a typical study, we are
informed that many of us spend 70 to 80 percent of our working hours in some form
of communication. Of that time, we spend about 9 per cent writing, 16 per cent reading,
30 per cent speaking and 45 per cent listening. This reveals how important the skill of listening
is in our daily life. Despite this fact, however, studies also confirm that most of us are poor and
inefficient in the skill of listening. Hence, the purpose of this lecture is to help you to improve
your listening skills.

4.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Define listening as a function of communication;

 Recognise the importance of listening as part of communication;
 Apply effective listening strategies to a given situation.
4.2 Body

4.2.1 Meaning of Listening

Communication scholars estimate that listening takes up more working hours than any other
activity we deploy for communication. This confirms that listening is an important skill in our
daily life. But what does listening mean?

Take Note

Listening is defined as “the physical reality of hearing what another person says and a
suspenseful waiting that reflects psychological involvement with that person. It is a process that
involves active decoding and interpreting verbal messages”.

Most of us tend to mix up the meaning of hearing and listening, we assume that the two are
synonymous. There is indeed a big difference. Hearing is the process of capturing the sound
waves through ears and sending this data to the brain. Once the data reaches the brain, based on
past experiences and learning, the brain will interpret and classify it as word, noise, music, etc.
Hearing is thus, merely the physical component of listening. Listening on the other hand,
involves much more than hearing a message. Besides decoding and interpreting the verbal
stimulus, listening also involves cognitive attention and processing of information.

4.2.2 Listening as a Function of Communication

Listening is categorized as a receptive communication skill that helps us to acquire ideas,

information and other people’s feelings. Effective communication depends very much on our
ability to listen well. Listening provides us with the aural input that serves as a basis for us to
acquire information, ideas, attitudes and feelings of the speaker. Listening then
involves communication of an oral message between the speaker and the listener. Furthermore,
as an aspect of communication, listening involves a dynamic interaction that varies depending on
both the internal and external situations of the speaker and the listener involved in the
communicative context.
4.2.3 Listening Strategies

Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and
recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified as below based on how the listener
processes the input.

 Background Knowledge: This is a listener-based strategy. Listening will be much improved

if the listener is familiar with the topic of the talk; is aware of the situation or context of the
talk and the cultural background of the speaker.
 Knowledge of Text: The listener will understand the talk better if he/she is familiar with the
sounds, words, and grammar that create meaning to what is said by the speaker.

4.2.3 Types of Listening

Listening as an act of hearing and discerning meaning from an audio source can be classified into
two broad types, i.e., attentive listening and critical listening. They are discussed in detail below:

4.2.3.1 Attentive Listening

The main goal of the people who listen attentively is to understand and remember what they
hear. They have, in addition, the intention to give a positive impression, advance a relationship
or demonstrate care.

Communication scholars have identified three listening skill clusters and accompanying
behaviours that are used by attentive listeners. As you read the information below, try to
determine which one of these behaviours you already use in your listening interactions.

Following are the three skills you could use to optimize your attentive listening:

 Attending Skills: These have to do with the way the listener positions oneself before the
speaker. The position you assume has a lot of influence on your understanding and
remembering what you hear.

The following are some of the attending skills:

a) A Posture of Involvement: You should incline your body towards the speaker, face him/her
squarely, maintain an open body position and position yourself at an appropriate distance from
the speaker.

b) Appropriate Body Motion: Occasionally nod your head, use facial expression to reflect
emotions back to the speaker.

c) Eye Contact: Maintain a sustained, direct and reflective eye-contact with the speaker.

 Following Skills: These are behaviours meant to inform the speaker that you are following
the talk. Examples of some such behaviours are given below:

a) Use of inviting comments to the speaker, e.g., so how do you feel about….?

b) Use of minimal encouragers. These are brief indicators to the speaker that you are with them,
e.g., “mmmhmmm” “oh” “I see” “Right” “Really?” “Go on”.

c) Use of infrequent questions, open ended, one at a time, e.g. so do you mean…..

 Reflecting Questions:

These include paraphrasing and questions reflecting feelings or meaning.

4.2.3.2 Critical Listening

When people listen critically, their goal, in addition to understanding and remembering, is to
evaluate, assess or interpret what they are hearing. While attentive listening emphasizes non-
verbal skills along with some verbal skills, critical listening emphasizes on critical thinking
skills. Like attentive listening, critical listening is related to asking questions. Listening
attentively enables you to ask good questions of clarification; listening critically provides the
basis for good probing questions.

4.3 Summary

In this lecture, we have defined listening as a function of communication. The importance of

listening in the process of communication cannot be over emphasised. Listening takes up more
working hours than any other activity we deploy for communication. Listening is categorised as
a receptive communication skill that helps us to acquire ideas, information and other people’s
ideas. Effective communication depends very much on our ability to listen well. Listening
provides us with the input that serves as a basis for us to acquire information, ideas, attitudes and
feelings of the speaker. Listening then involves communication of an oral message between the
speaker and the listener.

References

Carey, C (1996); Listening is a Skill, Hayward Publishing, New York, N.Y.Goh, C.C.M. (2000);
A Cognitive Perspective on Language Learners’ Listening Comprehension Problems. System,
28, 55-75.

Mendelson, D. J. (1994), Learning to Listen: A Strategy-based Approach for the Second

Language Learner, San Diego, Dominie Press.

Underwood M. (1992), Teaching Listening, New York, Longman.

Lecture 5: Notes

Note-taking and Note-making

5.1 Introduction

We distinguish between note-taking and note-making. Note-taking is a passive process which is

done at lectures whereas note-making is more active and focused activity where you assimilate
all information and make sense of it for yourself.

5.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to;

 to listen actively and take note

 to format and structure notes
 have general knowledge about note-taking
 understand note-making process

5.3 Body

Setting the stage

Complete outside assignments:

Lecturers assume that students have completed assignments or done the recommended reading
and will construct their lecture accordingly. The more familiar you are with the topic, the better
your note-taking will be and the more active the process will be. It is also a good idea to reiew
your assignments/readings just before the lecture.

Bring the right materials:

 Always have an adequate supply of A4 note paper /exam pads, pens, pencils and
highlighters.
 Use paper that can be filed easily. It is probably a good idea to only use one side of a sheet of
paper - this allows you to review your notes by spreading them side to side - usually the
benefit outweighs the cost of the paper.
 Keep a spare pen don t use pencil to write as this tends to fade with time.
 Use colour for emphasis; to highlight and to separate different sections or ideas.
 Sit front and centre - sit in a position where you can hear and see clearly without straining.

Listening actively

This involves actively concentrating and paying attention to what is being said and how it is
being said. Listen beyond words to the lecturers body language.

1. Listening for repetition: When a lecturer repeats a phrase or idea, this is a signal that it is
important and you should take note of it.
2. Watch the board or overhead projector: If the lecturer takes time to write something
down, consider that as another sign that the material is important.
3. Listen for introductory, concluding and transition words and phrases. For example:
o "The following three factors"
o "In conclusion"
o "The most important consideration"
o "In addition to"
4. Highlight obvious clues: Often your lecturer will blatantly point out what information is
likely to appear in the exam - make a note of this - don't rely on memory.
5. Notice the lecturer's interest level: When the lecturer seems excited about something,
make a note as it is more likely to appear in the exam.
6. Use pictures and diagrams - This makes the notes more visual and assists in recall. What
you need to do is try to find a note-taking format and system that works for you.

Necessary background for note-taking:

 Establish lecturer's interests: Try to establish what topics of research or advanced study
your lecturers are part of, especially if these also relate to your syllabus. Also be aware of
any articles or books written by your lecturers and their areas of specialisation.
 Attend all lectures: Try to attend all lectures - apart from the obvious academic advantage,
it also creates an impression of you as a dilligent student which may be to your advantage at
some point in the course.
 the last lecture: Make a special effort not to miss the last lecture of every course -
information about the format of the exam is usually covered and the lecturer may also
provide information about sections of the syllabus that need special attention or sections that
can be excluded.

FORMATTING AND STRUCTURING NOTES:

Some methods will work better for some individuals than others. See what works best for you.

1. General note-taking tips

1. Give yourself plenty of space.

2. Label, number and date all your notes.
3. Develop your own system of shorthand and abbreviations
4. Use colour, pictures or diagrams to make notes more visual.
5. Keep your own thoughts separate - this ensures that you don t mistake your own idea for
that of the lecturer's.
6. Use a lost signal - when you find yourself lost in a lecture, make a note of it using a
specific symbol and leave space to fill in this later.
7. Write legibly: Many people feel that they have no control over their handwriting and
resign themselves to writing illegibly for the rest of their lives. However, if you put your
mind to it and make it a point to write more legibly, your handwriting will improve. This
has implications not only for note-taking but for writing exams as well.

Mind-Mapping Method for Note Taking

Mind Maps are visual diagrams with lines and pictures that represent ideas and
the relationships between ideas.

Mind Maps are great, not only for taking notes, but also for brainstorming and planning. This
style of note taking is effective because it is a fast and efficent way of getting down branching
ideas with one or two words, not lengthy explanations. The use of pictures, color, and creativity
is encouraged. Mind mapping is about the process of creating the diagram as much as it is about
making studying easier.

To create a Mind Map, first put the main idea in the center of the page. Then branch supporting
ideas off of this main ideas. Further branch supporting ideas into more specific details. You can
continue branching until ideas are fully illustrated.

The Formal Outline Note Taking System

•Highly structure, logically organized notes

•Levels of information clear
•Formal outlines show a skeleton of the printed information.
•Use formal outlines to take notes before, during, or after reading.
Standard Outline
Format
•Indent and align items to show levels of information.
•Show at least two subtopics under each category.
•Use Roman numerals for main topics.
•Use Arabic numerals for supporting details.
•Use key words and short phrases throughout the outline
The Cornell Method

The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing notes without
laborious recopying. After writing the notes in the main space, use the left-hand space to label
each idea and detail with a key word or "cue."

Method

Rule your paper with a 2 ½ inch margin on the left leaving a six-inch area on the right in which
to make notes. During class, take down information in the six-inch area. When the instructor
moves to a new point, skip a few lines. After class, complete phrases and sentences as much as
possible. For every significant bit of information, write a cue in the left margin. To review, cover
your notes with a card, leaving the cues exposed. Say the cue out loud, then say as much as you
can of the material underneath the card. When you have said as much as you can, move the card
and see if what you said matches what is written. If you can say it, you know it.

If the lecturer talks too fast

1. Try to be extra prepared for the lecture before class: Familiarity with the subject makes it
easier to pick out key points.
2. Exchange notes with classmates
3. Leave large empty spaces in your notes - for filling in information you missed.
4. See the lecturer after the lecture and show the lecturer what you missed.
5. Consider using a voice/sound recorder.
6. Go to the lecture again - if it is offered at a different time.
7. Use your shorthand.
8. Ask questions.
9. Ask the lecturer to slow down.
10. Remember, you don t have to take down everything the lecturer says verbatim.

Note-taking abbreviations

Thus / Between bet

Therefore ∴ w

Because
or /
∵

Equals/same Definition d
as = ef

Does not equal / not the same Conclusion co

as ≠ nc

Greater than / more Regarding / with regard

than > to re
Less As against / contrast
than < with vs

And Before B
& 4

Important / importance Especially es

of NB p

Example / for Namely / that is to

example eg say ie

However b -ment (e.g. agreement becomes

ut agreem't) m't

Compare/contrast It is/ that

with cf is ie

Without w/ Transfer t/
o f

-ion (e.g. proposition becomes

proposit'n) 'n

Usually us
u

- See more at: https://www.wits.ac.za/ccdu/academic-skills/note-taking-and-note-

making/#sthash.dxnnmq0f.dpuf

THE NOTE-MAKING PROCESS

Once you have taken down notes in lectures, the learning process is not complete. The next step
is the note-making process.

Reviewing lecture notes:

Your lecture notes form the basis of your final consolidated notes and your entire examination
preparation is based on these. The following should be done on a daily basis:
 1. Read through your lecture notes.
2. Underline headings and subheadings.
3. Correct spelling mistakes and rewrite illegible portions.
4. Fill in any gaps.
5. Underline or highlight important sentences or paragraphs.
6. Make sure you understand the concepts.
7. If you use the Cornell system, fill in the key words in the left-hand column.

Integrating lecture notes and readings

1. The main aim is to integrate your lecture notes with reading from articles, prescribed and
recommended books or tutorials.
2. It is best to use your lecture notes as the basis of your integration and not rewrite these
unless your handwriting is extremely poor.
3. Mind-map summaries can be made to give you an overall picture of the topic.

5.4 Summary

Note-taking (sometimes written as notetaking or note taking) is the practice of recording

information captured from another source. By taking notes, the writer records the essence of the
information, freeing their mind from having to recall everything. Notes are commonly drawn
from a transient source, such as an oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture (notes of a meeting
are usually called minutes), in which case the notes may be the only record of the event. Note
taking is a form of self discipline.

References

Deese, James and Ellin K. Deese. How To Study (3rd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1979.

Johnson, Sue. The 4 T's: Teacher/You, Text, Talk, Test - A Systematic Approach To Learning
Success. California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo.

Pauk, Walter. How To Study In College (2nd Ed). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974.

Raygor, Alton L. and David Wark. Systems For Study. New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc, 1970.

https://www.wits.ac.za/ccdu/academic-skills/note-taking-and-note-making/
Listening skill Activity

Do the following activity to familiarize yourself with listening skill

1. Practice blind listening

This involves choosing a surrounding which has background noises. Start listening to the noises
in the background/surrounding. Distinguish as many noises as possible and label them.

2. Spotlight listening

Tune to a TV station which has a lot of chattering. Choose one of the speakers and focus on what
that person is telling. Mentally tune out the others. After you are sure you are sure you have
actively listened to him/her, shift attention to another person and focus. This is like putting on a
spot light on one person at a time.

3. Tonality and body language

Listen to someone speaking. Focus on the shift of tonality, rate of speech and other vocal
changes. Track the pattern and complement it by observing the body language, changes in facial
expressions etc.

DISCUSSION FORUM FOR SESSION 3

What listening strategies would you need to deploy at the election campaign rally

ASSIGNMENT FOR SESSION3

In a paragraph, highlight the relationship between listening and note taking

in communication arena.
Review Questions

Dear student

This forum can be used to air your views and discuss issues with your instructor and your
colleagues

Use it effectively

1. Discuss the reasons that would normally lead you to choose to read one newspaper instead of
others.

2. Identify the reading methods you would use in the following situations; [Note
there is often not a single answer, several choices may be possible according to your reading
purpose]

(a) A TV guide to world cup matches

(b) An English grammar book

(c) An article in the Chronicle Magazine the loss of indigenous languages

(d) The opinion page in your local newspaper

(e) Shoprite commodity advertisement in the local daily newspaper

(f) A novel

(g) A poem

(h) An examination timetable

(i) A letter from your best friend

(j) A short story by your favourite author

References for Section 3

Afolayan,A.& H. Newsum (1983); The Use of English: Communication Skills For

University Students. Longman, London

Harris. (1966); Reading Improvement Exercises For Students of English as a Second Language,
Englewood Cliffs. California

Hewett,R.P. (1960); Reading and Response. London Hwrrap: London

Nuttall,C. (1982); Teaching Reading Skills in A Foreign Language (Practical Teaching No.9)
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd; London

Carey,C (1996); Listening Is A Skill, Hayward Publishing, New York, N.Y.Goh,

Mendelson,D.J. (1994); Learning to Listen: A Strategy-based Approach for the Second

Language Learner. San Diego: Dominie Press

Underwood M. (1992); Teaching Listening. New York: Longman

Lecture 7: Notes

Essay and Report writing

7.0 Introduction

Writing for the purpose of making your ideas and intentions known to others is different from
writing for the class teacher to read. When you were in school, you remember being asked by
your teacher to write essays in the form of composition. The essays you wrote were intended by
your teacher to assist him/her in identifying and eventually rectifying your errors of language
usage and of writing. In real life, however, writing is a serious activity which is carried out to
accomplish communication. Writing for communication is goal oriented. It does not aim merely
at transferring information but delivering information that is purposeful.

7.2 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Distinguish between an essay and a report;

 Describe the general techniques of writing an essay and a report respectively;
 Write a simple essay and a report.

7.3 Body

4.2 Writing an Essay

4.2.1 What is an Essay?

An essay is a prose form which is created by putting together ideas and linguistic expressions to
create a larger composite. The large unit so formed must be a unified whole consisting of a
paragraph or more.

Depending on the purposes or desired effects of writing, essays may be categorized into three
major forms namely description, narration and exposition. The idea is that whatever forms of
essay you will engage yourself in; you will require the same skills and techniques to develop it.
4.2.2 Five Steps to Successful Essay Writing

The reason why many students have difficulty in writing essays is that they do not know that
writing is a process and that they need to organize themselves systematically in order to
accomplish it well. The best way to ensure that your writing is accomplished successfully is to
divide the writing process into five major steps, which are as follows:

1. Preparation: In essay writing, the stage of preparation is a pre-writing stage. It requires

you to do the following tasks:

(i) Determination of Objectives: Even before you set out to commit yourself to writing the
first line or your essay, you should ask yourself what exactly do you want your readers to know
after they have finished reading your essay. These are your objectives or the ends you want to
achieve. Objectives will guide you to focus only on important issues. What you are supposed to
do at this stage is to generate an outline of the ideas you intend to elaborate upon.

(ii) Determination of Audience: As you jot down ideas you want to write about, you should
decide to whom exactly you want to impart the message. This task is understandably not quite
applicable to essays you will write as a student because in this case, your audience is going to be
your lecturer. But it is a task of quite special importance when you are writing a free essay. You
need to know exactly who your readers are and to learn key factors about them, such as their
educational level, interests and their needs relative to the subject of your essay. Knowledge of
these factors will guide you in the choice of style, vocabulary, tone and sophiscation of
information to include in your essay.

(iii) Determination of Scope: It is very essential as well before you start writing to determine
the amount and type of message you want to impart. This is called scope; it simply means the
extent in breadth and depth, up to which you intend to cover the subject.

The three preparatory tasks stated above are of crucial importance to you as a writer. You can
compare them to the process of focusing a camera before taking a picture. The three pre-writing
tasks will help you to bring your writing in focus before the actual writing begins.
Take Note

1. State a topic you wish to write about.

2. Write the objectives, audience and scope of your subject.

2. Search for Subject matter: This stage which is also known as research refers to the
process of investigating and collecting the content of your essay. It entails the discovery of ideas
through investigating, gathering and verifying information which is relevant to the subject of
your essay. You will be able to gather a lot of facts by consulting several different sources of
information. Listed below are some of the major sources of information.

(i) Library: You will find the library a very useful and convenient palace for you to collect
information on any subject. Libraries are arranged in some systematic ways which make it easy
for the reader to retrieve information. Thus, it will save you a lot of time if you learn how to use
the library effectively.

(ii) Newspapers: Daily newspapers, weeklies and magazines are similarly useful sources of
up to date information which you should consult. However some information gathered from
newspapers needs thorough verification.

(iii) Special Collections: Some private groups, like missionaries, companies, project firms or
non-governmental organizations quite often have a collection of documented information. You
may find it useful to consult such places.

(iv) Television, radio, audio/video cassettes and films: These belong to the category of non-
printed media. They are becoming increasingly available and increasingly used as sources of
information for writers. You should not overlook them, be imaginative about using them.

(v) Local Experts: Don’t forget that there are many people around you who may have the
knowledge and experience of what you intend to write on. Find and talk to knowledgeable
individuals in your locality who are experts in the field of study which you are investigating on.

(vi) Personal Observations: You may be able to gather quite a lot of useful information simply
by observing phenomena, events or behaviours. Don’t depend only on information that others
have written or documented.
 When conducting an observation, however you must be objective, complete and accurate.
Don’t let your feelings or sentiments seep into your recording. If possible use a tape recorder or
camera for accurate recording.

The main method used to extract information from the various sources mentioned above
is note taking. This is the process of selectively noting and recording information that one
regards useful for future writing or any other use. Since the subject of note taking forms the topic
of last lecture of this course, we are not going to dwell on it at the moment.

(vii) Internet: The internet is the richest source of information. Anything you would ever
want to know is available online. For students and scholars conducting research, the internet is a
fantastic resource for finding out what has been done in your area of specialization.

3. Organisation: Organisation is a process in essay writing whereby points or ideas are

arranged in a way that makes it easier for the reader to understand your essay when it is
eventually written. The reader can easily understand an essay if he or she can distinguish main
ideas from secondary ones.

Two tasks are involved in the stage of organization. The first task is to make a list in a form of an
outline, of all the ideas you intend to include in your essay. The importance of making such a list
is that it makes it possible for you to see all the points you have developed so far.

Writers commonly use two ways to make on outline; these are the vertical list with headings and
indented sub headings or tree diagram.

To outline points with a vertical list, first write your topic sentence or thesis at the top followed
by headings and sub-headings.

Example 4.1: Vertical Listing of Points – The Proper Way to Clean your Teeth

(i) Obtain a Proper Toothbrush

v Stiff enough to remove food particles from between teeth

v Soft enough not to injure gums

(ii) Squeeze out Enough Toothpaste

v Too much will prevent contact of bristles with gums

(iii) Rinse Mouth After Use

(iv) Use Dental Floss

v Remove food particles missed by the toothbrush

v Use back and forth motion to insert floss

v Use up and down motion to clean between teeth.

(v) Way to Maintain Good Oral Hygiene

v Brush teeth within an hour after meal

v If not possible rinse thoroughly.

The second task in the organization of an essay is to arrange the outline points in a specific order
of development. This order should reflect the way the ideas will flow in the essay itself, you
should select an order you consider to be most appropriate to your audience or the desired effect
of the essay. There are many different methods of essay development available to the writer; the
most common ones are the following:

(i) Sequential Method: This method which is also known as step-by-step method is the
simplest and easiest to follow because it presents steps in correspondence with the logical stages
of the process or instruction it describes. As the name itself implies, the method presents
information according to the natural order of occurrence of activities, it is especially effective in
explaining a process or an instruction.

Example 4.3: An Essay Developed in a Sequential Method – Proper Way to Clean your Teeth

Proper tooth cleaning begins with proper equipment. Choose a brush stiff enough to remove
particles from between your teeth, yet soft enough to massage your gums without making them
bleed.
Squeeze out a bead of toothpaste just long enough to cover the bristles. Too much toothpaste will
prevent sufficient contact between the bristles and your teeth and gums.

Brush your teeth in up and down motion. Rinse your mouth after brushing. Then use dental floss
to remove food particles between your teeth that the toothbrush may have missed. Begin by
wrapping the floss securely around forefinger. Using a gentle black-and-forth motion, insert the
floss between your teeth and move it up and down.

To maintain good oral hygiene, brush your teeth within one hour after each meal. If brushing is
not possible after meals, rinse your mouth thoroughly instead.

(Source: Handbook of Technical Writing)

(ii) Chronological Order: In this method of organization, points are arranged in such a way
that they follow the order of events and time. It is in a way very similar to the sequential method.
The main difference between the two is the notion of events is given prominence in the
sequential method whereas in the chronological order, both notion and order of events are
considered equally.

(iii) Special Order: In this method of organization, objects are explained in relation to the
space they occupy. You may for example start by explaining objects which are outside; then
those which are inside a space or starting with those which are above followed by those which
are below a point.

(iv) Cause and Effect Order: In this method, one point is explained either as a reason or as a
result of another. The method is commonly used in academic essays as it makes it possible to
establish logical connections between ideas. It is especially relevant when you want to present an
argument about why something happened or why you think it is likely to happen. The method is
especially useful in writing about social, economic or political events or problems.

(v) Decreasing Order of Importance: In this method of organization, points are arranged in a
decreasing order of importance, beginning with the important point going to the next most
important until you end with the least important. One advantage of using this method is that you
make a strong initial impression to your reader.
(vi) Increasing Order of Importance Method: Similar to the above albeit in the opposite order.
The sequencing of points in this method begins with a point of least importance and ends with
one that is most important. The advantage of this method is that it ensures that the most
important of your several ideas is freshest in your reader’s mind at the end of his or her reading.

4. Stage of Writing the Draft: This stage involves the process of converting ideas into sentences
to develop a text. When you have established the objective of your essay, the audience and scope
and if you have done adequate search of subject matter, created a good outline and decided on a
method of organization; you are in the position to begin writing the draft of your essay. The
primary goal in draft writhing is to shape information by presenting it in connected sentence and
paragraphs.

When you are writing the draft, you should concentrate on converting the points in your
outline into topic sentences and supporting sentences. Make it a free flowing exercise. Present
your ideas as if you are speaking to someone across the table. Be concerned only with facts.
Keep writing quickly to maintain unity of thought and proportion. Don’t be worried about
grammatical correctness. Worrying on grammar is of no use at this stage. It will only slow down
your thinking process and censor your ideas.

One possible difficulty you will encounter in the writing of the draft is finding a good
opening. This is called blank page experience. It should not worry you much. Many experienced
writers very often have found themselves in a similar experience of starting a blank page. The
important thing is that you should not be concerned with finding the right introduction. Start
writing the part you feel most eager to write, the one you understand best and feel most strongly
about. To keep the draft flowing skip items that may tend to hold you. If for example you can’t
find the right word, write it in your mother tongue or just leave it blank, whichever is more
helpful to you.

When the writing of your draft is over, you will have before you a text that is not perfect
in many ways; some facts will be underdeveloped, certain ideas will require elaboration or
clarification. There will be numerous wrong or incorrect phrases, words and sentences,
inappropriate punctuation, the tone or style may not be the intended one and many more. All
these will require to be corrected and put in the right way. This suggests the need and importance
of the last stage of essay writing.
5. Stage of Revision: This is an essential final process of essay development. The word revision
literally means “re-seeing” – it is the process of looking a new at ideas, details, and language
items of your essay with the aim of evaluating their relationships, arrangement and effectiveness.
Many students hold a misconception that revision is synonymous with editing. Strictly speaking
the two are different though related. Editing simply means refining the manner of expression to
improve clarity or style or to correct errors, it is only part of the revision process. In editing, you
deal with the superficial surface structure. To the contrary in revision you examine the
underlying meaning and structure of the essay. Revision entails rethinking over all the aspects of
the essay, retesting your assumptions, modifying your arguments if necessary, ensuring that you
have proved your assertions and making certain that your essay has achieved the proper
emphasis and proportion.

Check the Draft against your Outline

This is important for two reasons viz., first, it tells you whether you have presented your facts
according to the plan. Second, it informs you whether you have exhausted all points. Then
examine your facts to see if they are accurate and the presentation bears the tone you intended.

Relating to the manner of development of your essay, examine your introduction to see it
presents the objective clearly enough. This is particularly important because if your objective is
not made clear, it will not enable the reader to see the framework of your essay. After examining
the introduction, look at your mode of transition; see if the sentences, paragraphs and any other
linguistic items are logically linked together. Finally check your conclusion to see if it presents
the chasing emphasis to the theme you have developed throughout the essay.

4.3 Writing of the Report

What is a Report?

A report is a type of a discourse that is widely used in most professional settings. It is used in
education, business, and government, in hospitals and the like. However, it is a term which
cannot be simply or easily defined. Some people tend to define report as “any presentation of
information”. This meaning includes both the extremely formal and the highly informal
presentations. Others tend to be more specific and look at the report as ‘a formalized presentation
of information’. These variations in the meaning are understandably a result of the wide range of
situations and purposes for which the report is used. In this lecture, however, we will adopt a
moderately less general meaning that will help to set off a number of other reports like forms of
presentations.

Take Note

“A report is an orderly and objective communication of factual information which serves an

institutional purpose”.

In order to understand this definition, lets us note its key words i.e., “orderly communication”.

Orderly Communication

A report is distinguished from other means of information presentation from the way it is
prepared. The preparation of a report is done with some care compared to the casual routine
exchanges of information. What this means is that in the preparation of a report some ordered
steps have to be followed and shown in the presentation. Some aspects of a report are discussed
below:

1. Objective: A major feature of a report is that it is not biased in its presentation of facts.
The report seeks to present the truth regardless of its outcomes.

2. Communication: A report is a means of transmitting message from one source to

another.

3. Factual Information: A report does not present opinions, sentiments or subjective

assumptions. When these are included they are presented as part of data and should either be
clearly labeled as such or be supported by facts.

As stated earlier on, this definition is not specific enough but is broad enough to apply in the
numerous variations to be found in reports.

4.4 Types of Reports

Reports are of various types depending on the criterion one uses to classify them. Following
below are some of the criteria which are commonly used to label reports.

1. Subject-matter: Depending on the subject of the report, it can be an education report,

economic report, health report, military report, business report etc.
2. Time Interval: Basing on the time interval when the report is written, it can be a daily
report, weekly report, monthly report, mid year report, biannual report, special report, etc.

3. Status of Authorship: In this regard, a report can be labelled as public report, private
report or independent report.

4. Degree of Formality: A report can be said to be formal or informal.

5. Other: Some other not quite specific criteria give us progress reports, improvements
report, etc.

Functional Classification

A criterion that is suitable for the purpose of our lecture is a functional classification. In your
study, you may be required to prepare as a requirement in your course, reports of this nature.
Functional classification gives three types of reports.

1. Informational: As the term implies, this is a type of report that presents only facts on the
subject without giving an analysis of them and no conclusions.

2. The Analytical (or problem solving report): This presents not only facts but also
analyses and recommends. It is the most complete of all the types of reports. It begins with an
orientation and description of the problem and presents the information gathered analysis and
examines the information. From the analysis and examinations, the report derives a solution in
the form of a recommendation.

A significant reason why this classification has been given to you is to show you how wide the
subject of reports is. This suggests that various ways are required to study it properly.

4.5 The Purpose of Writing Reports

You have certainly seen reports before. Have you asked yourself why at all they are written?
Again depending on the nature of the reports, they are written to achieve one or more of the
following objectives.

1. To Record Information: This is done as a routine for the purpose of keeping records of
the institution or the discipline.
2. To Solve a Problem: Owing to its nature of factual objectivity, the report more than any
other discourse type is most suitable in providing information that is unbiased and reliable.

3. To Enable the Institution to Function Properly: The success of any institution depends
on the amount and type of information that its decision makers are able to obtain. Reports ensure
that such information is obtained regularly.

Can you think of any other reason why a report should be written?

4.6 Essential Elements of a Report

Most of the reports you’re likely going to write are short and informal reports. Such reports will
tend to be brief and personal and will deal with issues which are of limited size. Typically the
goal of a report is to handle a problem and develop a specific conclusion or to recommend a
particular course of action. In this kind of reports, the conclusion or recommendation is the most
significant part that often overshadows other elements of the report.

4.6.1 Presentation of the Problem

It is a good idea to clearly show this at the beginning of the report. There are a number of ways
of doing this. The problem may be presented simply as a subject line or heading on top of the
report. Another way of presenting the problem is by writing a problem statement. The statement
may be written either as an infinitive phrase, a question, or a declarative clause.

Example 4.4: As a Subject Line

Reasons for mass student failures in the English Examination

As an Infinitive Phrase

To account for mass student failures in the English Examination.

As a Question

What are the reasons for mass student failures in the English Examination?

As a Declarative Statement

The ministry of education wants to know the reasons for mass student failures in English.
The third form of presentation is not popularly used. It sounds rather cumbersome to some
readers. Whichever form of presentation you select, statement of the problem is an essential
element as it helps the author not to stray away from the goal. It also helps the reader to get the
framework of the report even before one goes into the details.

4.6.2 Presentation of Findings

Findings are the ideas and facts which are related to the problem. After you have collected your
information, arrange the findings in an order appropriate for presentation. You may present your
findings in one of the following two ways.

1. Indirect Approach: This method is also called the logical or inductive approach. It is a
method of presenting facts beginning with the general to the specific or as others would say
moving from the known to the unknown.

If you decide to use the indirect approach, begin with an introductory passage to orient
your reader to the problem. Then proceed to present findings and their analysis. From the facts
and analysis, you’ve your conclusion or summary statements. You may be required to write a
recommendation to some of the problems.

2. Direct Approach: This method is referred also as a psychological or deductive method.

You have to begin with presenting the conclusions, summaries or recommendations followed by
facts and analyses from which the former are drawn.

4.7 Qualities of Effective Report Writing

As we have said elsewhere before, the report is a type of discourse which is largely used for
decision making. If it is to meet that objective, your report ought to be effective. For you to write
an effective report, you have to observe the following simple but essential qualities.

1. Readability: This is a critical factor in determining the effectiveness of a report.

Readability is the easiness of reading a material. It is achieved by the way your results are
presented in the report. You must present your results objectively by placing them logically and
consistently in time so they tell a flowing complete story.

2. Objectivity: An effective report is factual, neutral and fair. It does not reflect the
prejudice and bias of the writer about the problem. Objectivity is the basis for our report being
believed. You must present your results after development of a complete, balanced research and
logical analysis. At every stage of your report writing; keep in mind that objectivity will be the
basis for believability of your report.

3. Language: Write your report in a language that is clear and straight forward. Avoid as
much as possible the use of passive voice. It is dull and can make your report sound awkward.

Example 4.5:

Passive: The problem of scarcity of study materials has been solved.

Active: The management has solved the problem of study materials scarcity.

4. Connectivity: How the report is connected is also something to observe. You can
improve the connecting network of your report by using a number of appropriate cohesive ties
and transitional words. These were mentioned earlier when discussing essay writing and will be
explained in much detail later.

7.4 Summary

In this lecture, we have analysed the art of writing. Writing written for the teacher to read is quite
different from writing to express one’s views and feelings. In real life, writing is a serious
activity which is carried out to accomplish communication. Writing for communication is goal-
oriented. It doesn’t aim merely at transferring information but delivering information that is
purposeful. The lecture talks at length about two types of discourses: essay and the report.

references

Newman, R.G. (1987), Communicating in Business Today, D.C. Heath Co. Massachusetts.

Lesikar, R. and M.P. Lyons (1986), Report Writing for Business, Irwin-Homewood. Illinois.

Troyka, L.Q. (1987), Handbook for writers, Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Pichaske, E.R. Writing Sense, (1975), The Free Press. New York, Brusaw, C.T. et. al.
(1982), Handbook of Technical Writing, St. Martin’s, Press, New York.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

While you are going through this section, try to answer to the following questions
for discussion:

(i) Distinguish between an essay and a report;

(ii) Describe the general techniques of writing an essay and a report respectively;

(iii) Write a simple essay and a report respectively.

(iv) Write a report on any one of the following topics.

1. Minazi Mikinda Co. is a large company in your locale; recently however it has acquired
negative publicity. The company’s patrons have asked you to write a report on the possible
causes and remedy of the problem. Write the report.

2. The director of Tikisa Enterprise has begun to worry about the

rising incidences of office romances. You have been approached to write a report
on what should be the company’s policy on the phenomenon.

3. A number of youths are becoming very rich as a result of their involvement in mineral
prospecting. You have been asked by the social welfare department to write a report on the
behavioural and psychological effects of juvenile affluence to these youths.

ASSIGNMENT FOR SECTION 4

In not more than a page, draw your experiences with writing discourse as a university student

Review Questions

1. state the key steps of report writing

2. what is a report?

3."letter writing is an outdated mode of communication" Discuss

Lecture 8: Notes

Writing an academic text and acknowledgement

8.0 Introduction

Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. However, academic writing
does many of the things that personal writing does not: it has its own set of rules and practices.
These rules and practices may be organised around a formal order or structure in which to
present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citations in the literature.
In contrast to personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it deals with the
underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in everyday life, as well as
exploring alternative explanations for these events. Academic writing follows a particular ‘tone’
and adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling. Therefore, as a
university student, you will be exposed to academic writing skills that will make your writing
ability improved to that of academician.

8.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

(i)Important stages involved in writing an academic text

(ii)to understand proper referencing system

(iii) be able to use APA referencing style

(iv) paraphrase and summaries with proper citation to avoid plagiarism

8.3 Body

The four steps of the writing process are: prewriting, writing, revising, and proofreading.

PreWriting - Whatever type of writing a student is attempting, the prewriting stage can be the
most important. This is when students gather their information, and begin to organize it into a
cohesive unit. This process can include reading, taking notes, brainstorming, and categorizing
information. Prewriting is the most creative step and most students develop a preferred way to
organize their thoughts. Stream of consciousness writing, graphic organizers, outlines, or note
cards are popular techniques. Many of these tools are already accommodated
through Time4Learning’s Odyssey Writer program. Often this stage is best taught by a parent
modeling the different methods, perhaps a different one each week until the student finds which
one works best for him.

Writing -The actual writing stage is essentially just an extension of the prewriting process. The
student transfers the information they have gathered and organized into a traditional format. This
may take the shape of a simple paragraph, a one-page essay, or a multi-page report. Up until this
stage, they may not be exactly certain which direction their ideas will go, but this stage allows
them to settle on the course the paper will take. Teaching about writing can sometimes be as
simple as evaluation good literature together, and exploring what makes the piece enjoyable or
effective. It also involves helping a student choose topics for writing based on their personal
interests. Modeling the writing process in front of your child also helps them see that even adults
struggle for words and have to work at putting ideas together.

Revising , or editing is usually the least favorite stage of the writing process, especially for
beginning writers. Critiquing one’s own writing can easily create tension and frustration. But as
you support your young writers, remind them that even the most celebrated authors spend the
majority of their time on this stage of the writing process. Revising can include adding, deleting,
rearranging and substituting words, sentences, and even entire paragraphs to make their writing
more accurately represent their ideas. It is often not a one-time event, but a continual process as
the paper progresses. When teaching revision, be sure to allow your child time to voice aloud the
problems they see in their writing. This may be very difficult for some children, especially
sensitive ones, so allow them to start with something small, such as replacing some passive verbs
in their paper with more active ones.

Proofreading - This is a chance for the writer to scan his or her paper for mistakes in grammar,
punctuation, and spelling. Although it can be tempting for parents to perform this stage of the
writing process for the child, it is important that they gain proofreading skills for themselves as
this improves a student’s writing over time. And because children want their writing to be
effective, this can actually be the most opportune to teach some of the standard rules of grammar
and punctuation. When students learn the rules of mechanics during the writing process they are
much more likely to remember to use them in the future. Odyssey Writer’s built in spelling
checker and self-assessment rubric are wonderful tools to aid in strengthening a student’s
revision and proof-reading skills.

Referencing

A significant difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on the
citation and referencing of published authors.

Referencing and citation

If you make judgments about something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you
will support your opinion by linking it to what a published author has previously written about
the issue.

Citing the work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read
the literature, understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying perspectives
into the assignment task.

The importance placed on referring to other authors in your work can be reflected in the
elaborate referencing conventions that have been created within different disciplines, such
as APA (American Psychological Association) referencing, which is used in psychology,
education, some social sciences, as well as for business.

When you have used a source in an assignment it is necessary to credit the source for the reader.

This credit appears in two places: within the body of the assignment (the in-text citation) and at
the end of the assignment (in the reference list). For every in-text citation there should be a
matching entry in the reference list, and vice versa.

The in-text citation contains basic information about the source:

 The source's author(s)

 The year of publication
 The page number (sometimes)
The reference list contains more detailed information about the source: the title, publishing
details, etc.

An in-text citation looks like this:

When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather demographic information about
the users (Lazar, 2006).

Note that the full stop only comes after the closing bracket, and that only the surname (family
name) of the author is used.

The author's name can also be incorporated into a sentence in the assignment, in which case it is
moved outside the brackets:

Lazar (2006) notes that a fundamental part of usability testing is understanding the demographics
of the users.

An in-text citation is needed whenever you have used information, ideas, concepts, or facts from
another source. If you have paraphrased, summarised or quoted another author, you need to
provide an in-text citation.

Quotations and block quotations

Direct quotations are usually put inside quotation marks (“ ”), followed by the reference:

When gathering data it is important to remember that “only relevant types of demographic
information should be requested” (Lazar, 2006, p. 52).

If a quotation is longer than 40 words, no quotation marks are used, and the quotation is indented
instead:

Lazar (2006) describes the delicate balance of survey design:

Only relevant types of demographic information should be requested. Asking inappropriate

questions in a survey, interview, or focus group lessens the likelihood that users will respond.
Also, if too many questions are asked, users are less likely to respond. (p. 52)

The number of questions depends greatly on…

Quotations should be identical to the original source, but some small changes can be made.
Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is a way of presenting a text, keeping the same meaning, but using different words
and phrasing. Paraphrasing is used with short sections of text, such as phrases and sentences.

A paraphrase may result in a longer, rather than shorter, version of the original text. It offers an
alternative to using direct quotations and helps students to integrate evidence/ source material
into assignments. Paraphrasing is also a useful skill for making notes from readings, note-taking
in lectures, and explaining information in tables, charts and diagrams.

How to paraphrase

 Read the source carefully. It is essential that you understand it fully.

 Identify the main point(s) and key words.
 Cover the original text and rewrite it in your own words. Check that you have included the
main points and essential information.
 Write the paraphrase in your own style.

Summarising

A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details, examples and
formalities are left out. Used with longer texts, the main aim of summarising is to reduce or
condense a text to its most important ideas. Summarising is a useful skill for making notes from
readings and in lectures, writing an abstract/synopsis and incorporating material in assignments.

How to summarise

The amount of detail you include in a summary will vary according to the length of the original
text, how much information you need and how selective you are:

Start by reading a short text and highlighting the main points as you read.

Reread the text and make notes of the main points, leaving out examples, evidence etc.

Without the text, rewrite your notes in your own words; restate the main idea at the beginning
plus all major points.
Abstract thought

Traditionally, academic topics have focused on abstract things, like ideas and concepts, which
cannot, necessarily, be given in a concrete or physical form.

Hence, while writing meeting minutes or covering letters of CVs draw on physical, practical, and
functional tasks, academic writing is often more likely to focus on abstract processes and
relationships. Yet, despite the abstract, non-material structure of some academic topics, you may
be able to borrow concrete and physically oriented words to explain these abstract ideas and the
relationships between them.

Abstract thought

Typically, academic writing requires you to clearly describe abstract forms and their component
parts, their links to other abstract forms, as well as where they are positioned in relation to a
general, overall system.

Even if you are dealing with a practically oriented topic like economics, computer science,
rehabilitation, nursing, or teaching, the academic practice of learning about these things will
likely require you to delve into theories, philosophies, concepts, and other abstract ideas that
underlie the practical nature of the activities concerned.

Therefore, the very nature of academic writing is also different from many practically-oriented or
socially-oriented writing tasks. This is because academic writing tasks require you to look
beneath the surface for underlying principles, theories, and concepts that can offer mainstream as
well as alternative explanations for common practices, processes, and procedures.

Academic tone

Like all varieties of writing, academic writing has its own tone, which dictates the choice of
words and phrasing.
Academic tone

Academic writing typically aims to be:

 objective (e.g. using inclusive language)

 concise
 formal (e.g. avoiding slang, exclamation marks, contractions)

The tone of academic writing can also vary significantly depending on the subject-area and the
academic discipline you are writing for.

The readings, textbook, and study guide of your course show you what tone is expected in the
paper, so study their style carefully.

The audience

It is important to remember who you are writing for. Being conscious of academic tone suggests
that you are aware of your audience and respect the formality normally associated with academic
writing.

When writing academically, you must target a more general audience than just your lecturer
and/or marker. You should assume that your readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they
may not be specifically informed of your topic. Do not presume that your reader knows all the
terms and concepts associated with your work.

Punctuation and grammar

In academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and grammar, especially as
the end-user or consumer of your writing, unlike a friend, is likely to be very different from you
and will not always know to what you are referring. Hence, it is vital that you are clear.
Punctuation and the conventions of grammar are universally known systems (within English
speaking cultures) that maintain clarity and avoid ambiguity in expression.

8.4 Summary
We have engaged with academic writing skills that are useful when writing an academic texts.
Academic text should be written and organised in a way that reflect scholarly knowledge and
skills.The interaction in this lecture will enable you to accumulate some skills but also, make use
of these when writing your assignment, essays and reports.

References

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological

Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. [Massey Library link].

The example quotations on this page are taken from the followingbook:

Lazar, J. (2006). Web usability: A user-centered design approach. Boston, MA: Pearson Addison
Wesley.
Lecture 9: Notes

Text coherence and writing convention

9.0 Introduction

Expression in writing is different from spoken expression. In speech, you can communicate in
many different ways. You can for example raise or lower the pitch or volume of your voice to
emphasize a point. You can grin, frown, wink or shrug. You can use your hands to shape out a
meaning when you miss the required words for it or you can even just keep silent and make it
mean something. To the contrary, in writing you have to communicate without facial
expressions, gestures or body language of any kind. Your means of expressing yourself is only
with words and punctuation.

9.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Give a simple definition of punctuation;

 Identify various punctuation marks in written text;
 Tell the functions of various punctuation marks;
 Use punctuation marks correctly.

9.2 Body

9.2.1 Punctuation

For our purpose in this lecture, it will suffice to define punctuation as a system of symbols that
helps the writer to express oneself effectively and assist the reader to understand the structural
relationship within the sentence and the intention of a sentence. Punctuation marks can link,
separate, enclose, indicate omissions, and terminate or classify items in sentences.

Punctuation is used in relation to grammatical requirements and the writer’s intention. The
following is information on the use of some commonly used marks of punctuation.
9.2.1.1 Period (.)

A period, also called full stop or end stop plays a number of functions in writing.

1. Mark the End of a Declarative Sentence: You can use a period to mark the end of a
declarative sentence (a sentence that makes a statement), polite command or indirect question.

Example 5.1: I like watching western films. (statement)

Please send me the report. (command)

The host asked us what we wanted to eat. (indirect question)

2. To Indicate Abbreviations: When words are used in abbreviated forms, a full stop is
used.

Example 5.2: Mr. and Mrs. Kidonga.

Dr. Batuli of K.C.M.C. Hospital.

Note that a period is not used in acronyms (words formed from initials of a multiword title).

Example 5.3: NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

RADAR for Radio Detecting and Ranging

COBOL for Common Business Oriented Language.

3. To Mark Letters or Numerals used in Vertical List: When you list items using letters or
numerals, place a period between the letter or numeral and the item being listed.

Example 5.4: The police are concerned with three kinds of crime

(i) Drug trafficking.

(ii) Cross border smuggling.

(iii) Poaching.

If you give information in a sentence, enclose the letters or numbers within brackets and
omit the periods.

Example 5.5: The police are concerned with three kinds of crime
 (i) Drug trafficking

(ii) Cross border smuggling

(iii) Poaching

9.2.1.2 The Comma (,)

The comma has a wide variety of uses in writing. It can link, enclose, separate or show omissions
to a clause. Effective use of the comma depends upon the writer’s own understanding of how
ideas fit together. When used properly, the comma can add clarity and emphasis to written text.
In addition to that the comma can prevent ambiguity; by separating sentence elements that might
otherwise be misunderstood.

Some of the uses of the comma are discussed below:

1. To Link: Use the comma to link long independent clauses that are joined by
coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, yet…). The comma usually precedes the
conjunction.

Example 5.6: The whistle blew, and the big game started.

Julius never attends military parades, for he hates war.

When the clauses to be linked are short and closely related, many writers tend to omit the
comma. A transitional word or phrase like moreover or furthermore is usually followed by a
comma.

Example 5.7: Moreover, the villagers wanted to know how their money was used.

In addition, they asked to be given the bank statement.

2. To Enclose: Use the comma to enclose non-restrictive adjective clauses. A

non-restrictive adjective clause is one that does not identify the antecedent but simply gives
information about it.

Example 5.8: Our new history teacher, who began teaching last month, had invited us.

We can, of course, expect the lawyer or the police to summon us.

3. Direct Address:

Example 5.9: Your will note, Elizabeth, that you do not qualify for this job.

That comment was not meant for you, Janet.

4. Phrases in Apposition:

Example 5.10: Our company, the Makuti Co. Limited, has done very well this year.

5. Participial Phrases:

Example 5.11: The fullback, sensing danger, kicked the ball outside the field.

6. To Separate: Use the comma to separate broadly the following:

i. Separating Introductory Elements: It is generally a good rule to put a comma after an

introductory clause or phrase unless it is very short.

Example 5.12: Since many students fail English examinations, it is wise to start teaching them
English in standard one.

The tests were completed, students in each class organized a picnic.

Yes, I will make sure you get your salary.

Indeed, I will send you further information soon.

ii. Use Comas to Separate more than Two Words in a Series.

Example 5.13: At the market, Ruth got all she had wanted textiles, food, utensils and furniture.

A big, old, dilapidated house stood on the corner.

Note that a comma precedes the ‘and’ that links the final item to the others.

iii. Separating Subordinate Clause: Use a comma between the main clause and a
subordinate clause when the subordinate clause comes first.

Example 5.14: When you were reading the book, we managed to sneak to the sea shore.

iv. Separating Two Contrasting thoughts or Ideas:

Example 5.15: The project was finished in time, but not within the budget
v. Separating Direct Quotation from its Introduction:

Example 5.16: The country mouse said, “I am going to the village tomorrow”.

7. To Show Omissions

A comma sometimes replaces words in certain elliptical constructions. Use a comma when you
want to omit a verb you have already used in a clause.

Example 5.17: Some members were punctual: others, late.

8. Setting off dates, addresses, greetings and large numbers: Use a comma to set off items
of a date or address.

Example 5.18: Kiletu was born on the morning of July 1, 1961.

The address she gave us was Makongo Farm, P.O. Box 32727, Dar es Salaam.

9. After a Greeting Expression: Use a comma after a greeting expression in a friendly or

informal written exchange also after the closing remark.

Example 5.19: My dear Agnes, I hope you’re OK

Dear Aunt Majuto,

Yours sincerely, Anthony

Faithfully your customer, Ally

10 To Separate Digits: Use commas to separate digits in large numbers beginning from
one.

Example 5.20: 3,000 shillings

130,000 people

Misuse of the Comma

A number of writers make writing errors by placing the comma where it does not belong. These
errors often occur because writers assume that a pause in a sentence should be indicated by a
comma. It is true that commas usually signal pauses but not every pause should be indicated by a
comma.
Some of the common mistakes of using the comma are the following:

1. Separating Subject and Predicate: Do not place a comma between a subject and verb or
between a verb and its object.

Example 5.21: The big black hawk, ate all our chicken. (wrong)

The big black hawk ate all our chicken. (right)

2. Separating elements of a compound subject or compound predicate:

Example 5.22: Neither the chairman, nor his secretary came to the meeting. (wrong)

Neither the chairman nor his secretary came to the meeting. (right)

3. Placing a Comma after a Coordination Conjunction: Do not place a comma after a

conjunction such as, and, or, but.

Example 5.23: The chairman was reported to be sick but, members doubted about it. (wrong)

The chairman was reported to be sick but members doubted about it. (right)

4. Placing a Comma in a List of Items: Do not place a comma before the first item or after
the last item of a series

Example 5.24: It was a, fast, clean, comfortable, train. (wrong)

It was a fast, clean, comfortable train. (right)

Along the corridor were placed, bags, shelves and stools. (wrong)

Along the corridor were placed bags, shelves and stools. (right)

The following is the summary of the principles of comma usage.

1. Use a comma to link two independent clauses joined by and, but, or, nor, so, yet….

2. Use a comma to separate introductory phrases, clauses and words from the rest of the
sentence.

3. Use a comma to separate items presented in a series and adjectives that modify the same
noun.
4. Use a comma to set off phrases or clauses which interrupt the sentence.

5. Use a comma to set off phrases and clauses that are not essential to the basic meaning of
the sentence.

6. Use commas to set off names, titles, addresses, dates and quotations.

9.2.1.3 Semi-colon (;)

The semi-colon is used to link independent clauses or other sentence elements of equal
grammatical rank or status. The semi-colon indicates a greater pause between clauses than a
comma would, but not as great a pause as a period would.

(a) Linking Clauses of a Compound Sentence: Use a semi-colon to join two or more
closely related independent clauses which are not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Example 5.25: In the first week there was constant rain; in the second week it was constant
sunshine.

No one applied for the job; the job was too difficult.

(b) In Complex Sentences with Strong Connectives: Use a semi-colon before transitional
words or phrases (that is for example, namely) that introduce examples or further explanation.

Example 5.26: The aid was for the underprivileged; namely the children from poor families.

(c) In complex sentences with conjunctive adverb: Conjunctive adverbs are words which
specify a relation between one clause and another. They indicate relations as listed here.

(i) To Indicate Addition: Use a semi-colon before words like besides, furthermore,
moreover or in addition.

Example 5.27: The president inspected an official parade; furthermore, he promoted a number of
soldiers.

(ii) To Indicate Likeness/Similarity: Use a semi-colon before words like likewise, similarly
or in the same way.
Example 5.28: Young Tanzanians condemned Idd Amin’s invasion of their country; likewise
they condemned the massacre of innocent people in Rwanda.

(iii) To Indicate Contrast: Use a semi-colon before words like however, nevertheless, still,
nonetheless, conversely, otherwise, instead, in contrast or on the other hand.

Example 5.29: Darwin’s theory was rejected in the beginning; however, many of his ideas have
now been confirmed.

(iv) To Indicate Cause and Effect: Use a semi-colon before words like accordingly,
consequently, hence, therefore, as a result, for this reason.

Example 5.30: The window was not well made; consequently it fell off during the strong wind.

(v) To Indicate a Means-and-End Relation: Use a semi-colon before words like thus,
thereby, this means or in this manner.

Example 5.31: Amos passed well the first degree course; thereby clearing his way for a brighter
future.

(vi) To Indicate Reinforcement: Use a semi-colon before words like for example, for
instance, in fact, in particular or indeed.

Example 5.32: Transport will be improved in the rural areas; in particular railway transport to
the southern parts.

(vii) To Indicate Time: Use a semi-colon before words which express time like meanwhile,
then, consequently, afterward, earlier, and later.

Example 5.33: First chop the onions in small slices; then fry them for sometime.

Take Note

When a conjunctive adverb is used at the beginning of a clause, no punctuation is used on either
side of it.

Such conjunctive adverbs include, then in fact, still, otherwise and hence.

Join the following sets of clauses by using a semi-colon and a conjunctive adverb to form a
single sentence.
1. Schooling may give one a well-paying job. It cannot guarantee success in life.

2. Many children do not learn English at home. They must do so at school.

3. Every month I make plans how to spend my salary. I have never managed to keep any of
them.

4. You can travel to Tabora for three days by train. You can reach there in two hours by
train.

5. The discovery of gold in Maganzo created the gold rush. The discovery of ruby in
Ulanga created a ruby rush.

Use full stops and commas in correct places in the following sentences.

1. Please forward my letters to Mrs. Magida of Tanganyika Blankets P O Box 1771

Songea.

2. The crowd gathered along Nyerere road to greet President N. Mandela.

3. A total of 15500 cattle perished in the floods.

4. On 8th March 1996, a comet Harleys was sighted.

5. The delegation reached Machakos Kenya on 3rd April 1951.

9.2.1.4 Question Mark (?)

This is one of the punctual marks which are usually used to end sentences.

The question mark is used in the following situations:

1. To mark the end of a direct question

Example 5.34: Why did you ignore the early warning?

To what extent are the poor assisted?

Is the president coming today?

2 To indicate that one is not certain about a word within a statement

Example 5.35: On reaching the house someone (a watchman?) appeared from behind the hedges.
3. When you want to cite a title that has a question mark retain the question mark.

Example 5.36: Her first novel was “Why are we Blessed?”

When used with quotation marks, the question mark may indicate whether it is the writer who is
doing the quoting or the person being quoted asks the question. The question mark is placed
outside the quotation marks when it is the writer who asks the question.

Example 5.37: Did you say, “She won’t come today”?

On the other hand if the quotation itself is a question, then the mark is placed inside the quotation
marks.

Example 5.38: She asked him, “Can you help me?”

4. When an interrogative sentence has separate items, all items will carry a question mark.

Example 5.39:

Can you tell us more about the house? Its size? Surroundings? Whether it is occupied?

5. Never use a question mark at the end of an indirect quotation.

Example 5.40: Wrong: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband?

Correct: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband.

Misuse of the Question Mark

A common mistake on the use of the question mark is using it in an indirect question. Do not use
a question mark at the end of an indirect question.

Example 5.41: Wrong: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book?

Right: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book.

Exercise

Punctuate the following sentences using the correct marks.

1. We are prepared wrote Surrah to help all those who will call us.
2. The history of life on earth wrote Nyerere has been a history of struggle between the
haves and the have nots.

3. Did Matano Juma define a fool as a person who does not know something but thinks that
he knows it.

4. Shaaban Roberts best poems are utenzi wa Adili and Amina Umejitenga .

5 Shaaban Robert once wrote skin colour is but Gods decoration.

9.2.1.5 Quotation Marks (“ ”)

Quotation marks are used to enclose spoken or written words which are directly repeated. You
may enclose in quotation marks only words which are quoted word for word (direct quotation)
from spoken or written text.

Example 5.42: She said clearly, “I am not happy with you.”

l Do not enclose in quotation marks speech which is indirectly quoted. An indirect quotation is
usually introduced by that, it represents a paraphrase of a speaker’s words or ideas.

Example 5.43: She said clearly that she was not happy with us.

l When you quote from written text, use quotation marks in the same way: place words you
wish to quote in quotation marks.

Example 5.44: Direct: The report sums up, “If the environment is not cared for the earth is going
to become extinct”.

Indirect: The report concludes that if the environment is not cared for, the earth is going to
become extinct.

l When the quoted text exceeds four lines, it is normally indented and lines are single spaced.
When presented in this way you should not use quotation marks.

When you want to present a quotation within a quoted text, use single quotation marks (similar
to apostrophe) to enclose the quotation that appears within the main quotation.

Example 5.45: Alex said, “I heard her calling out, ‘thief, thief’”.
l Use quotation marks to enclose titles of short stories, articles, speeches, radio or TV
Programmes.

Example 5.46: Have you read Mandela’s Rivonia speech, “History will Absolve me?”

l Titles of books and periodicals are underlined or printed in italics.

Example 5.47: I find David Mangui’s The Common Man a fascinating book.

l Quotation marks may also be used to represent the words, “same as above”. When a word is
written directly below a similar one in vertical listing.

Example 5.48: Kitepo was represented by the village Chairman.

Sinza “ “ “ “ Secretary

Bukongo “ “ “ “ Council member.

5.2.6 Apostrophe ( ‘ )

The apostrophe is used to indicate possession, to mark the omission of letters in a word.

l Use an apostrophe before an ‘s’ to show singular possession in some nouns.

Example 5.49: Both Juliata’s and Asha’s school are closed.

Dar es Salaam city’s residents have had no water for two days now.

l In plural possession, the apostrophe is placed at the end of the noun following the ‘s’.

Example 5.50: The girls’ dormitory is being repaired.

The headteachers’ meeting ended in the evening.

l When the noun to which possession is to be indicated ends in an ‘s’, place an apostrophe
after the ‘s’.

Example 5.51: Moses’ story frightened his listeners.

The neighbors helped Tans’ capture.

l The apostrophe is not used with possessive pronouns.

Example 5.52: Theirs, yours, its, his, ours, whose.

l You may use an apostrophe to mark the omission of letters in a word or date.

Example 5.53: Cant’, I’m, I’II

The peasant revolts of the early ‘60s

Exercises

Punctuate and correct the following passage.

Everyone is talking about Kisa Katopes novel its plot is based on Incidents which occurred to
him in Uganda during the war it is Frightening to read about senseless killings of people even
though youve not seen them one character is portrayed as being keen in stealing soldiers
uniforms. He is finally caught and ends up in the citys Famous makindye prison

9.2.1.7 Exclamation Mark ( ! )

The exclamation mark is used in writing to indicate an expression of strong feeling. It can be
surprise, fear, indignation or excitement. It is a punctuation mark more commonly used in fiction
and social written communication than in academic or technical discourse.

Uses of Exclamation Mark

l The exclamation mark is most commonly used after a word, phrase, clause or sentences to
indicate surprise, pain, and jubilation.

Example 5.54: Ouch! You have hurt me.

Wow! What a wonderful dress.

l Too many exclamation marks in a sentence will make text dull, do not overuse them. When
you use the exclamation mark together with quotation marks, the former goes inside unless what
is quoted is an exclamation.

Example 5.55: Salima called out, “Watch out!” Hearing this, Peter jumped like a hare.

Exercise

Correct and apply punctuation marks to the following letter

Ngoheranga mission
P.o. box 321

Malinyi

Dear Mr an Mrs salanga

I am sorry I have to worry you with my troubles but when I have explained I am sure you will
understand I regret to say that grandmother is seriously ill, I asked a doctor from lugala hospital
to come and examine her today he said that her condition is critical he advised us to observe
absolute quiet for her to recover it all began recently when she started having bad nights and
could not get enough sleep. the purpose of writing this letter is to ask you to spare a weekend
preferably this coming one so that you could come here and spend time with us looking after
grandma has really lowered our nerves we will brighten up again when you come

pass my best regards to your children

yours sincerely

peter

9.3 Summary

In this lecture, we have identified various punctuation marks in written text. Expression in
writing is different from spoken expression. Punctuation serves the purpose of expressing oneself
fully through words. A misuse of punctuation can create misunderstanding between the writer
and the reader.

references

Heffernan, J. A. W and J. E. Lincoln (1986), Writing: A college Handbook, W.W. Norton and
Company, New York 1986.

Troyka, L.Q, (1987), Handbook for Writers, Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Lecture 10: Notes

Information Search

10.0 Introduction

The Internet is one of the major technological inventions of this century. People of all walks of
life the world over talk about it and use it. Never before has mankind witnessed an invention that
has enabled people to do so many things that are strategically important to life in the information
society like the internet. It is a technology that has been integrated and has provided people with
new important capabilities over a wide range of sectors including telecommunication, home
shopping, government services, academics, military, medicine, and entertainment. Use of the
Internet has become such an important skill that understanding it and knowing how to
communicate over it has become modern literacy.

10.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Define the internet;

 Use internet search engines;
 Use multi media on internet;
 Communicate over the internet.

10.2 Body

What is Internet?

The internet refers to a worldwide connection of millions of computers and networks that follow
the Internet Protocol (IP). The internet protocol is a standard or linkage among computers that
allows for its centers to continue sending and receiving data packages in case one or more of the
network nodes fall in disuse. In which case, information could still get rerouted automatically
and reach its address. This linkage therefore, allows for any user on the Internet to communicate
with a million of users regardless of their location.
6.3 Internet as an aspect of Communication

The Internet is a relevant aspect of communication because it plays two roles. The first is that it
is a source of information. You can use the Internet to obtain information you might require to
tell other people or to write something for other people to read. In fact it is said that the Internet
is the richest source of information on the planet. It can offer about anything that one would
ever want to know. For this reason the Internet is a valuable tool for you as a university student
because it can help you to search for and locate relevant information you may need for
conducting research or writing your academic papers. It is important to say here that a wide
range of database exist across curriculum.

The second role is that of medium of communication. In this role, the Internet functions as mode
or medium through which one can receive or deliver information to an intended target. The target
could be an individual person or group of people whom you may want your message to reach.
For this reason, the Internet is known as an information superhighway.

6.4 Who is using the Internet?

Use of the Internet is extensive, and the growth in number of users has been phenomenal.
Internet users include people from all works of life. Academicians, business people, government
officials, politicians, teachers, doctors, researchers students, kids, the elderly, parents, musicians,
police, motel workers, the military, pilots, social workers, disco-jockeys, movie stars - about
everyone who wishes to participate and succeed in the information society has a place in using
the internet.

6.5 Brief Histroy of the Internet

The Internet originated in 1969 in the USA. It began as a project of the US Department of
Defense whose goal was to support military research about how to build a network that would
continue to function when and if one of the network’s data storage facility were destroyed by an
enemy bomb. The intention was to give the responsibility for delivery of information to the
computers on the networks instead of the network itself. The computers shared equally the
responsibility for ensuring that communication was accomplished in the event one of the
computers along the way stopped functioning such as in bomb attack. The information packets
would automatically find an alternate route to their destinations. Thus, every computer on the
internet was regarded as being equal to all other computers in the network. Actually this remains
a fact even today, no computer on the Internet is more important than any other and no one
computer is in charge of the others.

6.6 Basic Internet Services

There are many possible things that people can do on the Internet. These possibilities are
organized according to services defined by protocols that specify how information moves across
the network. Following below are some of the most important services available on the Internet.

Electronic Mail (e-mail): The Internet allows you to send and receive mail (called e-mail) to and
from anyone connected to the Network. The e-mail is a highly efficient and convenient mode of
global interaction and communication. It is convenient because it is fast and you can respond to
it at your convenience. Furthermore, electronic mail has improved the way people communicate
when they can’t talk in person. Nowadays, people don’t have to wait for traditional postal mail
delivery which has come to be known as ‘snail mail’ due to its slowness in delivering mail.

6.7 Using e-mail

Each person using e-mail has a unique address also known as an account; an account enables
you to log on the computer that hosts your e-mail service. The computer that hosts your account
is known as your e-mail host computer. On the host computer, your account consists of a file
space where your e-mail is kept for you to read. You get your account from your Internet Service
Provider (ISP).

The Internet address or account has several parts to it.

For example [email protected] made up as follows:

Santa…….. is the e-mail user name.

@ …………is found at

hotmail…..is the name of the host computer

com….. stands for commercial site.

Besides having an account, when using an e-mail, you have to have a password. This is a number
or word known only to yourself, which you must enter each time you log on to your account. The
password prevents other users of the Internet from logging on under your name and gaining
access to your mail. You must always remember to keep your password secret because if it is
known to others, some malicious people might use it to sign under your name and send offensive
mail that could cause problems to you.

The electronic mail service has a facility for helping you to keep note of regularly used e-mail
addresses. This saves you rekeying addresses and avoids making typographic errors. When you
wrongly type an address, it will result in your mail being returned to you.

6.8 Advantages of e-mail

1. Delivery is faster than traditional mail and replies can be quicker.

2. It is much cheaper than the telephone or fax; the cost is not dependant on the distance the
message has travelled.

3. It overcomes time zone differences and inconveniences as the recipients do not have to
be there to receive it.

4. It allows for one-to-many messaging which is simple, cheap and enables you to
exchange information with people unknown to you.

6.8.1 File Transfer

This service also known as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard method for transferring
files over the Internet from one computer to another. It allows you to search the millions of
computers on the network for the information you need by using convenient search engines and
directories.

This service can let you download pictures, files and software that you can in turn copy into your
personal computer. There are millions of files on the Internet that you can view on your
computer. Many of these files are web pages that you can find with the web based search
engines. One such search engine is ARCHIE. Archie is capable of searching for you the
archives consisting of millions of files that are available on anonymous FTP sites.

6.8.2 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

This is a protocol that allows Internet users to conduct real-time communication on the
computer. It enables people to converse with one another over the Internet. Internet relay chats
are organized into channels. To benefit from this service, you have to join one or
more communication channels and converse with others who are subscribed to the same channel.
Conversations may be public, allowing everyone in a channel to see what you type, or private
between only two people who may or may not be on the same channel. To join IRC-and there are
hundreds of open IRC hosts worldwide, you may obtain information from the web
site www.irchelp.org/irchelp/networks.

6.8.3 Mailing List

Popularly known as listserv is modelled on the e-mail protocol. It works like an electronic
mailing list, it allows you to send e-mail messages to people whose names are on the list. This
makes it simple for members of a group to communicate with one another through e-mail.

As a social being, you would want to communicate with other groups of people using the
computer. You might be working on a research project; for example, and you like to send a
message to all people working on that project with you. Instead of having to enter each persons
e-mail address each time you want to send the group a message, you can use your address book
to crate mailing lists consisting of as many users as you like.

There are thousands of listservs that you may be able to join. Almost every subject imaginable
has a listserv already set up for people to receive and exchange information about that topic.
When someone sends a message containing new information on the listserv, everyone on the list
receives a copy of the message.

Joining a Listserv

To join a listserv, you have to send an e-mail message to its host computer saying that you want
to subscribe. Do not expect to get an instant reply; normally it takes a while for a new
subscription to be processed.

When you join a listserv, you will be instructed on how to address a new message that you want
to send to the listserv. You will be given an address to which to send your e-mail message, just
as if you were sending mail to an individual user. Keep in mind however, that when you send a
message to a listserv, your message will be sent to a lot of people so you have to be very careful.
6.8.4 Usenet Newsgroups

This service makes it possible for Internet users to join discussion group hold discussions, ask
questions/answer questions or become a part of a special interest group. The resource “Usenet
newsgroups” are based on the concept of computer conferencing. It has the advantage that
anyone can participate in any discussion at anytime from any place where there is an Internet
connection.

This is a useful service to students as it enables them to converse and share experience with peers
and fellows with similar academic interests.

6.8.5 World Wide Web

This is a networked hypertext system that allows documents to be shared. It provides access to
millions of the hypertext (a text that has been linked). When one views a hypertext and clicks a
word that has been linked, the computer will launch the object of that link. Links are pathways
that interconnect the documents and resources on the web, without links there would be no Web.
You can activate a link by triggering it. There are two types of triggers, i.e., hypertext and hyper
picture.

Hypertext Links

These are words or sometimes phrases that you click to trigger the events that are linked to the
text. They are also known as ‘hot words’ because they make things happen when you click them.
It is easy to identify hypertext links on the Internet as they are usually underlined and presented
in different colour than the rest of the text.

Hyperpicture links

These are pictorial hot spots that you click to trigger events linked to images on the screen. The
images are normally presented as little icons or larger graphics.

6.9 Search Engines

For one to benefit from the research potential of the Internet, he or she has to know how to use
the search engines. Search engines provide for an Internet user to search the web by entering
keywords. There are a number of search engines available. Following below are some of the
search engines that are of particular relevance for academic and research work.
l Google: This is a comprehensive full-text search. It is very useful when one is searching for
obscure information. It is located at www.google.com.

l Excite: It is a search engine that can offer in-depth subject arrangement. It can also be used
in concept searching (it automatically searches related terms) and indexes, internet sites and
Usenet. Excite is located at www.exite.com

l Alta Vista: It is a widely used full-text search engine. It is said to be accessed over 10 million
times daily. It is located at www.altavista.com

l Lycos: This is a subject oriented search engine. It limits returns by title, pictures, sounds,
URL, language. Further more results are returned with good organization by relevance. Lycos
can be located at www.lycos.com

l Yahoo: This is subject directory to selected resources; it is not a full-text search engine. Is
suitable for browsing for subject categories or overviews of topics. Its returns are not organized
by relevance. Yahoo can be located at www.yahoo.com

l Magellan: It is a search engine that simultaneously presents original editorial content, a

directory of rated and reviewed internet sites. It can help you find what you are looking for.
Magellan sites show ratings on a scale from 1-10, that indicated how good the viewers think the
resources are. You may locate this at http://www.megellan.com

l ERIC: This belongs to the so-called scholarly search engines. The term “ERIC” stands
for Educational Resources Information Centre. It searches education journals and other scholarly
documents, including books, conference proceedings, symposia, studies and tests. This is found
on the Web at http://www.aspensys.com/eric.

6.10 Metasearch Engines

These are search engines which can search multiple engines at once. They provide an alternative
to trying many individual search engines to find the information you look for. These are types of
search engines that can invoke other search engines to automatically conduct different kinds of
searches, collate the results into one list of results and report them back. Following are some
metasearch engines:
1. DOGPILE: This is a metasearch engine that can send queries to a multiple other search
engines at once. When you open Dogpile, it automatically opens you up to other search engines
such as Yahoo, Lycos, Excite, World Wide Web, Worm, Yellow pages, Webcrawler, Infoseek,
Opentext, AltaVista Hotbot, Looksmart that the Mining co. Dogpile is located
at www.dogpile.com

2. METACRAWLER: This mega search engine can conduct searches by sending queries to
several web search engines simultaneously. The search engines linked to metacrawler include
Lycos, Excite, AltaVista, Yahoo, Hotbot and Galaxy. Metacrawler is found at
http:// www.metacrawler.com.

3. REFDESK.COM: This is a very thorough and well organized search engine. Its links
include facts search desk, current news and features, links to a host of online information
databases and much more. Refdesk is found on the web at www.refdesk.com

Status of Web Sources

Websites are usually created differently. It is therefore, important that, when using web
resources, you should be careful to examine all potential resources, print and non-print for
relevance, bias, accuracy and so forth. Furthermore, resources found on the Internet should be
carefully scrutinized; this is necessary for the simple reason that anyone who possesses a
computer and an Internet access can post his or her own web page without minding to check for
facts or to edit information.

6.11 Web Searching

6.11.1 Surfing the Web

Surfing the web simply means searching for information on the Net. It enables you to navigate
the system of interconnected information, discover new sites you didn’t know existed, and
download things that interest you. By mastering the art of navigating the Net, you will be able to
get where you want quickly and locate the information you want more easily. In order for you to
locate relevant information on the Internet you have to understand how information is organized
on the Internet.
Documents are stored on the websites, these are locations on the web where persons, institutions
and organizations store their collections of web pages, images, audio files, videos and any other
files used in conjunction with their Web pages. This section intends to give you basic notions
that would help you to locate information, send mail or participate in a discussion via the
internet.

6.11.2 Web Address – a URL

Every site you wish to go to on the web has an address known as a URL. You will probably
recognize these, as they are now becoming common place, signalled regularly in magazines and
the press. URL is a short form for Uniform Resource Locator. The resources referred here are
hypertext documents, but they can also be application softwares, animations, pictures, sounds or
even movies. URLs can also bring up search engines, newsgroups, chartrooms or real time audio
and video streams (i.e. music and movies).

Elements of a URL

A URL is made up of two main parts, protocol and server name, which always appear in the
same order.

1. Protocol: Refers to the hypertext transfer protocol; it forms the beginning of every web
page of the URL.

2. Server Name: This is the identity of the computer or file server on which a particular
resource is located. The server name is subcategorized into three component parts; host name,
sub domain and top-level domain. The host name refers to the computer or server that hosts the
resource while the sub domain names the network to which the computer is connected. The top-
lever domain indicates the institutional affiliations of the website or the country from which a
particular web site originates.

Following below are examples of common top-level domains.

.edu educational institutions site

.com commercial site

.org non-profit organization

.gov government site

.mil military site

.net large computer network

.au Australia

.tz Tanzania

.za South Africa

.uk United kingdom

Basing on this description, the URL for the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) Website has
the following elements.

http://www.out.ac.tz

PROTOCAL HOST SERVER NAME

http www out

Subdomain ac. tz

topleveldomains

The brief description of the site provided by your search engine should contribute to your
decision about whether the site deserves a much closer scrutiny.

10.3 Summary

This lecture gives a brief introduction on internet as one of the major technological inventions of
the century. Internet is a technology that has been integrated and has provided people with new
important capabilities over a wide range of sectors. Use of the internet has become such an
important skill that understanding it and knowing how to communicate over it has become
modern literacy.

References

Norton, B. and Cathy Smith (1998), The Internet in Business, Hodder & Stoughton, United
Kingdom.
Computer Training Manuals: http://www.ckls.org/%crippel/computerlab/tutorials.

Wiredgrid: http://www.wiredgrid.com/index.html.

Learn the Internet: http:// www.learnthenet.com/english/index.html.

AARP Learn the Internet: http://www.ivpl.org/Basic-internet.html.

About the Web: http://www.about-the-web.com.

ASSIGNMENT FOR SECTION 5

Dear students attempt the following question

In just a page, discuss how instrumental is the internet in facilitating teaching and
learning communication skills course

Review Questions

1. What referencing?

2. Differentiate between reference and citation?

3. What is monograph research?

4. What is your understanding of an academic tone

5.what is your understanding of an abstract and summary?

Lecture 11: Notes

Major word classes/Open word classes

11.0 Introduction

About words

Words are the smallest free morphemes sentences contain and are grouped into different words
classes – traditionally known as parts of speech. The English word classes we will be looking at
are the following:

Word class Symbol Examples

Adjectives A tall, short, fresh, interesting

Adverbs Adv now, quickly, there

Nouns N verb, book, assignment

Prepositions P in, on above, for

Verbs V sing, walk, write

Conjunctions CONJ and, but, because

Determiners DET the, your some

Pronouns PRN he, she, it

11.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, student should be able to;

 develop an understanding of some of the main elements of grammar manifested in texts.

 to identify the different levels of elements that combine to form clauses and sentences
 analyze clauses and sentence structure by identifying the different word categories, phrases,
clauses as well as clause functions, such as subjects, objects, and the others.
11.2 Body

In most languages there are two distinct groups of word classes: open and closed word classes

Open word classes are word classes to which new members can be added. They usually include
the content words (words that have inherent meaning) and for English they
include nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.

Closed word classes are those to which no new members can be added – membership is fixed.
Such words tend to have no or little inherent meaning. They tend to have more of a grammatical
function (indicating tense, for example) and include
conjunctions, determiners, pronouns and prepositions.

Nouns

Nouns are the class of words that typically name entities, concrete or abstract. Nouns are often
divided into subcategories according the according a particular feature they share such
as common, proper, countable and non-countable nouns.

An important morpheme associated with nouns and which assists in the identification of such
nouns is its plural morpheme. (One can test whether a word is a noun by either adding or
removing the plural morpheme.) The morpheme –s is the most common plural morpheme in
English.

The nouns in the text in (1) have been underlined:

1. I sit and watch Stephen play in the afternoon sun outside my window, I have not seen
him for some time, and I’m surprised at how much he’s grown. It’s a warm day in December,
but it feels more like spring as an early snowfall melts on the lawn.
Another feature of nouns, also useful in identifying nouns, is that they often occur next or close
to a preceding determiner (a, an, the, my). Four of the nouns in the above text co-occur with
determiners.

Verbs

Verbs make up the class of words that refer to different processes, states and events. It is
important to note that not all verbs denote action, as is often said, and as the following example
shows:

2. It feels like spring.

In the text below all the verbs have been underlined:

3. I sit and watch Stephen play in the afternoon sun outside my window, I have not seen
him for some time, and I’m surprised at how much he’s grown. It’s a warm day in December,
but it feels more like spring as an early snowfall melts on the lawn.

The word category of verbs is said to show the greatest degree of variation of all the word
classes. The following are some of the most important forms of English verbs:

(i) the infinitive e.g. (to) sleep (as in I made her sleep)

(ii) the third person singular present tense e.g. sleeps (as in She sleeps lightly.)
(iii) the past tense e.g. slept (as in The baby slept restfully.)

(iv) the present participle e.g. sleeping (as in The baby is sleeping)

(v) the past participle e.g. slept/broken (as in The baby has slept/She has broken her
sleep)

Regular and irregular verbs

Regular verbs are those verbs whose forms can be predicted. Such verbs typically

take the past tense suffix –ed. The sentence below contains a regular verb:

4. He announced in a loud voice.

Irregular, on the other hand, show forms that cannot be predicted. Below are the examples of
irregular verbs appearing in the text in (3):

5. Present tense Past tense Past participle

(i) sit sat (have) sat

(ii) see saw (have) seen

(iii) feel felt (have) felt

(iv) do did (have) done

Irregular verbs are relatively few and form only a small percentage of the total number of verbs
in English. Irregular verbs generally express everyday concepts and are therefore quite
commonly used. One particular interesting case of the irregular verb is that displayed by the
forms am, is, are, was, were, as in:

6. (i) I am …

(ii) She is …

(iii) They are …

(iv) He was …

(v) We were …

All the above forms are simply variants of the verb be.

Lexical and Auxiliary verbs

An important division in verbs that needs to be kept in mind is that

between auxiliary and lexical verbs. Auxiliary verbs are a closed class of verbs which have
a grammatical function (such as indicating time of action) while lexical (main) verbs are the
verbs that carry meaning.

Examples of auxiliary verbs are: be, have and do, and examples of the modal auxiliaries
are can, could, shall, should, may, might, will, would and must.

Adjectives

Adjectives are words which describe a particular quality of a noun. Adjectives can be
used attributively or predicatively. When used attributively they act as modifiers of nouns:
7. An early snowfall melts on the lawn.

When used predicatively, they describe something about a noun and occur after forms of the
linking verb be as in:

8. It is a warm day in December.

Two inflectional suffixes associated with English adjectives are the comparative suffix –er and
the superlative suffix –est, as in:

9. warm - warmer - warmest

In English, words other than adjectives can also function as modifiers of nouns. One such group
of words is called noun modifiers – that is, nouns that are used to modify other nouns. In the
following examples we find nouns modifying other nouns:

10. (i) the afternoon sun

(ii) the Christmas lights

(iii) maintenance staff

Adverbs

This is a rather mixed and complex category of words which specifies the verbs or situation in a
sentence. They are said to specify the mode of action of the verb. As far as meaning is
concerned, they provide additional information about manner, time or place. They can also be
classified in terms of their meanings:

11. (i) adverbs of time – now, then, later

(ii) adverbs of place – there, here, anywhere

(iii) adverbs of manner – often with the suffix –ly – badly, quickly,

(iv) adverbs of degree – totally, nearly, very, almost

(v) adverbs of frequency – never, rarely sometimes, often

(vi) adverbs of probability – perhaps, maybe, definitely

(vii) adverbs of duration – always, forever

(viii) adverbs of emphasis – certainly, really

In terms of form, two broad sub-classes of adverbs are simple adverbs (such
as there, maybe, always) and adverbs which end in the suffix –ly (such
as badly, definitely, certainly), a suffix which derives adverbs from adjectives.

11.3 Summary

The following are the different levels of sentence constituents that you need to be considered
when learning about grammar and analysing texts in English language.

text

clause complex

clause

ê
 word group/phrase

word

morpheme

- The morpheme is the lowest rank scale function just below the level of the word. Some
morphemes function on their own, others are attached to words

- A word may consist of one or more morpheme.

- A word group may consist of one or more words.

- A clause may consist of one or more phrases.

- A clause complex (sentence) may consist of one or more clauses

Lecture 12: Notes

Minor word classes/ Functional words

12.0 Introduction

Minor word classes can also be referred as closed word category as the have grammatical
function in the sentence. As discussed in lecture 10, closed word class can not affect the meaning
of a sentence when they are omitted from the main sentence. Contrary to content words which
carries meaning in the sentence when they are removed can affect the meaning.

Closed word classes are those to which no new members can be added – membership is fixed.
Such words tend to have no or little inherent meaning. They tend to have more of a grammatical
function (indicating tense, for example) and include
conjunctions, determiners, pronouns and prepositions.

12.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, student should be able to;

o develop an understanding of some of the main elements of grammar manifested in texts.

o to identify the different levels of elements that combine to form clauses and sentences
o analyze clauses and sentence structure by identifying the different word categories,
phrases, clauses as well as clause functions, such as subjects, objects, and the others.

12.2 Body

Closed word classes

As indicated earlier, the closed word classes tend to have a grammatical function, indicating
grammatical information, more than anything else, and tend to differ fairly significantly from
language to language.

They tend to occur in close proximity with the open word class with which they are associated
(determiners and nouns or auxiliary verb and lexical verbs, for example).
Determiners

Determiners are words which determine (limit) or specify the range of things to which a noun
can refer. The most common Determiners are the articles (a, an and the). Below is a list of the
different Determiners::

- the articles (a, an, the)

- possessive (my, your, her etc.)

- demonstratives (this, that, those etc.)

- amount words (quantifiers) such as some, any, no, every

Afrikaans has similar determiners to English. A language like Xhosa, however, does not
sem to have an equivalent for the English articles. Compare the following English sentence and
its Xhosa equivalent:.

13. (i) The professor smokes a pipe.

(ii) UProfesa utshaya inqawa.

In the above example, Xhosa does not appear to have an equivalent for the the
English determiners the/a. Literally, the Xhosa sentence is ‘professor smokes pipe’

Pronouns

Pronouns are words in English that stand for or substitute for noun phrases. There
are various types:

(i) personal pronouns – I, she, you, me etc.

(ii) reflexive pronouns – myself, himself, herself, yourself, yourselves etc.

(iii) possessive pronouns – mine, yours, hers, yours etc.

(iv) relative pronouns – These are found in relative clauses, like who in The man who
came …

(v) Interrogative pronouns – These seek information about people, places and times
e.g. Who did you hit? What did they want?

(vi) Demonstrative pronouns – These point to nouns, as in This is not mine or That
should be taken to the office.

(vii) Indefinite pronouns – These include somebody, nobody, something, anything.

Prepositions

Prepositions are words which show a particular relationship between parts of a sentence in terms
of, for example, time or place. Prepositions do not vary in form and most often need to by
accompanied by a following noun phrase, as the following examples show:

14. (i) It’s a warm day in December, but it feels more like spring as an

early snowfall melts on the lawn.

Conjunctions

Conjunction are words whose main function is to connect or link different constructions (one
phrase or clause to another). They include words like and, because, so, but, therefore etc.

Exercises – About words

Identify the word classes contained in the first three sentences of Text 1, as has been done in the
example below. Select from the following classes:

Noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), adverb (Adv), pronoun (PRN) determiner (DET), preposition
(P), auxiliary (AUX) and conjunction (CONJ).

Example

He announces in a loud voice, “I catch wasps!”

He - PRN

announces - V

in - P

a - Det

loud - A

voice - N

I - PRN
catch - V

wasps - N

12.2 Summary

In this lecture, we have covered closed word classes in relation to their function in the
sentence.They have the role to make grammatical functions in the sentence.
Lecture 13: Notes

The standard pattern of an English sentence

13.0 Introduction

When we communicate with other people in speech or writing, we always do so by using one or
more units of information. The most basic of these units contains a complete utterance and is
formed according to a certain definite pattern. The lecture we are referring to is the sentence.

13.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Define the sentence;

 Identify a sentence in spoken and written discourse;
 Describe the elements of a standard written English sentence;
 Write accurate sentences following the standard pattern of English sentence.

13.2 Body

7.2 Sentence

In writing, the acceptable convention stipulates that “a sentence is a group of words which make
sense and which are marked off by a capital letter at the beginning and a period, a question mark
or an exclamation point at the end”. While in spoken language, the boundaries of a sentence are
described in Gardener’s definition (Theory of Speech and Language …… p. 98) as “a sentence is
a word or a set of words followed by a pause and revealing an intelligible purpose”. In the
following sections of this lecture, we will focus our attention more on the definition of a written
sentence.

According to the description above, a sentence may be made up of one or more words. One-word
sentences despite being less commonly used are a very significant phenomenon in
normal communication. It is important therefore, that we also examine the types and uses of
these one-word sentences.
7.3 One-word Sentences

The commonly used one-word sentences are of the following types:

7.3.1 Exclamations

These are remarks used to signal strong emotion. They express surprise, anger, fear, joy or
gratitude. Example, What! Danger! Thanks!

7.3.2 Imperatives

These are remarks that express commands, requests and are used to give orders or directions.
Example, Stop, Look, Quickly, Steady.

7.3.3 Vocatives

These are remarks that refer to particular persons. as sentence they are used to draw someone’s
attention like: Mother!. Teacher! Agnes!

7.3.4 Others

These include single word remarks intended to express a variety of intentions

like Questions: What? Where? Why? Who?

Agreement: Yes! OK! Sure! True! Certainly

Disagreement: no, impossible, never.

As you may have correctly figured from the examples shown above, the meanings of these
sentences can only be intelligible in connection with a particular situation shared by the speakers
or with a statement made, or a question asked in another sentence.

7.4 Standard Sentence Elements

A common phenomenon in normal communication is sentences which consist of more than one
word.

7.4.1 Standard Pattern of an English Sentence

Let us now look at the form of such sentences. A Standard English sentence consisting more than
one word by the rule, is comprised of two nuclei or main parts. The one indicating the person or
thing about whom or which the sentence is made or a question is asked and the other; containing
the statement or the question being made. The two nuclei constitute the two main parts of a
sentence. The part containing words indicating the thing or person referred to is called the
subject of the sentence; whereas the other part that contains the statement or the question of the
sentence is called the predicate.

Example 7.1:

Subject Predicate

Benson has arrived from the USA

My uncle is allergic to cigarette smoke

France may win the 2006 world cup

Fadhili’s car was stolen last night

The old doctor treated the ailing woman

My sister married young

You bring me the report

She chased away the wizards

Who chased the wizards?

In the sentences above, we can clearly see the two parts of the sentence. It should not, however,
mean that in every sentence, the subject part must always come before the predicates as the
following examples show the subject of the sentence does not have a definite place in a sentence.
It can occur in the beginning, the middle or as in the case of question sentences, the subject can
appear in the end of the sentence.

Examples 7.2:

1. In the middle of the night, the thief was arrested.

2. There was little water in the pot.

3. Where is the supermarket?

4. Since when has Katembo been captain?

5. Did the prime minister attend the conference in Venezuela?

6. (You) Collect all rubbish from the garden

Exercise

Some of the groups of words listed below are sentences while others are not. Distinguish
sentences from mere groups of words. Discuss your decisions with your peer.

1. Small children with big stomachs.

2. Walking along the hedges of the compound and admiring goldfish in the pond.

3. The smoke in the kitchen made me choke.

4. The most respected student in our school.

5. A terrible headache the morning after the party.

6. The young children in our school.

7. David Maillu wrote five books before he was thirty.

8. The game of pool is becoming popular in Tanzania.

9. Ghana lost a decisive world cup match to Brazil.

10. Dived in deep sea water and survived.

In writing, a sentence is marked off by a capital letter at the beginning and a question mark, a
fullstop or an exclamation mark at the end. Within these two boundaries, every sentence ought to
contain a subject and a predicate that fit together to make a statement, ask a question or give a
command.
7.4.2 The Subject

The subject is that part of the sentence which has as its headword a nominal that is either a noun,
pronoun, a noun phrase or noun clause. In some cases, the subject is realized as a verbial which
acts as a noun, especially the gerund.

Example 7.3:

1. Ahmed asked many questions. (noun)

2. She asked to see her children. (pronoun)

3. The beautiful bride walked gracefully. (noun phrase)

4. Why we intend to see the minister is well explained. (noun clause)

5. Writing stories has been Bertha’s hobby since her school days. (gerund)

Take Note

The noun clause is not the same as a noun phrase. The two are different. The noun clause is a
dependent clause which is used like a noun, as a subject or object of the sentence.

Example 7.4: That John became our leader is a known fact

NOUN CLAUSE

The noun phrase on the other hand is a group of related words in which the noun is a head word
but unlike the clause lacks a subject predicate combination.

Example 7.5: I saw the slim girl over the wall

NOUN PHRASE

The subject as you may have noted in the examples above may appear as a single word or as a
group of words. When the subject is group of words, it is called a complete subject that is, it is a
combination of the headword which is the main focus of the sentence and modifiers that qualify
the head word. The headword of the subject alone is called the simple subject.

Example 7.6: The two old men who killed the buffalo were praised.
Complete Subject: The two old men who killed the buffalo.

Simple Subject: men

In the following sentences, the complete subject is shown in italics, the simple subject is shown
in bold.

Example 7.7:

1. The two bathrooms at the end of the corridor were quite filthy.

2. My aunt Kylie Atuku is a wonderful woman.

3. The three hundred shillings I borrowed were for my fees.

4. Her new Japanese-made car is broken again.

5. The village of Makowa is five miles away.

Sometimes you also have a compound subject. This is the subject of a sentence that is made up
by joining together more than one element.

Example 7.8:

1. Fruits, Vegetables and other foodstuffs were cheap this morning.

2. Biscuits, sweets and chocolates are not good for children.

3. Nether History nor Geography was taught in my school.

4. Either Joan or her brother Nesta will be sent to bring the letter.

7.4.3 The Predicate

The predicate, as we have seen earlier, makes a statement about the subject. The headword of the
predicate may be any of the various types of the verb. (We will study them in detail in the next
lecture). These may be a finite verb, a linking verb or a combination of a finite with a helping
verb.

Example 7.9:

1. She failed to keep her appointment. (finite)

2. The guy you see over there is a thief. (linking)

3. The order to vacate has been given today. (finite with helping verbs)

Like in the case of the subject, the predicate may also be; complete, simple or compound. The
complete predicate is made up of the verb together with all the words that help it to make a
statement about the subject. The verb alone in the predicate constitutes the simple predicate of
the sentence.

In the following sentences, the complete predicate is shown in italic and the simple predicate is
in bold face.

Example 7.10:

1. Sarah repairs old diesel automobiles.

2. She quickly closed the door behind her.

3. The book has been very carefully printed.

4. The headache drove Marina nearly mad.

On the other hand, the compound predicate is made of two or more verbs when they are joined
together by a conjunction. In the following examples, the compound predicate is shown in italics.

Example 7.11:

1. The villagers caught the thief and beat him up thoroughly.

2. Her car was burnt and completely destroyed.

3. The tsunami came in the morning and swept our entire village.

More on compound subject and compound predicate will be discussed when we come to the
topic of grammatical agreement in sentences.

Exercise

In the following sentences, identify the subject and the predicate. Then distinguish between
simple and complete subject and between simple and complete predicate.

1. The village in which I was born is called Mwala.

2. Teresita gave me an old coat of hers.

3. The brave captain was shot through the heart.

4. He bit his lips but said nothing.

5. In his right hand, she carried a green bottle.

6. The dog at once knew his masters voice.

7. Mastura loved to read magazines and newspapers.

8. Will you decide what men shall live, what men shall die?

9. In a short time, he rose to the rank of Colonel.

11. Men, women and children, in a word, the whole population of the township had turned
out to welcome the new president.

12. Write five sentences. Draw a dividing line between the complete subject and complete
predicate. Then draw a line under the simple subject and two lines under the simple predicate.

Example

An unidentified flying object, appeared suddenly in the eastern sky.

7.5 Other Predicate Elements

We have said elsewhere that the verb is the most important word in the predicate. This is because
one has to have the verb in order to make a statement about a subject. Without the verb there can
be no statement. In a very simple sentence, a verb can stand alone as a predicate. But in most
cases, sentence predicates consist of more words than the verb alone. It may also include other
parts like objects, complements and other words called modifiers whose work is to help describe
other elements.

7.5.1 The Object (O)

In some sentences, we observe that the verb is followed by nouns or noun substitutes that denote
agents who are affected by the action of the verb, directly or indirectly. Such nominal words are
collectively called objects of the sentence.
Examples 7.12: Carlos wrote a long letter.

Carlos wrote my mother a long letter.

In the sentences above, a long letter is the element that is directly affected by the action denoted
by the verb. Whereas my mother is not that much affected.

In these examples, a long letter is the direct object of the sentence and my mother is the indirect
object.

7.5.2 Direct Object (Od)

The direct object is the element in the sentence that tells us who or what directly receives the
action done by the subject and expressed by the verb.

Examples 7.13:

1. She bought an apple for twenty cents.

Verb Od

2. My father built a big house in Mafia.

Verb Od

3. He wrote the book last year.

Verb Od

The direct object is usually represented by a noun or a noun substitute such as a pronoun, a
gerund or a noun clause. It answers the question “who”, “what” about the verb.

Examples 7.14:

1. I met President Kabila in Kisangani

Od

(The direct object is a noun Kabila; it answers the question WHO?)

2. I met him last year.

Od
 (The direct object is a pronoun him; it answers the question WHO?)

3. Allan enjoys swimming at Koko beach.

Od

(The direct object is a gerund swimming. It answers the question What)

4. I heard all what you said last night.

Od

(The direct object is a noun clause what you said. It answers the question What?)

7.5.3 Indirect Object (Oil)

Sometimes, as we said earlier, the verb may have two objects, one which directly receives the
action of the verb and the second one which denotes to whom or for whom the action is done.

Examples 7.15: We bought Margareta a kilo of meat

Oil

In this sentence meat is actually what was bought. It is the element that receives the direct action
of the verb hence, is the direct object. But note that the meat was bought for Margareta. This
element is the indirect recipient of the verb action. It is the indirect object.

Examples 7.16:

1. The children sang us their national anthem.

Oi Od

(The indirect object answers the question FOR WHOM?

2. Jafaar sent Amina a golden ring.

Oi Od

(The indirect object answers the question TO WHOM?

Exercise
Identify the subject, direct object and indirect object in the following sentences. Discuss your
decisions with your peer.

1. Give me an hour and you will have the results.

2. The wind swept the smell of freshly roasted meat to our huts.

3. You must tell Katiza what your views are.

4. They bought the old man a new walking stick.

5. The retreating battalion sold us their weapons.

6. Domina showed them the secrets of the caves

7. Ask the Prime Minister your questions.

8. Aminata told Chama all her secrets

9. Heroes Day celebration gives us pride of our past

10. Madina cooked aunt Cecilia a delicious meal.

11. Madina cooked aunt Cecilia a delicious meal.

7.5.4 Complement

Not all predicates denote action some predicates denote existence of something (like is, are) or
indicate appearances or state of being (like look, seem, appear, feel).

In predicates that denote existence, appearance or state of being, the nominal words that follow
the verb function to complete the descriptions of the subject or the objects. In this way, we have
the subject complements and the object complement.

1. Subject Complements: These are words which add the description of the subject but are
located on the other side of the verb. The verb that joins a subject and its complement is called a
linking verb. Its function is to link or join a subject to some further description of itself that is not
included in the subject.

Examples 7.17: John is a member of parliament.

(Here member of parliament describes the subject John.)

After lunch the children fell ill.

(In this sentence ill describes a state of being of the subject children.)

The soup tastes bitter.

(The complement bitter describes a feeling emanating from drinking the soup.)

2. Object Complements: These are always nouns or adjective words which come
immediately after direct objects and help complete the description of the direct object.

Examples 7.18: Zarina called her dog Domingo.

(The word Domingo qualifies the object dog)

Jose always liked his shorts dyed blue.

(dyed blue compliments the object shorts.)

Hamdani liked to keep his hair short.

(short describes the object hair.)

13.3 Summary

A sentence is a group of words which makes sense. It is able to make sense because it is
patterned in two parts of information. There is a part which names the thing that is talked about,
called the subject and the part that makes a statement about the thing named called the predicate.
In writing, the sentence is marked off by a capital letter at the beginning and a period, a question
mark or an exclamation point at the end. The subject and the object of the sentence can either be
simple, complete or compound. Other elements of the sentence are the object which can be either
direct or indirect and the complement which may also be complement of the subject or
complement of the object.

Exercise

Identify subject complements and object complements in the sentences below:

1. In the evenings the compound was quiet and frightening.

2. We found Loba’s commodities cheap

3. I was often late to the evening classes.

4. In the morning I like my tea warm.

5. He fastened the ropes tight.

Write three sentences which have subject complements and three sentences with object
complements. Discuss your answer with your peer

Last modified: Saturday, 17 December 2016, 12:28 AM

Lecture 14: Notes

Types of Sentences

13.0 Introduction

The main focus of this lecture is the understanding that the many sentences that we hear or use
everyday in our speech or writing differ in many ways and can be classified accordingly. In this
lecture, we are going to learn the main criteria for classifying sentences and identify the different
types of sentences.

13.1 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Identify the main criteria for classifying sentences;

 Classify sentences according to different categories of classification;
 Identify different types of sentences from written discourses;
 Construct sentences of different type.

13.2 Body

Classification of Sentences

Criteria for Classifying Sentences

There are different bases upon which one may classify sentences. For the purpose of this lecture,
we will examine two important criteria of classifying sentences. These are the criterion of
purpose of the sentence and the criterion of structure of sentence. By purpose, we mean what the
sentence purports to say and by structure we mean how it is constructed.

When we examine sentences from the criterion of purpose, we can identify four types of them:
declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences. And if we categorize sentences
on the basis of their structure, we come up with simple, compound, complex and compound-
complex sentences.

8.4 Sentence Types According to Purpose

Let us now examine the types of sentences in this category.

8.4.1 Declarative Sentences

These are sentences that make statements. They are used to give information by expressing facts,
opinions or propositions. The statements in so doing may be affirmative or negative that is they
may state a fact or negate it.

Example 8.1:

Sarah came yesterday. (affirmative)

Sarah did not (didn’t) come yesterday. (negative)

Negative sentences are characterized by a negative word, usually not.

Example 8.2:

Rosana drove me home. (affirmative)

Rosana did not (didn’t) drive me home. (negative)

I will go home alone. (Affirmative)

I will not (won’t) go home alone. (negative)

In conclusion, one may say that declarative sentences are simply statements.

In writing they end with a full stop.

8.4.2 Interrogative Sentences

These sentences ask questions. They are used to seek information or request permission. In
writing they end with a question mark (?)

Example 8.3:

Which is the most popular film?

Did the car cost you much?

Can I visit aunt Lisa this week?

How much did the car cost you?

As you can notice from the examples above, of all the questions that we ask there have only two
forms of asking. The first form is represented by the sentence. Did the car cost you much? In this
form of interrogative question, the answer elicited will be Yes/No. This type of sentences is
called polar interrogative sentence. It is referred to as polar because the answer it seeks to obtain
is of extreme nature, either ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

Example 8.4: Do you like tea in the morning?

Can you do me a favour?

Should we visit aunt Lisa today?

Polar interrogative sentences usually begin with an auxiliary verb (can, should, do, is, would).

The second type of interrogative sentences is called WH-Interrogative sentences. These usually
open with an interrogative pronoun (where, when, how, why, who) and the answers expected are
always a piece of information.

Example 8.5: How did you come here?

When will we go to visit aunt Lisa?

Who spoke to the general manager of this office?

Why did you shoot him down?

Sometimes, a question may take the form of a statement, especially when an affirmative answer
is expected:

8.4.3 Imperative Sentences

These are sentences that express commands or requests. They are used to give orders or
directions. When a request is intended and not a command usually the word ‘please’ is added.

Example 8.7: Put your books on the shelf. (command)

Show your identity card, please. (request)

Come in everyday. (command)

You all take your seats, please. (request)

8.4.4 Exclamatory Sentences

These are sentences that connote strong feelings or emotions. They are used to express anger,
fear, shock, surprise, joy and some other emotions. Exclamatory questions always end with an
exclamation mark (!)

Example 8.8: Watch out, the roof is falling!

The lion has come out of its cage!

I don’t want to see you!

Exercise

Identify the type of the each of the following sentences. For interrogative sentences state whether
they are polar interrogatives or wh-interrogatives.

1. Don’t speak to me like that again!

2. You didn’t see him in Tanga.

3. Didn’t you see him in Tanga?

4. The tea she served me was stale.

5. The mango trees are in full bloom?

6. From Dar es Salaam we drove south east to Utete.

7. Would you show me your passport please?

8. Don’t fool with Mother Nature.

9. Nothing will ever change my mind now.

10. When did you arrive?

8.5 Sentence Types According to Structure

As stated in the beginning of this lecture, the classification of sentences according to structure
identifies the following types:
8.5.1 Simple Sentence (S)

A simple sentence is a construction that contains only one clause which is independent; i.e. able
to stand alone grammatically.

Example 8.9: The Prime Minister met with his cabinet for hours.

The term simple does not refer to shortness of the construction or simplicity of structure; since a
simple sentence may consist of several phrases. It may even have compound subject and
compound verb. The simplicity is based on the number of clauses it contains. Such a
construction can have a single clause containing a subject and one main verb that together form a
complete and clear message.

Example 8.10: The lion roared.

The principal secretary of the Ministry of Finance decided to prosecute all defaulters of the
newly introduced tax, VAT.

The naughty nursery school kids wanted toys from the missionary nuns.

These sentences are simple as they each contain only one independent clause and no appended
clauses.

8.5.2 Compound Sentences (Cd)

This is construction that consists of two or more independent clauses usually joined together by a
coordinating conjunction like and, but, nor, or, for, yet and so. Sometimes the clauses of the
compound sentences are joined by a comma (,) a colon (:) or a semicolon (;).

Example 8.11:

1. The sun burnt the earth but some crops thrived.

2. My father came home early and entered the house quietly.

3. The couples were in a hurry; she looked up the papers for advertisements, he drove
around inquiring and they finally located a house that suited them.

8.5.3 Complex Sentence (Cx)

This is the sentence that is composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses. An independent clause is one which can stand by itself as a complete sentence. While a
dependent clause cannot stand by itself to make sense. A dependent clause is introduced by
subordinating conjunction. In the examples below, the dependent clauses are shown in italic.

Example 8.12:

1. He came to see us because he wanted to borrow some money from us.

2. Halima asked us if we approved of what she had said.

3. Although Alinze was reputed to be the best wrestler of the land, he was shamefully
dethroned by an amateur athlete.

8.5.4 Compound-Complex Sentences (Cc)

This is a sentence that combines together the features of the compound sentence and those of the
complex sentence. The compound-complex sentence thus, is made up of two or more
independent clauses and a least one dependent clause. In the examples below, dependent clauses
are shown in italics.

Example 8.13:

1. The soldiers came to our house, forced the door open and took whatever documents they
saw.

2. After Musa had arrived home, the rain started to fall and it went on raining until past
midnight.

3. Salima met Twaha in town but she did not tell him what had happed back home.

Activity

Write one sentence of each type:

(a) Compound sentence

(b) Complex sentence

(c) Compound-complex sentence

13. 3 Summary

Knowledge of the types of sentences is important in improving your skills of communication.

When you are aware of the structure and purpose of sentence types, you will increase your scope
of styles of sentences you may use in writing your academic essays and research papers.

Sentences can be classified along two criteria. On the criterion of sentence purpose, we identify
the declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences, while on the criterion of
sentence structure we identify the simple, compound, complex and compound-complex
sentences.

Exercise

Classify the following sentences as simple (S), complex (Cx), compound (Cd) or compound-
complex (Cc).

1. The bride herself remained cheerful throughout the party.

2. The morning went by quickly with the temperature rising to 95 degrees.

3. Hamza claimed that by staying awake at night, he could prepare himself better for the
examinations.

4. What we heard was not the sound of a big lorry but the noise of an elephant pulling
down a hut.

5. After we had talked for about an hour Celina began to fall asleep.

6. Roxanne had a choice between majoring in history or English.

7. The president will address the nation tonight because tomorrow is a public holiday.

8. Have you ever imagined what you would do if you won a ten million shillings lottery?

9. It is upsetting to see so many women, who could work, begging for food for their
children.

10. The street children represent a burden on the country and whoever finds a solution to this
problem deserves our praise.
11. Write two sentences of your own for each of the following sentence types: declaratives,
interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, simple compound, complex and compound-complex.

References

Day, Susan, (1989), Reading and the Writing Process, Macmillan Publishing Company, New
York.

Fennell, Francis, (1987), Collegiate English Handbook, Irwin Homewoods, Illinois

Gere, A.R. (1988), Writing and Learning, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

Howell, J. and D. Memering, (1986), Brief Handbook for Writers, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.

Lannon, John (1988), The writing Process, Scott, Foresman and Company, Boston.

Stoddard, TD et al, (1985), Effective Writing, A Practical Grammar Review.

Zandvoort, R.W., (1962), A Handbook of English Grammar, Longman’s Green and Co. Limited
London.
Review Questions

1. What is the function of parts of speech?

2. what is the different between functional grammar and traditional grammar?

3.what is the different between countable and uncountable noun?

4. What is your understanding of lexical verb and auxiliary verbs

5. What is a determiner?

References

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2. Kitty, O.L, (2000). Business in Administrative Communication; 5th Edition. Irwin, Mc

Graw Hill

3. Krishman, M.R, (2002). Effective English Communication; Tata Mc Graw-Hill

Publishing Company.

4. Mahundu, C.M, (1999). A Manual on Communication Skills Towards

Improving Communication Skills in

English Language; Benedictine, Ndanda-Tanzania.

5. Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1990) A Student’s grammar of the English Language. London:
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6. Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (2002) A University grammar of English. Singapore: Pearson

Education

Limited.

7. Lovingston, Drs, Sharon and Glen. (2004). How to Use Body language. Psy Thech Inc.

8. Mahelo, E.B. (2015). Fundamentals Communication Skills. Mwanza: GG Publisher

9. Mehrabian, A. (1992).Nonverbal Communication (2nd edition). Chicago: Aldine Atherton.

10. Shumbusho, G.N and Mwaijande, F.A, (2003). Business Communication Skills: Student’s
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Mzumbe University.

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12.Troyka, L. Q. (1987). Handbook for Writers. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.

13.Zandvoot, R. W. (1962). Handbook of English Grammar. London: Longmans Green and Co.

Limited.www.tessafrica.net