Canadian Journal o[ Counselling / Revue canadienne de counseling / 2002, Yol.

36:2 97

ContextualAction Theory in CareerCounselling:

SomeMisunderstoodIssues
Ladislav Valach
Uniuersiqtof Zurich
Richard A. Young
Uniuersityof British Columbia

ABSTRACT
This article presentssome of the important implications of action rheory for counsel-
ling. The discussion is premised on the fact rhat many counsellors may avoid action
approachesbecauseofmisunderstandings that have arisen in previous conceptualizations
and,understandings.of action. Twelve misunderstandings aie addressedin conceptual,
methodological and counselling areas.overall, action iheory is presented ^ highly
suitable perspective for und-erstandinghuman behaviour and for counselling ",
i, it
"r
*tde spectrum of researchas well as using a language that is close rJ h.rm".,
3;;:1,n:

n-6suvrd
cet article discute des implications de la thdorie de l'action dans le domaine du
counseling.Cette.rdflexion'se basesur le fait que plusieursconseillersne veulentpas
utiliser les approchess'inspirantdes thiories de l'iction parceque la comprdhension
qu'ilsen ont r€steattachde) desconceptionsantdrieures. Douzeioints relevantde cer-
tainesincomprdhensions sontsoulevds-erdiscutissurle plande la conceprualisation,de
Ia mdthodeet de la pratiqueprofessionnelle. Fondie sui un large.orpr..ride recherches,
la thdoriede I'action utilise un langagequi se tient prochedJl'erpd.iencehumaine;
cettethdorie est donc proposdeen ranr q'.r. p.tspe.iive utile i la lomprdhensiondu
comportementhumain et i la pratiquedu counseling.

,Counselling,like some other client-cenrreddisciplines,such as medicine, has

suffered from the separaredevelopment of practice and theory, of systemsof
Practicalproceduresand skills and how theseare institutionalized. The insightful
and helpful approachesofexperienced practitioners and the excellentand strin-
gent nomothetic resultsof researchers are, on occasion,srrangebedfellows.Prac-
titioners often complain about the difficulry and meaninglessness in integrating
existing researchinto their daily practice. Researchersare ofren bewildered ii
askedto publish practitioners' experientialreporrsof their work asa contribution
to knowledge. Savickasand Valsh (1996) addressthis issue excellently in their
introduction to the informative edited volume on rhe ropic of theory and prac-
tice in careercounselling.It is not a coincidencethat in arrempring to addressrhe
gapsand lags berweentheory and practice, collin and Young (19b6) called for a
new paradigm for the conceptualizationofcareer counselling.
one of the approachesthar addressesrhesegaps and lags berween rheory and
practice deals with goal-directed processes.The theories of Krumbol-i' (1979),
9B Ladislav Valach and Richard A. Youns

Gottfredson(1981), Peterson,Sampson,and Reardon(1991), Lent, Brown, and

Hackett (1994), Brown (1995), to name but a few, underline the notion of goals
in the processof careerchoice and development.These theorieshave substantial
implications for counselling. In .ounrilling theory the concepts goal and
goal-directednlrJ are not used in rhe sameway asin counsellingpractice. Coal and
goal-directednessare not novel concepts in careercounselling. The assumption
of a significant vocational decision, that is, a goal, and taking action toward that
goal, that is goal-directedness,are present in nearly all approaches.However, for
a long time, the notion of goal was not acceptedas a stringent concept in coun-
selling theories. It was consideredto refer to the what but not the why of career
decision and, consequentlynot seenas very helpful in counselling (seeBrown &
Brooks, 1996). Later, as the concept of goal became more establishedand cred-
ible, attention turned to both its subconscious and non-rational processes
(Phillips, 1997) andthe notion of attractors- a goal-like order being built from
the'bottom up' (Vallacher& Nowak, 1997).
Our contextualgoal-directedaction approach(Young,Valach, & Collin, 1996)
providesa solution to many of theseproblemswhile avoiding the pitfalls of others.
It respondsto the call for a comprehensivetheory of careerprocesses(Savickas,
2001). It integrates the concept of goal without being too rational, the con-
cept of cognitive-emotional processingwithout subscribing to the information-
processing approach, and the concept of habitual or automatic movement,
responsesor impulseswithout relying too much on physiologicalor unconscious
processes which we recognizecan be assessed through emotions and cognitions.
Our goal-directedaction approach also integratessocial meaning and systematic
observation.Finally, it dealswith goalsand actions without being individualistic.
The action-theoretical approach that refers to the concept of goal-directed
action has been addressedbroadly in the last 20 years (e.g., Bandura, 1982;
Boesch, 1991; Gollwirzer, 1999; Gollwitzer & Bargh, 1996; Polkinghorne,
1990). It has been describedin detail by von Cranach and Harrd (1982), von
Cranach and Valach (1986), Valach (1990), Young and his co-workers(Young,
Valach,Dillabough, Dover, & Matthes, 1994),Young and Valach (1996,2000),
and Young, Valach and Collin (1996). Basedon the role social representation
plays in our actions, action theory systematicallyintegrates everyday thinking
and professionalconceptualizationand provides a means for linking counselling
practice and counselling research.
The contextual action theory approach (Young,Valach, & Collin, 1996) is an
integrative conceptualizationfor practical purposes.It may not possesssome of
the glamorous featuresoFthe strictly purist propositions of well delineatedtheo-
ries.It is not composedof a handFulof propositions.Rather it is a complex system
of reasoning, basic statements,explicated assumptions, methodological postu-
lates, and prescriptions for practice. It has a well-describedimage of the person
and a conception of psychology.It also incorporatesthe goals of the researchers
and practitioners. This approach is rooted in many psychological and social
psychologicaltraditions and informed by sociologicalliterature (seebelow).
Contextual Action Therapy 99

Contemporary neuropsychological researchalso supports this conceptual-

ization (Brown & Jahanshahi,1996; Desmurget, Pelisson,Rossetti,& Prablanc,
1998;Jahanshahi& Frith, 1998;Jeannerod,1994).Manypropositions in action
theory go back to the symbolic interactionism of Mead (1913, 1934), Goffman
(1961, 1963, 1969) and others,and there are propositionsinspired by the phe-
nomenology of Schuetz (1932), Husserl (1970) and fucoeur (1975, 1981).
Action theory borrows concepts and ideas from systemstheories ranging from
von Bertalantry (197l) to Vallacherand Nowak (1997). Activiry theoriesranging
from Vygotsky (1962, I 978) to Wertsch ( I 998) are equally important ,s som. oi
the ideasof the philosophy of languageand writing on intention and meaning of
Austin (1975), Searle(1969),'Wittgenstein(1953), Putnam (1975) and others.
'Wright,
We are obiigated to the ecologica.lschool (Barker & 195 1; Barker, 1963)
aswell as to the writings of Lewin (1935, 1951), Birdwisde (1g73) and Kendon
(1971). Early cognitive psychologists such as Neisser (1967) influenced our
thinking as did psychologistswriting on emotions, from Arnold (1960) to
Leventhal(1984) and Averill (1980). work on intentionaliryand project hasalso
been significant(Droler, 1995; Boutinet, 1995; fuverin-Simard,1998).The so-
cial psychologyofgroup, sociologicaltheoriesofcareers,and neuropsychological
theories of motor action as well as narrative approaches,consrructivist theories,
contextual and perspectivalviews and the biographicat approach have all con-
tributed to this approach.
Norwithstanding this background, or even becauseof it, some counsellors
may reject action theory becauseof its unfamiliariry or becauseof misunder-
standing its emphasis on goals and goal-direcedness.Although we described
our contextual acrion theory approach ro career development and counselling
elsewhere(Young,Valach,& Collin, 1996), some propositions,relatedro com-
mon sense and everyday understanding, can be used in a way that does not
adequatelyor accuratelyrepresentaction theory. This article iilustratesthat goal-
directedness,the key issuein action theory, is often not properly understood. As
a result, action theory is ofren criricized for faults ir does not have but that
are projected on it by its critics. How counsellors understand goals and goal-
directednessis critica-lto their useof theseconsrrucrsin counselling.If counsel-
lors avoid or abandon these salient consrrucrsas well as acrion theory generally
becausethey are not well understood,an important meansof connecringwith
the experienceof clientswill be lost.

CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

Misunderstanding I - There is A mono causalrelationship betweengoalsand

behauiour: Goalscausebehauiour.

One of the misunderstandingsoften encountered by counsellorsis the role of

goalsin the explanationof behaviour(Austin 6.vancouver,1996; Karoly, 1999).
Although goal is an importanr concepr as the researchon planned behaviour
t00 Ladislav Valach and Richard A. Young

indicates(Ajzen, I 99 I ), contextual acrion theory does not suggesta causalexpla-

nation of consequent behaviour based on the persont goals established in
advance. Rather, goals are considered as key cognitions that are assumed in
defining meaningful units of behaviour (Vallacher& \Tenger 1985; von Cranach
& Valach, 1984). Peoplereadily relareto goais and use rhem to direct their own
behaviour (Gollwitzer & Moskowitz, 1996). Goalis also a concept that can be
used in scientific researchand sysrematicobservation. Notwithstanding these
understandings and usesof goal, ft is the concept of intention that helped to
realizethe paradigm shift, that is from seeinghuman beings as behaving reac-
tively to seeingthem asengagedin proactiveactions (alsoseeDrolet, 1995). This
shift resulted in the model of intentional action that replaced the stimulus-
response approach. Contextual action theory contains a series of concepts
through which ongoing action can be systematicallyorganized. Relying on the
theory of goal-directed action (von Cranach, Kalbermatten, Indermuehle, &
Gubler, 1982), we postulate severallevelsof action for short-term action, mid-
term pro.jects,and long-term careers(Young, Valach, & Collin, 1996). First, at
the goal level, there are end states,and processesthrough which one strives for
them. The actor can accessthis level as he or she engagesin the action. Secondly,
there is the level of automatic and semi-automaricmovements in an action, pro-
ject and career.Finally, rheselevelsof goals and automatic and semi-automatic
movements are mediated by the level of consciousprocesses,best described in
functional terms in referenceto goals.Thus, goal is a core concept in an action
theoretical conceptualization, but the description, understanding and explana-
tion of an action requiresmuch more than collecting information on underlying,
unspecific goals.

Misunderstanding 2 - l6sis7xscan be equatedor identifed simply with goak.

Goals presentjust one dimension or level of action. Actions are systems,goals

are used to identi$, the unit of action. Action has other dimensions that need to
be considered even if the goal is known. Knowing the goal of an action is an
important step in understanding the action but it does not deliver detailed infor-
mation about other aspectsof the action. The premeditated goal of an action and
'We
the goal that is saiient within the action are nor necessarilythe same. need to
know whether and how the goal of an action is embedded in projects and career,
how the action is organized in referenceto this goal and performed in terms of
'social'
movements and contexts. The subjective view of the actor, the view of
others, and our professional systematic observation provide us with necessary
information reaching well bevond the information about the relevantgoal itself.

Misunderstanding 3 - Actions are steeredor directed onQ by rational and

calculatedgoals.

Somegoalsoften arenot evenreasonable. Epstein(1985, 1994) proposedthat

everyday actions are performed in an "experiential modaliry' that is far from
Contextual Action Therapy 101

rational. In our understanding,goalsare imagined, srriven-for end sraresor proc-

essesfor which cognitions are accessibiero us during ongoing acrion, proj..t,
and career.Counsellors readily recognizethat certain cognitions possessdecisive
qualitiesduring an action. These cognitions need to be availableto the individual
during an action. Counsellorscan easilydistinguish berweenoccasionswhen cli-
ents talk about their lives (a reporting modaliry) and when they actualize key
emotional and cognitive processes,in that they recognizewhen a client is talking
about a specific goal or acting upon a specific goal- For example, executing the
goal of moving one'sfinger is precededby brain activiry before the awareneisof
the goal is reported (Libet, 1985) can only suggestthat motor behaviour at this
level of action is only seldom steeredby consciouscognition of a goal. A client's
rational description in a counselling sessionof what she is going to do later will
not necessarilypersuadethe counsellorthat she is really going to do what shesaid
she would. However, if some conditions are fulfilled, the counsellor will assume
that clientt ideasabout a desirablefuture are becoming operarional.These con-
ditions include the counsellor seeingthat the client's description has featuresof a
longer-term project that is being realizedin actions, that this project fits into the
client'sother projects,such asher identiry projects,and is monitored in a posirive
way, and that theseprocessescan be actualizedin a session.

Misunderstanding 4 - p7s5sslong-term goals are all that is neededto heeppeople

motiuated.
At the other end of the spectrum, that is, in mid-term projects and long-term
careers, counsellors and others are confronted with the relevance of goals
and goal-directedsystems.Consider, for example,parenrswho believethat their
adolescentchildren will be highly motivated and focusedif they had clear educa,
tional or occupational goals.Some authors using the conceptsof goal and actions
assumedthat development can be fostered by following preset long-term indi-
vidual goals.The notion of goal-directednessin the developmenr liierature was
refreshing (Havinghurst, 1952). Furthermore, it inspired important researchon
agency'control and empowerment (Heckhausen, 1999). However, this research
was often a short cur rhat overemphasizedindividual goals,control and actions.
It also did not clearly recognizethe differencesberweena short-term action and a
life goal. The samecould be observedin referencero projecr, such as in personal
projects(Little, 1983).'we suggestrhat acrions,projectsand careerare built in
hierarchically organized sysremsof sub ordination and super ordination. The
relationships berween life goals, projects and actions are very complex. Such
complexiw results in inconsistencieswith which we all are very familiar. For
example, the project of sropping smoking but lighting a cigarette,the project of
losing weight but enjoying another unhealthy, rich snack, the project of becom-
ing a regular morning jogger but abandoning the idea with the first morning
drizzle.These common experienceslead some researchersto doubt the idea of
volitional control of action altogether (e.g., Park. l9g9). Our proposition is that
what makes goals attractive and what keepsus motivated is that they are part of
102 Ladislav Valach and Richard A. Young

goal-directed systems.Particular goal directed systems,such as those related to

vocational issues,should be integrated with other, personallyrelevantor identity
goal systemsto make motivation operational. Some of the examplesfrom the
paragraph above apply here as well. It is the integration of long, medium and
short-term goals, and other goal directed systems,that makes this motivation
work. Another important issuepertinent to motivation is that the participation
in theselong-term goals must be socially embedded (seebelow).

Misunderstanding 5 - Goal-directedbehauiour is an indiuidual phenomenon.

Vhen maintaining that individuals are better offwhen pursuing purposeful

activities and goals,one often assumesthat goal-directedbehaviour is individual
(seeCochran & Laub, 1994).It is the individual who should be empowered to
develop clear goalsand to set and follow them. Although our approach is rooted
in the theory of goal-directed action of individuals in interactive settings (von
Cranach, Kalbermatten, Indermuehle, & Gugler 1982), the theory of group
action and joint goal-directed processesplays a significant role (von Cranach,
Ochsenbein, & Valach, 1986). Joint processesrefer particularly to projects and
careers(Valach, 1990; Valach,Young, & Lynam, 1996).They consistof processes
at individual and group level and in projectsand careersthere are both individual
and group goals.At the group level, there is information processing,such ascom-
munication while at the individual level, there are cognitive-emotional processes.
Joint processesare nor necessarilyconsensualprocessesas far as the aim ofthe
participating individuals is concerned. Conflicts are also joint processes.In a
classicexample, Bruner (1976, 1990) observed that mothers behave as if their
infants' behaviour was goal directed.This exampleillustratesa form of joint goal-
directed action where conscious goals may be accessiblein a linguistically
codified form by just one of the participants. Although the theory of goal-
directed action at group level does not focus at the structural features of the
acting bodies, that is, the group, it is obvious that these must be organized in
such a way to allow for changesin steering and other processesin order to pre-
servethe long-term goal directed orientation.
The most common forms of goal-directed processesare joint Processes'
A counsellor looks not only at whether clients know which way they would like
to go in their lives, but also whether they participate in on-going goal-directed
projects and whether they have accessto people with whom they can develop
joint projects,building upon the supportivecommitments of thesepeople.
Finally, assessinghow the client organizesand performs goal-directedactions
with others is important. The assumption of joint goal-directedprocessesallows
us to alter what was previously thought of as deterministic social structure fac-
tors. Now we can think of them as ioint constructed and agentic processes.In
this model, the counsellor can work towards improved social participation of
clienrs and can also define their work with clients in theseparticipative processes
related to the ciient's problematic issues.
Contextual Action Therapy 103

Misunderstanding 6 - Goalsprecedeactions,projecx and careers.

The counsellor must be awarethat following an acrion theoreticalstancedoes
not mean just working in a reflectivemodaiiry on goals as pre-planned desirable
ends of action. Goals are nor reasonsand considei"tio.r, de,reiooedwell in ad-
vanceoFactions,projecrsor careers.Rarher.goalsareacrion-accompanying proc-
esses.obviously, goals rely heavily on oneb consideration before the action, but
the execution of an action dependson goalsthar emergewithin it and not just on
'T"lking 'having 'w'e
prior goals. about a goal' is not the same as a goal.' also
distinguish berweentask and goal. A task is what should be done - *hat I think
needsdoing, what I have been told or askedto do. In contrast, a goal is part of
the action or project itself, Some New Year'sEve resolutionssuch aithose ielated
to smoking cessarion- becoming a non-smoker through engaging in compen-
satory practicessuch as learning to relax, to concenrrate,to feel socially comfort-
able without a cigarette are rasks.They could become goals. Bur, just saying I
want to stop smoking this year at a New Yeart Eve parry cannor be consideredas
having a goal. 'vhen I perform an action, the goalbecomes operational. To the
extent that goalsare complex and representseveralactions over time, aswould be
the casein smoking cessarion,they can become project goals.This is the very
important and complex 'task-to-project transformation.' Helping clients with
this transformation is a significant part of counselling.

Misunderstanding 7 - Goalsareprimarily reflectiue.

Although there are differencesberweenan action goal and a project goal from
_
the action theoretical view (Valach, Young, & Lynim, 1996), pursuing either
rype of goal is not an armchair activiry whether thesegoals refer to F,reminutes
of garden work or a life projecr. Although both goals"canbe considered in an
armchair, the goal for the acrion in the garden as well as for a life project of
pursuing sailing and becoming a comperent sailor will deploy different processes
than reflecting on them in an armchair. For the garden work, whether tire goal is
relevant will be determined during the acdon. For rhe life project, the reLvant
goal will be supported by other processessuch as its embeddednessin other per-
sonal projects or by rigorous external control. Thus, we can say that, in a sense,
pre-action goal considerationsare reflecrions.However, it is importanr ro recog-
nize that goals emergein actions and projects themselves.
Counsellors need to be able to determine whether the client's declared goals
are anchored in action. They also need to be aware of whether the client's goals
refer to short-term action, project, or career.This enables them to determine
whether the referenceto a goal is just a refection upon a goal or whether it is
action- or project-relevantgoal cognition. The differenceberweena reflection on
a goal and a goal-cognition that is relevantto a project is well illustrated in inter-
views with persons following an artempred suicide (Michel & valach, 1997).
In this study, the patient has certain goals to engagein particular actions when
interviewed by the clinician following a suicide attempt. These goals, however,
104 LadislavValachand fuchardA. Youns

cannot be identified with the patient's contemplating a goal to engagein a life-

maintainingproject and disengagingfrom a life terminating project.This issueis
an important conceptual consideration with significant methodological conse-
quences.If we assumethat people set goals and then execute the appropriate
action then we can ask them about the goal for the appropriate action and they
can deal with this question in a reflectivemanner. However, if we assumethat
goals are part of action and that refections on the goal cognition do not just
mirror this goal but are actions on their own, we have to searchfor meansof how
to monitor goal cognition in the courseof an action. This view does not ask for
assumptions of strong realism. \7e work with constructivists assumPtionsbut
consider the contexts ofthe construction processesas relevant'

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

Misunderstanding 8 - Researchon goal-directedaction in counsellingis limited to

traditional methods.

Researchon counselling is complex and multifaceted. The increaseduse oF

qualitative methods and the development of more sophisticatedstatisticalproce-
dures are indicative of this complexiry (Young & Borgen, 1990). Although some
researchershave used goal conceptswithin their traditional research(e.g., Lent,
Brown, & Hackett, 1994), the conceptualizationof both goal-directedsystemsin
action, project and careerand the organization levelswithin thesesystemsallow
for and require a broad span of methodological approaches(Valach, 1990; Young
et al., 1994). Long-term careerrecordsand the monitoring oFneuropsychological
and psychophysical processescan be integrated within an action theoretical
methodology. However, it is important that the methods are relatedto the appro-
priate conceptualization.Thus, empirical researchat all levels of goal-directed
systemsis possible,but it will make senseonly if the researcheremploys suitable
methods. Although many researchers informed by action theoriesuse qualitative
methods, neither the strong division berween qualitative and quantitative
research methods nor the exclusion of quantitative methods is inherent to action
theoretical rhinking. However, there are certain assumptions about the architec-
ture of goal-directed processesthat cannot be replaced by assumptions of the
architectureof statisticalmodelling. Similarly, the statisticalconception of causal-
iry is only of limited valuewithin a systemicorganisationwhere the units of obser-
varion at different levels of the organisation represent different measurement
levels.
The analysisof experientialprocessingin action, project and careerneedsfur-
ther elaboration. One such analysisis the action-project methodology developed
by Young and his co-workers (Young et al., 2001). Recording ongoing processes'
collecting data on accompanying thoughts and emotions (Young et al., 1994;
Valach I 990), gathering social cognitions and socid representationas used in the
description of ongoing processes(Valach,von Cranach, & Kalbermatten, 1987),
but also collecting narratives (Young & Collin, 1992) are some procedureswe
Contextual Action Therapy 10t

have used.This analysisof experientialprocessingin acrion, project and careeris

a good example of the empirical operating in the experiential sysremsthat, in
turn' provides usableknowledge for counselling.The implication is that a ques-
tionnaire on future intentions may miss the targer processesas much as would
relying on narratives as the only source of data. If d"t" o.t subjective processes
within an action are required, they should be collecred as close to the action in
question as possible. If this implies memory processes,conremporary profes-
sional knowledge on remembering musr be adhered to. If we are dealing with
ongoing constructivist processes,the latest researchresults on these processes
must be a part of the method. Finally, the contexrual action theory-basedmeth-
odology alio requiressysrematicobservation in counselling.
'actions
The saying speaklouder than words' reflectsthe importance of obser-
vation in action theory research.Action theory researchand practice are inter-
estedin manifest acrion, thar is what the person or client actually does, in the
cognitions and emotions that steer these actions, and in the sensethe client
makes of them. The storiescounsellorslisten to, which are very valuable, can be
seenfrom one or more of thesepersp€ctives.In more formal language,rhe coun-
sellor has to know the referencesystemto which the information he or she hears
is related.This referencesystem may differ depending on rhe conrenr of what is
being said, or on the ongoing action process.This is particularly the casein
researchon counselling. Part ofthe challengeofcounselling is to changerhetoric
into action, that is, doing what is said and making the narrativesa parr of project
or career-relatedongoing processes.Similarly, storiesindicate a personalor social
order that will not be revealedif a seriesof questions is posed.The social repre-
sentation of a particular cultural group is only the counsellort or researcher's
guessif the cultural group is not sysremaricallystudied. It is preferable to ask
members of specific communication communiries to describerheir ongoing
processesinstead of asking them to explain evenrs.In describing ongoing proc-
esses,they will use socially and personallymeaningful conceptsof action at vari-
ous complexiry levels.

COUNSELLING ISSUES

Misunderstanding 9 - Client reasoningand emotional experienceare sufficient to

engenderchange.
In counselling,the conceptualizationof joint or group action, projecr and
career in the everyday lives of clients is crucial for implementing goal-directed
thinking. The vision of an empowered client who freely decidesamong alterna-
tives is a lonely one if the only means we possessas counsellorsis to rely on the
client's reasoning and emotional experience.In contrast, we propose that the
client and counsellor joindy constructing change-launchingprojecrs may prove
to be the key issue in counselling. Counsellors realize that changes cannor be
induced just by altering rational knowledge or behaviour disposirion, or by envi-
ronmental manipulation. Rather, the counsellor has to engage,together with the
106 Ladislav Valach and Richard A. Youne

client, in a joint processsuch as a project in which the client can develop and set
the roots for future changes.In pursuing a joint project in counselling, the client
has the opportunity to develop and practice pertinent actions. The project can
also be the basisfor a new careeror a careerchange.Building a relationship with
a client will not be an issue of celebrating the client or satisfring the client's
desiresin order to make him/her more susceptibleto counsellor'smanipulation.
It is joining in the client's relevant projects that allows the counsellor to invest
his/her skills and knowledge in theseprojects.
The understanding of the short-, mid-, and long-term individual and group
goal-directed systemic processesas action, project and career (see also Young,
Valach, & Collin, 1996) helps the counsellor to undertake the necessarystepsin
counselling.The counsellor can monitor the client's central and emotionally an-
chored self-relatedprojects and careers.Partnersoutside ofcounselling are likely
to contribute to theseprojects and careers.As the counsellor is able to repeatedly
respond to the client's goals,the counsellorbecomesmore acceptedby the client
for the future collaboration. In helping the clients reach their goals, such as
receiving recognition, the counsellor will be acceptedby clients to join them in
pursuing vocational goals.Counsellorswill also be more credible when they pro-
pose and help to realizecorrective changes.In counselling informed by action
theory, goalsare not solelytalked about, they areworked on. This requiresthat all
levelsof these goal-directedsystemsbe addressedand targetedwithin an action.
The counsellor in action theoretical counselling neither overlooks emotions or
subconsciousprocesses nor is he or she reluctant to work with semi-automatically
performed u.tits of behaviour. In our example the counsellor, is interested in
goals,movements,and vocal featuresin order to obtain a comprehensivepicture
of the client and also to join him or her at different levelsof the action organisa-
tion. However, the counsellor alwaysseesthesein the frame of the individual or
joint goal directedaction systems.projecrsand career.

Misunderstanding I0 - Personalityis suficient to explain changein counselling.

Many recent approachesto personaliryconceptualizepersonaliry processesin

terms of goal-directed action (e.g., Cantor k Zirkel 1990). Counsellors
informed by action theory do not ignore personaliry issues,but will understand
them in terms of clients' self-relatedprojects and careeraswell as the actions they
may experience in the counselling session.The relationship berween a client's
self-relatedprojects and the actual interactive action of the client is complex.
Clients do not act in relation to their salientgoalsin all cases.In certain cases,the
complexiry of this relationship is known as an interactive disturbance from the
perspectiveof personalirydisorders.In contemporary conceptualization,Person-
aliry disordersareviewed as interactive disorders(Benjamin, 1996).These mani-
fest themselvesas clients act against their most salient goals and try to satisry
their identiry-related goals that become threatened through actualization of an
anxiery-loaded perceptual cognition. Counsellors may experience clients who
Contextual Action Therapy t07

act against their current and salient goals in an inreracrion as being "difficult."
Clients manifest themselvesas difficult in counselling because,for some reason,
they feel that the interaction will be unsuccessful.They feel rhey may be hurt
and their identiry-related goals, such as being respectedas an auronomous per-
son, will not be satisfied.Clients assumethat such action is functional for their
purpose.Thus, counsellorsdo not have to seetheir clients' behaviour as an ex-
pression of personality dispositions nor do they have to avoid the notion of
personality.on the conrrary, as personaliry theories increasinglyuse the notion
of goal-directednessin their processmodels, counsellors working with acrion
theoreticalassumptionscan expand this thinking into the personality theorizing.

Misunderstanding I I - All of the client'sgoals are auailablefor refection.

counsellors, informed by action theory,will not assumethat clients can reflect
on all of their goals, although rhey can be consciously accessible.Neither will
counsellorsmaintain that clients are fully consciousof the relationships among
various actions, projects, and career, rhar they are well reflected ,rpon, *nj
thoughdully balanced. Counsellors will also approach clients with the full
knowledge that everydaythinking is basedon goalsand action. Thus, in counsel-
ling it is not so much a matter of teaching clients about goalsand actions - they
readily use the languageof goals and actions in presenting themselvesand their
issuesto counsellors.However, there are numerous situations in which clients do
not take the goal-informed or steeringrole required for achieving goals.It is here
where counsellorscan be active in supporting clients to closethesegaps.Clients'
goalsmay not be availableto them for reflection for severalreasons,including the
complex interrelation of the goal systems,and the various degreesof availabiliry
of goalsto all parricipanrsin .jointprocesses.

Misunderstanding l2 - The goak and actions of counsellingitself are not

necessarilyreflectiue of tbe clienti careergoals.

Most counsellorspay close attention ro rhe joint activiry they engagein with
their ciients. However, some may assumethat the clientt careeror life goals and
related actions are nor reflected in the joint acrion rhat occurs during counsel-
ling. Nonetheless,projectswithin counselling and outside of it are connected. In
fact, the relationship project between the counsellor and client often reflectsrela-
tionship projects that are going on outside of counselling which may involve
career and other issues.The critical factor is that counselling is the project
ground on which the counsellor can join the client. The counsellor needs to be
very careful in preservingthe possibiliry of counselling as a joint project. To ac-
complish this, the client's narrative has to be given sufficienr space (Young &
Collin, 1992). The counsellor joins in developing such narrarivesbur respects
the leadership of the client. The counsellor has to work on the relationship
project as well as on rhe project related to the presenting problem. It is general
knowledge that in developing a good relationship with the client, the counsellor
108 Ladislav Valach and Richard A. Youns

has to facilitate the achievement of the client's important goals' These are not
only the goals related to an occupational careerbut also to personal and identiry
careergoals. It is the latter that clients often do not readily declareopenly or are
not fully accessibleto clients, but which are emotionally very active.
The counselling processis often organizedaround goals that are jointly set by
the client and the counsellor in such a way that their achievementcan be evalu-
ated. Counsellors are accustomedto helping outline a hierarchy of goalsand sub
goals, projects, actions and subactions in order to achieve agreedupon targets.
Many of the goalsand processesare relatedto the client's emotions or joint goals
around which the client behavesin a ftrnctional u'ay but which are not accessible
for him or her. Becausethesegoals and processesare not accessibleto the client,
when frustrated, they can lead to negativeemotion. -When satisfied,they can lead
to the client's motivation to join in other actions or projects in order to realize
still more of thesesatisfactoryexoeriences.
The lack of accessthat a client may experienceto his or her own goals and
processesmay be due to the client's partner, with whom the client is engagedin
pursuing thesegoals,determining or holding theseemotions or goalsin a joint
project. In turn, the client'sparticipation in counsellingon theseissuesmay be
directed by regulation processesthat are influenced by the partner. They may
lead to the inhibition of some of the client's important goals.The fact that a
client feelsthreatenedby the counsellor'sattempt to facilitate his or her openness
ro lessaccessibleemotions or joints projects could lead to client's regulation of
their interaction in an aggressiveway. Many of a client's interactive actions
become readily understandablewhen we observethe client in an interaction or a
joint action with relevant persons.An everydaycounselling example is when the
counsellor invites other family members (partnersor parents) for a systemicses-
sion. In such assituation we can observethe key ways in which a client behavesin
a specific conrext. We then immediately seethe systemic referenceand function
of the client's critical behaviour.To round up this picture, it should not be for-
gotten that the career ideologies present in the society (fuchardson, 2000)
strongly influence the counselling processes. The counsellor employs these ide-
ologies and the client refersto them, often as unspoken assumptions.That is to
say,the concepts of careerare first of all social constructions and not a right or
wrong represen tations.

CONCLUSION

In this article, we have pointed out a range of possible misunderstandings

about contextual action rheory that may lead practitioners and researchersto
reject action theory unduly. Action theorv integrateseverydayworking knowl-
edge, that is, knowledge used in ongoing actions, into conceptualizing human
processesand analyzing data. Becauseof the range of meanings attributed to
everyday knowledge and concepts about goals, there is a need to clarifi' their
meaning in action theory. In addressingsome of the misrepresentations, we
Contextual Action Therapy 109

darified. some conceptual, methodological and practical issuesin counselling as

outlined in the contextualtheory of goal directedsysremsin action, projecr and
career.Conrextual acrion rheory in counselling, as representedby the work of
Young' valach, and their co-workers provides a differenriated view of ongoing
processes that the client is engagedin both within and oursideof the counselling
sessionitself. This view reachesfar beyond seeingthe clienr as engaging in prel
contemplation,rhen implementing a goal. and then developing pt"r,.
'we "
believe that the acrion theoretical approach is very .o-p"iibl. with the
whole spectrum of knowledge that coversmicro and macro social psychological
issues.It is a very useful resourcefor both counsellingresearchers
and counselling
practitioners.

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About the authors

LadislavValach,a psychologist,is currentlyat the Divisionof Psychopathology, Faculryof Phi-
losophy,UniversiryoFZuriJh,Srirzerland.He haspursuedrhe applicationof acrionrheoryin
areais.rchasoccupationalcareer,unemployment,coping with illnessand the illnesscareer,utt-
drug abuse,iuiiide, srroki reLabilitation,healthpromotion, and the
lizationof medicaiservices,
encounter.
patient-physician
RichardA. Youngis Professorof CounsellingPsychology at the Universityof British Columbia.
AssSciaiion,his i.rterestsinclude careertheory,parent-
A fellow of the ianadian Psychological
adolescentinteraction,and health psychology.

Addresscorrespondence Faculryof Philoso-

to Dr. LadislavValach,Division of Psychotherapy,
31,8029 Zurich, Switzerland
phy, Universiryof Zurich, Lenggstrasse