Eskom-ZESA Interconnected Power System

Eskom-ZESA interconnected power system
modelling
Nkosinomusa S. Gumede
A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Built

Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering
Johannesburg, 2016
ABSTRACT
The power system frequency must be kept as close as possible to the nominal
value. This is due to the inherent design of electrical equipment to operate
efficiently at the nominal frequency. Frequency regulation in an interconnected
power system is the duty of all members of the interconnection. However, in the
Eskom-ZESA interconnected power system Eskom engineers ignore the
contribution of the ZESA system to primary frequency control. This is mainly
due to the prevalent assumption that the ZESA control area is small relative to
the Eskom control area and its contribution to primary frequency control of the
interconnected power system is negligible. This document presents a project
that examines the validity of this assumption via determination of the
contribution of the ZESA system to the interconnected power system’s primary
frequency control.
The interconnected power systems background was studied to understand the

theory behind the operation of two or more interconnected power systems.
System frequency disturbances deemed to be a good representation of the
Eskom-ZESA interconnected power system’s performance were selected and
analysed to validate the current assumption. The results show that there is a
significant support from ZESA during a system frequency disturbance. This
proves that the existing assumption is not valid anymore.
Furthermore; the generator model that mimics the Eskom-ZESA tie-line

governing behaviour was developed. Two different types of governor models
were employed; firstly the IEEEG1 governor was tuned to control generator
output to match the tie-line performance and then the TGOV5 governor model
was used. The IEEEG1 governor model is a simplified governor representation;
as a result, it is not easy to tune the parameters to match tie-line response.
However, the performance is acceptable and it can be used to represent the tie-
line governor response. The TGOV5 governor model is very complex as
discussed in section 4.2. The model includes boiler dynamics, and this
improves performance such that it is possible to tune the parameters to follow
the tie-line performance as close as necessary.
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this research report is my own work except as indicated in the
references and acknowledgements. It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree
or examination in this or any other university.
Signed at ……………………………………………………
On the …………………………….. day of ………………………… 20…..
iii
DEDICATION
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank
School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of Witwatersrand;
Dr John van Coller, academic supervisor for his valuable guidance;
Thabo Modisane, Brian Berry and Armien Edwards who helped me to initiate
this research;
Mpeli Rampokanyo, Mike Nene and my colleagues in Eskom who supported me

and constantly encouraged me to complete the research;
Eskom Transmission System Operator for providing the bursary, resources and
information required to complete the project.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................... ii
DECLARATION .............................................................................. iii
DEDICATION ................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................ v
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................... x
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...................................................... 1
1.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................. 1
1.2 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY .............................................................................. 1
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................. 2
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ....................................................................... 3
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 3
1.6 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY...................................................................... 3
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS ................................................................................. 4
1.8 ASSUMPTIONS ............................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND 6
2.1 FREQUENCY CONTROL ................................................................................ 6
2.1.1 SYSTEM INERTIA..................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 STEADY STATE POWER BALANCE IN ONE AREA ......................................................... 7
2.1.3 INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEMS........................................................................ 8
2.1.4 TWO AREA SYSTEMS ............................................................................................... 9
2.1.5 DROOP BACKGROUND DISCUSSION........................................................................ 10
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW [4][5][6][7][8] ............................................................. 11
CHAPTER 3. UNDERSTANDING SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION .......................................... 13
3.1 GRID CODE REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................... 13
3.2 SAPP OPERATING GUIDELINES REQUIREMENTS .......................................... 13
3.3 SYSTEM BEHAVIOUR .................................................................................. 14
3.4 PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL IN ESKOM .................................................. 16
vi
3.4.1 GOVERNING RESPONSE ........................................................................................ 17
3.4.2 DEMAND RESPONSE (DR) .................................................................................... 17
3.5 ESKOM-ZESA TIE-LINE BEHAVIOUR DURING DISTURBANCES ......................... 19
3.5.1 TIE-LINE TRIP ....................................................................................................... 19
3.5.2 GOVERNING RESPONSE ........................................................................................ 20
3.5.3 TIE LINE POWER CHANGES DIRECTION ................................................................... 21
3.6 CALCULATING THE ESKOM-ZESA TIE-LINE RESPONSE TO FREQUENCY
DEVIATIONS USING TEMSE DATA ............................................................... 22
3.6.1 SELECTION OF SYSTEM DISTURBANCES ................................................................. 22
3.6.2 ESKOM-ZESA TYPICAL RESPONSE TO FREQUENCY DEVIATIONS.............................. 23
3.7 FACTORS INFLUENCING TIE LINE BEHAVIOUR ................................................ 26
3.7.1 AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (AGC)........................................................... 26
3.7.2 GMPC IN CAHORA BASSA .................................................................................... 29
3.7.3 HVDC TYPICAL RESPONSE TO FREQUENCY DEVIATIONS ......................................... 34
CHAPTER 4. MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND VERIFICATION ... 37

4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 37
4.2 PLANT MODEL FRAME COMPONENTS ........................................................... 38
4.2.1 GOVERNOR SYSTEM ............................................................................................. 38
4.2.2 POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER (PSS) ....................................................................... 40
4.2.3 AVR AND EXCITATION .......................................................................................... 41
4.3 GRID USED TO TUNE THE GENERATOR MODEL .............................................. 41
4.4 EDITING FRAME FOR TUNING PURPOSES ...................................................... 43
4.5 GENERATOR GOVERNOR TUNING STRATEGY ................................................ 43
4.6 SIMULATION RESULTS ................................................................................ 44
4.7 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS ....................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS ........... 49

5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 49
5.2 CONCLUSIONS FROM THE STUDY ................................................................ 49
5.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................. 49
5.3.1 W HAT DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR MUST BE EXAMINED IN THE PROPOSED STUDY? ............ 50
5.3.2 W HAT FACTORS INFLUENCE THE SPECIFIC ESKOM-ZESA INTERCONNECTION DYNAMIC
BEHAVIOUR? 50
5.3.3 W HAT IMPROVEMENTS CAN BE MADE TO THE WAY THE ESKOM-ZESA
INTERCONNECTION IS PRESENTLY OPERATED? ................................................................................ 51
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................. 51

5.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .................................................... 51
REFERENCES .............................................................................. 53
APPENDIX A: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND............................................................................. 55
A1 FREQUENCY CONTROL BACKGROUND DISCUSSION ............................................. 55
A1.1 INERTIA.................................................................................................................... 55
vii
A1.2 STEADY STATE POWER BALANCE IN ONE AREA ........................................................... 56
A2 GENERATOR RESPONSE TO LOAD CHANGE ........................................................ 57
A3 LOAD RESPONSE TO FREQUENCY DEVIATION ..................................................... 59
A4 INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS THEORY ............................................................... 61
A5 GOVERNOR WITH SPEED DROOP ...................................................................... 62
A6 EQUIVALENT PLANT REPRESENTING AREA ......................................................... 64
A7 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 65
APPENDIX B: SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION ............................................................................... 67
B1 SOUTH AFRICAN GRID CODE REQUIREMENTS ................................................... 67
B1.1 GOVERNOR REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................................... 67
B1.2 FREQUENCY DEAD-BAND REQUIREMENTS .................................................................. 67
B1.3 DROOP SETTINGS REQUIREMENTS............................................................................. 68
APPENDIX C: MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND VERIFICATION ... 69
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Eskom-ZESA frequency response analysis ..................................... 26
Table 3.2 AGC modes and corresponding ACE ............................................... 27
Table C.0.1 Governor system’s typical time constants ..................................... 69
Table C.0.2 IEEEG1 parameters [14] ............................................................... 70
Table C.0.3 IEEEG1 parameters on DIgSILENT simulation package .............. 71
Table C.0.4 TGOV5 default parameters on DIgSILENT simulation package ... 73
Table C.0.5 Steam turbine parameters ............................................................ 74
Table C.0.6 Translation of steam turbine parameters to general model........... 74
Table C.0.7 TGOV5 (without dead band) model parameters ........................... 75
Table C.0.8 TGOV5 (with dead band) model parameters ................................ 76
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Southern Africa Power Pool (SAPP) interconnection ........................ 2
Figure 2.1 System equivalent for LFC analysis [2] ............................................. 8
Figure 2.2 Two area system and electrical equivalent [2]. ................................. 9
Figure 2.3 Two area system block diagram with primary speed control only [2].
......................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.4 Ideal steady-state characteristics of a governor with speed droop [3]
......................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3.1 Eskom-ZESA interconnection normal frequency profile .................. 14
Figure 3.2 Eskom-ZESA typical disturbance profile ......................................... 15
Figure 3.3 Frequency trace (4 seconds resolution) .......................................... 16
Figure 3.4 Instantaneous Reserves from online generating unit ...................... 17
Figure 3.5 Instantaneous Reserves from demand response ............................ 18
Figure 3.6 Eskom-ZESA tie-line trip during frequency disturbance .................. 19
Figure 3.7 Tie-line power flow during frequency disturbance ........................... 20
Figure 3.8 Tie-line power flow changes direction during frequency disturbance
......................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.9 Event 1 frequency response ........................................................... 23
Figure 3.10 Event 2 frequency response ......................................................... 24
Figure 3.11 Event 3 frequency response ......................................................... 25
Figure 3.12 Generator unit governing response while on AGC ........................ 28
x
Figure 3.13 Cahora Bassa-ZESA-Eskom interconnection [12]......................... 29
Figure 3.14 Songo substation single line diagram............................................ 30
Figure 3.15 GMPC software overview [12]. ...................................................... 33
Figure 3.16 HVDC performance during event 1 ............................................... 34
Figure 4.1 Plant model frame structure ............................................................ 37
Figure 4.2 Mechanical-Hydraulic Speed governing system for steam turbine

functional block diagram [13]............................................................................ 38
Figure 4.3 TGOV1 steam turbine model [14].................................................... 39
Figure 4.4 IEESG0 steam turbine model [14] ................................................... 39
Figure 4.5 IEEEG1 model ................................................................................ 40
Figure 4.6 Grid used to tune generator to the mimic tie-line behaviour ............ 42
Figure 4.7 Steady state simulation run ............................................................. 42
Figure 4.8 Edited plant model frame structure ................................................. 43
Figure 4.9 Block diagram of model tuning ........................................................ 44
Figure 4.10 Event 1 IEEEG1 governor model simulation result ....................... 45
Figure 4.11 Event 1 TGOV5 governor model (without frequency dead band)
simulation results ............................................................................................. 45
simulation ......................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.13 Event 1 TGOV5 governor model (with frequency dead band)
xi
Figure A.0.1 Generator supplying isolated load [2] .......................................... 55
Figure A.0.2 Transfer function relating speed and torques [2].......................... 58
Figure A.0.3 Transfer function relating speed and power [2] ............................ 58
Figure A.0.4 Rotor dynamics transfer function [2] ............................................ 59
Figure A.0.5 Standard form block diagram ....................................................... 59
Figure A.0.6 System without governor ............................................................. 60
Figure A.0.7 Governor system equipped with droop characteristic [2] ............. 63
Figure A.0.8 Time response of a generating unit with a governor having speed-
droop characteristic [2] ..................................................................................... 64
Figure A.0.9 Block diagram of the generating unit [2] ...................................... 65
Figure B.0.1 Graphical representation of governing requirements [15] ............ 68
Figure C.0.1 General model for steam turbine speed governor system [13] .... 69
Figure C.0.2 TGOV5 block diagram [14] .......................................................... 72
Figure C.0.3 General steam turbine model ...................................................... 74
xii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose of the study
The purpose of this research project was to study the Eskom-ZESA

interconnected power system to understand its behaviour during frequency
disturbances and quantify ZESA’s contribution in the governing response and
then develop a model that represents its performance. The main contributions
of the study were:
 Simulation of the two-area system using PowerFactory as a tool

 Examine the Eskom-ZESA tie-line performance under various conditions
1.2 Context of the study
The diagram below shows how Eskom is interconnected with the neighbouring
control areas. It is clear that Eskom is connected to Mozambican utility (HCB)
through a High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) line and to the Zimbabwean
utility (ZESA) through an Alternating Current (AC) tie-line. In HCB, AC power is
generated using hydro-generators. Some of the power is transmitted to ZESA in
AC form and the bulk of the power is converted to Direct Current (DC) and then
transmitted to Eskom. The whole interconnection is called the Southern African
Power Pool.
1
Figure 1.1 Southern Africa Power Pool (SAPP) interconnection
In the existing Eskom model, HVDC is modelled as a negative load; therefore

the focus is on the Eskom-ZESA tie-line. Since the HVDC link is modelled as a
negative load, the system shown in Figure 1.1 can be represented as a two-
area system. In interconnected power systems, frequency regulation is the duty
of all members; therefore ZESA’s contribution to the interconnected power
system’s governing response will be quantified in the study.
1.3 Problem statement
In interconnected power systems, frequency regulation is the duty of all

members. However, in the Eskom-ZESA interconnected power system Eskom
engineers ignore ZESA’s contribution to primary frequency control. This is
mainly due to the assumption that the ZESA control area is small relative to the
Eskom control area and its contribution to the primary frequency control of the
interconnected power system is negligible. The study was initiated to examine
this assumption’s validity. The current assumption’s validity was examined by
quantifying ZESA’s contribution to the interconnected power system’s dynamic
performance.
2
The Eskom control area is currently experiencing extreme capacity constraints
and this result in a shortfall in reserves availability. There is a need to quantify
reserves provision from neighbouring utilities so that Eskom will be aware of the
support available from other SAPP members.
1.4 Significance of the study
The study validates the existing assumption on the Eskom-ZESA

interconnected power system dynamic performance and develops a model that
represents the Eskom-ZESA tie-line response during frequency disturbances.
1.5 Research questions
To validate the existing assumption the following research questions were

considered:
1. What dynamic behaviour must be examined in the proposed study?

2. What factors influence the specific Eskom-ZESA interconnected power
system dynamic behaviour?
3. What improvements can be made to the way the Eskom-ZESA
interconnected power system is presently operated?
1.6 Delimitations of the study
The study was initiated to quantify the governing response contribution of ZESA
to the interconnected power system. Hence the focus was on evaluating and
modelling the governing response of the ZESA system (observed through the
Eskom-ZESA tie-line). The Automatic Generation Control (AGC) system was
not modelled because it is slow and does not contribute to primary frequency
control; the study was focussed on primary frequency control.
The study is limited to typical (small) system frequency disturbances. Severe

disturbances that may lead to AC and DC system split at Songo were not
considered. Hence the Songo bus coupler behavior was not included in the
dynamic performance.
3
1.7 Definition of terms
Abbreviation Explanation
ACE Area control error
AGC Automatic generation control
DB_high Frequency dead-band high limit/boundary
DB_low Frequency dead-band low limit/boundary
DR Demand response
EMS Energy management system
Eskom (not abbreviation – electricity utility of South Africa)
GMPC Grid master power controller
HCB Hydroelectric Cahora Bassa
IR Instantaneous reserves
SAPP Southern African Power Pool
SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition
TLBC Tie-line bias control
4
ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
1.8 Assumptions
 The Grid Master Power Controller (GMPC) action is included in the

Eskom-ZESA tie-line response for small frequency deviations.
 AGC action is not considered because it acts outside the time of primary
frequency control (governing action).
 Eskom control area’s governing performance is known and understood,
so the focus is on the ZESA response (observed through the tie-line).
 Any governing response observed in the Eskom-ZESA tie-line is
assumed to be coming from the ZESA control area.
5
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 Frequency control
2.1.1 System inertia
The frequency of a power system is dependent on the real power (MW)

balance. In steady state, all alternators are generating at the same frequency
and constant phase angle. A change in real power demand at one point of the
network is reflected throughout the system by a change in frequency. When the
system generation and load imbalance occurs, the generation should be
increased or decreased to meet the load demand. Significant loss in generation
without an adequate system response can produce extreme frequency
excursions outside the working range of the plant [1].
In an interconnected power system with two or more independently controlled

areas, generation within each area has to be controlled to control frequency and
to maintain scheduled power interchange [2]. The control of frequency and
power generation is commonly referred to as Load-Frequency Control (LFC).
The real power delivered by the generator is controlled by the mechanical
power output of a prime mover such as steam turbine, gas turbine, hydro-
turbine or diesel engine. The basic concept of primary frequency control (speed
governing) is illustrated in Appendix A. The combined inertia of the generator
and the prime mover is accelerated by the unbalance in the applied torques as
per the equation of motion.
𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 (2.1)
Where 𝑇𝑎 is the acceleration torque
𝑇𝑚 is the mechanical torque
𝑇𝑒 is the electrical torque
6
2.1.2 Steady state power balance in one area
A fundamental principle of power system operation is that the total demand

(load + losses) must equal the total system generation for constant speed. If the
system under consideration is interconnected with other systems, power flow
through the tie-lines must be included in the power balance equation [2]. When
there is a load change, it is reflected instantaneously as a change in the
electrical torque 𝑇𝑒 of the generator. This causes a mismatch between the
mechanical torque 𝑇𝑚 and the electrical torque 𝑇𝑒 which in turn results in speed
variations as determined by the equation of motion.
In case of the unbalance, generation should be increased or decreased in order

to meet the demand. When the generation cannot be increased, load
curtailment or load shedding is activated to establish the balance. In a system
with one generator
𝑃 = 𝐷; generation (𝑃) is equal to the demand, 𝐷 (in MW)
𝑓 = 𝑓0 ; frequency (𝑓) is equal to the nominal value, 𝑓0 (in Hz)
There is a solution as long as the demand is less than 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 . For a greater
demand, a second generating unit should be connected to the system.
In a system with two generators (generator at 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 ):
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝐷 (2.2)
𝑓 = 𝑓0 (2.3)
The generation cost of each unit could be different. For example hydro, thermal,
nuclear etc. In that case it is important to fix the maximum generation at the
cheapest generating unit. This is known as the base load unit. The variable part
of the load is carried by the expensive unit.
7
2.1.3 Interconnected power systems
A control area is a region where internal generation is responsible for meeting

its internal load commitment. A collection of control areas with free flowing ties
is called a power pool. A combination of interconnected control areas with
monitored and controlled ties is called an interconnected power system [2].
In the analysis of Load Frequency Controls (LFCs), the focus is in the collective
performance of all the generators in the system. The inter-machine oscillations
and transmission system performance are therefore not considered [2]. A
coherent response of all generators to system changes is assumed and then all
generators are represented by an equivalent generator. The equivalent
generator has an inertia constant 𝑀𝑒𝑞 , which is equal to the sum of the inertia
constants of all generating units. It is driven by the combined mechanical
outputs of the individual turbines as shown below.
Figure 2.1 System equivalent for LFC analysis [2]
The effects of the system loads are lumped into a single damping constant D.
The speed of the equivalent generator represents the system frequency. The
frequency characteristic of the power system depends on the combined effect of
the droops of all the generator speed governors. It also depends on the
frequency characteristic of all the loads in the system. For a system with 𝑥
number of generators and a composite load damping constant of 𝐷, the steady
state frequency deviation following a load change ∆𝑃𝐿 is given by
∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 1 1 1
( + +⋯+ )+𝐷
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑥
∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 1 (2.4)
+𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝑞
8
Where 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 … … 𝑅𝑥 is the droop settings for the generator 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 … … . 𝐺𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent droop settings of the control area
2.1.4 Two area systems
Power systems are interconnected to improve security. An electrical power

system consists of many generating units and loads and the total demand
varies throughout the day. As the load changes randomly, the area frequency
and tie-line power interchange also vary. Load changes are compensated using
frequency control mechanisms to maintain the system frequency at the
scheduled value and maintain the net power interchanges with neighbouring
control areas at their scheduled values.
Figure 2.2 Two area system and electrical equivalent [2].
Figure 2.2 above depicts the interconnected power system which consists of
two areas connected by a tie-line of reactance 𝑋𝑡𝑖𝑒 . For load-frequency studies,
each area can be represented by an equivalent generating unit exhibiting its
overall performance as shown in Figure 2.3.
9
Figure 2.3 Two area system block diagram with primary speed control
only [2].
Figure 2.3 above depicts a block diagram representation of the system with
each area represented by an equivalent inertia 𝑀, load damping 𝐷, turbine and
governing system with an effective speed droop 𝑅. The tie-line is represented
by the synchronizing torque coefficient 𝑇. The steady state frequency deviation
(𝑓 − 𝑓0 ) is the same for the two areas.
∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝑓 = ∆𝑤1 = ∆𝑤2 = 1 1 (2.5)
( + )+(𝐷1 +𝐷2 )
𝑅1 𝑅2
In the interconnected power systems, the load frequency control scheme has to
be with two main control loops.
2.1.5 Droop background discussion
The droop (R) feature provides the system self-regulation to some extent [3]. It
is the ratio of frequency deviation (∆f) to change in power output (∆P). Droop
determines the steady-state speed versus load characteristic of the generating
unit.
10
∆𝑓 𝑓−𝑓0
𝑅=− = (2.6)
∆𝑃𝑚 𝑃0 −𝑃𝑚
Figure 2.4 Ideal steady-state characteristics of a governor with speed

droop [3]
The units of 𝑅 are 𝐻𝑧/𝑀𝑊 when ∆𝑓 is in 𝐻𝑧 and ∆𝑃 is in MW. However, if ∆𝑓

and ∆𝑃 are given in per unit; 𝑅 is also in per unit. The typical value for 𝑅 is 4%,
meaning that a 4% change in frequency will result in a 100% change in 𝑃𝑚 . If
the droop of all generating units in the system is 4%, all units will tend to share
load changes equally in terms of percentages of their respective ratings.
2.2 Literature review [4][5][6][7][8]
Modern power systems normally consist of interconnected areas where each

area has its own control center. Some of the advantages of interconnections
are:
 Interconnected areas can share reserves to handle peak loads and

unanticipated generator outages.
 Interconnected areas can tolerate large load changes with smaller
deviations compared to isolated areas.
11
The literature shows that most researchers use a generic two-area power
system model when performing multi-area system dynamic studies. However,
systems are not the same; therefore the model cannot be used to represent all
systems. Initially it was thought that the generic two-area system model cannot
work without modification in the case of the Eskom-ZESA power system
because of the bus coupler protection setting which has a direct impact on the
tie-line dynamic performance. The idea was that the modifications will be done
on the generic model to develop a model that represents the Eskom-ZESA
dynamic performance. However, after a thorough analysis of the HCB-ZESA-
Eskom interconnection explained in Section 3.7.2 it was clear that the bus
coupler behaviour can be excluded from the study (assume permanently
closed).
12
CHAPTER 3. UNDERSTANDING SYSTEM
REQUIREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
3.1 Grid code requirements
For governor requirements the relevant clause in the South African Grid Code is
Grid Code Requirements 6 (GCR 6) of the Network Code. This clause states
that all units above 50 MVA shall have an operational governor capable of
responding according to the minimum requirements set out in GCR 6. The
Network Code stipulates that the maximum allowable dead band shall be 0.15
Hz for governing units contracted for instantaneous reserves and 0.5 Hz for
units not contracted for instantaneous reserves. More importantly, no response
is required from online generators while the system frequency is within the dead
band. It is also stipulated that the governor shall be set to give a 4% droop
characteristic. Coal-fired units not equipped with a dead band facility shall have
a droop of 10% or less. These are the important Grid Code requirements for the
project.
3.2 SAPP Operating Guidelines requirements
SAPP Operating Guidelines state “Generating units with nameplate ratings of 5

MVA or greater should be equipped with governors operational with a droop
between 2% and 10% with an initial setting of 4% for Frequency Response to
ensure that the Control Area continuously adjusts its generation to its load plus
its net scheduled interchange unless restricted by regulatory mandates. Any
change from the initial 4% setting shall be approved by the Operating Sub-
Committee.”[9]. It also states that the frequency dead band for the governors on
generators shall be set to less than ±0.15 Hz. Lastly, the SAPP Operating
Guidelines say all turbine governors should, as a minimum, be fully responsive
to frequency deviations exceeding ±0.15 Hz according to the appropriate droop
characteristics. Effectively, the Southern African Power Pool (SAPP) governor
settings requirements and the South African Grid Code governor settings
13
requirements are the same. The Eskom’s representative at the Southern African
Power Pool (SAPP) confirmed that ZESA does not have a Grid Code in place;
they adopt the SAPP Operating Guidelines and the South African Grid Code
requirements.
3.3 System behaviour
The mismatch between the mechanical power fed into the generators and the
active power consumed by loads and losses is balanced by reducing or
increasing the energy stored in the rotating masses in the power system. Small
deviations from nominal frequency (as shown in Figure 3.1) are normal and
should not affect behaviour of any component in the network. Generator
governors are not expected to act while system frequency is within the dead
band (49.85 Hz – 50.15 Hz).
Figure 3.1 Eskom-ZESA interconnection normal frequency profile
A sudden loss of power produced by one or more generators in the power

system is compensated by other generators releasing energy stored in the
inertia of their rotating masses. This is somewhat counteracted by the self-
14
regulation effect of loads, leading to a reduced consumption of electrical power
at decreased frequencies. As a result of this effect, a new steady state will be
reached at a lower frequency.
Figure 3.2 Eskom-ZESA typical disturbance profile
The sum of the effect of speed droop governing and self-regulation of loads
determines the steady state frequency deviation after a disturbance; this is
called frequency response characteristic (FRC) and is labelled as β [1].
𝛽 = (1/𝑅) + 𝐷 (3.1)
Where,
1/𝑅 is the generator regulation or droop
𝐷 is the load damping characteristic
Consider Figure 3.3 below. From the frequency trace, NERC in [10] references
three key events to describe power system disturbance. Point A is the pre-
disturbance frequency, point C is the maximum excursion point and point B is
15
the settling frequency of the power system. The same approach was adopted
for calculation of the Eskom-ZESA tie-line response during disturbances.
Figure 3.3 Frequency trace (4 seconds resolution)
3.4 Primary frequency control in Eskom
Primary frequency control is needed to arrest a frequency fall within acceptable

limits following a contingency such as a generator trip or a sudden surge in load
as per SAGC and SAPP Operating Guidelines requirements. In the Eskom
system, primary frequency control is referred to as Instantaneous Reserves
(IR). It is provided by online generators (generation instantaneous reserve) and
demand response. In response to a frequency deviation, the available IR
capacity is activated automatically via direct control at the resource (generator
unit or customer site). It responds fully within 10 seconds and the response is
proportional to the system frequency deviation. Primary frequency control
interventions are staggered to achieve optimal performance.
16
3.4.1 Governing response
An online generator’s governing response is activated as soon as the system

frequency is outside the dead band (49.85 Hz – 50.15 Hz) as per Grid Code
requirements. The governor senses power system frequency deviations and
initiates adjustments to the mechanical input power of the generator to increase
or decrease the system frequency as required. A typical generator response is
shown in the diagram below.
Figure 3.4 Instantaneous Reserves from online generating unit
3.4.2 Demand Response (DR)
According to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Demand

Response (DR) is the change in usage by demand-side resources from their
17
normal consumption patterns in response to changes in the price of electricity
over time, or to incentive payments designed to induce lower electricity use at
times of high wholesale market prices or when system reliability is jeopardized
(such as a large drop in frequency). In Eskom, DR is used to induce low
electricity usage at times when system reliability is jeopardized. Hence, it falls
under ancillary services.
In Eskom, DR forms part of primary frequency control. Participants in DR are

customers who have agreed to provide reserves by reducing load on request
and have a valid service level agreement with Eskom. Instantaneous DR is the
component of DR reserved for low frequency events and contingencies related
to a loss of generation and subsequent declines in frequency.
Instantaneous DR is not dispatchable as it operates automatically via under-

frequency relays. If the system frequency declines to below the predetermined
threshold frequency setting (currently 49.65 Hz) for a specified time delay
setting (currently 4s), the under frequency relays at all contracted instantaneous
DR customer sites will operate to reduce the demand and arrest the frequency
at acceptable limits. That load will remain off the system for ten minutes or until
the system frequency is restored to above 49.85 Hz. A typical response of
instantaneous DR is shown in Figure 3.5 below.
Figure 3.5 Instantaneous Reserves from demand response
18
3.5 Eskom-ZESA tie-line behaviour during disturbances
The Eskom-ZESA tie-line is an AC transmission line connecting the Eskom and

ZESA control areas in the Southern African Power Pool. This line can import
and export power to and from the Eskom area. Since one of the objectives of
the study was to quantify ZESA’s contribution to governing response during
system frequency disturbances, the interest was on the tie-line behaviour when
Eskom is importing power. When there is a loss of generation in the Eskom
control area while tie-line is importing power, three things can happen.
- Tie-line trip
- Governing response
- Tie-line power flow change direction
3.5.1 Tie-line trip
Figure 3.6 Eskom-ZESA tie-line trip during frequency disturbance
It is very possible that the tie-line can trip during system frequency
disturbances. This would happen when the protective devices detect overload
on the transmission line and then open the respective circuit breakers.
19
3.5.2 Governing response
Figure 3.7 Tie-line power flow during frequency disturbance
This phenomenon can be explained using the interconnected systems theory

explained briefly on Appendix A. An increase in the load or the loss of
generation capacity in area 1 results in a frequency reduction in both areas and
a tie-line power flow deviation. Figure 3.7 shows a system disturbance that
occurred when the tie-line was scheduled to import 80 MW from the ZESA
control area to the Eskom control area. Before the frequency disturbance, the
tie-line power flow was slightly above the scheduled capacity. The frequency
disturbance was caused by loss of 326 MW in the Eskom control area. As a
result, the ZESA control area increased the export power (to Eskom) to arrest
the frequency decay in the interconnected power system. This performance
reflects the contribution of the regulation characteristics ( 1⁄𝑅 + 𝐷) of one area
to another.
20
3.5.3 Tie line power changes direction
Figure 3.8 Tie-line power flow changes direction during frequency

disturbance
Tie-line power flow direction reversal is experienced when the generation deficit
occurs in the area that was exporting power before the frequency disturbance.
Theoretically, when a significant amount of generation capacity trips in the area
that was exporting power; the state of the interconnected power system will
change completely. However, the phenomenon depicted on Figure 3.8 is not
purely the contribution of regulation characteristics ( 1⁄𝑅 + 𝐷) of one area to
another.
Figure 3.8 shows a system disturbance that occurred when the tie-line was
scheduled to import 150 MW from the ZESA control area to the Eskom control
area. Before the frequency disturbance, tie-line power flow was slightly below
the scheduled value. The frequency disturbance was caused by the loss of 374
MW in the Eskom control area. The ZESA control area initially increased the
export power (to Eskom) to arrest the frequency decay in the interconnected
power system. System frequency was not recovered because of the reserves
21
shortage in the power system; therefore it settled around 49.60 Hz. The Grid
Master Power Controller (GMPC) at Hydroelectric Cahora Bassa (HCB) power
station then opened the bus coupler at Songo due the continued frequency
error. After GMPC action, the GMPC control mode changes to frequency
control mode. The power flow change from import to export is due to the GMPC
action.
3.6 Calculating the Eskom-ZESA tie-line response to

frequency deviations using TEMSE data
The Eskom National Control Centre uses the Transmission Energy

Management System (TEMSE) to operate the power system. This system has a
facility to store historical information for future reference or investigations. Only
incidents in which the frequency before disturbance (pre-disturbance frequency)
exceeds or equals 49.85 Hz (i.e. the frequency lies in the dead band of 50±0.15
Hz) and minimum frequency is less than or equal to 49.75 Hz are archived. This
is because there is an assumption that the full governor response occurs below
49.75 Hz due to the action of the response limiters in most units. Disturbances
that satisfy these conditions are captured and archived in the system. However,
not all disturbances are useful to evaluate system performance. Only a fraction
of events can give a good representation of system performance. Therefore a
criterion to choose those events was developed.
3.6.1 Selection of system disturbances
As discussed in Section 3.4, Eskom uses DR as part of primary frequency

control. In this mechanism, the electricity user has an agreement with Eskom to
automatically curtail consumption whenever the system frequency goes below a
pre-set frequency threshold. The demand reduction from this mechanism has to
be taken into account when evaluating frequency response i.e. the frequency
disturbances where these mechanisms were used had to be ignored.
Disturbances where the minimum frequency was just above 49.70 Hz were
selected for analysis. The reason for using 49.70 Hz as a threshold is that there
is minimum manual intervention during small disturbances. Secondly, demand
22
response frequency threshold is below 49.70 Hz. Only online generators are
expected to respond to frequency disturbances of this nature.
3.6.2 Eskom-ZESA typical response to frequency deviations
The system frequency disturbances that can be used as a good representation

of the interconnection’s response to frequency deviations were identified as
explained above. Each frequency disturbance was caused by the loss of
capacity shown on “Lost Power (MW)” column depicted in Table 3.1 below.
Figure 3.9 Event 1 frequency response
23
24
Pre-disturbance and maximum excursion/response values were deduced as

explained in Section 3.3. Tie-line maximum response is calculated by
subtracting pre-disturbance loading level from the maximum sent out loading.
25
Table 3.1 Eskom-ZESA frequency response analysis
Eskom Tie-
Demand Line
Pre- Eskom
Lost Max Pre- Tie-line max
disturb Settling max
Event Power excursio Pre- disturb response
ance freq (Hz) response
(MW) n (Hz) disturbance ance (MW)
(Hz) (MW)
Power
(MW) (MW)
Event 1 250 49.879 49.736 49.81 31508.00 190 192 130
Event 2 351 49.858 49.725 49.81 29607.00 210 254 138
Event 3 197 49.935 49.739 49.86 30955.00 110 252 156
The measurements from SCADA show that the ZESA system contributes to the
interconnected power system’s frequency response. The analysis proves that
governing response observed on the Eskom-ZESA tie-line when there is a loss
of generation in the Eskom area cannot be deemed negligible. In fact, the
frequency deviation is arrested by the combination of governing response from
Eskom generation and the support from ZESA through the tie line. This is very
important in validating the existing assumption as mentioned in the problem
statement.
3.7 Factors influencing tie line behaviour
3.7.1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
AGC is a centralised control loop for system frequency control. Its input is the
Area Control Error (ACE) which is calculated by considering tie line power flows
and system frequency. The ACE equation is shown below.
𝐴𝐶𝐸 = (𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + 10𝛽(𝐹𝐴 − 𝐹𝑆 ) (3.2)
Where:
𝑇𝐴 is the tie-line actual power flow
𝑇𝑠 is the scheduled tie-line power flow
26
𝐹𝐴 is the actual system frequency
𝐹𝑆 is the scheduled/nominal system frequency
𝛽 is the control area frequency bias
AGC can operate in three different modes [11]. In each mode the ACE
calculation is based on the control objective. Tie-line biased control (TLBC)
mode is the default mode in the interconnected areas because it considers both
the tie-line power flow error and frequency error in the ACE calculation.
Table 3.2 AGC modes and corresponding ACE
AGC Mode ACE calculation
Tie-line biased control (TLBC) (𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + 10𝛽(𝐹𝐴 − 𝐹𝑆 )
Constant frequency control (CFC) 0 + 10𝛽(𝐹𝐴 − 𝐹𝑆 )
Constant net interchange control(CNIC) (𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝑠 ) + 0
Figure 3.12 shows the governing response while a generator is also on AGC.
The generator was scheduled to provide instantaneous reserves (governor
enabled) and regulating reserves (AGC switched on) during the hour.
27
Figure 3.12 Generator unit governing response while on AGC
When the system frequency went below 49.85 Hz (DB_low), the generator (and
other generators scheduled to provide instantaneous reserves) responded
instantaneously to arrest the frequency decline. As a result, the system
frequency recovered back to the dead band. Generator output (sent out) settled
at a higher level. Immediately after that, 450 MW load tripped resulting in a
frequency overshoot to above 50.15 Hz. The generator (and other generators
scheduled to provide instantaneous reserves) responded instantaneously by
reducing power output. This response brought system frequency back to close
to 50.15 Hz. At this stage this generating unit was close to the AGC low limit;
therefore, other units that were available to provide AGC capacity were used to
bring the system frequency back to the dead band. When the system frequency
was in the dead band the unit sent out and set point were constant. Later on
when the system frequency was close to the lower dead band threshold the unit
was ramped up using the AGC system.
The above discussion shows that primary frequency control (governing) is not
active when the system frequency is within the dead band (49.85 Hz – 50.15
28
Hz); only AGC is active in this region. When the system frequency goes outside
the dead band both governing and AGC are active. However, governing
response is more dominant because of the droop and frequency deviation (
(1 / R)f ) influence. Thus, the unit responds to governing first and later it starts
responding to the AGC action. While the unit is governing the set point is
adjusted accordingly as required by the TEMSE AGC control system.
In the study the interest was on governing response contribution by ZESA to the
interconnected power system. Since it is evident that AGC action only starts
after governing response, it was not considered in the study.
3.7.2 GMPC in Cahora Bassa
Figure 3.13 Cahora Bassa-ZESA-Eskom interconnection [12]
Above is the overview of the HCB-ZESA-Eskom system interconnection. There

are 5 generators at Hydroelectric Cahora Bassa (HCB) power station; these
generators feed into the dual 220 kV busbar in Songo substation. The dual
busbar substation consists of an AC busbar and a DC busbar as shown in
Figure 3.14 below. The HVDC is connected to the DC busbar whereas the AC
busbar is normally used to supply some of the load in ZESA through the Songo-
Bindura transmission line. To control power generation and its dispatch through
29
parallel AC and DC interconnections at HCB the Grid Master Power Controller
(GMPC) is used. The GMPC is the central power controller that prescribes the
power transmission orders for the HVDC and AC line while ordering appropriate
generation for each busbar. All load and generation limits are respected. It
maintains and controls power balance under normal and fault conditions for
both interconnected and separate busbars.
Figure 3.14 Songo substation single line diagram
Above is the single line diagram of HCB and Songo substation. The bulk of
power generated in HCB flows directly to Eskom through the HVDC system,
some of the power is delivered to ZESA (also connected to the Eskom AC grid)
through the AC transmission line [12]. The network is normally operated with
the HVDC system connected to the DC busbar and the AC line connected to
the AC busbar. Normal operation is with the AC busbar and DC busbar coupled
via a single bus coupler breaker. One of the advantages of operating with the
bus coupler closed is full exploitation of all machines. Power flows from the bus
where there is surplus power to the bus where there is power deficit. GMPC has
bus coupler protection functionality. The bus coupler protection operation
results in AC and DC system split. AC and DC system splitting is usually
required for severe disturbances or when the AC filters trip. The AC system
must be protected against harmful harmonic voltages or currents generated by
30
the HVDC which may be amplified by network resonance. GMPC bus coupler
protection settings are as following.
Bus Coupler Protection in GMPC (related to frequency):
Time delay :
If 49,2 Hz < f < 49,6 Hz for continuous t ≥ 18 sec
(∆ Hysteresis = 0,05 Hz for 49,6 Hz) - Underfrequency
If 50,4 Hz < f < 50,8 Hz for continuous t ≥ 18 sec
(∆ Hysteresis = 0,05 Hz for 50,4 Hz) – Overfrequency
The settings are such that when the system frequency is below 49.6 Hz but
above 49.2 Hz for more than 18 seconds continuously the bus coupler
protection will operate; this is for under frequencies. For over frequencies, the
settings are such that when the system frequency is above 50.4 Hz but below
50.8 Hz for more than 18 seconds continuously the bus coupler protection will
operate.
Instantaneous (200 msec.s delay):
If f f ≤ 49,2 Hz (∆ Hysteresis = 0,05 Hz) - Underfrequency
If f ≥ 50,8 Hz (∆ Hysteresis = 0,05 HZ) – Overfrequency
For extreme frequency deviation the bus coupler protection operates

instantaneously as per above settings.
Power coordination in the GMPC
It is important to understand that the GMPC has the power order coordination
feature. This feature coordinates generation with the combined HVDC and
Bundira line orders/contracts. The GMPC gives precedence to the AC loads.
Therefore, the HVDC load is not supplied until all AC loads have been satisfied
by generation. When the generator that was supplying AC loads trips, its
contribution to the AC load is immediately subtracted from the HVDC contract.
31
GMPC operation modes
According to [12], GMPC has three modes of operation:
- Isolated operation in frequency control mode

- Coupled operation in ZESA control mode
- Coupled operation in angle control mode
Isolated operation mode is applicable when the bus coupler in Figure 3.14 is
open. In this mode, the GMPC controls the turbines on the AC bus to provide
constant power to ZESA [12]. On the DC bus the GMPC maintains the exact
power balance at 50 Hz by modulating the HVDC output around its base power
order depending on the frequency error [12]. Coupled operation in ZESA control
mode is applicable when the bus coupler is closed but Eskom-ZESA link
opened. In this mode, the GMPC supplies constant power to ZESA [12]. The
third mode is coupled operation in angle control mode; this mode is applicable
when bus coupler is closed and Eskom-ZESA link closed. According to [12] the
HVDC is operated in constant power mode in coupled operation. This is
achieved by modulating HVDC power as a function of the derivative of the
Cahora-Bassa/Apollo voltage and the derivative of the Bundira power.
Different control strategies are implemented for different modes of operation.

The GMPC has a wide range of features; these are discussed in [12].
32
Figure 3.15 GMPC software overview [12].
GMPC has automatic selection of control mode which is essential for realizing
robust and safe controls for parallel AC/DC operation. The control mode
selection is based on evaluation of the rate of change of angle and is therefore
independent of status signals from remote links [12].
To model bus coupler’s behavior during the disturbances the following must be
understood:
- GMPC fundamentals
- All conditions required to trigger bus coupler operation
- GMPC automatic mode selection
- Control strategies used in different GMPC modes
Modelling the bus coupler was going to increase the scope of the study and
additional time was going to be required. As a result the study was limited to
ZESA governing response during typical (small) system frequency disturbances
(bus coupler closed and GMPC coupled operation mode). Severe disturbances
that may lead to AC and DC system split at Songo were not considered. The
33
GMPC was not modelled. The assumption is that GMPC action is embedded in
the Eskom-ZESA tie-line response for small frequency disturbances.
3.7.3 HVDC typical response to frequency deviations
The HVDC behaviour during the frequency disturbances is influenced by the

GMPC as explained in the preceding section. The GMPC has to satisfy the
constant power contractual requirement on the Bindura line; hence the AC
loads take priority in GMPC power coordination. During small system frequency
disturbances, the HVDC power flow is not expected to change. Unless the
frequency disturbance affected the power supply to Bundira line (i.e. generator
trip in Cahora Bassa).
Figure 3.16 HVDC performance during event 1
34
Event 1 and event 2 were due to loss of generation in the Eskom area. The lost
generation had little or no impact on the Bindura line power flow; as a result, the
HVDC power flow remained constant as shown in Figure 3.16 and Figure 3.17.
35
Event 3 was due to the generator trip at Songo. According to the Eskom
morning report, generator 3 at Songo tripped due to an earth fault. Based on the
HVDC response, one can conclude that the generator trip at Songo reduced the
power supply to the Bindura line. Hence the GMPC reduced the HVDC power to
maintain constant power on the Bendura line. This is in line with the GMPC
power coordination feature discussed in [12].
36
CHAPTER 4. MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND
VERIFICATION
4.1 Introduction
Tie-line behaviour during small system frequency disturbances has been

evaluated in Section 3.6. The aim of this section is to develop a model that will
mimic tie-line governing behaviour. The standard plant model frame structure
shown below was adopted. As seen on the diagram; the frame consists of
generator block, power system stabilizer (PSS), automatic voltage regulator
(AVR), excitation system and governor. Standard models for these systems
already exist in simulation packages like DIgSILENT PowerFactory.
Figure 4.1 Plant model frame structure
The frame was created in DIgSILENT PowerFactory, all relevant systems for
frequency studies depicted on the above diagram were included.
37
4.2 Plant model frame components
4.2.1 Governor system
The fundamental function of a governor system is to control speed or load of the

generator. The primary frequency (speed) control function involves feeding back
the speed error to control the governor valve position. In order to ensure
satisfactory and stable parallel operation of multiple units, the speed governor is
provided with a droop characteristic [2].
The modelling of the turbine governor is of greatest importance when studying

frequency control and stability [13]. The studies in this project deal primarily with
primary frequency control. With this understanding in mind, the modelling of the
turbine governor is particularly important. A typical mechanical-hydraulic speed
governing system consists of a speed governor, a speed relay, a hydraulic
servomotor and governor controlled valves which are functionally related as
shown in the Figure 4.2 [13].
Figure 4.2 Mechanical-Hydraulic Speed governing system for steam

turbine functional block diagram [13].
The simplest steam turbine speed governor model is TGOV1. This model
represents droop characteristic (R), main steam control valve motion and limits
(T1, VMAX, VMIN). It also has a single lead-lag block representing time constants
associated with the motion of the steam through the re-heater and turbine
stages.
38
Figure 4.3 TGOV1 steam turbine model [14]
A model that is slightly more detailed than TGOV1 is the IEESG0 model. In this
model droop is represented by K1 which is equivalent to 1/R in the TGOV1
model, two turbine fractions are introduced (K2 and K3) to represent different
stages in the steam turbine [14].
Figure 4.4 IEESG0 steam turbine model [14]
IEEEG1 is the next level model of a steam turbine and the one recommended
for use [14]. It includes the rate limits on the main control valve (U0 and UC), four
steam-stages and the ability to cross compound units.
39
Figure 4.5 IEEEG1 model
All of the models described above assume constant steam pressure and
temperature. Parameter description is shown in the Appendix. These models
come with default parameters which have to be tuned to achieve the desired
performance.
A more detailed steam turbine and boiler system model is represented in the
TGOV5 model. This model goes even deeper into actual control behaviour and
turbine dynamics. TGOV5 is presently available in some commercial software
tools such as DIgSILENT PowerFactory. The turbine and droop control model in
TGOV5 is identical to the IEEEG1 model. The additional features in TGOV5
are:
- Added boiler dynamics
- Coordinated controls acting on current electrical power and pressure error
- Emulation of the drum pressure controller and fuel dynamics
The TGOV5 model is very complex. Models of such complexity are rarely used
or appropriate for large scale power system simulations [14].
4.2.2 Power system stabilizer (PSS)
The PSS is widely used for improving the damping effect in the frequency range
of the electromechanical modes of rotor oscillations. If the PSS is tuned
40
properly, it compensates for negative damping associated with the turbine-
governor and high gain automatic voltage regulators [14]. A standard power
system stabilizer available in the simulation package was added to the plant
model frame to provide stability. This PSS was not tuned for small signal
stability because the study was focussed on primary frequency control.
4.2.3 AVR and Excitation
The exciter provides dc power to the synchronous machine field winding. The
AVR compares the generator terminal voltage with the reference voltage which
represents the desired terminal voltage. It provides load compensation needed
to hold the generator terminal voltage at a constant voltage when required. This
functionality is important during frequency control studies. As a result, the
standard AVR available in the simulation package was added to the plant model
frame.
4.3 Grid used to tune the generator model
The Eskom network behaviour is well understood and a detail model exists in a
simulation package (DIgSILENT PowerFactory). The objective of this project
was to tune a generator to mimic the tie-line behaviour during frequency
disturbances. Therefore the grid set up was such that ZESA is represented by a
single generator and Eskom was represented by the external grid. The two are
connected by the transmission line as shown in the diagram below.
41
Figure 4.6 Grid used to tune generator to the mimic tie-line behaviour
As explained in the previous section, the standard plant model frame structure
was adopted for generator representation. Relevant blocks were added and the
model was run for 1 minute without disturbance to ensure that it is stable.
Results are shown in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7 Steady state simulation run
The steady state simulation run shows that the models are stable.
42
4.4 Editing frame for tuning purposes
The standard plant model frame is shown in Figure 4.1. The input signals to the
governor are active power and frequency. The output signal is the turbine
power. To tune the governor such that the generator exhibits the required
behaviour the frame was edited. This was done so that the measured frequency
is the input to the governor instead of the generator speed which is normally
feedback from the generator output. The modified plant model frame is shown
in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8 Edited plant model frame structure
The edited plant frame makes it possible to inject frequency measurements to

the governor model and then tune the governor parameters to achieve the
desired generator output power.
4.5 Generator governor tuning strategy
The approach adopted for tuning the generator governor system is very simple
and straight forward. Typical Eskom generator parameters were used in a
generator model. During the governor tuning exercise the generator parameters
are not changed. Only the governor parameters are tuned. The governor
system is excited using frequency measurements. The Eskom-ZESA tie-line
power flow profile for the specific event, which is the set of available
measurements, is compared to the simulated output of the generator. When the
generator output does not following the measured Eskom-ZESA tie-line power
43
flow profile. The relevant governor parameters are tuned. This is an iterative
exercise which is done until the simulated output is close to the measurements.
Figure 4.9 Block diagram of model tuning
4.6 Simulation results
The system disturbances that can be used as a good representation of the

interconnected power system’s response to frequency deviations were identified
and analysed in Section 3.6. Event 1 and event 2 (from Section 3.6.2) were
used as an example to show how the developed model performs against real
system disturbances. For these particular events, the frequency measurements
and tie-line power flow data were retrieved from the SCADA historical
information database. The frequency profile was injected into the generator’s
governor system. The governor parameters were tuned such that the generator
output matches the tie-line power flow behaviour. Two different types of
governor models were used; firstly the IEEEG1 governor was tuned to control
generator output to match tie-line performance and then the TGOV5 governor
model was used. Simulation results are shown in Figure 4.10.
44
Figure 4.10 Event 1 IEEEG1 governor model simulation result
The IEEEG1 governor model is a simplified governor representation. As a

result, it is not easy to tune parameters to match tie-line response. However, the
performance is acceptable and it can be used to represent the tie-line governor
response.
Figure 4.11 Event 1 TGOV5 governor model (without frequency dead

band) simulation results
The TGOV5 governor model is very complex as discussed in Section 4.2. The
model includes boiler dynamics, and this improves performance such that it is
45
possible to tune the parameters to follow the tie-line performance as close as
necessary. Since it was clear that the TGOV5 model performed better than the
IEEEG1 model in event 1, in event 2 the IEEEG1 governor was not used.
simulation
In event 2, the system frequency gradually declined from 50 Hz to the lower

dead band limit. The governor model without the frequency dead band as
specified in [15] starts responding immediately the frequency deviation is
detected. The frequency dead band was introduced in the TGOV5 model and
the governor parameters were tuned to achieve the required performance. The
simulation results are shown in Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14 below.
46
simulation results
simulation results
4.7 Summary of the results
In summary, system performance was analysed using Energy Management

System (EMS) historical data. The analysis proves that governing response
observed on the Eskom-ZESA tie-line when there is a loss of generation in the
Eskom area cannot be deemed negligible. In fact, the frequency deviation is
arrested by the combination of governing response from the Eskom generation
and the support from ZESA through the tie-line.
47
The generator model that mimics the tie-line behaviour during frequency
disturbances was developed and tested using real system disturbance data.
The TGOV5 model is capable of replicating system performance, whereas the
IEEEG1 model is very simplified and not easy to tune to achieve real system
performance. The existing assumption was validated and the system model was
developed as per the study objectives. The research questions were addressed
during the course of the study. Details are discussed in the following chapter.
48
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This section of the document presents conclusions made from the study,
describes how research questions were answered, presents recommendations
and presents suggestions on further research work.
5.2 Conclusions from the study
The main objectives of the study were to quantify the Eskom-ZESA tie-line’s
contribution to primary frequency control during system frequency disturbances
and develop a generator model to represent the tie-line behaviour. To achieve
the first objective, background study on frequency control, interconnected
systems and two area systems was performed. After understanding the
fundamental theory, the system behaviour was studied. This resulted in
calculating ZESA response to frequency disturbances to validate the existing
assumption.
The governing response through the Eskom-ZESA tie-line was analysed

thoroughly and the results show that there is significant support from ZESA
during system frequency disturbances. This proves that the existing assumption
is not valid anymore. The generator model that represents the tie-line’s
behaviour during system frequency disturbances was developed.
5.3 Research questions
At commencement of the study it was highlighted that to validate the existing

assumption the following research questions were to be considered:
1. What dynamic behaviour must be examined in the proposed study?
49
2. What factors influence the specific Eskom-ZESA interconnection
dynamic behaviour?
3. What improvements can be made to the way the Eskom-ZESA
interconnection is presently operated?
These questions were addressed during the course of the study.
5.3.1 What dynamic behaviour must be examined in the proposed

study?
To address this question the tie-line behaviour was studied and understood.
What came out of the study is that the tie-line can import or export power to or
from the Eskom area. Since one of the objectives of the study was to quantify
ZESA’s contribution to governing response during system frequency
disturbances, the interest is on the tie-line behaviour when Eskom is importing
power. Section 3.5 describes three things that can happen when there is a loss
of generation in Eskom while the tie-line is importing power:
1. Tie-line trip
2. Governing
3. Tie-line power flow direction reversal from import (to Eskom) to export
The dynamic behaviour that must be examined in the study was governing
response while the tie-line is exporting power from ZESA to Eskom. This leads
to conclusions as to whether the current assumption is valid or not.
5.3.2 What factors influence the specific Eskom-ZESA interconnection

dynamic behaviour?
Section 3.1 and 3.2 of the report outline the South African Grid Code and
Southern African Power Pool Operating Guidelines requirements respectively.
These requirements have significant influence on the Eskom-ZESA
interconnection dynamic behaviour. Firstly, there is a frequency dead band of
±0.15 Hz for units providing instantaneous reserves and ±0.5 Hz dead band for
units not providing instantaneous reserves. Governing response is not expected
within the frequency dead band. Secondly, there is a droop setting requirement
50
of 4 % for all units providing instantaneous reserves and 10 % for units not
equipped with frequency dead band.
Section 3.7 of the report explains how Automatic Generation Control and Grid
Master Power Controller (in HCB) can influence the Eskom-ZESA
interconnected power system dynamic behaviour.
5.3.3 What improvements can be made to the way the Eskom-ZESA

interconnection is presently operated?
The answer to this research question can be derived from the

recommendations. Section 3.6 of the report shows the analysis of the tie-line
response during frequency disturbances. It is clear that ZESA’s contribution to
the interconnected power system governing response is significant. The
improvement that can be made is to consider procuring Instantaneous
Reserves from the neighbouring utility to meet power system requirements,
especially when the utility is experiencing extreme capacity constraints.
5.4 Recommendations
It is recommended that ZESA’s governing response be considered when

calculating Instantaneous Reserves requirements in Eskom since the existing
assumption is not valid.
South Africa is experiencing extreme capacity constraints and as a result is

linked to the diminishing operating reserves availability. Therefore it is
recommended that Eskom explore the possibilities of procuring reserves as
ancillary services from the neighbouring utilities to meet power system
requirements since it has been proven that ZESA can provide significant
governing response during system disturbances.
5.5 Suggestions for further research
Possible further research is:
51
1. Develop a detailed power system model of all Southern African Power
Pool (SAPP) utilities and tune each generator governor model to
represent SAPP primary frequency control performance.
2. Develop HCB-Apollo HVDC model that can be used for SAPP power
system studies.
3. Develop Automatic Generation Control (AGC) model and perform a study
to investigate both power system primary and secondary control during
frequency disturbances.
4. Investigate consequences attached to selling or buying ancillary services
from the neighbouring utilities within SAPP.
52
REFERENCES
[1] EPRI Power System Dynamics Tutorial, Frequency Control Draft, March
2002
[2] P. Kundur; Power System Stability and Control; Fifth reprint, New Delhi,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.
[3] RSA Grid Code Secretariat, The South African Grid Code - System
Operation Code, Version 9.0, July 2014
[4] K.P. Singh Parmar, S. Majhi, D.P. Kothari; Improvement of Dynamic
Performance of LFC of the Two Area Power System: An Analysis using
MATLAB; International Journal of Computer Applications (0975-8887),
Volume 40- No.10, February 2012.
[5] M. Mohadjer, N. Kheir; Robustness and tie line stiffness in a multi-area
interconnected power system; American Control Conference, 1988.
[6] O. Elgerd, C.E. Fosha; Optimum Megawatt-Frequency Control of Multi Area
Electric Energy Systems; Power Apparatus and Systems, IEEE
Transactions on, 1970, Page(s): 556-563.
[7] D.D. Rasolomampionona; A Modified Power System Model for AGC
Analysis; IEEE Bucharest Power Tech Conference, June 28th – July 2nd,
2009
[8] B. Venkata Prasanth, S.V. Jayara, Kumar; Load frequency control for a two
area interconnected power system using robust genetic algorithm controller;
Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 2005 – 2008
[9] SAPP Operating guidelines, Revision 1.0 , 29 June 2012
[10] North American Electric Reliability Corporation, “ Balancing and frequency
control – A Technical Document Prepared by the NERC Resources
Subcommittee”, January 26, 2011
[11] M. Kurup, M. Ntusi, M. Gumede; Tuning automatic generation control of the
Eskom power system; Cigre Joint Colloquium of study committees C1, C2
and C5; Somerset West, October 2013
[12] P.V. Goosen, P. Riedel, J.W. Strauss; GMPC Enables Energy Transmission
over Interconnected SAPP Grid, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
Volume: 18, Issue: 3, Year: 2003
53
[13] IEEE Committee Report; Dynamic Models for Steam and Hydroturbine in
Power System Studies; Trans IEEE, PAS-92, pp. 1904 – 1915, 1973
[14] Power System Dynamic Performance Committee; Dynamic Models for
Turbine-Governors in Power System Studies; Technical Report PES-TR1,
IEEE Power & Energy Society, January 2013
[15] RSA Grid Code Secretariat; The South African Grid Code - The Network
Code, Version 9.0, July 2014.
[16] T. Kennedy, S.M. Hoyt, C.F. Abell; Variable non-linear tie-line frequency
bias for interconnected systems control, IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, Vol. 3, No. 3, August 1988.
[17] NRS 048-9:2010 “Electricity Supply – Quality Of Supply Part 9: Load
reduction practices, system restoration practices, and critical load and
essential load requirements under system emergencies”, 2010.
[18] H.B. Ruud, S.B. Farnham; A New Automatic Load Control for Turbine
Generators; American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Volume: 68, Issue:
2, Year: 1949.
54
APPENDIX A: LITERATURE REVIEW AND
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
A1 Frequency control background discussion
A1.1 Inertia
The basic concept of primary frequency control (speed governing) is best

illustrated by considering an isolated generating unit supplying a local load as
shown in the diagram below.
Figure A.0.1 Generator supplying isolated load [2]
Turbine-generator units operating in the power system contain stored kinetic

energy due to their rotating masses [16]. If there is a sudden increase in system
load, stored kinetic energy is released to initially supply the load increase. The
electrical torque 𝑇𝑒 of each turbine-generator unit increases to supply the load
increase, while mechanical torque 𝑇𝑚 of the turbine initially remains constant.
From Newton’s law of motion
𝐽𝛼 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 (A.1)
Where 𝐽 = combined moment of inertia of generator and turbine in kg.m 2
𝑇𝑚 = mechanical torque in N.m
𝑇𝑒 = electromagnetic torque in N.m
𝛼 = acceleration coefficient
55
The acceleration α is therefore negative. Each turbine-generator decelerates
and the rotor speed drops as kinetic energy is released to supply the load
increase. When there is an unbalance between the torques acting on the rotor,
the net torque causing acceleration (or deceleration) is
𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 (A.2)
Where 𝑇𝑎 is the acceleration torque in N.m
𝑇𝑚 is the mechanical torque in N.m
𝑇𝑒 is the electromagnetic torque in N.m
The combined inertia of the generator and the prime mover is accelerated by
the unbalanced in the applied torques. Hence, the equation of motion is
𝑑𝑤𝑚
𝐽 = 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑒 (A.3)
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝐽 is the combined moment of inertia of generator and turbine in kg.m 2
𝑊𝑚 is the angular velocity of the rotor, mech. Rad/s
𝑡 is the time, seconds
The rotor speed or generator frequency indicates a balance or imbalance of

generator electrical torque 𝑇𝑒 and turbine mechanical torque 𝑇𝑚 [16]. If speed or
frequency decreases, the electrical torque is greater than mechanical torque
(neglecting generator losses). Similarly, if the speed or frequency increases, the
electrical torque is less than mechanical torque.
A1.2 Steady state power balance in one area
Generator frequency is the appropriate control signal to govern the mechanical

output power of the turbine [16]. The steady state frequency power relation for
turbine-governor control is
56
1
∆𝑝𝑚 = ∆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 − ∆𝑓 (A.4)
𝑅
Where ∆𝑝𝑚 is the change in turbine mechanical power output
∆𝑓 is the change in frequency
∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the change in a reference power setting
𝑅 is the regulation constant
The steady state frequency power relation for one area of an interconnected
power system can be determined by summing (2.4) for each generator in the
area. Noting that ∆f is the same for each unit.
∆𝑝𝑚(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) = ∆𝑝𝑚1 + ∆𝑝𝑚2 + ∆𝑝𝑚3 + ∆𝑝𝑚4 + ⋯
1 1
= (∆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓1 + ∆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓2 + ⋯ ) − (𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯ ) ∆𝑓
1 2
1 1
= ∆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) − (𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯ ) ∆𝑓 (A.5)
1 2
Where ∆𝑝𝑚(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) is the total change in turbine mechanical power within the area
∆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) is the total change in reference power settings within the area
The area frequency response 𝛽 is defined as
1 1
𝛽 = (𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯ ) (A.6)
1 2
Using (2.5) and (2.6)
∆𝑝𝑚(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) = ∆𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) − 𝛽∆𝑓 (A.7)
A2 Generator response to load change
The load change is reflected instantaneously as a change in the electrical

torque of the generator as explained in Appendix 1. This results in a mismatch
between mechanical torque and electrical torque which leads to speed
57
variations as determined by the equation of motion. The following transfer
function represents the relationship between rotor speed as a function of the
electrical and mechanical torques.
Figure A.0.2 Transfer function relating speed and torques [2]
Where: 𝑠 = Laplace operator
𝑇𝑚 is the mechanical torque (p.u.)
𝑇𝑒 is the electrical torque (p.u.)
𝑇𝑎 is the acceleration torque (p.u.)
𝐻 is the inertia constant (𝑀𝑊 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑀𝑉𝐴)
∆𝑤𝑟 is the rotor speed deviation (p.u.)
The relationship between power 𝑃 and torque 𝑇 is given by
𝑃 = 𝑤𝑟 𝑇 (A.8)
Figure 2.3 can be express in ∆𝑃𝑚 and ∆𝑃𝑒 as follows
Figure A.0.3 Transfer function relating speed and power [2]
58
A3 Load response to frequency deviation
In general, the power system load is a composite of resistive loads and motor
loads. Resistive loads are independent of the system frequency. For the motor
loads, the electrical power changes with frequency due to changes in the motor
speed. The overall frequency-dependent characteristic of a composite load may
be expressed as:
∆𝑃𝑒 = ∆𝑃𝐿 + 𝐷∆𝑤𝑟 (A.9)
Where: ∆𝑃𝐿 is the non –frequency sensitive load change
𝐷∆𝑤𝑟 is the frequency sensitive load change
𝐷 is the load damping constant (expressed as a percent change in

the load for one percent change in frequency)
The block diagram including the effect of the load damping is shown below
Figure A.0.4 Rotor dynamics transfer function [2]
This can be expressed in standard form in terms of gain and time constant as:
Figure A.0.5 Standard form block diagram
59
Where
𝐾 = 1/𝐷, 𝑇 = 𝑀/𝐷 (A.10)
In the case where there is no speed governor, the system response to a load
change is determined by the inertia constant and the damping constant. This
can be expressed as following:
Figure A.0.6 System without governor
For a step reduction in load by x per unit, Laplace transform of the change in
load is
−𝑥
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) = (A.11)
𝑠
From block diagram
−𝑥 𝐾
∆𝑤𝑟 (𝑠) = − ( 𝑠 ) (1+𝑠𝑇)
𝑡
= −𝑥𝐾𝑒 −𝑇 + 𝑥𝐾 (A.12)
For example if the change in load is 0.01 𝑝𝑢, 𝐷 = 0.75, 𝑀 = 10
−0.01
∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) =
𝑠
𝑡
−0.01 𝐾
∆𝑤𝑟 (𝑠) = − ( ) (1+𝑠𝑇) = −0.01 ∗ 1.33𝑒 −13.33 + 0.01 ∗ 1.33 = −0.0133𝑒 −0.075𝑡 +
𝑠
0.0133
This gives a first order response with time constant 𝑇 = 13.33 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠, steady
state frequency deviation of 0.0133 𝑝. 𝑢. (∆𝑃𝐿 /𝐷).
60
A4 Interconnected systems theory
An electrical power system consists of many generating units and loads and the
total demand varies throughout the day. As the load changes randomly, the
area frequency and tie line power interchange also vary. The load changes are
compensated using frequency control mechanisms to maintain the system
frequency at the scheduled value and maintain the net power interchanges with
the neighbouring control areas at their scheduled values.
Figure 2.2 shows the interconnected power system which consists of two areas
connected by a tie line of the reactance Xtie. A control area is the portion of the
interconnected power system to which a common generation and load scheme
is applied. In Figure 2.3, the electrical equivalent of the system with which each
area is represented by the voltage source behind the equivalent reactance is
shown. The power flow on the tie line from area 1 to area 2 is
𝐸1 𝐸2
𝑃12 = sin(𝛿1 − 𝛿2 ) (A13)
𝑋𝑇
Where: 𝐸1 is the terminal voltage in the generator representing area 1
𝐸2 is the terminal voltage in the generator representing area 2
𝑋𝑇 is the reactance of the transmission line between area 1 and area 2
𝛿1 is the load angle of the generator representing area 1
𝛿2 is the load angle of the generator representing area 2
Control areas are connected to their neighbouring areas via the tie-line. For
Load-Frequency studies, each area can be represented by an equivalent
generating unit exhibiting its overall performance as explained in Section 2.
The model shown in Figure 2.3 is widely used in the literature to evaluate multi-
area system dynamic performance. Each area is represented by an equivalent
inertia M, load damping constant D, turbine and the governing system with an
effective droop R. The tie-line is represented by the synchronizing torque
61
coefficient T. The steady state frequency deviation (𝑓 − 𝑓0 ) is the same for the
two areas, hence
∆𝑓 = ∆𝑤1 = ∆𝑤2 (A14)
According to [2], for a load change of ∆𝑃𝐿 the frequency deviation is given by
the following
−∆𝑃𝐿
∆𝑓 = (1⁄𝑅 (A15)
1 +1⁄𝑅2 )+(𝐷1 +𝐷2 )
Consider the steady state frequency deviation following an increase in area 1

load by ∆𝑃𝐿1
−∆𝑃𝐿1 −∆𝑃𝐿1
∆𝑓 = (1⁄𝑅 =𝛽 (A16)
1 +1⁄𝑅2 )+(𝐷1 +𝐷2 ) 1 +𝛽2
And
−∆𝑃𝐿1 𝛽2
∆𝑃12 = (A17)
𝛽1 +𝛽2
A negative ∆𝑃12 indicates the power flow from area 2 to area 1. For a load
change in area 2 by ∆𝑃𝐿2
−∆𝑃𝐿2
∆𝑓 = 𝛽 (A18)
1 +𝛽2
∆𝑃𝐿2 𝛽1
∆𝑃12 = −∆𝑃21 = (A19)
𝛽1 +𝛽2
A5 Governor with speed droop
The power system consists of many generators connected in parallel. For a

stable load division between the units operating in parallel, the governors are
provided with a characteristic so that the speed drops as the load is increased.
Schematic diagram of the governor equipped with droop characteristic is shown
below.
62
Figure A.0.7 Governor system equipped with droop characteristic [2]
The measured rotor speed 𝑤𝑟 is compared with the reference speed 𝑤0 . The
value of 𝑅 determines the steady state speed versus load characteristic of the
generating unit. The ratio of the frequency deviation to the change in power
output is equal to 𝑅 as explained in Section 2.1.5. If two or more generators with
droop governor characteristics are connected to a power system, there will be a
unique frequency at which they will share a load change. If the percentages of
regulation of the units are nearly equal, the change in the outputs of each unit
will be nearly in proportion to its rating. Figure A.0.8 shows the response of
generating units with a speed-droop governor when subjected to a load
increase.
63
Figure A.0.8 Time response of a generating unit with a governor having
speed-droop characteristic [2]
The increase in electrical power 𝑃𝑒 causes the frequency decline at a rate

determined by the system inertia. As the speed drops the turbine mechanical
power increase, this arrests the frequency decay and then an increase in speed
when the turbine power is in excess of the electrical power.
A6 Equivalent plant representing area
The steam turbine may be either reheat type or non-reheat type. Figure A.0.9
shows the block diagram of the generating unit with a reheat turbine. This
diagram is for load frequency analysis. It includes representation of the speed
governor, turbine, rotating mass and load. The turbine representation assumed
constant boiler pressure. The block diagram is also applicable to a unit with
non-reheat turbine, however, in that case 𝑇𝑅𝐻 = 0 and the turbine transfer
64
1
function will be simplified to: (1+𝑠𝑇𝐶𝐻 )
. The parameters are explained in
Appendix C.
Figure A.0.9 Block diagram of the generating unit [2]
For load frequency studies, each area may be represented by an equivalent

generating unit exhibiting its overall performance. Composite like this are
accepted because inter-machine oscillations within the area are not a concern
when performing load frequency control analysis.
A7 Literature review
In [5] the load frequency control models of a two-area interconnected power

system with a stiff tie-line or an elastic tie-line were investigated with respect to
modelling errors. Only multiplicative type modelling errors were considered for
robustness analysis. In this paper it is highlighted that most two-area system
models assume that the interconnections between areas are so stiff that the
whole system can be characterized by a single frequency. Meaning the areas
swing in unison during changes in area load. One of the important conclusions
in [5] was that a more realistic model assumes weaker connections between the
two areas and allows each area to control its own frequency. The model used
for elastic/weaker tie-lines is the same as the model shown in Figure 2.19. The
model was preferred because it represents in detail the speed governor and the
turbine-generator systems in both areas.
65
In [7] a new model derived from [2] with substantial modifications is presented.
One principal modification introduced concerns the turbine model. Another
modification is the consideration of several types of generators in the system.
The final modification is the consideration of the aggregate generation
coefficient in forming the rotor angle as an input to the tie-line model.
In [4] the MATLAB Simulink dynamic model of the Load Frequency Control
(LFC) of a realistic two- area power system having diverse sources of power
generation is presented. The two-area power system model from [2] was
modified by introducing the DC tie-line parallel to the AC line, to design the
optimal output feedback controller for the realistic power system. In [8] the
robust load frequency controller for two area interconnected power system is
presented to quench the deviations in frequency and tie-line power due to
different load disturbances. The two area power system model from [2] was
used in the study.
In [6] the authors performed a study to establish the optimum megawatt-

frequency control of multi-area power systems. The dynamic system model was
developed on the assumption that the electrical connections within each
individual control area are strong such that the whole area can be characterised
by a single frequency only. The two-area system model employed is the same
as the one shown in Figure 2.19. One of the reasons this model was chosen for
the study is that it is the simplest of multi-area systems.
The literature shows that most researchers use a generic two-area power
system model when performing multi-area system dynamic studies.
66
APPENDIX B: SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
B1 South African Grid Code requirements
B1.1 Governor Requirements
The Grid Code requirement 6 (GCR 6) states that all units above 50 MVA shall
have an operational governor capable of responding according to the minimum
requirements set out in GCR 6 section. It also states that all thermal and hydro
units with maximum continuous rating (MCR) greater than 50 MW shall be
capable of automatic generation control (AGC), unless otherwise agreed with
the System Operator. These two statements show that an operational governor
is compulsory for units greater than 50 MVA and that AGC capability is
compulsory for units greater than 50 MW.
B1.2 Frequency dead-band requirements
The South African Grid Code states “The maximum allowable dead band shall
be 0.15 𝐻𝑧 for governing units contracted for instantaneous reserve and 0.5 𝐻𝑧
for units not contracted for instantaneous reserve. No response is required from
the unit while the frequency is within the dead band.”
67
Figure B.0.1 Graphical representation of governing requirements [15]
B1.3 Droop settings requirements
According to [15] the governor shall be set to give 4% droop characteristic.

“Coal-fired units not equipped with a dead band facility shall have a droop of
10% or less. At 49.75 Hz a unit that does not have a dead band and does not
limit the response will respond two and a half times more than the unit on a 4%
droop. If the desired response from coal-fired units is 5% of MCR sent out at
49,75Hz, then this is equivalent to a 10% droop with no dead band. This means
the effective requirements from the units are the same.”[15]. Governing
response shall be fully achieved within 10 seconds and shall be sustained for
the duration of the excursion.
Basically, the units contracted for instantaneous reserves must have a dead-
band of ±0.15 Hz and 4% droop setting. If the unit does not have a dead-band it
can have a droop setting of 10% or less. The effective requirements from the
units are the same. The allowable dead band for units not contracted for
instantaneous reserves is ±0.5 Hz. These are the important grid code
requirements for the project.
68
APPENDIX C: MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND
VERIFICATION
The general model for steam turbine speed governing system is shown in
Figure C.0.1. This model may be used to represent either a mechanical-
hydraulic system or an electro-hydraulic system by means of an appropriate
selection of parameters [13].
Figure C.0.1 General model for steam turbine speed governor system [13]
The general steam turbine speed governor model shows the load reference as
an initial power PO. This is combined with the increments due to the speed
deviation to obtain total power PGV subject to servomotor mechanism time delay
(T3). Typical time constants for the general model of speed governing system
are shown in the Table C.0.1.
Table C.0.1 Governor system’s typical time constants
Time Constants (Seconds)

System T1 T2 T3
Mechanical-Hydraulic 0.2-0.3 0 0.1
General Electric EH With Steam Feedback* 0 0 0.025
General Electric EH Without Steam Feedback 0 0 0.1
Westinghouse EH With Steam Feedback* 2.8** 1.0** 0.15
Westinghouse EH Without Steam Feedback 0 0 0.1
K = 100/(% Steady-State Speed Regulation)
** These values may vary considerably from one unit to another
69
Table C.0.2 IEEEG1 parameters [14]
70
Table C.0.3 IEEEG1 parameters on DIgSILENT simulation package
Parameter Description Default Value

K Controller Gain [p.u.] 5
T1 Governor Time Constant [s] 0.2
T2 Governor Derivative Time Constant [s] 1
T3 Servo Time Constant [s] 0.6
K1 High Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.3
K2 High Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
T5 Intermediate Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 0.5
K3 Intermediate Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.25
K4 Intermediate Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
T6 Medium Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 0.8
K5 Medium Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.3
K6 Medium Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
T4 High Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 0.6
T7 Low Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 1
K7 LowPressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.15
K8 LowPressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
PNhp HP Turbine Rated Power (=0->PNhp=PgnnHP) [MW] 0
PNlp LP Turbine Rated Power (=0->PNhp=PgnnHP) [MW] 0
Uc Valve Closing Time [p.u./s] -0.3
Pmin Minimum Gate Limit [p.u.] 0
Uo Valve Opening Time [p.u./s] 0.3
Pmax Maximum Gate Limit [p.u.] 1
71
Figure C.0.2 TGOV5 block diagram [14]
72
Table C.0.4 TGOV5 default parameters on DIgSILENT simulation package
Parameter Description Default Value

K Controller Gain [p.u.] 5
T1 Governor Time Constant [s] 0.2
T2 Governor Derivative Time Constant [s] 1
T3 Servo Time Constant [s] 0.6
K1 High Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.3
K2 High Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
T5 Intermediate Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 0.5
K3 Intermediate Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.25
K4 Intermediate Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
T6 Medium Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 0.8
K5 Medium Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.3
K6 Medium Pressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
T4 High Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 0.6
T7 Low Pressure Turbine Time Constant [s] 1
K7 LowPressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0.15
K8 LowPressure Turbine Factor [p.u.] 0
PNhp HP Turbine Rated Power (=0->PNhp=PgnnHP) [MW] 0
PNlp LP Turbine Rated Power (=0->PNhp=PgnnHP) [MW] 0
B The frequency bias for load reference control [p.u.] 0.05
K13 The gain between MW demand and pressure set point 0.02
K12 The gain for pressure error bias 0.02
Kmw The gain of the MW transducer (0 or 1) 1
Tmw The MW transducer time constant [s] 10
K14 Inverse of load reference servomotor time constant [s] (=0.0 if the load refernece does not change) 5
KI The feedback gain from the load reference (0 or 1) 1
Dpe The deadband in the pressure error signal for load reference control [p.u. of Pressure] 0.001
Ki The controller integral gain [p.u.] 0.02
Ti The controller proportional lead time constant [s] 90
Tr The controller rate lead time constant [s] 60
Tri The inherent lag associated with lead TR [s] 6
K9 The adjustment to the pressure drop coefficient as a function of drum pressure 0
Cb The boiler storage time constant [s] 750
Tf The fuel and air system time constant [s] 25
Tw Fuel flow time constant [s] 7
Td The time delay in the fuel supply system [s] 60
K11 The gain of anticipation signal from load demand 0.1
K10 The gain of anticipation signal from main steam flow 0.1
C1 The pressure drop coefficient 0.2
Psp The initial throttle pressure set point 1
C2 The gain for pressure error bias 0
C3 The adjustment to the pressure set point 1
Uc Valve Closing Time [p.u./s] -0.3
Vmin Minimum Gate Limit [p.u.] 0
Rmin The load reference negative rate of change limit [p.u./s] -0.3
Lmin The minimum load reference [p.u.] 0.2
Cmin The minimum controller output [p.u.] 0.1
Uo Valve Opening Time [p.u./s] 0.3
Vmax Maximum Gate Limit [p.u.] 1
Rmax The load reference positive rate of change limit [p.u./s] 0.3
Lmax The maximum load reference [p.u.] 1
Cmax The maximum controller output [p.u.] 1.2
In [13] the six common steam configurations and corresponding mathematical

models are shown. The time constants and fractions representing steam
turbine’s behaviour are discussed. Typical values for time delays and cylinder
fractions are shown in Table C.0.5.
73
Table C.0.5 Steam turbine parameters
Steam system configuration FVHP FHP FIP FLP TCH TRH TRH1 TRH2 TCO
Non reheat - - - - 0.2-0.5 - - -
Tandem-Compound Single-Reheat - 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.1-0.4 (4) - (11) - 0.3-0.5
Tandem-Compound Double-Reheat 0.22 0.22 0.3 0.26 0.1-0.4 (4) - (11) (4) - (11) 0.3-0.5
Cross-Compound Single-Reheat - 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.1-0.4 (4) - (11) - 0.3-0.5
Cross-Compound Single-Reheat - 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.1-0.4 (4) - (11) - 0.3-0.5
Cross-Compound Double-Reheat 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.28 0.1-0.4 (4) - (11) - 0.3-0.5
Table C.0.6 Translation of steam turbine parameters to general model
Time Constants Fractions

Steam system configuration T4 T5 T6 T7 K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8
Non reheat TCH - - - 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tandem-Compound Single-Reheat TCH TRH TCO - FHP 0 FIP 0 FLP 0 0 0
Tandem-Compound Double-Reheat TCH TRH1 TRH2 TCO FVHP 0 FHP 0 FIP 0 FLP 0
Cross-Compound Single-Reheat TCH TRH TCO - FHP 0 0 FIP FLP/2 FLP/2 0 0
Cross-Compound Single-Reheat TCH TRH TCO - FHP 0 FIP 0 0 FLP 0 0
Cross-Compound Double-Reheat TCH TRH1 TRH2 TCO FVHP 0 0 FHP FIP/2 FIP/2 FLP/2 FLP/2
All common steam system configurations can be represented by the block

diagram shown in Figure C.0.3.
Figure C.0.3 General steam turbine model
Figure C.3.
The parameters in the generic turbine model are not similar to time constants
and fractions the parameters used to express steam turbine behaviour. Table
C.0.3 shows the interpretation of the parameters used in the general turbine
model. The generator parameters and steam turbine parameters used in the
study were based on typical generator parameters in the Eskom network.
74
Table C.0.7 TGOV5 (without dead band) model parameters
TGOV5 parameter Value

K 137
T1 10
T2 1
T3 0.15
K1 0.3
K2 0
T5 9
K3 0.4
K4 0
T6 9
K5 0.3
K6 0
T4 0.4
T7 0.15
K7 0
K8 0
PNhp 0
PNlp 0
B 25
K13 0
K12 0
Kmw 1
Tmw 1
K14 0.1
KI 0
Dpe 0.1
Ki 0.0012
Ti 655
Tr 4250
Tri 4380
K9 0
Cb 200
Tf 25
Tw 7
Td 90
K11 0
K10 0
C1 0.2
Psp 1
C2 10
C3 1
Uc -0.1
Vmin 0.2
Rmin -0.01
Lmin 0
Cmin 0.1
Uo 0.1
Vmax 1
Rmax 0.01
Lmax 1.1
Cmax 1.1
75
Table C.0.8 TGOV5 (with dead band) model parameters
TGOV5 parameter Value

K 500
K1 0.3
K2 0
K3 0.4
K4 0
K5 0.3
K6 0
K7 0
K8 0
K9 0
K10 0
K11 0
K12 0
K13 0
K14 0.1
C1 0.2
C2 10
C3 1
DB_gov 0.003
DB_p 0
T1 15
T2 1
T3 0.15
T4 0.4
T5 9
T6 9
T7 0.15
Kmw 1
Tmw 1
Ki 0.0012
Tr1 4380
Ti 655
Tf 25
Tr 4250
Cb 200
Td 90
Tw 7
KI 0
dPe 0.1
B 125
Tpower 0
Freqlimit_min -0.00166
Psp_min 0.5
Cmin 0.1
Lmin 0
Vmin 0.2
Rmin -0.01
Uc -0.1
Freqlimit_max 0.03
Psp_max 1.05
Cmax 1.1
Lmax 1.1
Vmax 1
Rmax 0.01
Uo 0.1
76
77

Eskom-ZESA Interconnected Power System

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Eskom-ZESA interconnected power system

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and Built

The interconnected power systems background was studied to understand the

Furthermore; the generator model that mimics the Eskom-ZESA tie-line

On the …………………………….. day of ………………………… 20…..

I would like to thank

School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of Witwatersrand;

Dr John van Coller, academic supervisor for his valuable guidance;

Mpeli Rampokanyo, Mike Nene and my colleagues in Eskom who supported me

DECLARATION .............................................................................. iii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................... ix

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................... x

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

CHAPTER 3. UNDERSTANDING SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 4. MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND VERIFICATION ... 37

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS ........... 49

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................. 51

APPENDIX A: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

APPENDIX B: SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND PERFORMANCE

APPENDIX C: MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND VERIFICATION ... 69

Table 3.1 Eskom-ZESA frequency response analysis ..................................... 26

Table 3.2 AGC modes and corresponding ACE ............................................... 27

Table C.0.1 Governor system’s typical time constants ..................................... 69

Table C.0.2 IEEEG1 parameters [14] ............................................................... 70

Table C.0.3 IEEEG1 parameters on DIgSILENT simulation package .............. 71

Table C.0.4 TGOV5 default parameters on DIgSILENT simulation package ... 73

Table C.0.5 Steam turbine parameters ............................................................ 74

Table C.0.6 Translation of steam turbine parameters to general model........... 74

Table C.0.7 TGOV5 (without dead band) model parameters ........................... 75

Table C.0.8 TGOV5 (with dead band) model parameters ................................ 76

Figure 1.1 Southern Africa Power Pool (SAPP) interconnection ........................ 2

Figure 2.1 System equivalent for LFC analysis [2] ............................................. 8

Figure 3.1 Eskom-ZESA interconnection normal frequency profile .................. 14

Figure 3.2 Eskom-ZESA typical disturbance profile ......................................... 15

Figure 3.3 Frequency trace (4 seconds resolution) .......................................... 16

Figure 3.4 Instantaneous Reserves from online generating unit ...................... 17

Figure 3.5 Instantaneous Reserves from demand response ............................ 18

Figure 3.6 Eskom-ZESA tie-line trip during frequency disturbance .................. 19

Figure 3.7 Tie-line power flow during frequency disturbance ........................... 20

Figure 3.9 Event 1 frequency response ........................................................... 23

Figure 3.10 Event 2 frequency response ......................................................... 24

Figure 3.11 Event 3 frequency response ......................................................... 25

Figure 3.12 Generator unit governing response while on AGC ........................ 28

Figure 3.14 Songo substation single line diagram............................................ 30

Figure 3.15 GMPC software overview [12]. ...................................................... 33

Figure 3.16 HVDC performance during event 1 ............................................... 34

Figure 3.17 HVDC performance during event 2 ............................................... 35

Figure 3.18 HVDC performance during event 3 ............................................... 36

Figure 4.1 Plant model frame structure ............................................................ 37

Figure 4.2 Mechanical-Hydraulic Speed governing system for steam turbine

Figure 4.3 TGOV1 steam turbine model [14].................................................... 39

Figure 4.4 IEESG0 steam turbine model [14] ................................................... 39

Figure 4.5 IEEEG1 model ................................................................................ 40

Figure 4.7 Steady state simulation run ............................................................. 42

Figure 4.8 Edited plant model frame structure ................................................. 43

Figure 4.9 Block diagram of model tuning ........................................................ 44

Figure 4.10 Event 1 IEEEG1 governor model simulation result ....................... 45

Figure A.0.1 Generator supplying isolated load [2] .......................................... 55