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An Assessment of the Archaeological Evidence for Irish Corn-Drying Kilns in the Light
of the Results of Archaeological Experiments and Archaeobotanical Studies

Author(s): M. A. Monk and E. Kelleher
Source: The Journal of Irish Archaeology , 2005, Vol. 14 (2005), pp. 77-114
Published by: Wordwell Ltd.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20650842
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An assessment of the archaeological evidence for Irish corn
drying kilns in the light of the results of archaeological
experiments and archaeobotanical studies
M. A. Monk and E. Kelleher
A thorough study of the archaeological evidence for Irish corn-drying kilns, and an exploration of their workings, is
overdue. This paper seeks to address this lack and begins by outlining some of the key features of earlier research on
these sites in Britain and Ireland. The upsurge of development-led archaeology in the last ten years has resulted in the
discovery and excavation of many hitherto unknown drying kilns. A gazetteer of known sites and their main features
is presented. The paper explores the question of function through several detailed archaeobotanical studies of charred
remains carried out by one of the authors (MM) for several sites excavated in the 1980s. In addition, the paper out
lines the results of a set of experiments carried out by the second author (EK) using three specially constructed kilns
at Ferrycarrig, Co. Wexford, and Lisnagun, Co. Cork. These experiments served to identify the aerodynamic basis for
the workings of these structures and the main features that enhanced their use. Several of the excavated examples of
kilns included such features (for example, kilns built into banks, narrowing flues whose floors rise to the drying cham
ber, fire-pits in front of the flues). A case is made to advise future excavators to anticipate such features and to take
separate samples from the primary deposits contained in kilns that appear to be for corn-drying. The distributional con
centration of sites in the east of the country and the possible indigenous development of the keyhole-type kilns are also
explored.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Subsequently, most of the early archaeological studies

RESEARCH of corn-dryers were undertaken on Roman corn-dry
ing kilns, dated to the third century and later (Good
Previous work child 1943; Collingwood and Richmond 1969, 151;
Adrying kiln has been defined by Rickett (1975,
Morris 1979, 9; Monk 1981, 216). Their significant
presence in late Roman times has been interpreted as
4) as 'a structure specifically designed, built and
originally used for the drying of some com the result of either a downturn in climate or an increase
modity'. In areas that were prone to damp harvests in
it crop production. The latter is the more likely case, as
was necessary, before the advent of electric dryers,there
to is little evidence for climatic change until after
use some indirect source of heat from an open fireAD to 400 (Scott 1951, 205; Applebaum 1958, 84; 1972,
5; Lamb 1977, 424-8; Monk 1981, 217-18; C. Rynne
reduce the moisture content of harvested grain before
1988, 116; Lamb 1981, 57; Dark and Dark 1997,
storage and even to facilitate its threshing and milling
(Morris 1979; Monk 1981,217-18,224; Hillman 1982, 18-21). With the archaeological focus firmly on
137-8; van der Veen 1989, 303-4). It is possible that
Roman corn-drying kilns it is hardly surprising that
other non-cereal crops, such as flax, hemp and pulsesmost of the early archaeobotanical work was on
(peas and beans), had to be dried following particular
samples from these kilns, as summarised by van der
ly wet harvests. However, other than pulses, archaeo Veen (1989). The Roman period corn-drying kilns
were also the focus for the first experiments by
botanical evidence for the drying of such crops is still
scarce (Monk 1987b, 98-9). Reynolds and Langley, based on excavations of the rec
While corn-drying kilns were still used into the late
tangular corn-dryer at Foxholes Farm, Hertford, and a
nineteenth century along the fringes of Atlantic typical T-shaped corn-dryer from Barton Court Farm,
Europe, little archaeobotanical work had been carriedOxfordshire (Reynolds and Langley 1979; Reynolds
1981; Partridge 1976; Miles 1986).While the results of
out on excavated examples before the 1970s and 1980s,
those experiments could be debated, particularly that
despite the fact that as early as the 1920s numerous 'fur
naces' excavated at the Roman site of Hambledon,
on the Foxholes reconstruction, this project did serve
Buckinghamshire, were interpreted as corn-drying
to focus attention on another possible function of
kilns on the basis of grain found in their flues (Knox
corn-drying kilns?the termination of the germinated
1907; Cocks 1921-2, 141-9; van der Veen 1989, 302).
grain intended for malting, a function that Hillman had
The Journal of Irish Archaeology Volume XIV, 2005 77-114

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78 MA. Monk and E. Kelleher
A
Grain drying kiln FN11
W " E
Fig. I?Plan and sections of a

'dumb-bell'-shaped kiln from Bally
man, Co. Dublin (reproduced with
the kind permission ofE. O'Brien).
Plough soil
S - section ?irough bowl

?~-?] Boulder day
X1 Fill: Dark grey, with burnt

E clay/charcoal specks/mica.
X2 Grey clay: Compacted,

some red burning.
X3 Black: Mainly charcoal

with charred grain.
W-E section through kiln X4 Red burnt boulder clay.
X5 Yellow boulder clay.
suggested for the 'chitted' (i.e. germinated) spelt

corn-drying
wheat kilns ever since, not least in Ireland (Hu
ley 1987;
from four of the five corn-dryers from Catsgore (Hill O'Donnell 1988; Hurley 1997b; Collins a
man 1982,138-40). Cummins 2001). There were surprisingly fe
With the exception of Scott's 1951 paper, little
archaeobotanical studies of post-Roman and mediev
attention was paid to the later dated kilns and
corn-drying
the rel kilns before the late 1970s. An except
evance of ethnographic literature to the studytoofthis
cornsituation was Chris Spirrey Green s excavatio
drying kilns in northern and western Britain and
at Poundbury, Dorset, where a systematic sampling
recovery strategy included five post-Roman fif
Ireland. Subsequent key contributions from folklife
studies for the post-medieval and near-presentcentury
use ofcorn-drying kilns (Green 1987; Monk 1987
corn-drying kilns have been published by Whitaker
(1957), Gailey (1970), Fenton (1974; 1978) and Bowie
Background and introduction to this study
(1979). The first critical archaeological Thestudy of parallels for the Poundbury kilns are fou
closest
medieval kilns was the dissertation by Robert Rickett,
in Pdckett's catalogue: four thirteenth/fourteenth-c
which both drew together the evidence that existed
tury rectangular
at kilns from Stamford (Monk 1981
225-6;ter
the time and developed a typology and consistent Rickett 1975, 41-5). An explanation for th
minology (Rickett 1975).This research, although it has
superstructure and workings was hypothesised fro
never been published, has continued to form ethnographic
the basis sources from Scotland and Ireland (Fe
ton 1978,
for the discussion of many archaeological reports of 377, 387; Evans 1957, 122-3; Gailey 197

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An assessment of the archaeological evidence for Irish corn-drying kilns 79
62; Scott 1951, 203; Knox 1907, 270). However, few provide the basis for more considered research on these
such kilns had been explored archaeologically, let alone sites in the future. Knowledge of the socio-economic
archaeobotanically, in Ireland before the 1970s. Rickett and chronological context of the kilns has also
included ten entries for Ireland in his catalogue and he improved since the early 1980s, not least with the pub
felt that only three were clearly similar to the medieval lication of documentary sources that relate specifically
keyhole kilns: one on Bray Head, Valentia (first noted to kilns and more generally to agricultural production
by Scott in 1951 from information provided by Lucas), for the early and later medieval periods (Kelly 1997).
the second from Warhurst's excavation of a rath at The ethnographic evidence has provided further
Rathbeg, Co. Antrim, and the third excavated by O information, particularly on the main features of these
R?ord?in and Foy at Emlagh, Co. Kerry (Rickett 1975; kilns. However, the process by which they actually
O R?ord?in and Foy 1941,98-9).This situation began worked was little understood (Hurley 1987). The
to change in the late 1970s and 1980s as keyhole corn opportunity to undertake some experiments presented
dryers were identified and excavated at Reask, Co. itself when one of us (MM) was asked to advise on the
Kerry (Fanning 1981), Kilpatrick, Co. Westmeath construction of a corn-drying kiln for the Ferrycarrig
(Swan 1989/90; pers. comm.), Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny National Folk Park in Wexford.
(Hurley 1987), James Street, Drogheda, Co. Louth, and In 1988 the second author of the current paper
Brehon's Chair, Taylorsgrange, Co. Dublin (K. Camp agreed to centre her Master's research on this project
bell, pers. comm.;V Keeley, pers. comm.; Keeley 1988, using the Ferrycarrig kiln. Later, in 1988, a second
14). In addition, a subrectangular kiln (Fig. 1), not dis experimental site was developed at the reconstructed
similar to the Poundbury examples, was identified and ringfort at Lisnagun near Clonakilty, Co. Cork. The
excavated at the early ecclesiastical site at Ballyman, Co. thesis that resulted from the research project was com
Dublin (O'Brien 1986, 21; n.d.; pers. comm.). A fur pleted in 1990.
ther possible kiln was identified, excavated and sampled As this paper goes to press, a general article on the
by Manning at Lackenavorna, Co.Tipperary (Manning subject of corn-drying kilns has appeared in Archaeo
1984). In all these cases archaeobotanical samples were logy Ireland in the 'Know Your Monuments' series
taken for study and have helped in the interpretation of (O'Sullivan and Downey 2005).This will serve to com
function. plement the current paper.
In the last sixteen years a significant number of
corn-drying kilns have been identified and excavated,
many of them in the east of the country, in advance of STRUCTURAL AND LOCATIONAL
major road developments. A number of them have also EVIDENCE FROM IRISH KILNS
been sampled for plant remains. An assessment of this
new structural evidence against the results of experi Definition of types and kiln parts
ments and the work on plant remains carried out on The types of kilns identified in archaeological excava
those sites in the early 1980s and 1990s will, it is hoped, tions have been defined by their shape in plan. How

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
ever, the so-called classic keyhole kiln, defined as such

because it looks like a keyhole in plan, is also described
by its profile, which has the appearance of a tobacco
pipe (Figs 2-4).The latter description derives from the
fact that its superstructure is known because examples
of this type of kiln were in use to dry grain up until the
beginning of the twentieth century (Knox 1907).
The L-shaped or comma-shaped kilns are so called
because part of the kiln is set at an angle to the other,
forming an L shape, or a comma shape if the flue is
curving (Fig. 5). The two remaining types of kilns are
distinguished by the degree to which they are 'waisted'
in plan. Those with a distinct waist have an overall fig
ure-of-eight shape from which they take their name
(Fig. 6), while the 'dumb-bell'-shaped kilns are far less
waisted and are almost subrectangular in plan (the only
clear example of this type identified in Ireland to date
is that at Ballyman, Co. Dublin; see Fig. 1). However, it
could be argued that the figure-of-eight-shaped and
dumb-bell-shaped kilns form a single group, the only
distinction being the degree to which they deviate
from a subrectangular plan. A number of other sites
Fig. 4?The Ballysimon keyhole-shaped kiln (courtesy of Tracy

Collins, Aegis Archaeology Ltd).
have been identified during excavations and described

as corn-drying kilns, but either there are few details
available to type them or they seem to be undiagnostic
pits. They have also been included in the gazetteer.
All identifiable kilns would have had three parts, a
firing/hearth or stoking area (Rickett's terminology), a
flue (to conduct the heat from the firing area) and a
drying chamber or bowl (Rickett's terminology) (Figs
2-4). The survival of all these features has sometimes
been compromised by later disturbance. There is, in
consequence, some variation in the quality of informa
tion available for this assessment, which is based on evi
dence from several sources, including that supplied
directly from colleagues in archaeology and archaeo
botany but also the preliminary descriptive entries in
the Excavations Bulletin and articles in Archaeology Ire
land (see gazetteer and bibliography) (Fig. 7). By their
very nature the latter two sources present information
that is interim and there is often no consistency. The
absence of information on the kilns may mean either
that it was not present or that it was not recorded.
While a number of the entries mention the presence of
plant remains or that samples have been taken for their
Fig. 3?Plan of Ballysimon keyhole-shaped kiln (courtesy of study, additional information (in most cases) is of a pre
Tracy Collins and Tony Cummins, Aegis Archaeology Ltd). liminary nature. For several sites more detail has been

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obtained from the excavator and/or the archaeo

botanist studying the plant remains (see acknowledge
ments).
Dimensions of keyhole kilns

The most common type represented in the corpus of
kilns analysed for this study are the keyhole or possible
keyhole kilns (53 in total). Their overall size, which
could relate to capacity and efficiency, varied. Of the
total number of kilns that were clearly of keyhole type,
37 sites produced information on total length. The
shortest was 1.2m long, while the longest measured
8.5m. The majority fell in the length range of 1.2-4m
(23 of 36 cases).The largest grouping had a total length
of between 2m and 4m. Where information was avail
able, sixteen sites had a firing area in the size range of
0.45-3.4m, the majority having a firing size (usually a
diameter) of between 0.8m and 1.5m. There were
eleven examples in this size range. For those where flue
length was obtainable (fifteen cases) the length varied
from 1.2m to 5m. While there were five examples with
longer flues, the evidence would point to an average
flue length of between lm and 3m.
Measurements of the width and height of the flues
were also available for 34 kilns, 22 of which were in the
range 0.41?0.8m. In a number of cases there was suffi
cient information to indicate that the flues narrowed
from the firing end to the drying chamber, for ex
ample the keyhole kiln at Kilpatrick, Co. Westmeath,
which narrowed from 0.65m at the firing area to 0.5m
at the drying chamber. At Boolaregh, Co.Tipperary, the
flue narrowed from 0.6-0.65m at the firing area to
0.4m at the drying chamber. At Luffany, Co. Kilkenny,
the flue was 0.4-0.5m at the firing end and double this
size at the drying chamber. At Emlagh, Co. Kerry, the
flue narrowed from 0.63m at its outer end to 0.39m at
the drying chamber, and at Bricketstown 2, Co. Wex
ford, it was 1.2m wide at the firing area and 0.84m at
the drying chamber. The flue height also varied
between 0.2m and 1.5m, most being between 0.45m
and 0.6m. In one or two cases mention was made that
the height changed from the firing end to the drying
chamber, for example at Brooklodge, Co. Cork, where
it narrowed from 0.45m to 0.6m, and at Bricketstown
2, Co. Wexford, where it narrowed from 0.4m to 0.7m.
The diameter of the drying chamber ranged from
0.32m to 1.6m; nineteen of the 24 cases had diameters
of between 0.5m and 2m, and twelve of those fell in
the range 0.8-1.2m. Where the information was given,
the chambers were wider at the top than at the base,
Fig. 6?Figure-of-eight-shaped kiln, Carlow Castle (reproduced with a range of widths at the top from lm to 1.6m and
with the kind permission of Kieran O'Conor). at the base of from 0.8m to 1.2m. Examples of these
kilns included North Gate, Cork city (the largest bowl,
1.61m at the top and 1.2m at the base), Ballinvinny, Co.
Cork (on average lm at the top and 0.8m at the base),

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:n 1976 12:34:56 UTC
MA Monk and E. Kelleher
Fig. 7?Map showing

number of kjins listed in
the gazetteer by county.
Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny, and Reask, Co. Kerry. In many egan, Co. Kerry; Bohercrow Road, Murgasty, Co. Tip
cases the top of the chamber had been truncated so the perary; Brehon s Chair, Co. Dublin (with all its lintels
reported depths of the chambers varied, with a range in place); Boolareagh, Co.Tipperary (again all lintels in
from 0.16m to 1.6m. However, nine out of twelve cases place); Ballynaraha, Co.Tipperary; Reask, Co. Kerry;
were in the depth range of 0.61-1.3m (the majority, Emlagh, Co. Kerry; Brooklodge, Co. Cork; Keadew
seven examples, ranged between 0.65m and lm). Lower, Co. Donegal; Carrigoran, Co. Clare; and
Thirty-four of the total number (53) of kilns were Luffany, Co. Kilkenny. Several excavators also mention
stone-lined, and in 24 of these there was evidence that the presence of m situ baffle stones, whose function was
both the flue and the chamber were stone-lined, even to prevent sparks from the firing area reaching the
though in some instances only a few laid courses or chamber. Examples include Brooklodge, Co. Cork (flue
slabs of stone remained in situ. In thirteen cases there 1.7m); Gorteen, Co. Limerick; Ballyegan, Co. Kerry
was also evidence for lintel stones still in place, includ (flue 2.1m); Gortroe II, Co. Mayo (flue 3.5m long) (see
ing the kilns found at North Gate, Cork city; Bally Table 16).

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Table I ?Corn-drying kilns included in this assessment, by county.
Westmeath Luffany Antrim

Ballybeg Friary Street, Kilkenny city (possibly two Rathbeg
Kilpatrick/Kiliucan, Corbettstown kilns)
Donegal
Meath Limerick Keadew Lower
Kilsharvan Ballysimon
Abbeyland/Blackcastle Demesne Kiltenan South Clare
Bo estown Gorteen Carrigoran, Area 18
Tobertynan Rathbane South Latoon South, Area 3
Ashbourne Skehacreggaun
ay estown Wexford
Knowth Cork Bricketstown, kilns I and 2 (Noonan
Laytown Ballynacarriga I and 2 2000)
Raystown North Gate, Cork city arri stown Little
ColpWest Brooklodge Green's Berry Farm

Bal I invi ny
Louth Stagpark, Mitchelstown Galway
James Street, Drogheda Oranmore, Site 17 (two stone-lined
Laurence's Street, Drogheda Kerry kilns)
Tierney Street, Ardee Bray Head I and 2, Valentia Island Killagh More
Haggardstown, Blackrock Ballyegan
aggardstown/M u 11 agh arI i , Emlagh Carlow
Dundalk (possibly two kilns) Reask Carlow Castle
Dublin Sligo Mayo

Brehon's Chair;Taylorsgrange Knoxspark Gortaroe II (kilns?)
Flemingstown Monasterredan
Lusk Creevykeel Waterford
Corcagh Demesne, Clondalkin (several Rectory Field, Stradballymore
corn-drying kilns) Kildare Bakehouse Lane, Waterford city
Loughanstown Glebe South Corbally (16 kilns) Peter Street, Waterford city (two with a
Jordanstown Carton Desmesne, Maynooth further six possible kilns)
Ballyman Kilnacredock Upper
Kilrainey (? Kilns 1,2 and 3) Roscommon
Tipperary Carnalway, Brownstown Ki leu I len Elphin
Bohercrow Road, Murgasty Castletown, Celbridge (charred grain
Solsborough, CI found) Wicklow
Ballynaraha Collinstown, Celbridge (keyhole-shaped Kilmacanogue-Glen of the Downs
kiln)
Kilkenny Ardee (possibly two kilns?not
Kilferagh excavated)
The orientation of the kiln and the location of the Orientation and locational details of kilns
chamber relative to the firing area would have been key While the orientation of the kilns varied, the majority
factors in terms of its efficiency through the control of lay either north/south (fourteen examples) or east/west
draught and the movement of hot air along the flue (sixteen examples). Five were orientated north
(see below for discussion of the experiments). The spe west/south-east. In nine cases the drying chamber was
cific choice of orientation would have depended on located at the east-south-east end of the kiln, in nine
local factors, not least topography but also nearby cases it was at the north-north-west end, in six cases at
settlement. In some cases this information was provid the west-north-west end, and in only two cases was it
ed in the entries/reports but not in others. at the south-south-east end.
In nine cases there was mention of the flue rising

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
84 . Monk and E. Ke//eher
from the firing area to the drying chamber, but in only remains of two field boundaries that are thought to
three of these are measurements given. These include have been of medieval date. Several kilns were set into
Ballynaraha, Co. Waterford (the flue rises a full 46cm an earlier ditch, for example Brehon's Chair, Co.
from fire to chamber), Ballyegan, Co. Kerry (a slight Dublin, and Kilmacredock Upper, Co. Kildare. One of
rise of 0.15cm), and Jordanstown, Co. Dublin, kiln 3 (a two kilns at Laytown, Co. Meath, was set in the upper
slight rise from 0.34m deep to 0.18m deep). In the fill of an enclosure ditch. The five examples at Jor
other six cases the rise is simply mentioned but not danstown, Co. Dublin, were associated with a ditch-like
measured, for example Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny; feature. The definite and possible kilns found at Mul
Ballinvinny, Co. Cork; Lusk, Co. Dublin; Killagh More, lagharin/Haggardstown, Dundalk, were both cut
Co. Galway; Luffany, Co. Kilkenny (implying that the through a small earlier ditch.
flue was set in rising ground); and the kiln with a curv While it appears that many of the kilns were free
ing flue found in the Peter Street excavations in Water standing, fourteen were found to be associated with
ford city (Hurley 1997b, 276). There were cases, other possibly structural features. For the most part the
however, where the base of the flue declined towards structural evidence indicates the presence of buildings
the chamber (for example Bricketstown and Harris close to the kilns rather than that the kilns were with
town Big, Co.Wexford). in buildings, as was the case with the kiln on Bray
In those few cases where the topographical location Head,Valentia, Co. Kerry (Scott 1951).
is documented the kilns seem to be set into a slope
with the chambers upslope?for example Brooklodge, Structural evidence associated with keyhole kilns
Co. Cork,'the lower slopes of a ridge extending north At Ballynaraha, Co.Tipperary, two medium-sized post
north- west/south-south-east' (Clinton 2000, 23). At holes could perhaps be taken to suggest the presence of
Mullagharlin/Haggardstown, Dundalk, the kiln was cut a roof of some kind. Similarly at Carnalway, Co. Kil
into a north-facing slope (McLoughlin 2000, 213). At dare, the presence of post-holes might suggest that the
Site 3 on Carton Demesne, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, the kiln was covered. The Rathbane South, Co. Limerick,
kiln was located at break of slope. The kiln at Gortroe kiln was enclosed by a curvilinear feature that may have
II, Co. Mayo, was also located in the lower south represented a barn wall and had a rectangular structure
facing slope of a drumlin.The kiln at Jordanstown, Co. consisting of north/south-aligned post-holes parallel to
Dublin, was located in pastureland gently sloping from a slot trench. The example from Haynestown was
east to west. At Kilrainy, Co. Kildare, it was positioned described as being 'attached to a storage shed' (O'Sul
'around a low hillock', while at Bonestown, Co. Meath, livan 1994, 57). Other structural evidence identified in
it was located on the upper slope of ground rising to association with corn-drying kiln sites could best be
the west.The kiln atTobertynan, Co. Meath, was locat interpreted as screens or windbreaks. Examples with
ed on the southern end of a ridge curving to the west such evidence include Kiltenan South, Co. Limerick,
and dropping to the south, and the kiln at Ballinvinny which produced post-holes and linear features?two
North, Co. Cork, was on a south-facing slope at a post holes c. 2m to the north of the kiln and two par
height of 119.6m OD. In several cases a nearby water allel gullies to the east. A linear trench at Jordanstown,
source is mentioned, for example at Abbeyland, Black Co. Dublin, was interpreted as a 'temporary screen',
castle Demesne, Co. Meath, on the north bank of the possibly to screen the kilns (Tobin 2004b, 164). At
River Blackwater; Site 3, Carton Demesne, Maynooth, Tobertynan, Co. Meath, to the east of two kilns a two
Co. Kildare, close to the river; and Ashbourne town phase structure was discovered. The first phase consist
centre, Co. Meath, on the north side of the Broad ed of a curvilinear slot with associated paving and was
water River valley. succeeded by a horseshoe-shaped structure, the func
In fourteen cases there is an indication that the kiln tion of which is not clear. Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny, was
was set into, or close to, some form of boundary, be it associated with a series of features. Like the James
a ditch or field fence or a less substantial boundary Street, Drogheda, kiln, the kiln at Kilferagh was built
feature. In a number of cases these are modern or near into a platform (4m by 3.6m). In addition, there was
recent features; for example, one kiln was set into a field evidence for drains and a foundation trench for a
boundary at Lusk, Co. Dublin, and at Ashbourne town wattle-walled barn and a paved yard (Hurley 1987).
centre, Co. Meath, the kiln was set into the north-east Paved areas surrounded the kilns at James Street,
edge of a field boundary. The kiln at Abbeyland, Black Drogheda, Co. Louth, at the North Gate, Cork city, and
castle Demesne, Co. Meath, straddles a townland at Keadew Lower, Co. Donegal. At Bricketstown 1, Co.
boundary and was set beneath a hedgerow. The kiln and Wexford, what has been described by Noonan as a
ash-pits at Haggardstown, Blackrock, Co. Louth, were 'working surface' was identified but it was 50m from
set into a pre-existing field boundary. At Bricketstown the kiln and may have been used in crop-processing,
1, Co. Wexford, the kiln was associated with the possibly threshing (Noonan 2000).This evidence high

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
lights the importance of the exploration, where pos Co. Dublin; Ballynaraha, Co.Tipperary; Brehon's Chair,
sible during their excavation, of the wider context of Co. Dublin; Ballysimon, Co. Limerick; and Ballinvinny,
these kilns. Co. Cork.
Whatever type of kiln they were?figure-of
eight/dumb-bell type, keyhole, or angled L or comma
THE PLANT REMAINS EVIDENCE FROM shaped?all produced a range of grains of the main
CORN-DRYING KILNS cereal species cultivated in Ireland in historic times
(wheat, barley, oats, rye).Where the location in the kiln
While a number of recently excavated kiln sites havewas mentioned, as for example at Ballyman, Co.
been sampled for plant remains analysis, few of theseDublin, Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny, Brehon's Chair, Co.
studies were available for reference at the time of the
Dublin, and Ballysimon, Co. Limerick, the remains
completion of this paper. Of the total number of sites
came from both basal 'primary' deposits and later infills.
identified, only 28 reports (some with more than one Both the actual frequency of remains and the dom
kiln, for example Corbally with sixteen and Raystown inance of the different species in the samples from dif
with six) mention finds of charred grains/seeds. ferent sites varied. Three sites for which detailed reports
were available produced predominantly wheat. They
Of these detailed studies, in only eight cases to date
are the results of the work readily available for referincluded Kilferagh and both kilns at Kilpatrick (both
ence: Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny; Kilpatrick, Co. West
the keyhole and the L-shaped kilns). The species of
meath; James Street, Drogheda, Co. Louth; Ballyman,wheat would appear to have been a compact form of
Table 2?Kilns producing plant remains*
Site Cereal remains

Ballynaratha, Co.Tipperary Wheat, barley and oats
Ballinvinny North, Co. Cork Oats, one wheat grain
Ballyman, Co. Dublin Barley and oats, few wheat
Ballysimon, Co. Limerick Barley oats, few rye, cf. pea
Bohercrow Road, Murgasty, Co.Tipperary Grain found in basal layer
Brehon's Chain Co. Dublin Barley and oats
Bricketstown 2, Co. Wexford Wheat, barley and oats
Brooklodge, Co. Cork Wheat and oats
Carton Demesne, Maynooth, Co. Kildare Grain found
Castletown, Co. Kildare Grain from chamber and flues
Corbally, Co. Kildare (16 kilns) Wheat, barley and oats; distribution study from kiln to kiln under way
Flemingstown, Co. Dublin Samples contained barley
Friary Street/Garden Row,
Kilkenny city Co. Kilkenny Oats
Haggardstown/Mullagharlin, Co. Louth Oats
H ay estown, Co. Meath Grain found
James Street, Drogheda, Co. Louth Oats
Keadew Lower, Co. Donegal Grain found
Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny Wheat, barley and oats
Kilpatrick, Co. Westmeath (2 kilns) Wheat, oats and rye
Kiltenan South, Co. Limerick Charred seeds reported
Knoxspark, Co. Sligo Charred seeds
Laytown, Co. Meath One of the kilns produced wheat
Loughanstown Glebe, Co. Dublin Wheat, barley and oats
Monasterredan, Co. Sligo Charred cereal grains
North Gate, Cork city, Co. Cork Barley and oats
Raystown, Co. Meath Charred cereals in five kilns
Stagpark, Mitchelstown, Co. Cork Contained burnt seed

Bakehouse Lane, Waterford city Co. Waterford Rake-out from kiln, wheat, barley and oats_
*We are indebted to the excavators of these sites and, in the case of Ballinvinny, Ballysimon, Brooklodge, Haggardstown and Friary
Street/Garden Row, Kilkenny city, thanks also go to the archaeobotanists for access and reference to their unpublished work.

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
Fig. 8?Charred bread wheat grain from the Kilferagh kiln with modern equivalent
Fig. 9?Charred bread wheat rachis (ear stem) from the Kilferagh kiln with modem equivalent

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
bread wheat, Triticum aestivo-compactum, on the basis of of oats and barley were found. Of those sites that have
grain shape and rachis (stem of the ear) criteria (e.g. produced detailed archaeobotanical reports, those ce
Kilferagh) (Figs 8 and 9). Four kiln sites produced pre reals that are not dominant in samples are often present
dominantly oats, probably mostly the common culti in far smaller quantities. However, in a few cases there
vated species, as indicated from a few cases where the is a reasonably high incidence of another cereal species.
flower bases were present (Fig. 10). These included In the case of Brehon's Chair, for example, there are
Brehon's Chair, Co. Dublin, Ballinvinny North, Co. half as many grains of hulled barley as of oats. Similar
Cork, Ballynaraha, Co. Tipperary, and James Street, ly, at Ballynaraha, Co.Tipperary, barley is second in fre
Drogheda, Co. Louth. In the latter case oats were par quency of grains to oats. While wheat dominated at
ticularly predominant and included flower bases to Kilferagh, oats were only one third as frequent. The
confirm the presence of common cultivated oats. Bar Kilpatrick kilns had an overall dominance of wheat and
ley, including the six-rowed hulled species, was domi also produced fewer oats?a third of the quantity of
nant in the samples from Ballyman, Co. Dublin, wheat in the keyhole kiln, although oats and wheat
Flemingstown, Co. Dublin, and Ballysimon, Co. Lim became equal in numbers towards the base of the re
erick. For several of the sites from which detailed stud shaped kiln.This kiln also produced a few rye grains in
ies are available mention is simply made of the presence its upper, later fills. The possible implication is that at
of all the main cereals; for the sixteen kilns from Cor this site the variability in representation could be linked
bally, Co. Kildare, a high incidence of all three main to the type of kiln if both were contemporary, or to a
species is mentioned but with particular reference to temporal variation if they were not of the same date.
some hulled barley grains that had germinated. All Although it could be argued that the sample of sites
three main cereal species are also mentioned as being is too small to allow any conclusions to be drawn, one
associated with the four kilns at Laughanstown Glebe, noteworthy feature of the sites for which there are
Co. Dublin. In the case of the kiln found during the detailed reports is the consistent, relatively high, inci
North Gate excavations in Cork city only a few grains dence of oats, either dominant in the samples or hav
Fig. IO?Charred oats spp (without flower bases) with modern equivalent

ff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC
ing the second-highest incidence (in seven of eleven Table 3?Brehon's Chair sample 72 (from the northern end of
cases). Barley is significant in five cases but in only three the kiln, the probable firing area).
is it dominant, and wheat is only significant in those
samples where it is dominant. Species_No. of grains/seeds
It is possible that the remains represent carbonised Hordeum spp (barley) 77 grains
residue from a maslin or mixed crop of barley, or wheat, Avena spp (oats) 89 grains
with oats (Haliam 1981).This could have been the case, Weed species, including 59 seeds
for example, with the L-shaped Kilpatrick kiln (wheat Fallopia convolvulus (black bindweed),
with oats). However, for the most part, and possibly Rumex spp (the docks), Anthemis
including this case, the debris does not represent the cotula (stinking mayweed),
remains of in situ residues from firing episodes but later Lapsana communis (nipplewort)
infill of debris into the kiln following its abandonment. Grain:weed seed ratio ? 1:0.3.
The incidence of charred plant remains within the

kilns
Where information is available for the specific location
of those samples with a high incidence/frequency of
remains, they came from within the flue?usually clos
er to the firing area than the drying chamber?as
might be expected. This was the case at Ballynaraha,
Co. Tipperary, and Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny, where
samples were obtained from just outside the kiln and
from other features close by. Samples from the definite
keyhole kiln at Ballysimon were taken from the basal
fill of the flue and the upper fill of the flue and bowl
(A. Brewer, pers. comm.).
The only kiln that produced a sample of charred
remains from a primary chamber deposit was that exca
vated at James Street, Drogheda. This sample of'chitted'
grain came from the centre of the base of the drying
chamber and consisted mainly of oats, with a few
wheat grains and weed seeds, particularly Atriplex sp.
(the oraches), Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot family,), Vicia
sp. (vetches) and Lapsana communis (nipplewort).
Brehon's Chair, Taylorsgrange, Co. Dublin (Fig. 11)

A key site that has produced some challenging evi
dence with respect to the distribution of plant remains
and evidence for function is Brehon's Chair, Taylors
grange, Co. Dublin. At this site two samples came from
Fig. 11?Kiln at Brehon's Chairjaylorsgrange, Co. Dublin
the southern end of the kiln (samples 59 and 60) and
(reproduced with the kind permission of Valerie J. Keeley).
five samples from its northern end (samples 61,62,63,
67 and 72). Of the latter samples (from the possible
firing area), sample 72 produced the most remains.The from a location immediately to the west of it, from the
majority were grains of oats, but there was also a high fill of a stratigraphically earlier ditch into which the
frequency of barley. In addition, there was a reasonably kiln was set. These samples (87, 89 and 90) produced a
high frequency of seeds of'weeds' of cultivation and very high frequency of cereal remains, although they
disturbed ground. had a high degree of fragmentation. Again, mostly oats
Of the samples from the southern end of the kiln and barley were represented (with a slight dominance
the most prolific, in terms of remains, was sample 59, of barley), with a relatively low incidence of weed
although the majority of these were fragments of hazel seeds.
nut (sixteen), with only a slight indication of the pres The radiocarbon date obtained for the kiln centred
ence of cereals in the form of two oat grains and five on the late tenth/early eleventh century AD, whereas
awn fragments.The samples with the highest incidence the date obtained for the earlier ditch centred on the
of remains did not come from the kiln fills at all but earlier ninth century AD.

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Di
Fig. i 2?Plan and elevation of the Kilferagh corn-drying kiln (after Hurley 1987, courtesy of Maurice Hurley).
Table 4?Sample from Inside the flue at Kilferagh.

Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny (Fig. 12)
The excavation of the kiln at Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny, Species_No. of grains/seeds
produced samples with charred plant remains from Triticum spp (wheat) 126
both within the kiln and around it.Those from the kiln Rachis (including I aestwo-compactum) 23
entrance and the interior of the flue are outlined in Avena spp (oats) 20
Table 4. The sample from inside the flue produced 126 Hordeum spp (barley) 6
complete wheat grains and 23 fragments of rachis, indi Cereal straw nodes 4
cating Triticum aestivo-compactum. In addition, there were Cereal straw basal frags 2
oats, a few grains of barley, several cereal straw nodes Pisum sativum (peas) 2
and basal fragments, two complete peas and a number Weed seeds (including Rumex spp (the docks), 25
of weed seeds. Gallum spp (goosegrass/cleavers), Vicia cf. sativa
(common vetch), Anth?mis cotula (stinking
mayweed), A triplex spp (orache), Valerianella dentate
(corn-salad)_
Grain:weed seed ratio? 1:0.108.
Grain:chaff ratio? 1:0.142.
Grain frag, count (all species)?88.

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90 MA Monk and E. Keileher
The sample from the entrance of the flue produced quency of complete weed seeds was quite high. The
mostly wheat (including a rachis of T. aestivo-compactum main species represented were mostly Vicia spp (the
type), a few oats and barley grains, and pea and bean vetches of different sizes and species), Rumex spp (the
fragments (six and one respectively). It also produced docks), Galium spp (goosegrass/cleavers) and Anthemis
straw basal fragments and a straw node as well as a cotula (stinking mayweed).
number of weed seeds. The weed seeds were mostly The high incidence of weed seeds and the presence
Vicia sp. (the vetches), with some Rumex sp. (the docks) of straw fragments could be taken to indicate that part
and Galium sp. (goosegrass). of the complement of this sample derived from crop
processing waste that may have been used as fuel to fire
Table 5?Sample from entrance of the flue. the kiln. However, it does seem to have also been
mixed with the residues of a cleaned wheat crop being
Species_No. of grains/seeds dried (or else the crop was only semi-cleaned before it
Triticum spp (wheat) 149 was dried).
aestivo-compactum rachis I
Avena spp (oats) 13 Ballynaraha, Co. Tipperary
Hordeum spp (barley) 3 The kiln from Ballynaraha, Co. Tipperary, produced
Pisum sativum (peas) 6 samples from (i) the mouth of the drying chamber, (ii)
Vicia faba (beans) I the floor of the drying chamber and kiln collapse, (iii)
Straw frags?basal 3 the top and upper layers of the infill of the flue, and (iv)
Straw node I the final collapse of the drying kiln. The samples from
Weed seeds, including Vicia spp (the vetches), 25 the mouth of the drying chamber produced mostly
Rumex sp. (the docks) and Galium spp oats (172 complete grains), but there were also 33 com
(goosegrass/cleavers) plete barley grains, twelve wheat grains and a rachis. In
Grain:weed seed ratio?1:0.20. addition, these samples yielded a large number of oat
Graimchaff ratio?1:0.04. awn fragments (226) and 21 straw nodes, as well as
Grain fragment count for all species?83. about 100 weed seeds of various species, including R
aviculare (knotgrass), Fallopia convolvulus (black
Table 6?Sample from floor at kiln entrance. bindweed), Chenopodium album (fat hen), Raphanus
raphanistrum (wild radish), Plantago spp (the plantains)
Species_No. of grains/seeds and Vicia spp (the vetches). The fragmentation of ce
Triticum spp (wheat) 123 reals was high, with a total of 245 unidentifiable grains.
Triticum spp (rachis) including 7 The grain to weed seed ratio for these two samples was
aestivo-compactum 1:0.41, and the grain to chaff ratio (excluding oat awn
Avena spp (oats) 21 fragments) was 1:0.11.
Hordeum spp (barley) 2
Pisum sativum (peas) 4 Table 7?Sample from the mouth of the flue.
cf. Vicia faba (bean) I
Cereal straw node I Species No. of grains/seeds
Cereal straw basal frag. I Avena spp (oats) 172
Weed seeds, mostly Vicia spp (the vetches), Hordeum spp (barley) 33
Rumex spp (the docks), Galium spp Triticum spp (wheat) 12
(goosegrass/cleavers) and Anthemis cotula Triticum spp rachis (cf. aestwo-compactum) I
(stinking mayweed) 61 Oat awn frags 226
Grain:weed seed ratio?1:0.45. Cerea! straw nodes 21
Grain:chaff ratio?1:0.06. Weed seeds, including Polygonum aviculare 100
Grain fragment count, all species?94. (knotgrass), Fallopia convolvulus (black bindweed),
(Overall remains from these samples indicate an element of Chenopodium album (fat hen),
fuel with some crop residue remains.) Raphanus raphanistrum (pods) (wild radish),
Plantago spp (plantains) and Vicia spp (vetches)
A further sample was obtained from the floor at the Grain:weed seed ratio? 1:0.41.
entrance of the kiln. This again produced mostly wheat Grain:chaff ratio (excluding oat awns)?1:0.1 I.
(including seven rachis fragments of T. aestivo-com Unidentifiable cereal grain fragments (high)?245.
pactum), with low numbers of oats and a few barley
grains, peas (four complete) and a possible bean frag
ment. Cereal straw fragments were also found. The fre The sample from the floor of the drying chamber

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returned a range of remains similar to those from the Table 9?Kilpatrick sample R4, Fl 16, no. 699.
mouth of the drying area, although the overall quanti
ty of remains was much lower and the ratio of species Species No. of grains/seeds
differed, with oats and barley at almost equal frequen Triticum spp (wheat), grain 135
cy and a very low incidence of wheat. Oat awns and Triticum aestivo-compactum (compact form 58
unidentifiable cereal grains made up the cereal compo of bread wheat), rachis
nent. There was high fragmentation of the grain. This Avena spp (oats) 58
sample also had a lower incidence of charcoal than the cf. Secale cereale (possible rye) I
samples from the mouth of the chamber. The weed Pisum sativum (pea) 3
seeds present included Fallopia convolvulus (black Weed seeds, including Bromus spp (brome I 14
bindweed), Rumex spp (the docks), Chenopodium album grass), Rumex spp (the docks), Raphanus raphanistrum
(fat hen), Raphanus raphanistrum (wild radish) and Sper (wild radish), Lithospermum arvense (gromwell),
gula arvensis (corn-spurrey). The grain to weed seed Carex spp (the sedges), Atriplex spp (the oraches)_
ratio was 1:0.34. Total grain count?194.
Grain: weed seed ratio?1:0.58.
Total number of identifiable grain fragments (wheat and
Table 8?Sample from floor of drying chamber. oats)?217.
Species No. of grains/seeds The L-shaped kiln produced a far higher incidence
Avena spp (oats) 15 of remains from layers 2-4 (four samples, two from
Hordeum spp (barley) 17 layer 4) and the one sample that covers layers 5-9.
Triticum spp (wheat) 3 There were two further samples, both from unspecified
Oat awns 36 locations, from within this kiln.
Weed seeds, including Fallopia convolvulus 12
(black bindweed), Rumex sp. (the docks), Table 10?Kilpatrick, the L-shaped kiln (middle infilling of the
Chenopodium album (fat hen), Raphanus kiln).
raphanistrum (wild radish) and Spergula
arvensis (corn-spurrey) Species_No. of grains/seeds
Grain:weed seed ratio?1:0.34. Triticum spp (wheat), grain 451
Note: The upper fills of the kiln at Ballynaraha produced a T. aestivo-compactum (wheat), rachis 17
high frequency of remains, but these represented mixed Avena spp (oats ) 276
dumping. Hordeum spp (barley), grain 54
Hordeum cf. hexastichum (barley), rachis I
The four upper fills of the kilns?which presum Secale cereale (rye) 23
ably represented later dumping?produced a high fre Cereal straw bases and nodes 15
quency of remains. The majority of grains, in all cases, cf. Pisum sativum (possible pea) 3
were oats (78 complete grains and 147 fragments), with Weed seeds, including Lapsana communis 315
far less barley and even less wheat (for example, sample (nipplewort), Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass),
1 from the upper layer in the kiln flue F.9 had 33 bar Rumex spp (docks), Raphanus raphanistrum (wild
ley grains, twenty of wheat and one of rye). Again frag radish), Galium aparine (goosegrass),
mentation was high, with 213 unidentifiable fragments Lithospernum arvense (gromwell), Vicia spp
in sample 1 and with many of the grains distorted, (the vetches) and Gramineae (grasses)
especially those of wheat. There was a similar range and Total number of complete grains?815.
overall incidence of weed seeds against grain as in the Grain:weed seed ratio?1:0.39.
other samples. Sample 4, for example, produced 219 Grain:chaff ratio?1:0.04.
complete grains and 84 weed seeds (a grain to weed

seed ratio of 1:0.38). The highest incidence of remains was from layers 4
and 4B. The sample from layer 4 produced mostly
Kilpatrick, Co. Westmeath wheat but also had a high incidence of oats. It also pro
The samples from the two Kilpatrick kilns were not duced some barley grains and a small incidence of rye.
specifically located within the kilns. The two samples There was a significant quantity of straw fragments and
from the keyhole kiln showed a dominance of wheat, especially weed seeds.There were both basal and nodal
confirmed as T. aestivo-compactum on the basis of the cereal straw fragments. There was a legume similar in
rachis fragments. There was also a high frequency of size to domestic pea, Pisum sativum. Weed seeds were
weed seeds from this sample. very frequent. They included mainly vetches, Vicia spp,

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
92 MA Monk and E. Kelleher
but also included Gramineae (the grasses family), Lap sition. Sample 4, for example, produced predominantly
sana communis (nipplewort), Polygonum aviculare (knot barley, with less oat grains and even fewer wheat grains.
grass), Rumex spp (the docks), Raphanus raphanistrum There was a moderate incidence of weed seeds, includ
(wild radish?pods), Galium cf. aparine (goosegrass/ ing F. convolvulus (black bindweed), Rumex spp (the
cleavers) and Lithospermum arvense (gromwell). There docks), Spergula arvensis (corn-spurrey), Gramineae (the
was a high grain fragmentation rate and many frag grasses) and cf. Vicia spp (the vetches). The grain to
ments were simply not extractable. However, a total of weed seed ratio was 1:0.10.
628 fragments could be identified to various species. Sample 8 also showed a dominance of barley with
The grain to weed seed ratio was 1:0.39 and the grain similar ratios of oats and wheat. The number of weed
to chaff ratio was 1:0.04. seeds identified in this sample was far lower, there being
The lowest deposits, layers 5-9, produced a lower only twelve, including F. convolvulus (black bindweed)
incidence of remains overall, but wheat still predomi and Rumex spp (the docks). The grain to weed seed
nated and there were far fewer weed seeds, which ratio was 1:0.02.
included Bromus spp (brome grass), Lithospernum arvense
(gromwell), Rumex spp (the docks) and Vicia spp (the Table 13?Ballyman sample 8, basal layer of the kiln.
vetches).The grain to weed seed ratio was 1:0.29.There
were also numerous grain fragments, 102 of which Species No. of grains/seeds
were identified to the main species. The grain to weed Hordeum spp (barley, including six-row hulled), 284
seed ratio was 1: 0.29. H. vulgare I hexastichum
Avena spp (oats) 42
Table 11?Kilpatrick, lowest layers (5-9) ofL-shaped kiln. Triticum spp (wheat) 7
Cereal straw nodes 2
Weed seeds, including F convolvulus 12
(black bindweed) and Rumex spp (the docks)_
Total number of complete grains?333.
Identifiable grain fragments?164.
Unidentifiable grain fragments?170.
Grain:weed seed ratio?1:0.02.
Sample 9 came from the probable drying area of the

kiln. Overall the quantity of remains was much small
er, with 25 complete grains in total. There were, how
ever, no weed seeds but this may be a function of the
small sample size.
Hordeum spp (barley) 228
( 130 poorly preserved) Table 14?Ballyman sample 9, base of drying area of kiln.
Avena spp (oats) 34
Triticum spp (wheat) 3 Species_No. of grains/seeds
Weed seeds, including F. convolvulus 33 Hordeum spp (barley) 24
(black bindweed), Rumex spp Avena spp (oats) I
(the docks), Spergula arvensis
(corn-spurrey), cf. Vicia spp Patterns in these data
(the vetches), Gramineae (grasses)_ Several points can be made about the samples from
Total number of complete grains?310. these kilns. Most of them came from either the flue, the
Total number of identifiable grain fragments?147. firing areas of the kilns or the later infilling deposits.
Total number of unidentifiable fragments?258. Only three samples came from the drying chamber
Grain:weed seed ratio? 1:0.10. interior?one from Ballyman, one from James Street,
Drogheda, and one from Ballynaraha. All three pro
Ballyman, Co. Dublin duced a low incidence of cereal remains and may have
The Ballyman dumb-bell-shaped kiln (Fig. 1) pro contained remains of the crops being dried. They were
duced a sequence of samples from the firing end of the in burnt deposits that could have represented either
kiln (samples 1-8) and one sample from the probable charred residues of gradually accumulating charred
drying end of the kiln (sample 9). Samples 4-8 from remains from firing debris or the remains of accidental
the base and basal side of the kiln produced the high fires that occurred during the use of the kilns.
est incidence of remains. They were similar in compo The rest of the samples?the majority?represent

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
ed rake-out from a kiln conflagration or residual debris drying floor (ibid., 56). However, cloth sacks were not
from the fuel. The mixed composition of some of the always used, e.g. they were absent from the Ballyhaunis
samples, notwithstanding that one species dominated kiln described by Knox (1907, 207) and were thought
over the others, and the high fragmentation of the grain not to have been used in the drying floor of the Bray
(including frequent unidentifiable grains and in some Head, Valentia Island, kiln (Gailey 1970, 59, after Scott
instances distorted grain) could be taken to indicate 1951). In the Ferrycarrig Test 3 experiment (see
fuel, as would perhaps also be suggested by the pres below), drawn straw was used but was found to be in
ence of chaff and weed seeds, which in some examples effective (Fig. 6). In the Lisnagun kiln experiments a
were present at a high frequency, for example in sack was used as a 'bed' for the grain.
samples from Kilferagh and Ballynaraha. Such a com Another feature that would not be identifiable in
plement of remains might indicate, at best, a semi archaeological examples was the roof structure. Knox s
cleaned crop or, indeed, waste used as tinder to initially illustration of the Ballyhaunis kiln (Fig. 2) indicated a
fire the kiln. thatched roof on a wattlework framework. A wattle and
straw door with hay rope hinges, to allow access to the
drying grain, was also set into the roof structure. The
THE EXPERIMENTS roof rested on a bank built around the top stones of the
drying chamber. Its purpose was to facilitate the con
Background to the experiments tinuation of the drying process during light rain con
The structural evidence, the near-recent documentary ditions. As will be seen, however, as the experiments
sources for their use and the high incidence of charred progressed it was realised that the reconstructed roof
cereals from kilns taken together indicate that these took on another purpose (see below, p. 101).
structures operated as drying kilns. The details of their
operation and their effectiveness were not known. As Siting of kilns
noted earlier, experiments were undertaken on Roman Slope was a key factor affecting the airflow through a
drying kilns (Reynolds and Langley 1979, 27-42; kiln. Some kilns, like the Ballyhaunis example, were set
Reynolds 1981, 43). No similar experiments had been into the side of a bank with up to 60cm of the cham
undertaken on the later keyhole kilns prior to the late ber protruding above the ground (Knox 1907,270). By
1980s until one of the authors (EK), with the guidance comparison, at Glencullen there was no indication that
of the other (MM), undertook, as part of an MA pro the kiln protruded above the ground at all (Gailey
ject, a series of tests on reconstructed kilns, one at Fer 1970, 60, 62).
rycarrig, the National Folk Park in Wexford, and two Rickett (1975,16) has argued that some kilns were
on the site of a reconstructed ringfort at Lisnagun, Co. sited with regard to the direction of the prevailing
Cork (Lisnagun kilns 1 and 2). wind. Hence the location and orientation of kilns were
chosen to take full advantage of the predominant local
The sources that informed the structure of the air circulation to facilitate draughting. The variable
experimental kilns nature of the wind direction and its velocity would
The experiments, which are described in detail below, have been difficult to control without the use of con
involved the construction of three kilns, one at Fer structed windbreaks, evidence for which has been
rycarrig, Co. Wexford, and two at Lisnagun, Co. Cork. found on only a few sites, for example Ballynaraha, Co.
The designs, and obviously also the physical locations, Waterford, where two stake-holes, 34cm apart and
differed in each case. The construction was based on a slightly tangential to the axis of the flue, were found
combination of the evidence for such kilns from exca (10cm and 12cm in diameter and 6cm and 7cm deep
vations?particularly Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny?as well respectively) (O'Donnell 1988, 160). On this basis a
as evidence from surveyed sites in west Cork (see windbreak was constructed for the Lisnagun 2 kiln. It
below) and documentary sources. was 1.83m high and 2.74m long and supported on five
The ethnographic sources were particularly stakes 1.98m high. At Ferrycarrig a split plank, lm high
informative for providing details of features of keyhole and 2m long, was simply kept in place by stones. Such
type kilns that were not discovered during excavations, an expedient windbreak would, of course, leave no
for example the make-up of the drying floor, which trace that could be picked up archaeologically.
consisted of, in the first instance, four cross 'trees' The Ferrycarrig kiln was located in a small valley,
(wooden beams) placed across the top part of the with a north-west/south-east orientation. The flue was
chamber. On top of this was placed a wattle frame, constructed with a 310? orientation to the north-west,
upon which drawn straw was laid (Fig. 2). According facing into the predominant wind direction in the
to Gailey (1970, 67), the straw was often plaited. Gai locality. Similarly, the Lisnagun 1 and 2 kilns were built
ley also referred to a cloth sack being laid out on the into the same hillock and also orientated 310? to the

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
Fig. 13?The Ferrycarrig kiln

being fired.
Table 15?Dimensions of experimental kilns.

Kiln name Width of Diameter of
Length of Width of Height of Height of
flue flue at flue at flue at flue at drying chamber
mouth drying mouth drying (top & base)
chamber chamber
Ferrycarrig 1.24m 0.63m 0.63m 0.57m 0.76m 1.26m & 1.16m

Lisnagun I 1.50m 0.66m 0.60m 0.65m 0.60m 1.35m & 1.20m
Lisnagun 2_1.83m 0.74m_0.64m 0.60m 0.54m 1.49m & 1.20m
north-west, taking account of the prevailing wind fromSizes of the experimental kilns and particular func
the west and south-west. Of the three kilns, those at tional features
Lisnagun proved to have the most advantageous posiIn order to explore the aerodynamics of these kilns,
tioning in terms of harnessing the best draught. This thought to be a crucial factor in their functioning and
does not mean that the Ferrycarrig kiln was disadvan successful use, they were constructed to a similar form
taged in this respect. For its location, it was in the best although their actual dimensions varied, as noted in
position to make the most of the predominant wind Table 15 (Figs 14 and 15).
direction (as demonstrated in Tests 1-3 below). How During the course of the experiments it was dis
ever, as it turned out, its general low-lying location was covered that it was beneficial to place the fire, to acti
not the most ideal place for a drying kiln. vate the kiln, in a purposely dug depression (which
The Ferrycarrig kiln (Fig. 13) was set into a bank ofmeasured 84cm by 48cm by 20cm deep at Lisnagun 2)
shale and clay, 88cm high at the mouth of the flue andat the flue entrance. In particular, this prevented burn
lm high at the bowl. None of the drystone walling used ing fuel from entering the flue but also served to pre
to construct the kiln protruded above the bank. Lisnavent flames from the drying fire reaching a height
gun kilns 1 and 2 were built on a flat area on top of awhere they, or sparks from them, entered the flue, as
hillock. All three kilns had their flues and bowls/dryinghappened in the earlier experiments at Ferrycarrig and
chambers enclosed after construction by a mound of Lisnagun 1, where the fires were not set in such a
earth and 'scraws' (a sward of grass and earth). depression. At Lisnagun 1, the absence of a fire setting
meant that the fire had to be placed 30cm away from

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
the flue. This led to a loss of heat from the fire to the
flue, something that did not happen when the fire was
set into a hearth depression at the end of the flue. Evi
dence for such hearths has been noted during excava
tions, for example at Ballynaraha, Co.Tipperary, and the
kiln at Dangansallagh, Co. Cork (identified by the Cork
FERRUARRIG
Archaeological Survey; Power et al. 1997, 33).
Variables affecting the drying process and a con

sideration of aerodynamics
Drying grain in bulk depends on the relationship
between the moisture content of the grain and the rel
ative humidity of the air surrounding it (Lenehan 1986,
3).While the fire used may produce high temperatures,
it is only by having a flow through the structure that
the air will dry the grain. Ideally a well-positioned,
well-constructed and thus well-draughted kiln would
allow the heat from the firing area to pass through the
grain, thereby liberating its moisture content without
re-absorption. Re-absorption could be guarded against,
as discovered during the experimental tests, by regular
ly turning the grain with a shovel throughout the dry
ing period, thereby shortening the time necessary to
dry it.
According to Halliday, two aerodynamic principles
come into play when increasing the airflow through a
structure of this kind (Halliday and Resnick 1988,
373?9).These principles are respectively referred to as
the 'Equation of Continuity' and the 'Bernoulli Equa
tion'. The former principle states that 'when a channel
constricts the streamlines of air they draw closer
together signaling an increase in the fluid velocity'
(ibid, y 376). Simply put, air flowing through a flue will
have its speed increased where the flue has a wide
mouth and narrows in size until it reaches the drying
chamber. This is also called the 'push path'. The
'Bernoulli Equation' states that 'if the speed of a fluid
particle increases as it travels along a streamline, the
pressure of the fluid must decrease and conversely the
same is also true' (ibid., 376).To achieve this, the drying
floor of the kiln must be built higher than the hearth,
and the fire must be placed at ground level where the
stagnant layer of air is present so that the air pressure is
higher at this point than at the drying floor. This would
necessitate the flue mouth and the fire setting to be at
a lower level than the top of the drying chamber (the
bowl). The air passing over the top of the drying cham
ber will then help to draw the air through the flue and
the chamber and, therefore, through the grain. This is
called the 'chimney effect'.
The experiments were undertaken to explore the
influence of these two principles in the operation of
drying kilns of somewhat different dimensions and to
Fig. / 5?Elevations of the experimental kilns at Ferrycarrig and identify the optimum size of a kiln for drying grain. As
stated, drying kilns will operate on the basis of the pas

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
Fig. 16?Ferrycarrig kiln, showing thermocouples in place to measure the temperature of the grain.
sage of air through the grain until the desired reduction the tobacco-pipe-shaped kiln would work to dry grain
of moisture is achieved. Whether the grain was being and that the aerodynamic basis for the process had been
dried for storage, to facilitate threshing or to enhance understood.
milling, it was necessary to have a reduction in mois
ture content before the drying episode was concluded. The experiments
The amount of moisture reduction required varied The experimental programme consisted of nine tests.
according to the destination of the grain. For storage, Three of these were undertaken at Ferrycarrig, Co.
the moisture content would have to be reduced to 15% Wexford (Tests 1-3), and three each at Lisnagun 1 and
or less, depending on the length of time it was to be 2 (Lisnagun 1, Tests 4-7, and Lisnagun 2, Tests 8-10).
stored. To prevent the development of pests like mites There were, however, also two other attempted tests,
during longer-term storage the moisture content one at Ferrycarrig and one at Lisnagun 1, that were
would need to be reduced to below 12%; at such a level aborted because of accidental fires. All the tests were
the grain would remain intact for many years. A reduc undertaken during 1988 and 1989 (May 1988 for Fer
tion of moisture to this extent would have made the rycarrig, July and August 1989 for Lisnagun).The var
grain too brittle for milling, and indeed the gluten ious depths of the grain used in the experiments were
would be likely to be damaged, rendering it useless for based on ethnographic and documentary sources. For
bread-making. In addition, if the moisture content was each test both the changes in temperature and mois
reduced below 12% the viability of the grain for malt ture of the grain were monitored, using thermocouple
would also be destroyed (Nash 1978, 31). Nash (ibid., rods (to measure temperatures) inserted into the grain
361), following Thomsen, has said that seed grain, and read by a hand-held electronic thermometer (Fig.
intended for sowing a year after harvest, needs be dried 16). The moisture levels were read by a hand-held
down to 14%, but not less, so as to avoid damaging its moisture meter inserted into the grain when required.
ability to germinate. For Test 1 at Ferrycarrig 52.349kg of oats (the most
It was decided to explore the workings of the common grain found associated with excavated corn
experimental kilns by aiming to reduce the moisture drying kilns) were spread to a depth of 0.07m and a
content to 15%. Ifit were possible to reduce the mois width of 1.17m by 1.47m across the drying floor. The
ture to this extent, it was felt that it would prove that moisture readings of the grain at the beginning of the

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
24 -?-.
21 -f?
^??et\
, \. \
\ \
17-._._. _
05 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Time (Hours)
D M c-A + M.C.B o M.C. C M.C. D
25 --fr
22 -^^Ns*- -A-&^^^^> / ^s\8^ ^fK-0-?

21 -
20 - // *?? -\r a
^ / Fig. I8?Test 3 at Ferrycarrig:
18 -?j ?s*- change in temperature against
17 ? fr time. (TC = thermocouple.)
12 -
11 -
10 ?j J I I I I I I
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Time (Hours)
T.C. 1 + T.C.2 o T.C. 3 T.C. 4
experiment were 19% anddepth
19.5% at
of 0.75m and the
a width two
of 1.45m points
by 1.1m. At the
where readings were taken.
outsetAfter seven
the moisture levels hours
of the barley the
were 21% and
experiment was terminated as 22% (Fig.
the 17). moisture
Unlike in the previous
of tests,
the the grain
grain
had not reduced appreciably, was turned
being with 18.75%
a hand shovel during
andthe drying
19.75%
respectively. experiment to counteract the moisture transfer prob
In the case of Test 2, 49.334kg of oats, spread to a lem. Unfortunately, however, throughout the test
depth of 0.07m over the drying floor, had their mois unfavourable wind directions kept the temperatures
ture levels reduced from 19% and 20% to between 12% relatively low, with only an inconsistent rise recorded
and 16.5% after nine hours. (Fig. 18). Heavy rain after 6.5 hours added to the prob
For Test 3, 65.836kg of barley were spread to a lem, and in consequence the test was terminated.

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
24 - -
20 ~ a Y^VV \ ' ^?^~est ^ at Lisnagun

\ \)^><cy\_\ \ I : change in moisture content
\ /vsT/^ ^Eks\>?\ against time. (MC = moisture
18 - \/ tf^r^^ C0Up/ev)
14 _-j I I I I I I I I I I | I I I I
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 .3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Time (Hours)
M.C. A + M.C. o M.C. C M.C.
50 -"
45 -
35 ?> J Jf / \\ J Fig. 20?Test 6 at Lisnagun

?*~^>s // h^^y " I : change in temperature
/ I ^>\j / against time. (TC = thermo
30 - izf 1/%^ / couple.)
15 -|-1-j-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-!-1
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Time (Hours)
T.C. 1 + T.C.2 o T.C. 3 T.C. 4
increasedof
For Test 4 at Lisnagun 1, 47.854kg to wheat
betweenwere20% and 2
spread to a depth of 0.1m. At In
theTest 6, 50.643kg
beginning of the of
testbarle
the moisture levels were 23.5% andacross
deep 24%. After five hours
the drying floor. At
the moisture levels had only level readings
reduced by 3%, oftothe grain wer
between
21% and 22%. Constant showerseightand an unfavourable
hours there was a signifi
wind direction caused the test to levels
ture be terminated.
to between 15.5% an
In Test 5,55.25kg of wheattures
were rose
to besteadily (Figs
dried. At the19 and
outset the moisture levels were 19.55% and
The Lisnagun kiln 20.5%.
2 was built
After seven hours the moisture levels
and with had actually
the same orientation a

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
SFig. 21?Test 7 at Lisnagun

2: change in moisture content
against time. (MC = mois
ture couple.)
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Time (Hours)
M.C.A + M.C.B o M.C.C M.C. D
52 - -1
^ - /
38 - y/\s 2: change in temperature
36 - y0^^ y^^1^^ against time. (FC - thermo
34 - /\ ^''''^T*'^^^ coup/ev)
30 ^^^/^ /
28 -
26 -p/
24 -|-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Time (Hours)
T.C. 1 + T.C. 1 o T.C. 3 T.C. 4
25kg of barley were spread 0.03mbetweendeep23% andthe

across 24%.dryAfter five
levels
ing floor. The straw layer across thehad been
floor wasreduced
omitted to 15% an
and the grain was spread directly Inover
order to make
a cloth sack,sure
laid that the
across the wattle frame. At the quantity
outset theofmoisture levels
grain dried or the thic
were 23% and 23%. After five spread
hours the grain
across thehad dried floor we
drying
to moisture levels of betweenfactors
14% and in15.5%, with a
the success of Tests 6,
corresponding rise in temperature (Figs 21in
undertaken and 22).
Lisnagun 2; 50kg of
In Test 8, 25kg of barley were spread
across to ato
a sack depth
a depthof of 0.07m.
0.03m on the drying floor. The moisture
were 22% and levels
25% were
at the beginnin

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
/ 00 MA. Monk and E Kelleher
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5

Time (Hours)
o T.C.1 + T.C. 2 o T.C. 3 T.C. 4
15.5%
retically, given that there was twice (Figs
the 23 and
amount 24).
of grain
The previous
at a similar moisture level as in the success of the
two experiments w
tests,
kiln seems
it might be expected that the grain wouldmost
take likely to be due to
twice as
Although
long to dry. However, after five the hours,
and a half Ferrycarrig
with kiln did
a steady and even temperature ofrise
grain
of in
the Test 2 down
grain, the to moistu
moisture readings were 16.5% 12.5% and indicating
and 17%, 16.5%, it took
that nine and
the decrease in moisture was not
so. By dependent
comparison,on the
a moisture redu
mere
amount of grain being dried.The five and a half
experiment hours in the L
was con
tinued for a further two and aThe
half hours until
difference in the
the time of ye
moisture levels had droppediments
to between 13.5% and was unli
were undertaken

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
factor influencing the variation in the results, given that loose. Ifit remained 'in the ear' this would also affect its
the unsuccessful experiments at Lisnagun 1 also took resistance to the airflow. The presence of dust, chaff and
place in the summer months (the time of year for dry weed seeds in the body of the grain could also have
ing is discussed in Keane 1986, 26). Admittedly the prevented free passage of the heated air.
most successful experiments were undertaken on dry Such were the variables that could not have been
days. Such days were perhaps more likely to occur dur anticipated before the experiments were undertaken
ing the summer, although the documentary sources and had to be addressed by on-the-spot improvisations.
indicate that corn-drying most often took place in the The first of these was the placing of the fire within a
autumn, after the harvest, when the grain might be depression just before the mouth of the flue, as in the
expected to take longer to dry. Evans (1957, 122), cit Lisnagun 2 experiments. This allowed greater control
ing Knox (1907, 270), estimated that the drying of of the spread of the fire, especially when placed as close
grain in an Irish corn-drying kiln in the late nineteenth to the flue as possible, and hence made a considerable
century took up to 24 hours to complete. However, in contribution to the raising of the temperature of the air
line with the results of these experiments, Fenton has passing through the kiln.
made reference to oats being dried over a period of The second variable was the effect of moisture
between six and eight hours in a relatively recently transfer. Since corn-drying depended on the passage of
used Scottish kiln in a barn. In this case the floor had a air through the grain, the lower layers would dry first,
diameter of 8ft and the grain was spread to a depth of since they are initially in more direct contact with the
3 inches. Fenton (1978, 387) notes that the key vari heated air. The upper layers are subsequently heated,
ables were the amount of heat generated in the kiln fire but only after the lower layers had taken up the heat.
and draught control. Time of year would have been a There is an initial moisture transfer from the lower
key factor, not least affecting the draught. grain to that above, as was noted by the moisture con
If the grain was not dried soon after the harvest it tent readings during the drying process, but by consis
would become spoiled during storage. Lenehan (1986, tently turning the grain during the experiment this
31-3) has stated that the estimated safe storage life for moisture transfer problem could be alleviated and the
modern wheat stored in a bulk dryer, at a storage tem time required to dry all the grain was lessened.
perature of 10? Celsius and a moisture content of It was also discovered during Tests 4 and 5 at Lisna
19.5%, is 4.5 weeks. gun 1 that the removable thatched roof acted as a heat
retainer, or back-draught, retaining the heated air in the
Discussion?factors influencing the results drying area and maximising the drying possibilities of
A number of factors have affected the success of these the kiln when the wind speeds were low or the air was
corn-drying experiments using a keyhole-shaped kiln. damp (Fig. 25). However, the roof was unnecessary
These included the initial moisture content of the when the weather was dry and when the wind speeds
grain, its quantity, the depth to which it was spread on were sufficient for the heat to be transferred through
the drying floor, and the airspeed of the heated air pass the kiln. When the wind speeds were slack and the
ing from the drying fire through the flue to the drying amount of heat reaching the grain was insufficient to
chamber.With respect to airspeed, the faster the airflow, dry it, the roof was put in position. To ensure that the
the less the heat loss from the fire to the drying cham consequent moisture-laden air did not re-saturate the
ber and the greater the amount of heat spread over a grain, the door of the roof was opened regularly to
larger area. An important factor in terms of the kiln's release it.
efficiency would have been the temperature of the air The speed and direction of the wind are also key
when it entered the kiln, affected by the amount and variables, although a certain amount of control can be
strength of sunshine and the amount of cloud cover, exercised by the use of windbreaks, the evidence for
both of which are influenced by the time of year. The which is scarce (examples at Kiltenan South, Co. Lim
higher the temperature before it was artificially raised erick, and Jordanstown, Co. Dublin). The lack of evi
by the kiln, the more moisture that would be drawn off dence from excavated sites may simply be a reflection
the grain naturally. The temperature of the air, once of the temporary or flimsy nature of these features, as
raised by the fire, should therefore be sufficient to discussed earlier with reference to the experiments (p.
remove the moisture from the grain but should not be 93). The windbreaks used in the experiments did have
so high as to raise the temperature of the grain itself. a beneficial effect, although not so much in inhibiting
Other variables that need to be considered include the the passage of air from an unfavourable wind direction
relative humidity of the air surrounding the grain dur as in directing it towards the drying fire and the flue.
ing the drying period, the wind direction, and whether A further factor whose importance was anticipated
the grain is dried loose or 'in the ear'. Grain dried 'in was flue length. If the flue was too long the heat would
the ear' would be less compact than ifit were threshed not reach the drying chamber, but if it was too short

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
/ 02 MA Monk and E. Kelleher
This, however, was still not quite long enough to pre

vent sparks reaching the drying floor and, as a result,
during a pre-test of the Lisnagun 1 kiln the drying
floor also caught fire.
In order to reduce the possibility of further acci
dents the flue of Lisnagun 2 was further extended to
1.83m. Provided that the fire was not too big, stoked
too vigorously or fired during times of high winds, it
would seem that such a length, or even a greater length,
was appropriate, minimising the risk of accidental fire.
Anything less would have required some kind of barri
er, such as a baffle stone. The results of the experiments
suggest that while the general shape of a tobacco-pipe
shaped kiln is aerodynamically effective for drying
grain, a key variable was the length and form of the
flue. It would also seem that the longer the flue, the less
likely an accidental conflagration.
The ideal kiln would consist of a relatively long flue
that narrowed significantly in height and width from
the flue mouth to the funnel mouth (where the flue
meets the drying chamber).The latter would also need
to be set at a higher level than the flue mouth. To be
effective, a drying kiln should also have a drying cham
ber whose walls are wide at the top and taper down to
a narrower base. This shape would facilitate an even dis
Fig. 25?Lisnagun 2 experimental kiln with roof in place.
tribution of hot air over the greater area of the drying
floor upon which the grain was spread. However, of the
two main parts of these kilns, the shape and inclination
the potential for a conflagration was greater. Gailey of the flue would have been the more crucial because
(1979, 67) has noted that sufficient flue length would it was these features that would have ensured an
have prevented sparks from migrating from the drying increase in the speed of the airflow and hence a mini
fire to the drying floor. The short flue length (1.24m) mal drop in the temperature from the drying fire to the
of the Ferrycarrig kiln was certainly the main reason drying floor. The results of the experiments have shown
for the fire that terminated the first test. Subsequently that the Lisnagun 2 kiln came closest to this ideal.
a baffle stone (0.17m high, 0.02m wide and 0.53m
long) was placed in the flue. This caused the flow of Concluding thoughts and implications of the
heated air with sparks to be forced upwards.The sparks experiments
were extinguished when they encountered the roof of The experimental programme was begun with the
the flue while the hot air, spark-less, passed over the intention of exploring a number of hypotheses. The
stone and along the flue, drying the grain in the drying first was whether the keyhole/tobacco-pipe-shaped
chamber. If removed when the kiln went out of use, kiln, as found on archaeological excavations, could
archaeological evidence for the presence of a baffle operate as a grain-drying kiln. If so, the second hypoth
stone would be non-existent, unless it was set into the esis explored the aerodynamic basis for its effective use,
base of the flue just inside its mouth. As discussed and how those aerodynamic principles were reflected
above, another measure that could have prevented in the kiln s structure and associated features.
sparks from travelling along the flue was to set the dry The successful exploration of these hypotheses has
ing fire in a depression at the mouth of the flue. Evi led to a number of implications for the excavation of
dence for such settings exists in the archives of the Irish corn-drying kilns. Care needs to be taken to identify
Folklore Commission (ibid., 52-72), and archaeological evidence for such features as windbreaks or other
evidence has been noted in the Ballynaraha kiln and draughting mechanisms, emplacements for baffle stones
from survey at Dangansallagh in west Cork (Power et (especially for short-flue kilns) and shallow hollows set
al. 1997,33). in the firing areas in front of the flue mouth to contain
As a result of the failure of the first set of experi the drying hearth. From the assessment of the available
ments at the Ferrycarrig kiln the length of the kiln flue evidence for excavated corn-drying kilns to date, only
for the Lisnagun experiments was increased to 1.5m. some excavators noted these features. It is essential that

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
Table 16?Key features of some excavated kilns mentioned in the text
Site name Windbreak/ Baffle stones Flue length Fire settings Burnt
screen and flue >2m material at
length flue mouth
Ballynaraha Present 5m Present
Bal I invi ny North Present 3m Present
Brooklodge Present 17m
Ballyegan Present 2.1 m
Boolaregh Present 3 m
Bricketstown 2 Present 4m
Brehon's Chair Present 4m
Gortroe II Present
tot Igth 3.5m
Gorteen Present
tot. Igth 3.5m
Flemingstown Present 3.72m
Jordanstown Present Present 2m
Kilrainey kiln I Present 1.86m
Kilferagh Possibly present Present 2.2m Present
Ki I patrick Present 2.5m,
keyhole kiln
Kiltenan South Present
Luffany Present 3 m
Peter Street, Present
Waterford city c. 1.6m Present
Note: This is a small sample but there does seem to be a relationship between the presence of baffle stones and shorter flues.
all field archaeologists become more aware of the need non-distinct areas outside the flues of kilns, for ex
to make thorough records of all the features associated ample at Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny.
with corn-drying kilns in order to provide a basis of The other structure for which there is ethnograph
knowledge for their workings. ic evidence but which is unlikely to leave any archae
A possible windbreak/kiln screen was noted at Kil ological trace is a removable thatched roof (Figs 2 and
tenan South, Co. Limerick, and Jordanstown, Co. 25). It is possible that a more substantial roof structure
Dublin. Baffle stones were noted at Brooklodge, Co. was constructed over these kilns and the immediate
Cork (flue length 1.7m), Ballyegan, Co. Kerry (total area around them. Such a construction would, how
length of flue 2.1m), Jordanstown (2m-long flue), Kil ever, have affected the passage of air around the kiln
rainey kiln 1, Co. Kildare (total length 1.86m), Gortroe and would have had an impact on its functioning.
II, Co. Mayo (total length kiln 3.5m), and Gorteen, Co. An important feature of all kilns would have been
Limerick (total length 3.5m). their immediate location. Most of them, for example
From the assessment above it does seem that the the two discovered during survey work in west Cork
majority of flues are over 2m long and consequently at Dangansallagh and Glendau, were set into sloping
did not require baffle stones; for example, that for ground in order to avail of the prevailing winds to
Ballinvinny, Co. Cork, is 3m long; Brehon s Chair, Co. ensure that they were well draughted (Power et al.
Dublin, 4m long; Ballynaraha, Co. Tipperary, 5m; Kil 1997, 333). The general topographic location of kilns
feragh, Co. Kilkenny, 2.2m; Bricketstown 2, Co.Wex discovered during excavations is seldom recorded (see
ford, 4m; Luffany, Co. Kilkenny, 3m; and Kilpatrick, Co. above, p. 84, for exceptions).
Westmeath, c. 2.5m. While many excavation reports Crucial to our understanding of function is
noted 'constructed' firing areas, few discussed shallow archaeobotanical evidence. An increasing number of
hollows outside the flues distinct from these. The only corn-drying kilns are being sampled for macro-plant
clear example was at Ballinvinny North, Co. Cork, remains in order to explore both the crops that were
although burnt material has been sampled in otherwise being dried and the fuel that was used to fire the kilns.

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
/ 04 MA. Monk and E. Kelleher
However, discrete sampling from different parts of the for larger-scale grain production, including mills and
kilns, as well as from the various deposits they contain, five, possibly associated, figure-of-eight-shaped corn
is rarely carried out (exceptions being Ballyman, Co. drying kilns (Seaver 2005b, 11). Rynne has long argued
Dublin; Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny; Ballynaraha, Co. for the association of mills and corn-drying kilns (C.
Waterford; and Ballinvinny, Co. Cork). These projects Rynne 1988, I). While little archaeological evidence
demonstrate the value of archaeobotanical sampling in existed for this association before later medieval times
the exploration of the functioning and role of corn (post-twelfth century), there does seem to be a link
drying kilns in past agricultural societies (Monk 1981). both at Raystown, with its complex of mills, and at
Mashanaglass, Co. Cork, where there is also a reason
ably close spatial association between a well-preserved
GEOGRAPHICAL AND LO CATION AL CON horizontal mill and a probable, large (7.62m long), fig
TEXT OF CORN-DRYING KILNS IN ure-of-eight-shaped kiln 45m to the north-west (M.
IRELAND Seaver, pers. comm.; C. Rynne 1988,1,133; Fahy 1956,
34-5).
The fact that many of those sites first identified as dry For the succeeding Anglo-Norman period, the
ing kilns, including those of post-medieval/early mod documentary sources (mainly manorial extants and
ern date, were located in the northern and westernaccounts) clearly indicate considerable investment in
counties of Ireland is no surprise because these areas of cereal production in the eastern part of the country
the country are most prone to damp harvests and henceduring the late thirteenth century. According to Hen
in most need of corn-drying kilns. However, notwithnessy (2004) and Lyons (1981), the intention was to
standing the identification of further sites in these meet the food supply demands of Edward Is armies on
regions, in recent years the highest number of new sites campaign in Wales and then later in Scotland. This pro
have been discovered in the south and east of the coun duction occurred in those areas, for example Wexford,
try (Fig. 7). closest to coastal trading ports (e.g. New Ross). How
It could be argued that this high incidence of sites ever, from the early to mid-fourteenth century there
simply reflects the fact that this region has been most was both a decline in this demand and coincidentally
subject to pre-development excavations, especially increased instances of cooler, damper weather condi
prior to road-building. It is also the case that these tions. It could be argued that a damper climate would
developments have been taking place mostly on low to have enhanced the need for the use of drying kilns at
middle-slope locations, situations in which corn-drying harvest time and may also have influenced the types of
kilns are most usually placed. Munster, an area that has crops being grown (see below).
similarly seen a lot of development, has the second
highest incidence of kilns at fifteen. So, is the incidence Urban corn-drying kilns
of corn-drying kiln sites simply a result of a bias in Several of the sites that have been identified on exca
modern development? vations to date have been found in medieval urban
Several points can be made to support the possibil contexts, including one kiln at James Street and two
ity that there is some significance in the distribution. kilns at Laurence's Steet, Drogheda, Co. Louth (K.
The east of the country enjoys the most suitable con Campbell, pers. comm.; Deirdre Murphy, acsltd.ie); one
ditions for cereal-growing and, in contrast to the west, kiln at Friary Street, Kilkenny (Stevens 2003,211); one
has been subject to larger-scale crop production, driv kiln at the North Gate, Cork city (Hurley 1997a,
en by the need to produce grain surpluses to fulfil 22-4); one kiln at Bakehouse Lane and two (and pos
demand over a longer period of time?a situation that sibly a further six) kilns at Peter Street, Waterford city
could have been developing since early medieval times. (Hurley 1997b, 275?7).Their presence in such contexts
The settlement evidence would suggest that there was would indicate the need to dry grain after storage
an overall increase in population levels from the eighth before use and to harden the grain before milling.
century AD or before (Mytum 1992, 131-2; Stout While there is no direct association of any of these sites
1997, 152-3; Monk 1998, 46-7; and see debate in with mills, the evidence of associated millstones in the
Ryan 2001). Recent archaeological excavations in the structure of two of the possible kilns at Peter Street in
east of the country have also yielded increasing evi Waterford and a fire-shattered quernstone in the ex
dence for large, non-ringfort, cemetery and secular ample from Bakehouse Lane, is highly suggestive. The
enclosed settlements, such as Balriggan, Co. Louth close grouping of the Waterford sites in Peter Street and
(Delaney and Roycroft 2003), Killickaweeny, Co. Kil Bakehouse Lane, at the very least, suggests large-scale
dare (Walsh and Harrison 2003), and Ballynacarriga, grain-processing for domestic purposes in this part of
Co. Cork (Noonan 2003a; see O Carrag?in, forthcom the city during the thirteenth-fourteenth centuries.
ing). In one case at least, at Raystown, there is evidence The scale of production against number of kilns is,

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
however, not just a later medieval urban phenomenon, sis on the cultivation of oats in order to guarantee an
as is aptly demonstrated by the discovery not only of assured return from this more versatile crop. With
several figure-of-eight kilns but also the remains of four changes in soil and water (edaphic) conditions, one
mills on the early medieval site at Raystown, Co. Meath. outcome may have been an increase in weed infesta
However, the association between larger-scale pro tion, possibly also accentuated by the consistent use of
cessing and the evidence for larger-scale settlement, cattle dung as manure, in which viable seeds were often
whether urban or not, needs further consideration, not to be found,'recycling' the weed plants (although sheep
least because in early medieval times it is possible that manure was seen to be more beneficial and sheep num
there were production centres that supplied a large hin bers also increased at this time). The spectrum of weed
terland but may also have developed to enhance the seeds present in many of the undated kilns is similar to
prestige of and control of production by a local ?lite those from later medieval sites in Britain and Ireland.
group. These species include various vetches (Vicia spp), wild
radish (Raphanus raphanistrum), nipplewort (Lapsana
communis), stinking mayweed (Anthemis a)??/?z),pale per
CHRONOLOGY: THE KEYHOLE-TYPE KILN sicaria (Polygonum persicaria), black bindweed (Fallopia
convolvulus), the oraches (Atriplex spp), fat hen
Unfortunately, excavations of drying kilns seldom pro (Chenopodium album) and gromwell (Lithospermum
duce evidence for their close dating. If they contain arvense). In this context it is perhaps worth noting a
material cultural evidence it is usually in their later point made by Geraghty in relation to the high inci
infilling, after they have gone out of use. While some dence of wild radish pods in one sample from Fish
sites have been dated by radiocarbon, it is often not amble Street, Wood Quay, Dublin. Referencing
clear what material was used for this and seldom is the Linnaeus (as quoted in Grieve 1976, 668), Geraghty
location of the sample in the kiln given. Standard notes that this plant seems to be a weed of barley and,
radiocarbon dating for the historic period is always at least in Sweden during Linnaeus s time, it increased
problematic, especially as the date should always be in numbers during wet seasons. It also seems that such
quoted to two sigma (Baillie 1985). Bearing these dif damp conditions brought with them diseases of cereals
ficulties in mind, and with support from dated parallels such as ergot (Geraghty 1996, 32).
both within and outside Ireland, many of the excavat
ed keyhole-type kilns would tend to date from the later
and post-medieval periods?e.g. Kilferagh, Co. Kilken ANTECEDENTS OF THE KEYHOLE/ TOBAC
ny, and Ballysimon, Co. Limerick, of the examples dis CO-PIPE-SHAPED KILNS
cussed here. The spectrum of remains from these kilns
would tend to support such an interpretation. There is, In the face of a deficient evidence base it may be too
for example, a relatively significant presence of wheat in soon to address this issue but perhaps a tentative pattern
several of them, by comparison with contexts from the is beginning to emerge. Notwithstanding the difficul
preceding early medieval period, which usually pro ties in dating structures by radiocarbon, it does appear
duced a lower incidence of wheat (Monk 1991). The that the figure-of-eight and slightly 'waisted' rectangu
presence of pulses, peas and beans in, for example, the lar kilns ('dumb-bell' types; see description) were, in
Kilferagh kiln (dated by pottery to the thirteenth/four evolutionary terms, earlier than the keyhole types.
teenth century) would also suggest a later date (Monk Figure-of-eight-shaped kilns have been, and are,
1991; 1987b).There is, however, evidence for the cul increasingly being noted on sites, most notably at Cor
tivation of pulses from at least the tenth/eleventh cen bally, Co. Kilkenny, but also four at Jordanstown, Co.
tury (for evidence from Dublin see Geraghty 1996,32; Dublin, and five at Raystown, Co. Meath. In the case
for Waterford see Tierney and Hannon 1997, 858, 869, of Corbally the suggestion has been made that the kilns
889). were most probably of early medieval date, but as yet
If the charred residues from the kilns can be taken there is little supporting evidence for this interpreta
to reflect the types of crops being dried, it would seem tion. However, as noted earlier, the spatial closeness of
that oats were the most frequently dried crop, more so a similar kiln to the Mashanaglass horizontal watermill,
than free-threshing wheats or barley. The kilning of oats excavated in the 1950s in Cork, arid, recently, the fig
was particularly necessary, not only to dry the grain ure-of-eight kilns closely associated with a succession
after the harvest but also to facilitate lemma (inner of horizontal watermills at Raystown could all be taken
chafi) removal for that part of the crop intended for to suggest that these structures were at least nearly con
human consumption. It is also possible that as weather temporary and hence of early medieval date. At the
conditions deteriorated from the early fourteenth cen same time, however, evolution of shape and spatial asso
tury onwards there was perhaps an increasing empha ciation do not necessarily provide a good basis for a

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
/ 06 / A Monk and E. Kelleher
chronological interpretation. While there may be some lishment of archaeobotanical studies and an experi
similarity between the so-called figure-of-eight-shaped mental exploration of the functioning of the keyhole
kilns, they also varied significantly in size. For example, type structures was highlighted. The publication of the
the Mashanaglass kiln (if that is what it was) was over results of this work is long overdue. This paper has also
7m long, whereas those at Jordanstown and Corbally afforded us the opportunity to assess the main themes
were barely 2m in total length. Further work and inde in the evidence from the large number of recently
pendent dating are needed to be able to take this excavated corn-drying kilns discovered in pre-devel
hypothesis forward. Ifit can be proven that the figure opment excavations throughout Ireland.
of-eight-shaped kilns are antecedents of the keyhole Our intention has been to draw the attention of
kilns, then this might suggest that they developed our excavating colleagues to the importance of record
indigenously, without influence from elsewhere, ing key features of these sites and of undertaking sys
whether western or northern Britain or the Northern tematic sampling for plant remains of the deposits they
Isles, where similar kiln types have been found. How contain, especially those in a primary location (even if
ever, a well-stratified classic example of a figure-of they do not appear to contain a high incidence of
eight-shaped corn-drying kiln was found associated charred remains at the time of excavation). Such evi
with the early timber-built phase of Carlow Castle, and dence will clarify the working of these kilns and will
this would at least pre-date the late thirteenth centu also help to identify regional and temporal variations
ry?i.e. before 1250-1300 (O'Conor 1997,16, fig. 9). in crop production during early and later medieval
Comparison with kilns from the Northern Isles is times. With the availability of greater archaeobotanical
problematic, since the later kilns in this area are usual evidence it will be possible to explore the reasons for
ly found built within structures, unlike most of the Irish any patterns that may emerge from the data, whether
kilns, except for isolated examples like that at Bray cultural, environmental or both, and particularly for
Head, Valentia Island, Co. Kerry, and another nearby those sites dated to the thirteenth and fourteenth cen
example, excavated recently, with a possible curving turies, a period of high demand for grain followed by
flue (Scott 1951,202-3; Hayden 1994; pers. comm.). If a downturn in growing conditions on the threshold of
the latter is a kiln, its closest parallels, although near the so-called 'Little Ice Age' (Grove 1988). It is possible
recent, are in the Hebrides at Griminish, North Uist, that both these factors, but particularly larger-scale sur
and Peninerine, South Uist (Scott 1951, 201;Whitaker plus production for 'export' in the late thirteenth cen
1957). It is perhaps relevant in this context that there is tury, may have influenced the construction of drying
evidence for Scandinavian settlement in Valentia Har kilns and their distribution.
bour, south Kerry, particularly on Beginnish island, The discussion of the experiments has particularly
where a house with a runic inscription was identified focused on the aerodynamic basis for the functioning
by O'Kelly during his excavations in the 1950s. The of the keyhole-type kilns?for example, increased flow
material cultural evidence from these excavations can, of air (jet stream) via a flue that both narrows and rises
according to a recent reappraisal, be closely paralleled towards the funnel mouth. The experiments have also
by similar artefacts in Scandinavia (O'Kelly 1956; Shee indicated that the length of the flue was a crucial fac
han et al. 2001). A cross-cultural exchange in ideas of tor in whether drying was successful or not but also in
kiln construction between this area and Scotland, dur the prevention of sparks from passing into the drying
ing Viking times, is a distinct possibility. A similar argu chamber. The presence of a baffle stone within short
ment for cross-cultural exchange has been made by er-flue kilns may have helped spark control, as would
Brady (1993, 40), based on this evidence and on the the setting of the fire in a shallow hollow within the
possible similarity between the Orcadian swing plough firing area of the kiln, at the mouth and slightly in front
(of recent times) and the short coulter ploughs of later of the flue mouth. It was also noted that the presence
early medieval Ireland. As new evidence comes to light of a roof, albeit temporary, over the drying chamber
in both the south-west of Ireland and elsewhere, the would have facilitated a back-draught and hence
whole issue of the dating of these kilns along with their enhanced the drying process, as well as protecting the
cultural affinities will need to be thoroughly addressed. grain being dried during wet conditions.These features
of kilns leave little trace but it is nonetheless important
that excavators are alert to them.
CONCLUSION It was also noted that the specific topographical
location (whether built into a slope or constructed
bank) and orientation of the kilns would have been
This paper began by presenting a summary of the his
tory of the development of the study of corn-drying
important in influencing the amount of air available
kilns with particular reference to Ireland. In the during drying. It seems from the assessment of the sites
process, the involvement of the authors in the estabso far that few have been found within a building?

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
Bray Head, Valentia, Co. Kerry, and perhaps Rathbane since it is very often the case that these kilns were built
South, Co. Limerick, being the exceptions. However, into pre-existing features, including the banks of early
several sites, including those at Ballysimon, Co. Limer medieval settlements and other enclosures (e.g. Rath
ick, Haynestown, Co. Louth, and Kilferagh, Co. Tip beg, Co. Antrim). It can perhaps be said that, despite the
perary, were located close to structures that may or may difficulties of dating, there does seem to be an indica
not have been barns (some of the sources imply this tion that the keyhole kiln could have been an indi
association; Gailey 1970, 68). Since the documentary genous development during the later part of the early
sources seem to suggest that kilns may have been locat medieval period, evolving from the figure-of-eight and
ed away from the settlement but close to barns (Kelly 'dumb-bell'-type kilns that would seem most likely to
1997, 365, 369; C. Rynne 2000, 210) and threshing date from early medieval times.This suggestion is, how
areas (possibly Bricketstown 1), it is important that ever, little more than a hypothesis and is just one of the
associated features (as at Kilferagh), including possible several issues that need to be borne in mind during
windbreaks (as at Jordanstown, Co. Dublin, and possi future excavations of this common Irish site type, itself
bly Kiltenan South, Co. Limerick), are explored if at all a key to the understanding of past tillage agriculture
possible. and rural community behaviour.
The results of those relatively few archaeobotanical
studies available to date clearly demonstrate that both
the nature of the plant remains evidence and its loca GAZETTEER OF ASSESSED EXCAVATED
tion within the kilns are crucial in identifying the crops KILNS
that were being dried and whether or not they had (Sites whose details are included in the assessment
been cleaned or partially cleaned prior to drying. This are indicated by *)
analysis will help to identify at what stage in their pro
cessing the crops were being dried.The complement of
the remains from several sites would indicate some Keyhole kilns
variations. The relatively high incidence of weed seeds Rathbeg, Co. Antrim*?possibly thirteenth/four
at Kilferagh (with ratios of 1:0.2 and 1:0.6), at Bally teenth-century, within a ringfort (Warhurst 1969).
naraha (ratios of 1:0.4 and 1:0.34) and Kilpatrick (ratio
of 1:0.58) would seem to suggest that the crop may Ballinvinny, Co. Cork.* Draft macro report?-Johnston
have been no more than partially cleaned before being (Cotter 2003).
dried for storage. Gailey has also argued that the asso
ciation of the threshing area with the drying kiln in the Ballynacarriga 1, Co. Cork*?three keyhole-shaped
documentary sources could be taken to suggest that the corn-drying kilns with stone-lined flues and chambers
crops were being dried to facilitate threshing rather (Noonan 2003a). Kilns undated but within enclosure
than after threshing and before storage, as was neces dated to between the fifth and eleventh centuries.
sary until recently in the Northern Isles of Scotland,
where wet harvests would have been a constant prob North Gate, Cork city, Co. Cork* (Hurley 1997a,
lem. His argument is that for these reasons both the 22?4; macro-plant remains assessment, Tierney 1997).
threshing and the drying had to be carried out within
a building that was big enough for both processes (Gai Stagpark, Mitchelstown, Co. Cork*(information from
ley 1970, 68). The complement of plant remains could Harte and Sutton, pers. comm.)?stone lined keyhole
represent the residue of the fuel used in firing the kiln, shaped corn-drying kiln that produced evidence of
including cereal-based tinder, as for example may have charred seeds.
been the case for the samples from the entrance and
just inside the flue of the Kilferagh kiln. It is, however, Brehon's Chair, Co. Dublin.* Macro report (V. Keeley,
also necessary to take cognisance of the fact that there pers. comm.; Keeley 1988, 14; final draft report by
may be few instances where the remains of either the Monk).
fuel or the crop would be found in situ, except after the
final firing before disuse, because the kilns would nor Ballyegan, Co. Kerry* Macro report pending?Tier
mally have been cleaned out between firings (not least ney and Hannon (Byrne 1991,5-31, especially 14-15).
to avoid accidents), as the documentary sources also
imply (Kelly 1997,242). Bray Head, Valentia, Co. Kerry*?keyhole kiln (Scott
Finally, this paper has suggested that care should be 1951,202-3).
taken in the dating of these kilns. Over-reliance on
radiocarbon dates without supporting information Emlagh, Co. Kerry*?keyhole kiln (O R?ord?in and
from associated sites or artefacts can be problematic Foy 1941,98-9).

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
108 M A Monk and E. Kelleher
Reask, Co. Kerry*?keyhole kiln (Fanning 1981, Flemingstown, Co. Dublin*?tadpole-shaped curvilin
101-2). ear flue (Byrnes 2004).
Carnalway, Brownstown Kilcullen, Co. Kildare*?cf. Carton Demesne, Maynooth, Co. Kildare* (Sullivan
keyhole kiln (two phases of use) (O'Carroll 2000b). 2003) .
Corbally, Co. Kildare?keyhole kiln. Macro report plus Gorteen, Co. Limerick*?hourglass-shaped (Mac
fifteen other figure-of-eight kilns (Tobin 2003b). Manus 2000).
Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny*?thirteenth/fourteenth-cen Kiltenan South, Co. Limerick* (Hull and Bartlett
tury. Macro report (Monk 1987b; Hurley 1987,88-97). 2004) .
Luffany, Co. Kilkenny*?keyhole kiln (Prendergast Rathbane South, Co. Limerick* (Hayes 2003).
1960).
Skehacreggaun, Mungret, Co. Limerick* (information
Ballysimon, Co. Limerick*?thirteenth/fourteenth from Harte and Eachtra Ltd).
century. One and possibly a second kiln. Macro
report?Brewer 2001b (Collins and Cummins 2001, Tierney Street, Ardee, Co. Louth,* kiln 2?banjo
27,31-2, 37). shaped/keyhole-shaped (Duffy 2004, 356).
James Street, Drogheda, Co. Louth*?probably thir Haggardstown, Blackrock, Co. Louth* (O'Carroll
teenth-century. Draft macro report?Monk (K. Camp 2000a).
bell, pers. comm.).
Haynestown, Co. Meath* (O'Sullivan 1994; O'Sullivan
Kilsharvan, Co. Meath* (Russell 2003). and Downey 2005, 33). Described by O'Sullivan and
Downey as 'dumb-bell'-shaped, but this may result
Ballynaraha, Co. Tipperary* Macro report?Monk from alterations at the stocking end of the kiln, which
1988 (O'Donnell 1988). could originally have been more keyhole-shaped.
Creevykeel, Co. Sligo*?keyhole kiln built into the Laytown, Co. Meath*?two kilns, one with a short flue
side of a court tomb. and the other with a slightly curving flue (McConway
2002).
Knoxspark, Co. Sligo*?probable keyhole-shaped kiln
within inland promontory fort; seeds noted (Mount Bohercrow Road, Murgasty, Co.Tipperary* (Cummins
1995, 78-9; Egan et al. 2005, 454). 1999).
Kilpatrick (second kiln), Killucan, Corbetstown, Co. Solsborough Cl, Co. Tipperary*?five corn-drying
Westmeath.* Draft macro report?Monk (Swan 1990; kilns associated with early medieval settlement (C14
pers. comm.). date on charcoal: AD 563-659) (Murphy 2000).
Bakehouse Lane, Waterford city?middle to late thir Peter Street, Waterford city?kiln or oven, comma
teenth-century (Hurley 1997b, 277). shaped in plan because it has a curving flue (early to
mid-thirteenth-century) (Hurley 1997b, 276).
Peter Street, Waterford city?four keyhole kilns, of
which two are most likely corn-drying kilns; three are Ballybeg, Co.Westmeath* (Molloy 2004).
thirteenth/fourteenth-century and one is post
medieval (Hurley 1997b, 276-7). Bricketstown 1, Co. Wexford* (Noonan 2000). Note:
the stone footings forming a cruciform shape and an
Possible keyhole kilns annular channel along the inside of the base of the
Carrigoran Area 18, Co. Clare* (Quinn 2000b). bowl are more reminiscent of cruciform-shaped chan
nels in the base of a similar structure found at Rock
Latoon South Area 3, Co. Clare* (Quinn 2000a). field, Co. Kerry, and argued by Collins to be a
cremation pit (Collins 1999; 2002; Collins and Lynch
Keadew Lower, Co. Donegal* (Moore 2000). 2001). Pits with similar features were found at the rei

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
atively nearby site of Drumthacker, Co. Kerry, and Pit and irregular-shaped kilns (including sites with
interpreted as lime kilns (Cleary 1998, 85-6). niinimal information)
Ballynacarriga 2, Co. Cork* (Noonan 2003b).
Bricketstown 2, Co. Wexford* (Tierney 2000a).
Corcagh Demesne, Clondalkin, Co. Dublin*?several
Harristown Little, Co. Wexford* (Tierney 2000b). corn-drying kilns mentioned; samples produced grain,
submitted for analysis (Carroll 2003, 88-9).
Figure-of-eight-shaped kilns
Carlow Castle, Co. Carlow*?figure-of-eight, showing Oranmore Site 17, Co. Galway*?two stone-lined
burning in one area of the kiln and not in the other? kilns (Morahan 2000).
the former the firing area and the latter the drying area
(O'Conor 1997). Bray Head 2,Valentia, Co. Kerry (Hayden 1994).
Jordanstown, Co. Dublin*?four kilns ringed by oxi Kilrainey, Co. Kildare*??Kiln 2 (Larsson 2004).
dised clay, some lined. Kiln 1 is figure-of-eight to key
hole-shaped (Tobin 2004b). Kilrainey, Co. Kildare*??Kiln 3 (Larsson 2004).
Loughanstown, Glebe South, Co. Dublin*?four Friary Street/Garden Row, Kilkenny, Co. Kilkenny?
earth-cut figure-of-eight kilns, double circular pits (cal. flag-lined kiln of uncertain type; burnt chaff mentioned
AD 530-650) (Seaver 2004; 2005a). (Stevens 2003,211).
Lusk, Co. Dublin* (McCabe 2004). Haggardstown/Mullagharlin, Dundalk, Co. Louth?

rectangular kiln; reference to plant remains in
KiUagh More, Co. Galway* (Quinn 2004). Ballinvinny report (McLoughlin 2000, 213).
Kilrainey, Co. Kildare*??Kiln 1 (Larsson 2004). Gortaroe II, Co. Mayo*?kilns? Irregular pit and
another elongated (Gillespie 2003).
Corbally, Co. Kildare*?sixteen figure-of-eight kilns;
clay linked by very short narrow flue (Tobin 2004c). Ashbourne, Co. Meath* (Frazer 2004).
Raystown, Co. Meath*?five figure-of-eight-shaped Bonestown, Co. Meath*?two possible kilns; two areas
kilns (Seaver 2005b; pers. comm.). of oxidised clay, no flue linking them, truncated. Sec
ond kiln, subcircular pit, burnt clay infill (Tobin 2004a).
Dumb-bell-shaped kiln
Ballyman, Co. Dublin*?date c. AD 425. Macro Colp West, Co. Meath?seventeen corn-drying kilns
remains draft report?Monk (n.d.) (O'Brien (n.d.),21; (Clarke and Murphy 2003; ACS website, acsltd.ie).
pers. comm.).
Knowth, Co. Meath* (Eogan, forthcoming).
L- or comma-shaped kilns
Brooklodge, Co. Cork*?comma-shaped (Clinton Tobertynan, Co. Meath*?two possible kilns; little
2000). detail. North kiln long, clay-lined. Flue exiting from pit
leading to a clay floor; possibly industrial (Tobin
Kilnacredock Upper, Co. Kildare* (Conboy 2003). 2004d).
Abbeyland/Blackcastle Demesne, Co. Meath*?flue at Elp hin, Co. Roscommon* (Read 2003).
right angles to drying chamber (Brady 1999).
Monas ter redan, Co. Sligo*?structure unclear; charred
Kilpatrick/Killucan, Corbetstown, Co. Westmeath* cereal grains noted during graveyard clean-up of ecclesi
(kiln 1). Draft macro plant remains report?Monk astical site (Egan et al 2005, 454).
(Swan 1990; pers. comm.).
Rectory Field, Stradballymore, Co. Waterford* (Noo
nan 2004).
Kilmacanogue-Glen of the Downs, Co. Wicklow*?

possible kiln (Russell 2000).

130.79.14.140 on Sat, 13 Nov 2021 01:21:24 UTC
/ 10 MA. Monk and E. Kelleher
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS BIBLIOGRAPHY
The authors wish to thank the excavators of those sites Applebaum, S. 1958. Agriculture in Roman Britain.
for which unpublished evidence has been cited, in par Agricultural History Review 6, 66-86.
ticular Eamon Cotter, Valerie J. Keeley, Elizabeth Applebaum, S. 1972. Roman Britain. In H.PR. Fin
O'Brien, Kieran Campbell, Tracy Collins, Tony Cum berg (ed.), The agrarian history of England and Wales
mins, Redmond Tobin, Mathew Seaver, Mark Clinton I, part 2, AD 43-1042, 1-277. Cambridge.
(of CRDS), Alan Hayden, Emeritus Professor George Baillie, M.G.L. 1985. Dendrochronology and radio
Eogan, the late Leo Swan and the NRA (for permis carbon dating. Ulster Journal of Archaeology 48,
sion to refer to the Watergrasshill site). We would also 11-23.
like to thank Jacinta Kiely, John Tierney, Bruce Sutton Bowie, G. 1979. Corn-drying kilns. Meal milling and
and Aidan Harte for information on excavations flour in Ireland. Folklife 17, 5-13.
undertaken by Eachtra. The authors also wish to Brady, N. 1993. Reconstructing a medieval Irish
acknowledge access to the unpublished work of two plough. Jornadas Internacionales sobre Tecnologia
archaeobotanical colleagues, Penny Johnston and Abi Agraria Tradicional I, 31-44.
gail Brewer. In addition, we would like to acknowledge Brady, . 1999. Abbeyland/Blackcastle Demesne. Corn
the contribution to corn-drying kiln studies that drying kiln. In I. Bennett (ed.), Excavations 1998,
Robert Rickett made 30 years ago by his work and to 160. Bray.
thank him for the free access he has given to his Brewer, A. 2001a. The plant remains from 26 and 33
unpublished dissertation. We are grateful to Tracy Patrick's Street, Kilkenny, and Ballysimon, Co. Lim
Collins for computer software advice, for supplying, erick: a comparison of urban and rural medieval
from her company files, the unpublished photograph of plant remains. Unpublished MA thesis, Department
the Ballysimon kiln, and for reading an earlier version of Archaeology, University College Cork.
of this paper. We thank Kieran O'Conor, Mark Clin Brewer, A. 2001b. Plant remains. In T. Collins and A.
ton, Elizabeth O'Brien, Maurice Hurley,Tracy Collins, Cummins, Excavation of a medieval ringwork at
Tony Cummins and Valerie J. Keeley for permission to Ballysimon, County Limerick, 48?9. Limerick.
reproduce respectively the photograph of the Carlow Byrne, M. 1991. A report on the excavation of a cashel
Castle kiln, the plan of the Brooklodge kiln, the plan at Ballyegan, near Castleisland, Co. Kerry. Journal of
and section of the Ballyman kiln, the plan and elevation the Kerry Archaeological and Historical Society 24,5?31.
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grange, kiln. Carroll, J. 2003. Corcagh Demesne, Clondalkin.
The experimental work at Ferrycarrig and Lisna Human burials, corn drying kilns. In I. Bennett
gun was undertaken in the late 1980s, and we would (ed.), Excavations 2001, 88. Bray.
like to acknowledge those who facilitated the work at Clarke, L. and Murphy, D. 2003. Colp West. Multi-peri
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helpful suggestions and their editorial advice and Ireland 13 (3), 7.
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and Archaeological Society 2 (series 2), 43-53.
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medieval ringwork at Ballysimon, County Limerick.
Limerick.

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An Assessment of the Archaeological Evidence for Irish Corn-Drying Kilns in the Light

of the Results of Archaeological Experiments and Archaeobotanical Studies

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20650842

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INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Subsequently, most of the early archaeological studies

The Journal of Irish Archaeology Volume XIV, 2005 77-114

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Fig. I?Plan and sections of a

S - section ?irough bowl

X1 Fill: Dark grey, with burnt

X2 Grey clay: Compacted,

X3 Black: Mainly charcoal

W-E section through kiln X4 Red burnt boulder clay.

X5 Yellow boulder clay.

suggested for the 'chitted' (i.e. germinated) spelt

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ever, the so-called classic keyhole kiln, defined as such

Fig. 4?The Ballysimon keyhole-shaped kiln (courtesy of Tracy

have been identified during excavations and described

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obtained from the excavator and/or the archaeo

Dimensions of keyhole kilns

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Fig. 7?Map showing

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Table I ?Corn-drying kilns included in this assessment, by county.

Westmeath Luffany Antrim

ColpWest Brooklodge Green's Berry Farm

Dublin Sligo Mayo

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Table 2?Kilns producing plant remains*

Site Cereal remains

Stagpark, Mitchelstown, Co. Cork Contained burnt seed

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The incidence of charred plant remains within the

Brehon's Chair, Taylorsgrange, Co. Dublin (Fig. 11)

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Table 4?Sample from Inside the flue at Kilferagh.

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complete grains and 84 weed seeds (a grain to weed

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Sample 9 came from the probable drying area of the

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Fig. 13?The Ferrycarrig kiln

Table 15?Dimensions of experimental kilns.

Ferrycarrig 1.24m 0.63m 0.63m 0.57m 0.76m 1.26m & 1.16m

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Variables affecting the drying process and a con

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22 -^^Ns*- -A-&^^^^> / ^s\8^ ^fK-0-?

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20 ~ a Y^VV \ ' ^?^~est ^ at Lisnagun