Ancient Roman architecture

“Roman architecture” redirects here. For the architec- basic Roman forms.
ture of the city, see Architecture of Rome. The Ancient Romans were responsible for significant de-
Ancient Roman architecture developed different as-
velopments in housing and public hygiene, for example
their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor
heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica glazing (ex-
amples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water
(examples in Pompeii and Ostia).

1 History

1.1 Background

Factors such as wealth and high population densities in

The Colosseum in Rome, Italy cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new archi-
tectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and
arches, together with a sound knowledge of building ma-
terials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes
in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public
use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths
of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and
Colosseum. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in
most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some sur-
viving structures are almost complete, such as the town
walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, now northern
Spain.
The Ancient Romans intended that community buildings
should be made to impress and amaze, as well as perform
a public function. The Romans did not feel restricted by
Greek aesthetic axioms alone in achieving these objec-
tives. The Pantheon is an example of this, particularly
An area at the Ostia Antica archaeological site: at one time, shops in the version rebuilt by Hadrian,which remains perfectly
were located here preserved, and which were over the centuries that has
served, particularly in the Western Hemisphere, as the in-
pects of Ancient Greek architecture and newer tech-
spiration for countless public buildings.[1] The same em-
nologies such as the arch and the dome to make a
peror left his mark on the landscape of northern Britain
new architectural style. Roman architecture flourished
when he built a wall to mark the limits of the empire, and
throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana. Its use
after further conquests in Scotland, the Antonine Wall
of new materials, particularly concrete, was a very im-
was built to replace Hadrian’s Wall.
portant feature.
Roman Architecture covers the period from the estab-
lishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about 1.2 Influences
the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified
as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Most of the The Romans were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors
many surviving examples are from the later period. Ro- and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of
man architectural style continued to influence building knowledge essential for future architectural solutions,
in the former empire for many centuries, and the style such as the use of hydraulics and the construction of
used in Western Europe beginning about 1000 is called arches. The Romans absorbed Greek Architectural in-
Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on fluence both directly (e.g. Magna Graecia) and indirectly

1
2 2 ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

(e.g. Etruscan Architecture was itself influenced by the public space such as public baths and basilicas. The
Greeks). The influence is evident in many ways; for ex- Romans-based much of their architecture on the dome,
ample, in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in such as Hadrian’s Pantheon in the city of Rome, the Baths
Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. The Ro- of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla.
mans were also known to employ Greek engineers to con- The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of
struct Roman buildings. columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st
century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval
1.3 Roman Architectural Revolution Western, Byzantine and Islamic architecture.
Art historians such as Gottfried Richter have since the
1920s identified the most important Roman architec-
tural innovation as the Triumphal Arch. This symbol of
power was transformed and utilised within the Christian
basilicas when the Roman Empire of the West was on its
last legs. The arch was set before the altar to symbolize
the triumph of Christ and the afterlife. The arch is seen
in aqueducts, especially in the many surviving examples,
such as the Pont du Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and
the remains of the Aqueducts of Rome itself. Their sur-
vival is testimony to the durability of their materials and
design.
The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans,
and implemented it in their own building. An arch trans-
mits load evenly and is still commonly used in architec-
The Roman Pantheon was the largest dome in the world for more ture today.
than a millennium.[2] It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete
dome to this day[3]
2.1 Domes
The Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the
Concrete Revolution,[4][5][6] was the widespread use in Ro- Main article: History of Roman and Byzantine domes
man architecture of the previously little-used architec- Further information: List of Roman domes
tural forms of the arch, vault, and dome. For the first time The Romans were the first builders in the history of ar-
in history, their potential was fully exploited in the con-
struction of a wide range of civil engineering structures,
public buildings, and military facilities. These included
amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, bridges, circuses, dams,
domes, harbours, and temples.
A crucial factor in this development, which saw a trend
toward monumental architecture, was the invention of
Roman concrete (opus caementicium), which led to the
liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional
materials of stone and brick.[7]

2 Architectural features
The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in Dome of the Pantheon, inner view
the use of concrete and bricks facilitated the building
of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as chitecture to realize the potential of domes for the cre-
the Aqueduct of Segovia and the eleven aqueducts in ation of large and well-defined interior spaces.[8] Domes
Rome itself, including the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. were introduced in a number of Roman building types
The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of such as temples, thermae, palaces, mausolea and later
which are still in daily use, for example the Puente Ro- also churches. Half-domes also became a favoured archi-
mano at Mérida in Spain, and the Pont Julien and the tectural element and were adopted as apses in Christian
bridge at Vaison-la-Romaine, both in Provence, France. sacred architecture.
The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century
without crossbeams and made possible large covered BC in Rome and the provinces around the Mediterranean
2.4 Roman roofs 3

Sea. Along with vaults, they gradually replaced the tra- pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the
ditional post and lintel construction which makes use of roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the
the column and architrave. The construction of domes room.
was greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete, a pro-
cess which has been termed the Roman Architectural Rev-
olution.[9] Their enormous dimensions remained unsur-
passed until the introduction of structural steel frames
in the late 19th century (see List of the world’s largest 2.4 Roman roofs
domes).[8][10][11]

Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman

2.2 Mosaics roofs

On his return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla In Sicily truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550
brought back what is probably the most well-known ele- BC.[15] Their potential was fully realized in the Roman pe-
ment of the early imperial period, the mosaic, a deco- riod, which saw trussed roofs over 30 wide spanning the
ration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into ce- rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings such
ment. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the as temples, basilicas, and later churches. Such spans were
late first century and the second century and in the Roman three times as wide as the widest prop-and-lintel roofs and
home joined the well known mural in decorating floors, only surpassed by the largest Roman domes.[16]
walls, and grottoes with geometric and pictorial designs. The largest truss roof by span of Ancient Rome covered
There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mo- the Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor Domitian
saic: opus vermiculatum used tiny tesserae, typically (81–96 AD) on the Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss
cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the pos-
workshops in relatively small panels which were trans- tulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-
ported to the site glued to some temporary support. The beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older
tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting. Nine
to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman archi-
emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights tecture were bridged this way, the only exception being
of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius.[16]
technique, however, was opus tessellatum, using larger
tesserae, which were laid on site.[12] There was a distinct
native Italian style using black on a white background,
which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work.[13]
A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name 2.5 Spiral stairs
asaroton (Greek “unswept floor”). It represented an op-
tical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of Further information: List of ancient spiral stairs
reach houses.[14]

The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its

2.3 Hypocaust complex helical structure, was introduced relatively late
into architecture. Although the oldest example dates
back to the 5th century BC,[17] it was only in the wake
A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor
heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The Roman ar- of the influential design of Trajan’s Column that this
chitect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century space-saving new[18] type permanently caught hold in Ro-
B.C., attributes their invention to Sergius Orata. Many man architecture.
remains of Roman hypocausts have survived through- Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities
out Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings
hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also
and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of fitted with spiral stairways.[18] Their notable absence in
modern central heating. the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that although
Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (thermae), used in medieval castles, they did not [18] yet figure promi-
houses and other buildings, whether public or private. nently in Roman military engineering. By late antiq-
The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called uity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to
pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete, the main buildings, as in the Basilica of San Vitale.
then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to
the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would Christian and Islamic architecture.
4 4 MATERIALS

3 Modern influences and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspend-
ing flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also in-
See also: Romanesque architecture, Late Antique and spired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative
Byzantine architecture columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale
architecture, concrete’s strength freed the floor plan from
rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.
During the Baroque and the Renaissance periods, Roman Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius,
and Greek architectural styles again became fashionable, writing in the first century AD in his work De Architec-
not only in Italy, but all over Europe. tura.
Roman influences may be found around us today, in
banks, government buildings, great houses, and even
small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric 4.1 Roman brick
columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a mosaic
shower floor copied from an original in Pompeii or Hercu- Main article: Roman brick
laneum. The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome The Romans made fired clay bricks, and the Roman
echo in the New World too, where in Washington DC
we see them in the Capitol Building, the White House,
the Lincoln Memorial and other government buildings.
All across the US the seats of regional government were
normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast
flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared por-
ticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with
the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome.
In wealthy provincial parts of the US such as the great
plantations of 18th and 19th century, there too are the
pillars and porticoes, the symmetrical façades with their
pilasters, the domes and statuary that would have seemed
familiar to Caesar and Augustus.
In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construc-
tion of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last Close-up view of the wall of the Roman shore fort at Burgh Cas-
five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the tle, Norfolk, showing alternating courses of flint and brickwork.
grandest country houses and mansions are purely Clas-
sical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham legions, which operated mobile kilns, introduced bricks
Palace. to many parts of the empire. Roman bricks are often
stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their
production. The use of bricks in southern and western
Germany, for example, can be traced back to traditions
4 Materials already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius.
Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than
modern brick, but was made in a variety of different
shapes and sizes.[19] Shapes included square, rectangular,
triangular and round, and the largest bricks found have
measured over three feet in length.[20] Ancient Roman
bricks had a general size of 1½ Roman feet by 1 Ro-
man foot, but common variations up to 15 inches existed.
Other brick sizes in Ancient Rome included 24” x 12” x
4”, and 15” x 8” x 10”. Ancient Roman bricks found in
France measured 8” x 8” x 3”. The Constantine Basil-
ica in Trier is constructed from Roman bricks 15” square
by 1½" thick.[21] There is often little obvious difference
(particularly when only fragments survive) between Ro-
Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian, today Santa Maria degli An- man bricks used for walls on the one hand, and tiles used
geli for roofing or flooring on the other, so archaeologists
sometimes prefer to employ the generic term ceramic
Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the building material (or CBM).
primary building material, and more daring buildings The Romans perfected brick-making during the first cen-
soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches tury of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and
 5

private construction alike. The Romans took their brick- flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and
making skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft sewage disposal.[26] Hundreds of towns and cities were
to the local populations.[21] In the British Isles, the intro- built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many Eu-
duction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was fol- ropean towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of
lowed by a 600–700 year gap in major brick production. these schemes, which show the very logical way the Ro-
mans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets
at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads
4.2 Roman concrete were equal in width and length, except for two, which
were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran
Main article: Roman concrete east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected
in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads
Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with
Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman con- smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were
crete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its constructed where needed. Each square marked off by
own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of
concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa some- a modern city block.
time after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mix- Each insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land
ture of lime mortar, aggregate, pozzolana, water, and within it divided. As the city developed, each insula
stones, and was stronger than previously-used concrete. would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes
The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys.
frames where they hardened and bonded to a facing of Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman
stones or (more frequently) bricks. city, but each person had to pay to construct his own
When the framework was removed, the new wall was very house.
strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from in-
surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive vaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city lim-
stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones its were left open as farmland. At the end of each main
called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis
more flexible and less costly than building solid stone covered the opening when the city was under siege, and
buildings. The materials were readily available and not additional watchtowers were constructed along the city
difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.
more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and
The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is
efficiently.
relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written
Though most would consider concrete the Roman contri- sources, and there has been much attention to the subject,
bution most relevant to the modern world, the Empire’s since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as
style of architecture can still be seen throughout Europe the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should
and North America in the arches and domes of many not be forgotten, though, that there were also other cul-
governmental and religious buildings. tures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, pri-
marily of Celtic origin.[27] Among these, there are also
some that appear to have been newly planned, such as the
5 City design Lusatian town of Biskupin in Poland.

Further information: Centuriation, Decumanus Max-

imus and Cardo 6 Building types
The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal struc- 6.1 Amphitheatre
tures on which they molded their colonies.[22][23] [24] They
probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, Main article: Roman amphitheatre
as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by Further information: List of Roman amphitheatres
the Etruscans in Italy.[25] (see Marzabotto) Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the
The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city plan- amphitheatres, over 69 being known and many of which
ning, developed for military defense and civil conve- are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as its
nience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They were used for
city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and
of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To re- bullfights, the tradition of which still survives in Spain.
duce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them
grid, passing through the central square. A river usually from Roman theatres, which are more or less semicircular
6 6 BUILDING TYPES

ness had been part of any settlement that considered itself

a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered
market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting
room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades,
however. Although their form was variable, basilicas of-
ten contained interior colonnades that divided the space,
giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with
an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the
magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central
aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking
aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory
windows.
The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built
in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he
Roman theatre of Aspendos, Turkey was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at
Pompeii (late 2nd century BC).
in shape; from the circuses (akin to hippodromes) whose
much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or
chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which 6.3 Circus
were primarily designed for athletics and footraces.[28]
The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for
The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses
of the first century BC, but most were built under Im- were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although
perial rule, from the Augustan period (69 BC–69 AD) circuses served varying purposes and differed in design
onwards.[29] Imperial amphitheatres were built through- and construction. Along with theatres and amphitheatres,
out the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the
40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate fea- time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races,
tured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elabo- and performances that commemorated important events
rately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.[30] Af- of the empire were performed there. For events that
ter the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and involved re-enactments of naval battles, the circus was
of animal killings in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into flooded with water.
disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled.
Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. The performance space of the Roman circus was nor-
A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in mally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two lin-
some of these, churches were sited.[31] ear sections of race track, separated by a median strip
running along the length of about two thirds the track,
joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the
6.2 Basilica other end with an undivided section of track closed (in
most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the
carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races.

6.4 Forum

Further information: Roman Forum and List of monu-

ments of the Roman Forum
A forum was a public square in a Roman municipium, or
any civitas, reserved primarily for the vending of goods;
i.e., a marketplace, along with the buildings used for
shops and the stoas used for open stalls. Many forums
were constructed at remote locations along a road by the
magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the fo-
Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome rum was the only settlement at the site and had its own
name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.[32]
The Roman basilica was a large public building where Every city had a forum of varying size. In addition to its
business or legal matters could be transacted. The first standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gather-
basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the ing place of great social significance, and often the scene
time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting busi- of diverse activities, including political discussions and
6.6 Insula 7

m²).[36]
The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the
2nd century BC,[37] with the first known public horreum
being constructed by the ill-fated tribune, Gaius Gracchus
in 123 BC.[38] The word came to be applied to any place
designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was of-
ten used refer to cellars (horrea subterranea), but it could
also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,[39]
or even to a library.[40] Some public horrea functioned
somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored,
but the most important class of horrea were those where
foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and dis-
tributed by the state.[41]
The Roman Forum
6.6 Insula
debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best known ex-
ample is probably in Rome, Italy,[33] and is the site of the
earliest forum of the empire.
In new Roman towns the Forum was usually located at,
or just off, the intersection of the main north-south and
east-west streets (the Cardo and Decumanus). All forums
would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and
would also contain other temples, as well as the Basilica;
a public weights and measures table, so customers at the
market could ensure they were not being sold short mea-
sures; and would often have the baths nearby.

Insula in Ostia Antica

Main article: Insula (building)

Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a

range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at
the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a
fire and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly
A panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum, with the
small, facing the street, with iron security bars. Insulae
Trajan’s Column on the far left.
were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires be-
cause of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrange-
ments. There are examples in the Roman port town of
Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan. External walls
6.5 Horreum were in “Opus Reticulatum” and interiors in “Opus In-
certum”, which would then be plastered and sometimes
A horreum was a type of public warehouse used during painted.
the ancient Roman period. Although the Latin term is of-
ten used to refer to granaries, Roman horrea were used to To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford
store many other types of consumables; the giant Horrea a degree of luxury painted colourful murals on the walls.
Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild
olive oil, wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even marble.[34] animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (trompe
By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had l'oeil) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem
nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.[35] The biggest less confined.
were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Ancient Rome is known to have had elaborate, mas-
Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, sive and beautiful houses and buildings. These houses
covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 and buildings belonged to those in higher social status.
8 6 BUILDING TYPES

The average house of a commoner or Plebe did not con-

tain many luxuries. There were members of the up-
per class that tended to flash their wealth into their de-
sign and architecture of their house. Many Romans per-
ceived this morally wrong and considered to be luxuria or
vice to makes people squander their money (wealth).They
showed more regard towards convenience than expense.
Domus, or single-family residences, were rare, with most
having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or
two rooms. Between 312 to 315 A.D. Rome had 1781
domus and 44,850 of insulae.[42]
Insula has been the subject of great debate for historians
of Roman culture, as they argued over the various mean-
ings of the word.[43] Insula was a word used to describe
apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,[44]
meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating
just how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban di-
visions were originally street blocks, and later began to
divide into smaller divisions, the word insula referring to
both blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained
cenacula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs, and
lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for Plebes
was a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into three indi-
vidual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum. Com-
mon Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller The Tower of Hercules
and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that
present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access
them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and dis- often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed
play of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained. Luxury any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding
in houses was not common, as the life of the average per- valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session,
son did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead applying olive oil to their masters’ bodies which was then
would go to public baths, and engage in other communal scraped off with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone.
activities. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now.
Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas,
town houses and forts. They were normally supplied with
6.7 Lighthouses water from an adjacent river or stream, or by aqueduct.
The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De
Main article: Roman lighthouse Architectura.
Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean
and the coasts of the empire, including the Tower of Her-
cules at A Coruña in northern Spain, a structure which 6.9 Temples
survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, Eng-
land also exists as a ruin about half the height of the orig- Main article: Roman temple
inal. The light would have been provided by a fire at the
top of the structure.
Roman architecture was often at its most beautiful and
impressive when adapted to the needs of Roman reli-
6.8 Thermae gion. The Pantheon in Rome has survived structurally
intact because it has been continuously used for worship
Main article: Thermae since it was built, over 2000 years ago. Although its inte-
Further information: List of Roman public baths riors were altered when worship changed from paganism
to Christianity, it is the finest and largest example of a
dome built in antiquity still surviving.
All Roman cities had at least one Thermae, a popular fa-
cility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exer-
cise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as 6.10 Theatres
swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman
day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from
subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the Romans’ ability
6.12 Watermills 9

to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) chorion, describing the olive
around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.[45] grove of Gethsemane, with villa, without an inference
These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain that there were any dwellings there at all (Catholic En-
inherent architectural structures, with minor differences cyclopedia “Gethsemane”).
depending on the region in which they were constructed.
The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor, 6.12 Watermills
supported by columns. The proscaenium was a wall that
supported the front edge of the stage with ornately deco- Further information: List of ancient watermills
rated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is
seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman the-
atre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the The initial invention of the watermill appears to have
columns of the scaenae frons. The scaenae was originally occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the
not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the
sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it be- rise of Hellenistic science and technology.[49][50][51] In the
came a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diver-
The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) sified and different types of watermills were introduced.
and the seating section (auditorium). Vomitoria or en- These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel
trances and exits were made available to the audience.[46] as well as the horizontal water wheel.[52][53] Apart from
its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also ap-
plied to pounding grain,[54][55][56] crushing ore,[57] saw-
6.11 Villa ing stones[58] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron
furnaces.[59]
Further information: Villa rustica
See also: List of Roman villas in England and List of
Roman villas in Belgium 7 Infrastructure
A Roman villa was a Roman country house built for the 7.1 Roads
upper class during the Roman republic and the Roman
Empire. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, Roman roads were vital to the maintenance and devel-
not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and opment of the Roman state, and were built from about
frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some 500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the
decorative features in the Roman style may be called Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.[60] They pro-
a “villa” by modern scholars.[47] Some were pleasure vided efficient means for the overland movement of
houses such as those— like Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli— armies, officials and civilians, and the inland carriage of
that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of official communications and trade goods.[61] At the peak
Rome or— like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum— of Rome’s development, no fewer than 29 great military
on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Em-
villas were more like the country houses of England or pire’s 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great
Poland, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, road links.[62][63] Roman road builders aimed at a reg-
such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in ulation width (see Laws and standards above), but actual
Sussex. widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and
Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known, more than 23 ft (7.0 m). Today, the concrete has worn
such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that en- from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression
croached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to
of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being
of Pompeii. These early suburban villas, such as the one flat.
at Rome’s Auditorium site[48] or at Grottarossa in Rome,
demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the villa subur-
7.2 Aqueduct
bana in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, sub-
urban villas were also in fact the seats of power (maybe Main article: Roman aqueduct
even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of impor- Further information: List of aqueducts in the Roman Em-
tant families (gentes). pire
A third type of villa provided the organizational center The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order
of the large holdings called latifundia, that produced and to bring water from distant sources into their cities and
exported agricultural produce; such villas might be lack- towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and pri-
ing in luxuries. By the 4th century, villa could simply vate households. Waste water was removed by complex
connote an agricultural holding: Jerome translated the sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water,
10 7 INFRASTRUCTURE

large and lasting bridges built.[65] Roman bridges were

built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure
(see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which
the Romans were the first to use for bridges.
Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although
a few were segmental (such as Alconétar Bridge). A seg-
mental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.[66] The
advantages of the segmental arch bridge were that it al-
lowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which
would prevent the bridge from being swept away during
floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight.
Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped pri-
mary arch stones (voussoirs) of the same in size and
shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy
The Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and
Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early
time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the Pons
keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Aque-
Fabricius in Rome (62 BC), one of the world’s oldest ma-
ducts also provided water for mining operations, milling,
jor bridges still standing. Roman engineers were the first
farms and gardens.
and until the industrial revolution the only ones to con-
Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being con- struct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus cae-
structed along a slight downward gradient within conduits menticium. The outside was usually covered with brick
of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge.
ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were
The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into
circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where
bridge construction. The 330 m long Limyra Bridge in
valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried
southwestern Turkey features 26 segmental arches with
on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead,
an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,[67] giving the bridge
ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aque-
an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a mil-
duct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and
lennium. Trajan’s bridge over the Danube featured open-
distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need.
spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40
Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch
the city’s cattle market. By the third century AD, the city bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and
had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a individual span length, while the longest extant Roman
million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the wa- bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida.
ter supplied the city’s many public baths. Cities and mu-
nicipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this
model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public inter-
est and civic pride, “an expensive yet necessary luxury to 7.4 Canals
which all could, and did, aspire.”[64]
Further information: List of Roman canals
Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable;
some were maintained into the early modern era, and a
few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct survey- Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures,
ing and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work intended for irrigation, drainage, land reclamation, flood
De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus control and navigation where feasible. Some navigational
gives more detail in his official report on the problems, canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are still
uses and abuses of Imperial Rome’s public water sup- traceable by modern archaeology. Channels which served
ply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the needs of urban water supply are covered at the List of
the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueducts in the Roman Empire.
aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.

7.5 Cisterns
7.3 Bridges
Further information: List of Roman cisterns
Main article: Roman bridge Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the ter-
Further information: List of Roman bridges mini of aqueducts and their branch lines, supplying ur-
ban households, agricultural estates, imperial palaces,
Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy.[68]
8.2 Obelisks 11

In architecture, a monolith is a structure which has been

excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcrop-
ping of rock.[88] Monoliths are found in all types of Ro-
man buildings. They were either: quarried without be-
ing moved; or quarried and moved; or quarried, moved
and lifted clear off the ground into their position (e.g.
architraves); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright
position (e.g. columns).
Transporting was done by land or water (or a combina-
tion of both), in the later case often by special-built ships
such as obelisk carriers.[89] For lifting operations, ancient
The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople provided water for the cranes were employed since ca. 515 BC,[90] such as in the
Imperial Palace. construction of Trajan’s Column.[91]

7.6 Dams 8.2 Obelisks

Further information: List of Roman dams and reservoirs Further information: List of obelisks in Rome
An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monu-
Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early im- ment which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These
perial period.[69] For the most part, it concentrated on the were originally called “tekhenu” by the builders, the An-
semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of cient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the
North Africa, the Near East, and Hispania.[70] [71][72] The Greek 'obeliskos’ to describe them, and this word passed
[92]
relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to into Latin and then English. The Romans commis-
more intensive field work there; for Italy only the Subiaco sioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples
Dams, created by emperor Nero (54–68 AD) for recre- include:
ational purposes, are attested.[73][69] These dams are note-
worthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which re- • Arles, France —the Arles Obelisk, in Place de la
mained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late République, a 4th-century obelisk of Roman origin
Middle Ages.[69] • Benevento, Italy — three Roman obelisks[93][94]
The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-filled
• Munich — obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus,
embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.[74] These
Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Kunstareal,
served a wide array of purposes, such as irrigation, flood
1st century AD, 5.80 m
control, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combina-
[75]
tion of these functions. The impermeability of Roman • Rome — there are five ancient Roman obelisks in
dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hy- Rome.
draulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the
Concrete Revolution. These materials also allowed for
bigger structures to be built,[76] like the Lake Homs Dam, 8.3 Roman gardens
possibly the largest water barrier today,[77] and the sturdy
Harbaqa Dam, both of which consist of a concrete core. Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian,
and Greek gardening techniques. In Ancient Latium, a
Roman builders were the first to realize the stabiliz-
garden was part of every farm. According to Cato the El-
ing effect of arches and buttresses, which they inte-
der, every garden should be close to the house and should
grated into their dam designs. Previously unknown
have flower beds and ornamental trees.[95] Horace wrote
dam types introduced by the Romans include arch-
that during his time flower gardens became a national
gravity dams,[72][78] arch dams,;[79][80][81] [82][83] buttress
[84] [85][86][78][87] indulgence.[96]
dams, and multiple-arch buttress dams.
Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy. Ex-
cavations in Pompeii show that gardens attaching to res-
idences were scaled down to meet the space constraints
8 Decorative structures of the home of the average Roman. Modified versions
of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settle-
8.1 Monoliths ments in Africa, Gaul, and Britannia. As town houses
were replaced by tall insula (apartment buildings), these
Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof
monoliths gardens.
12 8 DECORATIVE STRUCTURES

Gardens in Conimbriga, Portugal

8.4 Triumphal arch

Further information: List of Roman triumphal arches

The Arch of Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial

triumphal arch with a single archway

Titus' triumphal procession depicted on the Arch of

Obelisco Sallustiano in front of the church of Trinità dei Monti Titus, showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in 81
in Rome AD

A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape

of an archway with one or more arched passageways, of-
ten designed to span a road. The origins of the Roman
triumphal arch are unclear. There were precursors to
the triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the
Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as
gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etr-
uscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra.[97]
The two key elements of the triumphal arch – a round-
topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in
use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece.
8.5 Victory columns 13

The innovation of the Romans was to these elements in general in a quadriga.[97][101] Inscriptions on Roman tri-
a single free-standing structure. The columns became umphal arches were works of art in themselves, with very
purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch, finely cut, sometimes gilded letters. The form of each let-
while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building ter and the spacing between them was carefully designed
support, became the frame for the civic and religious mes- for maximum clarity and simplicity, without any decora-
sages that the arch builders wished to convey.[98] Little is tive flourishes, emphasizing the Roman taste for restraint
known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches. and order. This conception of what later became the art
Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, was the of typography remains of fundamental importance down
only ancient author to discuss them.[99] He wrote that they to the present day.[102]
were intended to “elevate above the ordinary world” an
image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form
of a statue with a quadriga.[99] 8.5 Victory columns
The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in Further information: List of Roman victory columns
the time of the Roman Republic.[100] Generals who were
granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would
erect fornices or honorific arches bearing statues to com-
memorate their victories.[101] Roman triumphal practices
changed significantly at the start of the imperial period 9 Significant buildings and areas
when the first Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that
only emperors would be granted triumphs. The triumphal
arch changed from being a personal monument to being
an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce
and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the
state.[97] Arches were not necessarily built as entrances,
but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were
often erected across roads and were intended to be passed
through, not round.[102] Most Roman triumphal arches
were built during the imperial period. By the fourth cen-
tury AD there were 36 such arches in Rome, of which
three have survived – the Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch
of Septimius Severus (203-205) and the Arch of Constan-
tine (312). Numerous arches were built elsewhere in the
Roman Empire.[100] The single arch was the most com-
mon, but many triple arches were also built, of which the
Triumphal Arch of Orange (circa AD 21) is the earli- Hadrian’s Wall
est surviving example. From the 2nd century AD, many
examples of the arcus quadrifrons – a square triumphal
arch erected over a crossroads, with arched openings on 9.1 Public buildings
all four sides – were built, especially in North Africa.
Arch-building in Rome and Italy diminished after the • Baths of Trajan – these were a massive thermae, a
time of Trajan (AD 98-117) but remained widespread in bathing and leisure complex, built in ancient Rome
the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD; they starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the
were often erected to commemorate imperial visits. [101] Kalends of July in 109.

The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a • Baths of Diocletian – in ancient Rome, these were
constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator. the grandest of the public baths (thermae), built by
The façade was ornamented with marble columns, and successive emperors
the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted
panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of • Baths of Caracalla
the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or • Colosseum
the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually
depicted flying Victories, while the attic was often in- • Trajan’s Column, in Rome
scribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and prais-
ing the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways • Circus Maximus, in Rome
were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculp- • Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome
tures. The vault was ornamented with coffers. Some tri-
umphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus • Domus Aurea (former building)
triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or
• Pantheon
14 11 REFERENCES

• Tower of Hercules [6] Gardner 2005, p. 170.

• Tropaeum Traiani [7] Ward-Perkins 1956.

• Hadrian’s Villa [8] Rasch 1985, p. 117.

• Verona Arena, in Verona [9] Lechtman & Hobbs 1986.

[10] Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24.

9.2 Private architecture [11] Heinle & Schlaich 1996, p. 27.

[12] Smith 1983, pp. 116–119.

• Alyscamps – a necropolis in Arles, France, one of
the most famous necropolises of the ancient world [13] Smith 1983, pp. 121–123.

• Domus [14] Miller 1972.

• Catacombs of Rome [15] Hodge 1960, p. 38–44.

• Roman villa [16] Ulrich 2007, pp. 148f.

[17] Beckmann 2002.

9.3 Civil engineering [18] Beckmann 2002, p. 353–356.

• Roman engineering – Romans are famous for their [19] Juracek 1996, p. 310.
advanced engineering accomplishments, although [20] Peet 1911, p. 35–36.
some of their own inventions were improvements on
older ideas, concepts and inventions. [21] Walters & Birch 1905, p. 330–40.

• Roman watermill [22] Morris 1972, pp. 39-41, 51-60.

[23] Kolb 1984, pp. 169-238.

9.4 Military engineering [24] Benevolo 1993, pp. 256-267.

• Antonine Wall, in Scotland [25] Harris 1989, pp. 375-392: “The Etruscans were, in their
turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and
• Hadrian’s Wall Hellenic culture.”

• Limes Germanicus [26] Vitrivius 1914.

[27] Demandt 1998: “In fact, many sites where the Romans
created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had
10 See also previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban
character.”
• Outline of ancient Rome [28] Bomgardner 2000, p. 37.
• Outline of architecture [29] Bomgardner 2000, p. 59.

[30] Bomgardner 2000, p. 62.

11 References [31] Bomgardner 2000, p. 201–223.

[32] Abbott & Johnson 1926, p. 12.

11.1 Footnotes
[33] writer873. “The Roman Forum”. Ancient Encyclopedia
[1] Chin, Kaitlin. “The Pantheon”. Landscape Architecture History. Web. 3/25/2012
Study Tour. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
[34] Richardson 1992, p. 193.
[2] “BUILDING BIG: Pantheon”. PBS. Retrieved 17
[35] Lampe 2006, p. 61.
September 2014.
[36] Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 180.
[3] “The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete”. Ro-
man Concrete. Retrieved 16 September 2014. [37] Patrich 1996, p. 149.

[4] DeLaine 1990, p. 407. [38] Métreaux 1998, p. 14-15.

[5] Rook 1992, pp. 18f.. [39] Pliny, Epist. VIII.18

11.2 Works cited 15

[40] Seneca, Epist. 45 [77] Smith 1971, p. 42.

[41] Schmitz 1875, p. 618. [78] James & Chanson 2002.

[42] Hermansen 1970. [79] Smith 1971, pp. 33–35.
[43] Storey 2002. [80] Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f..
[44] Storey 2004. [81] Schnitter 1987a, p. 12.
[45] Wilson Jones 2000.
[82] Schnitter 1987c, p. 80.
[46] Ros 1996.
[83] Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2.
[47] Ward-Perkins 2000, p. 333.
[84] Schnitter 1987b, pp. 59–62.
[48] Villa Romana dell'Auditorium
[85] Schnitter 1978, p. 29.
[49] Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f..
[86] Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62.
[50] Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11.
[87] Arenillas & Castillo 2003.
[51] Wilson 2002, pp. 7f..
[88] Michael D. Gunther. “Glossary and Index of (mostly)
[52] Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378. Asian Art”. Old Stones: The Monuments of Art History.
Retrieved 24 September 2014.
[53] Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15.

[54] Wikander 1985, p. 158. [89] Wirsching 2000.

[55] Wikander 2000b, p. 403. [90] Coulton 1974, pp. 7, 16.

[56] Wilson 2002, p. 16. [91] Lancaster 1999, pp. 419–439.

[57] Wikander 2000b, p. 407. [92] Baker & Baker 2001, p. 69.

[58] Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007. [93] “Museo del Sannio”. Retrieved 4 October 2014.

[59] Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f.. [94] “Three Obelisks in Benevento”. Retrieved 4 October
2014.
[60] Forbes 1993, p. 146.
[95] Semple 1929, pp. 435.
[61] Kaszynski 2000, p. 9.
[96] Semple 1929, pp. 436.
[62] Bunson 2009, p. 195.
[97] Zaho 2004, p. 18–25.
[63] O'Flaherty 2002, p. 2.

[64] Gagarin & Fantham 2010, p. 145. [98] Sullivan 2006, p. 133–134.

[65] O'Connor 1993, p. 1. [99] Fürst & Grundmann 1998, p. 43.

[66] Beall, Christine (1988). “Designing the segmental arch” [100] Triumphal Arch at Encyclopædia Britannica
(PDF). ebuild.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
[101] F. B. Sear and Richard John. “Triumphal arch.” Grove
[67] O'Connor 1993, p. 126. Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 30 Jul. 2010

[68] Döring 2002, pp. 310–319. [102] Honour & Fleming 2005.

[69] Hodge 1992, p. 87.

[70] Schnitter 1978, p. 28, fig. 7. 11.2 Works cited

[71] Hodge 1992, p. 80. • Abbott, Frank Frost; Johnson, Allan Chester
(1926). Municipal Administration in the Roman Em-
[72] Hodge 2000, p. 332.
pire. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
[73] Smith 1970, pp. 60f..
• Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), “Dams
[74] Hodge 2000, pp. 331f.. from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of De-
sign Forms (with Appendix)", 1st International
[75] Hodge 1992, pp. 86f..
Congress on Construction History [20th–24th Jan-
[76] Smith 1971, p. 49. uary] (Madrid)
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• Beckmann, Martin (2002), “The 'Columnae • Juracek, Judy A. (1996). Surfaces: Visual Research
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• Mark, Robert; Hutchinson, Paul (1986), “On the
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12 Further reading
• Adam, Jean-Pierre (2005). Roman Building: Ma-
terials and Techniques. Routledge. ISBN 1-134-
61870-0.
• Fletcher, Banister (1996) [1896]. Cruickshank,
Dan, ed. Sir Banister Fletcher’s a History of Archi-
tecture (20th ed.). Architectural Press. ISBN 978-
0-7506-2267-7. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 10.
• Lancaster, Lynne C. (2005). Concrete Vaulted Con-
struction in Imperial Rome: Innovations in Con-
text. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-
139-44434-7.
 19

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