Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

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Construction and Building Materials

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Effect of waste rice husk ash from rice husk fuelled brick kilns on
strength, durability and thermal performances of mortar
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva a,⇑, S. Vishvalingam a, T. Etampawala b
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Galle, Sri Lanka
b
Department of Polymer Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka

h i g h l i g h t s

A lightweight mortar was promising by blending waste RHA into the mixture.

Strength activity index (SAI) was achieved to be 95% and 85% for 5% and 10% waste RHA mortar, respectively.

Improved sulfate, acid and alkaline exposure were found for 5%, 10%, and 20% waste RHA specimens.

Reduced thermal conductivity can be achieved by mortar with 20% waste RHA.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Effect of waste RHA, residual ash generated from rice husk fuelled brick kilns, on strength, durability and
Received 3 July 2020 thermal performances of mortar was investigated. Cement in the mortar was replaced by 0%, 5%, 10%, and
Received in revised form 15 November 2020 20% of waste RHA. Compressive strength, bulk density, water absorption, porosity, sorption rate, sulfate,
Accepted 20 November 2020
acid and alkaline resistance, thermal performance, and microstructural analysis of specimens were exam-
ined.
Bulk density of control (i.e. 0%) and 20% waste RHA mortar were 2033 kg/m 3 and 1821 kg/m 3, respec-
Keywords:
tively, promising a lightweight mortar by blending waste RHA into the mixture. At 56 days, Strength
Plastering mortar
Cement supplementary material
activity index (SAI) was achieved to be 95% and 85% for 5% and 10% waste RHA mortar, respectively, indi-
Waste RHA cating better compressive strength achievement with waste RHA added mortar. The expansion due to
Durability parameters sulfate exposure was reduced by 54% and 70%, for 5% and 10% waste RHA mortar, respectively. Weight
Strength properties loss due to acid exposure was reduced by 45%, 40%, and 25% for 5%, 10%, and 20% waste RHA specimens,
Thermal performance respectively. The weight loss due to alkaline exposures was reduced from 3.13% to 2.41% with rising
waste RHA level from 0% to 5%. Mortar with 20% waste RHA had a higher temperature difference than
the control mortar, indicating that RHA contributed to the reduced thermal conductivity. At 5% waste
RHA sample, high counts of CSH was formed, micro-voids were filled, making it a dense structure, which
is favorable to achieve improved strength and durability performances.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ronment [6-9]. Although the use of rice husk as a fuel is one of
the sustainable energy practices, it causes ecological issue associ-
Rice husk, an agricultural by-product of paddy farming, is often ated with the usage of waste RHA; if the waste RHA is not treated
used as a fuel in the green technology field [1-6]. For example, rice properly, the use of rice husks as a fuel cannot be completely con-
husks are used as a fuel in boilers to produce steam for generator sidered as ‘‘green”.
turbines to produce electricity [1], in brick kilns to fire clay bricks An abundant quantity of RHA is available in the agricultural sec-
[3,4], in boilers of the rice processing industry [5,6], where rice tor, especially in Asian countries. In 2017, the world production of
husks have undergone a self-burning process. About 20% of rice paddy rice is close to 759 million tons [10], where Asian countries
husk converts into rice husk ash (RHA), which is often disposed produce 689 million tons, comprising nearly 91%. Husk-to-paddy
into rivers or landfills contaminating the water bodies and envi- ratio (HPR) is 0.1 by weight and about 20% of rice husk converts
to Rice husk ash [11]. Asian countries, where the largest contribu-
tion to the world rice production was reported [10] produced 68.9
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121794
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

million rice husk, resulting to generate 13.8 million tons of RHA trolled burning between 500 and 700 °C for 6 h [28]. The above
from various industries. varying strength achievement in mortar might have been attribu-
The utilisation of waste RHA produced from various industries ted to the composition of RHA, which depends on the burning
has been focused in previous studies. The black RHA, produced and grinding processes of the husk. RHA obtained as a product of
from steam boilers of rice mills has been used for normal concrete burning at a temperature lesser than 900 °C had a high amount
[12] and for cement-mortar [13], Rice husk–bark ash obtained of amorphous silica [29]. Elevation of burning temperature beyond
from a biomass power plant, (65% of rice husk and 35% of eucalyp- 900 °C will convert amorphous silica to cristobalite and tridymite
tus bark) has been used for normal concrete [14], waste RHA pro- [30]. Prolonged heating (more than 1 h) even below 700 °C con-
duced from electric power plants has been used for self- verts amorphous silica into crystalline silica [31]; Smaller RHA par-
compacting concrete [15] as a partial cement replacement. How- ticles are more efficient in pozzolanic performances [8]. Highly
ever, waste RHA used in previous studies has crystalline silica, reactive fine RHA particles can be granted by the controlled burn-
which is less reactive. ing at the desired temperature and grinding for the desired period.
The use of waste RHA produced on the large scale combustion Both the controlled burning and fine-grinding processes increase
of rice husks as a fuel in a brick kiln is limited to use as clay the cost of material processing, which may not be a sustainable
replacements, but no study attempted to use waste RHA as cement practice in the utilization of waste. In the current study, direct uti-
replacements. The utilization of waste RHA has been mainly lization of waste RHA into mortar without losing the strength is
focused on clay replacements for fired clay bricks [3,4] or fired clay desired.
roof tiles [16], possibly because the waste generated at the clay Not only the strength but also the durability is one of the most
industry can be directly utilised for clay products, encouraging essential properties of mortar because the cement-based material
decentralised community-based waste management systems [3]. faces a major issue due to the exposure of aggressive environments
However, waste RHA, residual ash generated from the rice husk including acid exposures. Durability properties of RHA added mor-
fuelled brick kilns, contains a high proportion of silica (SiO2) in tar has limited studies, which are mostly concentrated on water
the amorphous form [3,16], which is an essential ingredient for absorption [27,28,32] but rarely on sulfate resistance [18,33].
the production of concrete and mortar [17]. Reduced water absorption was reported with small RHA particles
Most of the RHA used for cement replacements was in the [27], with 10% RHA [28], and with 15% RHA and 5% nano-TiO2
ground forms made under specific ignition [7], although both (NT) [32]. Improved sulfate resistance was found with 15% amor-
grinding and burning processes are energy-intensive. Pozzolanic phous RHA, obtained under the controlled burning process
activity of RHA depends on silica content, amorphous silica crystal- [18,33], with partially crystalline RHA, which was processed to
lization phase, and size and surface area of ash particles obtained achieve required fineness and activity index [33]. Building walls
by specific incineration and grinding processes [18]. Waste RHA can be exposed to severe environments not only sulfate exposures
has the potential to be re-used as cement replacement due to the but also acid exposures. Acid rain has become a decisive environ-
ash is predominantly amorphous silica with a cellular structure mental problem [34], demanding the resistance of walling material
[16]. Waste RHA, residual ash generated by the use of rice husk for aggressive environments. Therefore, an inclusive investigation
as a fuel in brick kilns for fired clay brick manufacturing process, on durability properties including acid and alkaline resistances of
has the potential advantage of economically efficient because mortar with waste RHA, residual ash from rice husk fuelled brick
grinding and special ignition sources are not necessary, which will kiln, is an imperative need.
lower the cost of material processing in construction projects, Plastering mortar with sufficient strength and durability perfor-
making waste RHA as international interest. Direct utilization of mances should be green and sustainable for the application as a
waste RHA as cement replacements in the manufacturing process walling material. The houses built in cities are not only small due
of construction materials will reduce the cost of construction, to scarcity of lands, but also thermally uncomfortable due to the
related CO2 emission and environmental pollution. The emission undesirable thermal properties of building material. Besides, the
of CO2 is estimated as 1 tonne of CO2 from 1 tonne of cement pro- thermal comfort of buildings is seriously affected by global warm-
duced and globally 5–7% of CO2 emissions [19-21]. A recent study ing and rapid urbanization. Consequently, people tend to use costly
showed that the new cement containing up to 20% biomass bottom artificial thermally comfortable mechanisms such as electric fans
ash (processed in a laboratory), sourced from power plants, exhib- and air conditioning to ensure indoor thermal comfort. For indoor
ited higher energy performance than cement, requiring less energy thermal comfort, the building consumes a significant amount of
to produce cement with the same compressive strength [22]. energy. Almost 33% of the total amount of energy is consumed
Potential utilization of waste RHA, residual ash from rice husks by building sectors [35]. This has been increased to 40% in devel-
fulled brick kiln, as a cement replacement in mortar is focused in oped countries [36] and out of this, 12% is consumed only by the
this study. walling materials of buildings [37]. The indoor surface tempera-
The cement-based materials impair their strength, durability tures are greatly responsible for thermal comfort [38], indicating
and thermal properties when the composition and microstructure that greater the difference in temperature between indoor and out-
of the matrix were changed [23,24]. Previous studies [25-28] door will enhance the thermal comfort of occupants in dwellings.
showed RHA addition to mortar affected differently on the strength In previous studies, the better thermal performance was found
properties. For example, improved compressive strength in mortar for the waste added bricks [3,37,39-42] and waste added roof tiles
specimens was found with 5% RHA and 20% waste glass [25]; 28- [16,43], comparing to the conventional clay bricks and roof tiles.
day compressive strength was improved by 21.2% and 17.7% with For example, bricks with 15% waste RHA reduced the thermal con-
11% and 22% RHA, respectively [26]; 90-day compressive strength ductivity by 29% [3], bricks with 40% ceramic sludge waste showed
was improved to 21.5 MPa (when d50 is 6.72 lm) and 10.1 MPa 6 0C reduction in the indoor temperature [39], bricks with 15% sug-
(when d50 is 18.6 lm) with 20% RHA [27]. In contrast, 28-day com- arcane bagasse ash reduced the thermal conductivity by 31% [40],
pressive strength was reduced by 30% for 30% RHA addition [28]. In bricks with 15% waste marble sludge reduced the thermal conduc-
previous studies, RHA was produced by laboratory incineration of tivity by 16% [41], bricks with 5% olive stone flour and wheat straw
the husk at different conditions: RHA was obtained under the con- reduced the thermal conductivity by 16% and 23%, respectively
trolled burning at 700 °C for 2 h [25]; under the controlled burning [42]; porous bricks with 30% recycled paper processing residues
at 1100 °C for 2 h and ground before mixing with cement [26]; reduced the thermal conductivity by 50% [37]; roof tiles with
under the controlled burning and then ground [27]; under the con- 20% waste RHA showed 4 0C reduction in indoor temperature
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G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

[16], roof tiles with 20% ceramic sludge waste showed 2.8 °C reduc- formance and microstructure of waste RHA added mortar were
tion in indoor temperature [43]. In previous studies, investigation also examined.
of thermal conductivity (or performance) was limited to bricks
and roof tiles, but no known study for wall plastering, which is 2.2.1. Chemical and physical properties
directly exposed to the sunshine. Because the sole purpose of the To study the chemical composition of waste RHA, X-ray fluores-
use of wall plastering is to protect occupants from rain and direct cence (XRF) was performed according to the process described in
sunshine while providing a thermally comfortable indoor environ- [48]. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was performed using Rigaku Ultima
ment, the effect of waste RHA on the thermal performances of plas- IV. The data was collected using the Bragg-Brentano focusing
tering mortar is desired to be investigated. geometry with a scan speed of 2 °min1 and 0.02° step width.
The growing need for sustainable and eco-friendly construction The instrument was operated at a tube voltage of 40 kV and a tube
practice has motivated researchers to investigate viable alterna- current of 30 mA with Cu Ka1 radiation. SEM and EDAX of waste
tives to conventional cement [44]. Although RHA has been per- RHA and mortar samples were performed using Carl zeiss evols
formed well as a cement supplementary material, all previous 15. The specific gravity of cement and waste RHA was determined
studies on RHA added mortar was mostly focused on the RHA following ASTM C188 [49]. A sieve analysis test was carried out for
obtained by the controlled incineration and grinding processes in each raw material. The fineness of raw material was evaluated
laboratories, leading to an increase in the material processing cost, through ASTM C184 [50].
which is not a sustainable construction practice. Besides, investiga-
tions of properties of mortar were limited to strength and durabil- 2.2.2. Workability
ity properties, but no known study on thermal performances of The workability of mortar was found through the flow table
plastering mortar. In the current study, cement in the mortar test, as specified by ASTM C1437 [51], and was maintained to
was partially replaced by the waste RHA, transforming residual the112 mm for all mortar mixtures.
ash generated by rice husks fuelled brick kilns into a supplemen-
tary cementitious material while enhancing strength, durability, 2.2.3. Setting time
and thermal performances. Potential utilization of waste RHA into The setting time was investigated as per ASTM C191 [52] by
mortar mixture with enhanced properties will be an ingenious using the Automatic Vicat apparatus.
solution to an ecological issue in the disposal of the ash while
bringing revenue to the brick kiln owners and rural paddy farmers. 2.2.4. Compressive strength
The compressive strength was carried out according to ASTM
C109 [53]. The cubes (50 mm  50 mm  50 mm) were tested at
2. Materials and method
7, 14, 28, and 56 days by using the Compression testing machine
(ADR Touch Head type). An average of three results was used to
2.1. Raw materials and sample preparations
determine the strength. As per ASTM C311 [54], Strength Activity
Index (SAI) was calculated by using Equation (1),
Cement, sand, and waste rice husk ash (RHA) were used as raw
materials. The Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) as described in A
SAI ¼  100 ð1Þ
SLS855 [45] was obtained. For fine aggregates, river sand (90% of B
particles are less than 1.7 mm) was used. The unground waste Where,
RHA (without other debris) was collected from a brick kiln in Mir-
issa, Galle. The clean drinking water supplied by the National A- Average compressive strength of mortar with waste RHA
Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) was used for mixing B- Average compressive strength of control specimen
mortar.
The mortar was prepared with a Cement: Sand ratio of 1:2.25
2.2.5. Water absorption and porosity
(by weight) based on the previous research studies on RHA on
The water absorption and porosity tests were carried out as
mortar [46,47]. Four mortar mixtures were prepared by incorpo-
specified in ASTM C642-13 [55].
rating a waste RHA fraction of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20% of the cement
weight (Table 1).
2.2.6. Sorption rate
In this study, 330 cubes (50 mm  50 mm  50 mm), 45 prisms
Sorption rate was investigated according to ASTM C1585-13
(25 mm  25 mm  285 mm) were cast. Three samples were used
[56] and calculated for 4 min, 6 min, 9 min, 16 min, 25 min,
for each test at different waste RHA levels (Table 1) at four differ-
49 min intervals after soaking in 5 mm depth water.
ent ages: 7 days, 14 days, 28 days, and 56 days.
2.2.7. Sulfate resistance
2.2. Experimental methodology Sulfate resistance was investigated through ‘‘expansion” after
immersed in a 5% solution of Sodium Sulfate and Magnesium Sul-
The physical and chemical properties of raw materials were fate. The expansion test that measuring the expansion of a sample
investigated to characterize the materials in mortar. Fresh mortar immersed in a sulfate solution indirectly determines the resistance
properties, strength, and durability properties of hardened mortar of cement to sulfate according to ASTM C 1012 [57]. The expan-
were determined according to ASTM standards. The thermal per- sions of prism specimens (25 mm  25 mm  285 mm) were mea-

Table 1
Mix proportion of the mortar (kg/m3).

Mortar mixture Waste RHA level (%) Cement Waste RHA Sand Water
M1 0 550 0 1240 270
M2 5 522 28 1240 280
M3 10 495 55 1240 290
M4 20 440 110 1240 320

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G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

sured using a comparator at frequent test times. The sample was ature was measured every 5 min for specimens, which were
kept under air for 15 min before measuring the expansion. exposed to direct sunlight throughout a calm sunny day from
The length change was determined by using Equation (2), 8.00 am to 4.00 pm. For this purpose, type K thermocouples were
connected to the heat flow data logger, LR 8432 (HOIKI), and tem-
LxLi
DL ¼  100 ð2Þ perature readings were recorded. The temperature difference in
Lg
the specimen was calculated and compared with that of the control
where, specimen.
DL - length change of the mortar bar at the age of  measured in
%,
Lx - length of the mortar bar exposed to sodium sulfate solution 3. Results and discussion
the age of  measured in mm
Li - Initial length of the mortar bar after curing for 28 days mea- 3.1. Raw material characterization
sured in mm
Lg - Nominal gauge length, or 250 mm as applicable. 3.1.1. Chemical and physical properties
The physical and chemical properties of raw materials are
2.2.8. Acid and alkaline resistance shown in Table 2a and 2b, respectively. Waste RHA is mainly com-
Acid resistance was investigated according to the Specification posed of silica (84.14%), along with a discrete amount of other oxi-
in ASTM C1152M-04 [58]. Cube specimens des like aluminum (4.08%), iron (1.15%), and calcium (0.97%). XRD
(50 mm  50 mm  50 mm) were cured for 28 days. Then the spec- analysis of waste RHA showed a broad halo at around 220 2b angle
imens were kept in the atmosphere for 2 days and cubes were (Fig. 2), in line with other’s study [60], confirming the amorphous
immersed in a 3% H2SO4 acid solution. After 30 and 60 days of nature of silica presents in waste RHA. Hence the waste RHA, resid-
immersing in an H2SO4 acid solution, cubes were kept in an atmo- ual ash generated from the rice husk fuelled brick kiln, is predom-
sphere for a day after washing in water. The weight of the sample inantly amorphous SiO2. Waste RHA showed reactive oxides (i.e.,
was measured to determine the weight loss (WL) as in Equation (3) SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3), whose summation was greater than 70%, met
the requirements in ASTM C618 [61] to classify this residual ash
W1  W2
WL ¼  100% ð3Þ as a pozzolan material.
W1
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of waste RHA con-
Where, firmed that the particle size of the ash has a wide range and differ-
W 1 = Initial weight before immersion ent irregular shapes (Fig. 3a) causing greater friction between
W 2 = Weight at a specified age of immersion. particles. The porous nature of waste RHA and its honeycombed
Alkaline resistance was investigated according to the require- structure (Fig. 3a) is responsible for its high specific surface, con-
ment of ASTM C289-07 [59]. To determine the alkaline effect 3% tributing to not only increased water retention but also reduced
NaOH solution was used. The weight loss due to alkaline exposure free water and decreased flowing ability of the matrix [62]. EDAX
was determined by following the same procedure of acid resis- analysis (Fig. 3b) confirmed the absence of carbon in waste RHA.
tance, and Equation (3) was used to determine the weight loss Specific gravity of waste RHA and cement were 2.02 and 3.07,
(WL). respectively (Table 2a), agreeing with the values reported in other
studies: 2.06 [27], 2.07 [32,46] for the controlled burnt RHA and
2.2.9. Thermal performance 3.13 [27], 3.15 [32], 3.12 [47] for cement. The fineness (75 lm sieve
The experimental set-up used for thermal performance mea- passing %) of cement and waste RHA was found to be 13.85 and
surements is shown in Fig. 1. Mortar specimens were covered 10.26, respectively (Table 2a). This indicates that the waste RHA
using the polystyrene board (which has the thermal conductivity was coarser as compared to the cement, which would not favour
of 0.03 (W/mK) at 25 °C temperature) except the bottom and top high reactivity. Waste RHA and cement have approximately the
surfaces. Two thermocouples were placed in the middle of the same particle size distribution (Fig. 4), indicating that cement
top and bottom surfaces of the test specimen (Fig. 1). The temper- replacement with waste RHA is appropriate.

Fig. 1. Experimental setup of measuring the thermal performance of mortar cubes (a) data logger, (b), cubes exposed to direct sunlight.

4
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

Fig. 2. XRD diffractogram displaying the amorphous nature of silica in the waste rice husk ash.

and spongy nature along with the increased surface area of waste
RHA (Fig. 3a). High water demand was also observed for other
cement containing ash: palm oil fuel ash [5], wood ash [63].
In this study, the flow was kept constant by adjusting the w/c
ratio to study the suitability of waste RHA for plastering mortar,
in which not only strength but also durability and thermal perfor-
mances are imperative. The use of superplasticizer was not encour-
aged to limit the water demand and improve the workability
because introducing superplasticizer will be an expensive method
to use an economically friendly material like waste RHA for wall
plastering. Although, superplasticizers have been occasionally used
in cement mixtures for limiting the water demand while improv-
ing the workability but it may have been acted as an accelerator
to improve the strength [64], which may impede the actual perfor-
mance of the residual ash as a construction material.

3.2.2. Setting time

Fig. 3a. SEM of waste Rice Husk Ash. Irrespective of waste content, the initial and final setting times
of waste RHA blended mortar were longer than that for the control
mortar (Fig. 6). With increasing the waste RHA from 0% to 20%, the
3.2. Fresh mortar characterizations initial setting time increases from 90 min to 130 min whereas the
final setting time increases from 180 min to 205 min. Delayed set-
3.2.1. Workability ting time was also observed for other cement containing ash
The effect of waste RHA level on the water to cementitious sourced from woody waste combustion [63] and rice husk combus-
materials (w/c) ratio to achieve a constant flow (i.e., 112 mm) is tion [47].
shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that 0%, 5%, 10% and 20% waste This study confirmed that waste RHA behaves as a retarder,
RHA replacement mortar mix required 0.49, 0.51, 0.53 and 0.58 delaying the setting of cement paste. Longer initial and final setting
w/c ratio, respectively (Fig. 5). Water demand increases with time with waste RHA as compared to the OPC was probably due to
increasing the waste RHA level to achieve the same flow, indicating the number of factors. When the water was added to the mixture
a higher amount of water is required to accomplish better worka- where only cement was available (i.e., 0% waste RHA), the hydra-
bility for mixtures incorporating waste RHA than for the control tion may start topically. However, in the presence of waste RHA,
specimen. Increased water demand with increasing waste RHA there might be a competition for the added water between the
for achieving certain workability might be attributed to the porous SiO2 (in waste RHA) and other cement materials. Since the SiO2
5
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

Fig. 3b. EDAX of waste Rice Husk Ash.

Table 2a
Physical properties of raw materials.

Material Cement Waste RHA Sand

Fineness modulus – – 2.85
75 lm sieve passing % 13.85 10.26 –
Specific gravity 3.07 2.02 2.54
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1244 361 1494

Fig. 5. The w/c to achieve 112 mm flow for waste RHA replacement levels.

and 20% waste RHA mortar is 2033 kg/m 3 and 1821 kg/m 3, respec-
tively (Fig. 7). This reduction in mortar density can contribute to
the reduced mortar strength. Reduced bulk density of waste RHA
added hardened mortar might be attributed by the lesser specific
gravity and the lesser bulk density of waste RHA as compared to
cement (Table 2a). With rising RHA, concrete blocks showed
Fig. 4. Particle size distribution of the raw materials. reduced bulk density with controlled burnt large RHA [27], open-
air RHA [65] RHA incinerated by charcoal [66], whereas improved
bulk density with controlled burnt ground (or small) RHA [27,67].
was finer it absorbed the water first before the commencement of
the hydration of the other cement materials, thus retarding the ini-
tial setting time. The higher specific surface area of the waste RHA 3.3.2. Strength properties
(Fig 3a) may reduce the water evaporation through the mortar mix. (a) Compressive strength
Waste RHA is useful as a retarder to ensure that there is enough The compressive strength increases with increasing the curing
time to complete the wall plastering. period, attributed to the continuous hydration process (Fig. 8). Irre-
spective of the curing period, the compressive strength of mortar
declines with rising waste RHA level in line with others study,
3.3. Hardened mortar characterization where reduced strength was found for the concrete blended with
open-air burnt RHA particles (particles less than 425 lm) [65],
3.3.1. Physical properties open-air burnt RHA produced by an incinerator, where charcoal
(a) Bulk density was used as solid fuel [66], controlled burnt RHA, which has large
Bulk density of hardened mortar generally decreases with particle size (average particle size of 18.6 lm) [27].
increasing waste RHA replacement (Fig. 7), resulting to produce The compressive strength of RHA mortars is influenced by the
lightweight mortar with waste RHA. The bulk density of control hydration of cement, filler, and pozzolanic actions of RHA. Small

Table 2b
Chemical properties of the waste RHA.

Chemical Compound SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2O Na2O LOI
Percentage (%) 84.14 4.08 1.15 0.97 0.44 0.05 1.34 1.69 6.13

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G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

Fig. 9. Strength Activity Index (SAI) of mortar cubes with curing age.

5%, 10%, and 20%) had SAI value of over 75% (Fig. 9) required by
Fig. 6. Setting times for waste RHA replacement levels. ASTM C618 [61]. At all curing age, 5% and 10% waste RHA mortar
showed SAI value of over 75% (Fig. 9). The 5% and 10% waste
RHA mortar had a greater rate of strength achievement comparing
to the control specimen for 28–56 days of curing (Fig. 8, Table 3).
Strength achievement was observed at a later age, possibly because
the compressive strength of mortar due to the pozzolanic reaction
of either small or large RHA is only significant after 28 days of cur-
ing [27]. The pozzolanic action of RHA starts at a later age and
becomes significant when a considerable amount of Ca(OH)2 is
produced as a hydration product of cement. RHA reacts with
cement hydration product Ca(OH)2 to produce secondary CSH gel
Mortar cements are classified as Type M, Type N, and Type S
[ASTM C 270 [69]] while types M and S are recommended for the
exterior usage [ASTM C 270 [69]]. All types of mortar achieved
Fig. 7. Bulk density of a hardened mortar.
the minimum 28-day compressive strength for type S (i.e,
12.4 MPa) and type M (i.e., 17.2 MPa) (Fig. 8) [ASTM C270 [69],
concluding that waste RHA blended mortar can be used for exterior
applications as a plastering mortar.

3.3.3. Durability properties

(a) Water absorption and porosity
Both water absorption and porosity increase with rising waste
RHA levels (Fig. 10). For control mortar (i.e., 0% waste RHA) and
20% waste RHA mortar, the water absorption was found to be
11.1% and 18.1%, respectively, whereas the porosity was found to
be 22.5% and 32.9%, respectively. Increased water absorption was
attributed to the hygroscopic nature (i.e., absorb water from sur-
rounding because RHA is naturally a porous material) and angular
Fig. 8. Compressive strength of hardened mortar. shapes of waste RHA particles (Fig. 3a) leading to extracting more
water [65]. Besides, water absorption of mortar with coarser RHA is
mainly attributed to hydration of cement; the pozzolanic reaction
size RHA (mean particle size less than 6.72 lm [27] size less than of RHA particles is less significant due to the presence of coarser
10 lm [68] could cause a greater pozzolanic reaction and filled the particles. Coarser RHA particles comparing to the cement might
mortar voids effectively [27]. In the current study, coarser particles have contributed to decreasing the rate of hydration, resulting to
in waste RHA might have not able to produce significant poz- arrange high permeable voids. High permeable voids evident in
zolanic reactions and then reduce the compressive strength. In SEM images (Fig. 17) is responsible for the increased water absorp-
general, the use of RHA to replace cement may increase or decrease tion and increased porosity with rising waste RHA level in mortar
the compressive strength of mortar depend on the particle size of specimen. Increased water absorption and porosity found in the
RHA [27]. current study are in line with previous findings for mortar with
On the other hand, the pozzolanic reaction of RHA depends on controlled burnt Large RHA particles (mean size 18.6 lm) [19,27].
the amount of calcium hydroxide released by the hydration of cal- Generally, the product of the pozzolanic reaction fills the voids
cium silicates. The available amount of calcium hydroxide depends and increases the density of concrete [27]. However, with coarser
on the cement content in the mixture. The reduction in strength particles in waste RHA mortars had less effect on the pozzolanic
could be attributed to the lesser amount of the cement needed to reaction and contributed to the increased porosity by increasing
produce the primary cementitious compound responsible for the RHA content.
cement strengthening in the mixes. Though the pozzolanic reac- (b) Sorption rate
tion of RHA could have produced secondary cementitious com- For all mixtures, the sorption rate declines with time (Fig. 11). A
pounds, this might not be sufficient to compensate for the reduced sorption rate was observed at 5% waste RHA mortar com-
reduced primary compounds. paring to the control mortar. This may due to the slight pozzolanic
Although the strength declines with rising waste RHA, at reaction at this level of RHA reduces the interconnectivity between
28 days and 56 days curing age all cement replaced mortar (i.e., pores. Amorphous silica in waste RHA may produce calcium sili-
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G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

Table 3 Sorptivity is an index of moisture transport into an unsaturated

Rate of compressive strength achievement. porous medium. When the water invades the pore space it encoun-
Waste RHA level (%) Rate of strength achievement (% per day) ters smaller pores, hence slowing the rate of sorption. Second, even
7–14 day 14–28 day 28–56 day if the capillary pores form a strongly connected network through
the specimen, such as through the interfacial zone around the
0 28.57 7.14 12.14
5 28.57 8.21 18.39
aggregates where capillary pores may be larger, the ingress of
10 42.86 7.14 14.46 water may still be slowed as the air/water interface relaxes to a
20 17.14 9.46 9.64 stable or metastable configuration in the pore space [70]. Then
any further ingress of moisture would be controlled by capillary
transport through the gel pores or moisture diffusion in the capil-
lary and gel pores.
(c) Sulfate resistance
Sulfate resistance, which was based on the percentage of expan-
sion after immersion in Sodium sulfate and Magnesium sulfate
solution is shown in Figs. 12 and 13, respectively. The expansion
of all mortars with waste RHA was significantly less than the con-
trol sample. After 30-day immersion, 5%, 10% and 20% waste RHA
level mortar had the expansion of 0.036%, 0.029% and 0.019%,
respectively, whereas the control specimen had the expansion of
0.108%. This difference in the expansion between waste RHA mor-
tar and control mortar was widened at 60 days. At 60 days, the
Fig. 10. Water absorption & Porosity of hardened mortar. expansion of 5% and 10% waste RHA level specimens were
decreased by 56% and 61%, compared to the control specimen.
With exposure to magnesium sulfate solution, the mortar bar
expansion declines with rising the waste RHA level (Fig. 13), in line
with the trend found for the sodium sulfate solution (Fig. 12). After
30-day immersion, 5%, 10% and 20% waste RHA specimen had the
expansion of 0.036%, 0.027% and 0.018%, respectively, while the
control specimen had the expansion of 0.104%. At 60 days, the
expansion of 5% and 10% WRHA level specimens were decreased
by 54% and 70% as compared to the control sample.
Due to the magnesium sulfate attack, magnesium hydroxide
and magnesium silicate hydrate could form and made the mixture
have fewer tendencies to increase the expansion. At an early age,
the amorphous silica in the mixture helped in significantly reduc-
ing the permeability of mortar by depleting the calcium hydroxide
from cement hydration to form calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel
of low CaO/SiO2 ratio. The additional CSH densified the microstruc-
Fig. 11. Sorption rate of hardened mortar.
ture of the specimen and prevented the entry of the disturbance
particles. Improved sulfate resistance (or reduced expansion) of
mortar bars with rising waste RHA found in the current study,
cate hydrate (CSH) gel that would cover the cement particles was in line with others studies for the cement blended with amor-
reducing interconnectivity between pores. However, this reduced phous RHA produced by laboratory incineration and grinding
inter-connectivity due to the hydration process would have not [18,33] and partially crystalline RHA, processed by dry-milling to
been sufficient to improve the strength at 5% waste RHA. obtain particle size less than 8 mm, and a defined specific surface
Water absorption of RHA mortar is higher than that of control and maximum activity index as per ASTM C311 [33].
mortar. The absorption of RHA mortar was found to be higher (d) Acid and alkaline resistance
due to more voids and pores present inside RHA mortar, resulting Percentages of the weight loss due to acid and alkaline attacks
in lower compressive strength. The sorptivity was strongly of hardened mortar are shown in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively.
impacted by the porosity as well as the pore size, connection, For all specimens, the weight loss percentage increases with rising
and tortuosity of pores. CSH formation due to the slight pozzolanic the immersion period. At each immersion period, the weight loss
reactions at 5% RHA mortar resulted in decrease pore connectivity .
On the other hand, the average pores’ diameter is possibly the low-
est, due to the best connection between matrix and aggregates,
explaining the lowest sorptivity.
In general, RHA particles presented both an outer and an inner
epidermis. The outer epidermis was characterized by rougher
structure while the inner epidermis was characterized by
smoother surfaces. RHA before grinding contained particles with
different shapes and sizes. Reduced sorptivity was, generally,
attributed to a reduction in the pore structure as pozzolanic mate-
rial (RHA) occupies the empty space and reduces the permeability
of the mortar. However, given the coarse nature of the RHA used in
the current study, the reduced sorptivity cannot be mainly attrib-
uted to the pore filling effect but rather on the inherent water
repellence of the RHA [19]. Fig. 12. Expansion of mortar after immersion in Sodium sulfate solutions.

8
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

Fig. 13. Expansion of mortar after immersion in Magnesium Sulfate solution.

Fig. 15. Weight loss due to alkaline attack.

percentage was lesser for the waste RHA added mortar than for the
control mortar (Fig. 14). With 30 days exposure period, compared
to the control mortar, the percentage of weight loss was reduced mortar, compared to the control mortar. As a result of low CaO/
by 56%, 49%, and 32% for 5%, 10%, and 20% waste RHA mortar, SiO2, alkali absorption, and dilution occurs, leading to alkali reduc-
respectively. With 60 days, the percentage of weight loss was tion [72]. Besides, alkali-silica reaction expansion can be greatly
reduced to 45%, 40%, and 25% for 5%, 10%, and 20% waste RHA mor- influenced by the amount of CaO/SiO2 [73,74]: in case of higher
tar, respectively. Reduced weight loss is associated with the dete- CaO/SiO2 ratio, hydration product (CSH) carries a positive charge
rioration process of the cement matrix. Deterioration of mortar and repel cations. However, the decreasing ratio of CaO/SiO2
or concrete by the acid attack may take place in three forms: aci- changes the positive charge to a negative one and results in the
dolysis (i.e., hydration products react with acid to dissolve ions, absorption of alkalies (cations) by CSH [74].
consequently loss of solid materials), decalcification (i.e., loss of
calcium due to exposure to acidic solution) and complexolysis 3.3.4. Thermal performances
(i.e., some acids give complexes with calcium, aluminium, iron The temperature difference between the top and bottom sur-
and silicate ions which produce much higher concentrations of faces of each hardened mortar type is shown in Fig. 16. Mortar with
these ions in solution than would otherwise be the case, again 20% waste RHA had a higher temperature difference than the con-
leading to dissolution) [71]. In the present study, the weight loss trol mortar, indicating that reduced thermal conductivity can be
is mostly due to the presence of active calcium hydroxide in the achieved by blending waste RHA into the mixture. For example,
matrix due to the cement hydration. Therefore, the cement at about 11:30 a.m. the temperature difference of 0%, 5%, 10%
replacement by waste RHA causes the depleting of the active cal- and 20% waste RHA incorporated mortar is 7.1, 5.0, 6.8 and 7.8
cium hydroxide (which is readily attacked by acid) by the reaction 0
C, respectively. Reduced thermal conductivity may be attributed
between the siliceous and calcium hydroxide to form CSH. Adjust- to the increased porosity (Fig. 10) and pores (Fig. 17) induced by
ing the composition of waste RHA blended cement-sand mortar to waste RHA addition. No previous studies are available for thermal
lower the calcium hydroxide due to the added pozzolanas material conductivity of waste added mortar, however, reduced thermal
potentially increased the acid resistance, ensuring the durability of conductivity have been observed for clay bricks, whose porosity
wall plaster against acid exposures. was raised due to the incorporation of waste RHA [3], ceramic
Weight loss due to alkaline attack was less for 5% waste RHA sludge waste [39], sugarcane bagasse ash [40], waste marble
mortar, compared to the control mortar, indicating the improved sludge [41], olive stone flour and wheat straw [42]. The least tem-
alkaline resistance by incorporation of the ash. For the control mor- perature difference was found for 5% waste RHA mortar, due to the
tar, weight was lost by 2.29%, and 3.13%, at 30 days and 60 days, dense microstructure of the specimen (Fig. 17). Although the den-
respectively. This weight loss was reduced to 2.01% (at 30 days) sified microstructure at 5% waste RHA mortar (Fig. 17) is not desir-
and 2.41% (at 60 days), with 5% waste RHA. Improved alkaline able to improve the thermal resistance, 10%-20% waste RHA
resistance found for waste RHA blended mortar might be attribu- addition is desirable to achieve the mortar with better thermal
ted to CaO/SiO2 in the mixture. Amorphous SiO2 available in waste performance.
RHA contributed to reducing CaO/SiO2 ratio in waste RHA blended
3.3.5. Microstructure characterization: SEM and XRD
The microstructures of the control mortar sample, 5%0.10%,20%
waste RHA replacement samples are shown in Fig. 17. A significant
difference in the morphology of the hydrated cement paste could
be observed between the control mortar and other waste RHA
mortar (Fig. 17). At 5% waste RHA mixture, CSH was formed
(Fig. 17), high counts of CSH were found (Fig. 18), indicating that
CSH densified the matrix and filled the micro-voids while making
strong bonds between particles. This densified matrix might have
been responsible for reduced thermal performance (high thermal
conductivity). With rising waste RHA level, although CSH was
formed, there was a formation of a few voids, which are favorable
for improving the thermal performances.
The XRD is considered as a sensitive technique which gives
acceptable information about the most probable phases [27]. In
the current study, XRD analysis shows three main crystalline
Fig. 14. Weight loss due to acid attack. phases: Quartz (SiO2), Calcium hydroxide (CH), Calcium silicate
9
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

Fig. 16. Thermal performances of hardened mortar.

Fig. 17. SEM images for different WRHA blended mortar.

10
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

Fig. 18. XRD pattern of WRHA blended mortar.

hydrate (CSH). The detected pure quartz does not represent one of reduction due to the lesser amount of the cement needed to pro-
the hydration products but it is likely to be due to the presence of duce the primary cementitious compound responsible for cement
SiO2 in the sand particles, similar to the XRD pattern that has been strengthening in the mixes. However, waste RHA added concrete
observed in [27] for RHA added mortar. In the case of cement paste had shown improved strength with paving blocks of Grade 15
matrix, the peak exists for quartz is not very significant in the cur- and Grade 25 [76].
rent study while no quartz peak at 26°was reported in [27], and the On the other hand, some CH were found in waste RHA mortar.
distinct peak was reported in [25,75]. This may be attributed to a less significant pozzolanic reaction of
Several calcium hydroxide (CH) peaks were found in the control coarse waste RHA.
mix. The calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration is
consumed as a result of interaction with active amorphous silica 4. Conclusions
present in the waste RHA to form the CSH phases, which can con-
tribute to the mechanical and durability properties of concrete and Strength, durability, and thermal performances were enhanced
mortar. These CH peaks did not present in RHA added mortar mix- by the utilization of waste rice husk ash, residual ash generated
ture, indicating that CH has been reacted with amorphous silica in from rice husk fuelled brick kilns, as cement replacement in
waste RHA and CSH gel have been formed. It is necessary to men- mortar.
tion that the traces of CSH compounds in waste RHA mortar might Strength activity index for 5% and 10% waste RHA was achieved
not be significant to show improvement in the compressive to be 95% and 85% (greater than 75%), respectively, indicating
strength in RHA mortar. One possibility might be the strength waste RHA can be added into plastering mortar without causing
improvement due to CSH gel was not manifest by the strength damage to mortar strength. All types of mortar specimens achieved
11
G.H.M.J. Subashi De Silva, S. Vishvalingam and T. Etampawala Construction and Building Materials 268 (2021) 121794

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CRediT authorship contribution statement cemconcomp.2015.03.002.
[22] J.M. Medina, I.F. Sáez del Bosque, M. Frías, M.I. Sánchez de Rojas, C. Medina,
Design and properties of eco-friendly binary mortars containing ash from
Subashi De Silva: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal
biomass-fuelled power plants, Cem. Concr. Compos. 104 (2019) 103372,
analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing - original darft. Vish- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103372.
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Declaration of Competing Interest 629.
[25] M.M. Younes, H.A. Abdel-Rahman, Magdy M. Khattab, Utilization of rice husk
ash and waste glass in the production of ternary blended cement mortar
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- composites, J. Build. Eng. 20 (2018) 42–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared jobe.2018.07.001.
to influence the work reported in this paper. [26] Samuel Kofi Tulashie, Francis Kotoka, David Mensah, Anthony Kwame
Kwablah, Investigation of the compressive strength of pit sand, and sea sand
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