Howard B (1) - Petroleum Engineers Handbook, Part 5

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Chapter 46
Thermal Recovery
Chieh Chu, Getty Oil Co.*
Introduction
Thermal recovery generally refers to processes for recov- Steam Displacement
ering oil from underground formations by use of heat. This process, usually referred to as steamflood or steam-
The heat may be supplied externally by injecting a hot drive, has a much higher oil recovery than steam stimu-
fluid such as steam or hot water into the formations, or lation alone. Whereas steam stimulation is a one-well
it may be generated internally by combustion. In com- operation, steamflood requires at least two wells, one
bustion, the fuel is supplied by the oil in place and the serving as the injector and the other serving as the
oxidant is injected into the formations in the form of air producer. The majority of steamflood projects use pat-
or other oxygen-containing fluids. The most commonly tern floods. In many cases, steam stimulation is required
used thermal recovery processes are steam injection proc- at the producers when the oil is too viscous to flow be-
esses and in-situ combustion. fore the heat from the injector arrives. Because of the high
oil recovery achievable through steamflooding, many
Two Forms of Steam Injection Processes reservoirs that were produced by steam stimulation previ-
In principle, any hot fluid can be injected into the forma- ously now are being steamflooded.
tions to supply the heat. The fluids used most extensively
are steam or hot water because of the general availability
Three Forms of In-Situ Combustion
and abundance of water. Hot water injection has been In-situ combustion usually is referred to as fireflood.
found to be less efficient than steam injection and will not There are three forms of in-situ combustion processes-
be discussed here. A schematic view of the steam injec- dry forward combustion, reverse combustion, and wet
tion process is shown in Fig. 46.1, together with an ap- combustion.
proximate temperature distribution inside the formation. ’ Dry Forward Combustion
There are two variations of steam injection processes- In the earlier days, this was the most commonly used form
steam stimulation and steam displacement. of the combustion processes. It is dry because no water
is injected along with air. It is forward because combus-
Steam Stimulation tion starts at the injector and the combustion front moves
This method has been known as the huff ‘n’ puff method, in the direction of the air flow.
since steam is injected intermittently and the reservoir is Fig. 46.2 gives a schematic view of the dry forward
allowed to produce after each injection. In this process combustion process. ’ The upper part of the figure shows
the main driving force for oil displacement is provided a typical temperature distribution along a cross section
by reservoir pressure, gravitational force, rock and fluid leading from the injector at the left to the producer at the
expansion, and, possibly, formation compaction. In the right. Two things need to be pointed out. First, the region
steam stimulation process only the part of the reservoir near the producer is cold, at the original temperature of
adjacent to the wellbore is affected. After a number of the reservoir. If the unheated oil is highly viscous, it can-
cycles of injection and production, the near-wellbore not be pushed forward by the heated oil at its back that
region in reservoirs having little or no dip becomes so has been made mobile by the high temperature of the com-
depleted of oil that further injection of steam is futile. In bustion zone. This phenomenon is called “liquid block-
this case, wells must be drilled at very close spacing to ing.” Second, the temperature of the region in the back
obtain a high oil recovery. of the combustion zone is high, indicating a great amount
‘NowWlihTexacoinc of heat being stored in the region, not used efficiently.
46-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
I Y
The lower part of Fig. 46.2 shows the fluid saturation
distributions inside the formation under the combustion
process. One should note the clean sand in the burned-
out region. Being able to burn the undesirable fraction
of the oil (the heavier portion) is one advantage of the
forward combustion process over the reverse combustion
process.
Reverse Combustion
Strictly speaking, it should be called dry reverse combus-
tion, because normally only air is injected, no water. A
simple example will help to explain how reverse combus-
tion works. In ordinary cigarette smoking, one ignites the
tip of the cigarette and inhales. The burning front will
travel from the tip of the cigarette toward one’s mouth,
along with the air. This is forward combustion. The
cigarette also can be burned if one exhales. This way, the
burning front still moves from the tip of the cigarette
toward one’s mouth, but the air flow is in the opposite
direction. This is, then, reverse combustion.
Fig. 46.3 shows the various zones inside the formation,
Fig. 46.1-Steam injection processes. with the cold zone near the injector at the left and the hot
zone near the producer.3 Since the region around the
producer is hot, the problem of liquid blocking mentioned
earlier in connection with the dry forward process has
been eliminated.
In principle, there is no upper limit for oil viscosity for
the application of the reverse combustion process. How-
ever, this process is not as efficient as the dry forward
combustion because a desirable fraction of the oil (the
lighter portion) is burned and an undesirable fraction of
CROSS-SECTION OF FORMATION
the oil (the heavier portion) remains in the region behind
the combustion front. Besides, spontaneous ignition could
occur at the injector.4 If this happens, the oxygen will
be used up near the injector and will not support com-
bustion near the producer. The process then reverts to for-
ward combustion.
No reverse combustion project has ever reached com-
mercial status. Nevertheless, this process should not be
written off because, in spite of the difficulties facing this
Fig. 46.2-Dry forward combustion process, it could offer some hope of recovering extremely
viscous oil or tar.
Wet Combustion
couwslIoN ZONE lnAValNa
lHlS DIRECTION The term “wet combustion” actually refers to wet for-
ward combustion. This process was developed to use the
heat contained behind the combustion zone. In this proc-
ess, water is injected either alternately or simultaneously
with air. Because of its high heat capacity and latent heat
of vaporization, water is capable of moving the heat be-
hind the combustion front forward, and helping to dis-
place the oil in front of the combustion zone.
Fig. 46.4 shows the temperature distributions of the wet
combustion process as the water/air ratio (WAR) in-
creases.5 The curve for WAR=0 refers to dry combus-
tion. With an increase in WAR, the high-temperature zone
behind the combustion zone shortens (WAR=moderate).
Fig. 46.3-Reverse combustion.
With a further increase in WAR, the combustion will be
partially quenched as shown by the curve for
WAR=large.
The wet combustion process also is known as the
COFCAW process, which is an acronym for “combina-
tion of forward combustion and waterflood.” This proc-
ess also can be construed as steamflood with in-situ steam
THERMAL RECOVERY 46-3
generation. It should be noted that this method cannot pre-

vent liquid blocking and its application is limited by oil
viscosity, as is the dry forward combustion. WAR = LARGE
Historical Development
The following lists chronologically some of the major
events that occurred in the development of the thermal
recovery methods.
1931 A steamflood was conducted in Woodson, TX.6 DISTANCE ---)

1949 A dry forward combustion pro’ect was started in
Delaware-Childers field, OK. J Fig. 46.4-Wet combustion.
1952 A dry forward combustion project was conducted
in southern Oklahoma. 8
1955 A reverse combustion project was initiated in Bel-
lamy, M0.9 from Indonesia, 7.0% from Venezuela, and 3.0% from
1958 The steam stimulation process was accidentally Canada. In the U.S., California accounts for nearly all
discovered in Mene Grande Tar Sands, the production, with small percentages coming from Loui-
Venezuela. ‘O siana, Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.
1960 Steam stimulation was started in Yorba Linda,
The daily oil production by in-situ combustion is shown
CA. ” in Table 46.3. Here, the U.S. accounts for 40.0% of the
1962 Wet combustion phase of a fireflood project was
total production, followed by Romania (26.0%), Canada
started in Schoonebeek, The Netherlands. I2 (22.1%), and Venezuela (10.8%). Of the U.S. produc-
Current Status tion, nearly one-half comes from California, one-third
from Louisiana, with the rest from Mississippi, Texas,
U.S. Oil Production by Enhanced Recovery Methods
and Illinois.
The significance of the thermal recovery processes can
be seen from the April 1982 survey of the Oil and Gas
J. I3 As shown in Table 46.1, of the daily U.S. oil pro- Major Thermal Recovery Projects
duction with EOR processes, 76.9% comes from steam The major thermal recovery projects, again based largely
injection and 2.7% comes from in-situ combustion, total- on the 1982 survey, t3 are listed in Table 46.4.
ling 79.6% obtained by thermal recovery processes. The
combustion process, although dwarfed by the steam in-
Reservoirs Amenable to Thermal Recovery
jection processes, accounts for more than double the pro-
duction of all the chemical floods combined, which Table 46.5 shows the ranges of reservoir properties in
amounts to 1.2 % . which the technical feasibility of steamflood and tireflood
has been proven. I4
Geographical Distribution of Thermal
Recovery Projects Potential for Incremental Recovery
Table 46.2, based largely on the 1982 survey, I3 shows According to Johnson et al., l5 vast energy resources ex-
the geographical distribution of the steam injection proj- ist in the tar sands in Venezuela and Colombia (1,000 to
ects in the world. Of the daily oil production from steam 1,800 billion bbl), Canada (900 billion bbl) , and the U. S .
injection processes, 71.7% comes from the U.S., 15.4% (30 billion bbl). These tar sands should be a major target
TABLE 46.1-U.S. EOR PRODUCTION (1982) TABLE 46.2-011. PRODUCTION BY STEAM INJECTION
PROCESSES (1982)
BID %
Steam 288,396 76.9
B/D %
Combustion 10,228 2.7 U.S. 288,396 71.7
- ~
Arkansas
Total thermal 298,624 79.6
California 284,093
Louisiana 1,600
Micellarlpolymer 902 0.2
Oklahoma 617
Polymer 2,587 0.7
Texas 711
Caustic 580 0.2
Wyoming 575
Other chemicals 340 0.1
Canada (Alberta) 12,180 3.0
Total chemicals 4,409 1.2 Brazil 1,920 0.5
Trinidad 3,450 0.9
CO, miscible 21,953 5.9 Venezuela 28,030 7.0
Other gases 49,962 13.3 Congo 2,500 0.6
Total 71,915 19.2 France 360 0.1
Germany 3,264 0.8
Grand Total 374,948 100.0 Indonesia 621000 15.4
Total 402,100 100.0
TABLE 46.3-PRODUCTION BY IN-SITU COMBUSTION (1962) for development of thermal recovery methods, since the
results will be most rewarding if a percentage of these
BID %
- - resources can be tapped economically.
U.S. 10,228 40.0 Based on an assumed oil price of $22.OiVbbl, Lewin
California 4,873
Illinois 179
and Assocs. Inc. I6 estimated that the ultimate recovery
Kansas 2 in the U.S. by thermal recovery methods will amount to
Louisiana 2,940 5.6 to 7.9 billion bbl. This includes 4.0 to 6.0 billion bbl
Mississippi 1,300 by steamfloods and 1.6 to 1.9 billion bbl by firefloods.
Texas 934
Canada 5,690 22.1
Alberta 150 Production Mechanisms
Saskatchewan 5,540 The production mechanisms in steam in’ection processes
Brazil 284 1.1
have been identified by Willman et al. 14 as (1) hot water-
Venezuela 2,799 10.8
26.0 flood, including viscosity reduction and swelling, (2) gas
Romania - 6,699 ~
Total 25,760 100.0
drive, (3) steam distillation, and (4) solvent extraction ef-
fect. The relative importance of these mechanisms on light
and heavy oil, represented by 37.0 and 12.2 “API, respec-
tively, is given in Table 46.6.
In &floods, the above mechanisms are also important.
TABLE 46.4-MAJOR THERMAL RECOVERY PROJECTS
In addition, the breaking up of heavy oil fractions into
Enhanced Oil light oil fractions through cracking should have at least
Production two effects: increase in volume and more drastic reduc-
Field, Location (Operator) VW tion in viscosity. The gas drive effect also should be in-
Steamflood Kern River, CA (Getty) 83,000 creased because of the large amount of air injected and
Duri, Indonesia (Caltex) 40,000 combustion gas produced.
Mount Poso. CA (Shell) 22,800
San Ardo. CA (Texaco) 22,500 Theoretical Considerations
Tia Juana Este,
Venezuela (Maraven) 15,000 Surface Line and Wellbore Heat Losses
In current field practice, downbole steam generators are
Steam stimulation Lagunillas, Venezuela
(Maraven) 40,850 still in the developmental stage. Surface steam genera-
Duri, Indonesia (Caltex) 22,000 tors are being used in almost all of the steam injection
Cold Lake, Alberta (Esso) 10,000 projects. Steam from a generator normally is sent to the
injector wellhead through a surface line. Some heat will
Fireflood Suplacu de Barcau,
Romania (IFPIIPCCG) 6.552
be lost to the surrounding atmosphere by convection and
Battrum No. 1, radiation. As steam travels from the wellhead through the
Saskatchewan (Mobil) 2,900 wellbore to the sandface at the pay zone, heat will be lost
Bellevue, LA (Getty) 2,723 to the overburden, mainly by conduction. The method of
calculating surface line and wellbore heat losses is dis-
Thermal Jobo. Venezuela
(Lagoven) 13,000 cussed below.
Surface Line Heat Losses

The steam lines in most of the steam injection projects
TABLE 46.5-RESERVOIRS AMENABLE TO STEAMFLOOD are insulated. The heat loss from such a line, Btuihr, is:
AND FIREFLOOD
Qr,=2ari,U,;(T, -T,,)AL, (1)
Steamflood Fireflood
Depth, ft 160 to 5,000 180 to 11,500 where
Nei pay, ft 10to1,050 4 to 150
Dip, degrees 0 to 70 0 to 45 ‘in = outside radius of the insulation surface, ft,
Porositv. % 12to39 16to39 r, = steam temperature, “F,
Permeability, md 70 to 10,000 40 to 10,000 7’,, = atmospheric temperature, “F, and
011 oravitv, OAPI -21044 9.5 to 40
ti = pipe length, ft.
011 iiscosity at initial
temperature, cp 4 to 106 0.8 to lo6
Oil saturation at start, % 15to85 30 to 94 In the above, CT,.is the overall heat transfer coefficient
OOIP at start, bbl/acre-ft 370 to 2,230 430 to 2,550 (based on inside radius of the pipe or tubing), Btu/hr-ft-
“F, and can be calculated as follows.
-1
1
Uti = +- h+l ) .... .......
I
where rro is the outside radius of pipe, ft, and khin is the
thermal conductivity of insulation material, Bm/hr-sq
R-OF.
The convection heat transfer coefficient, h, Btuihr-sq where 7” is the temperature of the formation. Suppose
ft-“F, can be calculated thus ‘* : one starts with the temperature of the steam at a depth
D r , and desires to calculate the temperature at depth Dl
h=0.75v,o~6/ril10~4, . . . . . , . . . . . . . (3) with the length of the depth interval AD= 02 -D 1. Since
the formation temperature at D is g GD , + T,Y,, Ramey ‘s
where v,+ is the wind velocity, miihr. The radiation heat equation for the gas case I9 becomes
transfer coefficient, I, normally can be neglected.
If the pipe is bare, that is, uninsulated, then J-,~=rin T(D2,r)=gcDz+T,,-gcA-AB
and
+[T(D,,t)-gcD, -T,,+gGA+AB]e-hDJA.
U,i=h. ..... . ..... .... . . (4)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
If the steam is superheated, T, will vary along the line
as heat is being lost to the atmosphere. When the pipe A is defined as
is long, it needs to be broken up into segments and the
heat loss calculated segment by segment. In each segment, A= w~C~[khf+rtiUdit)l
2sr,i Urikhf ........ . . . . (9)
Ts* =T,$, -Qr,lwsc,s, .. ... .. .. . (5)
and
where
steam temperatures at the beginning and 1
T.vl ,Ts2 = B=- 778c,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(lO)
the end of the segment, “F,
QrI = heat loss along the segment, Btulhr, where
w,~ = mass rate of steam, lbm/hr, and khf = thermal conductivity of the formation,
C,, = heat capacity of steam, Btu/lbm-“F. Btu/D-ft-“F,
rtr = inside radius of the tubing, ft,
If the steam is saturated, the heat loss will cause reduc- ur, = overall heat transfer coefficient for the
tion in steam quality. annular space between inside of the
tubing and outside of the casing based
I,2 =f;, -Qr,lwsLs, ....... . . . . . .(6) on rti, Btu/D-ft-“F,
f(r) = transient heat conduction time function for
where f,i and fs2 equal the steam quality at the begin-
earth, dimensionless, shown in Fig.
ning and the end of the pipe segment, fraction, and L,
is the latent heat of steam, Btu/lbm. 46.5,
c, = heat capacity of steam, Btu/lbm-“F,
Wellbore Heat Losses gc = geothermal gradient, “F/ft, and
In most of the steam injection projects, saturated steam T.m = surface temperature, OF.
at a certain quality is injected into the formation. Here, For t>7 days,
we assume a more general case in which the steam first
enters the wellbore as superheated steam, becomes satu- 2Jat
rated with a gradually diminishing quality, and is further f(t)=lnp -0.29, ... ... ... ..
cooled after its complete condensation into hot water. r co
Superheated Steam. Assume that when the depth D is where 1yis the thermal diffusivity, sq ft/D, and rcO is the
0, the temperature of the steam is T, and varies with outside radius of casing, ft.
time. Also assume that a linear geothermal gradient ex-
ists so that Saturated Steam. When the steam is saturated, the well-
bore heat loss will cause changes in the steam quality
Tf=gGD+ T,,,,, . . . ... (7) whereas the steam temperature, T, , is kept constant. If
TABLE 46.6--MECHANISMS CONTRIBUTING TO STEAM RECOVERY
Recovery
(% Initial 011 In Place)
Torpedo Sandstone Torpedo Sandstone
Core Core
37OAPI Crude 12 2OAPI Crude
Steam injectron pressure, psig 800 (52OOF) 84 (327OF) 800 (52OOF) 84 (327°F)
Hot waterflood recovery (Includes viscosity reduction and swelling) 71.0 68.7 68.7 66.0
Recovery from gas drive 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Extra recovery from steam distillation 18.9 15.6 9.3 4.9
Recovery improvements from solventlextractton effects 4.7 4.6 3.0 3.7
Total recovery by steam 97.6 91 .9 84.0 77.6
TUBING CASING
CONSTANT TLYC2RAlUIIL AT
T,, I Ir.r,, CYLINonICAL SOURCE
BOUNOARY CONOlTlON
I I I
TC
c Vi ‘to
Fig. 46.5-Transient heat conduction in an infinite radial system. Fig. 46.6-Temperature distribution in an annular completion.
the steam quality at D isf, =f,(D t J), the steam quality where Tfi =temperature of fluid, OF.
at 02 can be calculated by Satter’s equation*O: 4. Calculate Tci at casing inside surface.
A’B’+aD, +b-T,
fsP2J)=fs(D1 A+ AD
A’
+-a@@ *
2A’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (17)
In Eq. 12, where
r-d = radius to cement/formation interface, ft,
wJs[khf+‘riUhfIf)l rc( = inside radius of casing, ft,
A’= 2=rli Utrkhf . ......... . . . .(13)
h-e = thermal conductivity of the cement, Btu/hr-
ft-“F, and
and
khca = thermal conductivity of the casing material,
1 Btu/hr-ft-“F.
B’=-. ........ .......... ..... ...
778L,
5. Estimate I for radiation and h for natural convection.
Hot Water. For cooling of the hot water, Ramey’s equa- 6. Calculate U,,.
tion for the liquid phase I9 applies. To advance from
depth D, to D2,
Wz,t)=g& +T.,, -gcA+[W,,t)-gcD, .,-(&+ rr;;ez)-l.

.... ... . ..(18)
+T,y,+g~A]e-a’A. .. . . . (15)
With commercial insulation of thickness Ar,
Overall Heat Transfer Coeffkient. The temperature dis-
tribution in an annular completion is shown in Fig.
46.6. 2’ To evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient, rlo In? rlo ln’cf -’
rto + rto rco
U,,, based on the outside tubing surface, the following um = + 7
procedure developed by Willhite*’ can be used. khin r,(h’+l’) khce I
I. Select U,, based on outside tubing surface.
2. Calculate AI), as defined previously. . . . . . ..1..................... (19)
3. Calculate Tc. at cement/formation interface.
where h’ and I’ are based on insulation outside surface.
khf
Tfi’) + -Tf
rlo ulo Calculations Including Pressure Changes. A more
Tcf= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (16) sophisticated calculation procedure proposed by
khf Earlougher** includes the effect of pressure changes in-
At)+-
rfO(Ito side the wellbore. The wellbore is divided into a sequence
of depth intervals. The conditions at the bottom of each

interval are calculated, on the basis of the conditions at
the top of that interval. The procedure is as follows.
1. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the inter-
‘;
val, ~2. -------
c. 1
2
p2=pI+1.687x10-‘2(v,, -v,2);
rti
+6.944x10-3%Q7,. . ........ ,
“II
; \
where
“1 = specific volume of the total fluid, cu ft/lbm
(condition 1 is top of interval and 2 is
bottom),
m = length of depth interval, ft, and “6m.L
Ol,rUCT
.Io” IwccTIo*
WCLL
-
Ap = frictional pressure drop over interval, psi.
Fig. 46.7-Temperature distribution in Marx-Langenheimmodel.
The Beggs and Brill correlation23 for two-phase flow can

be used to calculate the Ap in the above equation. mations. The heat-carrying fluid is supposed to advance
2. Calculate the heat loss over the interval. with a sharp front perpendicular to the boundaries of the
formation (Fig. 46.7). The heat balance gives: heat in-
jected into the pay zone equals heat loss to the overbur-
den and underlying stratum plus heat contained in the pay
zone.
The heated area at any time t can be calculated
-0.5(Tf, +Tp)], ....... . . . . . . (21)
A= QriMhao
(c’oerfc\l;;; +2Js- 1) , (23)
where U, is the overall heat transfer coefficient based 4k,,, 2AT A
on outside casing surface, Btulhr-sq ft-“F.
3. Calculate the steam quality at the bottom of the in- where
terval . A = heated area at time t, sq ft,
t = time since injection, hr,
Q,; = heat injection rate, Btu/hr,
M = volumetric heat capacity of the solid
matrix containing oil and water,
where H,.] and H,,.2 are the enthalpy of liquid water at Btu/cu ft-“F
top and bottom of the interval, Btu/lbm, and L,,, and L,,*
are the latent heat of vaporization at top and bottom of
the interval, Btu/lbm.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (24)
More Recent Developments. A new model has been de-
veloped by Farouq Ali that treats wellbore heat losses 4 = porosity, fraction,
rigorously by using a grid system to represent the sur- Pr&otPw = density of rock grain, oil, water,
rounding formation. In addition, the pressure calculation lbm/cu ft,
accounts for slip and the prevailing flow regime, based C,,C,,C, = heat capacity of rock, oil, water,
on well-accepted correlations. Btu/lbm-“F,
S,i,Swi = initial saturation of oil, water, fraction,
Analytical Models for Steam Injection h = pay thickness, ft,
For predicting reservoir performance under steam injec-
a0 = overburden thermal diffusivity, sq
tion processes, the usual practice is to use three- ft/hr,
dimensional (3D), three-phase numerical simulators.
kho = overburden thermal conductivity,
Where the simulators are unavailable or a quick estimate
Btulhr-ft-“F,
of the performance is needed, one can resort to simple
analytical methods. Usually these methods take into ac- AT = Tid-Tf, “F,
count the thermal aspects of the process only, without Ti”j = injection temperature, “F,
regard to the fluid flow aspects. Tr; = initial formation temperature, “F,
TV = dimensionless time
Front Displacement Models
=(;;;l,,) 1. .
Marx-Langenheim Method. 25 Consider that heat is in-
jected into a pay zone bounded by two neighboring for- (25)
and It can easily be shown that
&y=(~)tB? ......... ....... Eh =i e’Derfc&+2 .. . . (35)

tD
The complementary error function is:

Ramey’s Generalization of the Marx-Langenheim
Method.” The Marx-Langenheim method can be ex-
erfcx=l-erfx=l-1S~e-B2d13, ..... . . . (27) tended to the case where a series of constant injection rates
a0
is maintained over various time periods. If the heat in-
jection rate is (Qri)i over the period O<t<r, , and (Q,,),,
where /3 is a dummy variable. over the period t,-1 <t<t,,
To evaluate e’Derfc ,&, one can use the following
approximation. 26
A=
1
Let y= 1+o.3275911JtD, ......... . . . . . cw
i=rl- I
etDerfc&=0.254829592y--0.284496736y2 + C [(Q,i),-(Q,i);+IlF(rD;) 3 . . (36)

i= I
+1.42143741+1.453152027y4+1.061405429y5.
where
... .................. . . . . . . (29)
Assume that all the movable oil is displaced in the heated F(tDi)=e’nferfCJtDi+2 % . . . (37)
J
area. If we assume that all the displaced oil is produced, T
we can calcuate the cumulative steam/oil ratio (SOR):
and F(~D,)=F(CD~) with i=n. The oil displacement rate
i,vt
F .A0*= at f; depends on the heat injection rate at that time, in-
(30)
4.275Ahr$(S,, -Sic,) ’ ‘. . dependent of the previous heat injection rates.
where Mandl-Volek’s Refinement of the Marx-Langenheim

1, = steam injection rate, B/D, cold water Method.28 Mandl and Volek observed that the heated
equivalent, area measured in laboratory experiments tends to be lower
so, = initial oil saturation, and than that predicted by the Marx-Langenheim method af-
s;, = irreducible oil saturation. ter a certain critical time, t,. For t? t,.,
Differentiation of the expression for A with t gives the

rate of expansion of the heated area. The oil displacement A= QriMhao
e’DerfcG+2*- 1 -dE
rate, q(,d, in B/D, is 4kho2AT a
Qrrwoi -So,)
qod =4.275 eroerfcJt,. . . (31) 1 -3
MAT I tD -tcD
X ezDerfc J- tD
Lsfs + 3
1+-
From this one can calculate the instantaneous SOR C,AT
Flo=15. .. . ......... ..... .... . . (32)

tD -tcD
qod - . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3J?rtD (38)
>I
The thermal (heat) efficiency, Eh, is defined as

t, is determined by this equation:
1
e’cDerfc& = ,+ Lag . ... ..... (39)
where C,AT
Qh- = heat remaining in the heated zone, Btu,
Q;, = total heat injection, Btu, and The relationship between t, and t& is again
AhMA T
Eh = ~ Q,iT . .. . . .. (34) . (40)
Myhill and Stegemeier” used a slightly different ver- TABLE 46.7-COMPARISON BETWEEN MARX-LANGENHEIM
sion of the Mandl-Volek model and calculated oil/steam AND VOGEL METHODS
ratio (OSR) for 11 field projects. They found that the ac- Thermal Efficiency
Ratio
tual OSR’s range from 70 to 100% of the calculated ratios.
Marx-Langenhelm Vogel Vogel/ML
t,
0.01 0.930 0.900 0.967
0.1 0.804 0.737 0.917
Steam Chest Models 1 .o 0.556 0.470 0.845
In contrast to the front displacement models discussed 10.0 0.274 0.219 0.799
previously, Neuman30 visualized that steam rises to the 100.0 0.103 0.081 0.787
top and grows both horizontally outward and vertically

downward. Doscher and Ghassemi3’ took a view even where rh equals the radius of the heated region, ft. The
more drastic than Neuman’s. They theorized that steam ratio between qoh and qoc is
rises to the top instantly and the only direction of the steam
zone movement is vertically downward. Vogel12 fol- ‘?oh 1
-= . ... . (44)
lowed the same reasoning and developed the following 4oc ln’h lnT’
simple equation for thermal efficiency:
poh rrt,I rh
pm lnr, lnr,
1 rw rw
E,, = . ... .. . . (41)
As the reservoir fluids are produced, energy associat-
ed with the fluids are removed from the reservoir. This
causes a reduction in rh and a reduction in temperature,
which increases PO),.
Table 46.7 compares the thermal efficiencies calculat-
Several methods have been developed for calculating
ed by the Marx-Langenheim method and the Vogel
reservoir performance under steam stimulation. One of
method. This table shows that the Vogel method predicts
the methods, which has en’oyed wide acceptance, is the
a thermal efficiency that lies between 80 and 100% of that
Boberg and Lantz method. d3 This method assumes a con-
calculated by the Marx-Langenheim method.
stant rh, with a changing T inside the heated zone. The
method consists of the following steps.
Steam Stimulation 1. Calculate the size of the heated region using the
Steam stimulation usually is carried out in a number of Marx-Langenheim method.
cycles. Each cycle consists of three stages: steam injec- 2. Calculate the average temperature in this region.
tion, soaking, and production. The basic concept of this 3. Calculate the oil production rate, taking into account
process follows. the reduced oil viscosity in this region.
Without stimulation, the oil production rate is 4. Repeat Steps 1 through 3 for succeeding cycles, by
including the residual heat left from preceding cycles.
The average temperature of the heated region is calcu-
O.O0708kk,h lated by
4 oc = (p, -p ,), . ... . . . . (42) --
.
T=TR+(Ts-TR)[V,Vz(l-6)-h], . . . . .(45)
where
TX average temperature of the heated region,
where
r,<r<rh, at any time t, “F,
4oc = cold oil production rate, B/D,
k= absolute permeability. md, TR = original reservoir temperature, “F,
k t-0 = relative permeability to oil, fraction, T, = steam temperature at sandface injection
-- pressure, “F,
PO< - cold oil viscosity, cp,
v,,v, = average values of V,, V, for O< r< rh and
PC - static formation pressure at external radius
r,, psia, and all hi,*
P\,’ = bottomhole pressure, psia. V,,VI = unit solution for the component conduction
problems in the r and z directions, and
6= energy removed with the produced fluids,
After steam injection, the oil inside the heated region, dimensionless.
r, < r< rh, will have a lower viscosity, p&. The hot oil
production, qoh, is: The quantities s7]. and vZ can be obtained from Fig.
46.8 as functions of dimensionless time, tD. For v,.,
O.O0708kk,h ao(f-ti)
qoh = (P, -P,), .. (43) tD = ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(46)
2
poh lnrh+poc Ink rh
rw rh ‘These symbols have no physical connolat~on. They are amply mathemailcal symbols
Ij1~11[ ! ~lllll 1 I’ the enthalpy of water carried by oil based on a STB of

aott-I,)..- %(t-4) oil, Btu/STB oil. Also, L, is hfK in the steam tables.
S;:t, = v,:t, =- 7
If P Mz
>P s and F,, < Fwclt
F,, =0.0001356 .-!A- R,, ....... . (53)

( PW-PS >
o.j#~v;#~ /
bbl liquid water at 60”F/STB oil.
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 1ac
If F,, (calculated) > F,, ,
to, DIMENSIONLESS TIME
F,, =F,,,. .......... . . .......... (54)
Fig. 46.8--Solutions for V, and V,, single sand. In the above,

R, = total produced GOR, scf/STB,
F wet = total produced WOR, STBISTB,
where F,, = steam/oil ratio, STB/STB,
a, = overburden thermal diffusivity, sq ft/D, PW = producing bottomhole pressure, psia, and
t= time since start of injection for the current ps = saturated vapor pressure of water at ?,
cycle, D, psia.
ti = time of injection for the current cycle, D,
and The rate of hot oil production can be calculated thus:
f-h = radius of region originally heated, ft.
qoh=FJJcAp, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(M)
For vz,
where FJ is the ratio of stimulated to unstimulated
ao(t--ti) productivity indexes, dimensionless,
tD= -
2
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (47)
HI 1
where FJ= , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (56)
EC1 tc2
m~it(.fsLsfHw3s -Hw~) Poe
H, = ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (48)
Wh 2WVs - TR)N, and J, is the unstimulated (cold) productivity index,
STBIDlpsi,
and
= total mass of steam injected, lbm,
m,it
N, = number of sands, 0.ooo708kk,h
J, = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (57)
H,vsJ’,v~ = enthalpy, Btu/lbm, of water at steam
and reservoir temperatures, “F, and pot lnT’
A4 = volumetric heat capacity, Btu/cu ft-“F. rw
If Pe is constant,
The energy removed with produced fluids, 6, can be
calculated thus: ln?
c, = - rw ........... ......... . . . . . (58)
(49)
lnT’
rw
where and
h, = total thickness of all sands, ft,
Q, = heat removal rate at time t, BtulD, ink
c*= -. rh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (59)
Qr, = qoh(Hog+H,), ._ .... ..... .. (50) lnr,
rw
Ho, = (5.6146M, +R,C,)@-TR), .. ... (51)
Thus Eq. 55 is identical with Eq. 43 in this case. Ifp,
and is declining,
H, = 5.6146p,[F,,(hf-H~,R)tRtL,], .. (52) 4
lnTk---
rw 2re2
where hf is the enthalpy of liquid water at T above 32°F c, = ,..................... (60)
(see steam tables), BtuAbm, H, is the enthalpy of oil &A
and gas based on a STB of oil, BtulSTB oil, and H,. is 2
rw
@a CP
Fig. 46.9-Correlation of steam stimulation results.
and can be evaluated. The cost for pilots is, of course, enor-
2 mous. In comparison, a simulated reservoir can be pro-
rh
,nr,-I+- duced many times, each time starting at the existing state.
rh 2 2re2 This can be done within a short period of time, in terms
c2 = . ... .......... . ,
. . (61) of seconds, once the reservoir model is properly set up.
,&1 The cost for reservoir simulation is much less than that
r, 2 of a pilot. However, simulated reservoirs may never dupli-
cate field performance. Modem practice is to use reser-
This method of calculating oil production rate is proba- voir simulation to help design a pilot before launching a
bly the weakest part of the Boberg-Lantz method. large-scale field development.
1. It assumes a monotone decline betweenp, andp,. Numerical models and physical models are complemen-
Actually, because the injected steam is at a high pressure, tary to each other. As will be detailed later, physical
there could be a high pressure ps near rh and the pres-
models can be classified into two types: elemental models
sure declines toward both p ,+ and pe . and partially scaled models. In an elemental model, ex-
2. Only the change in p0 is accounted for in changing periments are conducted with actual reservoir rock and
from cold oil productivity to hot oil productivity. Left un- fluids. The results can help explain various fluid flow and
accounted for is the change in k, , which should change heat transfer mechanisms as well as chemical reaction ki-
with changing S,. netics. In a partially scaled model, reservoir dimensions,
Based on the Boberg-Lantz method, a correlation was
fluid properties, and rock properties are scaled for the
developed by Boberg and West34 that allows one to es- laboratory model so that the ratios of various forces in
timate incremental OSR with known reservoir properties
the reservoir and the physical model are nearly the same.
(Fig. 46.9). One can only build partially scaled models because fully
scaled models are difficult or impossible to construct. One
Numerical Simulation of the advantages of a numerical model over a physical
The analytical models for thermal recovery processes model is that there is no scaling problem in numerical
usually are concerned with the thermal aspects of the proc- simulation. However, in many cases, a numerical model
esses only. The fluid flow aspects are neglected. To ac- needs physical models to validate the formulation or to
count adequately for the fluid flow inside porous media provide necessary input data for the simulation.
under a thermal recovery process, numerical simulators
will be needed. In these simulators, the reservoir is divided Steam Injection Model
into a number of blocks arranged in one, two, or three Numerical simulation models for steam injection proc-
dimensions. A detailed study is made of the reservoir by esses have been developed by Coats et a1.35 and
applying fundamental equations for flow in porous me- Coats. 36.37 A steam injection model consists of a num-
dia to each one of the blocks. ber of conservation equations.
Numerical reservoir simulators are no substitute for 1. Mass balance of Hz 0. Both water and steam are in-
field pilots. They have several advantages, however, over cluded.
field pilots. Field conditions are irreversible. It took mil- 2. Mass balances of hydrocarbons. Only one equation
lions of years for the field to develop to the present state. will be necessary for nonvolatile oil. For volatile oil, two
Once disturbed, it cannot revert to the original conditions or more pseudocomponents will be needed to describe the
and start over again’. Furthermore, it takes a long time, vaporization/condensation phenomenon of the oil and two
in terms of months or even years, before the pilot results or more equations will be needed.
3. Energy balance. The energy balance accounts for the various reactants. One possible form of the reaction
heat conduction, convection, vaporization/condensation rate equation is the following Arrhenius equation:
phenomenon, and heat loss from the pay zone to its adja-
cent formations. The need to include an energy balance
in the model sets the thermal recovery processes apart w=k’(C,)m(CO,)n exp
from isothermal processes for oil recovery.
In addition to the conservation equations, the model
needs to include the following auxiliary equations. This equation says that the reaction rate, w, is propor-
1. If both water and steam coexist, temperature is the tional to the concentration of oil, C, , raised to the mth
saturated steam temperature for a given pressure. An power times the concentration of oxygen, Co, , raised
equation is needed to describe this relationship between to the nth power. The temperature dependence ofthe reac-
temperature and pressure. tion rate is in the given exponential form, where E is the
2. The sum of saturations for the oil, water, and gas activation energy, the energy barrier the reactants need
phases equals unity. to overcome before being converted to the products, R
3. The mol fractions of hydrocarbon components in the is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. The
liquid and gas phases are related through equilibrium proportionality constant, k’, usually is called the pre-
vaporization constants (K-values). exponential factor.
4. The sum of gas-phase mol fractions equals unity. The models developed so far are believed to be ade-
This includes steam and any volatile components of hydro- quate as far as the formulation of the process mechanisms
carbons. is concerned. However, problems abound.
5. The sum of liquid-phase mol fractions for hydrocar- 1. Artificial breakdown of the crude oil into two com-
bons equals unity. ponents may not be sufficient to describe faithfully the
vaporization/condensation phenomena and the chemical
In-Situ Combustion Model reactions involved in the combustion process. More com-
Numerical simulation models have been developed by ponents mean more equations to be solved and hence
Crookston et al., 3g Youngren, 39 Coats,40 and Grabow- higher computer costs.
ski et a1.4’ The in-situ combustion model is more com- 2. The grid size problem could be severe. A grid size
plicated than the model for steam injection. The large enough for economic computation could greatly dis-
conservation equations are as follows. tort the temperature distributions in the simulated reser-
1. Mass balance of H20. This equation includes the voir. This would lead to erroneous predictions of the
water produced from combustion. chemical reaction rates and thus of reservoir performance
2. Mass balances of hydrocarbons. This includes con- under combustion.
sumption of certain hydrocarbons through cracking and
Laboratory Experimentation
combustion. It also may include the production of cer-
tain other components through cracking. The thermal numerical models have been used widely for
3. Mass balance of oxygen. This accounts for the con- screening thermal prospects, designing field projects, and
sumption of oxygen by combustion. formulating production strategies. Still, we cannot com-
4. Mass balance of inert gas. If air is used, the conser- pletely dispense with laboratory experiments for several
vation of nitrogen should be accounted for. CO2 pro- reasons. First, the numerical models need data that can
duced from combustion may be included in the equation be measured only experimentally. These data include rela-
for the inert gas or be treated separately. tive permeabilities, chemical kinetics, adsorption of chem-
5. Mass balance of coke. This includes the formation icals on rocks, etc. Second, the numerical models are valid
and burning of coke. only when all the pertinent mechanisms are accounted for.
6. Energy balance. This equation now includes the heat The currently available models cannot handle adequately
of reaction for the reactions involved in the in-situ com- situations such as injection of chemicals along with steam,
bustion process. These reactions may include low- swelling of clays, which reduces the permeability, etc.
temperature oxidation of hydrocarbons, high-temperature As previously mentioned, physical models for thermal
oxidation or burning of hydrocarbons, thermal cracking recovery processes may be classified into two types,
(which produces coke and other products), and combus- namely, elemental models and partially scaled models.
tion of coke. The elemental models are used to study the physico-
This model also needs a number of auxiliary equations, chemical changes inside a rock-fluid system under cer-
which include (1) steam/water equilibrium, (2) vapori- tain sets of operating conditions and are normally zero-
zation equilibrium of hydrocarbons, (3) phase saturation dimensional (OD) or one-dimensional (1D). The partial-
constraints, (4) mol fraction constraints, and (5) chemi- ly scaled models are used to simulate the performance of
cal stoichiometry. An example is: a reservoir under thermal recovery operations and are nor-
mally 3D. Although the intent is to scale every physico-
Oil+a 02 -+b CO2 +c Hz0 chemical change that takes place in the processes, the
models usually are partially scaled because of the extreme
This says that one mol of oil reacts with a mols of oxy- difficulty in achieving full scaling.
gen to form b mols of CO1 and c mols of HzO.
This model also requires a chemical reaction kinetics Elemental Models
equation. For each reaction involved in the process, an Elemental models used for steamfloodin can be exem-
equation can be written to denote that the reaction rate plified by those used by Willman er al. lg7 In their clas-
varies as a function of temperature and concentrations of sic work, they used glass bead packs and natural cores
of different lengths to study the recovery of oil under hot TABLE 46.8-COMPARISON OF HIGH-PRESSURE AND
waterflood and steamflood at different temperatures. The VACUUM MODELS FOR STEAMFLOODS
oils used included crudes of different gravities and oil
High-Pressure Vacuum
fractions. Field Model Model
Fireflood pots and combustion tubes are also elemen- Length, ft 229
tal models. In another classic work, Alexander et ~1.~~ Permeabtlity,
used fireflood pots (OD) to study fuel laydown and air re- darcies 2 458 1,527
quirement, as affected by crude oil characteristics, porous Time 5 yrs 50 min 120 min
Steam rate 300 BID 144.7 cm3/min 263.1 cm3/min
medium type, oil saturation, air flux, and time-
Pressure 1, psia 400 400 2.70
temperature relationships. The combustion tube (1D) used Steam quality 0.80 0.80 0.082
by Showalter enabled him to delineate the temperature Oil viscosity, cp 3.0 3.0 23.6
profiles at various times, thus giving the combustion front Temperature, OF 445 445 137.5
velocity. More recently, combustion tubes were used to Pressure 2. psia 100 100 1.24
Steam quality 0.80 0.80 0.108
study the use of water along with airMA and the use of Oil viscosity, cp 6.3 6.3 38.2
oxygen-enriched air in combustion. 47 Temperature, OF 328 328 108.9
ScaledModels
Partially
Partially scaled models have been used to simulate steam-
floods in 5/8of a five-spot pattern, !4 of a five-spot pat- The following observations can be made on the high-
tern, etc.48-53 Similar attempts have also been made for pressure and vacuum models.
tirefloods. However, it is certainly much more difficult 1. Neither the high-pressure model nor the vacuum
to include chemical kinetics along with the fluid flow and model can accurately simulate the capillary forces and the
heat transfer aspects of the combustion process. relative permeability curves of the actual rock/fluid sys-
Partially scaled models for steamfloods fall into two tem because, to obtain a very high permeability, actual
types, namely, high-pressure models and vacuum or low- rock material is not being used.
pressure models. 2. The high-pressure model does not observe the
Clausius-Clapeyron equation, whereas the vacuum model
High-Pressure Models. All experimental studies on follows it to a large extent but not exactly.
steamflooding had used high-pressure models until 3. To use the vacuum model, an oil has to be reconsti-
vacuum models came along and offered an alternative ap- tuted to obtain the required oil viscosity/temperature rela-
proach. The scaling laws of Pujol and Boberg normally tionship. This is completely different from the actual crude
were followed in the design. If the dimensions are scaled in many physicochemical aspects, including its vapori-
down by a factor of F in the model, the steam injection zation/condensation behavior and chemical kinetics. In
rate will be scaled down by the same factor and so will contrast, a high-pressure model normally uses actual
the pressure drop between the injector and the producer. crudes.
The permeability will be scaled up by a factor of F, and
the model time will be scaled down by a factor of F*.
Because of the necessity of increasing the permeability
Field Projects
in the model to a great extent, reservoir rock material can- Screening Guides
not be used. Nevertheless, the experiments will be con- In dealing with oil prospects, the first step is to find out
ducted with the actual crude. Also, the steam pressure whether the field in question can be produced by certain
and steam quality to be employed in the field will be used recovery methods. Screening guides are useful for this
in the model purpose. Screening guides for steamflood and fireflood
processes have been proposed by various authors includ-
Vacuum Models. In a small-scale physical model, the ing Farouq Ali, 57 Geffen, 58 Lewin et al., 59 Iyo-
thickness is reduced greatly as compared with that in the ho, 6oChu, 61-63and Poettmann. @ These screening guides
field. To obtain the same gravitational effects as in the are listed in Table 46.9.
field, the pressure drop from the injector to the producer A perusal of the various screening guides listed in Ta-
also must be reduced greatly. The vaporizationiconden- ble 46.9 shows that some of the earlier screening guides
sation phenomenon of water and hydrocarbons is governed were quite restrictive in selecting oil prospects. Such a
by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, which involves guide tends to minimize the error of the second kind, that
d In p, or Q/p. Thus, a decrease in the pressure drop (dp) is, the riskof excluding some undesirable prospects. In
necessitates a corresponding decrease in the pressure (p) so doing, it tends to increase the error of the first kind,
itself. This is the rationale behind the vacuum-model ap- that is, the risk of missing some desirable prospects. Re-
proach developed by the Shell group as reported by cent changes in the price structure of the crude oil and
Stegemeier et al. ” improved technology helped to widen the range of applica-
To see the differences between a high-pressure model bility for the steamflood and fireflood processes. This is
and the vacuum model, Table 46.8 has been prepared for reflected in the less restrictive screening guides developed
using both models to simulate a hypothetical field element in more recent years. However, in minimizing the error
with a hypothetical oil. The entries for the high-pressure of the first kind (erroneous rejection), the newer guides
models were based on the scaling laws of Pujol and may possibly increase the error of the second kind (er-
Bobergs and the entries for the vacuum model were roneous acceptance). This should be borne in mind when
based on the work of Stegemeier et ~1.~~ applying these guides to oil prospects.
46-l 4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
TABLE 46.9--SCREENING GUIDES FOR STEAMFLOOD AND FIREFLOOD PROJECTS
Year h D 4 h
-__
1973 830 < 3,000 0.30 - 1,000 12 to 15 <I.000 0.15 to 0.22

1973 >20 <4,000 >lO >20 20.10
1976 >20 <5000 > 0.50 >I0 >I00 > 0.065

1979 30 to 400 2.500 to 5.000 >o 30 > 1,000 >0.50 10 to 20 200 to 1,000 >50 > 0.065
1993 >lO >400 >020 > 0.40 ~36 >0.06
Firefloods
Poettmann @ 1964 >020 >lW >O.lO

Geffen58 1973 >lO > 500 >250 <45 >I00 >005 for COFCAW only
Lewn and
Assocs. ” 1976 >lO > 500 >0.50 10 to 45 >20 >0.05
Chu” 1977 2022 r0.50 524 < 1,000 >0.13 confidence llmlts approach
1977 > 0 27 regression analysts approach
lyohoM 1976 5 to 50 200 to 4,500 20.20 >3W >050 10 to40 <1,ooo >20 > 0.077 for dry combustion
(>600 BIAF) (well spacings40 acres)
1976 10 to 120 z 0.20 <lo no upper limit for reverse combustion
1976 >lO >500 2 0.25 <45 <l.wa > 0.064 for wet combustion
Ch”” 1962 >0.16 >lOO <40 >lO >O.iO
Reservoir Performance Oil Recovery. Table 46.11 lists some of the reported
Performance Indicators Common to Both Steamfloods oil recoveries of steamflood and fireflood projects. 82-‘21
and Firefloods. Sweep Efficiency. The area1 and verti- For the estimation of the oil recovery obtainable in a
cal sweep of the steam front or burning front has pro- steam injection project, the analytical methods discussed
nounced influence on the economics of the steamflood or previously can be used. As steam injection continues, the
fireflood projects. Some reported sweep efficiencies of thermal efficiency will gradually diminish and the instan-
the steamflood and fireflood projects are given in Table taneous SOR will increase gradually. When this ratio
46.10. 65-81Whereas the volumetric sweep of steamfloods reaches a certain limit, further injection of steam will be-
varies from 24 to 99 % , that of firefloods appears to be come uneconomical and needs to be stopped. The cumula-
lower, ranging from 14 to 60%. tive oil production at that time divided by the original oil
in place (OOIP) will give the oil recovery.
The oil recovery from a fireflood project can be calcu-
lated with the recognition that oil production comes from
TABLE 46.10-SWEEP EFFICIENCY OF STEAMFLOOD
both the burned and unburned regions (Nelson and
AND FIREFLOOD PROJECTS McNeil 122), Let Evb equal the volumetric sweep effcien-
cy of the burning front and ERu equal the recovery effi-
Field, Locatlon ciency in the unburned region. The overall oil recovery is:
(Operator) Areal Vertical Volumetric
Steamfloods
>E,b+(l-Evb)ERu, . . . . . (63)
Inglewood, CA65 60.0 50.0 30.0
(Chevron-Socal)
Kern River CA66,67 - - 80.0
(Chevro;)
Kern River, CA68-70 - 100.0 62.8 to 98.8 where C,,, is the fuel content, Ibm/cu ft. In this equation,
GeW) the fuel consumed is taken to be a IO”AP1 oil with a den-
Midway Sunset, CA” ” - - 60.0 to 70.0 sity of 62.4 lbm/cu ft.
(Tenneco)
El Dorado, KA73 - - <50.0
The equation developed by Satman et al. ‘23 can be
(Cities) used to calculate the oil recovery from a dry combustion
Deerfield, MO 74 85.0 40.0 34.0 project.
(Esso-Humble)
( >1
Schoonebeek,The 0.25
Netherlands75 - - 24.3 to 41.9 Y=47.0 0.427S, -O.O0135h-2.196 -!- X,
(Nederlandse) PO
Firefloods ..__,.....,.......... ,....... (64)

South Belridge, CA76
where
(General Petroleum)
Within Pattern Area 100 59.6 59.6
(2.75 acres)
Within Total Burned Area 100 50.4 50.4 Y= rnP+vfbx100 .. .. . .
(7.90 acres) N
Sloss, NE”-” 50 28 14
(Amoco)
South Oklahoma” 85 - 26
(Magnolia) i&o2
x= [N,,(~S,)l(l
Shannon Pool, WY” 43 100 43 -d) . ... ... .
(Pan AmericanlCasper)
TABLE 46.11 -OIL RECOVERY OF STEAMFLOOD

AND FIREFLOOD PROJECTS
Thermal Oil
Recovery
Field, Location (Operator) (Q/o OOIP)
Steamfloods
Smackover, AR (Phillips)e2~83 25.7’
Kern River, CA (Chevronia4 69.9*
Kern River, CA (Getty)68 ’ 46.6 to 72.6
Midway Sunset, CA (CWOD)85 63.0*
Mount Poso. CA (Shell)*“~87 34.6’
San Ardo, CA (Texaco)” 47.5, 51.2
Slocum, TX (She11)89~30 55.8*
Winkleman Dome, WY (Amoco)g’ ” 28.1 *
Tta Juana Estes, Venezuela (Maraven)g3-g5 26.3’
Firefloods
Brea-Olinda, CA (Union)Q6,97 25.1.
Midway Sunset, CA (Mobil)gB 20.0
Midway Sunset, CA (CWOD)99 52.8
South Belridge, CA (General Petroleum)76 56.7
South Belridge, CA (Mobil)‘00 14.5
Robinson, IL (Marathon)‘0’~‘06 31.9 VOLUME 8URNED %
Bellevue. LA (Cities) lo7 lo8 41.5’
Bellevue, LA (Getty)‘09~“* 44.6* Fig. 46.10-Estimated oil recovery vs. volume burned.
May Libby, LA (Sun)“3 68.0
Heidelberg, MS (G$~14~“5 22.4’
Sloss, NE (Amoco) 14.3
Glen Hummel, TX \Sun)“6,“7 31 .o for steam generation, 1 bbl of oil normally can generate
Gloriana, TX (Sun) l6 “’ 29.7 13 to 14 bbl (cold-water equivalent) of steam. Thus, the
North Tisdale. WY (Continental)“g 23.0 highest SOR that is tolerable without burning more oil
Suplacu de Barcau, Romania (IFPIICPPG)‘zo 47.5
than that produced is 13 to 14. For steamflood operation,
Miga, Venezuela (Gulf)“’ 11.6
there are other costs than fuel alone. Because of this, steam
injection is normally terminated when the instantaneous
SOR reaches the level of eight or so. Ideally the overall
SOR should be around four. This corresponds to 3 to 4
In the above equation, bbl of oil produced per barrel of oil burned. 13’This ideal
ANp = cumulative incremental oil production, bbl, case is, unfortunately, not normally achievable. The SOR
of the majority of the steamflood field projects falls into
Ve = fuel burned, bbl,
the range of 5 to 7.
N = OOIP, bbl,
The following set of regression equations developed by
lar = cumulative air injection, lo3 scf, Chu62 can be used to estimate the SOR with known reser-
EQ2 = oxygen utilization efficiency, fraction, and voir and crude properties.
NV = oil in place at start of project, bbl. 1. For F,>5.0 (F,, <0.20),
Gates and Ramey 124 developed a correlation between F,,=l/(-0.011253+0.000027790+0.0001579h

oil recovery and PV burned at various initial gas satura-
tion, on the basis of field data taken from the South Bel-
ridge tireflood project 76 and laboratory combustion-tube
data. This correlation, shown in Fig. 46.10, should be +0.5 12O$S,). .. .... ..... ... . .. (67)
useful in predicting current oil recovery as the fireflood
proceeds. 2. For F,, ~5.0 (F,, 20.20),
Changes in Oil Property. At the temperatures and pres-
sures prevailing in steamfloods, no changes in the oil prop- F,,=18.744+0.0014530-O.O5088h-0.0008844k
erty are expected to occur because of any chemical
reactions. However, the properties of the recovered oil -0.0005915~, - 14.79S, -O.O002938khl/~~, . (68)
could have been changed as a result of steam distillation.
In firefloods, of course, oil properties change considera- where
bly because of thermal cracking and combustion, as well D = depth, ft,
as steam distillation. Changes in oil property in some of h = reservoir thickness, ft,
the reported steamfloods and firefloods are shown in Ta- 8 = dip angle, degrees,
ble 46.12. 125~‘30 CL0= oil viscosity, cp,
k = permeability, md, and
Performance Indicator Pertaining to Steamfloods S, = oil saturation at start, fraction.
Only. Steam Oil Ratio (SOR). The SOR, F,, , is the most
important factor characterizing the success or failure of Another method of estimating F,v, has been given by
a steamflood project. Its reciprocal, the OSR, F,,v, also Myhill and Stegemeier, 29 based on the Mandl-Volek
is used commonly. In projects where oil is used as fuel model.
TABLE 46.12-CHANGES IN OIL PROPERTY IN STEAMFLOOD

AND FIREFLOOD PROJECTS
Viscositv
“API (cp) ’
Field, Location Temperature
(Operator) Before After PF) Before After
Steamflood
Brea, CA ‘Z 23.5 25.9
(Shell)*
Fireflood
South Belridge, CA76 12.9 14.2 07 2,700 800
(General Petroleum) 120 540 200
160 120 54
West Newport, GAlz6 “’ 15.2 20.0 60 4,585 269
(General Crude) 100 777 71
210 32 IO
East Venezuela”’ 9.5 12.2
(Mene Grande) then 10.5
Kyrock, KY “’ 10.4 14.5 60 90,000 2,000

(Gulf) 210 120 27
South Oklahomaso 15.4 20.4 66 5,000 800

(Magnolia) after a month
5,000
Asphalt Ridge, UT13’ 14.2 20.3

(U.S. DOE)* *
‘Changes I” 0’0 C ~ -C ,* before-21 after-28

“Changes in other properf,es
Before After
Pour point. OF 140 25
Residue bolllng above 62 35
1 ,OOOOF,wf%
Performance Indicators Pertaining to Firefloods Only. where C, is the fuel content, lbm/cu ft.
Fuel Content. Fuel content (lbm/cu ft of burned volume) Both laboratory experiments and field projects indicate
is the amount of coke available for combustion that is that, for a specific reservoir, fuel content decreases as
deposited on the rock as a result of distillation and ther- WAR increases. However, no statistically significant
mal cracking. It is the most important factor influencing correlation was found to exist between fuel content and
the success of a fireflood project. If the fuel content is WAR in the presence of widely varying reservoir prop-
too low, combustion cannot be self-sustained. A high fuel erties . 63
content, however, means high air requirement and pow- Air Requirement. As pointed out by Benham and Poett-
er cost. Besides, oil production also may suffer. mann, 132air requirement, a, in lo6 scf/acre-ft of burned
Fuel content can be determined by laboratory tube runs. volume, can be calculated on the basis of stoichiometric
Gates and Ramey ‘24 presented a comparison of the esti- considerations:
mated fuel content by use of various methods including
laboratory experiments and field project data from the 2Fcc+l +FHC
South Belridge project. 76 Their comparison shows that - ctn
( FCC+1 2 >
fuel content determined from the tube runs can provide a= x0.04356, . .(70)
reasonably good estimation of the fuel content obtaina- 0.001109(12+F~~)~~~
ble in the field.
In the absence of experimental data, the correlation of where F, is the CO2/CO ratio in produced gas and FHC
Showalter relating the fuel content to API gravity can is the atomic H/C ratio. In the absence of necessary data
be used. Fig. 46.11 shows a comparison of the Showalter for Eq. 70, the Showalter correlation43 relating air re-
data and field project data. 63 In addition, the following quirement to API gravity can be used. A comparison of
regression equation developed by Chu6* based on data the Showalter data and field project data is given in Fig.
from 17 field projects can be used to calculate the fuel 46.12. 63 It can be seen that all the field points fall on the
content: upper side of the Showalter curve. Air requirement in the
fields can exceed laboratory values because of air chan-
C, = -0.12+0.00262h+0.0001 14k+2.23S0 neling and migration. In addition, the following regres-
sion equation developed by Chu63 can be used:
+0.000242kh/p, -0.0001890-0.0000652,u0,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (69) a=4.72+0.03656h+9.996S3,+0.000691k. . (71)

. LABORATORY TEST
DATA BY SHOWALTER
l FIELD PROJECT DATA

25 I / I
I
. LABORATORY TEST DATA
BY SHOWALTER
O-
. FIELD PROJECT DATA
.
.
.
MC
oI10 20 30 40
Fig. 46.11-Effect of oil gravity on fuel content. Fig. 46.12-Effect of oil gravity on air requirement.
Air-Oil Ratio (AOR). This important ratio relates air the ratio of the number of producers to the number of in-
injection to oil production and usually is expressed in jectors should be equal to the ratio of well injectivity to
terms of lo3 scf/bbl. Oil recovery comes from both the well productivity (Caudle et al. 133). Because of the high
burned and unburned regions. The AOR can be calculat- mobility of air or steam compared to that of the oil, the
ed thus I** : injectivitylproductivity ratio is high, favoring a high
producer/injector ratio. This rule generally has been fol-
Fm = lowed by the various reported steamflood and fireflood
projects. The use of inverted 13-spot, 9-spot, 7-spot, and
a 6-spot patterns, unconfined five-spot patterns, down-the-
center line of injectors, and single well injection has been
reported.
Aside from the injectivity/productivity ratios, other fac-
tors also should enter into consideration in pattern selec-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (72) tion. These factors include: heat loss considerations,
utilization of existing wells, reservoir dip, difficulty in
In the absence of Evb and ER,, , the following regression producing hot wells, etc. Based on these and other con-
equation developed by Chu6* based on 17 field projects siderations, repeated five-spot patterns, updip and crest
can be used. injections and line drive also were used. The choice of
pattern or nonpattern floods in the various steamflood and
fireflood projects is shown in Table 46.13. ‘34-138
F,, =21.45+0.0222h+0.001065k
+0.002645~, -76.76gbS,. ... . . (73) Completion Intervals. In most of the steamflood and fire-
flood projects, the producers usually are completed for
the entire sand interval to maximize production. The in-
Besides, the correlation between oil recovery and PV jectors usually are completed at the lower third or lower
burned developed by Gates and Ramey 124 can be used half of the interval, to minimize the override of the steam
for estimating the current AOR as the fireflood proceeds. or air. In wet combustion projects, it is advisable to com-
Both laboratory experiments and field projects indicate plete the lower part for air injection and upper part for
that, for a specific reservoir, AOR decreases as WAR in- water injection. This is to minimize the underflow of water
creases. No statistically significant correlation, however, as well.
has been found between AOR and WAR in the presence
of widely varying reservoir properties. 63
Producer Bottomhole Pressure (BHP). In their study
for a steamflood, Gomaa et al. 139 found that decreasing
Project Design
the producer BHP lowers the average reservoir pressure,
Design Features Common to Both Steamfloods increases steam volume, and increases predicted oil recov-
and Firefloods ery. It is, therefore, important to keep the producers
Pattern Selection. For any oil recovery process with fluid pumped off all the time. Without any reason to believe
injection, a cardinal rule of pattern selection is that, to otherwise, keeping the producers pumped off should
achieve a balance between fluid injection and production, benefit a fireflood as well as a steamflood.
TABLE 46.13-PATTERN TYPES OF STEAMFLOODS AND FIREFLOODS
Pattern Types Steamfloods Firefloods
Inverted 13-spot Slocum, TX8g,93

(Shell)
Inverted g-spot San Ardo, CA8* Sellevue, LA’07.‘08

(Texaco) (Cities Service)
Yorba Linda, CA” Sellevue, LA’0g~“2
(Shell) Wty)
Inverted 7-spot Kern River, CAM Silverdale, Alta. ‘34

(Chevron) (General Crude)
Slocum, TXm.”
Ti!?i!ra, Venezuela’35
(Shell)
Unconfined West Newport, CA’26.‘27

inverted 5-spot (General Crude)
Down-the-center-line Trix-Liz, TX”6~‘36

of injectors
Gt!sf?~)ummel, TX”6,“7
(Sun)
Single well injection Miga, Venezuela’*’

(Gulf)
Repeated 5-spot East Coalinga. CA’37 Sloss, NE77-79

(Amoco)
Ke?%er. CAa4
(Chevron)
Kern River. CA”870
(GeW
Winkleman Dome, WY “.”
(Pan American)
Updip or crest Brea, CAiz5 Midway Sunset, CA”

injection (Shell) (Mobil)
Midway Sunset, CA7’.72 Heidelberg, MS”4,1’5
(Tenneco) (Gulf)
Downdip injection South Selridge, CAi3’

(Mobil)
Updip and downdip Mount Poso. CA8”.87

injection (Shell)
Line drive Suplacu de Sarcau,

Romania (IPF/ICPPG)‘20
Design Features Pertaining to Steamfloods Only Steam Quality. Steam quality refers to the mass fraction
Steam Injection Rate. According to Chu and Trim- of water existing in vapor form. Gomaa et al. ‘39 reported
ble, I40 the optimal choice of a constant steam injection that increasing steam quality increases oil recovery vs.
rate is relatively independent of sand thickness. As sand time but had little effect on recovery vs. Btu’s injected.
thickness decreases, the total oil content in the reservoir This indicates that heat injection is the important param-
decreases. This calls for a lower steam rate. At the same eter in determining steamflood performance.
time, a higher steam rate is needed to compensate for the Just as with steam injection rates, the optimal choice
increased percentage heat loss with a decrease in thick- of steam quality should be studied. High-quality steam
ness. These two counteracting factors result in only a small could cause excessive steam override. This may be reme-
variation in the optimal steam rate as thickness is changed died by using lower-quality steam at one stage of a
from 90 to 30 ft. steamflood.
The same study with five-spot patterns shows that the
optimal choice of a constant steam rate is proportional Design Features Pertaining to Fireflood Only
to the pattern size. Furthermore, varying steam rates ap- Dry vs. Wet Combustion. The choice between dry com-
pear to be preferable to constant steam rates. An optimal bustion and wet combustion is an important decision to
steam rate schedule calls for a high steam rate in the ini- be made in conducting a field project. Laboratory experi-
tial stage and a decrease in the steam rate with time. ments indicated that the use of water either simultaneously
or alternately with air does reduce the AOR, although the ment, with high-temperature cement placed opposite and
oil recovery may not be improved significantly. As was about 100 ft above the pay zone. The high-temperature
mentioned previously, a correlation between AOR and cement recommended for the injectors is calcium
WAR, based on data from 21 field projects, was found aluminate cement (with or without silica flour), pozzolan
to be statistically insignificant in the presence of widely cement, or API Class G cement (with 30% silica flour).
varying reservoir properties. 63 If spontaneous ignition occurs, the use of cemented and
Cities Service conducted a field comparison test of dry perforated liners is required to prevent well damage re-
and wet combustion in the Bellevue field, LA, 14’ in sulting from burnback into the borehole. The producers
which possible interference by variations in reservoir should be completed to withstand relatively high temper-
properties was essentially circumvented by using two con- atures and severe corrosion and abrasion. These authors
tiguous patterns, one with dry combustion and another recommended the use of gravel-flow pack, and stainless
with wet combustion. This test found that, with wet com- steel 316 for both liner and tubing opposite the pay zone.
bustion, the volumetric sweep was improved to a great The well completion methods for injectors and
extent. This indirectly implies an increase in oil recov- producers in the various steamflood and fireflood proj-
ery. Furthermore, the air requirement for a specific ects, detailed by Chu6’,63 previously, are given in Ta-
volume of reservoir was reduced. This reduced the oper- ble 46.14.
ating cost and improved the economics. Because of these
encouraging results, the possible advantages of using wet
Field Facilities
combustion should be explored.
Steamflood Facilities
Air Injection Rate. According to Nelson and McNeil, ‘22 Steam Generation and Injection. Most of the steam in-
the air injection rate depends on the desired rate of ad- jection projects use surface steam generators. The major
vance of the burning front. A satisfactory burning rate difference between oilfield steam generators and indus-
was stated to be 0.125 to 0.5 ft/D. In the design method trial multitube boilers is the ability to produce steam from
proposed by these authors, a maximum air rate is first saline feedwater with minimum treatment. Other features
determined, based on the minimum burning rate of 0.125 include unattended operation, portability, weatherproof
ft/D. They recommended a time schedule such that the construction, and ready accessibility for repairs. The abil-
air rate would be increased gradually to the maximum ity to use a wide variety of fuels including lease crude
rate, held at this rate for a definite period, and then re- is also an important requirement. The capacity of steam
duced gradually to zero. The Midway Sunset, CA, proj- generators used in steamflood projects usually ranges from
ect of Chanslor-Western99 used a burning rate of 1 in./D 12 to 50 X lo6 Btuihr, with 50 x lo6 Btuihr becoming the
(0.08 ft/D). Gates and Ramey ‘24 found that the air rate industry standard in California.
should provide a minimum rate of burning front advance With surface steam generators, the steam goes from the
of 0.15 ft/D or an air flux of at least 2.15 scfihr-sq ft at generators to the injection wells through surface lines.
the burning front. Most surface steam lines are insulated with a standard in-
sulation with aluminum housings. The steam is split into
individual injectors through a header system using chokes
WAR. The reported WAR in various field projects ranged to reach critical flow. This procedure requires that the
from 0 (for dry combustion) to 2.8 bbl/103 scf. The steam achieve sonic velocity, which, under one field con-
choice of WAR depends on water availability, quality of dition, 68 calls for a pressure drop of about 55 % across
the water available, well injectivity, and economic con- the choke. The chokes are sized to each other to give the
siderations. Combustion tube experiments, properly de- desired flow rate into each injector. As long as the pres-
signed and executed, should be helpful. sure drop is greater than 55 X , the flow rate will be in-
dependent of the actual wellhead injection pressure.
A recent development is the use of downhole steam
Well Completion generators to eliminate wellbore heat losses in deep wells.
Special well completions are needed for injectors and There are two basic designs, which differ on the method
producers to withstand the high temperatures in steam- of transferring heat from the hot combustion gases to
floods, and to withstand the corrosive environment as well produce steam. ‘43 In one design, the combustion gas
in firefloods. mixes directly with feed water and the resulting gas/steam
According to Gates and Holmes, 14* wells used in mixture is injected into the reservoir. Because of this, the
steam operations should be completed with due consid- combustion process takes place at the injection pressure.
eration of heat loss with thermal stresses. In deep wells, In another design, there is no direct contact between the
tubular goods with high qualities, such as the normalized combustion gas and water, just as in the surface genera-
and tempered P-105 tubing and P-110 casing, should be tors. The combustion gas returns to the surface to be
used if the tubing and casing are not free to expand. Ther- released after giving up much of the heat to generate
mal stress can be minimized by the proper use of expan- steam. A lower pressure than injection pressure can be
sion joints. Thermal packers should be used on steam used in this case.
injection wells and deep wells undergoing cyclic steam- Still another new development is cogeneration of steam
ing. The cement should include a thermal strength stabiliz- and electricity. I44 The effluent gas from a combustor is
ing agent, an insulating additive and a bounding additive. used in a gas turbine, which drives an electrical genera-
For firefloods, Gates and Holmes’42 felt that steel tor. The exhaust gas from the turbine is then used in steam
casing and tubing such as J-55 is suitable for injectors. generators to produce steam for thermal recovery
These wells can be completed with normal Portland ce- purposes.
TABLE 46.14-WELL COMPLETION FOR STEAMFLOODS AND FIREFLOODS
Injectors Steamfloods Firefloods

Casing Grades: J-55, K-55, and N-80 Grades: J-55 and K-55
Sizes: 4%, 5%, 65/8, 7, and 9% in. Sizes: 41/z, 5%. 7, and 8% in. across the
Tensile prestressing of casing in deep wells pay zone
Openhole or perforated Both openhole completions with slotted lmers and Perforated completion more prevalent than
completions solid-string completion with jet perforations openhole completion with or without liners.
have been reported.
Liner sizes: 4X, 5’/2, or 7 in. Liner sizes: 3% or 5% in.
Perforations: l/4 or % In., one or two per foot, or Perforations: l/4 or l/2 in. (two or four per foot)
one-half per foot
Some with stamless steel wire-wrapped screens.
Class A, G, and H cement with silica flour (30 to Use of high-temperature cement prevalent
60% of dry cement).
Gravel packmg Use not prevalent Use not prevalent.
Tubing Tubing insulations used in deep wells: asbestos Tubing used for air injection or as a thermowell.
with calcium silicate, plus alummum radiation In wet combustion, various ways have been used
sheld; or jacketed tubing with calcium silicate. for injection of air and water.
Producers
Casing Grade: K-55 Grades: H-40, J-55, and K-55
Sizes: 4%, 5%, Ss/,, 7, and 85/8 in. Sizes: 51/z, 7. 85/8, and 95/a in.
Tensile prestressing of casing in deep wells
Openhole or perforated Both openhole completion with slotted liners and Openhole completion with or without slotted liners
completions solid-string completion with jet perforations and perforated completion are equally
have been reported. prevalent.
Liner sizes: 4’/2, 4X, or 65/a in. Liner sizes: 4%, 5’12, or 65/8 in.
Slot sizes: 40, 60, or 601180 mesh Slot sizes: 60-mesh. 0.05, 0.07, or 0.08 in.
Perforations: % in., four per foot Perforations: V2 In. (two or four per foot)
Some with stamless steel wire-wrapped screens.
Cement Class G and H cement with silica flour (30 to Use of high-temperature cement was reported
60% of dry cement).
Gravel packing Use more prevalent than in injectors Use more prevalent than in Injectors.
Gravel size: 6/9 mesh flow-packed. Gravel sizes: 20/40 or 619 mesh, flow- or
pressure-packed.
Tubing Tubing for rod pump. Tubing for rod pump, to serve as a thermowell. or
for cooling water injection.
Water Treatment. The feedwater treatment for steam injection rate the compressor needs to supply and the out-
generation consists mainly of softening, usually through put pressure needed, the capacity of the compressors can
zeolite ion exchange. Some feedwaters may require filtra- range from 1.0 to 20.0~ lo6 scf/D, and the power rat-
tion and deaeration to remove iron. Still others may need ing can range from 300 to 3,500 hp.
to use KC1 for control of clay swelling and chlorine to
combat bacteria. Facilities for oil removal also will be Monitoring and Coring Programs
needed if the produced water is to be reused as feedwater Monitoring Programs
for steam generation. A thermal recovery project could be a complete failure
economically and still be considered a success if it could
Fireflood Facilities provide useful information on the reservoir performance
Ignition Devices. In many fields, the reservoir tempera- under steamflood or fireflood. A properly designed
ture is so high that spontaneous ignition would occur only monitoring program carried out during the project and
a few days after starting air injection. In some projects, coring programs during and after the project are impor-
steam, reactive crude, or other fuels will be added to help tant in providing the information necessary for evaluat-
ignition. ing steamflood or fireflood performance.
Many other fields need artificial ignition devices, which The Sample, Control, and Alarm Network (SCAN) au-
include electrical heaters, gas burners, and catalytic ig- tomation system installed by Getty in the Kern River
nition systems. The various ignition methods, including field ‘46 illustrates how a large steam injection operation
equipment and operational data, have been discussed by can be monitored. This system consists of a devoted cen-
Strange. 145 tral computer that monitors 96 field sites. At these sites,
the production rates of more than 2,600 producers and
Air Compressors. The air compressors can be gas en- the operating rates of 129 steam generators are gathered.
gine or electrical motor driven. Depending on the total The SCAN oerforms several functions.
1. It automatically schedules and controls well produc- Photographs and Visual Examination. Whereas black-
tion tests at each site. and-white photographs were found to be rather useless,
2. It monitors results of well production tests, steam ultraviolet photographs gave an excellent picture as to
generator operating rates, flow status, and injection sta- where the oil was removed by the burning process. The
tus of producers, valve positions during well tests, and absence of oil also could be seen by visual examination.
various status contact checks. In some intervals, the reddish color of the core indicated
3. It sounds the alarm upon any malfunctioning at a field that the core had been subjected to a temperature high
site or a steam generator. enough for iron oxidation.
4. It reports necessary operating information routinely
on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis, and other special Mineral Analyses of the Cores. Various minerals, in-
reports on demand from the operator. cluding glauconite, illite, chlorite, and kaolinite, under-
The Silverdale, Alta., fireflood project of Genera1 went permanent changes with the temperature increase.
Crude ‘34 also uses an automatic data collection system. The maximum temperature to which the core samples had
Differential pressure transducers, thermocouple-amplifier been exposed could be determined from the form and
transducers, pressure transducers, and motor load trans- color of these minerals.
ducers are used to measure and record data at each well.
These data are transmitted to a central system, which can Microscopic Studies. The scanning electron microscope
be interrogated and can indicate any alarm situation when was used to study anhydrite formation and clay altera-
pressures, temperatures, or flow rates fall outside certain tion in the core samples, which had been subjected to high
specified ranges. temperatures.
Not all thermal projects call for elaborate automatic
monitoring programs. The following program used in the Tracers
Bodcau, LA, fireflood project of Cities Service-DOE I47 The use of tracers helped to monitor fluid movement and
typifies one needed for a small-scale pilot. interpret areal coverage in individual steamflood patterns.
1. Gas production rates, useful for mass balance cal- According to Wagner, I48 preferred aqueous-phase or
culations, were measured monthly. Monthly analysis of gaseous-phase tracers include radioisotopes, salts with de-
the produced gas gave data for the calculation of the oxy- tectable cations and anions, fluorescent dyes, and water-
gen utilization efficiency. soluble alcohols. Radioactive tracers include tritium,
2. Oil and water production rates were measured at least tritiated water, and krypton-85. Other tracers include am-
twice each month. monia, air, sodium nitrite, sodium bromide, and sodium
3. Flow line temperatures were measured daily. These chloride.
temperatures, in conjunction with the gas production rates,
were useful in determining the amount of quench water Operational Problems and Remedies
needed at the producers, Operational problems plaguing steamflood and fireflood
4. Downhole temperature profiles were taken monthly projects and their remedies, previously detailed by
at the observation wells. These profiles helped to deline- Chu . 6’,63 are summarized next.
ate the development of the burned volume.
Coring Program Problems Common to Steamfloods and Firefloods

Drilling core holes could be very expensive, depending WeII Productivity. Production of the highly viscous crude
on the depths of the pay zones. However, a judiciously may be extremely low before the arrival of the steam front
designed and properly executed coring program, either or burning front. The production rate can be improved
during a thermal project or afterward, could provide valu- by injecting light oil as a diluent, hot oil treatment, cy-
able information on the project performance. Such a pro- clic steam injection, or burning at the producers.
gram can give the following information: (1) residual oil When producer temperature exceeds 250”F, pump ef-
saturation (ROS) after steamflood or fireflood, (2) verti- ficiency decreases to a great extent because of hot pro-
cal sweep of the injected steam or burned volume, (3) areal duced fluids flashing to steam or direct breakthrough of
sweep of the steam front or burning front, (4) maximum the injected steam or flue gas. The best remedy is to plug
temperature distribution, both areally and vertically, and off the hot zone and redirect the steam or flue gas to the
(5) effective permeability of the rock, and whether any oil section before entering the wellbore.
deposits formed during the process could have reduced
the flow capacity. Sanding. Sanding can be severe even in steamflood proj-
A typical coring program, used for postmortem evalu- ects. The remedies include the Hyperclean’” technique,
ation in the Sloss, NE, fireflood project,79 is summar- foamed-in tight-hole slotted liners, a sodium aluminate
ized next. sand consolidation technique, and the use of phenolic-resin
gravel packing.
Core Analyses. Porosity, permeability, and oil satura- In firefloods, sanding is particularly severe if the sand
tions were measured on each foot of the recovered cores. is extremely unconsolidated. The erosion can be aggra-
Oil saturations were determined by the routine Dean-Stark vated further by coke particles and high gas rates. Sand-
extraction and weight loss method, and the infrared ab- blasting could require frequent pulling of wells and
sorption method. replacement of pumps.
Log Analyses. Compensated formation density and dual-
induction laterolog logs were run in the core holes to de- Emulsions. In steamfloods, emulsions sometimes can be
termine porosity and oil saturation. broken easily by chemical treatment. The problem could
Problems Plaguing Firefloods Only

Poor Injectivity. Various substances can cause losses in
injectivity for the air injectors. If identifiable, these prob-
lems can be remedied by appropriate means. Injector plug-
ging by iron oxide can be reduced by injecting air into
the casing and bleeding it through the tubing. Asphaltene
buildup can be reduced by squeeze washing with
asphaltene solvent. Emulsion formed in situ can be re-
duced by emulsion breakers. Scale formation caused by
barium and strontium sulfate can be reduced by an or-
ganic phosphate. The injection of NuTriT”
(trichloromethylene) and acidizing are useful in improv-
ing the injectivity.
Corrosion. Corrosion can be mild or serious and is caused

by simultaneous injection of air and water, production of
acids, sulfur, oxygen, and CO2 . Corrosion inhibitors are
t
I-- needed regularly.
Exploration Hazards. To minimize explosion hazards

in the air injection system, an explosion-proof lubricant
should be used. Flushing of the interstage piping with a
nitrox solution is necessary.
Case Histories
Many thermal recovery projects have been reported in
Fig. 46.13-Production history of cyclic steam stimulation, TM
the literature. The following describes a number of select-
sand, Huntington Beach offshore field, CA. ed projects and gives the reasons for their selection.
become severe if the emulsion is complicated with the Steam Stimulation Operations
solids produced and with the continuously changing na-
Huntington Beach, CA (Signal) 149-TypicaI Opera-
ture of the produced fluids.
tion. The steam stimulation project was conducted in the
Emulsions found in fireflood projects are formed of
heavy oil, cracked light ends, quench and formation water, TM sand, in the Huntington Beach offshore field, Orange
County, CA, This project typifies the behavior of a heavy-
solids, and possibly, corrosion products. They can become
oil reservoir under cyclic steam stimulation. The reser-
a continual and major problem in some projects, and re-
voir properties are given in Table 46.15.
quire expensive emulsion breakers.
Steam injection was started in nine producers in Sept.
Problems Plaguing Steamfloods Only 1964, resulting in a large increase in oil production. This
early success prompted the expansion of the project by
Steam Placement. The lack of control of steam place- drilling wells on 5-acre spacing. The number of wells in-
ment during steam stimulation is a major problem in creased from 9 in 1964 to 35 in 1969. The performance
producers with liner completions. The use of solid string of the steam stimulation project during the 1964-70 peri-
completions will help reduce the problem. od is shown in Fig. 46.13. With steam stimulation and
with the almost quadrupling of the number of wells, the
Steam Splitting. The uneven splitting of steam in a two- oil rate increased more than lo-fold, from 125 B/D oil
phase regime can cause significant differences in steam in 1964 to about 1,500 B/D oil in 1970.
quality into different injectors. This can be corrected by The performance of steam stimulation normally deteri-
modifying the layout of the steam line branching system. orates as the number of cycles increases. As shown in
Table 46.16, the OSR changed from the range of 3 to 3.8
bbl/bbl for the first two cycles to the range of 2.4 to 2.5
TABLE 46.15--RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID bbl/bbl for the third and fourth cycles.
PROPERTY DATA, TM SAND, HUNTINGTON BEACH Fig. 46.14 shows how oil production in one well
OFFSHORE FIELD, CA
decreases during a cycle and how it varies from one cycle
Depth, fl 2,000 to 2,300 to another.
Thickness, ft
Gross 115 Paris Valley, CA (Husky) ‘50-Co-Iqjection of Gas and
Net 40 to 58 Steam. A wet combustion project was initiated at Paris
Porosity, % 35 Valley, which is located in Monterey County, CA. Be-
Permeability, md 400 to 800
fore the arrival of the heat front, the producers were stimu-
Oil gravity, OAPI 12 to 15
Reservoir temperature, OF 125 lated with steam. A special feature that made this project
Reservoir pressure at start, wig 600 to 800 interesting was the co-injection of air and steam in three
Oil viscosity at 12?F, cp 682 of the stimulation cycles. The reservoir properties are
Oil saturation al start, % 75
given in Table 46.17.
TABLE 46.16-SUMMARY OF PERFORMANCE

THROUGH FOUR “HUFF ‘N’ PUFF” CYCLES AS OF
OCTOBER 1,197O; TM SAND, HUNTINGTON BEACH
OFFSHORE FIELD, CA
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4

Number of wells 24 18 11 4
Average cycle length,
months 14 18 15.3 14.5
Average oil recovery
per well, STB 28,900 30,900 24,650 29,225
Average quality of
steam injected, % 71.4 69.3 75.1 78.5
Average volume of
steam injected, bbl 9,590 8,130 10,190 11,760
Ratio of oil recovered
to steam injected,
STBlbbl 3 3.8 2.4 2.5
? ABLE 46.17-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID

PROPERTY DATA, ANSBERRY RESERVOIR,
PARIS VALLEY FIELD, CA
Depth, R 800
Fig. 46.14-011 production rate, Well J-128, Huntington Beach Net thickness, ft 50
offshore field. Dip, degrees 15
Porosity, % 32
Permeability, md 3,750
In Table 46.18, Cycles 3 and 5 of Well 20 and Cycle Oil gravity, OAPI 10.5
Reservoir temperature, OF a7
7 of Well 3 used air-steam injection. For Well 20, oil pro- Initial pressure, psig 220
duction in Cycle 3 was 4,701 bbl while that in Cycle 2 Saturation at start, %
was 2,449 bbl. Thus, with air-steam injection, oil pro- Oil 64
duction increased by 92 % . A similar increase was notice- Water 36
Oil viscosity, cp
able for Cycle 5 of Well 20 and Cycle 7 of Well 3 when
Upper Lobe Lower Lobe
compared with their respective preceding cycles, which
87°F 227,000 23,000
used steam only. lOOoF 94,000 11,000
200°F 340 120
Steamflood Projects
Kern River, CA (Getty) 68m70-Largest Steamflood.
The Kern River field is located northeast of Bakersfield,
CA, in the southeastern part of the San Joaquin Valley.
Getty Oil Co.‘s steam displacement operation in this field
TABLE 46.1 &-RESPONSE TO CYCLIC AIR/STEAM
is the largest in the world, based on a 1982 survey. l3 Ac-
cording to this survey, the thermal oil production rate was Well 20 Well 3
83,000 B/D in an area of 5,070 acres. Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle Cycle
The Kern River formation consists of a sequence of al- 2 3 4 5 6 7
ternating sand and shale members. The reservoir proper- Steam volume,
ties are given in Table 46.19. lo3 bbl 13.2 16.2 15.7 10.4 8.2 9.2
Air volume, lo6 scf 0 1.5 0 3.7 cl 3.6
The Kern River field was discovered in the late 1890’s.
Air/steam ratio,
In the mid-1950’s, bottomhole heaters were used to im- scflbbl 0 91 0 355 0 394
prove the oil productivity. In Aug. 1962, a 2.5-acre nor- Comparable
mal five-spot hot waterflood was started. Results showed producing days 161 161 90 90 97 97
that this process was technically feasible but economically Oil produced, bbl 2,449 4,701 270 503 2,375 4,203
Steam/oil ratio,
unattractive. In June 1964, the hot waterflood pilot was 5.4 3.4 50 21 3.5 2.2
bbl/bbl
converted to a steam displacement test and the number Oil/steam ratio,
of injectors was increased from the original 4 wells to 47 bbllbbl 0.19 0.29 0.02 0.05 0.29 0.45
wells. Continued expansion through the years has in- Peak oil production
test, BID 51 81 24 38 60 141
creased the number of injectors to 1,788 wells, with 2,556
producers by 1982. The original Kern project and some
later expansions are shown in Fig. 46.15. The steam dis-
placement operation was in general conducted in 2.5-acre
five-spot patterns.
Getty Oil Co.‘s steam displacement operation includes
many projects. For illustration purposes, the Kern proj-
ect is presented here with a map showing the well pat-
terns (Fig. 46.16) and a figure showing the injection and
TABLE 46.19--RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTY

DATA, KERN RIVER FIELD, CA
Depth, ft 500 to 1,300

Thickness, ft 30 to 90
Dip, degrees 4
Porosity, % 28 to 33
Permeability, md 1,000 to 5,000
Oil gravity, OAPI 12.0 to 16.5
Reservoir temperature, OF 90
Reservoir pressure at start, psig 100
Oil viscosity, cp
9OoF 4,000
250°F 15
Oil saturation at start, % 35 to 52
production history of the four-pattern pilot (Fig. 46.17).

In this project, the cumulative SOR was 3.8 bbl/bbl and
the production rate reached 100 B/D of oil per pattern.
Core hole data before and after the steamflood showed
an oil recovery of 72 % and also a very high area1 sweep
efficiency.
Brea, CA (Shell) ‘25-Steam Distillation Drive, Deep

Reservoir, Steeply Dipping. A steam distillation drive
was initiated in 1964 in the Brea field, which is located
about 25 miles east of Los Angeles. This project is in-
Fig. 46.15-Kern River field, CA.
teresting because the oil is relatively light with low vis-
cosity, and the reservoir is steeply dipping at a great depth.
The reservoir properties are summarized in Table 46.20.
The dipping reservoir is seen clearly in Fig. 46.18. The I I
injectors are located updip, as shown in Fig. 46.19. Be-
cause of the depth, insulated tubing was used for the in-
. 312
jectors. This figure also shows the area of temperature
response and production response. The injection and pro-
duction rates are given in Table 46.20. As of Dec. 1971, .
the steam rate was 1,010 B/D water and the oil rate was
. l
230 B/D, giving an estimated SOR of 4.4 bbl/bbl.
.
.
Smackover, AR (Phillips) 82T83-Reservoir With Gas .
Cap. The Smackover field is located in Ouachita County,

AR. The steamflood pilot, conducted in the Nacatoch .
sand, is worth mentioning because the reservoir has a gas

.
cap thicker than the oil sand itself. This gas cap can be
.
seen readily in the log and coregraph of Sidum Well W-35 I .-
(Fig. 46.2 1). The reservoir properties are given in Table

46.21. Fig. 46.16-Kern steam displacement project, Kern River field.
Iam
I-
,mnn
m
TABLE 46.20-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTY ’ m
DATA, BREA FIELD, CA 0
soan
Depth, ft 4,600 to 5,000
Gross stratigraphic thickness, ft 300 to 800 ‘-
Ratio of net to gross sand, % 63 -
Dip, degrees 66
Porosity, O/O 22 mm
Permeabilitv. md 77 =
Oil gravity, ‘“‘API
Reservoir temperature, OF
Reservoir pressure at start, psi
Oil viscosity at 17YF, cp 6
Saturahon at start, % Fig. 46.17-Injection and production history, Kern hot water and
Oil 49 steam displacement project (four patterns) Kern
Gas 18 River field.
46-25
THERMAL RECOVERY
F-13 WATER SATURATION, X

F-12 F-18 M-15
$7nnn-
’ I-I
-
Fig. 46.18-Cross section through the lower “B” sands, Brea

field.
Fig. 46.21-Log and coregraph, Sidum Well W-35, Smackover
field, AR.
PAODUCTION
RESPONSE ~
Fig. 46.22 is a map of the lo-acre five-spot pilot, which

was later expanded to a 22-acre nine-spot pattern by add-
ing four more producers. As shown in Fig. 46.23, steam
injection started in Nov. 1964 and stopped in Oct. 1965.
The oil production continued long after steam injection
stopped. As of Aug. 1970, the additional oil produced by
steamflood was 207,000 bbl. With total steam injection
of 860,000 bbl, the cumulative SOR was 4.14 bbl/bbl.
OYC TOP f-14 SPNO
--------- ---_
The temperature log in Fig. 46.24 shows that steam
--“T- ---
goes to the gas cap. It can be concluded that the increase
LEGEND in oil production was not caused by frontal displacement.
'I' lNJECT,ON YELLS Rather, the oil zone temperature increased because of con-
PROOUCTION YELLS duction and convection from the gas cap, thus reducing
' the oil viscosity and increasing the oil production.
OBSERVATION WELLS
Fig. 46.19-Well locations and area of temperature, tritium, and

production responses, Brea field, CA.

DATA, SMACKOVER FIELD, AR
Depth, ft 1,920
Thickness, ft
Gross 130
Net 25
Dip, degrees 0 to 5
Porosity, % 35
Oil gravity, OAPI 20
EST<VATED PRIVAAY Reservoir temperature, ‘-‘F 110
SIL WODUCTION Reservoir pressure at start, psia 5
Oilviscosity, cp
6OOF 180
lo 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
llO°F 75
YEAR Saturation at start, %
Fig. 46.20-Injection and production history, Brea steam distil- Oil 50
lation pilot. Water 50
SE14 SECTION 32-ISS-15W TEMPERATURE SCALE ) OF

DFEEpErT”~ 150 175 200 225 250 275
125
3
.2
.’
,SA3
.‘6
20
.‘4
.‘9
WELL SYMBOLS: SCALE I- = 400’

.2 PRODUCING
00-1 WATER DISPOSAL
0%43 WATER SUPPLY
Fig. 46.22-Sidum steam injection pilot, Smackover field.

Fig. 46.24-Temperature log, Sidum Well W-42, Smackover
field.
Slocum, TX (SheU)89~90-Reservoir With Water Sand.

The Slocum field is located in southern Anderson County
in northeast Texas. The steamflood project interests us
since it is conducted in an oil reservoir underlain by a
water sand, as shown in the type log (Fig. 46.25). The
reservoir properties are given in Table 46.22.
h 300- The fieldwas discovered in 1955. Only about 1% of
n OOIP was produced by primary operation. A small steam-
flood pilot using a N-acre normal five-spot pattern showed
encouraging results. A full-scale seven-pattern project was
initiated in 1966-67, with 5.65acre, 13-s@ patterns (Fig.
46.26).
Both injectors and producers were completed a few feet
into the water sand. Steam moves horizontally through
/ - PRIMARY- / I the water layer, rises vertically into the oil layer, and dis-
0'
1964 1965 1966 1967
places oil that had been heated and mobilized. The oil then
0
L falls down and subsequently is swept toward the
p7---
-TOTAL PILOT
producers. The injection and production history is shown
;E loot- )- in Fig. 46.27.
s WELL PILOT
E 1&VA 4
a. ’ PRMAAY -’ Street Ranch, TX (Conoco) I51-Extremely Viscous
d 01
d 1966 1969 1970 1971 Tar, Fracture-Assisted Steamflood. The Street Ranch
pilot was conducted in the San Miguel-4 tar sand reser-
Fig. 46.23-injection and production history, Sidum steam in- voir located in Maverick County, TX. This pilot proved
jection pilot, Smackover field. the technical feasibility of the fracture-assisted steamflood
technology (FAST) in recovering extremely viscous heavy
oils and tars. The reservoir properties are given in Table
46.23. The pilot used a 5-acre inverted five-spot pattern.
The four producers were fractured horizontally with cold
water, steam stimulated, perforated, and resteamed. The
injector then was fractured horizontally to establish com-
munication with the producers. The pilot consisted of three
GAMMA RAY RESlSTlVlTY TABLE 46.22--RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTY

DATA, SLOCUM FIELD, TX
Depth, ft 520
Thickness, ft
Gross 34
Net 32
Dip, degrees 0 to 5
Porosity, O/o 34
Permeability, md > 2,000
Oil gravity, OAPl 18 to 19
Reservoir temperature, “F 80
Initial reservoir pressure, psig 110
Oil viscosity, cp
60°F 1,000 to 3,000
400°F 3 to 7
Oil saturation at start, % 68
phases: (1) fracture preheat, (2) matrix steam injection,

and (3) heat scavenging with water injection. The tar pro-
duction and steam/tar ratio during the 3 1-month history
are shown in Figs. 46.28 and 46.29, respectively. The
average tar production rate was 185 B/D and the cumula-
Fig. 46.25-Type log, Slocum field, TX tive steam/tar ratio was 10.9 bblibbl. Postpilot core holes
showed residual tar saturations as low as 8% and an aver-
age recovery efficiency of 66 % .
Lacq Suphieur, France (Elf Aquitaine) Is2 -Carb-

onate Reservoir. The Lacq Sup&ieur field is on the north
side of the Pyrenees Mts. in southwest France. The steam-
flood pilot is unique because it was conducted in a carbo-
nated, dolomitized, and highly fractured reservoir. The
reservoir properties are given in Table 46.24.
The pilot was located in the central part of the frac-
tured limestone zone, near the top of an anticline. The
pattern area is 35 acres, defined by six old producers, as
shown in Fig. 46.30. The injector was the only one drilled
for the pilot. Steam injection started in Oct. 1977. Oil
production started to increase, only 3 months after steam
injection began. The production history is shown in Fig.
PLTTERN
EXPLHIlGN
119.511
m ElGtlT
PATTERN IIP,PI 46.3 1. By June 1980, incremental oil production amount-
EXPINSlG”
. INJECTION
WELL ed to 176,000 bbl with a cumulative steam injection of
. THERYIL
PRODUCTIGN
WELL
926,000 bbl. The cumulative SOR is 5.26 bblibbl. This
Fig. 46.26-Slocum thermal recovery Project.
TABLE 4’j.23--RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTY

DATA, STREET RANCH PILOT, TX
Depth, ft 1,500
Thickness, ft
Gross 52
Net 40.5
Dip, degrees 2
Porosity, % 26.5 and 27.5
Permeability, md 250 to 1,000
Tar gravity, “API -2.0
Tar viscosity at 95OF. cp (est.) 20,000,000
Tar kinematic viscosity, cSt
175OF 520,000
200°F 61,000
250°F 2,900
300°F 870
Pour pomt. “F 170 to 180
Total sulfur, wt% 9.5 to 11.0
Fig. 46.27-Injection and production history, Slocum thermal Initial boiling pomt, OF 500
recovery project. Tar saturation at start, % 54.7 and 38.9

DATA, LACQ SUPERIEUR FIELD, FRANCE
Depth, ft 1,970 to 2,300

Thickness, ft 400
Oil gravity, OAPI 21.5
Reservoir pressure, psi 670
Oil viscosity at 1 40°F, cp 17.5
Matrix Blocks Fissure Network

Porosity, % 12 0.5
Permeability, md 1 5,000 to 10,000
Water saturation at start. % 60 100
Fig. 46.28-Tar production history, Street Ranch pilot, TX.
pilot showed that a strongly fissured reservoir can be ex-

ploited efficiently by the steamflood process, as if it were
a homogeneous reservoir. The dissociation of the car-
bonate rocks by steam apparently produced no unfavora-
ble effects. Rather, the CO2 evolved might have some
positive effect on the process efficiency.
Fireflood Projects
Suplacu de Barcau, Romania (IFP-ICPP) “‘-Largest
Fireflood. The Suplacu de Barcau field lies in north-
western Romania. This is reportedly the largest fireflood
project in the world, producing nearly 6.563 B/D of
15.9”API oil. The reservoir properties are given in Ta-
ble 46.25.
The project started with a pilot in 1964 using a 1.24-acre
Fig. 46.29-Steam/tar ratios, Street Ranch pilot. inverted five-spot pattern that was later expanded into a
4.94-acre inverted nine-spot pattern. This was followed
by a semicommercial operation in the period 1967-71 with
eight 9.88-acre inverted nine-spot patterns. This opera-
tion further expanded into full commercial operation, first
retaining the nine-spot patterns with the same spacing, and
later changing to linedrive operation. The original pilot
and later expansions are shown in Fig. 46.32. Injection
wells numbered 38 in 1979 with 20 using alternate air
and water injection and the balance using straight air. The
production history is given in Fig. 46.33. The WAR was
0.089 to 0.178 bb1/103 scf. As of 1979, the air injection
rate was 63,600~ lo3 scf/D. With an oil rate of 6,563
B/D. the AOR was estimated to be 9.7 X 10’ scf/bbl.
West Heidelberg, MS (G~lf)“~*“~-Deepest Fire-

flood. The West Heidelberg field is located in Jasper
County in eastern Mississippi. With a depth exceeding
\ 2 miles, it is the deepest fireflood project, or the deepest
\ /I thermal project, for that matter. The Cotton Valley for-
O- 2som \ /
mation has eight sands. The fireflood was conducted in
0 loo0 ft. v La4 Sand No. 5. The reservoir properties are given in Table
46.26.
As shown in the structure map of Sand No. 5 (Fig.
Fig. 46.30-Pilot area, Lacq Sup&ieur field, France 46.34), only one injector was used, near the top of the
structure, with seven producers located downdip. The in-
jection and production history is given in Fig. 46.35. It
can be estimated from this figure that, during the period
1973-76, the average air injection rate was about
900 x lo3 scf/D whereas the average oil production rate
was about 400 B/D. This gives an AOR of only
2.25 x lo3 scfibbl.
Fig. 46.31-Production history, Lacq Superieur field.

DATA, SUPLACU DE BARCAU FIELD, ROMANIA
Depth, ft 164 to 656

Net thickness, ft 32.8
Porosity, % 32
Oil viscosity at 64OF, cp 2,000
Oil saturation at start, % 85
TABLE 46.26-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTY

Fig. 46.32-Suplacu de Barcau field, Romania. DATA, WEST HEIDELBERG FIELD, MS
Depth, ft 11,500
Thickness, ft
Gross 20 to 40
Net 30
Dip, degrees 5to 15
Porosity, % 16.4
Permeability, md
Oil gravity, OAPI ;:
Oil viscosity at 221°F, cp 4.5
Oil saturation at start. % 77.8
Gloriana, TX (Sun)“6~118-Thinnest Reservoir Pro-

duced by a Fireflood. The Gloriana field is in Wilson
County, TX. The fireflood took place in the Poth “A”
Sand. It is possibly the thinnest reservoir that has ever
Fig. 46.33-Injection and production history, Suplacu de Barcau
field.
been produced by a fireflood. The reservoir properties
are given in Table 46.27.
The field originally was developed on 40-acre spacing.
A new well, Well 2-8, was ignited in May 1969. Well
2-5, a producer, burned out and was converted to air in-
jection in May 1971. These wells, along with other wells,

DATA, GLORIANA FIELD, TX
Depth, ft 1,600
Thickness, lt
Gross 10
Net 4
Dip, degrees 0 to 5
Porosity, O/O 35
line Reservoir temperature, OF 112
Oil viscosity, cp
112°F 70 to 150
8OOF 250 to 500
Oil saturation at start, % 58.5
Productionlimit l-1 1,093 Cl

-j--y$>.)1
ration at the start of the flood was low. The reservoir prop-
erties are given in Table 46.28.
The fireflood started in 1%7 with six 8O-acre five-spots.
Additional wells were included so that it covered 960 acres
Fig. 46.34--Structure map of Sand No. 5, West Heidelberg field,
in its final stage. The pilot area is shown in Fig. 46.39.
MS. The injection and production data in the 4YGyear period
of its operation are given in Figs. 46.40 and 46.4 1, respec-
tively. Between Feb. 1967 and July 1971, total air injected
are shown in the isopachous map in Fig. 46.36. The in- was 13,754X lo6 scf and water injected was
jection and production histories are given in Figs. 46.37 10,818 x lo3 bbl, giving a WAR of 0.79 bbl/103 scf. The
and 46.38, respectively. Air injection stopped in Dec. total oil production was 646,776 bbl. This gives an AOR
1974 when the oil production rate declined to the eco- of 21.3~ lo3 scfibbl. The area1 sweep by the greater-
nomic limit. than-350°F zone was 50%. Combining with a vertical
sweep of 28%, the volumetric sweep was only 14%.
Sloss, NE (Amoco) 77-79-Wet Combustion, Tertiary
Recovery. The Sloss field is located in Kimball County, Asphalt Ridge, UT (DOE) 130-Extremely Viscous
NE. The pilot used a wet combustion process in a previ- Tar, Combination Reverse/Forward Combustion. The
ously waterflooded reservoir. Here, the pay is thin and Northwest Asphalt Ridge deposit is located in northeast
deep, the oil is light, the viscosity is low, and the oil satu- Utah, near the city of Vernal. The fireflood conducted
Fig. 46.35-Injection and production history, West Heide,oerg field,

Fig. 46.36-lsopachous map, net oil, Poth “A” sand, Gloriana field, TX.
in this deposit is interesting because it attempted to use Thermal Properties

a combination of reverse and forward combustion for the
recovery of oil from tar sands. The reservoir properties Only some selected thermal properties of the rock/fluid
are given in Table 46.29. systems encountered in the thermal recovery projects will
The U.S. DOE conducted two fireflood tests in the be presented briefly. A more complete compilation of
Asphalt Ridge area. The first, conducted in 1975, dem- tables and figures has been included in Appendix B of
onstrated the feasibility of using reverse combustion to Ref. 154.
recover oil in the tar sand. The second tested a combina-
tion of reverse combustion and forward combustion dur- Oil Viscosities
ing the period from Aug. 1977 to Feb. 1978. The location The viscosity-temperature relationships for representative
of the test sites and well arrangements are shown in Fig. heavy-oil deposits are shown in Fig.46.46. Oil viscosi-
46.42. In both tests, the line drive was on a small area ties should be measured experimentally. In the absence
of 120~40 ft, covering only 0.11 acres. In the second of experimental data, the viscosities can be estimated by
test, several echoings of reverse and forward combustion
charts (Fig. 46.47 to 46.49)‘55-‘57 and equations. Is8
phases were noticed in the northwest area, as seen from
Beggs and Robinson Is8 suggested the following equa-
the temperature variations at observation Well 203 (Fig. tions for estimating viscosities of live oils. Dead-oil vis-
46.43). The reverse combustion phase had an areal sweep cosity is first calculated:
of 95 % and vertical sweep of 9 1% , giving a volumetric
sweep of 86%. The echoing forward combustion phase
had an area1 sweep of 75 % and vertical sweep of 44 % , &,~=lo*-l, . .... . .. . . . . .(74)
giving a volumetric sweep of only 33%. The produced
oil was of better quality than the original bitumen, with
where pLodequals the viscosity of dead oil (gas-free oil)
the pour point reduced from 140 to 25°F and the amount at T, cp.
of residue lowered from 62 to 35 wt% .
py~-I.163
Forest Hill, TX (Air Products-Greenwich) Is3 - , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (75)
Oxygen-Enriched Air. The Forest Hill field is located
in Wood County, TX. The significance of the field test Y=lO’, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(76)
lies in the use of oxygen-enriched air for the fireflood.
The reservoir properties are given in Table 46.30.
The field was on primary production in 1964. Air in- and
jection started in 1976. One of the air injectors was
switched to oxygen-enriched air in 1980. The test site is
shown in Fig. 46.44. As seen in Fig. 46.45, during a Z=3.0324-0.02023 yo. . . . . .. .... .(77)
2-year period, the oxygen concentration in the injected
gas ranged from 2 1 to 90%. The test showed that essen- where y0 equals the oil gravity, “API, and Tis the tem-
tially pure oxygen can be handled and injected safely in perature, “F. Live-oil viscosity is calculated next.
a typical oilfield environment. Short of any definitive com-
parison, the test only hinted that using enriched air might
produce oil faster than using air only. p=&,,dB, .. ........ ... ... .. (78)
OlORlANA POIW ‘A’ UN11

001 ‘ AIR INUCllON VS IlYE
Fig. 46.37-GOR and air injection history, Gloriana field.
OLORIANA POlH ‘4 UNIT

011 PROOUCIION VI 1lMt
0
:
Fig. 46.38-011 production history, Gloriana field.

AlRlWATER RATIO SCFlBBL
AIR INJ.PRESS. PSI

@T I
rno-nrl"" -- ' i
WATER INJ.RAlE EBI,/DAY
4cm
mo
n
”
., AIR INJ .RATE MMCFlDAY
4b
f
0’ 1967 1%8 1969 1970 1971 1972
Fig. 46.40-Injection history, Sloss field COFCAW pilot
PHAS,.
\
WATER PROO.RATE EBlr /DAY

I
I-L -
PROD.RATE MCFlDAY
0 PRODUCING WELL A INJECTION WELL + DRY HOLE 1967 1968 lW9 1970 1971
Fig. 46.39-Sloss unit, NE.

Fig. 46.41-Production history, Sloss field COFCAW pilot

DATA, SLOSS FIELD, NE
Depth, ft 6,200
Net thickness, ft 14.3
Porosity, % 19.3
Permeability, md 191
Reservoir temperature, 'F 200
Reservoir pressure, psig 2,274
Oil viscosity at 200°F, cp 0.8
Oil saturation al start, O/o 2oto 40

DATA, ASPHALT RIDGE FIELD, UT
Depth, ft 350
Net thickness, fl 13.1
Porosity, 910 31.1
Permeability, md
Saturated a5 Fig. 46.42-LETC field site, Asphalt Ridge deposit, UT.
Extracted 675
Reservoir temperature, "F 52
Oil viscosity at 60°F, Cp > 1 ,ooo,ooo
Pour point, OF 140
Saturations at start, %
Oil 65
Water 2.4

DATA, FOREST HILL FIELD, TX
Depth, ft 4,800
Net thickness, ft 15
Porosity, O/o 27.7
Permeability, md 626
Oil viscosity at 185OF, cp 1,002
Saturations at start, %
Oil 64
Water 36
Fig. 46.43-Maximum temperature vs. time, Welt 203, Asphalt

Ridge deposit.
,-- PEACE RIVER
1
LLOYDMINSTER ’
.IIESEn”Ol” IEMI’Cl,*TI,IIE
Fig. 46.46-Viscosity/temperature relationships for representa-

live heavy oil deposits.
where
A= 10.715@, + 100) -OS’~, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (79)

Fig. 46.44-Forest Hill field, TX.
B=5.44(R,+150)-0.338, .. .. . . . . (80)
and R, :s the solution gas/oil ratio, scf/STB.
Relative Permeability Curves

Relative permeability data should be determined ex-
perimentally. In the absence of experimental data, the fol-
lowing equations may be used for rough estimation.
According to Brooks and Corey, 159
k, =(S,,,*)5, .. .. ......... .. .. . (81)
k,=(1-S,*)2(1-Sw*2), ... ,. ..... .(82)
SW -Siw
s *= (83)
w ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 -ISi,
Fig. 46.45-Injection history, Well 32, Forest Hill field.
where Si, is the irreducible water saturation, percent.

THE RMAL RECC IVERY 46-35
AT 100. r. h ATYOSCWLnIC PRLSSURL
tom
1000
600
600
y ,oo
n 400
g 100
; 200
::
J 100 FORYULA: ABSOLUTE vIscosITY AT l00.F (Cpl* 29,420
------27,
60 --- EXTQAPOLATED ho-ll)

60
.01 I I ! 1
IO I3 60 66
CR”DE2001L CR2~“ITY. &. I. *T”KPF ‘I\ONO ATzw”ER)PC PR&“RE
Fig. 46.47-Dead oil viscosity.
lo4
10
Fig. 46.48-Universal temperature/viscosity chart.

.
6
7
FIN0 THE GAS-SATUR4TED VISCOSITY OF
6
A CR”OE OIL “AvING A SOLUTION GAS/OIL RATIO OF 600
9
CU FT I BBL AN0 DEAO OIL VISCOS1TY OF I.50 CP. ALL
AT THE SAME TEMPERATURE.
PROCEOURE: LOCATE 1.50 CP ON WE DEAO OIL VISCOSITY

1
SCALE (A8SCISSA 1 AN0 GO UP VERTICALLY TO THE 600
GAS/OIL RATIO LINE. THEN GO LEFT MORIZONTALLY TO
1 REAO THE ANSWER. 0.56 CP. ON THE GAS-SATURATED
OIL VISCOSITY SCALE I OROINATE I
Fig. 46.49-Live oil viscosity.

rHERMAL RECOVERY 46-37
According to Somerton, 160 for unconsolidated sand,
Sj,=0.211+2.0x10-4T+1.1x10-6T2, _._.. (84)
where T is the temperature, “F.

The effect of temperature on irreducible water satura-
tion and relative permeability of unconsolidated sands has
been studied by Poston et al. 16’Some of their results are
given in Figs. 46.50 through 46.52. The effect of tem-
perature on relative and absolute permeabilities of con-
solidated sandstones has been studied by Weinbrandt et
al. ‘62 Some of their results are given in Figs. 46.53
through 46.56.
PV Compressibility
The compressibility of unconsolidated, Arkosic sands was
oj
measured by Sawabini et al. ‘63 Fig. 46.57 shows that the #) loo Is0 200 300
effective PV compressibility lies in the range between TEYWIAIURE,°F
10e4 and 10m3 psi-l, about 2 to 3 orders of magnitude
higher than the normally accepted figure of IO -6 psi -I Fig. 46.50-Effect of temperature on irreducible water satura-
for consolidated sandstones. In Fig. 46.57, pro is the to- tion, Houston sand, and natural sand.
tal overburden pressure, psi, and pP is the pore pressure,
psi. 40
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal behavior of unconsolidated oil sands was studied 30
by Somerton et al. K+J Fig. 46.58 shows how thermal
conductivity of Kern River oil sands varies with brine
saturation. 20
Vaporization Equilibrium s
:
Vaporization equilibrium of an oil fraction is described CA0IO
by the equilibrium vaporization constant, K, which is de-
fined as
0 I I I I
50 100 IS0 200 26c 300

K=x, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .@5)
X TEIJ~PEPATURE,~F
Fig. 46.51-Effect of temperature on ROS, natural sand.

where y is the mol fraction in vapor phase and x is the
mol fraction in liquid phase.
Poettmann and Mayland I65 in 1949 published a series
of charts on equilibrium constants of various oil fractions
with normal boiling points of 300”F, 4OO”F, etc., up to
1,OOO”F. To illustrate how K values vary with tempera-
ture and pressure, the figure for normal boiling
point=5OO”F is shown in Fig. 46.59.
More recently, L.ee ef al. 166presented equilibrium con-
stants of oil fractions with 100°F boiling ranges. For ex-
ample, Fraction 1 has the boiling range up to 3OO”F, WATER
Fraction 2 boiling between 300 and 400”F, and Fraction

6 boiling above 700°F. Figs. 46.60 and 46.61 show the
effects of pressure and temperature, respectively. on the
K values for these oil fractions as well as N 2, CH4, and
co*.
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical reactions taking place in an in-situ combustion
process are considered to fall into three types: (1) low-
temperature oxidation, (2) fuel deposition or coke forma- -I
tion, and (3) combustion. The kinetic data of these three 0 20 40 60 80 100
WATER SATURATION, ‘L
types of reactions reported by various authors have been
summarized in the paper by Fassihi et al. 16’and will not Fig. 46.52-Water and oil relative permeability at four tempera-
be reproduced here. tures, Houston sand, 80-cp 011.
I 4. I
zsoo-
48
5.
z 2000 k 5.
; bW.6
s
c 29
; ISOO-
iTi
H
2
l
4i
1000 5’ i
1
01
60 loo 140 180 I A1 l2
5oL---l
TEMPERATURE. ‘F
Fig. 46.53-Effect of temperature on irreducible water satura-

tion, sandstone cores.
60 100 140 180

TEMPERATURE. lF
Fig. 46.56-Effect of temperature on absolute permeability,

sandstone cores.
0:
60 100 140 180
TEMPERATURE. ‘F
Fig. 46.54-Effect of temperature on ROS, sandstone cores.
% to*
EFFECTIVE PiiESSURE, PSI
Fig. 46.57-Effective PV compressibility, unconsolidated Arkosic

oil sand.
oo- -20 --~

40 60 6 100
WATER SATURATION, %
Fig. 46.55-Water and oil relative permeability at two tempera-

tures, Core 4, Boise sandstone.
THERMAL RECOVERY
hsv .0.?35-r.30~*sw +
POROSITY RANGES:
a 0.28-0.30 -
0 0.31 -0.33 ----
A 0.34 -0.37 --
BRINE SATURATION, SW
Fig. 46.56-Thermal conductivity of Kern River oil sands. Fig. 46.59-Equilibrium vaporization constant, normal boiling
point-500°F.
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 P(rksld 400 500 600 700 T(OF)
1 I IO ‘- I I r
c
&&
0 co2 -
I-
y 0.1 -
PREDICTED ., ., .
EXPERIMENTAL 0, *, 0
0.01 -
FRACTION 6
A-A- &-/
I A IL
5ow loo00 ISCCO zoo00

p(hPol
0 cm k n/ 1 , 1 I
Fig. 46.60-Effect of pressure on equilibrium K values for Crude x0 250 3al 350 400
A at 260%.
T(‘C)
Fig. 46.61-Effect of temperature on equilibrium K values of

Crude 8 at 1,514.7 psia.
46-40 PETROLEUMENGINEERING HANDBOOK
TABLE46.31-SATURATEDSTEAMTABLE
Specific Volume, cu ftllbm Enthalpy. Btullbm

Absolute Pressure, Temperature Saturated Saturated Saturated Saturated
Liquid, Evaporate, Vapor, Liquid, Evaporate, Vapor,
"L v tg Vg H, L. H,
0.08865 32018 0.016022 3,302.4 3,302.4 0.0003 1,075.5 1,075.5
14.696 212.00 0.016719 26.782 26.799 180.17 970.3 t,150.5
50.0 281.02 0.017274 8.4967 8.5140 250.2 923.9 1,174.l
100.0 327.82 0.017740 4.4133 4.4310 298.5 888.6 1,187.2
150.0 358.43 0.01809 2.9958 3.0139 330.6 863.4 1,194.i
200.0 381.80 0.01839 2.2689 2.2873 355.5 842.8 1,198.3
250.0 400.97 0.01865 1.82452 1,84317 376.1 825.0 1,201.l
300.0 417.35 0.01889 1.52384 1.54274 394.0 808.9 1,202.g
400.0 444.60 0.01934 1.14162 1.16095 424.2 780.4 1,204.6
500.0 467.01 0.01975 0.90787 0.92762 449.5 755.1 1,204.7
600.0 486.20 0.02013 0.74962 0.76975 471.7 732.0 1,203.7
700.0 503.08 0.02050 0.63505 0.65556 491.6 710.2 1,201.8
800.0 518.21 0.02087 0.54809 0.56896 509.8 689.6 1,199.4
900.0 531.95 0.02123 0.47968 0.50091 526.7 669.7 1,196.4
l,ooo.o 544.58 0.02159 0.42436 0.44596 542.6 650.4 1,192.g
1.200.0 567.19 0.02232 0.34013 0.36245 571.9 613.0 1,184.8
1,400.o 587.07 0.02307 0.27871 0.30178 598.8 576.5 1,175.3
1,600.O 604.67 0.02387 0.23159 0.25545 624.2 540.3 1,164.5
1,800.O 621.02 0.02472 0.19390 0.21861 648.5 503.8 1,152.3
2,000.0 635.80 0.02565 0.16266 0.18831 672.1 466.2 1,138.3
2,200.o 649.45 0.02669 0.13603 0.16272 695.5 426.7 1,122.2
2,400.O 662.11 0.02790 0.11287 0.14076 719.0 384.8 1.103.7
2,600.O 673.91 0.02938 0.09172 0.12110 744.5 337.6 1,082.O
2,800.O 684.96 0.03134 0.07171 0.10305 770.7 285.1 1.055.8
3,000.0 695.33 0.03428 0.05073 0.08500 801.8 218.4 1,020.3
X208.2' 705.47 0.05078 0.00000 0.05078 906.0 0.0 906.0
Steam Properties f.Yfs2 = steam quality at the end of the pipe

An abbreviated steam table’68 is given in Table 46.31. segment, fraction
f(t) = transient heat conduction time function
Nomenclature for earth, dimensionless
a = air requirement, 106, scf/acre-ft F a0 = AOR
A = heated area at time t, sq ft, or F,., = COZ/CO ratio in produced gas
quantities defined by Eqs. 9 and 79 F HC = atomic H/C ratio
A’ = quantity defined by Eq. 13 F, = ratio of stimulated to unstimulated
B = quantities defined by Eqs. 10 and 80 productivity indices, dimensionless
B’ = quantity defined by Eq. 14 F,?, = steam/oil ratio, STBiSTB
C, = fuel content, lbmicu ft F MAO, = total produced WOR. STBiSTB
C,, = heat capacity of oil, Btu/lbm-“F, or h = pay thickness, ft, or convection heat
concentration of oil, lbm molicu ft transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-sq ft-“F
C, = heat capacity of rock, Btuilbm-“F h’ = convection heat transfer coefficient
C,, = heat capacity of steam, Btuilbm-“F based on insulation outside surface,
C,,. = heat capacity of water, Btuilbm-“F Btulhr-sq ft-“F
Co2 = concentration of oxygen, Ibm molicu ft hf = cnthalpy of liquid water at T above
C, = quantity defined by Eqs. 58 and 60 32”F, Btuilbm
C2 = quantity defined by Eqs. 59 and 61 h, = total thickness of all sands, ft
D = depth, ft HO, = enthalpy of oil and gas Btuilbm
E = activation energy, Btuilbm mol H,, = enthalpy of water carried by oil based
Eh = thermal (heat) efficiency, fraction on a STB of oil, Btu/STB oil
Eo2 = oxygen utilization efficiency, fraction H WR = enthalpy of water at reservoir tempera-
E, = overall oil recovery ture, Btu/lbm
ERU = recovery efficiency in the unburned H,,, = enthalpy of water at steam tempera-
E region, fraction
vh = volumetric sweep efficiency of the
burning front, fraction
ture, Btu/lbm
IUI -~ cumulative air injection, 10’ scf
i, = steam injection rate, B/D
f‘,, = steam quality at the beginning of the I = radiation heat transfer coefficient,
pipe segment, fraction Btulhr-sq ft-“F
I’ = radiation heat transfer coefficient based r/,1 = outside radius of pipe. tt

on insulation outside surface. Btuihr- r,,. = well radius, ft
sq ft-“F R = gas constant
J, = unstimulated (cold) productivity Index, R,, = solution GOR. scf/STB
STBiD-psi R, = total produced GOR. scf/STB
k = absolute permeability, md S,s = gas saturation, fraction
k’ = pre-exponential factor Sir, = irreducible oil saturation, fraction
k,,,., = thermal conductivity of the casing ma- S;,,. = irreducible water saturation. percent
terial, Btu/hr-sq ft-“F S,, = oil saturation at start, fraction
k,IC.P= thermal conductivity of the cement. S,; = initial oil saturation, fraction
Btu/hr-ft-“F S,,,; = initial water saturation, fraction
k,,f = thermal conductivity of the formation, S,,.* = normalized water saturation, fraction
Btu/D-ft-“F t = time since injection, hours
k,,;,, = thermal conductivity of insulation ma- tc = critical time, hours
terial, Btuihr-ft-“F fg = dimensionless time
k ho = overburden thermal conducitivity, t; = time of injection for the current cycle,
Btu/hr-ft-“F days
k,,, = relative permeability to oil, fraction T = average temperature of the heated
k,,,. = relative permeability to water, fraction region, rr,. < r< rh , at any time t,
K = equilibrium vaporization constant “F
L = pipe length, ft T,, = atmospheric temperature, “F
L,, = latent heat of steam, Btuilbm Td = temperature at cement/formation
L,l = latent heat of vaporization at top of interface, “F
interval, Btuilbm T,.; = temperature at casing inside
L,.? = latent heat of vaporization at bottom of surface, “F
interval, Btuilbm Tj; = initial formation temperature, “F
m.\,, = total mass of steam injected, Ibm I$ = temperature of fluid, “F
M = volumetric heat capacity. Btuicu ft-“F T;,,j = injection temperature, “F
N = OOIP, bbl TR = original reservoir temperature, “F
N, = number of sands T, = steam temperature, “F
N.,, = oil in place at start of project, bbl T,s, = formation temperature at ground
AN.,, = cumulative incremental oil production, surface, “F
bbl u c0 = overall heat transfer coefficient based
PO = static formation pressure at external on outside casing surface, Btuihr-sq
radius, psia fi-“F
PI, = pore pressure, psi U,i = overall heat transfer coefficient based
P,~ = saturated vapor pressure of water at T, on inside radius of pipe or tubing,
psia Btuihr-sq ft-“F
P ,o = total overburden pressure, psi ur, = overall heat transfer coefficient based
p,,, = bottomhole pressure, psia on outside tubing surface, Btu/D-sq
p / = pressure at top of interval, psia ft-“F
p2 = pressure at bottom of interval, psia v t= specific volume of total fluid, cu
Ap = frictional pressure drop over interval, ft/lbm
psia v,,. = wind velocity, mile/hr
40 = oil displacement rate, B/D F’R = fuel burned, bbl
qoC. = cold oil production rate, B/D V,., V, = unit solution for component conduction
qnlr= hot oil production rate, B/D problems in the r and z directions*
Qi,, = heat remaining in heated zone, Btu v,, VT = average values of V, and V; for
Q;, = total heat injection, Btu O<r<rh
Qri = heat injection rate, Btuihr w = Arrhenius reaction rate

Q,., = heat loss along the segment, Btuihr M’s = mass rate of steam, Ibm/hr
Q, = heat removal rate at time t. BtuiD x = mole fraction in liquid phase
rd = radius to cement/formation interface, ft X = quantity defined by Eq. 66
r<.; = inside radius of casing. ft v = mole fraction in vapor phase
rccr = outside radius of casing. ft i = quantity defined by Eq. 65
rc, = external radius, ft (Y = thermal diffusivity, sq ft/D
rf, = radius of region originally heated. ft QY,>= overburnden thermal diffusivity, sq
r in = outside radius of insulation surface, ft ft/D
rrr = inside radius of tubing, ft ‘These symbols have no physical connotation They are simply mathemallcal symbols
0 = dummy variable in Eq. 27 F,, (in m3im3)=18.744+0.004767D-0.16693h

6 = energy removed with the produced
fluids. dimensionless -0.89814k-0.5915~L,, - 14.79S,
8 = dip angle, degrees
P 0 = oil viscosity, cp
kLoC= cold oil viscosity, cp -0.0009767kh. . (68)
PO
p,,d = viscosity of dead oil (gas-free oil) at T,
cP C,n (in kg/m 3, = - I .9222 + 0.137695h + 1.85029k
poh = hot Oil ViSCOSity, cp
Po.Pr.P,,. = density of oil, rock grain, and water,
lbmicu ft +35.723,, +0.012887kh
4 = porosity, fraction /*0
-0.009930- 1.0444pL.. . . . (69)
Key Equations in SI Units 2Fcc + 1 + FHC

- cm
FCC + 1 2 >
lx= . . . . . . . (70)
0.01776(12+FHc)E,~
h=7.165v,.0~6/rin0.4. . . .. . . (3)
2
a (in std m3/m3)= 108.356+2.75367/~+229.4773,,
p2=pI +7.816x10~r2(v,, -v,,)%
+16.073k. .. . (71)
+9.806~lO-~E-Ap. . . . . . . (20)
-1:;oj
EL’
a+@,(I
b-E,,h)ERu
&‘II F,,, =
F,,,,
*= Q,d
Ahd(S,; -sju) .. . . (30)
[(4s,- 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (72)
F,, (in std m3/m3)=3820.4+12.97h+192.20k

O.O005427kk,,h
4oc = (p,-p,,,)............(42)
pLoc.lnL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (73)
r 111
where
a is in std m3/m3,
Y=O.2639 0.4273, -0.004429h A is in m2,
[
> 1x, .... (64)

C, is in kg/m3,
0.25
D is in m,
F,, is in std m3 /m3,
F,, is in m3/m3,
F Jo* is in m3/m3,
where
h is in kJ/m2 .h*K (Eqs. 2 through 4),
h is in m,
i&o2
x= I,~ is in std m3,
W,444J1(1-~) ’ k is in pm2,
N, is in m3,
p’s are in kPa,
F,, (in m3/m3)= li -0.011253+0.000091170 qoc is in m’/d,
Q, is in m3/h,
+0.0005180h-0.077758 .
rjn IS m m,
rli IS m m,
t is in h.
v, is in m‘3 /kg,
+0.00003467~ t-0.5120@, v, is in kg/h,
P0 /) ws is in kglh,
p. is in Pa.s, and
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (67) pot is in Pa.s.
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Chapter 47
Chemical Flooding
Larry W. Lake, U. of Texas
Introduction
Chemical flooding is any isothermal EOR process whose processes, and concludes with typical oil displacement re-
primary goals are to recover oil by (1) reducing the mo- sults. The chapter concludes by giving comparative
bility of the displacing agent (mobility control process), screening parameters for each chemical flooding process.
and/or (2) lowering the oil/water interfacial tension (low-
IFT process). Mobility Control Processes
These classifications do not exclude processes where Effect of Low Mobility on Oil Recovery
both effects are important, such as micellar/polymer (MP) Mobility control processes are most applicable to reser-
flooding, nor do they imply that other effects, such as voirs that have substantial movable oil [oil in place (OIP)
wettabiiity alteration, extraction, or oil swelling. are not minus ROS] since they displace oil only in excess of ROS.
present. The mobility ratio concept illustrates how lowering the
Mobility control processes inject a low-mobility displac- mobility improves oil recovery.
ing agent to increase volumetric and displacement sweep The mobility ratio, M, between a displacing agent and
efficiency. The two main techniques are (I) polymer a displaced fluid is
flooding. whereby a small amount of polymer is added
to thicken brine and (2) foam flooding, through which low M=hDlh,,, ._____.____................ ._.(l)
mobilities are attained by injecting a stabilized dispersion
of gas in water. Polymer or mobility buffer “drives” also where AD is the mobility of displacing agent(s) and A,,
are used to displace micellar and high-pH slugs. Foams is the mobility of displaced fluid(s). Practical use of Eq.
have been used or proposed as driving agents for micel- 1 requires specific definitions of the quantities in the
lar. solvent, and steam slugs also. For these reasons foam numerator and denominator and of the conditions at which
tlooding could be discussed easily in the chapters on sol- these quantities are evaluated.
vent and thermal EOR processes; however. foam stabili- For two-phase waterflooding, common specializations
zation requires surfactants. whose discussion belongs in of Eq. 1 are the endpoint mobility ratio, M”. the average
this chapter. mobility ratio, M, and the shock mobility ratio. M*. Each
Low-IFT methods rely on injecting or forming in-situ definition has been used in particular applications in the
a surface-active agent (surfactant) which lowers oil/water literature: M has been used to correlate areal sweep rela-
IFT and, ultimately. residual oil saturation (ROS). Proc- tions, M* is the most direct indicator of viscous instability,
esscs that inject the surfactant are called “MP” floods and M” is the most widely cited value in the literature
because of the tendency for surfactants to form micelles for waterfloods. ‘Z For the special case of a piston-like
in aqueous solutions and the inevitable need to drive the displacement all three definitions are identical. From the
micellar solution with polymer. High-pH or alkaline proc- general definition of Eq. I, lowering the mobility of the
esses produce a surfactant in situ, since these processes displacing fluid is equivalent to lowering any of the mo-
rely on reactions with acidic components of the crude to bility ratios. This recovers oil by increasing both volu-
generate the surfactant. metric and displacement sweep efficiency.
This chapter is divided into sections corresponding to Volumetric sweep efficiency, EV. is the PV of a reser-
mobility control and low-IFT processes. Each section be- voir contacted by a displacing agent div,ided by the total
gins with a general discussion of how the particular mech- PV. Et, is composed of two parts: areal, E/r, and inva-
anism recovers oil, followed by material on the individual sion (vertical) sweep efficiency, El.
Fig. 47.1-Schematic of polymer flooding
For more &tailed discuxsions of E,, and El XC‘Chaps. Polymer Flooding

30. 43. and 44 and Refs. 1 through 1 I. Both quantities
dcpcnd on throughput and on several fluid. petrophyai- Polymers have been used in oil production in three modes.
cal. and geometric factors. usually expressed as dimen- I. They have been used as near-well treatments to in-
sionlcsa groups. However. E,.( and El both increase as prove the performance of waler injectors or high-watercut
Mdecrea~-i.e.. as the mobility of the displacing agent, producers by blocking off high-conductivity Loncs.
A,,. decreases. 2. Polymers also are used as agents that may be cross-
When the displacement is piston-like in a homogcnc- linked in situ to plug high-conductivity zones at depth in
ous. isotropic. horizontal medium and M> I (an UI+I\YIU- the reservoir. ” These proccsscs require that polymer be
hlr mobility ratio). the displacement front forms small in.jected with an inorganic metal cation. which will cross-
perturbations. called “viscous fingers.” which grow dur- link subsequently injected polymer molccutes with ones
ing propa@on. Such t’ingcrs also form when M< I. but already bound to solid surfaces.
they are damped out by the~~~\~cl&le mobility ratio. The 3. The other mode is use as agents to lower M or Xn.
growing viscous fingers can contribute substantially to The first mode is not truly a chemical flooding proc-
poor oil rocovcry because of large-scale bypassing. Mo- ess. since the actual oil-displacing agent is not the poly-
bility control agents prevent viscous fingering cithcr in mer. The overwhelming majority of polymer EOR
il conventional waterflood (polymer flooding) or ah a part projects have been in the third mode, which is the one
of an otherwise inherently unstable EOR process. emphasized here.
Displacement efficiency. El, (local or microscopic Fig. 47. I is a schematic of a typical polymer flood in-
sweep cfticicncy). is the volume of oil recovered in a dis- jection sequence: a preflush, usually consisting of a low-
placement divided by the oil volume just before the dis- salinity brine: an oil bank; the polymer solution itself: a
placement. the displacement having maximum volumetric freshwater buffer to protect the polymer solution from
sweep efficiency. The classical solution by Buckley and backside dilution; and, finally. chase or drive water. Many
Leverett can be used to describe the effect of mobility low- times the freshwater buffer contains polymer in decreas-
ering on En. ” Because of the dependence on several ing amounts (a grading or taper) to lessen the effects ot
factors there i+ no unique correspondence between M and unfavorable mobility ratio between the chase water and
El,: however. lowering M or An results in improved oil the polymer solution. Because ofthe driving nature of the
recovery through larger Eo. process. polymer tloods always arc performed through
Lowering M. then. results in improved oil recovery by separate sets of in.jection and production wells.
increahins areal. vertical. and displacement sweep effi- M is lowered in a polymer tlood by in.jecting water that
cicncics. Since it is the products of these factors that dc- contains a high-molecular-weight. water-soluble polymer.
tcrminc overall oil recovery. this implies that an incrcasc Since the water is usually a dilution of an oill‘icld brine.
in any one may not r-csutt in a larfc overall incrcaso in interactions with salinity are important. particularly for
oil rccokery. particularly if one of the other efficiencies certain classes of polymers. Salinity in this chapter is the
ivcre IOU. Even with the combination of the three effi- total dissolved solids (TDS) content of the aqueous phase.
clc‘ncIc\. the incremental oil recovered with ;I mobility Typical values are shown in Fig. 47.2. ” Virtually all
control process must he balanced against the additional chemical flooding propertics dcpcnd on the concentrations
eupensc rcquircd to in.jcct the viscous mobility control ofspccific ions rather than salinity only. It is partcularly
agent. important to monitor the aqueous phahc‘s total divalcnt
CHEMICAL FLOODING 47-3
POLYACRYLAMIDE
I
f’“T-J-
I HYDROLYZED
i ““2 I I
POLYACAYLAMIDE
r I
1,000 Fig. 47.3A-Molecular structure for partially hydrolyzed poly-
a0 acrylamide.
d3 L
@ Oo
0
)
I
,oc
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS, mg/l
Fig. 47.2-Salinities from representallve oilfield brines Fig. 47.3B-Molecular structure for polysaccharlde jbiopolymer).
cation content (hardness) separately. since the latter are Polyacrylamides. PAM’s are polymers whose mono-
usually more crltical to chemical llood properties than the meric unit is the acrylamide molecule. As used in poly-
same TDS concentration. Fig. 47.2 also shows typical mer flooding, PAM’s have undergone partial hydrolysis.
brine hardncsscs. which causes anionic (negatively charged) carboxyl
Bccauxc of the high molecular weight ( I to 3 million groups (-COO-) to be scattered along the chain. The
is typical) only a small amount (typically about 500 ppm) polymers are called partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamidcs
of polJ,mer will bring about a substantial increase in water (HPAM’s) for this reason. Typical degrees of hydrolysis
viscosity. Furthcrmorc. several types ofpolymcrs lower arc 30% or more of the acrylamide monomers: hence.
mobility by lowcring water relative pcrmcability (pcrme- the HPAM molecule is quite negatively charged. which
ability reduction effect) in addition to incrcaxing the water accounts for many of its physical properties. The
viscosity. How polymer lowers mobility. and the inter- viscosity-increasing feature of HPAM lies in its large
actions with salinity may be qualitatively illustrated with molecular weight. which is accentuated by the anionic
some di5cusslon of polymer chemistry. repulsion between polymer molecules and also between
segments on the same molecule. The repulsion causes the
Polymer Types. Several polymers have been considered molecule in solution to elongate or uncoil and snag on
for polymer tlooding: xanthan gum, hydrolyzed poly- others similarly elongated, an effect that accentuates the
acrylamide (HPAM). copolymers of acrylic acid and mobility reduction at higher concentrations.
acrylamide. copolymers ofacrylamide and 2-acrylamide-2 If the brine salinity and/or hardness arc high. however,
Imethyl propane sulfonatc (AM/AMPS). hydrouyethyl- this repulsion is decreased greatly through ionic shield-
cellulose (HEC). carboxymethylhydroxycthyIccllulose ing as the freely rotating carbon/carbon bonds allow the
(CMHEC). polacrylamide (PAM). polyacrylic acid, flu- molecule to ball up or coil. (Fig. 47.3 shows the molccu-
can. dextran polycthylencoxide (PEO). and polyvinyl al- lar structure of hydroxyethylcellulose.) This causes a cor-
cohol (PA). Only the first three have actually hccn field responding decrease in the effectiveness of the polymer,
tested: however. the variety of entries in this partial list- since the snagging effect is rcduccd greatly. Virtually all
ing emphasizes that there arc many potentially suitable HPAM properties show a large sensitivity to salinity and
chcmlcals. some of which may prove more cfkctivc than hardness. This is an obstacle to usiiyg,HPAM in many
thoxc currently LIW~. Ncvcrthclcsj. virtually all 01‘rhe reservoirs. On the other hand, HPAM 15inexpensive. rela-
commercially attractive polymers fall into two gcncric tively resistant to bacterial attack. and exhibits permea-
classes: polyacrylamidcs and poly\accharide\ (hiopolyme1 bility reduction.
or xanthan gum ). The remainder of this discussion deals
with these cxclu\ively. Representative molecular struc- Polysaccharides. A second major class of polyniers arc
turn\ are given in Fig. 47.3. ‘.’ the polysaccharidcs. which are formed from the polymers-
Fig. 47.4-Polymer solution viscosity vs. shear rate and polymer Fig. 47.5-Polymer solution viscosity vs. shear rate at various
concentration. brine salinities.
zation of saccharide molecules (Fig. 47.3). Polysaccha- unsnagging of the polymer chains when they are placed
rides or biopolymers are formed from a bacterial in a shear flow. Below the critical shear rate the curve
fermentation process. This process leaves substantial is reversible.
debris in the polymer product that must be removed be- Fig. 47.5 shows a viscosity/shear-rate plot at fixed poly-
fore the polymer is injected. I6 The polymer is also sus- mer concentration with variable NaCl concentration for
ceptible to bacterial attack after it has been introduced into an AMPS polymer. I9 Note the profound sensitivity of the
the reservoir. These disadvantages are offset by the in- viscosity to salinity: as a rule of thumb the polymer solu-
sensitivity of polysaccharide properties to brine salinity tion viscosity decreases a factor of 10 for every factor-
and hardness. The origin of this insensitivity is seen in of-10 increase in NaCl concentration. The viscosity of
Fig. 47.3, which shows the polysaccharide molecule to HPAM polymers and HPAM derivatives is even more
be relatively nonionic and, therefore, free of the ionic sensitive to hardness, but viscosities of polysaccharide so-
shielding effects of HPAM. Polysaccharides are more lutions are relatively insensitive to both.
branched than are HPAM’s and the oxygen-ringed car- The behavior in Figs. 47.4 and 47.5 is favorable be-
bon bond does not rotate fully; hence, the molecule in- cause for the bulk of a reservoir’s volume, P is usually
creases brine viscosity by snagging and by adding a more low (about 1 to 5 seconds -I), making it possible to at-
rigid structure to the solution. Polysaccharides do not ex- tain a design M with a minimal amount of polymer. Near
hibit permeability reduction, however. the injection wells, however, i can be quite high, which
At the present time HPAM is less expensive per unit causes the polymer injectivity to be greater than that ex-
amount than polysaccharides; however, when compared pected on the basis of ~1 ’ The relative magnitude of this
on a unit amount of mobility reduction, particularly at high enhanced injectivity ef Pect can be estimated once quan-
salinities, the costs are close enough so that the preferred titative definitions of shear rate in permeable media and
polymer for a given application is site-specific. Histori- shear-rate/viscosity relations are given. ”
cally, HPAM’s have been used in about 95% of the report- The polymer solution viscosity/shear-rate relationship
ed field polymer floods. I7 Both classes of polymers tend may be described by a power law model. ”
to degrade chemically at elevated temperatures.
pp =K(iy ’, .. (2)
Polymer Properties. Because of the complexity of the
subject, a comprehensive treatment of polymer proper- where K and n are the power-law coefficient and expo-
ties is not possible. However. qualitative trends, a few nent, respectively. Eq. 2 applies only over a limited range
quantitative relations and representative data are presented of shear rates: below some low shear rate the polymer
on these properties: viscosity relations, non-Newtonian solution viscosity is constant at pp O, and above the crit-
effects, retention, permeability reduction, and chemical, ical shear rate the polymer solution viscosity is also con-
biological, or mechanical degradation. stant p,O”. The truncated nature of the power law is
Viscosity Relations and Non-Newtonian Effects. Fig. awkward in calculations; hence, another useful relation-
47.4 shows polymer solution viscosity. p,,, vs. shear rate ship is the Meter model. 22
measured in a laboratory viscometer at fixed salinity. I8
At low shear rates, p,, is independent of shear rate. PLpO-P,, m
Pp = P pm+ . a~,,‘.......““.‘....
P(~,,=~,,‘), and the solution is a Newtonian fluid. At
higher i. p,, decreases, approaching a limiting If L
c p 1%>
(p,, =p,’ “) value not much greater than the water vis-
cosity, p,,., at some critical high shear rate (not shown where 01 is an empirical coefficient and > ,,? is the shear
on Fig. 47.4). A fluid whose viscosity decreases with in- rate at which CL,,is the average of pLr,’and p,, -. As with
creasing ? is shear thinning. The shear thinning behavior all polymer properties, all empirical parameters are func-
of the polymer solution is caused by the uncoiling and tions of salinity, hardness, and temperature.
When applied to permeable media flow thcsc gcncral where

trends and equations continue to apply. cc,, is usually k,, = permeability to polymer solution.
called the “r(17/‘u’.~rr” viscosity and the effective shear h,, = mobility of water-rich phase. and
rate. in,.. is based on capillary tube concepts. h,, = mobility of polymer solution.
uii For constant-flow-rate experiments. FR is the inverse ra-

ic = , .. ..... ....... . . . (4)
tio of pressure drops; for constant-pressure-drop experi-
4&G% ments, FR is the ratio of flow rates. F, is an indication
of the total mobility-lowering contribution of a polymer.
where To describe the permeability reduction effect alone. a prl--
II,,. = superficial flux of polymer-rich (water) mwhilit~, rcductiorl ,firctor-. F,.k , is defined as
phase.
k,,. = permeability to polymer-rich (water) phase.
S,,. = saturation of polymer-rich (water) phase.
fraction, and
$ = porosity of medium, fraction. A final definition is the residual resistctnw jirctor. FRr .
which is the mobility of a brine solution before and after
polymer injection.
Polymer Retention. All polymers experience retention
on solid surfaces because of adsorption or mechanical
trapping within a permeable medium. Polymer retention
FR,-=- . _. (7)
varies with polymer type, molecular weight, rock com-
position, brine salinity and hardness, flow rate, and tem-
perature. Field-measured values of retention range from
where A,,.,, is the mobility of water-rich phase before
20 to 400 Ibm polymer/acre-ft bulk volume with desir-
polymer injection and A,,,(, is the mobility of water-rich
able retention level being less than about 50 lbm/acre-ft.
phase after polymer injection. F,Q is a measure of the
Retention causes the loss of polymer from solution, which
permanence of the permeability reduction effect caused
can cause the mobility control effect to be destroyed-an
by the polymer solution. It is the primary measure of the
effect that is particularly pronounced at low polymer con-
performance of a channel-blocking application of poly-
centrations. Polymer retention also causes a delay in the
mer solutions. For many cases, F,k and FR,- are nearly
rate of polymer propagation.
equal; however. FR is usually much larger than F,.,: be-
Offsetting the delay caused by retention is an accelera-
cause the former contains the viscosity-enhancing effect
tion of the polymer solution through the permeable medi-
as well as the permeability-reduction effect.
um. which is caused by inaccessible PV (IPV). The most
common explanation for IPV is that the smaller portions The most common measure of permeability reduction
is F,.k. Frk is sensitive to polymer type, molecular weight.
of the pore space will not allow polymer molecules to enter
degree of hydrolysis, shear rate, and permeable media
because of their size. Thus, a portion of the total pore
pore structure. Polymers that have undergone even a small
space is uninvaded or inaccessible to polymer. and ac-
amount of mechanical degradation seem to lose most of
celerated polymer flow results. Large as they arc, how-
their permeability reduction effect. For this reason.
ever, most polymer molecules will fit easily into all but
qualitative tests based on screen factor devices are com-
the smallest pore throats. Hence, a second explanation
mon to estimate polymer quality.” F,.k has been correlat-
of IPV ih based on a wall exclusion effect whereby the
ed to polymer adsorption and rheological properties by
polymer molecules aggregate in the center of a narrow
channel.” The polymer pore fluid layer near the wall has Hirasaki and Pope.”
Chemical and Biological Degradation. The average
a lower viscosity than the fluid in the center. which causes
polymer molecular weight can be decreased, to the detri-
an apparent fluid slip.
ment of the overall process, by chemical. biological, or
IPV depends on polymer molecular weight, media per-
mechanical degradation. Chemical degradation can be
meability, porosity, and pore size distribution, becoming
minimized by restricting polymer usage to low-
more pronounced as molecular weight increases and the
temperature applications, and by adding oxygen
ratio of permeability to porosity (characteristic pore size)
decreases. IPV can be 30% of the total pore space or scavengers (e.g., sodium sulfate or sodium sulfite) to the
polymer solution. Biological degradation can be elim-
greater,
nated by adding oxygen scavengers and biocides (e.g..
Permeability Reduction. As mentioned previously
formaldehyde or isopropyl alcohol). In fact, nearly all ap-
HPAM polymers can cause lowered mobility through a
permeability reduction effect. This phenomenon has been plications contain some of these chemicals. usually in very
small quantities (see Ref. 16 or 26).
described through three factors. 24 The resistuncc~,fuctor.
Mechanical Degradation. Mechanical’degradation, on
FR, is the ratio of the injectivity of a single-phase poly-
the other hand, is potentially present under all applica-
mer solution to that of brine flowing under the same con-
ditions: tions. Mechanical degradation occurs when polymer so-
lutions are exposed to high-velocity flows. These can be
present in surface equipment (valves. orifices, pumps. or
A,,. k,,/tL,,, tubing), downhole conditions (perforations or screens).
FR=-=x,, k,,cl,, . or in the sandface itself. Perforated completions. partic-
ularly, are a cause for concern. since large quantities of
County, OK.‘” The figure shows WOR and oil rate be-
fore and immediately after polymer injection. Polymer
injection began in late 1970, which quickly arrested a
declining oil rate and an increasing WOR. The oil rate
then resumed its prepolymer decline but at a substantial-
53000 BARRELS
ly higher level. The polymer oil or incremental oil recov-
PLACED 40. I
ON PRODUCTION - ery (IOR) from a polymer flood is the difference between
the cumulative oil actually produced and that which would
have been produced by a continuing waterflood. Thus.
for a technical analysis of the project it is important to
establish a polymer flood oil rate decline and an accurate
waterflood decline rate. The IOR for North Burbank is
the shaded area in Fig. 47.6.
Table 47. I summarizes other field results on more than
“EARS 250 polymer tloods on the basis of a comprehensive sur-
vcy by Manning rt rrl. I7 The table emphasizes oil recov-
Fig. 47.6-Tertiary polymer flood response from North Burbank
cry data and screening parameters used for polymer
Unit, Osage County, OK.
flooding. Approximately one-third of the statistics arc
from commercial or field-scale floods. The oil recovery
statistics in Table 47. I show average polymer tlood recov-
polymer solution arc being forced through a number of cries of 3.56% remaining (after watertlood) oil in place.
small holes. For this reason. most polymer in,jections are and 2.69 STB of IOR for each pound of polymer itljcct-
done through openhole or gravel-pack completions. Be- cd. with wide variations in both numbers. The large varia-
cause flow velocity falls off quickly with distance from bility reflects the emerging nature of polymer tlooding
an injector. little mechanical degradation occurs within in the previous decades. Considering the STB IOR per
the reservoir itself. pound of polymer average and the average costs of crude
All polymers mechanically degrade under high enough and polymer, it appears that polymer flooding could be
flow rates. However. HPAM’s are most susceptible un- a highly attractive EOR process. However. such costs al-
der normal operating conditions. particularly if the sa- ways should be compared on a discounted basis rctlcct-
linity or hardness ofthe brine is large. Evidently, the ionic ing the time value of money. which will decrease the
coupling of these anionic molecules is relatively fragile apparent attractlvencss of polymer flooding because of the
compared with the polysaccharide chains. Also. clonga- decreased injectivity of the polymer solutions.
tional stress is ar destructive to polymer solutions as is
shear stress, although the two generally accompany each Foam Flooding
other. Maerker and others have correlated permanent vis- Gas/liquid foams offer an alternative to polymers for
cosity of a polymer solution loss to an elongational stretch providing mobility control in chemical floods, and have
rate times length product. 273 On a viscosity/shear-rate been both proposed and field tested as mobility control
plot (purely shear flow), mechanical degradation usually agents in steamfloods.
begins at shear rates greater than the minimum-viscosity Foams are dispersions of gas bubbles in liquids. Gas/liq-
critical shear rate. uid dispersions are normally unstable and usually will
break in less than I second. If surfactants are added to
Field Results. Fig. 47.6 shows a tertiary polymer tlood- the liquid, however, stability is improved greatly so that
ing field response from the North Burbank unit, Osage some foams can persist indefinitely. To understand foam
TABLE 47.1-POLYMER FLOOD STATISTICS
Number of Standard
Projects* Mean Minimum Maximum Deviation
Oil recovery, O/oremaining OIP 50 3.56 0 25.3 5.63
Oil recovery, STB/lbm 80 2.69 0 36.5 4.86
Oil recovery, STBlacre-ft 88 24.0 0 188.7 36.65
Permeability variation, fraction 118 0.70 0.06 0.96 0.19
Mobile oil saturation, fraction 62 0.27 0.03 0.51 0.12
Oil viscosity, cp 153 36 0.072 1,494 110.2
Resident brine salinity,
g TDSlL 10 40.4 5.0 133.0 33.4
Water-to-oil mobility ratio,
dimensionless 87 5.86 0.1 51.8 11.05
Average polymer
concentration, ppm 93 339 51 3,700 343
Temperature, OF 172 115 46 234 85
Average permeability, md 187 349 1.5 7,400 720
Average porosity, fraction 193 0.20 0.07 0.38 0.20
propertie rcqulrcc wnc ili5cusvon of surtactunts and SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE

their classifications. Moat of the discussion applies to MP
surfact~nts 3s well. c: c
/ \,/ \cA,i\p\cAo _ g _ o- No+
Surfxtant Chemistq. A typical xurfactant monomet- is
I
composed of a nonpolar portion (lipophi1c~i.c.. having 0
strong affinit~~~for oil) and a polar portion (hydrophile-
TEXAS NO.1 SULFONATE
i.e.. strong attmity for water): the entire monomer is an
amphtphile (has affinity for both oil and vvater) because
ofthis dual nature. Fig. 47.7 shows the molecular struc-
ture of two common surfactanta (top two panels) and il-
lustrates (lowest panel) a shorthand notation for surfactant
monomers: the monomer is represented by a “tadpole”
sy~dx~l with the nonpolar portion being the tail and the
polar the head. Surfactants are classified into four groups COMMERCIAL PETROLEUM SULFONATES
that depend on their polar portions (see Table 47.1)3”.
0
Anionic.s. As required by electroneutrality. the an I
ionic aurfactant molecule is uncharged with an inorganic R-S -O-Nat-
metal cation (usually sodium) associated with the
A
monomer. In an aqueous solution the ~~dx~~le ioniLcs
to free cations and the anionic monomer. Anionic sur-
R - HYDROCARBON GROUP
factants are the most common in EOR because they are
(non - polar)
good surfactants. rclativelv resistant to retention. stable.
and relatively inexpensive.
Cationics. In this case the surfactant ~~dxulc con- Fig. 47.7-Typical surfactant molecular structures
tains a cationic hydrophilc and an inorganic anion to bal-
ancc the charpc. Cationic surfactants have little use in
EOR bccausc they are adsorbed highly by the anionic sur-
faces of interstitial clays.
Nonionics. These surfactants do not form ionic effect of structure on surfactant propertics see Refs. 31
bonds, but when dissolved in aqueous solutions. they cx- and 32.
hibit surfactant properties simply by electronegativity con- Most commercial surfactants contain distributions of
trasts betvveen their constituents. Nonionics arc much less surfactants and surfactant types that further add to their
sensittve to high salinities than anionics or cationics. complexity. In the following. distinctions between sur-
Anzphoterics. A final class of surfactants are those factant types are ignored by simply treating the surfac-
that contain aspects of two or more of the previous class- tant as the tadpole structure of Fig. 47.7.
es. For example. an amphoteric may contain both an an-
ionic group and a nonpolar group. These surfactants have Foam Stability. The stability of a foam may be under-
not been used in EOR. stood by viewing the liquid film separating two gas hub-
Within any one class there is a huge variety of possible bles in cross section as in the lower panel of Fig. 47.8. ‘?
surfactants. Fig. 47.7 illustrates differences in Iipophile The hydrophiles of the surfactant are oriented into the in-
molecular weight IC t2 for the sodium dodecyl sulfate terior of the film and the lipophiles toward the bulk gas
(SDS) vs. C th for Texas No. I]. hydrophilc identity (sul- phase. Suppose that some external force causes the film
fate vs. sulfonate), and tail branching (straight chain for to thin as in the lower panel. Since capillary pressure is
SDS vs. two tails for Texas No. 1) all within the same inversely proportional to interfacial curvature. the pres-
class of anionic surfactants. In addition to these. there are sure in the thinned portion of the film is lower than in
variations in the position ofthe hydrophile attachment and the ad,iacent flat portion. This causes a pressure differ-
the number of hydrophiles (monosulfonates vs. disul- cnce within the film. liquid flow. and healing. The pres-
fonatcs. for example). Even small variations can change sure in the gas phase is assumed constant because of its
surfactant properties drastically (e.g.. sulfates tend to be relatively low density if the foam is static. or low vis-
less thermally stable than sulfonatcs). For details on the cosity if in motion.
Table 47.2-CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACTANTS AND EXAMPLES
4-M -e’M -e+ d-

Anionics Cationics Amphoterics Nonionics
Sulfonaies Quaternary ammonium Aminocarboxyltc Alkyl-
Sulfates Pyridinum acids Alkyl-aryl
Carboxylates lmidazolrnrum Others Acyl
Phosphates Piperidinium Acylamindo-
Others Sulfononium Acylaminepolyglycol ethers
Compounds Polyol ethers
Others Alkanolamides
Others
47-a PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
ble layer on the interior of the film boundary and the

SURFACE
TENSION _ ADSORPTION attractive Van der Waal forces bctwccn the molecules in
/I----- the film. If the film becomes substantially smaller than
/
/ the equilibrium thickness. the fret energy barrier between
/
the repulsive and attractive contributions is breached and
/ the film will collapse.
/
/ Such thinning can be caused spontaneously by diffu-
/ I
/ sion of the gas from small to large bubbles and by gravi-
J I
C.Y.C. CONC. ty drainage. Patton et al.” reported on the rate of
spontaneous collapse of a large number of foams as a func-
tion of surfactant type. temperature, and pH. tl The half-
life of the foam heights reported in their static tests ranges
from 1 to about 45 minutes. They report that anionic sur-
FlllIl
factants have greater stability than nonionics. and that the
Film stability of sulfonate foams is affected greatly by water
3 Hii 0
hardness. Foams were generally more unstable at high
Thlnner, Lou adrorptlon, Larger aurfece tencllon, temperatures, and many could be stabilized by adding a
Contractlon
second surfactant.
External effects that may cause the foam to collapse are
Fig. 47.8-Upper panel shows surface tension and adsorption
the presence of a foam breaker (oil or a high clcctrolyte
of a surfactant vs. concentration. Lower panel is the
Gibbs-Marangoni effect. concentration could do this). local heating. or contact with
a hydrophobic surface.
Foam Physical Properties. Physically, foams arc char-

0 km, = 4.41 OMCY acterized by three measures.
Qua&. Foam quality, r, is the percentage of the total
* k,,, * 0.42 DARCY
(bulk) foam volume that is gas volume. The quality can
0 km ’ 0.22 DARCY
increase with increasing temperature and decreasing pres-
sure both because the gas volume can increase. and also
because gas dissolved in the bulk liquid phase can evolve
from solution. Foam qualities can bc quite high, approach-
\ ing 97% in many cases. A foam with quality greater than
0 90% is a dry foam.
Texture. This measure is the average bubble size. The
texture determines how the foam will flow through a
0.10!- * A permeable medium. If the average bubble size is larger
than the average pore diameter. the foam flow5 as a
progression of films separating individual gas bubbles.
Given typical foam textures and pore sizes, this condi-
tion is most nearly realized in permeable flow. particu-
larlyfor high foam qualities.
0
0.01 Bubble Size Range. Foams with a large distribution
60 0
QUA&Y OF F&i, PLRCE”SOf range are more likely to be unstable because of the gas
diffusion from large to small bubbles.
Fig. 47.9-Effective permeability-viscosity ratio vs foam quality

Mobility Lowering. Foams can reduce the mobility of
for consolidated oorous media.
a gas phase drastically. Fig. 47.9 shows the steady-state
mobility of foams of differing quality in Berea cores at
three different permeabilities as a function of quality.”
On the extreme right of this figure (r- 100%). the mo-
The upper panel in Fig. 47.8 shows that the gas/liquid bility should approach the respective air permeability
surface tension is a decreasing function of surface adsorp- divided by the air viscosity: this mobility is two to three
tion as required by the Gibbs theory. According to this factors of 10 greater than any of the experimental points
view the thinned portion of the film will have less specif- on the figure. When r-0 the mobility should approach
ic adsorption (since the surface area is locally greater) and the water permeability divided by CL,, Thus. the mobili-
greater surface tension. This locally high surface tension ty of the foam is lower than that of either of its consti-
also causes healing. tuents alone. The mobility of the foam decreases with
Clearly. the surface tension at the gas/liquid interfaces increasing quality until the films between the gas bubbles
play an important role in film stability. Very low surface begin to break and the foam collapses (not shown on Fig.
tension would not be favorable; fortunately gas/liquid sur- 47.9). Foams are effective in reducing the mobility at all
face tensions are rarely lower than 20 dynes/cm even with three permeabilities in Fig. 47.9, but the effect of foam
the best foaming agents. In the absence of external forces. quality is more pronounced at the highest permeability.
the film is at an equilibrium thickness caused by a bal- This is a consequence of the contrast between the tcxturc
ance between the repulsion forces of the electrical dou- of the foam and the mean pore size of the mcdium.36
The mobility reduction caused by the foam can be

viewed as an increase in a single-phase viscosity or as
a decrease in the gas-phase permeability. Representative
data of the second type are in Fig. 47.10, which shows
the gas-phase permeability, both with and without foam,
and as saturation plotted against the liquid injection
f
rate. -’ Note that the foam causes a great decrease in gas
permeability at the same rate and even at the same gas
saturation compared to the nonfoaming displacement. The l.T Ii iiiiiii iiiiil II:
analogous analysis performed on the aqueous-phase rela-
tive permeability shows that neither the gas saturation nor
the presence of the foaming agent affects the aqueous-
phase relative permeability. j8
-?-d---GAS PERYEABILITY
The low foam mobilities in permeable media flow are k--t+sRI
postulated to be caused by at least two different mecha- 3
nisms: (I) the formation of or the increase in a trapped
residual gas phase saturation and (2) a blocking of pore 3
throats caused by the gas films. From Fig. 47.10 the ef-
fect of a trapped gas saturation, which would lower the
gas mobility through a relative-permeability lowering, is 0.1
much smaller than the pore-throat-blocking effect. The 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 12 13 14
trapped gas-phase saturation effect may become impor- LIQUID INJECTION RATE, BARRELS PER.
tant. however, during the later stages of a displacement DAY/ SO. FT.
where the lower pressures could cause more gas to come
out of solution. Fig. 47.10-Effect of liquid flow rate and gas saturation on gas
The mobility reduction of foams, viewed as a viscosit permeability with and without foam
enhancement. has been studied in capillary tubes. 38
General observations on these data are that foams are
generally shear-thinning fluids whose power law coeffi-
cient increases with the capillary tube radius. Using the-
oretical arguments based on a Newtonian fluid and an
inviscid gas, Hirasaki and Lawson showed that the film
thickness of a single moving bubble increases as the bub-
ble velocity to the two-thirds power. 4o Since shear stress
in a capillary is inversely proportional to film thickness.
the apparent viscosity of a foam in a capillary tube
decreases with increasing velocity. Thus, the shear-
thinning effect observed in capillary tubes is actually a
consequence of the film thickening as velocity increases.
A second implication in the Hirasaki-Lawson theory is
that foam texture occupies as great an importance in de-
termining rheological behavior as does foam quality.
Field Results. Field tests of foam injection alone have

been scarce. Holm reports on the injection of an air/brine Fig. 47.11--Schematic capillary desaturatjon curves
foam into a single well in the Siggins field.” Though
there was no measureable oil response, the mobility to
both air and brine were reduced significantly, and the in-
jection profile into the central well became more uniform. ed theoretically, 4’-w but the most common source of this
curve is experimental measurement. “.” The ratio of vis-
Low-IFT Processes cous to local capillary forces is the capillary number, N,. 1
In addition to stabilizing gas dispersions, surfactants used one form of which is
in MP flooding or generated in situ can recover oil by
lowering oil/water IFT. N,. =N ,, p ,,,/u,,.<, . (8)
Lowering ROS For a waterflood, u,,. and p,,, are the superficial flux and
The basic tool for illustrating how lowering IFT reduces viscosity of the displacing water, and u,!(, is the IFT be-
ROS is the capillary desaturation curve (CDC) shown in tween the water and oil phases. For a MP flood a more
Fig. 47.1 I. The CDC is a plot of nonwetting- or wetting- general definition is appropriate, but Eq. 8 and the CDC
phase residual saturation on the y axis vs. a dimcnsion- can illustrate this case also.
less ratio of viscous to local capillary forces on a logarith- The CDC is a nearly horizontal plateau at small N, un-
mic .Y axis. On Fig. 47.1 I, S,,,.,, is the residual oil til a critical value above which both residual phase satu-
(assumed nonwetting), and S,,,. is the irreducible water- rations decrease. At a second critical N,.. the residual
(wetting)-phase saturation. The CDC has been calculat- phase saturations are zero and complete recovery of the
47-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBI 30K
Fig. 47.12-Schematic of an MP flooding process.
originally trapped phase occurs. The shape of the CDC IMP Flooding
is determined by the pore geometry of the medium and MP flooding has appeared in the technical literature un-
the wetting behavior of the two phases. The wetting phase
der many names: detergent. surfactant, low-tension. solu-
rcquircs a larger N,. for complete recovery. To a lesser ble oil. microemulsion. and chemical flooding. There are
extent. the CDC shape is affected by the mean pore size also several company names that imply a specific sequence
and pore size distribution of the medium. and the initial
and type of injected fluids as well as the specific nature
saturations. Typical N, ‘s for watertlooding are quite
of the oil-recovering MP slug itself. Though there are
small. which indicates that ROS and S,,, may be assumed
differences among company processes. the common
constant for this purpose (XC Fig. 47. I I). Because of the aspects are more numerous and important.
logarithmic .Y axis. a decrease by several factors of IO in
An idealized version of a MP flooding sequence is in
N, is necessary IO significantly change either residual Fig. 47.12. The process is applied invariably to tertiary
phase saturation. Ofthc three quantities in Eq. 8 only the floods (those producing at high WOR’s) and is always im-
IFT can be changed this drastically; a typical value for plemented in the drive mode (not cyclic or huff ‘n’ puff).
causing good ROS reduction is in the range of IO ’ The complete process consists of the following.
dyne/cm. a value that can be obtained only with a good Prejlush. A volume of brine whose purpose is to change
aurfactant.
(usually lower) the salinity and hardness of the resident
brine so that mixing with the surfactant will not cause the
loss of interfacial activity. Pretlushcs have ranged in size
from 0 to 100% of the reservoir PV. In some processes
a sacrificial agent is added to lessen the subsequent sur-
factant retention and also to precipitate divalent cation.”
MP Slug. This volume. ranging from 5 to 40% PV in
field applications. contains the main oil-recovering agent.
the prituut:\~ surfactant, in concentrations ranging from I
to 20 ~0170. Several other chemicals (cosurfactants. al-
cohols. oil. polymer. biocide, and oxygen scav’cnger) are
usually necessary for good oil recovery.
LJ40~i~i~ Buffeer. This fluid is a dilute solution of a
water-soluble polymer whose purpose is to drive the MP
\lug and banked-up fluids to the production wells. Much
of polymer flooding technology carries over to dcsign-
ing and implcmcnting the mobility buffer.-18
Freshwater Buffer. This i\ a volume of brine contain-
ing a concentration of polymer grading between that of
the mobility buffer at the front end and zero at the back.
The gradual concentration decrease mitigates the effect
of the unfavorable mobility ratio between the chase water
Fig. 47.13-Schematic of the CMC and mobility buffer.
Chase Water. The purpose of the chase water is sirn-

ply to reduce the expense of continually
mer. If the mobility
designed properly.
it is penetrated,by
and freshwater
the MP slug will
the chase water.
injecting poly-
buffers have been
be dcplcted before
1
Surfactant
in brine,
monomer.
the lipophilic
Solutions.
the surfactant
If an anionic surfactant is dissolved
If the surfactant
portions
disassociates into a cation and a
concentration
of the surfactant
among themselves to form aggregates or micelIes contain-
then is increased,
begin to associate
_(
ing several monomers each. A plot of surfactant monomer
concentration vs. total surfactant concentration (Fig.
47.13) is a curve that begins at the origin, increases with
unit slope, then levels off at the critical micelle concen-
tration (CMC). Above the CMC all further increases in
I
surfactant concentration cause increases only in the micelle
concentration. CMC’s are typically quite small (about
10 -’ to IO p4 mol/L). At nearly all practical concentra- S
tions for MP flooding the surfactant is predominantly in
the micellc form; hence. the name micellar/polymer flood- WA TEf? EXTERNAL EXCESS
hffCROE~LS/ON 011
ing. The representations of the micelles in Fig. 47.13 and
I A
elsewhere are schematic. The actual micelle structures can
take on various forms, which can fluctuate with time.
When this solution contacts an oleic phase (the term
“olcic” indicates that this phase can contain more than
oil) the surfactant tends to accumulate at the intervening
interface. The lipophilic tail dissolves in the oleic phase,
and the hydrophilic in the aqueous phase. The accumula-
tion at the intcrfacc causes the IFT between the two phases
to lower. The extent of the IFT lowering is proportional
to the cxccss surface concentration of the surf;lctant-the OVERALL 0
difference between the surface and bulk surfactant COMPOSITtW
concentration-from Gibbs’ theory. as was the case in Fig.

47.X. The surfactant itself and the attending conditions Fig. 47.14-Schematic of low-salinity surfactantlbrineioil phase
behavior.
should bc adjusted to maximize the excess surface con-
cent]-ation; however, in doing so the solubility of the sur-
tactant in the bulk oleic and aqueous phases also is
affected. Since this solubility also impinges on the mutu-
al volubility of brine and oil, which also affects IFT’s, scribed was presented originally by Winsor’” and adapted
this discussion leads naturally to the topic of surfactanti to MP flooding later.50.5’
brine/oil phase behavior. Curiously, and this is true of At low brine salinity, a typical MP surfactant will ex-
many micellar properties. the surfactant concentration it- hibit good aqueous (water-rich) phase solubility and poor
self plays a rather minor role in what follows, compared oleic (oil-rich) phase solubility. Thus, an overall compo-
with the temperature. brine salinity, and hardness. sition near the brine/oil boundary of the ternary will split
into two phases: an e,xcess oil phase that is essentially pure
SurfactantlBrineiOil Phase Behavior. Surfactanti oil and a (water-external) rnicroemulsio~~phase that con-
hrinc/oil phase behavior is illustrated conventionally on tains brine surfactant, and some solubilized oil. The solu-
a ternary diagram. A ternary diagram is an equilateral bilized oil occurs when globules of oil occupy the central
triangle whose apexes represent pure components. bound- core of the swollen micelles. The tie lines within the two-
arlcs represent two-component mixtures, and interior rep- phase region have a negative slope. This type of phase
resents three-component mixtures. For complicated environment is called variously a Winsor Type I system.
mixtures the three apexes must represent “pseudocom- a lower-phase microemulsion (because it is more dense
poncnts” whose composition remains constant through- than the excess oil phase), or a Type II system. The lat-
out the diagram. The pressure and temperature are also ter terminology is adopted here-11 means that no more
fixed. The diagram can represent both the overall com- than two phases can (not necessarily will) form and (-)
position of a surfactantibrineioil mixture. and the equi- means that the tie lines have negative slope (Fig. 47.14).
librium composition of each phase if the mixture forms The right plait point in such a system. PK. usually is lo-
more than one phase. Tcrnarica and their accompanying cated quite close to the oil apex. Any overall composi-
definitions are discussed in Chap. 23. tion above the binodal curve is single phase.
MP phase behavior is affected strongly by the salinity For high brine salinities (Fig. 47. IS) electrostatic forces
of the brine pseudocomponent. Consider the sequence of drastically decrease the surfactant’s solubility in the aque-
phase diagrams (Figs. 47.14 through 47.16) as the brine ous phase. An overall composition within the two-phase
salinity is incrcaxcd. The phase behavior about to bc dc- Iregion now will split into an UUJ,S.\ hr-i/~c phase and an
SWOLLEN -
MICELLE
Na+
Na+
NO+
COMPOSITION COMPOSITION
Fig. 47.15-Schematic of surfactant/brine/oil high-salinity phase Fig. 47.16-Schematic of surfactant/brine/od phase behavior at
optimal salinity.
behavior.
(oil-external) microemulsion phase, which contains most a Windsor Type III, a middle-phase microemulsion. or
of the surfactant and some solubilized brine. The brine a Type III system. Above and to the right and left of the
is solubilized through the formation of inverted swollen three-phase region are Type II( -) and II( +) lobes wherein
micelles (Fig. 47.15) with brine globules at their cores. two phases will form as before. Below the three-phase
The phase environment is a Winsor Type II system, an region there is a third two-phase region (as required by
upper-phase microemulsion, or a Type II( +) system. The thermodynamics) whose extent is usually so small that it
plait point, PI,. is now close to the brine apex. is neglected.“’ In the three-phase region there are now
The two extremes presented thus far are roughly mir- two IFT’s between the microemulsion and oil, a,,,,, , and
ror images; note that the microemulsion phase is water- the microemulsion and water, u,~~,,..
continuous in the Type II( -) systems and oil-continuous Fig. 47.17, a prism diagram, shows the entire progres-
in Type II(+) systems. The induced solubility of oil in sion of phase environments from Type II( -) to II( +).
a brine-rich phase, Type II( -). suggests an extraction The Type III region forms through the splitting of a criti-
mechanism in oil recovery. Though extraction does play cal tie line that lies close to the brine/oil boundary as the
some role. it is dwarfed by the IFT effect discussed later. salinity increases to C,, (low effective salinity limit for
particularly when phase behavior at intermediate salini- Type III phase environment). 53 A second critical tie line
tics is considered. also splits at C,, (high effective salinity limit for Type
At salinities between those of Figs. 47. I4 and 47.15. III phase environment) as salinity is decreased from a Type
there is a continuous change between Type II( -) and II( +) environment. Over the Type III salinity range the
II( +) systems and a third surfactant-rich phase is formed. invariant point, M, migrates from near the oil apex to near
as shown in Fig. 47.16. An overall composition within the brine apex before disappearing at the appropriate crit-
the three-phase region separates into excess oil and brine ical tie lines. The migration of the invariant point implies
phases as in the Type II(-) and II( +) environments. and essentially unlimited solubility of brine and oil in a sin-
into a microemulsion phase whose composition is repre- gle phase, which has generated an Intense research in-
sented by an ;U~U~;LUU point. This environment is called terest into the nature of the Type III microemulsion. ”
CHEMICAL FLOODING
Fig. 47.17-Prism diagram showing sequence of phase environment transition.
Several variables other than salinity can bring about the tions of surfactant concentration. This dependency may
Fig. 47.17 phase environment shifts. In general, chang- be visualized by tilting the vertical triangular planes in
ing any condition that enhances the surfactant’s oil solu- Fig. 47.17 about their bases. This dilution effecth’.h5
bility will cause the shift from Type Il( -) to II( +). Some forms the basis for the salinity requirement diagram de-
of the more important are: (1) decreasing temperature, 5’ sign procedure. ‘UJ The dilution effect is particularly
(2) increasing surfactant molecular weight, (3) decreas- pronounced when the brine contains significant quanti-
ing tail branching,“’ (4) decreasing oil specific ties of divalent ions.
gravity55-57 and (5) increasing concentration of high- 4. The Fig. 47.17 phase-behavior shifts are specific to
molecular-weight alcohols. 58 Decreasing the surfactant’s the exact ionic composition of the brine. not simply to
oil solubility will cause the reverse change. Thus, Fig. the total salinity. For anionic surfactants. other anions in
47.17 could be redrawn with any of the above variables solution have little effect on the MP phase behavior: how-
(and several others) on the base of the prism with the vari- ever. cations readily cause phase-environment changes.
able C,, (effective salinity) increasing in the direction of Divalent cations (calcium and magnesium are the most
increased oil solubility. common) are usually 5 to 20 times as potent as monova-
lent cations (usually sodium). Divalents arc usually pres-
Nonideal Effects. In much the same manner as the ideal ent in oilfield brines in smaller quantities than monovalents
gas law approximates the behavior of real gases, Fig. as shown in Fig. 47.2, but their effect is so pronounced
47. I7 is an approximation to actual MP phase behavior. that it is necessary, as a minimum. to separately account
Some of the more important nonidealities are as follows. for salinity and hardness. Nonconstant monovalentidiva-
I. At high
surfactant concentrations and/or at low lent ratios also will cause electrolyte interactions with clay
temperaturess”.59 or even in the presence of pure surfac- minerals through cation exchange. The disproportionate
tantsL36. phases other than those on Fig. 47.17 have been effects of the salinity and hardness are accounted for by
observed. These phases tend to be high-viscosity liquid defining a weighted sum of the monovalent and divalcnt
crystals or other condensed phases. The large viscosities concentrations as an effective salinity. The C,.‘s in Fig.
are detrimental to oil recovery since they can cause local 47. I7 imply effective salinities.
viscous instabilities during a displacement. Frequently,
low- to medium-molecular-weight alcohols (cosolvents) Phase Behavior and IFT. Early MP flooding literature
are added to MP formulations to “melt” these undesira- contains considerable information about the techniques of
ble viscosities. When the brine contains polymer. a con- measuring IFT’s and what causes them to be low. 6x
densed phase can be observed at low surfactant IFT’s were found to vary with the types and concentra-
concentration because of exclusion of the polymer from tion of surfactant, cosurfactant, electrolyte, oil, and poly-
the microemulsion phase. Cosurfactants can be used to mer and with temperature. However, in what was surely
eliminate this polymerisurfactant incompatibility.” one of the most significant advances in all of MP tech-
2. When cosurfactants are present it is frequently in- nology, all IFT’s were shown to correlate directly with
appropriate to lump all of the chemicals into the surfac- the MP phase behavior. The correlation was proposed
tant apex of the Fig. 47.17 prism. If the cosurfactants do originally by Healy and Reed,“” theoretically substantiat-
not partition with the primary surfactant during a displace- ed by Huh, 6y and since verified experimentally by sever-
ment the benefit of adding the chemical is lost; hence. al others. ‘I.‘” The practical benefit of this correlation is
surfactanticosurfactant separation effects are important. that relatively difficult measurements of IFT’s can be
Efforts to account for the preferential partitioning of the largely supplanted by simple phase behavior measure-
cosurfactant include a quaternary phase behavior represen- ments. Indeed, in the recent literature, the behavior of
tation and a pseudophase theory. 62.63 IFT’s has been inferred by a narrower subset of phase-
3. The Type III salinity limits (C,, and C,,) are func- behavior studies based on the solubilization parameter. hs
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
To investigate further the relation between IFT’s and

phase behavior, let V,,, V,, , and V, be the volume frac-
tions of oil, brine. and surfactant in the microemulsion
phase, respectively. According to Figs. 47. I4 through
47.16, the microemulsion phase is present at all salini-
ties: hence. all three quantities are well-defined and con-
tinuous. Considering the Type II( -) behavior of Fig.
47.14, for example, V,,, V,,., and V,, are the coordinates
of the microemulsion phase composition on the binodal
curve.
Solubilization parameters between the microemulsion-
oleic phases, F,,,, , for Type II( -) and III phase behavior.
and between the microemulsion-aqueous phases. F,,,,,.. for
Type II( +) and III are defined as
F,,,,,=V,,iV, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(9a)
and
F,,,,,.=l’,,./l’,. . . . . (9b)
Fig. 47.18--Correlation of solubilization ratios with IFT. The IFT’s between the corresponding phases, u,,,(, and
u ,?lM’r are functions only of F,,, and F ,,,,~. Fig. 47.18
shows a typical correlation. ”
The corresponding behavior of the solubilization pa-
rameters and IFT’s are shown in Fig. 47.19 in a differ-
ent manner. Consider a locus at constant oil, brine, and
surfactant overall concentrations in Fig. 47. I7 but with
a variable salinity. If the nonideal effects are unimpor-
tant and the locus is at low surfactant concentration and
intermediate brine/oil ratios, (T,~(, will be defined from
low salinity up to C,,, and uInM. from C,,, to high salini-
ties. Both IFT’s are the lowest in the three-phase Type
III region, between C,, and C,,, where both solubiliza-
tion parameters are also large. There is, further, a pre-
cise salinity where both IFT’s are equal at values low
enough ( - 10 -3 dyne/cm) for good oil recovery. This
salinity is the optimal saliniv for this particular surfac-
tant/brine/oil combination and the common IFT is the op-
timal IFT. Optimal salinities have been defined on the
basis of equal IFT’s, as in Fig. 47.19, equal solubiliza-
tion parameters, maximum oil recovery in corefloods, and
equal contact angles. 50*71~72All definitions of optima1 sa-
linity give roughly the same value; hence, since optimal
phase behavior salinity is the same as maximum oil recov-
ery salinity, generating an interfacially active MP slug
translates into generating this optimal salinity in situ in
the presence of the surfactant material.
1 4 1 1 I 1 1 I I 1 I L I I 1 I Generating Optimal Conditions. Historically there have

0 0.4 0.6 1.2 I.6 2.0 2.4 2 .a 3.2
SALINITY, “/o NoCI
been three techniques for generating optimal conditions
in an MP displacement.
I. The MP system’s optimal salinity can be raised to
Fig. 47.19-IFT and solubilization ratios
that of the resident brine salinity in the candidate reser-
voir. This procedure philosophically is the most satisfy-
ing of the three design procedures given here and usually
the most difficult. Though it has been the sub.ject of in-
tensive research, surfactants that have high optimal sa-
linities that are not (at the same time) thermally unstable
at reservoir conditions, excessively retained by the solid
surfaces, or expensive have not yet been discovered. Field
successes with synthetic surfactants have demonstrated the
technical feasibility of this approach. however. 73 A scc-
Fig. 47.20-Schematic of surfactant adsorption on metal oxide surface
ond way to make the optimal salinity of the MP formula- constant as does the retention (c, is the adsorbed surfac-
tion equal to the resident brine salinity is to add tant concentration).
cosurfactant. 2. In hard brines the prevalence of divalent cations
2. Resident salinity of a candidate reservoir can be lo- causes the formation of surfactantidivalent complexes,
wered to match the MP slug’s optimal salinity. This is which have a low solubility in brine. ‘* Precipitation of
the main purpose of the pretlush step illustrated in Fig. this surfactantidivalent complex will lead to retention.
37.12. A successful pretlush is appealing because. with When oil is present this effect is lessened by the surfac-
the resident salmtty lowered. the MP slug would displace tam’s solubility in the oleic phase.
oil wherever it goes in the reservoir. Preflushes general- 3. At hardness levels somewhat lower than those re-
ly require quite large volumes to lower the resident SB- quired for precipitation, the preferred multivalentisurfac-
linity significantly owing to mixing effects and cation tmt complex will be a monovalent cation that can
exchange. 7’.75 With some planning, the function of the exchange chemically with cations originally bound to the
pretlush could be accomplished during the watertlood reservoir clays just as inorganic cations do.‘”
preceding the MP flood. 4. In the presence of oil in a II( +) phase environment
3. The salinity gradient design attempts to dynamical- the aurfactant will reside in the oil-external microemul-
ly lower the resident salinity to an optimum during the sion phase. Because this region is above the optimal sa-
displacement by sandvviching the MP slug between the linity, the IFT is relatively large (Fig. 47.18) and this
overoptimal rcsidcnt brine and an underoptimal mobility- phase and its dissolved surfactant can be trapped.” A
buffer salinity. hh.67 The \ucccss of this procedure relies similar phase trapping effect does not occur in the II( - )
on it being necessary that only a portion of the MP slug environment because the aqueous mobility buffer misci-
be in the active region for good oil rccovcry. For salinity bly displaces the trapped aqueous-external microemulsion
gradient tlonds the salinity of the mobility buffer is the phase without permanent retention.
mot signiticant factor in bringing about good oil rccov Most studies of surfactant retention have not made the
crv x The salinity gradient design has several other ad- previously mentioned mechanistic distinctions; thercforc,
vanrazes in being rcstlient to design and process which mechanism predominates in a given application is
unccrtaintics. in providing a favorable cnv~ironmcnt for not obvious. All mechanisms retain more surfactant at
the polymer in the mobility buffer. minimizing retention. high salinity and hardness, which, in turn. can be attenu-
and being relatively indifferent to the surfactant dilution ated by adding cosurfactants. Precipitation and phase trap-
ct‘fcct. pin,g,can be eliminated by lowering the mobility buffer
salimty, at which conditions the chemical adsorption
Surfactant Retention. Surfactants are retained through mechanism on the reservoir clays is predominant. There-
one of at least four mechanisms. fore. there should be some correlation of surfactant rctcn-
I, On metal oxide surfaces (Fig. 47.20) the surfactant tion with reservoir clay content. Fig. 47.2 I is an attempt
monomer will adsorb physically through hydrogen hond- to make this correlation by plotting laborator and field
inp and micelle-like associations with the monomer tails. surfactant retention data against clay fraction. 2‘) The cor-
and ionically bond vvith cationic surface sites (I).” At relation is by no means perfect since it ignores variations
higher surt’actant concentrations. C,. this association in- in MP formulation and clay type distribution as well as
tail-to-tail
clt~dc?~ interactions with the solution monomers salinity effects. HowevJer. the figure does capture a gener-
with proportionally greater adsorption (II and Ill). At and al trend that is useful for a first-order estimate of reten-
above the CMC (IV), the supply of monomers bccomcs tion in a given reservoir.
0 LAB DATA A useful way to estimate the volume of surfactant re-

0 FIELD DATA
quired for an MP slug is through the dimensionless fron-
tal advance lag, FL). ”
1-o Pr c
FD=p----, (10)
4 P,C,
where
FD = frontal advance lag, dimensionless,
p,. = density of rock, mass/volume rock,
p\- = density of surfactant slug, mass/volume
WEIQHT FRACTION CLAYS solution,
C, = concentration of surfactant, mass
Fig. 47.21-Surfactant retention and weight fraction of clays.
surfactantimass solution, and
6, = retained surfactant concentration, mass
surfactant/mass rock (includes all forms
of surfactants).
F” expresses the volume of surfactant retained at its in-

jected concentration as a fraction of the PV. For best sur-
factant usage, the volume of surfactant injected should
be large enough to contact all of the PV, but small enough
to prevent excessive production of the surfactant. There-
fore, the MP slug size, V,I,v, should be equal to or some-
what larger than FD.
Field Response. Fig. 47.22 shows the produced fluid

analyses of Well 12- 1 in the Bell Creek (Carter and Pow-
der River Counties, MT) MP flood. This tlood used a
high oil content MP slug preceded by a pretlush that con-
tained sodium silicate to lessen surfactant retention and
reduce divalent cation concentration. Well 12-l was a
producer in the center of a unconfined single 40-acre, five-
spot pattern. Further details on the tlood are available in
Refs. 47 and 82.
Before MP slug injection in Feb. 1979, Well 12-l was
experiencing low and declining oil cuts. MP oil response
Fig. 47.22-MP production response from Well 12-l. Bell Creek beginning in late 1980 is superimposed on this decline,
Pilot reaching peak cuts of about 13% about 6 months later.
Note that. just as in polymer flooding, the pre-MP decline
must be clearly established for accurate evaluation of the
MP oil recovery. The surfactant is preceding the oil in
Fig. 47.22 because of an excessively large content of
water-soluble, inactive disulfonate in the MP slug. Simul-
taneous oil and surfactant production is a persistent fea-
ture of field MP floods, probably because of
heterogeneities and dispersive mixing. Other significant
0.6 features in Fig. 47.22 are the evident presence of the
Et? pretlush preceding the MP slug, inferred from the maxima
0.4
in the pH and silicate concentrations. and the very effi-
h
cient removal of the calcium cations ahead of the sur-
0.2
factant.
0 Fig. 47.23 shows oil recovery efficiency, EK (in-
0 0.2-0:4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0. 3.2
MOBILITY BUFFER SIZE ( VM~ 1 cremental oil recovered/OIP at start of MP process), from
a survey of more than 40 MP field tests correlated as a
function of mobility-buffer slug size. As of the date of
Recovery Efficiency vs. Mobility Buffer Size
the survey there were no commercial projects reported.
Similar analyses on other process variables showed no
Fig. 47.23--Recovery efficiencies from 21 MP field tests
or weak correlation. X3 The strong correlation in Fig.
47.23 indicates the importance of mobility control in MP
design.“’ Note also from this figure that ultimate oil
recovery efficiency averages about 30% in field tests.
Performance Prediction. Generally. three things must

be achieved for efficient oil recovery. X4 ( I ) the MP sur-
factant slug must be propagated in an interfacially active
mode, (2) enough surfactant must be injected so that some
of it is unretained by the permeable media surfaces, and
(3) the MP displacement must be designed so that the ac-
tive surfactant sweeps a large portion of the reservoir
without excessive dissipation (because of dispersion) or
channeling.
Attaining the first goal is the result of formulation work
based on the phase-behavior concepts discussed previous-
ly. The extent to which the second and third goals are
satisfied depends on prevailing economics, which, in turn, Fig. 47.24-Relationship between MP volumetric sweep efficien-
depends on the oil-recovering ability of the entire proc- cy, heterogeneity, and slug-size retention ratio.
ess. The next few paragraphs describe a simple proce-
dure by which oil recovery and oil rate-time curves may
be estimated for an interfacially active MP process. Since
there are innumerable ways in which interfacial activity as much as possible, with conditions of the candidate
may be lost. the procedure is most accurate for processes reservoir.
that clearly satisfy the first design goal. Volumetric Sweep Efficiency. Volumetric sweep effi-
Recovery Efficiency. This procedure has two steps: es- ciency, E v, is the volume of oil contacted divided by the
timating the recovery efficiency of an MP flood and then volume of target oil. EV is a function of MP slug size,
proportioning this recovery according to in.jectivity and V,,, , retention, FD, and heterogeneity based on the
fractional flow to give an oil rate-time curve. Space con- Dykstra-Parsons coefficient, KDP. Fig. 47.24 shows this
siderations will limit many of the details, which may be relationship. KDP may be estimated from geologic study,
found in Ref. 80. from matching the previous waterflood, or from core data
The recovery efficiency. ER, of an MP flood is the (a typical value would be 0.6). The FD is estimated from
product of a volumetric sweep efficiency, E”. a displace- Eq. IO on the basis of the retention level, C,, . surfactant
ment efficiency. En, and a mobility buffer efficiency. slug concentration, C,, porosity, and rock and fluid den-
E MB sities. C’, can come from a laboratory coreflood, Fig.
47.21 (if clay fraction is known), or by using C, =0.4
ER=EDEVEMB, .. . (11) mglg as a default. L’,,s and C,, are from the proposed
design.
Each quantity must be calculated independently. MoKlity Buffeer Efficiency. The mobility buffer effi-
Displacement Efficiency. The displacement efficien- ciency, EBB, is a function of EV and KDP.
cy of an MP flood is the ultimate (time-independent)
volume of oil displaced divided by the volume of oil con-
tacted.
S’,,
ED=1 -p, . .(l2)
S OM E,+,Be=0.71-0.6KDP, . . (l4a)
where S’,,, and S,,. are the ROS to an MP and water- where EMBr is the mobility buffer efficiency extrapolated
flood, respectively. S,,,,. must be known, but S’,,, can to VM~ =0 and VM~ is the mobility buffer volume, frac-
be obtained from a large slug (free from the effects of tion V,,. Eq. 14a was obtained from a numerical simu-
surfactant retention) laboratory coreflood. Low values of lation.
S’or indicate successful attainment of good interfacial ac- The recovery efficiency now may be calculated from
tivity in the MP slug. If coreflood results aren’t availa- Eqs. 1 I through l4a. The reasonableness of the value may
ble, S’,, may be estimated from a CDC by using a be checked with Fig. 47.23.
“field” capillary number.” Calculation of q,, vs. t Plot. The production function
(oil rate vs. time) is based on ER and the following proce-
dure. The dimensionless production function is assumed
N,=0.565q~L,,y,~l(h~), .._.. ..(13) to be triangular with oil production beginning at oil bank
arrival time, increasing linearly to a peak (maximum) oil
where cut when the surfactant breaks through, and decreasing
N,. = capillary number, dimensionless, linearly to sweepout time. The triangular shape is imposed
q = injection/production rate, by the reservoir heterogeneity.
CL0 = oil viscosity, The first step is to calculate the dimensionless oil bank
h = net thickness, and and surfactant breakthrough times for a homogeneous lab-
A = pattern area. oratory coreflood.
Eq. 13 is in consistent units. For screening purposes, as-

sume a controlling IFT of lop3 dyne/cm [ 1 pN/m]; the (14b)
CDC curve chosen to estimate S’,,r should be consistent,
dimensionloss.
!
?
M,,-M,,
tl)r,h
c>
and the peak oil cut. ,f&. i,
.fy,n= tl)1 ,f;,,, (17)

of,,--I)
The final step is to convert the dimensionless production

function to oil rate, yo. vs. time. t. This follows from
q,,=qf;, ---- (l&i)
and
t=V,,tD/q, . .(18b)
wheref,, is the oil cut. tD is the dimensionless time. and

.f;, and tn are any points on the triangular oil recovery
curve, which begins at (t’“,,/, ,f;,;). peaks at (t’ljA .f;,,,k).
and ends at (t’n,t., 0). The dimensionless time at com-
plete sweepout, t’D,,,,., is selected to make the arca un-
b I
der thef;, -tlD curve equal to ER,
II I I J
0 100 roe 300 400 500 WO 700
TIME. DAYS t’D,,l.=t’noh +2E,$,,,.,,Jf;,,,,, (19)
Fig. 47.25-Comparison between predicted and observed oil A comparison of the results of this procedure with the
rate-ttme responses for the Sloss MP pilot. Sloss field MP pilot is in Fig. 47.25. Details of this match
and other matches are in the original references.
High-pH Processes
The final chemical flooding EOR process is high-pH
flooding (Fig. 47.26). As in polymer and MP flooding.
t~,=l+F,-S’,,,. , _. __ (14c) there is usually a brine preflush to precondition the reser-
voir, a finite volume of the oil-displacing chemical, a
where graded mobility buffer driving agent. and the entire proc-
t Lhh = oil bank arrival time, dimensionless. ess is driven by chase water. Moreover. for both high-
s ,,,, = oil bank saturation, fraction, pH and MP flooding the oil-displacing chemical is a sur-
S,,, = initial oil saturation, fraction, factant; however, for MP flooding the surfactant is in-
fr,,, = oil bank oil fractional flow. fraction. jected while in high-pH flooding it is generated in situ.
f,,, = initial oil fractional flow, fraction. and
= surfactant arrival time, dimensionless. High-pH Chemistry
tLl\
High pH’s indicate large concentrations of the hydroxide
S,,h andf,,,, may be estimated from the oil/water relative anions (OH -). The pH of an ideal aqueous solution is
permeability curve as described previously in Refs. 80 defined as
and 85. or from laboratory experiment.
The second step is to correct these values for the heter- pH= -log ioc, + , . . (20)
ogeneity of the candidate reservoir by using an effective
mobility ratio. M,. where where the concentration of hydrogen ions, CH + , is in
mol/L. As the concentration of OH - is increased, the
concentration of Hi decreases, since the two con-
centrations are related through the dissociation of water,
(1%
OH-)(CH+)
K,,, = (’ , .. .. . . ... .. . (21)
The corrected breakthrough times are now CH~O
and the water concentration is nearly constant. These con-
ttDoh=tDot,lMe . (16a) siderations suggest two means for introducing high pH’s
into a reservoir: dissociation of a hydroxyl-containing spe-
and cies or adding chemicals that preferentially bind hydro-
gen ions.
t’D,=tDs/Mc. (16b) Many chemicals could be used to generate high pH. but
the most commonly used are sodium hydroxide (caustic,
where t’D(,,, is the corrected oil bank arrival time, dimen- NaOH). sodium orthosilicate. and sodium carbonate
sionless, tlDr is the corrected surfactant arrival time. (Na2C03). NaOH generates OH by dissociation: the
Fig. 47.26-Schematic of high-pH flooding process
latter two through the formation of weakly dissociating amount of surfactant is required to saturate oil/brine in-
acids (silicic and carbonic acid, respectively) that remove terfaces. Fig. 47.27 presents a histogram of acid num-
free H ’ ions from solution. High-pH chemicals gener- bers based on the work of Jennings.87.8x
ally have been used in field applications in concentrations
ranging up to 5 wt% (in.jected pH’s of 1 I to 13) and with Displacement Mechanisms
slug sizes up to 2O%PV. The resulting amounts of chem- Oil recovery mechanisms in high-pH flooding have been
icals are quite comparable with the surfactant usage in attributed to eight separate phenomena. 89 This chapter
MP flooding: however, high-pH chemicals are substan- concentrates on only three: IFT lowering. wettability
tially less costly. This cost advantage must be discounted reversal, and emulsion formation. The last two mecha-
by the historically lower oil recoveries in high-pH nisms also are present in MP flooding but are dwarfed
flooding. by the low-IFT effect. With smaller ultimate oil recover-
OH by itself is not a surfactant. since the absence of ies, the distinction among effects becomes important in
a lipophilic tail makes it exclusively water-soluble. If the high-pH flooding.
crude oil contains an acidic hydrocarbon component,
HA,,. some of this, HA,,., can partition to the aqueous
phase where it can react. Xh
HA,,F-?A,;+H+. _. __ . e-4
The exact nature of HA,, is unknown and probably highly

dependent on crude oil type. The deficiency of hydrogen
ions in the aqueous phase will cause the extent of this reac-
tion to be to the right. The anionic species A,; is a sur-
factant that can have many of the properties and enter into
most of the phenomena described above for MP flooding.
If there is no HA,, originally present in the crude. lit-
tle surfactant can be generated. A useful procedure for
characterizing crudes for their attractiveness to high-pH
flooding is through the acid number. The acid number
is the milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required
to neutralize I gram of crude oil. To make this measure-
ment, the crude is extracted with water until the acldlc
species HA is removed. The aqueous phase containing
HA,, , A,;, and H ’ is then brought to pH=7 by adding
the KOH. For a meaningful value, the crude must be free
of acidic additives (e.g.. scale inhibitor) and acidic gases 0 I 2 3 4 3
ACID INDEX INTERWL (E&Cl4 05mp. KOH/p RAffiE)
(CO? or H?S). A good high-pH flooding crude will have
an acid number of 0.5 mgig or greater. but acid numbers
as low as 0.2 mgig may be candidates, since only a small Fig. 47.27-Histogram of acid numbers
pH system. However, Nelson PI a!. ‘)(’show that a cosur-

1 M
M
A
0.26
0.50
1.00
wt.
wt.
wt.
46 NaCI
% NaCI
‘16 N&I
factant can increase the optimal
tem much like in MP systems.
salinity in a high-pH sys-
See Chap. 28 for a discussion of wettability and its ef-

fects on petrophysical properties. Owens and Archery’
showed that increasing the water wetness increased ulti-
IO’ mate oil recovery, where the wettability was reported as
SOLUSILIZATION decreasing the water/oil contact angle measured on
polished synthetic surfaces. This has also been shown by
I-
others using high-pH chemicals.9’.YX The increased oil
\\
recovery is the result of two mechanisms: a relative per-
\\
Y \\ meability effect, which causes the mobility ratio of a dis-
z lOOr \\ placement to decrease, and a shifting of the CDC (see Fig.
\: 47.1 I).
E Cooke et al. 94 have reported improved oil recovery
a
with increased oil wetness. Other data show that oil recov-
t ery is a maximum when the wettability of a permeable
medium is neither strongly water- nor oil-wet. ‘)5 Given
lo-’ - the latter information, the important factor may be the
change in the wettability rather than the actual wettabili-
ty of the final state of the medium. In the original wet-
ting state of the medium, the nonwetting phase occupies
large pores and the wetting phase small pores. If the wet-
tability of a medium is reversed, there will be nonwet-
ting fluid in small pores and wetting fluid in large pores.
IO-” IO-’ IO-’ IC The resulting fluid redistribution, as the phases attempt
WEIGHT % NaOH to return to their natural state, would make both phases
vulnerable to recovery through viscous forces.
Fig. 47.28-IFT’s for caustic/crude/brine systems High-pH chemicals can cause improved oil recovery
through the formation of emulsions. The emulsification
produces additional oil in at least two ways: through a
mobility ratio lowering since many of these emulsions
The generated surfactant, A ,, aggregates at oil/water have a substantially increased viscosity and through
interfaces, which can lower IFT. 86 In general, such low- solubilization and entrainment of oil in a flowing aque-
ering is not as pronounced as in MP flooding but, under ous stream. The first mechanism improves displacement
certain conditions, can be large enough to produce good and volumetric sweep as do the mobility control agents
oil recovery. Fig. 47.28 shows IFT measurements of caus- discussed previously. Local formation of highly viscous
tic solutions against Long Beach crude oil at various brine emulsions should be discouraged, however, as these
salinities. The IFT’s are sensitive to both NaOH concen- would promote viscous fingering from the less viscous
tration and salinity, showing minima in the NaOH con- oil-free high-pH solution. The solubilization and entrain-
centration range of 0.01 to 0.1 wt %. The decrease in IFT ment mechanism would be more important when the IFT
in these experiments is limited by the spontaneous emul- between the swollen water phase and the remaining crude
sification of the oil/water mixture when the IFT reaches is low. Fig. 47.28 shows that for certain conditions, emul-
a minimum. sification and low IFT’s occur simultaneously. McAuliffe
There are many similarities in the low-IFT effects in showed that emulsions injected in a core and those formed
MP and high-pH flooding. The data in Fig. 47.28 show in situ give comparable oil recoveries.96.97
a clear resemblance to the data in the upper plot of Fig.
47.19 except they are plotted vs. NaOH concentration Rock/Fluid Interactions
(presumed proportional to A, concentration) instead of Interactions of the high-pH chemicals and the permeable
salinity. This suggests an optimal salinity of about I .O media minerals can cause excessive retardation in the
wt% NaCl for a 0.03 wt% NaOH solution. Indeed, the propagation of these chemicals throughout the permea-
work of Jennings et al. 87 has shown that there is an op- ble medium. This chapter discusses three aspects of rock-
timal NaOH concentration for a given salinity in oil recov- fluid interactions: formation of divalent/hydroxide com-
ery experiments. Moreover, the presence of the pounds, cation exchange, and mineral dissolution.
emulsification effect when IFT’s are low is exactly what OH - ions themselves are not appreciably bound to the
one would expect from Fig. 47.17 at a surfactant con- solid surfaces; however, in the presence of multivalent
centration above the invariant point surfactant concentra- cations they can form hydroxyl compounds,
tion. This suggests that the data in Fig. 47.28 showing
a Type II( -) phase environment at low NaOH concen-
trations are Type II(+) at high (similar to what would M +-‘+x(OH -)FiM(OH),,, (23)
be expected from the dilution effect in MP flooding). Fur-
ther work is necessary to establish the connection to MP which, being relatively insoluble, can precipitate from so-
phase-behavior definitively, since the actual surfactant lution. This reaction, in turn, lowers the pH of the solu-
concentration A; is likely to be much lower in a high- tion, and also can cause formation damage through pore
blockage and fines migration. The anionic surf&ant spe-

cies A,, can interact with the inorganic cations in solu-
tion just as in MP flooding; however, the interaction with
the divalent cations usually takes precedence, particular-
ly in hard brines (see Fig. 47.3) or where there are sub- w
stantial quantities of soluble multivalent minerals. Because
of these interactions and those involving the surfactants
A ,;. high-pH processes are as sensitive to brine salinity
and hardness as are MP processes.
Other high-pH rock/fluid interactions are intimately as-
sociated with the clay minerals. Clays are hydrous alu-
minum/silicate compounds that occupy the smallest (less
than 2 microns) particle size in typical media. Macroscop-
ically. clays occur as segregated streaks of variable degree
of continuity throughout a typical reservoir, or as distrib- Fig. 47.29-Effluent histories pH from laboratory corefloods. Ex-
uted clays. which can line pore walls or fill pore throats. perimental curves are solid lines with points, theo-
retical results are dashed lines.
Distributed clays are of most concern here, since these
have quite large surface areas (15 to 40 m’ig clay), and
therefore can exhibit considerable reactivity. 9X Chemi-
cally, clays can take on a variety of formulas that differ is determined by a dimensionless DamkGhler number,
substantially in their reactivity even though the differences
ND,,
in their molecular formulas are apparently minor.
The ability of a clay mineral to exchange divalent cat- N,, =+k L/u,,., . . .(25)
ions with an aqueous solution can drastically change the
where k is the reaction rate constant, time -’ , and L is
ionic environment of a solution with which it is in con-
the medium length for a first-order reaction. ND, is the
tact. Clays have excess negative charges caused by the
ratio of the reaction rate to the bulk fluid rate. If all con-
substitution of +2-valence minerals for +3-valence min-
ditions are equivalent between a laboratory experiment
erals within the octahedral or tetrahedral crystal lattice. 99
and a prototype field flood, ND, clearly will be much
The cation exchange capacity, Zv, is a measure of this
larger in the field than in the laboratory owing to the much
excess negative charge; typical Zv’s are I to 10 meqi 100 g
larger length scale. A larger ND, implies more reaction
clay for kaolinite and 100 to 180 meq/lOO g clay for mont-
relative to the residence time within the system. Thus,
morillonite. These free anionic sites are covered with cat-
it follows that the penetration distance-the distance
ions from the solution, each of which has a specific degree
traveled by full-strength OH - ions-will be considera-
of selectivity for the particular clay site. In general, H +
bly smaller in the field than in the laboratory. Bunge and
has high clay selectivity, and divalent cations are bound
Radke, who illustrate this with several numerical calcu-
more strongly than are monovalents. This means that the
lations, caution against extrapolating laboratory-measured
anionic sites can be occupied predominantly by H+
values of OH - consumption to field cases unless the dis-
and/or divalents even when clays are in contact with rela-
crepancies in ND, have been taken into account. “”
tively soft brines. Any subsequent change in the electro-
lyte environment of the contacting solution can cause the Field Results
clays to take or give up these cations with a possible High-pH field tests of articular interest include a wetta-
detrimental effect on high-pH (and MP) flooding. bility reversal test, 99 an emulsion flood,Y6 and a
H ’ cations can exchange on the clay sites with the in- polymer-driven flood. lo3 Fig. 47.30 shows the produc-
jected sodium according to tion data from a high-pH flood conducted in the Whittier
field. ‘04 The crude oil was 20”API with a 40-cp viscosi-
clay-HfNa’ Sclay-NafH’. .(24) ty, and the 0.2 wt% NaOH chemical was injected as a
0.23.PV slug.
There are many features in these data that are common
where “clay” represents a mineral exchange site. I”) The to the responses of the other chemical flooding processes
rcverxiblc reaction Eq. 24 will clearly cause the H ’ con- in Figs. 47.6 and 47.22. The oil production rate declines
centration to increase with a resulting pH decline. Fig. as the total fluid production increases, indicating a declin-
47.29 shows the extent of the OH - retardation caused ing oil cut. The oil rate response to the caustic injection
by cation exchange in laboratory tloods. Note that many is again superimposed on the waterflood decline, which
of the lower pH’s may require more than 3 PV of fluid is extrapolated to estimate the IOR. (There are two water-
in-jection to attain the injected pH. Hood decline curves in Fig. 47.28. one based on the ac-
Unlike MP flooding. high-pH chemicals can react tual decline and one based on computer simulation.) The
directly with clay minerals and the silica substrate to cause 350,000 to 470,000 STB of oil produced by the caustic
consumption of OH ~ ions. The reactions with clays are injection was considered a success by the operators.
manifest by the elution of soluble aluminum and silica spe- Table 47.3 shows a summary of data from complctcd
cies from core displacements. “” The resulting soluble high-pH field floods. Note the wide range in reservoir
species subsequently can cause precipitates through and oil characteristics and in oil saturation at the start of
hydroxyl reactions as in Eq. 24. lo2 The rate of hydrox- the flood. “” IOR. expressed as a fraction of PV. ranges
yl consumption from this slow reaction (cation exchange from 0.0006 to 8.0. which translates into recoveries, ex-
is generally fast enough so that local equilibrium applies) pressed as a fraction of the OIP at the project start, that
TABLE 47.3-SUMMARY OF HIGH-pH FIELD TESTS
p. at Oil
Residual Residual Saturation Injection
Reservoir Reservoir at Project Net Water
Temperature Temperature Start Porosity Thickness Salinity Depth
Field, Location, Operator iCP, ioF) WI Wd ut) mm TW (ft)
Bradford, PA
(Several tests by several
operators) - 60 16 to 20 30
Southeast Texas (Exxon) 75 112 40 33 to 35 saline 1,250
Harrisburg, NE (Amoco) 1.5 200 watered 15 10 300 5,900
out
Northward-Estes, TX
(Gulf) 2.26 115 64 206 36 850 3.140
Singleton, NE (Sinclair) 15 40 16 - - -
(estimated)
watered out
Whittier, CA (Chevron) 40 120 51 30 137 fresh 1,500
hardness
(1)
Brea-Oltnda, CA (Umon) 90 135 Watered - -
out
Orcutt l-111,CA (Union) 17 to 60 140 50 22.5 155 15,000 2,200
arc comparable wjith but slightly smaller than those report- lower limit on the reservoir permeability. although in the
ed from polymer floods (Table 47.1). Of equal impor- case of polymers used in polymer or MP flooding there
tance is the STB of IOR produced per pound of chemical is a technical limit imposed by the inability to propagate
in.jccted (0.015 to 0.43 in Table 47.3). This is substan- large molecules through very small pore spaces. Deep
tially lower than the polymer flood values; however. the reservoirs usually imply the ability to apply larger sur-
cost of the high-pH chemical is also substantially lower. face pressures with accompanying increase in in,jcction
rates. This beneficial effect is offset by the susceptibility
of polymers to chemical degradation at elevated temper-
Summary atures. High-pH processes arc also more reactive at high
Fif. 47.3 I presents screening guides for the three major tcmpcrature, which causes excessive consumption.
chcmicul flooding processes presented in this chapter The information in Fig. 47.3 I suggest the avenues of
bused on the work of Taber and Martin. I”’ Though there future development for chemical tlooding EOR processes:
arc many other possible guidelines. the figure focuses on ( I) the development of more cost-effective chemicals such
three common reservoir parameters: oil viscosity at reser- as surfactants and polymers that are more salinity resis-
voir conditions. permeability. and depth. The guides are tant. have minimal retention. can be manufactured onsite.
intended as rules of thumb for candidate reservoir selcc- or can be recyolcd. (2) development of more efficient de-
tion and arc not substltutcs for detallcd reservoir eval- sign procedures such as applying MP technology to high-
uation. pH flooding design, (3) removing technical limitations on
Chemical flooding application usually is limited to the use of water-soluble polymers. particularly as they
moderate to low oil viscosities because ofcconomics. As relate to temperature sensitivity, and (4) mot-c reliable pre-
the oil viscosity increases. more of the rcspcctibr: chem- diction techniques, particularly as they relate to risk esti-
cal is rcquircd to attain food mobility control. This causes mates. Each general area will continue to prompt
a direct penality in chemical cost and an indirect penalty considerable research so that the economic viability of
in increased project life. Similar considerations place a chemical flooding will become commonplace.
0
1363 1964 7363 1366 7367 7363 1969 1370 ,371 1372 1971
Fig. 47.30-ProductIon response from the Whittier field high-pH flood

TABLE 47.3~SUMMARY OF HIGH-pH FIELD TESTS (continued)
Chemical bbl
Type of Acid Concentration Ibm Recovery, incremental
Chemical number Injection Slug Size chemical Fraction Oil per Ibm
Material (w KOW (WWO) (O/oVP) (bbllbbl VP) PV Chemical
Na,CO, -
Na,CO, 2.4 3.2 - - -
NaOH IOW 2.0 0.013 0.093 0.003 0.03
NaOH 0.22 5.0 15 2.55 8.0 0.03

NaOH low 2.0 8 0.55 0.023 0.042
NaOH - 0.2 20 0.16 0 05 to 0.07 0.32 to 0 43
ortho-silicate 0.12 - - -
ortho-silicate 0.6 0.42 0.017 0.028 0.0006 0.015 to 0.030
A
Nomenclature
= pattern
C,,, = low effective
area
salinity limit
OIL VISCOSITY
AT RESERVOIR
- CENTIPOISE
CONDITION
C Cl, = high effective salinity limit

C, = concentration of surfactant, mass
surfactantimass solution
6, = retained surfactant concentration. mass
surfactantimass rock (includes all of the
previously mentioned forms of
surfactants) PERMEABILITY, md
‘z C’= effective shear rate

e I;5 = shear rate when polymer solution viscosity
is % of high and low values, Eq. 3
EMI, = mobility buffer efficiency
E MBC = mobility buffer efficiency extrapolated
j;,/, = oil bank oil fractional flow, fraction
f;,, = initial oil fractional flow, fraction
f”lIL = peak oil cut
DEPTH, FEET
FD = frontal advance lag. dimensionless
F I?,0 = solubilization ratios between the
microemulsionioleic phases
F 1,111
= solubilization ratios between the
microemulsioniaqueous phases
F,,: = permeability reduction factor
F, = resistance factor
FRI- = residual resistance factor
k,, = permeability to polymer solution Fig. 47.31-Comparative evaluation of reservoir parameters for
chemical flooding.
k,, = permeability to polymer-rich (water) phase
K = power-law coefficient
K IIp = Dykstra-Parsons coefficient
K,, = dissociation coefficient of water
M,, = effective mobility ratio
M* = shock mobility ratio
M" = endpoint mobility ratio
I, = power-law exponent 5. ClawJge. E.L. “Predictwn (II’ Recwcry III Unstable Misihlc
Floodmg.” Sot. PC/. F,ig. J. (Aprd 1977) 143-SS.
N, = capillary number. dimensionless 6. Reznik. A.A. 1 Enick. R.M.. and Punvclkcr. S B.: “An Analyt-
PI. = left plait-point designation xal Extemion ot’the Dykstra-Parsons Verttcal Stratificatton DIS-
P,q = right plait-point designation mete Solution to a Contnwous, Real-Tmw Basis.” .5x. Per. Gr,q.
J. (Dec. 19X4) 64-56.
s illi -~ oil bank saturation, fraction 7. Dykstra. H. and Parsons. R L.: “The Prediction of 011 Recov-
s,,i =
initial oil saturation. fraction cry by Watertlood: Secondary Recovery of 011 m the United
s I(,). = ROS to an MP flood State\.” Bull.. API. Dallas (1950).
8. Johnson, C.E. Jr : “Prediction of Oil Rccwcry by Waler Flood-
s ROS to a waterflood
0,II = A Simplilied Graphical Treatment of the Dyk<tra~Parwns
St, =
saturation of polymer-rich (water) phase Method.” J. PH. i”&. (No\ 1956) 55-56: Tranh., AIME. 207.
oil bank arrival time, dimensionless 9. Zapata. V.J.. “The Effects of Viscous Cro.raflow on Sharp Front
t ml/l =
Displacements in Two-Layered Porous Medta.” MS the\lh, U.
corrected oil bank arrival time,
t 'DO/~ = ol’ Texah, Austin (1979).
dimensionless IO. Hearn. C.L.: “Simulation of Stratified Waterfooding by Pwu-
surfactant arrival time, dimensionless do Relative Permeability Curve\.” J. Per. TK/I. (July 197 I )
t11\ =
805-13.
corrected surfactant arrival time,
t 'I).! = I I. Dietr, D N : A Tlwrwcri~ol Approach 10 r/w Pr~hlrm o/
dimensionless O~tn~rr~/~h~~on Bd’c~h~,y Erifir Wort~r. PUK. Ahad. van Weten-
dimensionless time at complete sweepout whappen. Amsterdam (1953) 83-91
12. Buckley. S.E. and Lcverctt. M.S.: “Mechanlvn rot FluId Di\-
superficial flux of polymer-rich (water)
placement m Sands.” Tril,?\.. AlME 11942) 146. 107-16.
phase. Lit 13. Needham. R.B.. Threlkeld. C.B.. and Gall, J W. “Cwmol ot
I',, = superficial velocity of water phase Water Mobility Using Polymers and Multivalent Cation\.” paper
SPE 4747 preented at the 1974 SPE Improwxi Oil Rectwcry Sym-
VMB = mobility buffer volume. fraction
posium. Tulsa. OK. April 22-24.
v,,, = MP slug size 14. Gash. B.H.. Griffith. T.D . and Ghan, A.F. “Phaw Bchavwr
z,/ = cation exchange capacity Etfccts on the Oil Displacement Mechamsms (11’ Broad Equiis-
lent Weight Surlactant Systems.” paper SPE 98 I2 prcww dl
hi = mobility of displaced fluid(s)
the 1981 SPE Enhanced 011 Recovery Sympo\~um. Tula. OK.
x(J = mobility of displacing agent(s) April S%f.
mobility of polymer solution IS. Wtllhite, G.P. and Domlnquez. J.G.: “Mechanisms 01 Polymer
A,, =
Retention in Porous Mcdiu.” hprowd 01 Rr~o~v’r) /?,I Surfuc
A,, = mobility of water-rich phase
ran! tofd Polww Noocltriy. D.O. Shah and R.S. Schechter (cd\. ).
X,,‘,, = tnobility of water-rich phase after polymer Academic Pres\ Inc., New Yorh City (lY77) 51 l-.55.
injection 16. Wcllmgton. S.L.: “Bwp,lymer Solutton Vtico\~ty Stabtliratton-
Polymer Degradation and Antioxidant Uw.” Six.. PC,/. Etq J.
owl? = mobility of water-rich phase before
(Dec. 1983) 901-12.
polymer injection 17. Manmng. R.K., Pope. G.A.. and Lake. L.W.: “A Technical Sw
apparent viscosity of polymer solution vey of Polymer Flor,dtng Pro~ccta.“ Contract No.
tJ,l =
o- DOEIBETCIl03?7-IO. U.S. DOE (Sept. lYX3).
cc,J - polymer solution viscosity below some low
18. Tsaur, K.: “A Study ofPolymcr/Surfactant Interaction\ liw Micel-
shear rate lar/Polymer Floodlnp Application..” MS thwi’r. U. of Texaj.
m- Austin (1978).
P,, - polymer solution viscosity above the
IO. Martin. F.D.. Donaruma. L G . and Hatch. M J.: “Develop-
critical shear rate
mcnt ol‘ Improved Mobllitg Control Agent\ ti,r SurtactantiPoly~
CL\,. = viscosity of the displacing water mt‘r Flooding.” second annual report. Contract No
DOE/BC/OO047-13, U.S. DOE IOct. I9801.
Pr = density of rock. mass/volume rock
20. Tinker. G.E Bowman. R.W . and Pope. G A.. “Deternnnauon
P, = density of surfactant slug, mass/volume
of In-Smt Mobility and Wellhore Impairment From Polymer In-
solution jcctivity Data.” .I. PH. Td. (May lY76) ~586-96.
u ,,l,i = IFT between the microemulsion phase and 21. Sacins. J.G.: “Non-Newtonian Flow Through Porous Morct~-
al\.“ Ind. and Eng. Chcm I 1061)) 61. No, IO. 1X-47.
oil
22. Meter. D.M., and Bard. R.B : “Tube FIw (11.Non~Ncwn~ian
(-J,,rn = IFT between the microemulsion phase and Polymer Solutions. Part\ I and 2-Lammar Flw and Rheulugl-
water cd Mtxlels.” A/C/,E ./. (No\‘. 1964) X7X-81 and 1143~50.
23. Duda. J.L.. Klaus. E.E.. and Fan. S.K.: “lnllucnce oIPolynw
u,ic, = IFT between the water and oil phases
Molecule-W,dI Intcract~on~ on MoblIlt) Cunt~~~l.” .5x. P<,r. Tory
J (Ott 1981) 613-Z
Acknowledgments 2-t. Jcnninp\. R.R., Rogers, J.H . and Wc>r. T.J “Factorz Inilw
Scvcral useful discussions with R.S. Schechter and G.A. encing Moblllty Control By Polqmcr S~~lut~on\.” J. /‘cr. TK/I.
(March 1971) 391-401. T/r,w.. AIME. 251.
Pope are gratefully acknowledged.
7.5. Hlrasahi. G.J. and Pope. G.A : “Analy\i\ of F&%x\ Intluencq
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76. Shupc. R.D.: “Chcmad Stahllity of Poly.srylamidc Polymct-\.”
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27. Maerher. J.M.: “Mechanlcul Defrnd;mon\ 01 Purtlnll) Hydra-
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(Apnl 195-l) 27-32: T~,o/i\. AIME. 201 cncc and Exhthitlon. Dallas. Scpt 7X-Oct. I.
CHEMICAL FLOODING 47-Z
5s. Puerto. M.C. and Reed. R.L “Three~Paratnrter Representation

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56. Caytas. J.L. (‘I nl.: “Modelling Crude Oils for Lo\s Intcrfact,~l
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34. Patton. J.T.. (‘I ol. “Enhanced Oil Recovery by CO z Foam 60 Salter. S.J.: “Opttmizing Surfactant Molccul;tr Weight Dt\tri-
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37 Bernard. G.G. and Helm. L.W.: “Effect of Foam on Pcrmea- 62. Salter. S.J.: “Selection ofPheudo~Comp,nents in Surfactant-Oil-
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38. Bernard. G. G.. H&n. L.W.. and Jacob\. W.L.. “Effect of Foam 16-19.
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40. Hirasaki. G.J. and Lawon. J.B.: “Mechanisms of Foam Flow 65. Bourrel. M. et (I/.: “Properttes of AmphiphileiOrliWater Sys-
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So<.. Per. Gtg, J. (April 1985) 176-90. 7450 presented at the 1978 SPE Annual Tcchntcal Conterence
41. Helm. L.W.: “Foam InJectton Test m the Stggtns Field. Illrnot~.“ and Exhibition. Houston, Oct. l-4.
J Pet. Td?. (Dec. 1970) 1499-1508. 66. Nelson, R.C.: “The Saltnity Rcqutrcment Dtagram-A Usetul
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43. Stcgemeter. G.L.: “Mechanisms ot Entrapment and Mohtltra-
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68. Cayias, J.L., Schechter. R.S , and Wade. W.H.: “The Meas-
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44. Mohanty, K K. and Salter. S.J.: “Multiphase Flow in Porous
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Technical Conference and Exhihition. San Francisco. Oct. S-8. 69. Huh, C.: “Interfacial Tensions and Solubili,@ Ability of a
45. Larson. R.G.: “From Molecules to Reservoirs. Problems in En- Microemulsion Phase that Coexists with Oil and Brine.” .I Co/-
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46. Catnilleri. D.: “Micellar/Polymer Flooding Experiments and Formed In-situ-Effect of011 Characteristtca.” paper SPE 8326
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of Texas, Austin (1983). hibition. Las Vegas. Sept. 23-26.
47. Helm. L.W.: “Design. Performance and Evaluatton of the 71. Reed, R.L. and Healy. R.N.: “Some Physico-Chemical Aspects
Unitlood Micellar-Polymer Process-Bell Creek Field,” paper of Mtcroemulsion Flooding, A Review. “Irnprow~l 0ii RKUI~
SPE I I196 prewntcd at the 1982 SPE Annual Techntcal Con-
cry hi Sur$mcrm md Po/wwr Flooding. D.O. Shah and R.S.
ference and Exhibition. New Orleans. Sept. 26-29. Schechter (eds.). Academic Press. New York City (1977)
48. Goparty. W B Meabon. H.P.. and Milton, H.W. Jr.: “Mobil-
383-438.
ity Control Dc\ign for Miscible-Type Waterflood\ Using Mtcel- 72. Reed. R.L. and Healy. R.N : “Contact Angles for Equtlihrated
Jar Solutions.” J. Per. Tdz. (Feb. 1970) 141-47. Microemulsion Systems.” Ser. Pet. Erq J. (June IY84) 342-50.
49. Wmsor. P. A, : .!Xwtr Propmrev rfAmphiphi/ic Contppo~rnrl.~. But-
73. Bragg. J.R. et al.: “Loudon Surfactant Flood Pilot Teht.” paper
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SPE 10862 presented at the 1982 SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery
50. Healy. R.N.. Reed. R.L., and Stenmark. D.G.: “Multiphase
Symposium, Tulsa, April 4-7.
Microemulston Systems.” Sot. Per. Gtg. J. (June 1976) 147-60.
74. Lake, L.W. and Helfferich. F.: “Catton Exchange tn Chemical
51. Nelw, R.C.. and Pope. G.A.: “Phase Relationships tn Chem-
Flooding Part 2-The Effect of Dtspersion, Catton Exchange.
cat Floodtng.” SM. PH. 01g. J. (Oct. 197X) 325-38.
and PolymerISurfactant Adsorpbon in Chemical Flood Environ-
52. Anderwn. D.F., et a/ : “Interfacial Tension and Phase Behavior
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the 1976 SPE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery. Tulsa. 75. Pope. G.A.. Lake, L.W., and Helffertch. F G : “Catton
March 22-24. Exchange in Chemical Floodmg, Part I-Basic Theory Without
S3. Bennett, K.E., CI al.: ” Microemulsion Phase Bchavior- Dtsperston.” Sot. Per. f31,q. J. (Dec. 1978) 418-34.
Observations. Thermodynamic Essentials, Mathematical Sum- 76. Paul. G.W. and Froning. H.R.: “Salinity Effects of Mtcellar
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54. Scrtven. L.E.: “Equilibrium Bi-Continuous Structures.” M&l- 77. Harwell, J.H.: “Surfactant Adsorption and Chromatographic
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Plenum Press. New York City (1976). dtssertation. U. of Texas, Austin (1983).
floodmg tar Wettahility Alteration-Ev;llu;ltinF a Potential F&l

79 Hill. H J. and L&c. L.W.: “Cation Exchanee ,n Chcnucal Flwtl- Application.” J. Pcl. 7&. (Dec. 197-I) I33533.
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345-56. Recovery by Alkalme Waterflooding,” J. Per. Twh. (Dec. 1974)
X0. Paul. G.W. (‘I crl “A Slmpllficd Predictive Model lor M~ccl- 1344-52.
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SPE Cal~fomia Resmnal Meeting. San Francwx~. March 24-26. Centrifugal Measurcmentr of Wettahility to Predict Oil Rcco%-
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lmprovcd 011 Recover) Symposium. Tuls,~. OK. April l6- IY.
97. McAuliffe. C.D.: “Crude-Oil-in-Water Emulww To Improve
87 Aho. G.E and Bush. J.: “Rc\ult\ ol’the Bell Creek Unit ‘A’
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721-26.
SPt Annual Technical Conference and Exhlhitwn. Ncu Orlcdn\.
98. Grim. R.E.: C/ov Mir~ercrir~~qv,
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Twh. (July 1971) X73-78: kiwis.. AIME. 251. Oct. s-x.
Chapter 48
Reservoir Simulation
K.H. Coats, Scientific Software-Intercom
Introduction
Webster’s dictionary defines simulate as to assume the with model (1) evaluation or validation through com-
appearance ofwithout the reality. Simulation of petroleum parison of field (laboratory) and model results and (2) im-
reservoir performance refers to the construction and provement by use of new techniques related to model
operation of a model whose behavior assumes the ap- mathematics and representation of reservoir fluid and rock
pearance of actual reservoir behavior. The model itself description parameters.
is either physical (for example, a laboratory sandpack) The volume and increasing complexity of publications
or mathematical. A mathematical model is simply a set related to the latter item preclude a detailed mathematical
of equations that, subject to certain assumptions, describes description of current simulation technology in this
the physical processes active in the reservoir. Although chapter. Rather, emphasis is given to a general descrip-
the model itself obviously lacks the reality of the oil or tion of reservoir simulation models, how and why they
gas field, the behavior of a valid model simulates (assumes are used, choice of different types of models for different
the appearance of) that of the field. reservoir problems, and reliability of simulation results
The purpose of simulation is estimation of field per- in the face of model assumptions and uncertainty in reser-
formance (e.g., oil recovery) under one or more produc- voir fluid and rock description parameters. The chapter
ing schemes. Whereas the field can be produced only concludes with an abbreviated description of simulation
once, at considerable expense, a model can be produced model technology consisting of comments on a number
or run many times at low expense over a short period of of highly technical publications. Various texts l-4 give
time. Observation of model performance under different detailed descriptions of simulation technology through me
producing conditions aids selection of an optimal set of late 1970’s, including finite-difference approximations,
producing conditions for the reservoir. model formulations, iterative solution techniques, and
The tools of reservoir simulation range from the instability analyses.
tuition and judgment of the engineer to complex
mathematical models requiring use of digital computers. A Brief History
The question is not whether to simulate but, rather, which In a broad sense, reservoir simulation has been practiced
tool or method to use. This chapter attempts to summarize since the beginning of petroleum engineering in the
the evolution and current status of reservoir simulation 1930’s. Before 1960, engineering calculations consisted
practice involving usage of the mathematical, computer- largely of analytical methods, ‘$ zero-dimensional
ized models. The relatively modern nature of this prac- material balances, 7,8 and one-dimensional (1 D) Buckley-
tice is indicated by the first edition of this handbook (1962) Leverett9,10 calculations.
not including a chapter on reservoir simulation. The term simulation became common in the early
The nearly exponential growth in annual rate of 1960’s, as predictive methods evolved into relatively
simulation-related publications from the mid-1960’s to the sophisticated computer programs. These programs
present indicates the industry’s widespread acceptance of represented a major advancement because they allowed
mathematical simulation as an engineering tool. This ac- solution of large sets of finite-difference equations describ-
ceptance has been and remains qualified by questioning ing two- and three-dimensional (2D and 3D), transient,
and improvement of accuracy in simulation model results. multiphase flow in heterogeneous porous media. This ad-
Thus a significant portion of the extensive literature deals vancement was made possible by the rapid evolution of
I - 0 IMENSIONAL 1970’s caused a departure from the single-model concept

as individual models were developed to represent each
fL3Gm
of these new recovery schemes.
ii yx Research during the 1970’s resulted in many signifi-

cant advances in simulation model formulations and
c- numerical solution methods. These advances allowed

simulation of more complex recovery processes and/or
reduced computing costs through increased stability of the
2-DIMENSIONAL
formulations and efficiency of the numerical solution
methods.
CROSS-SECTION
General Description of Simulation Models
A number of papers”-l4 present general, largely non-
(*g mathematical discussions of reservoir simulation. Odeh ’’
gives an excellent description of the conceptual simplici-
ty of a simulation model. He illustrates the subdivision
of a reservoir into a 2- or 3D network of gridblocks and
then shows that the simulation model equations are
basically the familiar volumetric material balance
equation7y8 written for each phase for each gridblock.
The phase flow rates between each gridblock and its two,
four, or six (in lD, 2D, or 3D cases, respectively) adja-
cent blocks are represented by Darcy’s law modified by
the relative permeability concept. Fig. 48.1 illustrates l-,
2-, and 3D grids representing a portion of a reservoir.
The block and its two or four neighbors are denoted by
B and N in the 1D and 2D grids. One can visualize an
interior block of the 3D grid with its six neighbors, two
Fig. 48.1-l-, 2-, and 3D grids.
on either side of the block in the n, y, and z directions.
The subsea depths to the top surface of each grid in Fig.
48.1 vary with areal position, reflecting reservoir forma-
large-scale, high-speed digital computer. and development tion dip. Reservoir properties such as permeability and
of numerical mathematical methods for solving large porosity, and fluid properties such as pressure,
systems of finite-difference equations. temperature, and composition, are assumed uniform
During the 1960’s, reservoir simulation efforts were throughout a given gridblock. However, reservoir and
devoted largely to two-phase gas/water and three-phase fluid properties vary from one block to another; fluid
blackail reservoir problems. Recovery methods simulated properties for each gridblock also vary with time during
were limited essentially to depletion or pressure the simulation period.
maintenance. It was possible to develop a single simula- A simulation model is a set of partial-difference equa-
tion model capable of addressing most reservoir problems tions requiring numerical solution as opposed to a set of
encountered. This concept of a single, general model partial differential equations amenable to analytical solu-
always has appealed to operating companies because it tion. Tbe reasons for this are (1) reservoir heterogeneity-
significantly reduces the cost of training and usage and, variable permeability and porosity and irregular geometry,
potentially, the cost of model development and (2) nonlinearity of relative permeability and capillary
maintenance. pressure vs. saturation relationships, and (3) nonlinearity
During tbe 1970’s, the picture changed markedly. The of fluid PVT properties as functions of pressure, composi-
sharp rise in oil prices and governmental trends toward tion, and temperature. The models require high-speed
deregulation and partial funding of field projects led to digital computers because of the large amount of
a proliferation of enhanced-recovery processes. This led arithmetic associated with the solutions.
to simulation of processes that extended beyond conven- The large amount of arithmetic performed by a simula-
tional depletion and pressure maintenance to miscible tion model stems from the large number of gridblocks
flooding, chemical flooding, CO2 injection, steam or hot- representing the reservoir and from the number and com-
water stimulation/flooding, and in-situ combustion. A plexity of equations describing the oil-recovery process.
relatively comfortable understanding of two-component Total arithmetic or computing expense for a given model
(gas and oil) hydrocarbon behavior in simple immiscible run is at least linearly proportional to the total number
flow was replaced by a struggle to unravel and of gridblocks, N,N,N,, where N,, NY, and N, are the
characterize the physics of oil displacement under the in- numbers of gridblocks specified in the X, y and z direc-
fluence of temperature, chemical agents, and complex tions , respectively.
multicomponent phase behavior. In addition to simple The individual gridblocks are customarily identified by
multiphase flow in porous media, simulators had to reflect subscripts i, j, k, where blocks are numbered i = 1,2.. .N,
chemical absorption and degradation, emulsifying and in- in the x direction, j=1,2...N, in the y direction, and
terfacial tension (IFT) reduction effects, reaction kinetics, k= 1,2.. .N, in the z direction. Most simulators use no-
and other thermal effects and complex equilibrium phase flow or closed boundary conditions at the exterior bound-
behavior. This proliferation of recovery methods in the aries [x=(O,LX), y=(O,L,) and z=(O,L,)] with provision
RESERVOIR SIMULATION 48-3
for aquifer influx along the areally exterior boundary. ‘Ihe If subscript J=1,2,3 is used to denote phases w,o,g
nonrectangular, areal (x-y) shapes of most reservoirs are respectively, then Eq. 1 simplifies to
represented by zero gridblock porosity and permeability
in the appropriate area1 portions of the x-y grid.
Preceding statements described the simulation model
as a set of equations expressing conservation of mass for
each phase for each gridblock. More precisely, the model
equations express conservation of mass of each reservoir The first term in parentheses is the interblock trunsmissi-
fluid component for each block, The number and identi- b&y, TIJ, for flow of component I in phase J, requir-
ty of these components depend on the nature of the original ing evaluation here at (i- %,j,k)-i.e., between blocks
reservoir fluid and the particular oil-recovery process, as i - 1 and i. The M/L portion of T is normally calculated
discussed in the following. The total number of mass con- as the harmonic or series-resistance mean value using
servation equations is then N,N,N,N, where N is the block i- 1 and block i properties. The remaining portion
number of components necessary to describe the reser- of T normally is evaluated at the upstream gridblock-
voir fluids. i.e., the block from which the phase is flowing. Thus Eq.
Each conservation equation states that the mass rate of 2 becomes simply
flow into a gridblock minus the mass rate of flow out must
equal the rate of change or accumulation of mass within
the block. These N mass-balance equations (one for each
component) apply to each gridblock. The block is an open
system, in the thermodynamic sense, because of fluid flow
between the block and its six neighbors and fluid injec- representing interblock flow of component I from
tion or production if a well is perforated in the block. gridblock i- 1 to gridblock i.
The center of gridblock (i,j,k) is located at (xi.yj,zk). The right-hand or accumulation terms of the mass
This block has six neighboring blocks (i-tl,j,k),(i,j-t 1,k) balances are
and (i,j,kk 1). For brevity and clarity, the interblock flow
1
rates are written here in terms of only r-direction flow 3
between blocks (i- 1,j,k) and (i,j,k), the indices j and k ;6 d c (SJCIJ) , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . (4)
are suppressed, and the general symbol C, denotes con- [ J=l
centration (mass/volume) of component I in the various
phases. The three immiscible phases (water, oil, and gas) where
are denoted by subscripts w, o, and g, respectively. V = grid block volume, hxi AYj AZk
The interblock flow rate of component I, according to 6 = time difference operator, 6X=X,,+, -X,,
Darcy’s law modified by relative permeability, is n = time level, t,+l =t,+At,
At = timestep,
$I = porosity, fraction, and
SJ = saturation of phase J, fraction of pore
space.
+%l,(ApO -y,AZ)+&@,
P8
-ysAZ)
1
J
, Eqs. 3 and 4 give the final form of the component I
mass-balance equation for gridblock (i,j,k) as
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1) 3
C A[TIJ(APj-r./Az)l-4p~
where J=l
41 = component I interblock flow rate,
mass/time,
k= absolute permeability, (5)
A= AyiAZk =cross-sectional area normal to
flow,
where q,,I is the mass rate of production of component
L= distance between adjacent block centers,
I from the block resulting from any well perforated in the
(AX-1 fAri)/ block and the Laplacian term of type A(TAp) is defined as
k rP = relative permeability to phase P
(P=w,o,g).
p’p = viscosity of phase P
C IP = concentration of component I in phase P,
mass/volume,
APP = pressure of phase P
and
YP = specific weight of phase P
Ax = X,-l -x,, where x is p or Z, and
z= subsea depth, measured positively
downward.
For the general case where each component is present ships (e.g., y=Kx) with K-values given as functions of
(soluble) in all three phases, Eq. 5 is Nequations in 3N+6 pressure or of pressure and composition.
unknowns. The unknowns are 3N CIJ values, 3 phase The 2N + 6 constraint Eqs .6 through 10 are manipulated
saturations, and 3 phase pressures. Thus an additional to eliminate one-phase saturation, two-phase pressures and
2N-t 6 equations are required for a determinate or solvable 2N-3 mole fractions (x,J) from the N primary Eqs. 5.
model having equal numbers of equations and unknowns. aThe final result is a model consisting of the N Eq. 5 in
The N Eqs. 5 are referred to as primary equations while N unknowns consisting of two saturations, one pressure,
the additional 2N+6 equations are denoted constraint and N-3 mole fractions. Each coeffkient or term remain-
equations. The constraint equations are manipulated in the ing in the N primary equations is then either one of the
model programming to eliminate 2N+6 variables N primary unknowns or a function of one or more of the
(unknowns) in terms of the remaining N (primary) primary unknowns.
unknowns. The result is then the set of N primary Eqs.
5 in N primary unknowns. The constraint equations are Types of Models
relations between unknowns pertaining only to the par- Different types of simulation models are used to describe
ticular gridblock (iJ,k) to which Eqs. 5 apply. The N different mechanisms associated with different oil-
primary Eqs. 5, however, involve unknowns (e.g., pi) recovery processes. The most widely used types are black
at the gridblock (i,j,k) and its six neighboring blocks, ow- oil, compositional, thermal, and chemical flood. The four
ing to the nature of the interblock flow terms on the left- basic recovery mechanisms for recovering oil from reser-
hand side. voirs are (1) fluid expansion, (2) displacement, (3) gravity
The 2N+6 constraint equations are illustrated here for drainage, and (4) capillary imbibition. Simple fluid ex-
the case of an isothermal, compositional model where the pansion with pressure decline results in oil expulsion from
N components are HZ0 and N- 1 hydrocarbon com- and subsequent flow through the porous matrix. Oil is
ponents (e.g., methane, ethane.. .C ,). The first three con- displaced by gas and injected or naturally encroaching
straints are water. Gravity drainage, caused by positive (water/oil and
oil/gas) density differences, aids oil recovery by causing
S,+S,+S,=l.O, ........ . ..(6) upward drainage of oil from below an advancing bottom-
water drive and downward drainage from above a declin-
po -pw =Poy,(S,), . .... .. . . . . . (7) ing gas/oil contact. Finally, imbibition, generally normal
to the flow direction, can be an important recovery
and mechanism in lateral waterfloods in heterogeneous sands
with large vertical variation of permeability.
pg -p. =P,,(S,), ............ .. (8) Accommodation of compositional and the enhanced-
recovery processes in this discussion requires the addi-
where P,, =water/oil capillary pressure and P,, =gasJ tion of a fifth mechanism, oil mobilization. This loosely
oil capillary pressure. defined term includes widely differing phenomena that
These constraints express the requirement that the phase create or mobilize recoverable oil. Some of these
saturations sum to unity and also eliminate the water and phenomena are not really distinct from the first four.
gas phase pressures in terms of the unknown oil pressure The black-oil model accounts for the four basic
phase using capillary pressure curves. For this composi- mechanisms in simulation of oil recovery by natural deple-
tional case, concentration C,J =p where pi is the mo-
Jx/J
tion or pressure maintenance (e.g., waterflooding). This
lar density of phase J (moMvolume) and xIJ is mol isothermal model applies to reservoirs containing immisci-
fraction of component I in phase J. The next three con- ble water, oil, and gas phases with a simple pressure-
straints require that the mol fractions of all components dependent solubility of the gas component in the oil phase.
sum to unity in each of the three phases, The two-component representation of the hydrocarbon
content I5 presumes constant (pressure-independent) com-
positions of the oil component and the gas component,
N no volatility of the oil component in the gas phase, no
c x[J=l.o .... .... .... ,,.. .. . solubility of the oil and gas components in the water phase,
I=1 and no volatility of water (H20) in the oil and gas phases.
The oil component is stock-tank oil and its unit of mass
where J=w,o,g or 1,2,3. The remaining 2N constraints is 1 STB (1 bbl at stock-tank pressure and temperature).
express equilibrium of each component among the three The gas component is surface system gas and its unit of
phases, mass is 1 standard cubic foot (scf). The water component
unit of mass is 1 STB. For water and gas, components
j-r, =fr, ..... .. .. . . . . (104 and phases are identical while the oil phase is a mixture
of the oil component and the gas component.
and The number of components (N) and therefore the
number of Eqs. 5 per gridblock is three for the black-oil
j-i,=fr,
........... .... ...............(lob) model. Table 48.1 gives the definitions of component con-
centrations, CIJ, for this model. The water phase, gas
where fIJ is the fugacity of component I in phase J. These phase, and saturated oil phase, reciprocal formation
fugacities can be expressed in terms of mol fractions and volume factors, b, (STB/RB), bR (scf/RB), and b,
pressure by use of an equation of state (EOS). Altemative- (STB/RB), respectively, are given smgle-valued functions
ly, they can be replaced by equilibrium K-value relation- of pressure. For undersaturated oil, b, is dependent on
pressure and solution gas (R, , scf/STB). As discussed TABLE 48.1-DEFINITIONS OF

later original work in formulations’6m’8 led to a number CONCENTRATIONS C,, FOR THE
of papers ‘9m23describing black-oil models during the BLACK-OIL MODEL
1960’s.
Phase
The remaining model types discussed here account for
J=l J=2 J=3
some mobilization mechanisms in addition to the four I Component Water
- __Oil - Gas
basic recovery mechanisms. The isothermal compositional 1 water bw 0 0
model represents reservoir fluids by N components, in- 2 oil 0 bo 0
cluding water and N- 1 hydrocarbon components. 3 gas 0 b,Rs b,
Generally, but not necessarily, solubilities of water in the
oil and gas phases and of hydrocarbon components in the
water phase are considered negligible. For water, then, ty with increased temperature, (2) distillation of in-
the concentration in Eqs. 5 is as given in Table 48.1. The termediate hydrocarbon components from the oil phase
hydrocarbon component I concentration CIJ is P JX as
IJ, to the more mobile gas phase, and (3) cracking of the oil
mentioned earlier, for J=o,g or 2,3. Gas/oil phase phase [usually above 500°F (26O”C)l with subsequent
equilibrium and phase densities within each gridblock are distillation. Thermal models developed from 1965 to
calculated using equilibrium K-values from pressure- and 198234-40 generally exhibit a trend toward inclusion of
composition-dependent correlations or, more recently, more dimensions, more components and dual capability
from EOS’s. 25-28 Unlike the black-oil model, the com- of steamflood and in-situ combustion.
positional model can represent the mobilization of oil by Chemical flood models include polymer, micellar (sur-
outright (single-contact) or dynamic (multicontact) factant), and alkaline (caustic). Polymer waterflooding im-
miscibility, oil swelling and viscosity reduction by solu- proves oil recovery by lowering the oil/water mobility
tion of an injected nonequilibrium gas (e.g., CO,), and ratio, by reducing the effective permeability to water,
stripping or vaporization of an oil’s lighter ends by in- and/or by increasing water viscosity. In micellar flooding,
jection of a dry gas. With one exception,29 recent surfactants greatly reduce oil/water IFT, thereby solubiliz-
papers 29-33describing compositional models are based on ing oil into the micelles and forming an oil bank. 4’ The
equilibrium K-values obtained from EOS’s. surfactant slug and mobilized oil normally are propelled
A thermal simulation model is a set of N conservation toward the production well by a graded bank of polymer-
equations, similar to Eq. 5, which expresses conserva- thickened water. The mechanisms responsible for im-
tion of mass of H2 0 and N-2 hydrocarbon components proved oil recovery in alkaline flooding are thought to
and conservation of energy. With energy designated as include low IFT, wettability alteration, and emulsifica-
“component” N, the last (I=N) of Eqs. 5 becomes the tion. 42 Chemical flooding processes involve complicated
energy balance upon addition of terms representing heat fluid/fluid and rock/fluid interactions such as adsorption,
conduction and overburden heat loss. An additional re- ion exchange, viscous shear, and three- (or more) phase
quirement is the use of pJHJ for cNJ in the well and inflow. Several recent papers 43-45 describe implementation
terblock flow terms and p J UJ for CNJin the right side of these complex chemical flood mechanisms in numerical
accumulation term. HJ and UJ are enthalpy and inter- simulators.
nal energy, respectively, energy/mole. If the in-situ com- The four types of models described above are defined
bustion capability is included then the mass conservation or distinguished by the recovery process and the nature
equations include source (sink) terms represented by Ar- of the original reservoir fluid. Considering the nature of
rhenius reaction rate expressions for cracking and oxida- the reservoir formation leads to a fifth, fractured-matrix
tion of hydrocarbon components and the energy balance type of simulation model. While in theory any recovery
includes heat of reaction terms. For the same number of process can be implemented in a fractured-matrix reser-
fluid components, a thermal model has one more (energy) voir, most simulation work reported to date is concerned
conservation equation than the compositional model and with black oil fracture&matrix models. Three-dimensional
one additional unknown, temperature T. models are described by Thomas et a1.“6 for the three-
For steam-injection processes, thermal model com- phase case and by Gilman and Kazemi4’ for two-phase
ponents are typically H 2 0, heavy (nonvolatile) and light water-oil flow. Their models consider a discontinuous ar-
(solution gas or distillable) hydrocarbon components and ray of matrix blocks in a continuous 3D fracture network.
energy. For in-situ combustion studies, typical com- Flow throughout the reservoir and to the wells occurs in
ponents are HzO, heavy-oil component, a lighter the fracture system and the matrix blocks are treated as
(distillable) oil component, solid coke, 02, CO*, N2, sink/source terms in that system. Their model equations
and energy. Frequently CO2 and N2 are lumped as one include the set of N conservation Eqs. 6 written for each
component to reduce computing expense. The steam tables gridblock in the fracture system. Each gridblock may con-
and/or an EOS are used to calculate liquid Hz0 (water tain a number of similarly behaving matrix blocks.
phase) properties and the Hz0 gas/water phase K-value However, additional terms are added to Eqs. 6, represent-
as functions of pressure and temperature. In most applica- ing matrix-fracture flow. Also, for each gridblock addi-
tions, Hz0 is assumed insoluble in the oil phase. In most tional equations are required to express mass conservation
current models, the distribution of other (non-H20) com- of each component in the matrix blocks included in the
ponents among all phases is represented by user-provided gridblock. These additional equations can be eliminated
K-values dependent on only pressure and temperature. or combined with the basic N (fracture system) flow
Thermal simulators are applied to steam-injection or in- equations4”v4’ so that the final model includes only N
situ combustion processes in heavy-oil reservoirs where equations (per block) possessing interblock flow terms.
oil is mobilized primarily by (1) reduction of oil viscosi- Blaskovich et a1.48 describe a fractured-matrix model
which allows for reservoir-wide flow through the matrix report extensive results related to rate-sensitivity of
as well as the fracture system. This extension leads to a various Alberta reservoirs subjected to water-oil
model including 2N equations (per block) possessing in- displacements. Thakur ef al. 54 applied a black-oil model
terblock flow terms. to characterize (through history matching) offshore
Nigerian reservoirs and estimate incremental recovery of
Model Input Data and Calculated Results waterflooding over natural depletion, with infill drilling
A simulation model requires three types of input data. and removal of allowable rates.
First, reservoir description data include (1) overall Compositional models also are used for most of Pur-
geometry, (2) grid size specification, (3) permeability, poses 1 through 7 listed previously, but only in cases
porosity, and elevation for each gridblock, and (4) relative where the black-oil assumption of constant composition
permeability and capillary pressure vs. saturation func- oil and gas components is invalid. Example compositional
tions or tables. Geological and petrophysical work, which model applications include (1) depletion of a volatile oil
involves logs and core analyses, is necessary for Items or gas condensate reservoir where hydrocarbon phase
1 and 3. Laboratory tests on core samples yield estimates compositions and properties vary significantly with
of relative permeability and capillary pressure relation- pressure below bubble- or dewpoint, (2) injection of non-
ships. Second, fluid PVT properties, such as formation equilibrium gas (dry or enriched) into an oil reservoir to
volume factors, solution gas or component equilibrium mobilize oil by vaporization into the more mobile gas
K-values, and viscosities are obtained by laboratory tests. phase or by attainment of outright (single-contact) or
Finally, well locations, perforated intervals, and produc- dynamic (multicontact) miscibility, and (3) injection of
tivity indices (PI’s) must be specified. Each well must be CO2 into an oil reservoir to mobilize oil by stripping of
assigned a production (injection) rate schedule and/or a light ends, oil viscosity reduction, and oil swelling.
limiting producing (injecting) pressure for use in Compositional simulation has been performed to
calculating well deliverability (injectivity). estimate (1) loss of recovery caused by liquid dropout dur-
Model output or calculated results include spatial ing depletion of retrograde gas condensate reservoirs and
distributions of fluid pressure, saturations and composi- the reduction of this loss by full or partial cycling (rein-
tions, and producing GOR and WOR and injection/projection of gas from surface facilities) and (2) effects of
duction rate (for wells on injectivitylproductivity) for each pressure level, injected gas composition, and CO2 or N2
well at the end of each timestep of the computations. In- injection on oil recovery by vaporization or miscibility.
ternal manipulation of these results gives average reser- Graue and Zana55 describe application of a compositional
voir pressure and instantaneous rates and cumulative model in estimating Rangely (CO) field oil recovery by
injection/production of oil, gas, and water by well and CO2 injection as a function of injected composition and
total field vs. time. pressure level. Results of compositional simulation of a
Current models offer various levels of visual output CO2 project include CO;! breakthrough time and rate and
display features that ease the engineer’s assimilation and composition of produced fluids. These are required to
interpretation of simulator results. Example features are design production facilities and CO2 recycling strate-
contour maps of pressure, saturations, compositions and gies. 56 Modeling is also useful to optimize pattern size
temperature, concise tabular summaries of individual well and CO2 /water-injection rates to overcome the effects of
or well-group performance, and field or well timeplots reservoir heterogeneity. 57
of quantities such as production rates and WOR’s and Thermal models are applied in reservoir studies of in-
GOR’s. situ combustion and are used to simulate performance of
cyclic steam simulation and steamflooding. In steam in-
Purpose of Reservoir Simulation jection, questions addressed by simulation relate to effects
Reservoir simulation is used to estimate recovery for a of injected steam quality and injection rate, operating
given existing producing scheme (forecasting) to evaluate pressure level, and inclusion of gas with the injected
the effects on recovery of altered operating conditions, steam. One question in cyclic stimulation concerns the
and to compare economics of different recovery methods. optimal time periods per cycle for steam injection, soak,
Black-oil models have been widely applied to forecast oil and production. The flooding case introduces the issues
recovery and to estimate the effects on oil recovery of of well pattern and spacing. A number of steam-injection
(1) well pattern and spacing, (2) well completion inter- field studies using models have been published. Herrera
vals, (3) gas and/or water coning as a function of rate, and HanzlikS8 compare field data and model results for
(4) producing rate, (5) augmenting a natural water drive a cyclic stimulation operation. Williams59 discusses field
by water injection and desirability of flank or peripheral performance and model results for stimulation and
as opposed to pattern waterflooding, (6) inlill drilling, and flooding, and Meldaum discusses field and model results
(7) gas vs. water vs. water-alternating-gas (WAG) in- related to addition of gas to the in’ected steam. Gomaa
jection. et al. 6’ and Moughamian et al. 61 applied steamflood
A few of many reported studies are briefly mentioned simulation in identifying and optimizing operating
here. Henderson et al.49 applied a single- (gas) phase parameters in pilot and field drive operations.
model to optimize the locations and numbers of wells Numerical simulation has been used to estimate
necessary to meet peak deliverability requirements in a chemical flood performance in a reservoir environment
gas storage field. Mann and Johnson” showed good where the processes are very complex and many reser-
agreement between model-predicted and actual field per- voir parameters affect the results. Chemical flood simula-
formance. Thomas and Driscol15’ applied a black-oil tion has been used to construct a screening algorithm for
model in estimating locations of bypassed oil for the ur- the selection of reservoirs suitable for micellar/polymer
pose of designing an infdl drilling plan. Two studies P2,53 flooding63 and to examine competing EOR strategies-
e.g., CO* vs. surfactant flooding.@’ For caustic65 and employed. The computing expense of a single model run
polymeP applications, as well as for the micellar proc- is proportional to the product of the number of gridblocks
ess, chemical flood modeling is useful to discern control- and the number of timesteps required by the model to
ling process mechanisms and to identify laboratory data cover the total time period of interest. In many cases, the
required for process description. timestep size is controlled by the maximum rate of change
In recent years, simulation has been used increasingly (overall gridblocks) in one or more calculated quantities
to estimate and compare recoveries from a given reser- such as pressure and saturations. This maximum rate of
voir under alternative enhanced-recovery processes, such change generally occurs at or near a well or in the vicini-
as CO2 injection, thermal methods (steam injection and ty of a flood front. A doubling of the number of gridblocks
in-situ combustion), and several types of chemical can result approximately in a doubling of this maximum
flooding. rate of change since each gridblock is (on the average)
one-half as large. The average timestep size, then, might
Considerations in Practical Application of decrease by a factor of two if the number of blocks were
Simulation Models doubled. The final result is a computing expense per
model run which can approach a proportionality to the
This section describes the procedure followed and cer- square of the total number of gridblocks. This indicates
tain questions faced by the engineer conducting a reser- the importance of selecting the smallest number of
voir simulation study. The engineer must select the gridblocks consistent with reservoir/well description,
appropriate type of simulation model, select the grid net- recovery process characteristics, and the questions asked
work, and specify rock and fluid description data. Then regarding reservoir performance.
the engineer must attempt to reduce or at least estimate The number of gridblocks and resultant study computing
inaccuracies in simulation results which stem from uncer-
expense are the lowest in cases where the engineer can
tain rock/fluid description data and from spatial trunca- justify use of a representative element of the total field
tion error. as the basis for the model study. This may be possible
in reservoirs developed with repeated well patterns, for
Selection of Model Type
any recovery process-waterflooding, CO* injection,
As mentioned earlier, selection of model type may de- steamflooding, etc. In such cases, the representative ele-
pend on both the nature of the original reservoir fluid and ment ideally should be a symmetrical element of the reser-
upon the recovery process(es) to be studied. As a rough voir. In strict terms, this requires (1) a repeated, regular
guide, an original reservoir oil solution gas or GOR value, pattern of identically completed and operated wells, (2)
R,, below 2,000 scf/STB indicates a black oil, whereas a horizontal, areally homogeneous reservoir formation of
a higher value indicates a volatile oil or retrograde gas uniform thickness, and (3) areally uniform initial fluid
condensate requiring compositional treatment. saturation distributions. If these conditions were met, then
For a black-oil reservoir, a black-oil model may be used questions regarding total field optimization, forecasting
to study natural depletion, water injection and/or and comparative evaluation of recovery processes could
equilibrium gas injection operations. However, a com- be addressed inexpensively by simulation of the single pat-
positional model is generally necessary to estimate tern (element).
recovery by injection of dry or enriched gas, solvent, or While actual reservoirs never satisfy these conditions
CO*. An exception here is the applicability of a modified exactly, representative-element simulation studies are fre-
black-oil model67 in simulation of CO2 or solvent injec- quently performed for repeated pattern processes. In some
tion where outright (single-contact) miscibility occurs. cases, a substantial portion of the reservoir may exhibit
Compositional simulation is generally employed for only moderate areal heterogeneity and thickness variation.
volatile oil reservoirs. However, a less expensive black- Resultant variation in performance from one pattern to
oil model study is adequate for simulating above- another may be sufficiently small for engineering purposes
bubblepoint waterflooding performance. Compositional to justify scale-up of single-pattern results to total field
models have generally been employed to study retrograde performance.
gas condensate reservoirs. The compositional model is Representative-element simulation is often performed
necessary in the case of below-dewpoint cycling. where the study purpose is comparative evaluation of
However, in some cases natural depletion or above- alternative recovery processes as opposed to forecasting
dewpoint cycling can be simulated at less expense using of total field performance for a specific process and
a black-oil model modified to account for volatility of the operating scheme. The justification of single-element
oil (condensate) component in the gas phase. 6sm70 simulation implied in such cases is that the resultant rank-
The alkaline and surfactant-flood processes generally ing of alternative processes is unaffected by the variations
require use of the complex chemical flood simulation in pattern (element) properties over the field. This
model. However, some (augmented) black-oil models of- justification can be and frequently is checked by repeating
fer the capability to simulate polymer and alkaline the various process simulations for two or more patterns
flooding. of different properties representative of different portions
of the reservoir.
Selection of Model Grid Finally, the relatively inexpensive single-element
Selection of the x-y-z gridblock network involves many simulation applies to design or optimization studies of a
factors, including available budget and the engineer’s specific recovery process operated in a repeated pattern
judgment and experience. For any type of model, the mode. For a repeated-pattern steamflood, single-pattern
arithmetic or computing expense per timestep is at least model runs have been performed to “optimize” pattern
linearly proportional to the total number of gridblocks type (e.g., five-, seven- or nine-spot) and size, injected
steam quality and rate, well completions, etc. Occasional used for each correlatable formation layer. However,
publications describe single-pattern simulation studies us- common sense and budget constraints argue against detini-
ing a one-quarter five-spot or one-quarter nine-spot as the tion of a large number of very thin grid layers. Three-
symmetrical element of the respective pattern. Actually, dimensional reservoir studies typically employ 4 to 12 grid
a one-eighth five-spot or nine-spot (and xZ seven-spot) layers, and one or more of these grid layers may be a
are the smallest symmetrical elements and should be used lumped representation of several thin formation layers.
to minimize computing expense. 71 The need for subdivision of one formation layer into
Currently, a major portion of the industry-wide effort two or more grid layers depends on the layer thickness
and computing expense in simulation studies is associated and fluid-segregation characteristics of the recovery proc-
with total-field forecasting of black-oil reservoir perfor- ess and operating rates. Most recovery processes result
mance under a sequence of recovery processes. Typical- in moderate to severe gravity segregation of oil and in-
ly, the engineer must select a 3D grid for a large reservoir jected fluids; injected water or gas tend to underrun or
with significant heterogeneity, large areal variation in dip override oil, respectively; many steamflood projects ex-
and thickness, irregular well locations and increasing hibit severe override of oil by the steam. A formation layer
numbers of wells with successive development stages. The that has significant thickness and zero to poor vertical
engineer may face a several- to many-year period of communication with layers above and below may exhibit
historical performance under natural depletion, frequently a pronounced phase segregation and require two or more
with some natural water encroachment. Study objectives grid layers. In the idealized example of a fieldwide, pro-
may include history matching, followed by matching and nounced gravity override in a vertically homogeneous
forecasting for a waterflood period, in turn followed by reservoir, a variable grid spacing increasing from top to
forecasting for some tertiary scheme such as CO2 in- bottom might be specified. That is, four layers of
jection. thicknesses 5, 10,20, and 25 ft might give more accurate
The total number of gridblocks is the product of the results than four layers of equal 15ft thickness.
number of areal blocks, N,N,, and the number of grid A customary approach to determining NZ involves use
layers, N,. Different considerations enter into selection of the simulation model itself in 2D cross-sectional (X-Z
of these two numbers of spacings. Factors indicating a slice) mode. For the particular recovery process of in-
need for fine area1 grid spacing are high well density and terest, X-Z model runs are performed by using different
sharp or rapid changes (areally) in permeability, porosi- numbers of grid layers. Pseudorelative-permeability
ty, thickness, and dip. Since these factors frequently vary curves reflecting phase segregation are calculated from
over the field, thex- and y-direction grid spacings are often model runs performed with fine vertical grid spac-
nonuniform. Grid spacings generally increase toward the ing. 74-76 These pseudocurves are then used in equivalent
downdip reservoir boundaries and increase greatly with x-z model runs using fewer grid layers to obtain coarse
distance into the aquifer if the latter is present and included (vertical) definition results similar to the fine-spacing
in the grid. “correct” results. The fewer grid layers of the coarse
In general, of course, the number of area1 gridblocks definition are then employed in the 3D reservoir study
required increases with the size of the reservoir and the grid. This concept of generating pseudocurves for coarse
number of wells. However, grid spacings ranging from vertical grids that reproduce vertical fine-grid results (us-
very fine to very coarse may be appropriate for different ing rock or laboratory relative permeabilities) has been
reservoirs of comparable size. The smallest numbers of extended to the areal spacing problem, 72.75 as mentioned
areal blocks (coarsest areal spacings) are associated with earlier.
reservoir studies limited to natural depletion and crestal Obviously, a minimum computing expense follows from
or flank gas and/or water injection. In such a case, a use of a single grid layer representing the entire forma-
coarse grid may result in a number of area1 blocks that tion thickness. This results in a 2D X-Yarea1 grid as op-
include two or more similar type (e.g., production) wells, posed to a 3D grid and occasionally is justified in the two
with little loss in engineering significance of the simulator extremes of a very high vertical permeability and a layered
results. Large numbers of area1 blocks may be required formation with zero vertical permeability. Pseudorelative
in cases of pattern waterfloods or enhanced recovery proc- permeability and capillary pressure curves are discussed
esses. A rough guide in this case is the need for at least for the former case in papers describing the vertical
two, preferably three or more, gridblocks separating each equilibrium (VE) concept21,77 and for the latter case by
injection-production well pair. However, recent studies Hearn. 78
describe estimation of pseudorelative-permeability curves,
which allow adjacent-block placement of an injectoripro- Specification of Reservoir Rock and
ducer well pair. 72,73 Fluid Description Data
The major factors affecting the number of grid layers
(vertical gridblocks) required are the formation stratifica- Geological and petrophysical work based on logs and core
tion, vertical communication, and total thickness. Many analyses yields maps of structure, net dh, and w1 products
reservoirs possess a number of formation layers, which for each of the several reservoir layers. The kh and +h
correlate from well to well over much of or all the field. data often are augmented or modified by results of
Variations of layer thickness, permeability, and porosity drillstem, pressure buildup, and pulse tests. For each
may be significant areally and even greater from one layer layer, the engineer can overlay his area1 x-y grid spacing
to another. The vertical communication (vertical network on these maps and read off the values of subsea
permeability) between adjacent layer-pairs may vary from depth, I#& and kh at the center of each gridblock. These
zero to very high, both areally and from one layer-pair values along with gross thickness of each block are then
to another. In general, at least one grid layer should be transposed to a data file in a format compatible with that
required by the simulation model. Current research ef- the simulation study entails a sequence of model runs in
fort is directed toward developing computer programs that which input reservoir description parameters are altered
accept digitized core analysis, log and geological data, to improve this agreement. This is a trial-and-error pro-
the selected grid network, and, through mapping and in- cedure frequently requiring considerable engineering
terpolation techniques, automatically prepare the simula- judgment and experience. The description parameters ob-
tion input data file. tained from the geological/petrophysical work often are
Laboratory core analysis work includes measurement used to establish legitimate ranges of parameter variation
of relative-permeability, k,., and capillary-pressure, P,, in the history-match model runs.
curves for a number of field cores. Variations in rock This history-match phase can consume half or more of
lithology may result in different sets of k, and P, curves the total simulation study (match plus prediction) com-
for different layers and/or different areal portions of the puting effort and expense, depending on the length of the
reservoir. Most simulation models allow multiple sets of history period, complexity of the reservoir, and amount
such data in tabular form with assignment of each set to of available performance data.
a user-specified layer/portion of the reservoir. If the rock Refs. 86 through 90 describe methods and applications
water/oil (gas/oil) capillary pressure values are small, the of inverse simulation or automatic history matching. This
water/oil (gas/oil) transition zone in the reservoir may be concept requires user-specification of a finite set of reser-
a very small fraction of total formation thickness. In such voir description parameters to be determined (e.g., zonal
cases, pseudocapillary-pressure curve(s) should be permeability, porosity values), a finite set of observed
used. l7 reservoir performance data to be matched, and a regres-
For black-oil studies, laboratory tests are performed to sion procedure coded interactively with the simulator. A
determine gas compressibility factor and saturated oil and single computer submittal is then performed, which in turn
gas viscosities vs. pressure. Differential and/or constant- executes many model history runs. The regression pro-
composition expansion tests on oil samples yield the cedure automatically varies description-parameter values
saturated oil pressure-dependent formation volume fac- from run to run to determine that set of description-
tor, B, (RB/STB), and solution gas, R, (scf/STB). The parameter values that maximize agreement between model
resulting oil and associated gas properties vs. pressure results and the set of observed data. This concept is
are entered in the data file in tabular form compatible with especially appealing to the engineers who have experi-
simulator input requirements. For gas condensate deple- enced the frequently high frustration levels associated with
tion studies, constant-volume and constantcomposition trial-and-error matching of complex reservoir behavior.
expansion tests yield the required pressure-dependent liq- However, to date the trial-and-error procedure still
uid content, CL (STB/scf), and condensate density values. predominates with isolated successes reported with
A wide variety of laboratory tests are performed for automatic history matching. Two factors complicating the
compositional model studies that involve injection of a latter approach are (1) the expense of the required single
nonequilibrium fluid (dry or enriched gas, CO?, N2, computer submittal can be very large, (2) the a priori
etc.). Swelling tests yield relative volumes, saturation choice of description parameters (or zonation) can be dif-
pressures, and equilibrium phase compositions for each ficult, subjective, and lead to a questionable reservoir
of a sequenceof mixtures of, say, 1 mole of original reser- description.
voir oil and injected fluid. 79 Various single- and
multicontact tests may be augmented by ID corefloods Validity of Simulation Results
and/or slim-tube displacements. Orr et al. 8o*81discuss Uncertainties or errors in simulation model results may
a variety of C02-oil laboratory tests. Much of the arise from (1) questionable assumptions or mechanisms
laboratory PVT test data must be processed to yield cor- not represented in the differential form of the model, (2)
relations or a calibrated EOSs2-85 for simulator input re- spatial and time truncation error introduced by replace-
quirements. ment of the model differential equations by finite-
difference approximations, and (3) inadequately known
History Matching reservoir rock and/or fluid description data. In addition,
In most simulation studies, reservoirs have some period the exact solution of the difference equations is not at-
of historical performance data that include WOR, GOR, tained because of round-off error introduced by the finite
individual phase rates and cumulatives, and pressure word length of the computer. Round-off error is general-
measurements by well. Ideally, periodic (e.g., monthly), ly negligible compared with errors from the other three
accurate measurements of all these data would be recorded sources. With some exceptions, the above sources of er-
and available for all wells. In the typical case, many of ror are listed in order of increasing importance. However,
these data are unrecorded or unavailable and some of the successful history matching can reverse the importance
reported values may be of questionable accuracy. of the second and third sources.
The reservoir description based on log and core analysis Comparisons of model and laboratory experiment
data reflects a very small (volumetric) sampling of the results can indicate model validity in the absence of the
reservoir. The historical reservoir-performance data Uncertainty 3 above. Several such comparisons show
reflect the reservoir description, and its impact on good model-experiment agreement for gas/oil sys-
pressure/fluid movement behavior, on a much larger tems,91,92 water/oil coning,93 and fractured-matrix im-
scale. The previously mentioned geological and bibition. 94
petrophysical work yields an initial reservoir description.
History matching yields a refinement of that description, Model Assumptions
which improves agreement between model results and An assumption common to many black-oil models is com-
observed reservoir behavior. The history-match phase of plete re-solution of free gas in accordance with the
48-I 0 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
saturated R,(p) curve during repressurization. This may complex manipulation of the model differential equations
be a poor assumption in a case where gridblock thickness and Taylor series expansions. In simpler terms, this er-
is large and gas/oil gravity (vertical) segregation is pro- ror can be viewed as a consequence of replacing the
nounced. Prior to repressurization in a given block, the physical continuum (reservoir formation) by a 3D network
free gas may exist as a high gas saturation in only the up- of mixing cells (gridblocks). This consequence is the con-
per portion of the block. This contradicts its representa- tradictory requirements that any variable value (pressure,
tion in the model as a lower saturation distributed saturation, temperature, concentration) simultaneously
throughout the entire block volume. In the segregated represents the value at the grid point (e.g. block center)
state, the gas will redissolve only in the lower or residual and the entire block’s volumetric average value. This re-
oil saturation in the upper, gas-occupied portion of the quirement is not met (1) during a frontal displacement as
block volume. However, the model will allow re-solution a sharp front enters the gridblock, (2) when gravity forces
in the entire block’s oil volume. Pressure hysteresis in result in phase segregation within the block’s thickness,
the R,(p) curve has been used to cope with this problem; and/or (3) when area1 cusping or coning causes sharp
an alternative remedy where the computing budget per- localized saturation gradients within the block volume.
mits is the use of more grid layers. Numerical dispersion generally appears as falsely
An assumption common in early black-oil models was smeared spatial gradients of water saturation in
that the reservoir oil obeyed a single pair of B,(p) and waterflooding, temperature in steamflooding, solvent in
R,(p) curves. Some black-oil reservoirs exhibit a signifi- miscible flooding, and chemical agent in chemical
cant variation of oil API gravity and PVT behavior with flooding. This excessive smearing occurs primarily in the
depth or with depth and areal location. In some such cases, areal (X or y) directions and, if uncontrolled, results in
this variation can be represented in a black-oil model by too early calculated breakthrough times of water (heat,
simply allowing initial solution gas R, to vary with depth solvent, etc.) at production wells. This numerical disper-
in the undersaturated oil column, retaining a single set sion generally increases with increasing areal gridblock
of B,(p) and R,(p) curves. In other cases, multiple sets size (AX and AJJ). Lantz95 quantitatively related the dif-
of these curves and two oil components are necessary and ference equation truncation error term to an artificial,
the single oil-type assumption in a black-oil model can second-order diffusion term in the differential equation.
lead to appreciable error. The engineer can anticipate possibly significant
Mechanisms or phenomena that are significant in some numerical dispersion effects in simulating two types of
reservoirs and may not be represented in the model in- miscible displacement. The first type is slug or bank, as
clude compaction, hysteresis in wetting and nonwetting opposed to continuous, injection of solvent or CO?.
relative permeabilities, and interlayer wellbore crossflow. Numerical dispersion erodes the calculated solvent con-
The latter is a particularly difficult modeling problem and centration within the bank. If miscibility requires
the subject of continuing research. A production well com- maintenance of solvent bank integrity or a certain solvent
pleted in a number of layers may exhibit production from peak concentration, then this numerical dispersion can
some layers and, simultaneously, injection (backflow or result in a calculated (false) loss of miscibility. The sec-
recirculation) into others. Factors that promote this ond type is multicontact miscibility For continuous sol-
possibility are low-pressure drawdown (high PI and/or vent injection in 1D simulations, several studies 3’X97
low rate) and poor vertical communication between the report the need for 100 to 300 gridblocks to reduce the
reservoir layers in the vicinity of the well. A rigorous effect of numerical dispersion on miscible front velocity.
treatment of this problem requires modeling of wellbore Kyte and Berry 75 describe control of numerical disper-
multiphase hydraulics and phase segregation combined sion in simulation of waterflooding through large area1
with calculation of correct phase mixtures for the layers gridblocks. They use pseudorelative-permeability curves
undergoing injection. obtained from detailed (fine-grid) cross-sectional simula-
tions. Harpole and Hearn98 used their method in a 3D
Spatial Truncation Error black-oil study. To date, steamflood simulation general-
Spatial and time truncation error theoretically can be ly has been confined to pattern studies for which a suffi-
reduced to any desired low level by sufficiently reducing cient number of gridblocks between unlike wells is used
gridblock dimensions and timestep size. However, the to minimize numerical dispersion effects. Killough et
resultant increased number of blocks and timesteps fre- al. 73 describe their reduction of numerical dispersion in
quently lead to prohibitive computer expense and memory a stratified, heterogeneous, repeated pattern black-oil
storage requirements. reservoir study. They performed fine-grid, 3D single-
Time truncation error is generally insignificant. In most pattern simulations and then used regression to determine
applications timestep size is restricted by considerations pseudorelative permeabilities for a 2 x 2 four-block area1
other than time truncation error, such as model stability, grid representation of the pattern. Agreement between the
frequencies of printout, and frequencies of changes in well 3D fine-grid results and four-block pattern results was
data (rates, completions, new wells, etc.). In any given good enough to allow fieldwide simulation by use of the
case, the level of time truncation error can be estimated latter coarse, areal definition. Several recent papers99-‘01
by repeating a run or portion of a run with a smaller (or describe local grid refinement, the method of character-
larger) timestep. Insensitivity of results to timestep size istics, and other methods to reduce numerical dispersion
indicates low-time truncation error. effects.
Spatial truncation error appears in the forms of Pronounced grid-orientation effects have been noted in
numerical dispersion, grid-orientation effects, and error simulation of adverse mobility ratio floods with models
in calculated well WOR and GOR values. Spatial trunca- incorporating the commonly used five-point difference
tion error can be expressed in mathematical terms through scheme and single-point upstream weighting. The value
RESERVOIR SIMULATION 48-l 1
5-POINT . A
--------- g-POINT
/
/ \\
i’ 2 /‘3 -DIAGONAL
PARALLEL-\
GRID
.
r-7 \
/
/ GRID
3 INJECTION WELL
. PRODUCTION WELL
Fig. 48.3-Nine-spot grids
has three types of wells-labeled 1 (injector), 2 (near pro-

ducer), and 3 (far producer). Reservoir formation and
fluid properties and well rates used in the simulation model
are reported elsewhere. l4 The calculated results in Table
48.2 show the pronounced effect of grid orientation on
steam breakthrough times calculated by use of the five-
point difference scheme. Obviously, steam should arrive
at the near producer, Well 2, before it reaches the far pro-
ducer, Well 3. The parallel grid with the five-point scheme
Fig. 48.2-Five-point and nine-point difference schemes
actually gives breakthrough at Well 3 at 117 days, before
breakthrough at Well 2 (204 days). Table 48.2 shows that
the nine-point difference scheme virtually eliminates the
of the coefficient krJCIJIpJ in Eq. 2 obviously affects effect of grid orientation for this problem. Figure 48.4
the interblock Darcy flow rate from gridblock i-Z to block usesparallel and diagonal grids to show calculated steam-
i. Intuition might dictate evaluation of this coefficient at front shapes at 80 days for the two different schemes. The
some average of variable values (pressure, saturations, difference between the nine-point fronts for two grids is
etc.) in the two blocks. However, considerations of stabili- small and about equal to the error of manual interpolation.
ty and numerical dispersion frequently have led to its A two-point, upstream weighting method lo2 was pro-
evaluation at conditions existing in the block from which posed to reduce both numerical dispersion and grid-
the flow occurs-i.e., the upstream block. This is referred orientation effects. Abou-Kassem and Aziz lot discuss this
to as single-point upstream weighting. The five-point dif- and other methods 1oe-108for reducing the orientation ef-
ference scheme is reflected in the form of terms of type fect. They conclude that the nine-point scheme is the most
A(7Ap) in Eq. 5 for the case of 2D flow. These terms effective in reducing steamflood grid-orientation effects.
represent the interblock Darcy flow rates in the mass Two studies105-‘09 show very significant reduction of
balance equation for each gridblock. The solid arrows of grid-orientation effects in pattern steamflood simulation
Fig. 48.2 illustrate these flow rates between the gridblock results when areally homogeneous, square grids (AX=
and each of its four neighbors. Ay=constant) are used with the Yanosik and McCracken
A strong rid-orientation effect was first reported by nine-point scheme. However, the effects persist for a non-
Todd et al. ” for highly adverse mobility waterfloods square, uniform grid (Ax=2Ay)‘09 and the latter scheme
and later observed for pattern steamfloods. lo3 An area1 yields physically unreasonable results for the cases of
grid with the usual perpendicular x and y axes may be heterogeneity and nonuniform grids where AX (or Ay)
placed over a five-spot pattern with the x axis either varies with x (y). The latter shortcoming is addressed by
parallel to or at a 45” angle to the line connecting the in- several recent papers110‘112 that propose new or altered
jector to a producer (Fig. 48.3). These parallel and nine-point schemes. Frauenthal et al. ‘I3 describe a
diagonal grids lo2 can result in markedly different modified five-point difference scheme and Pruess et
calculated shapes of the water or steam front and the al. It4 present a seven-point, hexagonal gridblock scheme
breakthrough times. This difference was reduced by the for reducing grid-orientation effects.
nine-point finite difference formulation described by The engineer can anticipate possibly significant grid-
Yanosik and McCracken, to4 illustrated by the four ex- orientation effects in simulating single- or repeated-
tra dashed-line diagonal flow terms in Fig. 48.2. The nine- pattern, adverse mobility ratio displacements. Preliminary
point scheme has been programmed into many simulators areal, single-pattern model runs allow estimation of the
treating adverse mobility ratio waterfloods, steamfloods, level of such effects and the need for use of a nine-point
and CO2 solvent displacements. scheme or other remedy.
As an example of this grid orientation effect, Fig. 48.3 The discussion and references cited obviously indicate
shows a 3-acre nine-spot steamflood pattern with the the current concern regarding effects of numerical-
diagonal grid and 45”-shifted parallel grid. This pattern dispersion and grid-orientation effects on the validity of
GRID DIFFERENCE-SCHEME of the reservoir. The results can be helpful in selecting

PARALLEL 5-POINT the coarsest grid spacing compatible with acceptably low
---
numerical dispersion.
DIAGONAL 5-POINT
In fieldwide simulation, spatial truncation error may af-
---- EITHER g-POINT fect calculated values of well productivity, wellbore pro-
ducing pressure, and WOR and GOR. Without special
measures, the model calculates the well behavior with only
the gridblock’s average values of pressure, saturations,
etc. However, the actual well behavior may reflect near-
well coning, liquid dropout, or gas evolution effects. The
dimensions of this near-well region may be two orders
of magnitude smaller than the areal block dimensions (b,
Ay). Thus the block’s average conditions may provide a
poor basis for calculating well behavior. This problem
can be significant for a well completed throughout for-
mation thickness and even more significant for a partial-
ly penetrating well.
The simplest remedy to this problem is applicable in
some cases where good vertical communication results
in a high degree of vertical phase segregation. In this case,
well pseudorelative-permeability curves have been
TIME-80 DAYS
used. 1’5,1’6 These curves reflect the location of the com-
0 INJECTOR
pletion interval and relate well behavior to average block
conditions. A more complicated approach requires use of
l PRODUCER
multivariable correlations relating well WOR and GOR
to average block conditions. ’“g118 These correlations are
Fig. 48.4-Calculated shape of steamflood front in a nine-spot
pattern. developed from a number of single-well r-z (radial-depth)
model runs with fine grid spacing near the wellbore. The
most rigorous treatment of this problem incorporates in-
dividual 1D radial or 2D ~-2 simulations for each well
simulation results. However, these numerical effects are simultaneously within the fieldwide 3D simulation. ’19,120
not serious in many simulation studies. Numerical- Again, in any given case, the model itself can be used
dispersion effects are generally demonstrated as smear- to estimate the severity of this problem through com-
ing of theoretically sharp fronts in l- or 2D horizontal parison of single-well, r-z and representative 3D (portion
displacements in homogeneous formations. Actual reser- of reservoir) model results.
voir behavior frequently reflects strong gravity effects
such as a gas or solvent override or a water underrun. Uncertain Reservoir Description Data
These gravity effects combined with reservoir structure Errors in reservoir description data clearly contribute to
(areal variation in dip angle) can have an influence on fluid errors in simulation model results. Since the description
movement patterns, which dominates the numerical ef- data are never exactly known, one might infer that model
fects just discussed. In addition, reservoir heterogeneity results are necessarily erroneous and unreliable. A number
can play the same relatively dominant role as gravity of considerations contribute, in contradiction of this in-
forces. In highly stratified or layered reservoirs, the difference, to model results being widely used to select and
ferent rates of travel of injected fluid through different to design oil-recovery processes and to forecast oil
layers can dominate the numerical dispersion effect at the recovery.
leading edges of the individual layer displacement fronts. Accurate determination of all reservoir description data
Finally, a given level of numerical-dispersion or grid- is not necessary for reliability of model results. The re-
orientation effect is acceptable if its impact on calculated quired accuracy of any description parameter is propor-
reservoir performance is inconsequential in an engineer- tional to its influence on computed results (reservoir
ing sense-i.e., in light of the questions being asked. performance). The simulation model should be used to
The model itself often can be used to estimate the level perform preliminary sensitivity runs to determine which
of these numerical errors and the degree of their accepta- description data are important. Expense and effort should
bility. Before selecting the full study grid, preliminary then be concentrated on obtaining or refining only those
model runs using grids of varying coarseness can be per- “sensitive” description data. The particular parameters
formed for a representative cross-section or 3D portion found to be important will vary from study to study,
depending on the nature of the reservoir, the recovery
process(es) of interest, and study objectives or questions.
For example, if computed oil recovery is insensitive to
TABLE 48.2-CALCULATED STEAM BREAKTHROUGH wide variations in the gas relative-permeability curve, then
TIMES (DAYS) FOR A NINE-SPOT PATTERN
the accuracy of this curve might deserve little attention.
Well 2 Well 3 In a case where the gravity drainage mechanism is domi-
Diagonal Parallel Diagonal Parallel nant, the oil relative-permeability curve at low and
Five-point 47.0 204 1,400 117 midrange oil saturations has a large effect on oil recovery
Nine-point 87.7 75.5 900 1,000 and deserves effort of definition. Gas viscosity, relative
permeability, and capillary pressure may play virtually oil recovery under the various alternative recovery
no role and their accuracies are irrelevant. All phase schemes within the study scope. Field pilot tests then may
relative permeabilities may be unimportant in a natural be planned for one or more of the recovery processes,
or flank waterflood of a relatively clean, thick high-relief subject to the model results and engineering judgment.
sand where gravity forces are dominant with pronounced Argument has persisted for years regarding uniqueness
phase segregation. Only relative-permeability curve end- of the reservoir description obtained by history matching.
points may be important in such cases. However, thinner A thorough treatment of this question requires length and
sand or stratification, lower permeability and/or higher mathematical complexity beyond the scope of this chapter.
rates can increase the importance of water and oil relative- Any such treatment requires careful definition of terms.
permeability curve shapes. While capillary pressure is For example, define a reservoir description as a bounded
unimportant in many reservoir studies, it can provide the set of m numbers {Xi} representing selected zonal
dominant, cross-imbibition, mechanism in waterflooding permeabilities and porosities and parameters characteriz-
thin, heterogeneous water-wet sands. ing relative permeability curves. Let the sets of N numbers
In some studies, the engineer is less concerned with the {dj*}, {dj} represent observed and model calculated per-
absolute accuracies of both model results and description formance data where dj=dj(x, ,x2.,.x,). If N>m, each
data than with the sensitivity of calculated results to varia- xi affects one or more dj, and the d. are independent .
tions in those data. An example is a study performed to functions of {Xi} (in a mathematics i sense undefined
compare oil recoveries under alternative recovery proc- here), then with rare exceptions a unique set of parameter
esses. Model runs performed for each process, with reser- values {Xi} will minimize the difference between the
voir description data varied over estimated ranges of observed and calculated data. An altered zonation gives
uncertainty, may yield substantially invariant process a physically different parameter set {ii}. Again, a unique
rankings and incremental oil recovery differences. If so, set of values of {ai} generally will minimize the dif-
any significant history-matching effort may be un- ference between observed and calculated data. However,
necessary and the only concern regarding accuracy of for this two-parameter set “experiment,” comparable
description data should be the estimated ranges of uncer- matches of observed data would allow a claim of non-
tainty. Another example is a design study of a given uniqueness.
recovery process performed to optimize pattern type and As a practical matter, study budget and time constraints
size, well completions, and rates. Model runs, as just prevent exhaustive trials of different parameter sets and
described, may show that minimal history-match and/or even limit the number of model runs with different com-
laboratory efforts for reservoir description are necessary binations of parameter values within a given set. General-
to meet the study objective. ly, difficulty encountered in a history-match effort is that
As previously mentioned, reservoir description data are of finding any reasonable description that gives good
altered through history matching to improve agreement agreement with history. The effort rarely ends with dif-
between model results and reservoir performance data. ficulty in selecting among significantly different reservoir
Frequently, the study objectives involve estimation of descriptions that give comparably good matches. In any
reservoir performance under displacement conditions not event, the pertinent question regarding reservoir-
present or recovery processes not active during the his- description data is not related to correctness or uniqueness
tory period. In such cases, some description parameters in an absolute sense. The pertinent question concerns the
that significantly influence future performance may not engineering significance of variations in parameter values
be reflected in the historical performance. An example within ranges of uncertainty. As discussed previously, the
is a heavy-oil reservoir that was produced for nearly 40 model itself is useful in estimating this significance.
years under natural depletion with no water drive. Solu-
tion gas was very low and interstitial water saturation was Simulation Technology
immobile. A 50% water cut developed in time as a large Simulation technology can be divided roughly into the
pressure decline caused water mobility through water ex- categories of model definition, model formulation, solu-
pansion and porosity reduction. Performance data includ- tion techniques, and special techniques related to
ed WOR, GOR, and pressure data for a number of wells. numerical dispersion control, viscous fingering, and grid-
The only description parameters influencing these data orientation effects. Model definition includes specifica-
were formation permeability, compressibility, critical gas tion of the problem (process) addressed, component iden-
saturation, water relative permeability at saturations slight- tities, mass transport laws or expressions, fluid PVT and
ly above SwC, and gas relative permeability at saturations rock property relationships and, finally, the set of finite-
slightly above S,,. The history-match effort gave a good difference equations expressing conservation of mass for
match of performance with a unique set of these parameter each gridblock. These equations are generally nonlinear.
values. However, it provided no information regarding Before they can be solved for pressures, saturations, etc.,
the full-range relative-permeability curves necessary to they must be linearized and manipulated into a set of
estimate oil recovery under waterflood and steam stimu- simultaneous linear algebraic equations. The term for-
lation or flooding. Laboratory relative-permeability meas- mulation refers to these manipulations and the final form
urements and waterflood and thermal pilots were of this set of linearized equations. In a general sense, this
conducted in this case. set of equations can be expressed in the matrix form Ap = b
Laboratory work and well pressure testing can be per- where A is a very sparse, banded Nb xN~ matrix and the
formed to estimate values of some reservoir description known t, and unknown e are column vectors of dimen-
parameters that are not reflected in performance data. sion Nb . A rapidly expanding portion of the simulation
These parameters, together with others determined by literature describes increasingly efficient, iterative solu-
history matching, can be used in model runs to estimate tion techniques for this problem.
Model Formulations than does IMPES. For each gridblock, the adaptive im-
plicit method internally senses (without user intervention)
In 1959, Douglas et al. I6 proposed leap-ffog and which dependent variables (e.g., saturations, pressure,
simultaneous formulations for incompressible 2D two- mole fractions) require implicit dating for stability. For
phase flow. During 1960-69 a number of authors21-24 most practical reservoir problems this results in one equa-
described two- and three-phase, 2D and 3D black-oil tion per gridblock for a major fraction of the grid and an
models based on this simultaneous formulation. In 1960, overall average number of equations per block con-
Stone and Garder I8 and Sheldon et al. I7 introduced the siderably less than N. Thus the method can attain the
concept of eliminating saturation derivatives among the stability of the implicit formulation with considerably less
black-oil model equations to obtain a sin le difference computing expense. Also, computer storage requirements
equation in pressure. Fagin and Stewart 1$ in 1966 and are reduced significantly. Future implementations of this
Breitenbach et al. *O in 1968 described three-phase black- formulation may contribute to increased model reliabili-
oil models based on this implicit-pressureiexplicit- ty (stability) and efficiency in simulations of all types of
saturation (IMPES) formulation. The IMPES formulation recovery processes.
is explicit in saturation and composition in that relative Single-well coning studies generally involve radial grid
permeabilities and concentrations are expressed explicit- spacings, resulting in very small gridblocks near the well
ly in the interblock flow terms. Solution of the pressure and large throughput ratios. For these studies, the IMPES
equations over the grid is followed by an explicit updating formulation is unsuitable, and the implicit formulation is
of phase saturations and compositions in each gridblock. generally the most efficient. ‘** For field-scale, 3D black-
In 1969, Blair and Weinaug12’ published a fully im- oil studies, the overall computing time is frequently less
plicit formulation which expresses all terms in the inter- with the sequential than with the IMPES or implicit for-
block flow and well production expressions implicitly. mulation. The typical black-oil simulator applied today
This requires simultaneous solution of all N model equa- in 1,OOO-or more gridblock, field-scale studies is an IM-
tions. A number of later papers describe implementation PES model with a user-specified option of sequential solu-
of the implicit formulation in black-oil, “* composition. Smaller black-oil studies and preliminary cross-
tional 3’ and thermal 39 models. sectional, coning, and sensitivity studies associated with
In 1970, MacDonald’23 improved the stability of the the large problems frequently employ the implicit formula-
IMPES method for the two-phase water/oil case by tion. Recent thermal models involve implicit formulations.
following the pressure equation solution with solution of With one exception 3’ recent compositional models29-33
a water-saturation equation over the grid using implicit are based on the IMPES formulation.
(new-time-level or end-of-timestep) values of relative The popular IMPES and more recent implicit formula-
permeabilities in the interblock flow terms. Spillette et tions are illustrated here for the case of 3D two-phase flow
al. 124 extended this concept to the three-phase case and of water and undersaturated oil. This illustration is in the
called the formulation sequential. form of the Newton-Raphson procedure, which Blair and
The IMPES formulation can become unstable if the Weinaug l2 ’ used in describing their implicit formulation.
volumetric flow through a gridblock in a timestep exceeds For clarity, rock compressibility, gravity, and capillary
a small fraction of the block PV. The more stable sequen- pressure are neglected, and phase (component) produc-
tial formulation remains stable to much larger ratios of tion rates are fixed, independent of pressure and satura-
gridblock volumetric throughput/PV. The tolerable tions. The terms explicit and implicit refer to the time level
throughput ratio for the implicit formulation is significant- of evaluation for variables or terms in the left side, in-
ly larger than that of the sequential method. Arithmetic terblock flow terms of Eqs. 5. Explicit dating denotes
(or computing cost) per timestep and timestep size both evaluation at the beginning of the timestep, t, (level n),
increase from IMPES to sequential to implicit formula- while implicit dating denotes evaluation at the end of the
tions. Since the total cost of simulating a given time period timestep, t,+i (level n+ 1). The implicit formulation of
is proportional to the product of arithmetic per timestep Eq. 5, then, appears for each gridblock as
and timestep size, all three formulations are used widely
today.
The sequential formulation can fail to preserve material
balances in some problems where adjacent ridblock com-
positions differ greatly. ‘25 Meijerink ‘*Q described a
=f(S,,p)=O . . . . ., . . .. . . . . . . . . (lla)
stabilized IMPES formulation, which improves the stabili-
ty of IMPES to a lesser extent than the sequential method
and
but reduces material balance error in regions of steep com-
position gradients.
Thomas and Thurnau 127 describe an adaptive implicit A(T,Ap)-qpo -+,S, -@Jo),1
formulation, which allows different levels of implicitness
in different gridblocks. These various levels may change
with timestep number and with iteration number within =g(S,,p)=O, ....... ......... .. . (llb)
a given timestep. As previously mentioned, the implicit
formulation 12’requires simultaneous solution of N equa- where
tions for each block over the entire grid. The correspond- T = interblock transmissibility,
ing arithmetic effort of solution is proportional to N3. p = pressure,
Since N= 1 for IMPES, the implicit formulation obviously qpp = production rate of phase P, oil or water
requires considerably more computing time per timestep VP = PV of gridblock,
RESERVOIR SIMULATION 48-I 5
Atp = timestep where T and C are 2 X 2 matrices and P and R

- are 2 X 1
bp = reciprocal formation volume factor of column vectors:
phase P, ST vol/res vol,
Sp = saturation of phase P, and
f, g = function of.
Gridblock indices ij, and k on all terms are suppressed

for clarity. All terms at time level n are known from the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15)
previous timestep’s calculations. The absence of time level
subscript denotes the implicit level, n + 1. Thus all terms The coefficients Tll , TzI arise from saturation deriva-
T,,T,,b,,b,,S,,S,,p in Eq. 11 represent unknown tives of relative permeabilities in the transmissibilities.
values at time level n + 1, For all Nb gridblocks, Eqs. 11 The C matrix elements are obvious upon inspection of
are ~Nz. eouations in the 2Nh unknowns Eqs. 13 (e.g., c,* = VplA,(S,b,c,). The compressibil-
~s,ikniYltPi,‘kn+I }. For a particular gridblock, Eqs. ities (c, ,c,) appear through the definition c = (1 ib)dbidp.
11 a;k ‘two e&rations in the 14 unknowns consisting of Eq. 14 written for all gridblocks is a set of Nb linear
(S,,p) pairs in the block and its six neighbors. Thesesix parabolic difference equations in the Nt, unknowns
neighbor pairs are introduced by the Laplacian interblock {Pi,.,k}. Following solution by a direct or iterative tech-
flow terms. Oil saturations are not additional unknowns nique, the new iterates are calculated as S,$+’ =S$+
since S, =I-S,; the transmissibilities T and reciprocal
6Sw ,P p+’=pp+Gp. Coefficients are recalculated at
formation volume factors (b) are functions of S ,,, and p. 1+1
(SK, .p “I ) for all blocks and Eq. 14 is solved again.
Application of the well-known Newton-Raphson itera- These outer or Newton iterations are continued until the
tive procedure to Eq. 11 gives maximum values over the grid of { IAS,,,I , ISp I } are less
than some prescribed tolerances. The term inner itera-
tions refers to iterations performed by an iterative solu-
tion technique in solving Eq. 14 for a given Newton
iteration.
........................(124
f6p=o The IMPES formulation treats transmissibilities ex-
plicitly SO that the first terms in Eqs. 11 are A(T, Ap)
and A(T,,Ap), where T,, and T,, are calculated from
and
known saturations at time level n. This results, upon ap-
b? pls
g(s,,p)=g(sppf)+
W, (-6S,
plication of Eq. 12, in zero values for transmissibility
derivatives with respect to neighboring block saturations
1 w and Eq. 16 replaces Eq. 13:
Wb)
where P is iteration number, superscript Pdenotes evalua-

tion at (S&‘), hp=p’+’ -pp, and S,f,,pp approach the
-z(S ,+b ,c,)‘6p+f(S$,,pp)=0.. .(16a)
desired S, ,p values as 4 increases. The terms containing
derivatives are actually sums of seven terms because of
the previously mentioned functional dependence on and
neighboring block unknowns. Substituting from Eqs. 11
into Eqs. 12, performing the differentiation and rearrang- A(T,,Asp) + %b$S,
ing the result gives
VP
A(7-p11A&S,)+A(TP,2A8p)- -b&E,
AI -~(S,b,c,)‘6p+g(S&pp)=0. . . (16b)
“P
- pt(S,b”c,)Y6P+f(S~,PY)=O . (134 The single saturation unknown, 6S,, can be eliminated
by multiplying Eqs. 16a and 16b by B,fz and BJ, respec-
and tively, and adding to obtain
B,$ A(T,.,A&p) + B,PA(T,,,A&p)

VP
A(TpZ,A6S,)+A(Tp*2A6p)+ -b,ySS,
At
-J$S ,L,cM.+SSUcO)E~p+B~~fY+BljigY=O,. (17)
-- “P
At (S,b,c,)pGp+g(S~,pe)=O, . (13b)
where B is the formation volume factor, l/b.
This is a set of Nb single or scalar, linear parabolic dif-
or in condensed matrix form, ference equations in the Nb pressure unknowns {Gp+ }
As described before, a number of outer or Newton itera-
A(Tc)-Cc+B=O, ... .. . . . (14) tions are performed with pressure updated and coefficients
recalculated after each iteration. After convergence, solution must be performed for tridiagonal matrices in
saturation S, is explicitly calculated, block by block, LSOR and pentadiagonal matrices in planar SOR. As the
from Eq. 1 la (with T,, in the first term). Eq. 17 can be block size is increased the arithmetic work per iteration
written more simply for the section to follow as increases because of the increased arithmetic associated
with this direct solution within each block. However, con-
A(TAGp)-c++r=O, ... . .. (18) vergence rate generally increases and the total number
of iterations correspondingly decreases with increasing
where T, 6p,c, and r are scalars. block size. To some extent, optimal block size can be
determined by mathematical analysis ‘33,134 of this
Solution Techniques tradeoff between work per iteration and number of itera-
Eq. 18 written for all Nb gridblocks can be expressed in tions. The SOR methods remain popular because of ease
matrix form as of coding, low computer storage requirement and
automatic determination of the optimum value of the single
AP=b, . . _. . .... .............. (19) iteration parameter. Varga ‘~4 describes the power method
for this parameter determination and Breitenbach et al. 129
where A is a nonsymmetric, sparse Nb xN~ matrix and illustrate its application.
&’is the Nb x 1 column vector (Sp Uk) . Direct solution In 1971, Watts135 presented an additive correction
(Gaussian elimination) or iterative methods can be used method which improves LSOR convergence rate in highly
to solve Eq. 19. The arithmetic effort required in direct anisotropic problems. A highly anisotropic problem is one
solution strongly depends on the pattern of nonzero where, throughout the grid, transmissibibties in one direc-
elements in the A matrix. This pattern in turn depends tion are much reater than those in other direction(s). Set-
upon the particular linear ordering or numbering of the tari and Aziz ’B6 extended Watts’ method to other iterative
Nb gridblocks. An ordering is simply a one-to-one cor- solution techniques.
respondence between a linear index m = 1,2 . Nh and the Alternating-direction iterative methods (ADI) were
gridblock indices {ij,k}, i= 1,2. . .N,, j=1,2,. . .N,, developed for 2D by Peaceman and Rachford 137 in 1955
k = 1,2. . NZ . Here the term natural ordering denotes and for 3D by Douglas and Rachford ‘38 in 1956. These
numbering the blocks consecutively first in the shortest methods were widely used in simulation throughout the
direction, then in the next shortest direction, and finally 1960’s and into the 1970’s. The AD1 methods require a
in the longest direction. For example, if N, >N, > N,, sequence or set of iteration parameters. While mathe-
then matical analysis yields an optimal parameter set for cer-
tain cases, 1,137actual reservoir cases frequently require
m=k+(j-l)N,+(i-l)NYN,. . .... . (20) some trial-and-error effort.
In 1968, Stone 139 described the strongly-implicit pro-
Breitenbach et al., ‘29 Peaceman, ’ and others illustrate cedure (SIP); Weinstein et al. t4’ described SIP in 3D.
the diagonal-band form of the A matrix and minimum Again, a set of iteration parameters is required. Parameter
direct solution effort which result from this natural estimation methods associated with AD1 have proved
ordering. useful for SIP * but, again, some trial-and-error effort is
The half bandwidth of the A matrix is N,N, and the required or beneficial in man reservoir studies.
arithmetic effort (number of multiplications) of direct solu- A number of studiest29~136~15~141 compare direct solu-
tion is roughly proportional to Nb(NyN,)*. Iterative tion, LSOR, ADI, and SIP methods for a variety of test
methods require an arithmetic effort roughly proportional and reservoir problems. There is no simple answer to
to Nb. Thus increasing problem size, Nh, renders which method is best. The ranking of the methods is
iterative solution increasingly preferable to direct solu- problem-dependent in that it depends on the range of varia-
tion. For large problems, computer storage requirement tion in coefficient (transmissibility) values in the A matrix
is also significantly less for iterative than direct solution. and the pattern (e.g., highly anisotropic), if any, of their
Price and Coats I30 described reduced bandwidth direct variation. In general, the more difficult reservoir problems
solution methods based on diagonal (D2) and alternate- have a very large range from the smaller to larger
diagonal (D4) gridblock orderings. For certain test prob- transmissibilities and this large ratio is not uniformly
lems and iterative methods, they showed a D4 associated with a particular direction throughout the grid.
direct/iterative work ratio less than unity for half band- SIP became widely used throughout the 1970’s and re-
widths up to about 30. Compared with natural ordering, mains in use today because it frequently outperforms the
D4 ordering can reduce direct solution computational ef- other methods in these difficult cases.
fort by factors up to four and six for the 2D and 3D cases, A new class or type of iterative methods is the subject
respectively. Woo et al. 13’ described other techniques of a number of papers’4’-‘50 published since the mid
that take advantage of matrix sparsity to reduce direct 1970’s. Basically, the methods involve approximate fac-
solution effort. In spite of these advancements in direct torization of the A matrix into an LU product, followed
solution, iterative methods remain preferable for large by an iterative sequence
reservoir studies.
Successive-overreluxation (SOR) iterative methods wpk+’ -pk)=rk, ,...... . .. (21)
described bv Young 132,‘33have been used in simulators
from the early 1960’s. Block SOR (BSOR) methods, in-
cluding line (LSOR), two-line, and planar SOR, have where
proved especially popular. The BSOR methods require L = a lower triangular matrix (all entries Pii =0
direct solution within each block, which means that direct for j>i),
V = an upper triangular matrix (all entries uii HJ = enthalpy, energy/mole

= 0 forj<i), k rP = relative permeability to phase P (P=w,o,g)
k = iterate number, and L= a lower triangular matrix (all entries e,=O
rk = b-Apk. forj>i), see Eq. 21
L= distance between adjacent block centers,
Convergence is accelerated by the conjugate gradi-
(AT~-~ +Ax;)/2, see Eq. 1
ent 314’orthomin, 143 or other techniques. Because of the
m= 1, 2. _ .Nb, linear index
sparse, banded nature of the lower and upper triangular
matrices L and V, the arithmetic work per iteration of Nb = total number of gridblocks, N,N,N,
solving Eq. 21 is a very small fraction of that required N, = number of gridblocks in x direction
in direct solution of the original problem, Eq. 19. N, = number of gridblocks in y direction
These new methods seem very attractive in that they N, = number of gridblocks in z direction
require no iteration parameter and are more robust than n= time level, t n+, =t, +A\t
previous methods. That is, they generally exhibit fast or P= Nbxl column vector {6pijk}, see Eq. 19
reasonable convergence rates, even for difficult reservoir P ego = gas/oil capillary pressure
problems where older methods fail or converge slowly. P two = water/oil capillary pressure
Two studies 148,‘50showed convergence for the difficult
9I = component I interblock flow rate,
thermal (steamflood) problem where negative transmis-
mass/time
sibilities can occur. 15’The interested reader should con-
sult the reference sections of Refs. 141 through 150 for qpi = mass rate of production of component I
a number of equally good papers dealing with these new qpp = production rate of phase P (water or oil)
iterative methods. R= 2 X 1 column vector
s,, = critical gas saturation
Code Vectorization SJ = saturation of phase J
The computational speed, storage, and vectorization s WC= critical water saturation
capabilities of computer hardware have increased sharp- T= interblock transmissibility and T=2 x 2
ly in the past few years. As an example, the Cray-I S com- matrix
puter provides up to 4,000,OOO decimal-words of storage, TN = interblock transmissibility for flow of
compared with a typically available 100,000 words on component I in phase .I
most machines used until 1975. Recently introduced com- T,, = oil transmissibility at time level 12
puters offer sharp increases in computational speeds and T wn = water transmissibility at time level n
speed/cost ratios. In addition, vector processing V = an upper triangular matrix (all entries
capabilities of Control Data Corp. and Cray supercom- uij=O forj<i)
puters significantly increase the efficiency of simulators
UJ = internal energy, energy/mole
coded to use this vectorization.
This increased machine size, speed, and vector process- I/ = grid block volume, hi A!J kzk
ing contribute to the feasibility of larger reservoir studies. Ax = xi-1 -Xi, where x is p or Z
Until the middle 1970’s, most black-oil studies involved x/J = mol fraction of component I in phase J
grids of 3,000 or fewer blocks. In 1980, Mrosovsky et yp = specific weight of phase P
al. 15* described a Prudhoe Bay field study with more 6 = time difference operator, 6X=X,+, -X,
than 16,000 active gridblocks. Studies on the supercom- pp = viscosity of phase P
puters with grids of more than 30,000 blocks have been
performed recently. Subscripts
The vector-processing capability has had a strong im- i, j, k = gridblock indices
pact on simulation technology. The resultant increase in J = w,o,g or 1,2,3,
feasible study size has spurred the development of new,
n = step number
faster iterative solution techniques. Several papers ‘52-‘56
describe the contribution of code vectorization to reduced
computing expense and the need to develop or redesign Superscripts
model code to take advantage of the vectorization. k = iteration number
P = iteration number
Nomenclature
A = a nonsymmetric, sparse Nb x Nh matrix
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28. Martin, J.J.: “Cubic Equations of State-Which?” Ind. Eng. Chem. Windfall Profit Tax,” paper SPE 10274 presented at the 1981 SPE
Fund. (May 1979) 18, 81. Annual Technical Coifeience and Exhibition, San Antonio, Oct.
29. Kazemi, H., Vestal, C.R., and Shank, G.D.: “An Efficient 5-7.
Multicomponent Numerical Simulator,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (Oct. 57. Todd, M.R., Cobb, W.M., and McCarter, E.D. : “CO2 Flood
1978) 355-68. Performance Evaluation for the Cornell Unit, Wasson San Andres
30. Fussell, L.T. and Fussell, D.D.: “An Iterative Technique for Com- Field,” J. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1982) 1583-90.
positional Reservoir Models,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Aug. 1979) 58. Herrera, J.Q. and Hanzlik, E.J.: “Steam Stimulation History Match
211-20. ofMultiwel1 Pattern in the Sl-B Zone, Cat Canyon Field,” paper
31. Coats, K.H.: “A Equation of State Compositional Model,” Sot SPE 7969 presented at the 1979 California Regional Meeting, Ven-
Per. Eng. J. (Oct. 1980) 363-76. tura, April 18-20.
32. Nghiem, L.X., Fong, D.K., and Aziz, K.: “Compositional Model- 59. Williams, R.L.: “Steamflood Pilot Design for a Massive, Steep-
ing With an Equation of State,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1981) ly Dipping Reservoir,” paper SPE 10321 presented at the 1981
688-98. SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio,
33. Young, L.C. and Stephenson, R.E.: “A Generalized Composi- Oct. 5-7.
tional Approach for Reservoir Simulation,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Oct. 60. Meldau. R. F., Shipley, R.G., and Coats, K.H .: “Cyclic Gas/Steam
1983) 727-42. Stimulation of Heavy-Oil Wells,” J. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1981)
34. Gottfried, B.S.: “A Mathematical Model ofThermal Oil Recovery 1990-98.
m Linear Systems.” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Sept. 1965) 196-210; 61. Gomaa, E.E., Duerksen, J.H., and Woo, P.T.: “Designing a
Trans., AIME, 234. Steamflood Pilot in the Thick Monarch Sand of the Midway-Sunset
35. Shutler, N.D.: “Numerical Three-Phase Model of the Two- Field,” J. Per. Tech. (Dec. 1977) 1559-68.
Dimensional Steamflood Process,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1970) 62. Moughamian, J.M., et al. : “Simulation and Design of Steam Drive
405-17; Trans., AIME, 249. in a Vertical Reservoir,” J. Per. Tech. (July 1982) 1546-54.
36. Weinstein, H.G., Wheeler, J.A., and Woods. E.G. : “Numerical 63. “Selection of Reservoirs Amenable to Micellar Flooding,” First
Model for Thermal process,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb. 1977) 65-78; Annual Report, Dept. of Energy (Dec. 1980) BC/OOO48-20.
Trans., AIME, 263. 64 Fayers, F.J., Hawes, R.I., and Mathews, J.D.: “Some Aspects
of the Potential Application of Surfactants or CO2 as EOR Proc- Multiphase Simulator Models,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Aug. 1975)
essesinNorth Sea Reservoirs,” J. Per. Tech. (Sept. 1981) 1617-27. 347-55; Trans., AIME, 259.
65. dezabala, E.F., er al.: “A Chemical Theory for Linear Alkaline 89. Bobcrg, T.C., etal.: “Application of Inverse Simulation to a Com-
Flooding,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (April 1982) 245-58. plex Multireservoir System,” J. Pet. Tech. (July 1974) 801-08;
66. Patton, J.T., Coats, K.H., and Colegrove, G.T.: “Prediction of Trans., AIME, 257.
Polymer Flood Performance,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (March 1971) 90. Watson, A.T., et al. : “History Matching Two-Phase Petroleum
72-84; Trans., AIME, 251. Reservoirs,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (Dec. 1980) 521-32.
67. Todd, M.R. and Longstaff, W.J.: “The Development. Testing, 91. Blair, P.M. and Peaceman, D.W.: “An Experimental Verifica-
and Application of a Numerical Simulator for Predicting Misci- tion of a Two-Dimensional Technique for Computing Performance
ble Flood Performance,” J. Per. Tech. (July 1972) 874-82; Trans., of Gas-Drive Reservoirs,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (March 1963) 19-27;
AIME, 253. Trans., AIME, 228.
68. Cook, R.E., Jacoby, R.H., and Ramesh, A.B.: “A Beta-Type 92. Ridings, R.L., et al. : “Experimental and Calculated Behavior of
Reservoir Simulator for Approximating Compositional Effects Dur- Dissolved-Gas-Drive Systems,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (March 1963)
ing Gas Injection,” Sot. Per.Eng. J. (Oct. 1974) 471-81. 41-48; Trans., AIME, 228.
69. Patton, J.T., Coats, K.H., and Spence, K.: “Carbon Dioxide Well 93. Mungan, N.: “A Theoretical and Experimental Coning Study,”
Simulation: Part I-A Parametric Study,” J. Per. Tech. (Aug. Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (June 1975) 247-54: Trans., AIME, 259.
1982) 1798-1804. 94. Kazemi, H. and Merrill, L.S.: “Numerical Simulation of Water
70. Coats, K.H.: “Simulation of Gas Condensate Reservoir Perfor- Imbibition in Fractured Cores,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (June 1979)
mance,” paper SPE 10512 presented at the 1982 SPE Reservoir 175-82.
Simulation Symposium, New Orleans, Feb. 1-3. 95. Lantz, R.B.: “Quantitative Evaluation of Numerical Diffusion
71. Coats, K.H.: “Simulation of l/8 Five-/Nine-Spot Patterns,” Sot. (Truncation Error),” Sm. Pet. Eng. J. (Sept. 1971) 315-20:
Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1982) 902. Trans., AJME. 251.
72. Killough, I.E., et al.: “The Kuparek River Field: A Regression 96. Van-Quy, N., Simandoux, P., and Corteville. I.: “A Numerical
Approach to Pseudorelative Permeabilities,” paper SPE 1053 1, Study of Diphasic Multicomponent Flow,” Sot. Pet. Eflg. J. (April
presented at the 1982 SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, 1972) 171-84; Trans., AIME, 253.
New Orleans, Feb. 1-3. 97. Fussell, D.D., Shelton, J.L., and Griffith, J.D. : “Effect of ‘Rich’
73. Killough, I.E., er al.: “The Prudhoe Bay Field: Simulation of a Gas Composition on Multiple-Contact Miscible Displacement-
COIIIpleX ReSeNOir,” Proc., Intl. Petroleum Exhibition and A Cell-to-Cell Flash Model Study,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (Dec. 1976)
Technical Symposium, Beijing (1982) 777-94. 310-16; Trans., AIME, 261.
74. Jacks, H.H., Smith, O.E., and Mattax, C.C. : “The Modeling of 98. Harpole, K.J. and Heam, C.L.: “The Role of Numerical Simula-
a Three-Dimensional Reservoir With a Two-Dimensional Reser- tion in Reservoir Management of a West Texas Carbonate Reser-
voir Simulator-The Use of Dynamic Pseudo Functions,” Sot. voir,” froc., Intl. Exhibition and Technical Symposium. Beijing
Pef. Eng. J. (June 1973) 175-85. (1982) 759-76.
75. Kyte, J.R. and Berry, D.W.: “New Pseudo Functions to Control 99. Heinemann, Z.E., et al.: “Using Local Grid Refinement in a
Numerical Dispersion,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Aug. 1975) 269-76. Multiple-Application Reservoir Simulator,” Proc., SPE Sym-
76. Killough, J.E. and Foster. H.P. Jr.: “Reservoir Simulation of the posium on Reservoir Simulation, San Francisco (1983) 205-18.
Empire Abe Field: The Use of Pseudos in a Multilayered System.” 100. Ewing, R.E., Russell, T.F., and Wheeler, M.F.: “Simulation of
Sot. Per. Ert~. J. (Oct. 1979) 279-88. Miscible Displacement Using Mixed Methods and a Modified
77. Coats, K.H., Dempsey. J.R.. and Henderson, J.H.: “The Use of Method of Characteristics,” Proc., SPE Symposium on Reser-
Vertical Equihbrrum in Two-Dimensional Simulation of Three- voir Simulation, San Francisco (1983) 71-82.
Dimensional Reservoir Performance,” Sot. Per. Enx. J. (March 101. Carr, A.H. and Christie, M.A.: “Controlling Numerical Diffu-
1971) 63-71; Trans.. AIME, 251. sion in Reservoir Simulation Using Flux-Corrected Transport.”
78. Hear”, C.L.: “Simulation of Stratified Waterflooding by Pseudo Proc., SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, San Francisco
Relative Permeability Curves,” J. Per. Trch. (July 1971) 80-13. (1983) 25-32.
79. Simon. R., Rosman. A.. and Zana. ET.: “Phase-Behavior Proper- 102. Todd, M.R., O’Dell, P.M., and Hirasaki, G.J.: “Methods for In-
ties of CO*-Reservoir Oil System,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb. 1978) creased Accuracy in Numerical Reservoir Simulators,” Sot. Pet.
20-26. Eng. J. (Dec. 1972) 515-30; Trans.. AIME, 253.
80. Orr, F.M. and Silva, M.K.: “Equilibrium Phase Compositions 103. Coats, K.H., et al.: “Three-Dimensional Simulation of
of CO 2 /Hydrocarbon Mixtures-Part 1: Measurement by a Con- Steamflooding,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1974) 573-92; Trans.,
tinuous Multiple-Contact Experiment,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (April AIME, 257.
1983) 272-80. 104 Yanosik, J.L. and McCracken, T.A.: “A Nine-Point, Finite-
81. Orr, F.M., Silva, M.K., and Lien, C.: “Equilibrium Phase Com- Difference Reservoir Simulator for Realistic Prediction of Adverse
positions of CO2iCrude Oil Mixtures-Part 2: Comparison of Con- Mobility Ratio Displacements,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Aug. 1979)
tinuous Multiple-Contact and Slim-Tube Displacement Tests,” Sot. 253-62; Trans., AIME, 267.
Pet. Eng. J. (April 1983) 281-91. 105. Abou-Kassem, J.H. and Aziz. K.: “Grid Orientation During Steam
82. Katz, D.L. and Firoozabadi, A.. “Predicting Phase Behavior of Displacement,” paper SPE 10497 presented at the 1982 SPE Sym-
Condensate/Crude-Oil Systems Using Methane Interaction Coef- posium on Reservoir Simulation, New Orleans, Feb. 1-3.
ficients,” J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1978) 1649-55; Trans., AIME, 265. 106 Holloway, C.C., Thomas, L.K., and Pierson, R.G.: “Reduction
83. Yarborough, L.: “Application of a Generalized Equation of State of Grid Orientation Effects in Reservoir Simulation,” paper SPE
to Petroleum Reservoir Fluids,” Equations of St&e in Engineer- 5522 presented at the 1975 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
ing, Advances in Chemisrgv Series, K.C. Chao and R.L. Robn- Exhibition, Dallas, Sept. 28-Oct. 1.
son (eds.), American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. (1979). 107. Robertson, G.E. and Woo, P.T.: “Grid-Orientation Effects and
182, 385-435. the Use of Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates tn Reservon Simula-
84. Whitson, C.H. and Tarp, S.B.: “Evaluating Constant-Volume tion,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb. 1978) 13-19.
Depletion Data,” J. Per. Tech. (March 1983) 610-20. 108. Vinsome, P.K.W. and Au, A.D.K.: “One Approach to the Grid
85. Coats, K.H. and Smart. G.T.: “Application of a Regression-Based Orientation Problem in Reservoir Simulation,” paper SPE 8247
EOS PVT Program to Laboratory Data,” paper SPE 11197, presented at the 1979 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Ex-
presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical Conference and EX- hibition, Las Vegas, Sept. 23-26.
hibition, New Orleans, Sept. 26-29. 109. Coats, K.H. and Ramesh, A.B.: “Effects of Grid Type and Dif-
86. Coats, K.H., Dempsey, J.R., and Henderson, J.H.: “A New ference Scheme on Pattern Steamflood Simulation Results,” paper
Technique for Determining Reservoir Description from Field Per- SPE 11079 presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical Conference
formance Data,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (March 1970) 66-74; Trans., and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sept. 26-29.
AIME, 249. 110. Bet-tiger, W.I. and Padmanabhan. L.: “Finite-Difference Soh-
87. Thomas, L.K. and Hellurns, L.J.: “A Nonlinear Automatic History tions to Grid Orientation Problems Using IMPES,” paper SPE
Matching Technique for Reservoir Simulation Models,” Sot. Pet. 12250 presented at the 1983 SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simula-
Eng. J. (Dec. 1972) 508-14; Trans.. AIME, 253. tion, San Francisco, Nov. 16-18.
88. Wasserman, M.L., Emanuel, A.S., and Seinfeld, J.H.: “Prac- 111. Shah, P.C.: “A Nine-Point Finite Difference Gperator for Reduc-
tical Application of Optimal-Control Theory to History-Matching tion of the Grid Orientation Effect,” paper SPE 12251 presented
at the 1983 SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, San Fran- 135. Watts, J.W : “An Iterative Matrix Solution Method Suitable for
cisco, Nov. 16-18. Anisotropic Problems,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (March 1971) 47-5 I;
112. Coats, K.H. and Modine, A.D.: “A Consistent Method for Trans., AIME, 251.
Calculating Transmissibilities in Nine-Point Difference Equations,” 136. Settari, A. and Aziz, K.: “A Generalization of the Additive Cor-
paper SPE 12248 presented at the 1983 SPE Symposium on Reser- rection Methods for the lterative Solution of Matrix Equations,”
voir Simulation, San Francisco, Nov. 16-18. Sm. Ind. Appl. Math. J. Number Analysis (1973) 10, 506-21.
113. Frauenthal, J.C., Towler. B.F., and diFranco, R.: “Reduction 137. Peaceman, D.W. and Rachford, H.H.: “The Numerical Solution
of Grid-Orientation Effects in Reservoir Simulation By Generalized of Parabolic and Elliptic Differential Equations,” Sot. Ind. Appi.
Upstream Weighting,” paper SPE 11593 presented at the 1983 Math. J. (1955) 3, 28-41.
SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, San Francisco, Nov. 138. Douglas, J. and Rachford, H.H.: “On the Numerical Solution of
16-18. Heat Conduction Problems in Two and Three Space Variables,”
114. Pruess, K. and Bodvarsson, G.S.: “A Seven-Point Finite- Trans., American Math. Sot. (1956) 82, 421-39.
Difference Method for Improved Grid Orientation Performance 139. Stone, H.L.: “Iterative Solution of lmpliclt Approximation of
in Pattern Steamfloods,” paper SPE 12252 presented at the 1983 Multidimensional Partial Differential Equations,” Sot. Ind. Appl.
SPE Symposium on Reservoir Simulation, San Francisco, Nov. Math. J. Number Analysis (1968) 5, 530-58.
16-18. 140. Weinstein, H.G.. Stone, H.L., and Kwan. T.V.: “Iterative Pro-
115. Emmanuel, A.S. and Cook, G.W.: “Pseudo-Relative Permeability cedure for Solution of Systems of Parabolic and Elliptic Equations
for Well Modeling,” Sm. Pet.Eng. J. (Feb. 1974) 7-9. in Three Dimensions,” IEC Fundamentals (1969) 8, 281-87.
116. Chappelear, J.E. and Hirasaki, G.J.: “A Model of Oil-Water Con- 141. Watts, J.W. III: “A Conjugate Gradient-Truncated Direct Method
ing for Two-Dimensional, Area1 Reservoir Simulation,” Sot. Per. for the Iterative Solution of the Reservoir Simulation Pressure Equa-
Eng. J. (April 1976) 65-72; Trans., AIME, 261. tion,” Sot. Per. Eng. J. (June 1981) 345-53.
117. Woods, E.G. and Khurana, A.K.: “Pseudofunctions for Water 142. Hestenes, M.R. and Stiefel, E.: “Methods of Conjugate Gradients
Coning in a Three-Dimensional Reservoir Simulator,” Sot. Pet. for Solving Linear Systems,” J. of Research (1952) 49, 509-36.
Enn. J. (Aun. 1977) 251-62. 143. Concus, P. and Golub, G.H.: “A Generalized Conjugate Gradient
118. Ad&gton, D.V.: “An Approach to Gas-Coning Correlations for Method for Nonsymmetric Systems of Linear Equations,” Report
a Large Grid Cell Reservoir Simulator,” J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1981) STAN-CS-76-535, Stanford U.. Stanford, CA (Jan. 1976).
2267-74. 144. Vinsome, P.K.W.: “Orthomin, an Iterative Method for Solving
119. Akbar, A.M., Arnold, M.D., and Harvey, A.H.: “Numerical Sparse Banded Sets of Simultaneous Linear Equations.” paper SPE
Simulation of Individual Wells in a Field Simulation Model,” Sot. 5729 presented at the 1976 SPE Symposium on Numerical Simula-
Pet. Eng. J. (Aug. 1974) 315-20. tion of Reservoir Performance, Los Angeles, Feb. 19-20.
120. Mrosovsky. I. and Ridings, R.L.: “Two-Dimensional Radial Treat- 145. Meijerink, J.A. and Van Der Worst, H.A.: “An Iterative Solu-
ment of Wells Within a Three-Dimensional Reservoir Model,” tion Method for Linear Systems of Which the Coefficient Matrix
Sot. Pet. Eng J. (April 1974) 127-31. is a Symmetric M-Matrix,” Math. of Camp. (Jan. 1977) 148-62.
121. Blair, P.M. and Weinaug, C.F.: “Solution of Two-Phase Flow 146. Kershaw, D.S.: “The Incomplete Cholesky-Conjugate Gradient
Problems Using lmphcit Difference Equations,” Sot. Per. Eng. Method for the Iterative Solution of Systems of Linear Equations,”
J. (Dec. 1969) 417-24; Trans., AIME, 246. J. Compt. Physics (1978) 26, 43-65.
122. Bansal, P.P. et a[.: “A Strongly Coupled, Fully Implicit. Three- 147. Young, D.M. and Jea. N.C.: “Generalized Conjugate Gradient
Dimensional, Three-Phase Reservoir Simulator,” paper SPE 8329 Acceleration of Nonsymmetric Iterative Methods,” Linear
presented at the 1979 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Ex- Algebraic Applicarions (1980) 34, 159-94.
hibition, Las Vegas, Sept. 23-26. 148. Tan, T.B.S. and Letkeman, J.P.: “Application of D4 Ordering
123. MacDonald, R.C. and Coats, K.H.: “Methods for Numerical and Minimization in an Effective Partial Matrix Inverse Iterative
Simulation of Water and Gas Coning,” Ser. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. Method,” paper SPE 10493 presented at the 1982 SPE Symposium
1970) 425-36; Trans., AIME, 249. on Reservoir Simulation, New Orleans, Feb. 1-3.
124. Spillette. A.G.. Hill&ad. J.G., and Stone, H.L.: “A High-Stabilitv 149. Behie, A. and Forsyth, P.A.: “Practical Considerations for In-
Sequential-Solution Approach to Reservoir Simulation,“-paper SPE complete Factorization Methods in Reservoir Simulation.” paper
4542 presented at the SPE 1973 Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, Sept. SPE 12263 presented at the 1983 SPE Symposium on Reservoir
30-Oct. 3. Simulation, San Francisco, Nov. 16-18.
125. Coats, K.H.: “A Highly Implicit Steamflood Model,” Sot. Pet. 150. Wallis, J.R.: “Incomplete Gaussian Elimination as a Precondi-
Eng. J. (Oct. 1978) 369-83. tioning for Generalized Conjugate Gradient Acceleration,” paper
126. Meijerink, J.A.: “A New Stabilized Method for Use in IMPES- SPE 12265 presented at the 1983 SPE Symposium on Reservoir
Type Numerical Reservoir Simulators,” paper SPE 5247 presented Simulation, San Francisco, Nov. 16-18.
at the 1974 SPE Annual Meeting, Houston, Oct. 6-9. 151. Coats, K.H.: “Reservoir Simulation: A General Model Formula-
127. Thomas, G.W. and Thumau, D.H.: “Reservoir Simulation Us- tion and Associated Physical/Numerical Sources of Instability,”
ing an Adaptive implicit Method,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Oct. 1983) Bounaivy and Interior Layers-Computational and Asymptotic
759-68. Methods, J.J. Miller (ed.), Boole Press, Dublin (1980) 62-76.
128. Trimble, R.H. and McDonald, A.E.: “A Strongly Coupled, Ful- 152. Mrosovsky, I., Wong, J.Y., and Lampe. H.W.: “Construction
ly implicit, Three-Dimensional, Three-Phase Well Coning Model,” of a Large Field Simulator on a Vector Computer,” J. Pet. Tech.
Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Aug. 1981) 454-58. (Dec. 1980) 2253-64.
129. Breitenbach, E.A., Thurnau, D.H., and Van Poollen, H.K.: “Solu- 153. Woo, P.T.: “Application of Array Processor to Sparse Elimina-
tion of the Immiscible Fluid Flow Simulation Equations,” Sot. tion,” Proc., paper SPE 7674 presented at the 1979 SPE Sym-
Per. Eng. J. (June 1969) 155-69. posium on Reservoir Simulation, Denver, Jan. 31-Feb. 2.
130. Price H.S. and Coats, K.H.: “Direct Methods in Reservoir Simula- 154. Nolen, J.S., Kuba, D.W., and Kasic, M.J. Jr.: “Application of
tion,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (June 1974) 295-308; Trans., AIME, 257. Vector Processors to Solve Finite Difference Equations,” Sot. Pet.
13 I, Woo, P.T., Roberts, S.J., and Gustavson, F.G.: ‘‘Apphcation of Eng. J. (Aug. 1981) 447-53.
Sparse Matrix Techniques in Reservoir Simulation,” Sparse Matrix 155. Calahan, D.A.: “Performance of Linear Algebra Codes on the
Computations, J.R Bunch and D.E. Rose (eds.), Academic Press CRAY-I,” Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Oct. 1981) 558-64.
Inc.; Washington, D.C. (1976) 427-38. 156. Killough, J.E. and Levesque, J.M.: “Reservoir Simulation and
132. Young, D.M.: “The Numerical Solution of Elliptic and Parabolic the In-House Vector Processor: Experience for the First Year,”
Partial Differential Equations,” Survey ofNumerical Analysis, J. paper SPE 10521 presented at the 1982 SPE Symposium on Reser-
Todd (ed.), McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1963) voir Simulation, New Orleans, Feb. 1-3.
380-438.
133. Young, D.M : Iterative Solution of Large Linear Systems. General Reference
Academic Press Inc., Washington, D.C. (1971).
134. Varga, R.S.: Matrix I&rat& Analy‘sis, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Mattox. C.C. and Dalton, R.L.: Rescwoir Simtdariort. Monograph Ser-
Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1962) 322. ies. SPE, Dallas: to be published in 1986.
Chapter 49
Electrical Logging
M.P. Tixier, Consulting Engineer *
Fundamentals
Well logging is an operation involving a continuous spectrometry) surveys, acoustic surveys, wireline forma-
recording of depth vs. some characteristic datum of the tion tester, etc.].
formations penetrated by a borehole. The record is called As explained later, several types of resistivity-
a log. In addition, a magnetic tape is usually made. measuring systems are used that have been designed to
Many types of well logs are recorded by appropriate obtain the greatest possible information under diverse
downhole instruments called sondes, lowered into the conditions-e.g., conventional devices (normals and
wellbore on the end of a cable. The winch of the logging laterals), induction log (IL), Laterolog” (LL),
cable is generally brought to the well on a special log- microresistivity devices, and electromagnetic propaga-
ging truck (Fig. 49. l), which also carries the recorders, tion logs. Table 49.1 gives the service company
power sources, and auxiliary equipment. The parameters nomenclature for various logging tools.
being logged are measured in situ as the sonde is moved The typical appearance of a standard electrical log is
along the borehole. The resulting signals from the sonde illustrated in Fig. 49.2. The left track of the log contains
are transmitted through electrical conductors in the cable the SP curve. The middle track contains a l&in. short
to the surface, where the continuous recording, or log, is normal (shallow-investigation resistivity curve), record-
made. ed on both regular and amplified sensitivity scales as
Electrical logging is an important branch of well log- solid curves, and a 64-in. normal (medium-investigation
ging. Essentially, it is the recording, inuncased sections resistivity curve, dashed curve). The right track contains
ofa borehole,of the resistivities (or their reciprocals, the an 1%ft 8-in. lateral (deep-investigation curve).
conductivities) of the subsurface formations, generally Logs recorded with other combinations of resistivity-
along with the sponfaneous potentials (SP) generated in measuring devices have a similar general appearance,
the borehole. although the corresponding devices differ in principle
Electrical logging has been accepted as one of the most and performance. Microresistivity logs generally include
efficient tools in oil and gas exploration and production. a microcaliper curve (hole-diameter recording), which is
When a hole has been drilled, or at intervals during the useful in the location of permeable zones. Of late, four-
drilling, an electrical survey is run to obtain quickly and logarithmic tracks are often replacing the two-arithmetic
economically a complete record of the formations track mentioned previously.
penetrated. This recording is of immediate value for The curves are recorded on the most appropriate of
geological correlation of the strata and detection and several available sensitivity scales. The usual depths of
evaluation of possibly productive horizons. The informa- scales are 2 in. = 100 ft (regular) and 5 in.=100 ft
tion derived from the electrical logs may at the same time (detail). Less frequently a scale of 1 in. = 100 ft is used.
be supplemented by sidewall samples of the formations For cases where great detail is involved, as in microlog-
taken from the wall of the hole or by still other types of ging and dipmeter logging, special expanded scales are
borehole investigations that can be performed by using available. In many parts of the world, metric depth
additional wireline equipment available for use with the scales are used instead of English scales.
logging truck [deviation surveys, caliper (hole-diameter)
surveys, dipmeter surveys, temperature surveys, Earth Resistivities
radioactivity (gamma ray, density, neutron, and nuclear Formation resistivities are important clues to probable
‘Authors of rhe orlglnal chapler on this top!c in the 1962 edltion included fhts author. lithology and fluid content. With a few exceptions that
Ii G Doll, M. MarIm. and F Segesman. are rare in oilfield practice, such as metallic sulfides and
CABLE TENSION graphite, dry rocks are very good insulators but, when
MEASUREMENT
their pores are impregnated with water, they conduct
electric current. Subsurface formations in general have
CONTROL finite measurable resistivities because of the water con-
tained in their pores or adsorbed on their interstitial clay.
Formation resistivity also depends on the shape and the
interconnection of the pore spaces occupied by the
water. These depend on the formation lithology and, in
the case of reservoir rocks, on the presence of noncon-
ductive oil or gas.
Units of Resistivity and Conductivity. In electrical log-

ging, the resistivity is usually measured. An exception is
induction logging, in which the conductivity is recorded
along with its reciprocal, the resistivity. Measurements
made with electromagnetic propagation are discussed
later.
The resistivity (specific resistance) of a substance to
the flow of electrical current, at any given temperature,
is the resistance measured between opposite faces of a
unit cube of that substance. In electrical-logging work,
Fig. 49-l-Setup for wireline logging operations in wells
(schematic).
TABLE 49.1-SERVICE COMPANY NOMENCLATURE
Schlumberger Gearhart Dresser Atlas Welex

Electrical Log Electrical Lag Electrolog Electric Log
Induction Electric Log (IEL) Induction Electric Log Induction Electrolog Induction Electric Log
Induction Spherically Focused Log (ISF)

Dual Induction Spherically Focused Log Dual Induction-Laterolog Dual Induction Focused Log Dual Induction Log
Laterolog.3 (LL3) Laterolog-3 Focused Log Guard Log
Dual Laterolog Dual Laterolog Dual Laterolog Dual Guardlog
Microlog (ML) Micro Electrrc Log Minilog Contact Log
Microlaterolog (MLL) Microlaterolog Microlaterolog F,R,, Log

Proximity Log (PL) Proximity Log
Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL)
Borehole Compensated Sonic Log Sorehole Compensated Sonic Log Sorehole Compensated Sonic Log Acoustic Velocrty Log
Long Spaced Sonic Log Long Spacing BHC Acoustilog

Cement Bond/Variable Density Log Sonic Cement Bond System Acoustic Cement Bond Log Microseismogram
Gamma Ray Neutron Gamma Ray Neutron Gamma Ray Neutron Gamma Ray Neutron
Sidewall Neutron Porosity Log Sidewall Neutron Porosity Log Sidewall Epithermal Neutron Log Srdewall Neutron Log
Compensated Neutron Log (CNL) Compensated Neutron Log Compensated Neutron Log Dual Spaced Neutron Log
Thermal Neutron Decay Time Log Neutron Lrfetime Log
Dual Spacing TDT Dual Detector Neutron
Compensated Formation Density Log Compensated Density Log Compensated Densilog Density Log
Litho-Density Log
High Resolution Dipmeter Four Electrode Dipmeter Diplog Diplog
Formation Interval Tester Formation Tester Formation Tester
Repeat Formation Tester Selective Formation Tester Formation Multi Tester

Sidewall Sampler Sidewall Core Gun Corgun Sidewall Coring
Electromagnetic Propagation Log

Bore Hole Geometry Tool X-Y Caliber Caliper Log Caliper Log
Ultra Long Spacing Electric Log

Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry Spectralog
General Spectroscopy Tool Carbon/Oxygen Log
Well Seismic Tool
Fracture Identification Log Fracture Detection Log
ELECTRICAL LOGGING 49-3
the meter was chosen as the unit of length; so the unit of

resistivity is taken as the (Q.m)‘/m, or more simply, the
ohm-meter, 52.m.
Since conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity
(C=lIR), a possible unit of conductivity would be
l/(Q.m), or G/m. However, since this unit would
necessitate extensive use of decimal fractions, a unit
one-thousandth as large, the millimho/meter (mu/m), is
employed. Thus, formations having resistivities of 10,
100, or 1,000 Q*rn have conductivities of 100, 10, or 1
mu/m, respectively.
Dependence of Water Resistivity on Salinity and

Temperature. The resistivity of an electrolytic solution
decreases as the amount of chemicals therein increases.
At any given temperature the electrical conductivity of a
formation water or a drilling mud will depend on the
concentration and nature of the dissolved chemicals.
In most cases the predominant solute is sodium
chloride (NaCl); therefore, the NaCl conversion chart
(Fig. 49.3) may generally be used to obtain resistivity
from concentration. If other chemicals are present in
relatively large amounts, it is possible to convert the con-
centrations of such chemicals into equivalent concentra-
tions of NaCl to find the resistivity. To make the conver-
sion, apply the appropriate multipliers given in Table
49.2 for the concentration of each separate ion [in parts
per million (ppm) or (m 3/m 3 ) by weight, or in grains per
gallon (gr/gal) or (kg/m’)], and add the products. ’ Note
that concentrations expressed in milligrams per liter
(mg/L) and in ppm may be appreciably different at high tt f t LATERAL
concentrations. Below about 50,000 ppm, however,

measurements at room temperature in the two units may
be used interchangeably without serious error.
Fig. 49.2-Typical electrical log.
CONCENTRATION
G/G-
RESISTIVITY OF SOLUTION OHM-METERS
Fig. 49.3~Resistivity vs. concentration for NaCl solutions at various temperatures.

The resistivity of an electrolytic solution decreases as mation and not on the resistivity, R,, of the saturating
its temperature increases. This is of great importance, water. This constant is the formation resistivity factor,
since temperature in the earth increases with depth. FR,commonly called “formation factor. ”
Before the resistivity of the drilling mud (measured at
surface temperature) can be compared with that of a for-
Ro
mation (measured at a much higher temperature in a deep FR=- R, .... .... .... ... .(I)
well) the resistivities must be converted to values that
would have been observed at a common temperature.
The temperature conversion is accomplished by means Dependence of Formation Factor on Porosity and
of Fig. 49.3, which shows for NaCl solutions the effects Lithology. The formation factor, F, , of a clean forma-
of both salinity and temperature on resistivity . Downhole tion can be related to its porosity, 6. by an empirical for-
temperatures may be estimated from a so-called “bot- mula of the form F~=alc$'?', where a and m are con-
tomhole temperature” (BHT) obtained by means of a stants. The exponent m, sometimes called the cementa-
maximum-reading thermometer inserted in the body of tion exponent or factor, varies with the lithology.
the sonde. In the construction of many graphs for log interpreta-
tion, 2 the “Humble formula” proposed by Winsauer et
a1.5 has been generally adopted:
Resistivities of Formation Waters. Formation waters
can vary remarkably with geographic location, depth,
0.62
and geological age. Shallow groundwaters are usually FR= ~2.,5. .... .... .... ....I... (2)
fresh (not saline), with resistivities sometimes exceeding
20 to 50 !l. m at room temperature. They also may con-
tain appreciable amounts of calcium and magnesium An early formula proposed by Archie, which fits par-
salts, which make them “hard.” At great depths, forma- ticularly well for consolidated formations such as hard
tion waters generally tend to be more saline. In deep sandstones and limestones, is
wells, formation-water resistivities sometimes may cor-
respond to complete saturation (0.014 O.rn at 200°F).
FR=L. ................................(3)
A knowledge of R,., the formation-water resistivity. is
4J2
important in electrical-log interpretation. R,,may be ob-
tained from the readings of the SP curve (Eq. 9) or from Limestones often contain vugs, interconnected with
resistivity measurements on samples of formation water fissures, which add their porosity to that of the matrix.
recovered from production or in drillstem tests. It also When the vugs and fissures are spaced closely, com-
may be estimated from measurements of the resistivity of pared with the spacings of the resistivity-measuring
the permeable formations of interest when they are 100% devices, Eq. 3 often can be used as in the case of sand-
water-saturated, Ro,if the porosity or formation factor is stones or limestones with only granular porosity. Never-
known (Eqs. 1 and 2). R, may be computed, as has been theless, it is sometimes advisable to use values of m
explained, from analyses of formation waters. Resistivi- greater than two as required to fit local observations.
ty of formation waters is discussed further in Chap. 24.
Shaly (Dirty) Formations. Shales and clays are
themselves porous and are generally impregnated with
Mud, Mudcake, and Mud-Filtrate Resistivities. mineralized water. Therefore, they have appreciable
Resistivities of the mud, R,, the mudcake, R,,, and the conductivity, which is enhanced by ion-exchange con-
mud filtrate, R,,,f, are all important in log interpretation. duction through the shale matrix. (This shale conduction
R, is obtained by direct measurement on a mud sample. is sometimes, though not quite properly, referred to as
R,,,f and R, are obtained by direct measurements on resulting from “conductive solids. “) On the other hand,
filtrate and mudcakes pressed from a sample of the mud, the size of the shale pores is so small that practically no
or they can be estimated from average statistical data on movement of fluid is possible. Accordingly, shale,
the basis of mud resistivity. 2-4 Correction for the varia- whether deposited in thin laminations or dispersed in the
tion of these resistivities with temperature is made by use interstices of the sand, contributes to the conductivity of
of Fig. 49.3. the formation without contributing to its effective
porosity.
Formation Resistivity Factor. If R. is the resistivity of The relation between formation resistivity and porosity
a clean (nonshaly) formation completely saturated with becomes more complex for shaly formations than for
water of resistivity R,, the ratio Ro/R, will be a con- clean formations. Because of the additional shale con-
stant that depends on the lithologic structure of the for- ductance, the ratio of formation resistivity to water
resistivity (i.e., the formation factor) is not constant
when the resistivity of the impregnating water changes. 6
Nevertheless, if the shale content is not too great, ex-
perimental observations show that for low enough values
TABLE 49.2-CONVERSIONS FOR CATIONS AND ANIONS of water resistivity this ratio is almost constant, as
Anions
though the conductance of the shale were then negligible
Cations
in comparison with that of the water; and a limiting for-
Na 1.0 Cl 1.0
Ca 0.95 so4 0.5 mation factor is found, which is related approximately to
WI 2.0 co3 1.26 the effective porosity in the same way as the formation
HCO, 0.27 factor of a clean sand.
Relation Between Formation Resistivity and Satura- permeable zones contain fissures and vugs. Resistivity
tion. When a part of the pore space is occupied by an in- range is from 2 to 3 Q. m to several hundred. For the
sulating material such as oil or gas, the resistivity of the completely tight formations, such as salt and anhydrite,
rock, R,,is greater than the resistivity that it has when the resistivity may be practically infinite.
100% water-bearing, R,. The resistivity of such rock is Anisotropy. In many sedimentary strata, the mineral
a function of the fraction of the PV occupied by water. grains have a flat or plate-like shape with an orientation
For substantially clean formations, the water satura- parallel to the sedimentation. Current travels with great
tion, S,, is related to R, (resistivity of formation con- facility along the water-filled interstices, which are
taining hydrocarbons and formation water, with a water mostly parallel to the stratification. These strata,
saturation S,) and R,J (resistivity of same formation therefore, do not possess the same resistivity in all direc-
when 100% saturated with the same water) b an em- tions. Such microscopic anisotropy is observed mostly in
pirical relation known as the Archie equation. 7 shales.
Moreover, in electrical logging, the distance between
electrodes or coils on the measuring devices is great
l/II enough that the volume of formation involved in the
. .... .......... .. ...(4) measurements very often includes sequences of interbed-
ded resistive and conductive streaks. Since current flows
more easily along the beds than perpendicular to them,
Empirically determined values of n range between 1.7 the formation has macroscopic anisotropy.
and 2.2, depending on the type of formation. Experience Both kinds of anisotropy may add their respective ef-
shows that n =2 should give a sufficiently good approx- fects to influence the apparent resistivity. The
imation. Then, combining Eqs. 4 and 1 gives longitudinal, or horizontal, resistivity , RH, measured
along the bedding planes is always less than the transver-
sal, or vertical (perpendicular) resistivity, Rv.
SW=(+)1/i
=(F) I/?............ Resistivity-measuring devices whose readings are not
appreciably affected by the borehole [the deep induction
log (IM), and under certain conditions, the laterolog
The ratio RJR0 is sometimes designated as the resistivi- (LL), and the long lateral when the ratio RHIR, is low
ty index, 1~; accordingly, S, =(ZR) -I”. or moderate] will read RH. Because of the borehole ef-
The relation between formation resistivity and water fect, the short-spacing-electrode devices usually read
saturation is more complex when the formations contain values greater than RH. lo
some shale or clay because of the additional conductance
resulting from the interstitial shale. sv9 Distribution of Fluids and Resistivities in Permeable
Formations Invaded by Mud Filtrate. Inasmuch as the
Ranges of Resistivity-Formation Classifications. hydrostatic pressure of the mud is usually maintained
Clays and shales are porous, practically impervious for- greater than the natural pressure of the formations, mud
mations and are often very uniform throughout their filtrate (forced into the permeable beds) displaces the
mass. Their resistivity is comparatively low and prac- original formation fluids in the region close to the
tically constant over wide intervals. Compact and imper- borehole. Solid materials from the mud deposited on the
vious rocks, such as gypsum, anhydrite, dense wall of the hole form a mudcake, which tends to impede
calcareous formations, or certain kinds of coal, are and reduce further infiltration.
highly resistive because of their very small interstitial The thickness and the nature of the mudcake depend
water content. on the kind of mud and on the drilling conditions rather
Resistivities of porous and permeable formations, such than on the formations. The thickness, h,,,,, is usually
as sands, vary widely, depending on their lithology and between ‘/s and 1 in. For water-based muds the mudcake
fluid content. In electrical logging it is convenient to resistivity, R,,,is about equal to one or two times the
classify reservoir rocks as follows. mud resistivity, R,. In some oil-emulsion muds, R,,
SoftForma&ions. These formations are chiefly poorly may be somewhat greater.
consolidated sand/shale series. The porosity of the sands Fig. 49.4a represents a schematic cross section of an
is intergranular and exceeds 20%. Resistivities range oil-bearing permeable bed penetrated by a borehole. Fig.
from 0.3 !2*m for saltwater-bearing sands to several fl. m 49.4b and 49.4~ show the corresponding radial distribu-
for oil-saturated sands. tion of fluids in formation and resistivities.
Intermediate Formations. These are chiefly As indicated in Fig. 49.4a, the zones of different
moderately consolidated sandstones but frequently resistivity may be divided into the drilling mud within
limestones and/or dolomites. Reservoir porosity is the borehole (of resistivity R,);the mudcake R,,,the
generally intergranular, ranging from about 15 to 20 % . flushed zone R,,;a transition zone; in some cases an
The reservoir formations are interbedded with shales and “annulus.” R, (present only in certain oil- or gas-
very often with tight rocks. Resistivities range from 1 to bearing formations); and the uncontaminated zone (of
about 100 Q-m. resistivity R,). The invaded zone (of “average”
Hard Formations. These are chiefly limestones andior resistivity, Ri)includes the flushed zone and the transi-
dolomites, and also consolidated sandstones. They con- tion zone.
sist mostly of tight rocks containing porous and Invaded Zone. This zone is behind and close to the
permeable zones, and shale streaks. The porosity of wall of the hole; it is believed that most of the original
reservoirs is less than 15 % . Most often, the porous and interstitial fluids have been flushed out by the mud
rANNULU5 (Ran) vaded zone on measurements made in the borehole. The

depth of invasion is variable. It depends on the plastering
properties of the mud, pressure differences between the
mud column and the formation, time elapsed since the
formation was drilled, porosity of the formation, propor-
tion and nature of the fluids (water, oil, gas) present in
MUD CAKE (Rnxl
the pores, reaction of any interstitial clays with the mud
filtrate, etc.
All other conditions being the same, the greater the
t k--HOLE WALL
porosity, the smaller the depth of invasion. With usual
muds, di seldom exceeds 2dh (dh =hole diameter) in
high-porosity sands, but it may exceed 5dh and even
1Odh in low-porosity formations such as consolidated
sandstones or limestones. In some cases, invasion can be
extremely shallow in very permeable formations and in
gas-bearing formations.
In very permeable beds, when there is an appreciable
difference between the specific gravities of the mud
filtrate and the salt-laden interstitial water, gravity-
segregation effects may occur, with the fresher filtrate
tending to accumulate at the top boundary of the bed,
resulting in a decrease in the depth of invasion in the
Fig. 49.4-a. Horizontal section through a lower part of the bed. I’
permeable oil-bearing bed In fissured formations, the permeability is quite often
(S, < 60%); b. radial distribu-
tion of fluids in formation
enormous because of the fissures-much greater than the
(qualitative); c. radial distribu- permeability of the matrix material surrounding them.
tion of resistivities. Suppose that a formation is composed of a porous but
relatively impermeable material, broken by networks of
roughly parallel fissures. Mud filtrate penetrates the
filtrate. This flushed zone, of resistivity R,,, is con- fissures easily and deeply, driving out much of the
sidered to extend, under usual conditions of invasion, at original fluids (oil and formation water). On the other
least 3 in. from the wall. Exceptions to this rule can hand, the matrix itself may be penetrated hardly at all by
occur. the filtrate. Since the l%.sures constitute a small part of
If the bed is water bearing, the pores in the flushed the total PV, only a vety small portion of the total
zone are completely filled with the mud filtrate, and for original fluids is displaced. As a result, R, is little dif-
clean formations R,,is nearly equal to F,R,f;FR being ferent from R,, and the ratio R,IR,,fis no longer
the formation factor and R mf the mud-filtrate resistivity representative of the formation factor.
If the bed is oil bearing, the flushed zone contains Annulus. When the formation contains hydrocarbons,
some residual oil saturation, S,, . From Eq. 5, S,, , the the process of invasion is complex. The distribution of
water saturation in the flushed zone is fluids is then affected by the two-phase permeabilities,
relative densities (gravities) and viscosities of the fluids,
% capillary forces, etc.
When the initial water saturation is low (less than
about 50%), one important feature is the existence of an
or annular region just inside the uncontaminated zone, con-

taining mainly formation water and some residual oil.
FRRtnf This annulus is explained as follows. The mud filtrate
R,,=T, ............................ penetrates the formation radially, sweeping the
s x0 ‘
removable oil and formation water ahead of it. For large
where S,=l-S,,. oil saturation, the relative permeability to oil is ap-
Beyond the region of maximum flushing, R,,, there is preciably greater than that to water. Therefore, the oil
a more or less extended transition region, the nature of moves faster, leaving a zone (the annulus) enriched in
which depends on the characteristics of the formation, formation water behind it.
the speed of invasion, and the hydrocarbon content. The It seems likely that, because of the effects of diffusion,
invaded zone includes the flushed zone and the part of capillary pressure, gravity, etc., the existence of a well-
the transition zone invaded by filtrate. In the case of defined annulus is a transitory phenomenon. Field log
water-bearing sands and oil-bearing sands of high water experience nevertheless seems to show that the annulus
saturation, the invaded zone extends up to the uncon- does very often exist at the time the logs are run. Com-
taminated zone, R,. putations have shown that the presence of the annulus
There can be no exact definition of the depth of the in- has a practically negligible effect on the response of the
vaded zone, but it is convenient to introduce a factor di, devices with electrodes (normals, laterals, and
called the “electrically equivalent diameter of inva- laterolog) It may have an effect on the induction log, but
sion,” corresponding to an average invaded zone of this can be taken care of for practical purposes by means
resistivity Ri, which has the same effect as the actual in- of appropriate interpretation charts. 2
Uncontaminated Zone. For clean formations, from Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log
Eq.5, The SP log is a record of the naturally occurring poten-
FRR, tials in the mud at different depths in a borehole. The
R,= s,2. . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . measurement is made in uncased holes containing water-
based or oil-emulsion muds between an exploratory elec-
In the usual case, R,,,f is 10 to 25 times as large as R w. trode on the sonde in the borehole and a stationary
Thus, comparing Eqs. 6 and 7 with usual values of S, reference electrode at the surface.
and S,, , R,, even in oil-bearing formations, is often less Usually the SP curve (Fig. 49.2) consists of a more or
than R,, as represented in Fig. 49.4~. less straight baseline (corresponding to the shales) hav-
ing excursions or peaks to the left (opposite the
Apparent Resistivity. Since any resistivity measure- permeable strata). The shapes and the amplitudes of the
ment is affected in some degree by the resistivities of all excursions may be different, according to the forma-
the media in the immediate vicinity of the sonde (i.e., tions, but there is no definite correspondence between
mud, different parts of the formation that vary in the magnitudes of the excursions and the values of
resistivity, adjacent formations if the bed measured is permeability or porosity of the formation.
thin), any given device records an apparent resistivity. The principal uses of the SP curve are to (1) detect the
Each resistivity device is calibrated so that when the permeable beds, (2) locate their boundaries (except when
sonde is in a homogeneous medium (or in some other the formations are too resistive), (3) correlate such beds,
condition appropriate to practice, specified for the par- and (4) obtain good values for R,, the formation-water
ticular device) the apparent resistivity reading is equal to resistivity.
the actual resistivity.
Origin of the SP. The character of the potentials
Requirements for and Types of Resistivity Devices. measured in the mud results from ohmic drops produced
Inspection of basic relations in Eqs. 1, 2, 5, and 6 shows by the flow of SP currents through the mud resistance. If
that a determination of S, and 4 requires a knowledge of the mud is extremely conductive, these ohmic drops may
R, and R,, (or R i, in certain cases where R,, is not easi- be insignificant, and the variations in the SP curve may
ly determined). Thus, for the reservoir-evaluation prob- be too small to be useful.*
lem, it is necessary to have resistivity-measuring devices The SP currents flow as a result of electromotive
with different depths of investigation to obtain values in- forces (EMF’s) existing within the formations or at the
dicative of the resistivities of the invaded zone and the boundaries between formations and mud. One
uncontaminated zone. The readings of the deep- and phenomenon that could cause an EMF to appear across
shallow-investigation curves may often be used to cor- the mudcake opposite a permeable bed is electrofiltra-
rect each other, through correction charts or departure hon.The mud filtrate, in being forced through the mud-
curves, to obtain better values of R, and Ri cake, would tend to produce an EMF, positive in the
Another function of resistivity recording is to provide direction of flow. According to experiments, I2 the EMF
an accurate definition of bed boundaries, particularly of across the mudcake may be quite sizable, but there is
permeable beds. Finally, it is desirable that the readings also an electrotiltration EMF generated across the adja-
not be influenced by the effect of the mud column or, in cent shales. Thus, the net effect of electrotiltration in
case of thin beds, by the adjacent formations. causing variations of SP is small and in most cases
These requirements are only partly satisfied with the negligible for all practical purposes-a conclusion
“conventional” resistivity devices. The introduction of verified by field experience.**
microdevices and focused devices has brought about an Most important ate the EMF’s of electrochemical
appreciable improvement. origin, which occur at the contacts between the drilling
Currently used resistivity devices may be classified in mud (or its filtrate) and the formation water, in the pores
two categories. of the permeable beds, and across the adjacent shales. I6
1. Macrodevices, which derive their reading from In a clean sand lying between shale beds, all penetrated
about 10 to 100 cu ft of material around the sonde (useful by a borehole containing conductive (water-based) mud,
for R, and Ri evaluation), and include unfocused- the total electrochemical EMF, E,, is produced in the
electrode devices, focused-electrode devices, and induc- chain (Fig. 49.5): Mud/mud filtrate/formation water/
tion logging devices. shale/mud. The EMF of the junction, mud/mud filtrate,
2. Microdevices (also called wall-resistivity devices), is taken to be practically nil because, although the
which derive their readings from a few cubic inches of resistivities of the mud and its filtrate may differ, their
material behind or close to the wall of the hole. Since the electrochemical activities should be the same.
electrodes are mounted on an insulating rubber pad The part of the chain consisting of “formation
pressed against the wall of the hole, measurements are water/shale/mud” gives rise to the shale-membrane
affected only marginally by the mud column. EMF, Em. The part “mud ftltrateiformation water”
Microdevices arc of unfocused and focused types. gives rise to the liquid-junction EMF, EJ. For NaCl
Resistivity devices that have electrodes may be used in (monovalent-ion) solutions, at 75”F,
holes filled with water or water-based drilling mud,
which provides the electrical contact necessary between E,=59log,+
electrodes and formation. The induction log can also be amf
used in empty holes or in holes filled with nonconductive *In such acase the gamma ray log. which distinguishesshales from nonshale beds,
IS sometimes recorded as a subslltute for the SP
oil-based mud. The various resistivity devices are “Further information on the electrof~ltralion EMF, or streaming potential, may be
described later. found in Refs. 13 through 15.
MUD
INVADED
I-t ZONE
Fig. 49.5--Schematic representation of

electrochemical chain and
SP current path at boundary
between permeable bed and
adjacent shale.
and
0
where a, and a,f are the chemical activities of the for- STATIC SP (mvl
mation water and mud filtrate, respectively (at 75 “F),

and EM and EJ are in millivolts. The total E, is the sum Fig. 49.6--R, determination from the SP. The inset chart of true
of E,+,and E,: R, vs. R, applies to formation waters of average
composition.
E,=K, log,,% ........ ,.......... . (8)

Umf
segregating forces and the formation fluids tend to come
where K, is the electrochemical coefficient and is equal back toward the hole with time.
to 71 at 75°F. Conversely, an increase in SP with time is observed
Eq. 8 is general, provided that both formation water often in low-permeability water-bearing formations.
and mud filtrate are essentially NaCl solutions of any Very little filtrate invades the formation in a freshly
concentration. The values of K, are directly proportional drilled hole and the filtrate is contaminated by the forma-.
to the absolute temperature. Thus, at 150°F the coeffi- tion water. As the invasion proceeds, more and more
cient K, in Eq. 8 becomes 81 instead of 71, and at 300°F filtrate goes into the formation and the mudcake is wet-
it becomes 101 (see Fig. 49.6). ted on both faces by the mud filtrate. When the mudcake
From Eq. 8, in the usual case of a, greater than a,,f, does not contribute any shale-type potential, the SP
E, is positive. However, if a,f is greater than a,, cor- curve, recorded on the front of a thick permeable sand, is
responding to mud mom saline than formation water, said to be fully developed.
then E, is negative and the SP deflections corresponding
to permeable beds are then reversed on the log. Effect of Interstitial Shales on the SP. Increasing
amounts of shale or clay in a permeable bed effectively
Effect of Invasion on Generation of the EMF. In the result in a reduction of the SP curve. At the limit, for
explanation of the electrochemical potential, it has been 100% shaliness, E, becomes zero; that is, the “sand” is
assumed that no shale-type potential is created by the then all shale and indistinguishable from the surrounding
mudcake. In the normal case, mud filtrate bathes both shales.
sides of the mudcake and no shale-type potential can The presence of oil in a shaly sand tends to enhance
arise. In some formations, there is only a little filtrate the effect of the shale. All other conditions being the
behind the mudcake. Such small amount of filtrate will same, the total E, of a shaly sand will be smaller if oil
be contaminated easily by the formation water. In this bearing than if water bearing.
case, one face of the mudcake is wetted by the filtrate in The effect of interstitial shale is also greater in low-
the hole, the other face by contaminated filtrate of dif- porosity formations. In these cases, only a small amount
ferent activity. This will give rise to a shale-type poten- of shale reduces the SP deflection appreciably. Con-
tial of the same polarity as the main shale potential, and versely, the E, of shaly water-bearing sands of high
the SP curve will be decreased. This explains the porosity remains practically equal to the E, of a clean
decreasing of the SP curve with time in very highly sand, as long as the shale content is reasonably
permeable beds. I7 The filtrate is evacuated by gravity low-i.e., does not exceed a few percent.
Geometric Effect Influencing the SP Curve

Circulation of the SP Current, The various EMF’s add
their effects to generate the SP currents, which follow
the paths represented schematically in Fig. 49.7 (right)
by solid lines. Each current line encircles the junction of
mud, invaded zone, and uncontaminated zone. In the
usual case where the formation waters are saltier than the
mud, E, is positive and the current circulates in the
direction of the arrows. The potential of a point in the
mud column opposite the sand is negative with respect to
one opposite the shale.
Along its path, the SP current forces its way through a
series of resistances, both in the ground and in the mud.
Along a closed line of current flow, the total of the
ohmic-potential drops is necessarily equal to the
algebraic sum of the EMF’s encountered. Moreover, the
total potential drop is divided between the different for-
mations and the mud in proportion to the resistance of
the path through each respective medium.
Static SP (Clean Formations) and Pseudostatic SP

(Shaly Formations). It is convenient to use an idealized
representation in which the SP current is prevented from
flowing by means of insulating plugs placed across hole
and invaded zones, as shown in Fig. 49.7a (right).
------ STATIC SP DIAGRAM--POTENTIAL IN MUD
Under these conditions, a plot of the potential in the mud WHEN SP CURRENTS ARE PREVENTED
column would appear as the dashed cross-hatched curve FROM FLOWING.
:SP LOG-POTENTIAL IN MUD WHEN SP
on the left of Fig. 49.7a, with a maximum negative CURRENTS ARE FLOWING.
deflection opposite the permeable bed equal to the
algebraic sum of all the EMF’s of various origins. This is Fig. 49.7-a. Static SP diagram (left) that would be
the maximum SP that could be measured. It is therefore observed in hole when current IS prevented
convenient to use this theoretical value as a reference. In from flowing by means of insulating plugs
the case of a clean sand, it is called the static SP, ESp. If (right); b. actual SP diagram (solid curve,
left) and schematic representation of SP
the sand is shaly, it is called the pseudostatic SP. Epsp. current distribution in and around perme-
For given values of the activities of mud and formation able bed (right).
water, the pseudostatic SP of a shaly sand is smaller than
the static SP of a clean sand. The ratio E,rplEsp is
called the reduction factor or ratio and is designated by
the symbol (Ysp. mud, (3) borehole diameter, and (4) depth of invasion.
The SP log records only that portion of the potential All other factors remaining the same, a change of the
drop occurring in the mud. When the bed is sufficiently total EMF’s affects the amplitude but does not modify
thick the amplitude of the SP deflection approaches the the general shape of the SP log.
static SP (or EpsP in case of shaly formations), hccause
then the resistance offered to the current by the bed itself Influence of Mud Resistivity and Hole Diameter. The
is negligible compared with the resistance of the path mud resistivity has a predominant influence on the SP
through the mud in the borehole. curve. If the mud is of about the same degree of salinity
as the formation water, electrochemical EMF’s are
Factors Influencing the Shape and Amplitude of SP small. If the mud is more saline than the formation
Deflections. As seen in Fig. 49.7b, the current circulates water, the SP may be reversed (sand deflections toward
in the hole not only opposite the permeable formation but the positive side of the log). Moreover, the lower the
also a short distance beyond its boundaries. As a result, mud resistivity (compared with the formation resistivity)
although on the static SP diagram the boundaries of a the broader the deflection above and below the
permeable bed are indicated by sharp breaks, those on permeable bed and, because the ohmic drops in the mud
the actual SP curve show a more gradual change in are decreased, the smaller the amplitude of the
potential. An analysis of the circulation of the current” deflection.
shows that, for uniform resistivity in the formations, the An increase in hole diameter acts approximately like
bed boundaries are located at the inflection points on the an increase in the ratio of formation resistivity to mud
SP log. This fact provides a means of determining the resistivity. It tends to round off the deflections on the SP
thickness of a bed from the SP log. log and reduce the amplitude of the deflections opposite
Both the shape of the SP deflection and its relative thin beds. A decrease in hole diameter has the same ef-
amplitude (in fractional parts of the Essp or EpsP) are in- fect as a decrease in the ratio of formation resistivity to
fluenced by four factors, which determine the conditions mud resistivity.
for the circulation of SP currents: (1) bed thickness, (2) The SP log would also be influenced by a lack of
resistivities of the bed, the adjacent formations, and the homogeneity of the mud-a change in salinity of the mud
the permeable sections. In between, they flow through

the mud rather than through resistive sections close to the
borehole, because of the large resistances the latter paths
offer. However, within the formation at a distance from
the borehole, where the paths through the resistive beds
have larger cross sections and hence lower resistances,
the SP currents can complete their circuits from
permeable beds to shale. They cannot return to the mud
through adjacent permeable beds because there they en-
counter EMF’s opposing them.
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION SCHEMATIC
OF FORMATIONS AND SPLOG DISTRIBUTION Opposite a given resistive bed, the SP current in the
OF SP CURRENTS
mud column remains essentially constant along the
m SHALE (IMPERVIOUS AND COMPARATIVELY
CONDUCTIVE 1 borehole. This means that the potential drop per unit
COMPACT FORMATON length of hole is also constant,-thus giving g constant
fzl (VERY HIGH RESISTIVITY) slope on the SP log as shown by the straight-line portions
m PERMEABLE of the SP in Fig. 49.8. At the level of each conductive
(COMPARATIVELY CONOUCTIVE 1
bed, some SP current will enter or leave the mud col-
umn, thus modifying the slope of the SP log. For in-
Fig. 49.8-SP phenomena in highly resis-
stance, the slope of the SP log changes at the level of the
tive formations (schematic).
permeable bed, P2, because part of the current leaves the
hole and flows into the bed. ‘*
at a certain level would result in an SP baseline shift at As a general rule, in hard formations the permeable
that level. However, it has been found in practice that beds are characterized on the SP log by slope changes or
such changes in salinity are rare. curvatures that are convex toward the negative side of
the log. Shales are characterized by curvatures that are
Effect of Invasion. Permeable beds in general arc invad- convex toward the positive side of the log. Highly
ed by mud filtrate. Because the boundary between mud resistive beds correspond to essentially straight parts of
filtrate and interstitial water is somewhere inside the for- the SP log.
mation, a fraction of the SP current flows directly from
the shale into the invaded zone, without penetrating the Determination of Static SP (SSP). The SP deflection is
mud column. As a result, the presence of the invaded measured with respect to the shale baseline, a reference
zone has an effect on the SP log similar to that of an in- line which can generally be traced along the extreme
crease in hole diameter. positive edges of the SP curve. Usually the shale line is
straight and vertical. *
SP in Soft Formations. Theory and field experience In any given well, since the mud salinity is constant
have shown that the amplitude of the SP deflection is and the interstitial waters may tend to be constant, there
practically equal to the static SP (of a clean sand) or to is often a definite tendency for the maximum SP deflec-
the pseudostatic SP (of a shaly sand) when the permeable tions to be the same for the same types of permeable for-
beds are thick and the resistivities of the formations are mations at comparable depths. Thus, it is usually possi-
not too great compared with that of the mud. Moreover, ble to draw, parallel to the shale line, a sand line on the
the SP curves define the boundaries of the bed with great log along the maximum negative deflections of the clean
accuracy. The amplitude of the deflection is less than the sands of sufficient thickness.
static SP or pseudostatic SP for thin beds, and the thinner It is very likely that, for all the beds where the SP
the bed, the smaller the deflection. peaks reach the sand line, (1) the formation-water
On the other hand, when the resistivity of the forma- resistivity is practically the same, (2) the beds are vir-
tion, R,, is considerably greater than that of the mud, tually free from shaly material, and (3) the amplitude of
R,, the SP curves are rounded off, the boundaries are the deflection is equal to the SSP. For thin beds in cases
marked less accurately, and all other conditions being where the SSP cannot be determined as above (or for a
the same, the amplitude of the peak is less than when the thin shaly sand), the SP reading from the log must be
ratio R,IR, is close to unity. corrected by means of appropriate charts in order to ob-
For the case of shaly sands, the SP curve may also be tain the Essp or Epsp. 2
affected by the presence of oil. A change in the
magnitude of the SP deflection occurs very often when Determination of R, from SSP
passing an oil/water contact in a shaly sand. This change Since the variations of electrotiltration potential from
is not a positive criterion for the detection of oil because sand to shale can generally be neglected, the SSP is taken
the same effect would be obtained if the salinity of the in practice as equal to the corresponding value of -EC as
interstitial water were reduced or if the percentage of long as the SP is “fully developed.”
shale were increased. It is convenient to replace Eq. 8 by
SP in Hard Formations. Hard formations are highly R

resistive except for permeable beds, whether oil- or Essp = -Kc log+ ... ....... . . (9)
R we
water-bearing, and shales, which are impervious. The
‘field experience has shown that in certa#n regions there may be shifts of the shale
SP currents generated by the different EMF’s flow into line. Sometimes rhese shifts are found systemattcatty at the ?.ame places in the
the hole out of the shale sections and out of the hole into geologlcal column and can be used as markers.
ELECTRICAL LOGGING 49-l 1
where R, is an equivalent formation-water resistivity .

The computation of R, is given in the chart of Fig.
49.6, and R, is derived from R, by means of the aux-
iliary chart at the lower right of Fig. 49.6. The solid
curves on this auxiliary chart correspond to highly saline
formation waters, where the presence of salts different
from NaCl is negligible in practice. They are derived
from the known activity/resistivity relationships for pure
NaCl solutions. The dashed curves correspond to forma-
tion waters of low salinity, where the presence of other
salts (calcium and magnesium chlorides, sulfates, and
l
bicarbonates) have an important bearing on the activity Bed Thxkncrr, Feel
1 1 I 1
values. These curves are derived from empirical obser- I 2 3456 6 IO 20 30 4050
vations and cover formation waters of average composi-

tion. I9 Note that, for intermediate salinities (0.08<
R, ~0.3 at 75”F), the value of R,, is practically equal
to R,.
The mud filtrate is taken here as an NaCl solution, and
this is generally done in practice, except for muds con-
taining gypsum, CaC12, or NaOH. In such cases, the
determination of R, from the SP curve requires the
measurement of the activity of the mud. A field instru-
ment is provided for this purpose.
.2F-----
Resistivity Logging Devices* ------+ 1
A general classification of the types of rcsistivity logging Bed Thdner!, Feet 1

2 3 4 56 6 IO 20 M 4050
devices was given previously.
Electrical Survey (ES). During the first 25 years of log- Fig. 49.9-Shoulder-bed corrections, LLS (top) and LLD
ging practice, the standard ES (Fig. 49.2) usually includ- (bottom).
ed, in addition to the SP, three conventional (unfocused)
resistivity curves; namely, a short normal curve
(distance between electrodes A and M is 16 in.), a long LATLROLOG
normal(AM=64 in.) or a shortlateral (distance be-
tween electrodes and A and 0 is 6 to 9 ft), and a stan-
dardlateral (AO= 18 ft, 8 in. in general), all recorded
simultaneously. In some regions, such as the Permian
basin (west Texas and New Mexico), the short-normal
spacing was reduced to 10 in., and the limestone sonde
was recorded instead of the long normal. The ES log is
rarely run today, but it was the standard log for many
decades.
Induction-Electrical Surveys (IES) (Figs. 49.9 and

49.10). The simultaneous recording of induction (con-
ductivity and resistivity) curves, 16-in. normal, and SP
curve, is a good combination for the logging of fonna-
tions of low to moderate resistivities in fresh muds. Of
late, the 16-in. normal has been replaced by a focused
electrode system, and two induction logs of different in-
vestigations may also replace the single induction.
Focused Electrode Devices. In wells drilled with very

saline mud, or in high resistivity formations, a laterolog
or dual laterolog is used with a gamma ray tool. Fullest
benefit of these combinations usually is derived if a
microresistivity survey is also run. Microresistivity
surveys generally include a microcaliper curve (hole-
diameter recording) (see Figs. 49.9 and 49.10). To avoid
multiple runs, many of the above devices are combined
with porosity logs-acoustic, density, and neutron logs.
These porosity logs are discussed in other chapters.
‘See Table 46.6 for the names of the various service companies’ 1ools. Flg. 49.10-Principle of Delaware effect.
GENERATOR METER
Conventional Resistivity Devices
During the first quarter century of well logging, the only
electrical surveys available were the conventional
resistivity logs plus the SP. Thousands of them were run
each year in holes drilled all over the world. Since then,
new logging methods have been developed to measure
values much closer to R, and R,,which are the values
sought. Nevertheless, the conventional ES (consisting of
SP, 16-in. normal, 64-m. normal, and 18-ft 8-in. lateral)
still is being run in some parts of the world. For this
reason, and also because new information can often be
obtained by reinterpreting old ES logs, this chapter in-
cludes discussion on the principles and responses of the
POINT
ES measurements.
T-- - A
Principles: Normal and Lateral Devices. In conven-

Fig. 49.11 -Normal device
(schematic).
tional resistivity logging a current of known intensity is
sent between two electrodes, A and B (A on the sonde, B
on the sonde or at the surface), and the resulting potential
difference is measured between other electrodes M and
GENERATOR METER GENERATOR METER
N. The apparent resistivity is proportional to the
measured potential difference.
For normal devices, the distance AM is small (1 to 6
ft) compared with MN, MB, and BN. In practice N or B
may be placed in the hole at a large distance above A and
M (Fig. 49.11). The voltage measured is practically the
potential of M (because of current from A), referred to
an infinitely distant Point. The distance AM of a normal
device is its spacing. The point of measurement is mid-
way between A and M.
For lateral devices, measuring electrodes M and N are
close to each other and located several feet below current
electrode A. Current-return electrode B is at a great
distance above A or at the surface. The voltage measured
is approximately equal to the potential gradient at the
AMX LATERAL BAM LATERAL point of measurement 0, midway between M and N.
(01 (b)
The distance A0 is the spacing of the lateral device. The
two arrangements shown in Fig. 49.12 (in which current
Fig. 49.12-Lateral device (schematic). and measuring electrodes are interchanged) are
equivalent as regards measured potentials (and
resistivities),
R.- Curve Shapes-Laboratory Results. Fig. 49.13 shows

0 2 4 6 8 IO laboratory curves from a normal device for
homogeneous resistive layers between adjacent beds of
low resistivity. The curves are symmetrical with respect
to the center planes of the layers. The same curves are
recorded if M is above A instead of, as in the figure, A
above M.
The upper part of Fig. 49.13 shows a resistive bed
thicker than the spacing (bed thickness, h, is 6dh ; spac-
ing AM is 2dh; where dh is the hole diameter). At the
boundaries of the bed the curve tends to be rounded off
owing to the influence of the borehole. Moreover, the in-
dicated bed thickness (distance between the inflection
points P and P’) is less than the actual thickness. Normal
curves tend to show resistive beds thinner than they ac-
tually are (and conductive beds thicker than they actually
are) by an amount equal to the spacing AM. The error in
picking the boundaries of thick resistive beds is small for
Fig. 49.13-Laboratory curves for normal short-spacing normals, which is one reason for the re-
sonde of spacing AM =2d
through uninvaded beds cording of a short normal.
more resistive than adjacent As shown in the lower part of Fig. 49.13, for a
formations. resistive layer thinner than the spacing, the curve shows
R.-
01 5 io 15 20
I U-\REFLECTIOIN PEAK ’
Fig. 49.14-Laboratory curves for lateral Fig. 49.15--Responses of normals and

sonde of spacing A0 = 1Id laterals in hard formations
through uninvaded beds (qualitative).
more resistive than adjacent
formations.
a depression opposite the layer with two symmetrical 49.15 shows schematically the behavior of the normals
small peaks, c and d, on either side. The main disadvan- and laterals in thick, highly resistive formations contain-
tage of the normal device is that beds thinner than the ing porous or shaly (that is, more conductive) zones. In a
spacing, no matter how resistive they may be, appear on highly resistive formation most of the current from elec-
the log as being conductive. trode A flows up or down the borehole, dividing in in-
Fig. 49.14 shows similar curves for a lateral. The verse proportion to the resistances of the two paths,
lateral curves are markedly dissymmetrical, and their which are determined mostly by the resistance of the
features are more complex. Again the transitions in the mud column in the hole between the current electrode
curves at the boundaries have been rounded off by the ef- and the nearest conductive beds. At the conductive beds,
fect of the borehole. When the bed is thicker than the depending on their thickness and conductivity, the cur-
spacing, the upper boundary of the bed is not well de- rent has low-resistance paths from the hole. The lopsided
fined on the lateral curve, and, as a whole, the bed ap- appearance of the normal and lateral curves is ex-
pears as being displaced downward by a distance equal plainable in terms of the unequal division of current
to the spacing AO. flowing up and down the hole.
In the lower part of Fig. 49.14 the lateral indicates a The normal, for example, has M and N above the cur-
resistive layer thinner than the spacing by a sharp peak of rent electrode. The voltage measured is the ohmic poten-
relatively low apparent resistivity. Below the layer is a tial drop in the hole resulting fmm current flowing in the
low-resistivity “blind zone,” followed by a “reflection mud between M and N. When the device is near the bot-
peak” at a distance A0 below the bottom boundary of tom of a resistive bed, most of the current flows down to
the layer. The blind zone is recorded when the resistive the conductive bed just below, and there is little potential
streak is located between the current electrode and the drop between M and N because the current up is small.
measuring electrodes. When the device has moved farther up in the bed, the
The lateral is useful for the location of thin, highly current down decreases because the resistance of that
resistive streaks, although interpretation may be difficult path has increased. Also, since the resistance of the up-
if several resistive streaks are close together. A lower ward path has decreased, the current up increases.
streak located in the blind zone of an upper resistive Therefore, the potential drop between M and N increases
streak may be missed, and the reflection peaks may be as the device moves upward until electrode N reaches the
mistaken for actual resistive streaks in the formation. For next conductive bed, where the upward current is
a resistive layer of thickness approximately equal to the diverted from the hole. Above that level the normal
spacing (cn’ticul rhickness), the lateral is almost com- reading decreases.
pletely flattened. The explanation of the shape of the lateral curve is
Similar generalizations are possible for lateral curves similar. The direction of the lopsidedness for either
recorded for beds more conductive than the surrounding device depends on whether the measuring electrodes are
formations. Whether the layer is thick or thin, the shape above or below the current electrode. The depressions
of the curve is dissymmetrical and the anomalies are read on the curves opposite the conductive beds are
spread downward, outside the bottom boundaries. The smooth and, in the case of the lateral, much broadened
apparent increase of bed thickness is roughly equal to and displaced downward. Accurate determinations of
AO. bed boundaries from the curves are practically
Normals and Laterals in Hard Formations. Fig. impossible.
GENERATOR METER
Fig. 49.16-Limestone sonde

(schematic). Fig. 49.17-Principle of limestone sonde
(schematic).
Limestone Sonde. Four current electrodes (A, A’, B, The short normal is well adapted for bed definition,
and B’), connected as shown in Fig. 49.16 by insulated boundary determination, and correlation of formations of
wires of negligible resistance, are symmetrically ar- low or moderate resistivities (sand-shale series). The
ranged so that AB=A’B’. A measuring electrode, M, is lateral generally shows sharp peaks at the level of thin
placed in the middle of the device. Depths are measured resistive beds, but the definition of these beds is often
from electrode M. In practice AM = A’M =30 or 3.5 in., obscured by blind zones and spurious peaks.
and AB =A’B’ =4 or 5 in. The device is therefore a sym- The precision of the normal and lateral curves for bed
metrical double lateral. definition is limited in hard formations and is quite poor
Opposite a thick, highly resistive layer (upper part of when salty muds are used. Somewhat better resolution is
Fig. 49.17) practically all the flow of current is confined obtained with the limestone sonde. In all cases, forma-
to the spaces between A and B and between A’ and B’. tion delineation is more detailed and accurate with the IL
No current flows from B or B’, up or down the hole away and focused devices (LL) and with the microdevices. In
from the device. Hence, from Ohm’s law, B and B’ are hard formations the 16-in. normal and the limestone
at zero potential. Similarly M is at the same potential as sonde can provide an approximation to the value of Ri
A and A’. and hence an approach for formation factor evaluation.
The potential of M is, therefore, equal to the potential The capabilities of the conventional tools for the deter-
drop in the mud, because of the flow of current, between mination of R, are discussed later in this chapter.
A and B (or A’ or B’). As long as all the electrodes of the
devices are opposite the resistive formation this potential Induction Logging
difference is dependent only on hole size and mud The IL was first developed to measure formation
resistivity; if these are constant, a constant apparent rcsistivity in boreholes containing oil-based muds. ‘O
resistivity is recorded. Electrode devices do not work in these nonconductive
If the device is located just above a conductive streak muds, and attempts to use wall-scratcher electrodes
(as in the lower part of Fig. 49.17), the streak is effec- proved unsatisfactory. Experience soon demonstrated
tively a low resistance connecting adjacent portions of that the induction tools had many advantages over the
the device to points at zem potential. Part of the current conventional ES for logging wells drilled with water-
now flows in the paths indicated by the arrows, and the based muds _2’
potential of electrode M is correspondingly decreased. Induction logging devices are focused to minimize the
The conductive streak is indicated on the log by a influence of the borehole and of the surrounding forma-
relatively sharp, symmetrical depression. tions. They are designed for deep investigation and
The limestone sonde gives clearer and simpler logs in reduction of the influence of the invaded zone.
hard formations, but measurements with the limestone
sonde arc strongly affected by the mud column. When Principle
the formations are much more resistive than the mud, the Practical induction sondes include a system of several
readings are appreciably lower than the formation transmitter and receiver coils. However, the principle
resistivities. can be understood by considering a sonde with only one
transmitter coil and one receiver coil (Fig. 49.18).
Application of Conventional Resistivity Logs. The High-frequency AC of constant intensity is sent
three devices that are generally recorded in the conven- through the transmitter coil. The alternating magnetic
tional electrical log (16-in. normal, 64in. normal, and field thus created induces secondary currents in the for-
18-ft, 8-in. lateral) were designed to provide the most mations. These currents flow in circular ground-loop
complete information with a system of nonfocused paths coaxial with the transmitter coil. These ground-
macmdevices. loop currents, in turn, create magnetic fields that induce
ELECTRICAL LOGGING
signals in the receiver coil. The induced receiver signals

are essentially proportional to the conductivity of the for-
mations. Any signal produced by direct coupling of
transmitter and receiver coils is balanced out by the
measuring circuits.
The IL operates to advantage when the borehole fluid
is an insulator-even air or gas. But when properly
designed the tool also will work very well when the
borehole contains conductive mud, provided that the
mud is not too salty, the formations are not too resistive,
and the borehole diameter is not too large.
Equipment
Four types of induction equipment are now in use.
Fig. 49.18-Induction-logging equipment
1. The 6FF40 IES tool includes a six-coil induction (schematic).
device of 40-in. normal spacing, a 16-in. normal, and an
SP electrode. The induction array provides the greatest
lateral depth of investigation presently available with in-
duction tools.
2. The 6FF28 IES is a small-diameter (2% in.) tool
SPONTANEOUS POlENlIAl $ RtSlSIlVlrY CONDUClIVIlY
for use in slim holes. It is a scaled-down version of the mllllvoltr : ohm, m'm m,ll,mhos m .$&
6FF40, having a 28-in. coil spacing, and incorporates a I .
standard 16-in. normal and an SP. -- ?*

3. The Dual Induction-Laterolog 8 (DILTM) or
Spherically Focused Log (SFL) system uses a deep-
reading induction device (ID, similar to the 6FF40), a
medium induction device (IM), an LL8 (or an SFL), and
an SP electrode. The IM device has vertical resolution
similar to that of the 6FF40 tool but about half the depth
--
of investigation. It is much more affected by large hole
diameters and/or salty muds. The DIL log, with its three
focused resistivity readings of different depths of in-
vestigation, is superior to the IES log for determination
of R, and R, in extreme ranges of invasion depths and
in cases of annulus.
4. The ISF/Sonic combination incorporates an ID
measurement similar to that from the 6FF40 tool, the
new ISF log, an SP curve that may be electronically cor-
rected for noise, a borehole compensated (BHC) sonic
log, and an optional gamma ray curve. Of late, the BHC
sonic tool can be replaced in this tool string by a com-
bination neutron/density device.
Log Presentation and Scales
The SP and/or gamma my curve are recorded in Track 1
for all tools; they can be recorded simultaneously with
ISFisonic equipment. A gamma ray curve may also be
run with 6FF40 or DIL equipment.
Fig. 49.19 illustrates the standard IES presentation.
The induction conductivity curve is sometimes recorded
over both Tracks 2 and 3. The linear scale is in
millimhos per meter (mu/m), increasing to the left. In
Track 2 both the 16-in. normal and the reciprocated in-
duction curves are recorded on the conventional linear
rcsistivity scale.
The DIL introduced the logarithmic grid for resistivity
presentations. The current form is the “log-linear” grid
shown in Fig. 49.20. In this, the resistivity curves on the Fig. 49.19-Induction-electrical log presentation.
detail log (5 in. I100 ft) have a split 4-decade logarithmic
scale. On the correlation log (1 or 2 in./100 fi), the scale
is linear. This presentation offers several advantages
over the other alternatives. The detail log has good
readability in low resistivities, a wide range without
backup traces, and the ease of reading resistivity ratios
SPOHlANtOUIPOItNllAl
millivolts
: ::::,:
i lid : .-.- __-*.
j-r. L!-8 _: * :.;..:
.:.
v; ‘1, + :..
)>+.h i __::..
~~ 3-N -!
:
: :
t-.
,:. :
:‘: :
::I
j y;*
: ::
+-
:..::
: 7’:
I.. ::
77
,,.I
:1..:
,:: :
Fig. 49.21~ISFkonic presentation.
+:.::
~ :. ‘:
Fig. 49.20-Dual Induction Laterolog 8 presentation.

if it were from a homogeneous medium. A secondary
skin-effect correction may be required when the media
directly from the logarithmic scale. The linear scale is surrounding the sonde are not of uniform conductivity.
more easily correlated with earlier logs. This format has Such corrections are incorporated in various interpreta-
gained acceptance as the standard for resistivity logs. tion charts.
The ISF log in combination with the sonic log requires
a modification of this grid usage because Track 3 is Geometrical Factor
needed for the sonic At curve. The grid selected is shown When conductivities are not high, skin effect may be
in Fig. 49.21. neglected, and the response of induction logs can be
described in terms of conductivities and “geometrical
Skin Effect factors” of the volumes surrounding the tool. The
In very conductive formations the induced secondary geometrical factor, G, of a volume having a specific
currents are large, and their magnetic fields are impor- geometrical orientation with the sonde is simply the frac-
tant. The magnetic fields of their ground loops induce tion of the total signal that would originate with that
additional EMF’s in other ground loops. This interaction volume in an infinite homogeneous medium. For com-
between the loops causes a reduction of the conductivity putation of geometrical factor to be practical, it is
signal recorded by the induction log. This signal reduc- necessary to assume that the volumes conform to sym-
tion is known as “skin effect.” metry of revolution about the sonde.
Induction logs usually are automatically corrected for The magnitude of the signal in conductivity units is the
skin effect during recording. The correction is based on product of the geometrical factor and the conductivity of
the magnitude of the uncorrected tool response treated as the material, and the total signal sensed by the tool is the
INTEGRATED RADIAL GEOMETRICAL FACTOR
0.6
-No Skin Effect

I
0 ----Skin Effect Included: Case of
W
0
-0 40 00 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
DIAMETER OF INVADED ZONE di (in.)
Fig. 49.22-Geometrical factor. Dashed curve includes skin effect under conditions shown, for the
ILd device.
sum of these products for all volumes within range C,=C,G,,+W,,

(which extends to infinity, but can be circumscribed to
practical limits). Since the G’s add up to unity by defini- =(C,/4) (0.2)+C,(O.S),
tion, this can be stated: =0.85 C,.
CtL=CtG, +C2G2+C3G3...+CNGN, ... (10) In the same conditions, but using salty mud so that
R,,=R,i4,the response is
where C and G refer to the zones of differing conductivi-
ty and N is the total number of such zones. GIL =4 C,(O.2) + C, (0.8),
The chief significance of this concept is the fact that a =1.6 C,,
volume of space defined only by its geometry relative to
the sonde has a fixed and computable geometrical factor. which illustrates the “conductivity-seeking” character-
This permits the construction of mathematically sound istic of the induction devices, and shows why they must
correction charts to account for the effects of borehole be used with discretion in salt-mud environments. As a
mud, the invaded zone, and adjacent beds on the R, rule of thumb, R, should be less than about 2.5 R,,and
measurement, providing symmetry of revolution exists. 2 di (diameter of invaded zone) no greater than 100 in. for
These charts incorporate the secondary skin effect cor- satisfactory R, determination from 6FF40-type induction
rection mentioned above. logs.
Annulus
Invasion Effects
Fig. 49.4 illustrates an invaded formation. It includes In oil-bearing formations of low S, and high permeabili-
volumes having several conductivities, C,, C,, Ci, ty, an annulus of low resistivity , R, , may exist between
the flushed zone, R,,,and the virgin formation. When
and C, (corresponding to R,, R,,,Ri,and R,).The
total conductivity signal, CT, received from this zone by
R, is greater than R,,R,, is less than R,,and the ef-
the induction tool is fects of the two on the induction log tend to cancel.
However, the high conductivity of the annulus has more
. . . . . .(ll) effect in medium invasion ranges (2dh < di < 4 or 5dh),
C,=C,G,+C,G,+CiGi+C,G,.
and it may cause a single ID to read resistivities lower
If the zone were infinitely thick, this would be the only than either R,,or R,. The DIL 8 tool is often capable of
signal received, and CT = C,L. If the tool is a 6FF40, the detecting the presence of annuli, since in these cir-
hole size moderate, and the mud relatively fresh, the cumstances the IM measurement reads lower than either
borehole signal is negligible, and the C,, and Ci zones the LL8 or the ID values,
can be merged into one for this example.
If a moderate diameter of invasion, say 65 in., is Thin Bed Corrections
assumed, Fig. 49.22 reveals that the geometrical factor The skin-effect correction accomplished automatically in
of all material within the 65in. diameter is 0.2. If R,r,is the induction tools assumes infinitely thick beds. Skin
taken equal to 4 R,,then C,, =C,/4, and the induction effect in thin beds may require additional corrections,
tool response is and these are provided in Ref. 2.
49-1 a PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 49.23-Schematic of focusing-electrode devices.
Borehole Corrections posite an impervious formation of exceedir,gly high

Conductivity signals from the mud can be evaluated us- resistivity (such as anhydrite) represents the sum of all
ing geometrical factors. Chart Rcor-4 (Ref. 2) gives cor- spurious signals. If the hole diameter is known, it is then
rections for the various induction tools and standoffs. On possible to correct the IL reading so that the range of
the basis of bit size the nominal borehole signal is uncertainty is reduced and greater accuracy is obtained in
sometimes removed from the recorded log. When the formations of practical interest.
hole signal is significant, log headings should always be Summary
consulted to ascertain whether this was done. This
precaution applies most frequently to the IM measure- 1. The IL can be used most effectively in holes filled
with moderately conductive drilling muds, nonconduc-
ment of the DIL tool.
tive muds, and in empty holes.
For hole diameters in the range of 7 to 13 in. there is
an uncertainty of about f0.0003 on the geometrical fac- 2. Vertical focusing is good, making possible reliable
tor of the borehole for the 6FF40 sonde. This results evaluation of beds down to about 5 ft thick with 6FF40,
ID, and IM devices, and down to about 3% ft thick with
from several factors, including diameter and shape of the
borehole, mudcake thickness, standoff, and sonde tilt. 6FF28 tools.
To preclude the possibility of cumulative errors ex- 3. The deep induction logs (ILd) are only moderately
ceeding 20% of the 6FF40 reading, the tool should not affected by invasion in relatively fresh muds, and good
be used where the resistivity to be measured is greater R, determinations are possible where R, is less than
than about 500 R,. about 2.5 R, and di is less than 100 in.
4. The three curves of the DIL give more precise
Very Resistive Formations knowledge of invasion profiles and hence better R,
values in the cases of deep invasion or annulus.
There is an uncertainty of about 52 mO/m on the zero of 5. The log-linear presentation of the DIL and other
the present induction sondes (6FF40, ID, and IM), and IL’s meets most log requirements better than alternative
consequently the resistivity error may be great as con-
displays.
ductivity approaches zero. To preclude an error of more
than 20%, the formation conductivity should be greater Focused-Electrode Logs
than 10 mu/m (i.e., the resistivity less than 100 Q.m). The responses of conventional ES can be greatly affected
This error can sometimes be practically eliminated by
by the borehole and adjacent formations. These in-
downhole calibration techniques if suitable formations
fluences are minimized by a family of resistivity tools
are present. that use focusing currents to control the path taken by the
measure current. These currents are supplied from
Calibration special electrodes on the sondes.
Primary calibration is performed by placing a test loop
around the sonde. The conductive loop has a resistance, Equipment
which has been adjusted to produce a certain conductivi- The focused-electrode tools include the Latero!ogs (LL)
ty signal in the sonde. An additional calibration pro- and SFL’s. These tools are much superior to the ES
cedure has a signal produced internally in the sonde to devices for large R&R, values (salt muds and/or highly
adjust the control-panel sensitivity for proper galvanom- resistive formations) and for large resistivity contrasts
eter deflections. The “zero errors” of the electronics in with adjacent beds (RJR,or R,IR,). They are much bet-
the equipment arc also checked and balanced out. ter for resolution of thin to moderately thick beds.
“Calibrate tails,” usually attached to the log, serve as a Focusing-electrode systems are available wit! deep,
record of the calibration tests made before and after the medium, and shallow depths of investigation.
logging run. Devices using this principle have as quantitative ap-
In some regions it is possible to check the calibration plications the determination of R, and of R,. The R,
of the IL by observing that the conductivity reading op- tools are Laterolog 7 (LL7), Laterolog 3 (LL3), and
RESISTIVITY -
LATERLOG 0,0,=32”=4d,A,A,=80”=10d,l
AC,= 18%” = 28d
Fig. 49.24--Response of Laterolog 7 and ES opposite a thin, resistive, noninvaded bed, with very-Sal-
ty mud (laboratory determination).
LLD of the deep dual laterolog. The medium-totally opposite a thin resistive bed using the conventional
shallow-reading devices, all integral with combination devices (16 and 64-in. normals and 18-ft, g-in. lateral)
tools, are Laterolog 8 (LL8) of the DIL, LLS of the with the corresponding LL7 recording. The conventional
shallow dual laterolog, and the SFL of the ISFisonic devices give poor results; the LL7, in spite of difficult
combination. conditions (RJR,,, is 5,000), shows the bed very clearly
and reads close to R,. An SP curve may be recorded on
Laterolog 7. This deviceI comprises a center electrode depth simultaneously with the LL7.
Ao, and three pairs of electrodes: M 1 and Mz; M’ 1 and
M’z; and Al and A2 (Fig. 49.23). The electrodes of
each pair are symmetrically located with respect to A0 Laterolog 3
and are connected to each other by a short-circuiting Like LL7, LL3 also uses currents from bucking elec-
wire. trodes to focus the measuring current into a horizontal
A constant current 1, is sent through electrode Ao. sheet penetrating into the formation. However, as seen in
Through bucking electrodes A, and AZ, an adjustable Fig. 49.23, large electrodes are used. Symmetrically
current is developed; the bucking current intensity is ad- placed, on either side of the central A0 electrode, are
justed automatically so that the two pairs of monitoring two very long (about 5-ft) electrodes, Al and AZ, which
electrodes, M , and Mz and M’ , and M’2, are brought are shorted to each other. A current, 10, flows from the
to the same potential. The potential drop is measured A0 electrode whose potential is fixed. From Al and A2
between one of the monitoring electrodes and an elec- flows a bucking current, which is automatically adjusted
trode at the surface (i.e., at infinity). With a constant IO to maintain A, and A2 at the potential of A0 All elec-
current, this potential varies directly with formation trodes of the sonde are thus held at the same constant
resistivity. potential. The magnitude of the IO current is then pro-
Since the potential difference between the M 1-Mz portional to formation conductivity.
pair and the M’ I -M’ 2 pair is maintained at zero, no cur- The IO current sheet is constrained to the shaded, ap-
rent from A0 is flowing in the hole between M I and M’ 1 proximately disk-shaped area in Fig. 49.23. The
or between M2 and M’2. Therefore, the current from thickness, 0, 02, of the IO current sheet is usually about
A0 must penetrate horizontally into the formations. 12 in., much thinner than for LL7. As a result, LL3 has a
Fig. 49.23 shows the distribution of current lines when better vertical resolution and shows more detail than
the sonde is in a homogeneous medium; the “sheet” of LL7. Furthermore, the influences of the borehole and of
10 current, indicated by the hatched area, retains a fairly the invaded zone are slightly less.
constant thickness up to a distance from the borehole The simultaneous recording of an SP curve is possible,
somewhat greater than the total length A, A2 of the but the SP has to be displaced in depth, usually by about
sonde. Experiments have shown that the sheet of IO cur- 25 ft, because of the large mass of metal in the sonde.
rent retains substantially the same shape opposite thin However, a gamma ray curve is normally run
resistive beds. The thickness of the IO current sheet is 32 simultaneously with the LL3 for lithology definition,
in. (distance 0 I 02 on Fig. 49.23), and the length A I A2 since the SP has very little character in the salt muds
of the sonde is 80 in. where the LL is used. There is also available a
Fig. 49.24 compares the curves obtained experimen- simultaneous LL3-neutron/gamma ray combination tool.
LLD
Thick Beds
8” Ho
a-- -:T---Flh’
Fig. 49.25-Schemalic of the dual laterolog. --- RX,= 0.1 Rt
- Rx0 ’ Rt
8 20 40 60 80
Guard-Electrode Device. In the guard-electrode
system, the surveying current flows into the adjacent for- Diameter d i 1 inches)
mations from a measuring electrode disposed between
relatively long upper and lower guard electrodes from Fig. 49.26-Radial pseudogeometrical factors, fresh muds
(solid) and salty muds (dashed).
which current also flows. The guard electrodes tend to
confine the current from the measuring electrode to a
generally horizontal path. The measuring and guard elec-
trodes are connected through a very low impedance, as estimated in order to calculate R, . The need for a second
necessary to measure the surveying current supplied to measurement at a different depth of investigation
the measuring electrode. resulted in the dual laterolog/gamma ray tools (Fig.
A resistivity value is obtained by recording the ratio of 49.25).
the voltage of an electrode in the assembly (referred to a One version of the tool records the two laterologs se-
distant point) to the current emitted from the measuring quentially; another does it simultaneously and has added
electrode. The guard-electrode device is used mostly in a shallow MICROSFL(MSFL) for R,, information. Both
hard-rock territories for detailed bed definition, correla- can record a gamma ray curve on depth, simultaneously
tion, and as a help in reservoir evaluation. For the deter- with the resistivity curves. An SP can also be run.
mination of R, it is preferable that R,fIR, be small (less By use of effectively longer bucking electrodes and a
than 4), as in the case of salty muds. longer spacing, the LLD (deep latemlog) has been given
a deeper investigation than either LL7 or LL3 devices.
Laterolog 8. The shallow-investigation LL8 device is The LLS (shallow laterolog) uses the same electrodes in
recorded with small electrodes on the DIL sonde. It is a different manner (Fig. 49.25 right) to achieve a current
similar in principle to LL7 device except for its shorter beam equal in thickness to that of LLD, 24 in., but hav-
spacings. The thickness of the 10 current sheet is 14 in., ing a much shallower penetration. The LLS depth of in-
and the distance between the two bucking electrodes is vestigation lies between those of the LL7 and LL8
somewhat less than 40 in. The current-return electrode is devices (Fig. 49.26).
located a relatively short distance from Ao. With this
configuration, the LL8 tool gives sharp vertical detail, Spherically Focused Log. The SFL log is part of the
and the readings are more influenced by the borehole and ISF/sonic combination, and it was developed as an im-
the invaded zone* than arc those for LL7 and LL3. The provement over both the 16-in. normal and the LL8 as a
LL8 data are recorded with the DIL on a split 4-decade short-spacing companion to the deep induction log.
logarithmic scale. Normal resistivity devices rely on the concept of equal
intensity of current radiation in all directions, as would
Dual Laterolog. Since the measure current of an LL has happen in a homogeneous isotropic medium. When the
to traverse mud and invaded zone to reach the undis- current distribution is distorted from the spherical model,
turbed formation, the measurement is necessarily a com- as by the presence of a borehole, the readings must be
bination of effects. With only one resistivity measure- corrected by departure curves. The SFL device uses
ment, the invasion profile and R,, had to be known or focusing currents to enforce an approximately spherical
10
Ii
‘J --I : :
. I I : r--- I
I<- -L-
L : : ::::::
-1. ._: ::.:I :
i
: : :: ::: :
: i I ,:..:
ii:L/ :
.: ::‘I T I ‘:-j ;
. ._.~ --.:. 1’- i
.: ::;f
: : 11
z’; ;r;i T....._ -:
._._ I.
:1:::1: :
” fT ::Y . . T r..... f
: : : ‘:::: :
1
7 i::::
;- j:.ii
: L....
:
_:..
.
y< .~_ /
‘.
:: ! I..!
+k
Fig. 49.29-Laterolog over same interval as Fig. 49.22, record-

Fig. 49.27-Laterolog recorded on hybrid scale. ed on logarithmic scale.
shape on the equipotential surfaces over a wide range of

wellbore variables. The borehole effect is virtually
eliminated where dh 5 10 in., yet most of the response is
from the invaded zone in all but extreme conditions.
Scales. The linear resistivity scales originally used for

LL data were poorly adapted to record the wide range of
measurements characteristic of these tools. Although
linear scales are still used occasionally, compressed
scales of either the hybrid or logarithmic type have sup-
planted the linear for quantitative work.
The hybrid scale, first used on the LL3 log, presented
linear resistivity on the first half of the grid track and
linear conductivity on the last half. Thus, one
galvanometer could record all resistivities from zero to
infinity. (See Fig. 49.27.)
The logarithmic scale was used first with the dual in-
duction tool, and it has also been adapted for the LL and
the SFL devices (Fig. 49.28). It combines readability
and detail in low msistivities with a wide range of
values, and it also offers the advantage of graphic
(quick-look) interpretations.
Influence of Wellbore Variables
These logging devices can be significantly affected by
the borehole mud, the invaded zone, and adjacent beds.
Charts Rcor-1 and Rcor-2 of Ref. 2 provide needed cor-
rections. Where only one measurement is available,
some knowledge or assumption of depth of invasion Fig. 49.29--Shoulder-bed corrections, LL3 (top) and LL7
must be used for deriving R,. Readings must be cor- (bottom).
rected for borehole effect before the shoulder-bed charts
are entered. (See Figs. 49.29 and 49.9.) These figures
give R, /R, as a function of bed thickness, R, being the formation waters-and (2) to provide correlation and R,,
corrected resistivity and R, the apparent resistivity cor- determinations in conjunction with deeper-reading R,
rected for borehole effect. devices.
Pseudogeometrical Factors Microresistivity Devices
Geometrical factor may be defined as that fraction of the Microresistivity devices are used to measure R,,
total signal that would originate from a volume having a (resistivity of the flushed zone) and to delineate
specific geometrical orientation with the sonde in an in- permeable beds by detecting the presence of mudcake. In
finite homogeneous medium. the discussion that follows, the micmlog (ML) will be
The only well-logging devices for which this concept treated in considerable detail, not because of its relative
is sound are the induction tools, because only with these importance-the micmlaterolog (MLL), the proximity
is the measuring geometry independent of variations in log (PL), and the MSFL are superior tools for obtaining
RJR,. However, it is useful to construct charts based R,,-but because its principle is fundamental, and it is
on “pseudogeometrical factors” for other resistivity still the best of the three microresistivity devices for
devices, for purposes of comparative evaluation. Such a delineating permeable-bed boundaries, hence for making
chart is shown in Fig. 49.26 in which the integrated “sand counts.”
pseudogeometrical factors of progressively larger Measurements of R,, are important for several
cylinders are plotted vs. the diameters of the cylinders. reasons. When invasion is moderate to deep, knowledge
The apparent resistivity, R,, measured in a thick bed is of the R, value makes possible more accurate deter-
given approximately by minations of true resistivity and hence of saturation.
Also, some methods for computing saturation are
R,=R,,G,i+R,(l-G,;), .. . . (12) entered with the ratio RJR,. Also, in clean formations,
a value of F may be computed from R,, and R,,f, if S,r,
where G,; is the pseudogeometrical factor. It must be is known or estimated. From F, a value for porosity may
emphasized that a pseudogeometrical factor relating to be found.
an electrode-type resistivity device is applicable in only To measure R, a shallow-investigation tool is
one set of conditions, and therefore charts of this type are desirable, since the R,, zone may sometimes extend on-
not valid as general-purpose invaded-zone correction ly a few inches beyond the hole wall. Also, the reading
charts. The most useful feature of the Fig. 49.26 chart is should preferably not be affected by the borehole.
its graphic comparison of the relative contribution of in- A sidewall-pad tool is indicated. The pad, carrying
vaded zones to the responses of the various tools. short-spacing electrode devices, is pressed against the
mudcake, thus reducing the short-circuiting effect of the
The Delaware Effect
mud. Currents from the electrodes on the pad must pass
If both B and N electrodes are placed downhole as in through the mudcake to reach the R,, zone.
Fig. 49.10, LL data may exhibit “Delaware effect”* (or Microresistivity readings are more or less affected by
“gradient”) in sections located just below thick noncon- mudcake, depending on its resistivity, R,,, and
ductive beds such as anhydrite. It appears as abnormally thickness, h,, Moreover, mudcakes can be anisotmpic,
high resistivity for 80 ft or so below the resistive bed. with mudcake resistivity parallel to the borehole wall
The LL3 is the only field tool now using this less than that across the mudcake. Mudcake anisotropy
arrangement. increases the mudcake effect on micmresistivity
Fig. 49.10 illustrates the effect and its causes. As B readings, so that the effective, or electrical, mudcake
enters the thick anhydrite, the current flow is confined to thickness is greater than that indicated by a caliper. The
the borehole, and if the bed is thick enough (several hun- micmresistivity tools incorporate two-arm calipers,
dred feet) practically all the current will flow in that part which show the size and condition of the borehole.
of the hole below B. Then when N enters the bed, it can
no longer remain near zem potential as intended. It is ex- Equipment
posed to an increasing negative potential as it rises far-
Present equipment includes a combination tool with two
ther from the bed boundary. This potential appears at the
pads mounted on opposite sides. One is the ML pad, and
surface as an increase in the resistivity measurement.
the other may be for either the MLL or the PL, as re-
LL7 and LLD devices normally use surface electrodes quired by mudcake conditions. The measurements are
for current return. so they are not subject to Delaware ef-
recorded simultaneously. The MSFL is a combination
feet. However, a small anti-Delaware effect has been
tool, which can be run with either formation density or
observed, which produces resistivities that are too low dual latemlog equipment.
just below the resistive beds.
Conclusions Log Presentation
The
The mirrnr&rtivitv
microresistivity lnuc nn- a-sled,
logs are scaled, of of course,
course, in
in
Resistivity devices with the focusing electrode principle
resistivity units. When recorded by itself, the ML data
meet certain logging requirements bette-
better +hon
than n+hpr
other +l~noc
types ‘~
are usually recorded over Tracks 2 and 3 on a linear
now available. These requirements are (1) to take
measurements leading to determination of R, in condi- resistivity scale. The microcaliper data are in Track 1.
The MML or PL is recorded on a four-decade
tions for which the induction tools tool are not well
logarithmic scale on the right of the depth track (Fig.
suited-i.e., R, values in excess of 100 Q-m and/or mud
49.30). The caliper is recorded in Track 1. When the ML
resistivities of the same order or lower than those of the
‘So-called because 1 was ilrst observed ,n Ihe Delaware saw
sand v, ,,,r Y
of the Delaware basin
data are also recorded, they are in Track 1 on a linear
(west Texas) This sand underltes a very thick anhydrite bed scale. The MSFL data are also recorded on the
logarithmic grid. When run with the dual laterolog, it is

presented on the same film as the LL curves. With the I RESISTIVITY
yll, II -
:
RESISTIVITY
hrn, - r
Compensated Formation Density (FD?) log, it must be

,I 3 ‘? ‘70 803”moo
presented on a separate film, since the FDC log uses a
linear grid; the two logs arc normally recorded
simultaneously.
Microlog
With the microlog too1,23 two short-spacing devices
with different depths of investigation provide resistivity
measurements of a very small volume of mudcake and
formation immediately adjoining the borehole. They
readily detect the presence of any mudcake, indicating
invaded (hence permeable) formations.
Principle. Arms and springs press a rubber pad against
the hole wall. In the face of the pad are inserted three
small electrodes in line, spaced 1 in. apart. With these
electrodes a 1-X l-in. micminverse, R, Xl, and a 2-in.
micronormal, R2, are recorded simultaneously.
As drilling mud filters into the permeable formations,
mud solids accumulate on the hole wall, forming a mud-
cake. The resistivity of the mudcake is about equal to, or
slightly greater than, the resistivity of the mud. Mudcake
resistivity is usually considerably smaller than the
resistivity of the invaded zone near the borehole.
The 2-in. micronormal has a greater depth of in-
vestigation than the 1-x l-in. micminverse. It is
therefore less influenced by the mudcake and reads a
higher resistivity, producing “positive” curve separa-
tion. In the presence of the low-resistivity mudcake, both
devices will measure moderate resistivities, usually
ranging from about 2 to 10 times R,
Interpretation. Positive separation in a permeable
zone is illustrated in Fig. 49.30, at Level A. The caliper
shows evidence of mudcake. However, quantitative in- Fig. 49.30-Presentation of proximity log-microlog
ferences of permeability are not possible from the ML
data. When no mudcake exists, for whatever reason, the
ML data may yield useful information as to borehole
condition or lithology , but the log is not quantitatively
interpretable.
Under favorable circumstances, R, values can be
derived from the ML by use of Fig. 49.31. R,, values
for this purpose can be measured directly or estimated
fmm Ref. 2, and h,, is obtained from the caliper.
Limitations of the method are (1) the ratio R,,lR,, must
be lower than about 15 (porosity more than 15%), (2)
h ,,,=must be no greater than ‘/2in., and (3) depth of inva-
sion has to be over about 4 in., otherwise the ML
readings are affected by R,. Eqs. 6 or 14 permit the
porosity derivation from the ML measurements. For
this, the value of S,, must be reasonably well known.
Mud Log
The ML sonde is lowered into the hole with arms closed.
Except in holes smaller than 8 in., the measuring pad
will randomly face away from the wall part of the time, Ftg. 49.31-Interpretation chart for 8-in.-hole series
and its reading then will be determined mostly by the C microlog for which adjacent elec-
mud. A recording of these readings, conveniently made trodes are 1 in. apart. R, in designates
going down, serves as a “mud log,” on which the reading of 2-in. micronormal (AM, =2
in.) and RIx, ,“, is I- by I-in. microin-
lowest resistivities correspond to the upper limit of the verse (AM, = 1 in., M, M, = 1 in.). Type
in-situ value of R,. This log has several potential ap- I hydraulic pad, noninsulated sonde.
plications, including crosschecking the surface R,
measurement, detecting mud-system changes, and iden-
tifying downhole water flows.
49.24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Mud
Mud Coke
Fig. 49.32-Microlaterolog pad showing electrodes (left) and
schematic current lines (right). Microloterolog Mlcrolog
Fig. 49.33-Comparative distribution of current lines of

Microlaterolog and Microlog.
Microlaterolog (MLL)
On ML (Fig. 49.31) for values of RIO/R,, greater than
about 15, the curves for constant values of R,,lR,, arc Proximity Log (PL)
crowded; as a result, the accuracy of the determination Principle. The proximity tool is similar in principle to
of R, from the ML is poor in this region. With the MLL the MLL tool. The electrodes are mounted on a
method, it is possible to determine R,, accurately for somewhat wider pad, which is applied to the wall of the
higher values of R,,lR,,, provided, however, that the borehole; the system is automatically focused by
mudcake thickness does not exceed X in. monitoring electrodes.
Principle. The MLL pad is shown in Fig. 49.32.24 A Response. Pad and electrode design arc such that
small electrode, Ao, and three concentric circular elec- isotropic mudcakes up to % in. have very little effect on
trodes are embedded in a rubber pad applied against the the measurements (see Chart Rxo-2 in Ref. 2). If the in-
hole wall. A constant current, I,, is emitted through vasion is shallow, the reading of the proximity device is
electrode AO. Through the outer electrode, A I , is sent a influenced by R,. The resistivity measured can be ex-
current automatically adjusted so that the potential dif- pressed as
ference between the two monitoring electrodes is main-
tained essentially equal to zero. The 10 current flowing RfL=GpiRxo+(l-Gpi)R,, ...
past the M 1 electrode cannot reach M2 and is forced to
flow in a beam into the formations. The current lines are where G,i is the pseudogeometrical factor of the invaded
shown on the figure. The IO current near the pad forms a zone. The value of G,i as a function of invasion
narrow beam, which opens up rapidly at a few inches diameter di is given in Fig. 49.34; this chart gives only
from the face of the pad. The MLL reading is influenced an approximate value of G,; , which in fact also depends
mostly by the formation within this narrow beam. to some extent on the diameter of the borehole and on the
Fig. 49.33 compares qualitatively the current-line ratio R,, lR, .
distributions of the MLL and the ML when the cor- If di is greater than 40 in., GpI is very close to 1 and,
responding pad is applied against a permeable formation. accordingly, RPL will differ little from R,, . If di is less
The greater the value of R,,lR,, the greater the tenden- than 40 in., R, is somewhere between R,, and R,,
cy for the microlog 10 current to escape through the mud- usually much closer to R,, than to R, . RPL can be fairly
cake to reach the mud in the borehole. Consequently, for close to R, only if the invasion is very shallow (of course
high R,IR,, values, the readings of the ML respond when R,, and R, are nearly equal, the value of RPL will
very little to variations of R,. On the contrary, all the depend very little on d,).
MLL I0 current flows into the formation and the MLL
MICROSFL (MSFL)
reading will depend mostly on the value of R,,.
Response. Laboratory tests have shown that the virgin This is a pad-mounted SFL device. It embodies two
formation has practically no influence on the MLL distinct advantages over other microresistivity devices:
readings if the invasion depth is more than 3 or 4 in. The (1) it is compatible with other logging tools, specifically
influence of mudcake is negligible up to h mr = % in. but the FDC and the simultaneous dual laterology (SDL),
increases rapidly with greater thicknesses. Chart Rxo-2 which eliminates the need for a separate logging run to
in Ref. 2 gives appropriate corrections; however, if mud- obtain R, information, and (2) it responds to shallow
cakes thicker than % in. arc anticipated, the PL is prc- R, zones in the presence of mudcake. The MSFL gives
ferred for R,, determination. good R.w resolution in thick-mudcake conditions, but
ELECTRICAL LOGGING
does not require as great an invasion depth as does the

PL. This characteristic makes it useful in a wider range I
of conditions than either the PL or the MLL. The effect I
of mudcake on the MSFL data is shown in Ref. 2. \
Principle. Spherical focusing is the shaping of the
equipotential surfaces produced by the resistivity device f7
to approximately spherical form. The focusing is ac- I
I
complished by auxiliary electrodes, as in the MLL and I
PL; but, instead of being forced into a narrow beam, the
measure current is merely prevented from following the
borehole mud or mudcake paths. A careful selection of
electrode spacings achieves an optimal compromise be-
tween too much and too little depth of investigation.
/
/
Conclusions
The ML permits a very accurate delineation of RIO’R,
permeable beds in all types of formations. It can also f
-- R X,,= 0 I I,
provide satisfactory R,, and porosity determinations

under favorable conditions, which are (1) R,,IR,, < 15,
(2) h,, c % in., and (3) depth of invasion greater than
about 4 in.
The focused microresistivity tools can provide good
R,, values under a much wider range of conditions. The
MLL is limited chiefly by mudcake thickness, but is well
adapted to salt-base muds. When h,, exceeds % in., the
PL or the MSFL log is preferable.
Depth of Invasion, in
Uses and Interpretation of Well Logs

Fig. 49.34-Pseudogeometrical factors, MLL and PL.
Bed Detection and Definition
Formations encountered in uncased boreholes may be
detected and their boundaries defined by a number of dif- or erode more than the permeable or hard impervious
ferent logs. The SP and short-investigation curves are beds. Very often, and mostly in sand-shale series, the
most commonly used. For great detail, the microdevices difference between the readings of a short-investigation
are superior-ML in fresh muds and MLL in very salty and a long-investigation device is a clear indication of
muds. A substitute for the SP in salt muds is the gamma the presence of a permeable bed.
ray log, which distinguishes shales from nonshale beds.
Also, the sonic and density logs could be used in all Salt Muds. The combination of very salty mud with
types of formations, with any type of mud. moderate-to-high formation resistivity adversely affects
In holes filled with nonconductive muds, or in empty the conventional (nonfocused) devices and the SP curve.
holes, the induction, radiation, temperature, sonic (not Also, mudcakes are thin; as a consequence, the
applicable in empty holes), and perhaps section-gauge microcaliper (or also the section gauge) is not of great
logs can provide useful information. Sometimes conven- help for the detection of permeable sections but detects
tional devices with wall scratchers, for contact with the clearly the caved shales. In conjunction with the LL and
formation, may be run. MLL the gamma ray log distinguishes between shales
Porous and Permeable Beds-Sand Count. Porous and nonshales, and the neutron, sonic log, and density
log provide indications of porosity.
and permeable beds are of primary interest since they are
the potential oil and gas reservoirs. A sand-count deter-
mination of the total effective thickness of a permeable Correlation
section, excluding shale streaks and other impermeable The process of correlating two (or more) logs in different
zones, can be derived from electrical logs. wells depends essentially on the similarity in shapes or
outlines of the curves (Fig. 49.35). In some regions such
Fresh Muds. The SP and microresistivity devices are correlations may be easily made for wells miles apart; in
the principle curves for locating and defining permeable other cases (where serious faulting, lenticular deposits,
beds. The SP has a good resolving power in formations or unconformities are present) it may be difficult to cor-
of low and moderate resistivity. In very resistive forma- relate logs from wells only a few hundred feet apart. The
tions it can still detect shales and permeable beds, but it knowledge of formation dip from dipmeter determina-
cannot define their boundaries accurately. In most types tions assists in correlation.
of formations the ML is best for establishing the detailed Correlations are facilitated when the curves show
location of the boundaries of permeable beds. characteristic “markers” such as a well-known chalk or
The microcaliper helps in the location of permeable shale section. Thin resistive beds such as lignites or
beds because it can usually detect the mudcakes. par- evaporites frequently furnish valuable correlation points.
ticularly if the adjacent formations are approximately at For long-range correlation, the devices that investigate
bit size. Shales, on the other hand, generally tend to cave large volumes of formation are best. However, when the
characteristics are approximately constant, which is not

always the case, however.
Still another approach often used in hard formations is
based on the value of Ri, the average resistivity of the in-
vaded zone estimated from the readings of the limestone
sonde or the short normal.25,26 This procedure has
proved valuable in many cases.
Other Tools for Obtaining Porosity. The sonic log, the

neutron log, and the density log are increasing in impor-
tance as auxiliaries to the electrical logs for improved
porosity determination.* In addition, with the present
sample taker, reliable determination of formation factor
and porosity are often possible from sidewall cores.
Investigation of Fluid Content

Quite often good qualitative judgments about a forma-
Fig. 49.35-Example of long-distance correlation. tion as a potential producing zone can be had by direct
visual inspection of the log. Basically such judgments
usually depend on (1) identification of a permeable for-
pay zones are known in a field, they can be correlated in mation by means of the SP, mudcake indications on
great detail from well to well by comparing the ML or microcaliper, positive separation on ML, indication of
MLL; thus, the geometry of the reservoir can be invasion by separation between shallow- and deep-
obtained. investigation macmresistivity curves, etc., and (2) in-
dication by the deep-investigation resistivity devices that
Investigation of Porosity R, in the permeable formation is appreciably larger than
Evaluation of formation porosity from electrical logs is the resistivity, Ro, that the formation would be expected
to have if water bearing.
based on determination of the formation factor, FR,
When it can be assumed that there is no abrupt change
which is related to porosity, 4, by Eq. 2. FR can be
found from the value of R,, as determined from the ML in the salinity of the formation waters, the radius of inva-
sion, etc., qualitative evaluations of saturation may be
or MLL with Eq. 6 rewritten as
made by comparing a porosity log with a resistivity log
R over a large enough section of formations. Such a
FR=- Rx* (S,)2, .. .... (14) method, in which the neutron log was the source of the
mf porosity data, was proposed several years ago.27 Also,
the possibility of accurate measurements of porosity with
where S,, = 1 -S,, . the sonic and density logs has mmpted similar
To determine R, from microresistivity measurc- qualitative interpretation procedures. 29
merits, it is necessary that invasion be deep enough that When invasion is not too deep, so that the deep-
the measurements are not affected by the formation investigation resistivity devices read fairly close to R,,
resistivities beyond the flushed zone. An exceedingly the following procedures are applicable.
great mudcake thickness may also limit the accuracy of 1. Sonic** transit time may be plotted vs. a deep IL
the R, determination. For reliable porosity interpreta- resistivity (in case of fresh muds) or vs. the LLD
tion from ML data the porosity should be greater than resistivity (in case of salty muds). 29 By a proper choice
about 12 to 15%. of scales, lines of constant resistivity index, I,, become
In an oil-bearing sand, the residual oil saturation straight lines on the chart, as in Fig. 49.36. The line of
(ROS) must be surmised for use in Eq. 14. Taking a 100% water saturation (ZR= 1) is constructed as the line
value of 20% for the ROS would not usually entail too bounding the leftmost plotted points and passing through
great an error in most cases, at least in formations with the point corresponding to infinite resistivity and zero
granular porosity and containing light oils. Greater sonic log porosity. Lines for other values of iR may then
ROS’s are frequent, however, chiefly in the cases of be constructed. It is possible to distinguish between oil-
highly viscous oil. Gas-bearing formations also seem to or gas-bearing and water-bearing zones by the relative
display high residual gas saturations in the flushed zone positions of the plotted points. For a zone to be oil- or
if the permeability is high. This is because of segregation gas-productive the plotted point should fall appreciably
effects resulting from a combination of gravity and to the right of and below the line of 100% saturation.
capillary forces. Because of these residual saturations, This method is useful even if the formation-water
the ML may show water contacts. resistivity is not initially well known.
To check the results of the microresistivity devices, or
2. By use of porosity derived from the sonic or neutron
to replace them in case they are not available, FR may be
log and the resistivity from the deep-investigation log,
determined as equal to RoIR,, R. being the true
apparent values of the formation-water resistivity
resistivity of the formation at a level where it is 100%
water bearing. Extrapolation of a value of FR determined ‘The shon-interval sonic velocity log (Sony log) IS discussed I” Chap. 50. The
neutron lag IS dlscusssd ln Chap. 51.
at a water-bearing level to the oil-bearing section within “With some precautons. den%ty or newon data may be employed I” place 01 90~
the same formation implies that the lithological data in a similar crossplot technique
R, =R,IFR may be computed (using Eqs. 2 or 3 to ob-

tain FR). When tabulated in terms of depth, those ap-
parent values that stand definitely above the average
trend indicate the presence of hydrocarbon saturation.
This procedure is rapid and applicable in shaly sands. It
is also applicable when formation-water salinity varies
appreciably with depth, provided that the variation is
gradual and continuous.
3. The readings of a short-investigation resistivity log
should give indications of the variations in the formation
factor (and porosity). Accordingly, hydrocarbon satum-
tion can also be qualitatively determined by examining
the ratios of the readings of a short-investigation device
(such as a short normal, LLS, or PL) to those of the deep
induction log (IM) or LLD. The two sets of readings
may be used to locate points on a graphic plot, as SONIC LOG TRANSIT TIME. u SECFT
SONC LOG POROSITY
described previously, or to construct a continuous curve (TAKING YM*,R,X’ 21.000 FT/SEC)
of the ratio vs. depth. In either case the comparison is
facilitated if the logs have been recorded on a -37k-+-
logarithmic sensitivity scale. F,(FOR rn: 2 1
The following procedure is helpful when, because of
deep invasion, the value of the true resistivity is in Fig. 49.36--Qualitative method for dif-
doubt. The porosity from the sonic log is compared with ferentiating water-bearing
and oil- or gas-bearing
the porosity computed from a shallow-investigation
zones by plotting deep-
resistivity log (such as short normal, limestone sonde, investigation resistivity
LLS or PL). The latter porosity is affected by any values against sonic-log
residual oil saturation, whereas the sonic log porosity is transit times. The ordinate
not. Zones where the two porosities differ should ac- scale is proportional to
(l/R)“.
cordingly indicate potentially productive formations.
Also, in hard formations (where permeability is
generally low) a resistivity gradient (corresponding to a
saturation gradient) is observed on the logs between the
zone of lowest water saturation and the level of 100% Determination of Rt. Conventional resistivity logs can
water saturation. The existence of this gradient is the provide for the value of R, only for thick beds, since the
basis of a method for the delineation of intervals readings in general cannot be reasonably corrected for
saturated with hydrocarbons. 3o the effect of adjacent formations. The long lateral,
because of its large radius of investigation, is practically
Quantitative Interpretation* unaffected by the mud column and the invaded zone and
Quantitative determinations of the hydrocarbgn satura- gives a good approximation of R, when the beds are
tion from electrical logs are essentially determinations of reasonably uniform over a thickness of at least 30 ft.
the water saturation, S,, in the uncontaminated zone. Such favorable conditions are seldom met in practice.
Recalling Eq. 5 The long-normal reading usually requires a correction
for the borehole effect. This correction is sufficiently ac-
curate in fresh mud. The reading is close to R, when the
bed thickness is at least 10 to 15 ft and invasion is
shallow. The effect of deep invasion can be accounted
for, to some extent, by means of departure curves. 31,32
Correction for invasion requires the help of other devices
with shorter radii of investigation (ML and/or short nor-
The evaluation of R, is a major step in the determina-
mal), which provide values of the invaded-zone
tion. Evaluation of FR is equivalent to an evaluation of
resistivity.
porosity, as already discussed. R. may be determined in
The advantage of the ILD and the LLD is that under
a 100% water-saturated section of the same sand or in a
usual conditions of application their readings are practi-
lithologically similar sand.
cally unaffected by the mud column or by the adjacent
Some interpretation procedures do not require explicit
formations for bed thicknesses greater than about 5 to 6 ft.
evaluation of R, and FR . Along with a knowledge of the
SSP, or equivalently the ratio R&R,, they are based on The ILd, with the present technique, is appropriate for
logging in fresh mud. Its accuracy is excellent for forma-
the ratios of readings taken with deep- and shallow-
investigation devices [e.g., R,,IR, method, induction- tions reading up to 50 0-m and reasonable up to 200
electrical log (IEL) interpretation, Rocky Mountain n-m. Above that figure the accuracy is not so good. The
method]. A special approach is applied in case of shaly ILd gives R, when the invasion diameter does not exceed
25 to 40 in. and can be corrected for deep invasion. The
formations.
auxiliary readings are the ML and/or the short normal, or
‘Only ~omp~tatmns that can be made by hand wll be studled here Latest ~nterpreta-
better, the LL8 or SFL, particularly in case of con-
ban techniques ate made by computers and are explalned under The Digital Age. solidated formations.
The LL is the essential tool for the logging of hard for- SATURATION DETERMINATION
mations in salty mud. It gives R, for shallow invasion
(d; less than 15 to 25 in.). Correction for invasion is
made with the help of the MLL or MSFL. The most effi-
cient way to correct for invasion and thus obtain R, is the
use of a three-log combination: (1) DIL or dual induc-
tion/SFL in fresh muds and in soft and intermediate for-
mations and (2) dual laterolog/R, in hard formations or
salty muds. The so-called “butterfly or tornado charts”
in Ref. 2 provide a simple procedure to ob-
Rwc
tain R,.
Maximum Producible Oil Index

If the porosity, 4, of a formation is uniform and in-
tergranular, the quantities S,4 and S,$ represent the
amounts of water per unit of bulk volume present in the
pores of the flushed and uncontaminated zones, respec-
tively. The difference Y=(S,, -S,)+ is the amount of
oil per bulk volume displaced by the mud filtrate. Y is
called “maximum producible oil index” because it ap-
proximates the maximum amount of oil per bulk volume
producible with water drive. Y is given approximately by
the equation 29 Fig. 49.37-Interpretation chart for RJR, and shaly-sand
methods. (Working lines illustrate example of
Fig. 49.38).
Y=@ lh-(-+) %.. .......(15)
treme cases shaly oil sands are hardly differentiated from
Evaluation of Y by this equation does not require a direct
the adjacent shales on the logs. Furthermore, the ML
knowledge of porosity, 4, formation saturation, S,, or
does not show much separation between the curves. In-
flushed-zone saturation, S,, (or ROS).
terpretations in shaly sands, therefore, are generally
made under comparatively unfavorable conditions. The
Ratio Methods
practical method of interpretation described hereafter is
It is impossible, in the space available, to present all log- quite approximate and is applicable only when the
interpretation techniques or to present all charts and amount of shaliness is not too great.*
tabulations made up thereof. For the practicing log inter- The practical method of interpretation in shaly forma-
preter most of the charts needed are included in Ref. 2. tions33 is based on the observations made on field logs
that in 100% water-saturated shaly sands the PSP
The R,IR, Method. For clean formations, saturations (pseudostatic SP) is given by
can be computed from the empirical relationship found
by combinations Eqs. 5 and 6, R
Epsp=-Kc log?, _. (17)
‘A. ...
sw=sxo(~.~) .. . .. (16) Ro
For an interlaminated sand-shale formation containing
Any method which gives correct values for R,, , R,, oil and/or gas, the PSP can be expressed by the equation
R mfi and R, may be used to determine S,, provided S,,
R
is known or can be reasonably surmised. E PSP=-Kr. logf-201srK,. lo+, .
The chart of Fig. 49.37 provides a convenient way for , 1,
solving Eq. 16. The ratio R&R,* is entered in abscissas
(upper scale) and the ratio RIO/R, in ordinates. From the where asp is the SP reduction factor and is defined as
point so plotted, an oblique line is extended up to its in- Epp/E~p. For clean sands, asp = 1 and Eq. 18 reduces
tersection with the edge of the chart; from this intersec- to Eq. 17 as a special case.
tion, a horizontal line is drawn which gives the values of According to Eq. 18 the determination of S,,, in a shaly
S, for different values of S,, . sand requires the knowledge of R,, , S,, , R,, E,, and
The value of S, found directly by interpolation be- ESSP. The Essp can be determined from clean sands
tween the two nearby oblique lines is based on the reasonably close to the shaly formations considered. The
assumption that S,, , on the average, is related to 5, Epsp is given by the deflection of the SP curve at the
through the empirical equation S,, = a,. Within the level of the bed, after correction for bed thickness, if
limits where R ,+ = R,, (i.e., R, between 0.08 and 0.3 necessary. The value of S,,, =l -S,,, again must be
O-m at 75”F), the Essp can be entered, instead of surmised.
R&R,, using the lower grid. The solution of the equation for S,,. is given by Fig.
49.37, which applies to both clean and shaly formations.
Microlog Shaly-Sand Method. The amplitudes of both For a shaly sand, the PSP and R,,/R, are first entered in
the SP deflection and the resistivities are reduced by the abscissa and ordinate, respectively. This gives us the ap-
presence of interstitial shale in a formation. In some ex- ‘Sane other shaly-sand references are Refs. 8 and 9.
__- .___L__._.._
Fig. 49.38-Shaly-sand example: induction-electrical survey and microlog-microcaliper

survey in well on Louisiana Gulf Coast. I?, = 1.45, R,, = 1.2, and R,, = 1.3 at
BHT (14OOF). d= 83/i in.
parent saturation. To find the true saturation, a line is be interpreted. The mud resistivity at formation
drawn through the origin (circled), and the point temperature of 140°F is 1.45 Q-m, R,, = 1.3 Q-m, and
representing the apparent saturation; and this line is ex- R,,,,= 1.2 9-m at 140°F. Bit size is 8% in.
tended until it intercepts the Essp or the corresponding From the IEL, the Epsp is -55 mV. The Essp (sand
value of R,fIR,. The saturation at this point is treated in at 7,830 to 7,850 ft) is - 130 mV. Thus cusp is 0.42. The
the same manner as in the R,,IR, method above. short-normal resistivity R 16 is 2.2 n-m, and the
If the Essp is not known and R,%,is unobtainable, it is induction-log resistivity R,L is 1.9 B-m. Invasion is
not possible to determine the water saturation, S,,.. known to be quite shallow, as further substantiated by
Nevertheless, plotting the ratio R,,IR, vs. PSP on Fig. the readings of the microlog. Therefore R,L may be
49.37 will show whether or not the sand falls on the taken as equal to R,.
100% water-saturation line. If it falls some distance As shown by the positive separation on the ML, three
below this line, there is a chance for production. distinct porous intervals, A, B, and C, appear between
Note that in sand-shale laminations the value of S,,, is 8,046 and 8,054 ft. The values of R,, and h,, for each
the water saturation of the sand itself. In sands contain- interval are found by use of Fig. 49.31. Thus, for Inter-
ing disseminated shale, it is the water bound by the val A R,, is 4.0, for Interval B it is 5.6, and for Interval
quartz grains and does not include the water held by the C it is 6.8. The average R,, is 5.5, and for all three inter-
colloids. vals the mudcake thickness is % in. Note that the
Example Problem 1. Fig. 49.38 shows the IEL and microcaliper indicates a hole diameter of 7 3/4in., exactly
the ML over a portion of a well in Jefferson Davis 1 in. smaller than bit size, corresponding to a %-in.
Parish, LA. The shaly sand from 8,046 to 8,054 ft will mudcake, thus verifying the h,, values from Fig. 49.3 1.
!jFF 40” INDUCTlOrJ - 16”NORMAL

SATURATION DETERMINATION
THICK BEDS OF LOW AND MEDIUM RESISTI

I I , I
IO’ 2 3 4 5 6jBYlO
9 _ INTERPRET ONLY
B ~. SHOWN PERMEAbu
BY MICROLOG
7 _
6 --
BO NOT. USE
~~~ WHEN
R,,/R,<~ FOR d, = 3d,
-4
\ -
3
q
* SCALES ~APPROXIMAT
K,=
70
80
90
100
NOTE NON lN;ADED WATER SANDS OF LOW RESISTIVITY WILL GIVE

THEY ARE USUALLY RECOGNIZED BY NEGATIVE SEPARATION
ON MICROLOG. IN ANY CASE NO OIL HAS BEEN FOUND BELOW
0 7 OHM
Fig. 49.39-40-in. induction log, l&in. normal interpretation chart. (Working lines il-
lustrate example of Fig. 49.40.)
All necessary data are now at hand: normal reading must not be perturbed by the presence of
R x0 = 5.5 D-m resistive streaks.
R,(=R,L) = 1.9 n-m The chart incorporates approximate compensation for
the presence of an annulus, assuming equal viscosities
E PSP = -55 mV
for the oil and water and an S,, in the flushed zone of 15
E SSP = - 130 mV
to 30%. To use the chart the value of the ratio R~~IRIL
asp = 0.42 (resistivity fmm 16-in. normal divided by the IL
K, = (for the SP) at 140°F is close to 79 resistivity), corrected, if necessary, for effect of
R,r,IR, = 2.9, and borehole and adjacent formations, is plotted either vs.
R.,,,lR,,,f = 4.6 the SSP (lower grid) entered opposite the appropriate for-
mation temperature or vs. R,fIR, (upper scale).
Fig. 49.37 is entered with R,,IR, =2.9 and PSP= -55 Points falling within the shaded area correspond to
at K, =79, locating a point on the chart. Then a line is water-bearing sands. Points falling below the shaded
drawn through this point from the origin and extended area correspond to oil saturation. Approximate saturation
until it intersects the vertical line erected at Essp = - 130 scales are provided for dj values of 3dh and 5dh. The
mV for K, =79. This intersection gives a value of S, dashed lines represent lines of equal saturation on the
equal to 43 %, assuming that S,, is 15%, which is chart. The critical saturation corresponds to S,U=60% in
reasonable. The sand was perforated from 8,046 to soft formations and 50% in consolidated sandstones.
8,050 ft and made 75 BOPD and 280,000 cu ft/D gas These may not be the correct critical saturations for
through a 7/64-in. choke. many limestones.
For shaly formations a construction like that used in
IEL Interpretation Method. A chart for practical inter- the shaly-sand method can be used in Fig. 49.39.
pretation of fluid saturation from the readings of the IEL Although not rigorously correct, this procedure should
combination is shown in Fig. 49.39, Ref. 2. The condi- give acceptable results if the shaliness is not too great.
tions limiting valid use of the chart are: (1) the invasion Since it is not always known beforehand whether the
diameter di must be between 2dh and 1Odh (dh is the interpretation chart (Fig. 49.39) is within its limits of ap-
hole diameter), (2) R,, must be greater than R,, which is plicability, it is useful to employ the value of porosity or
generally fulfilled if R,,fIR, is greater than three to live, formation factor, when known from independent
as for fresh muds and saline formation waters, and (3) sources, to check the results by means of Eq. 5. Details
the beds must be fairly homogeneous-i.e., the short- of this “porosity balance” check are given in Ref. 34.
Fig. 49.40-Induction-electrical log and microlog-microcaliper log on a well in Young Coun-

ty, TX. I?,,, = 0.95 and R ,,,, = 0.61 at BHT (117OF). d= 7% in.
Example Problem 2. Fig. 49.40 shows part of the normal readings should be at least 10 times the mud
induction-electrical log and ML on a well in Young resistivity. Only average values, over thick intervals, can
County, TX. The sand at the bottom of the figure is divid- be obtained with this method.
ed into two parts, A and B, by a thin, hard streak, as
shown on the ML. A and B will be interpreted separate-
ly. Necessary well data are R, =0.95 and R,,lf=0.61, at FRRwi
Ri= F, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (19)
BHT of 117°F; hole diameter, d,, , is 7% in.
Interval A. From the induction-electrical log, where:
RIL=17.5 R-m, R16=32.5 R-m, SP=-95 mV, and 1. R,i is the resistivity of the water found in the invad-
BHT is 117°F. Applying Fig. 49.39, the ratio ed zone. It is usually made up of filtrate and interstitial
R,6IR1~=32.5/17.5=1.85. The SP is -95 mV, so (connate) water mixed in such proportion that
the point is fixed on the chart, giving an average S, of
about 30 % .
Interval B. Here the RIL=26.0 R-m and R16=37.0 -=-+ (1-fw) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 fw -,
(20)
n-m. R161RIL=37.0/26.0=1.42. The SP is -90 mV at Rwi Rw Rnzf
117°F. This fixes a point on Fig. 49.39, which gives a
value of S, of about 25 % . Drillstem tests on the two in- wheref, is the fraction of interstitial (connate) water in
tervals showed that the sand contained gas and distillate, the total mixture (usually 5 to 10%).
with a higher flowing pressure over Interval B. 2. Si is the water saturation in the invaded zone. It has
been found by experience that Si * =S,; so
Rocky Mountain Method. The Rocky Mountain Ri=FR,ISw. Inasmuch as R,=FR~IS,*, we obtain
method*’ was developed for the interpretation of con- S,=(RiIR,)t(RwiIR,).
ventional electrical logs to yield values of S, and 4 in Since R,IRwi =f,+(l -f,)R,/R,,,f, it follows that
invaded, clean, hard formations when they are suffi- R,iIR, is a function of the SP value. The upper part of
ciently thick and homogeneous. It is necessary that the Fig. 49.41 gives a graphical solution of the equation for
invasion be such that the average resistivities recorded S,. The SP is entered in ordinate and the ratio RiIR, on
by the short normal and the lateral (when corrected for oblique lines. The intersection gives the abscissa S,.
borehole effect) approximate the average values of Rj The lower part of the chart is used to obtain the porosi-
ami R,, respectively. For this to be true, the short- ty by using the water saturation, S,, just found, with the
dipole moment is made up of one or more effects: elec-

tronic, ionic, interfacial, and dipolar. Since each of these
dominates over a certain range of the electromagnetic
spectrum, they can be separated experimentally. *
The electronic contribution results from the displace-
ment of electron clouds, and is the only one that operates
at optical frequencies. The ionic and interfacial contribu-
tions come from displacement and movement of ions,
hence arc confined to low frequencies. The dipolar con-
tribution is from permanent electric dipoles, which orient
themselves in the direction of an applied electric field.
With the exception of water, there are very few materials
abundantly found in nature that have permanent electric
dipoles. A borehole dielectric measurement in the
109-Hz frequency region, where the dipole polarization
of water dominates, should lead to a measurement of
water content that is independent of salinity.
Table 49.3 gives laboratory-measured values of propa-
gation time and dielectric permittivity (relative to air) of
typical reservoir materials.
Tool. The tools now in the field carry two transmitters

and two receivers on a wall-contact pad, configured as
shown in Figs. 49.42 and 49.43. These transmitters and
Fig. 49.41-Interpretation chart for receivers must be antennas to operate as they do in the
Rocky Mountain method. microwave frequency range. The tool uses a differential
measurement based on the signals detected by near and
far receivers, similar in principle to the widely used
method of measuring At with a two-receiver sonic tool.
value of R,IR,. The intersection falls on or between In a similar manner, the two receivers produce cancella-
oblique lines that are graduated into porosity values, action of any effects caused by mudcake or variations in
cording to the Humble formula, Eq. 2. This method signal coupling (so long as both receivers are affected
should not be used in salt muds. equally).
To reduce any error caused by sonde tilt, the EPT uses
Electromagnetic Propagation Tool an antenna configuration similar to the transducer array
Principle. The EPT’” (electromagnetic propagation used in a borehole-compensated sonic tool. Transmitting
too13’) measures the travel time and attenuation rate of antennas are placed above and below the receiver pair
an electromagnetic wave through the formation near the and are pulsed alternately. Simple geometric considera-
borehole. In addition, a caliper and a ML can also be tions show that if these two transmission modes arc
recorded. The tool can be combined with the gamma ray, averaged, the first-order effects of pad tilt will be
neutron, or density instruments. eliminated.
The propagation time of water differs sharply from The basic principle of the tool involves a surface or
those of gas, oil, or matrix rock and is, moreover, little lateral electromagnetic wave launched along the surface
affected by the salinity of the water. This tool permits the of a conducting pad. In the absence of mudcake, the
evaluation of water saturation that is relatively indepen- electromagnetic wave would move along the pad face
dent of water resistivity (salinity) and, in fact, is most ac- past two receiving antennas, but in the normal borehole
curate in the fresher waters. case with mudcake present, propagation takes place on
Dielectric permittivity is one of the main factors deter- the surface between mudcake and formation. The phase
mining electromagnetic propagation in a material. shift and attenuation per unit distance along the surface
Dielectric permittivity of any medium is proportional to of the pad are proportional to E and C (as shown in
the electric dipole moment per unit volume. The electric theory) for a plane wave.
It has been demonstrated both theoretically and ex-
perimentally that for mud cakes up to % in. the travel
TABLE 49.3-ELECTROMAGNETIC time measured by the EPT is essentially the same as the
PROPAGATION VALUES travel time in the invaded zone without any mud cake.
Relative Dielectric Loss-Free Above such thickness the measurement deteriorates
Permittivity, Propagation Time, rapidly until the tool responds only to the mud. Limited
t,, experience with air- and oil-based mud-filled tools in-
Gas or air 1.o 3.3 dicates that even very thin layers of these fluids between
Oil 2.2 4.9 the pad and the formation cause the tool to respond only
Water 56-60 25-30 to the fluid and not the formation. This is because of the
Quartz 4.7 7.2
Limestone 7.5 9.1 short travel time of these fluids. The tool contains a
Dolomite 6.9 6.7 1 .l-GHz microwave transceiver. The transmitter is
Anhydrite 6.5 6.4 capable of generating more than 2 W of output power
while the receiver can process a 0.3 pico watt (pW)

signal. This allows accurate measurements in formations
when R, approaches 0.3 a-m.
Theory. Assuming a plane wave varying sinusoidally in

time, the electric field, E, at the second receiver is given
by
E=E,,e -‘YL+bJt> .......................... (21)
where E, is the electric field at the first receiver; L is the

distance between the two receivers; j is the vectorial
operator fi ; o is the angular frequency; t is the time
of travel of the waves over a distance L in the formation;
and y is the complex propagation factor given by
y=cY+jp, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(22)
where CY is the attenuation factor (coefficient) in

neper/m, and /3 is the phase factor in rad/m.
For a “lossless” formation,* or=O. From Eq. 21, the
phase velocity vPO is given by
CdL 1
-=- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (23)
Vpo=t= Yo tPo
where the subscript o indicates loss-free conditions and

tpo is the loss-free propagation time of a given medium
in ns/m.
From Maxwell’s equations, it can be shown that
y. =jw& =jwtpo, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (24)
where µ is the magnetic permeability (H/m). Since most

formations of interest are nonmagnetic, µ of the forma-
tion is the same as that of free space (µO =47rX 10-7
H/m), and E is the dielectric permittivity (F/m). When Fig. 49.42—Schematic of EPT antenna
the formation is lossy, y and E are complex. pad, showing principle of
2-receiver measurement of
*Formation with no electromagnetic energy losses transit time.
Fig. 49.43—The EPT antenna pad.

Squaring Eq. 22 and Eq. 24 and equating the real and The loss-free propagation time of matrix, tpm, is in-
imaginary terms, we have dicated on Table 49.2. The nature of the matrix can be
determined by the knowledge of the apparent matrix den-
w2/.Loc=p2 -a?, ..... . . .. .. . (25) sity and interpolating between lithology density values.
The water saturation S,, is given by
and
wp,C=2aUp, ... .... (26) +(l -Sxo)4tph f(1 -+p,,
tpo= Sxo4tpwo . . (31)
where C is the equivalent conductivity (a/m) of the or

losses in the formation. Dividing Eq. 25 by w2,
tpo -tpm +d’(tpm -tph)
s.w = 4(tp,, _ tph) , ... . . . . (32)
p2 a2
Poe=--- w2 ,2 . . . . . . . I.. . . . . . . .
where tph is the propagation time for hydrocarbon and 4
is the porosity of the formation. Since tpm and tph are
From Eq. 24, 40~=tpo2. Since filw=t,l is the travel
fairly close, we can estimate S,, roughly as
time in the lossy medium,
2-
a2
I?--* w2 .
S,= !-. . . . . .... .... .. .(33)
tpo - tp1 .. . ..... ... .. . (28) 4
Example Problem 3. Fig. 49.44 is an example of the
Remembering that 01is the attenuation factor, Eq. 28 im- log presentation currently in use. Track 1 contains a con-
plies that the actual propagation time in a conductive for- ventional caliper curve, taken from the motion of the
mation is longer than that of a corresponding loss-free backup pad, and the attenuation curve, scaled in dB/m.
formation. If the propagation wave is not a plane wave, Tracks 2 and 3 are given to the principal measurement,
suitable spreading-loss corrections to the measured at- travel time (tp/), in ns/m. Track 3 also presents the signal
tenuation (A,,,) are made before Eq. 28 is applied. Thus levels from the two receivers. The chief use of these
the corrected attenuation A,. =Aiog -G,Y (dB/m) where curves is to monitor the primary signal detection at the
G,, is the geometrical spreading loss and AI,,~ the re- receivers, which provides an indication of the relative
corded attenuation in dB/m. G,? is about 50 dB/m in air reliability of the log parameters at any level.
or G,f =45.0+ 1.3r,/ +O. 18r,/. Here tp/ is the recorded A self-evident and very real advantage may be inferred
travel time in ns/m. from the 4-cm spacing between receivers; the tool has
excellent vertical resolution. The log of Fig. 49.44 ac-
Interpretation. The range of travel time encountered in tually looks overactive in spots, but its repeatability
the borehole in common reservoir rock varies from 6.3 testifies that the recording is valid. In fact, the data
ns/m for a 40-pu sandstone filled with hydrocarbons to recorded by the tool are too detailed for direct merging
17.2 ns/m for a 40-pu water-filled limestone. In terms of with other logs by means of computer. Averaging
phase shift, this corresponds to angles between 100 and (smoothing) subroutines are thus required preliminaries
270” when computed over a 4-cm receiver spacing. for programs using EPT data.
The EPT log responds primarily to the bulk volume of Example Problem 4. Fig. 49.45 shows an ISF log and
water in the formation. Since the tool has a relatively the porosity computed from density. neutron, and EPT
shallow depth of investigation-about 1 to 6 in. depend- logs. Zone A is obviously gas bearing, as evidenced by
ing on the conductivity-it normally responds to the the neutron porosity reading much less than the density.
flushed zone of an invaded section. The EPT porosity is a little higher than the neutron
Eq. 28 can be transformed into porosity and much less than the density porosity, confir-
ming the presence of hydrocarbons.
tpo= (tJ-&) lh . .... .... . . . . (29) Zone B exhibits a different porosity profile. Once
again the neutron porosity is less than the density porosi-
ty, indicating the presence of some light hydrocarbons,
The apparent water-filled porosity (dEPT) can be derived
but now the EPT porosity is less than both neutron and
in a way similar to the derivation of the porosity from
density pomsities. Since the total porosity from neutron
sonic At. Thus
and density logs is roughly
tpo- tpm
4 EPT = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (30) $N+~D
tpwo
- tpm 4=-,
2
tpwo, the loss-free propagation time of water, varies with
and the hydrocarbon volume is
the temperature and slightly with pressure and can be ob-
tained as
the volume of hydrocarbons affecting the three porosity
tools is about the same for Zones A and B as determined
from the EPT data. However, there is a much stronger
where T is the temperature. “F. Knowledge of water light hydrocarbon effect on the neutron and density logs
salinity is not required to obtain r,,,,.,,. in Zone A. Thus, it would be expected that Zone B con-
*a I” neperlm and A ,~~ IS dWm Smce 3 neper = 6.666 dB, A ,og =6.66&t tains more condensate or oil than Zone A.
Attenuation, Travel Time,Jt,l 1, nsec/m

dB/m
3 5oc
5n Caliper l5l
-----------w---.
c-
e3
-
-
i
Fig. 49.44-An unaveraged EPT log shows fine detail. Repeat sections (faint curves) of the attenuation
and t,, curves show excellent repeatability.
Zone C appears to contain some residual hydrocar-

GAMMA RAY
I bons, since the EPT porosity is often slightly less than
1
the neutron and density porosities. There is a little more
0
hydrocarbon in the shalier bottom part of Zone C than in
60
_---- +40 ~1~0 “6--w----------- the cleaner top portion.
CALIPER t cb EPT SAND
0
The very top of Zone D contains oil since the EPT
________ !F:
measurement is much lower than the neutron and density
porosities, which read about the same. Water-bearing
zones are identified when the EPT porosity is about the
same or higher than the neutron and density porosity.
Thus, Zone E is clearly water bearing, as is the bottom
of Zones B and D.
Machine programs are available to give complete
quantitative interpretation of all these logs. This is
especially important in the study of tar sands or crude
oils where the hydrocarbon is not flushed by the mud
filtrate and where S,, is very near S, . These studies arc
also of great interest to provide values of residual oil
saturations.
The Digital Age

I--- Before 1960, all logs were recorded in analog form on
film or paper. Magnetic tape recording was introduced in
1960 to record dipmeter. Shortly thereafter, various
other logs were also recorded on tape, thus permitting
the use of computers for various purposes. Before long,
computers were made an intrinsic part of the recording
systems on the logging trucks. This has revolutionized
the capacity for data acquisition at the wellsite. At the
same time, many computer-processed products have
Fig. 49.45-ISF and EPTICNLIFDC logs.
become available in real time or only a short time after
logging is completed at the wellsite.
TABLE 49.4-WELLSITE ANALYSIS AVAILABLE IN REAL TIME
Generic Name Derivation Log Input Required Presentation Schlumberger Gearhart Dresser Welex
______
R...” Assumes all formations contain 100% water. Simultaneous Sinale curve in R,,, R wa R wa R *a
Computes apparent R w, R wa = R ,/F resistivity and Track 1 on .._
porosity. Usually logarithmic
sonic and scale.
inductlon
Uses deep resistivity and shallow focused Simultaneous deep Single curve in R,IRt
resistivity to estimate RJR, ratio. resistivity and Track 1
shallow focused compatibly
n=sistivity scaled as a
pseudo SP
curve.
“F” overlay or Derives F from a porosity curve that IS played Deep resistivity Single dashed R, Ro “F” curve “F” Curve
“Ro ” onto logarithmic resistivity as R,. and porostty curve in
overlay Tracks 2 and
3 on
logarithmic
scale.
Compatible Any combination of porosity logs with same Simultaneous Coded curves in Compatible Compatible Compatible Compatible
porosity lithology assumptions to compute porosity. porosity logs Tracks 2 and porosity porosity porosity porosity
scales 3 with gamma scales scales scales scales
ray and
caliper in
Track 1.
Hole volume Uses caliper logs to compute hole volume for Caliper curve- Pips or tic Borehole Borehole Borehole Borehole
cement calculation. preferably 2 marks in volume volume volume volume
curves at 90° depth column
such as 4.arm at every 10 cu
dipmeter ftand 1OOcu
ft
Fracture Uses differences in adjacent pad readings &arm dipmeter Adjacent pad Fracture Fracture Fracture Dipmeter
locating log from 4-arm dipmeter to infer fractures. readings are identification detector locahon fracture
superimposed 109 log @I 109
and any
separation is
coded.
TABLE 49.5-WELLSITE ANALYSIS AVAILABLE IN REPLAY” TIME
Generic Name Derivation Log Input Requrred Presentation Schlumberger Gearhart Dresser Welex
Merged and Replays all logs, shifts depths and makes Any logs run on Usually 3 to 5 Cyberlook cross-plot Prolog Computer
depth shifted sample calculattans such as R,,, R xo, tape. tracks. Varies Pass 1 (x-plot) Van
data R,/Rr, compatible porosity scales or by service
cross plot porosities. company,
diplays only
log data.
Wellsite Uses all logs to provide a first order Resistivity and Usually 3 or 4 Cyberlook Well Prolog CAL
evaluation log computer analysis. porosity tracks. Has evaluation
reservoir data log
derived from
log data.
Formation dip Computes formatron dtp from 4-arm 4-arm dipmeter Formation dip, Cyberdip FED DDL Pro-Dip
computations dipmeter hole deviation,
calipers.
True vertical Computes lVD of any point from dipmeter Contmuous Replay of any TVD TVD TVD
depth log orientation data dipmeter plus log on TVD
any log to be scale
converted lo
TVD
‘All logs available in real time are also avarIable in replay time If recorded on magnetic tape
Without any doubt, the digital age is responsible for 1. Real-time “quick-look” products, summarized in
the creation of new equipment deemed impossible Table 49.4, run at the same time the log is being run.
before. Many interpretation techniques and studies today Many of these curves, such as R, and F curves, are
could not be made without the use of computers. Finally, recorded on the standard logs and are often placed in the
electronic transmission of log data is a present reality, SP or resistivity tracks.
facilitating exchange between wells and offices, towns 2. Wellsite log analysis products, summarized in
and continents. An overview of this vast field is Table 49.5, are generally available at the wellsite in
necessary. replay time. Wellsite analysis is made after the logging is
completed. The process involves playing back taped logs
Magnetic Tapes and using an appropriate log analysis program, such as a
API-recommended standard format permits logging ser- shaly-sand analysis or a dipmeter computation.
vice company tapes to be read by most computers. More 3. Computing center products am provided well after
exhaustive treatment of the subject is available directly the logging is finished (days or weeks later) and are
from the service companies. Quality control of the generally more comprehensive than either of the wellsite
magnetic tape is ensured in real time in integrated log- products. In general, these computations fall into three
ging systems having on-board computers. categories: shaly-sand analysis, complex lithology
study, and dipmeter processing. The most-used products
are summarized in Table 49.6. Other, less frequently
Computed Log Products used products such as tar sand analysis or mechanical
Log analysis performed by a computer is available to the properties are not included; details on these may be ob-
log user at three different levels. tained directly from the service company.
TABLE 49.6-LOG ANALYSIS AVAILABLE FROM COMPANY COMPUTING CENTERS
Generic Name Derivation Log Input Required Presentation Schlumberger Gearhart Dresser Welex
Advanced Uses most sophisticated analytical and Rssistivhy, density, Usually 4 tracks SARABAND Comsand EPILOG CAL
sandstone statistical methods to correct and compute neutron, gamma presentation Sandstone
analysis logs in sandstones and shaly sandstones. ray with sonic of lithology, YOUN “F” Pairs Analysis
desirable saturation,
porosity and
bulk volume.
Advanced Uses most sophisticated analytical and Resistivity, density, Usually 4 tracks COAIBAND Comlith EPILOG CA,
carbonate statistical methods to correct and compute neutron, gamma presentation Complex
analysis logs in carbonate and lithologically complex ray with sonic of lithology, GLOBAl. Frax Reservoir
reservoirs and saturation, Analysis
microresistivity porosity, and
desirable bulk volume.
Advance Uses most advanced correlation logic to *-arm dipmeter Arrow plot with CLUSTER NEXUS Dresser Diplog
dipmeter compute dips followed by a statistical caliper, (structural) and computed analysis
computa- sorting to retain the most reliable data. correlation GEODlP dipmeter
tions curve and (stratigraphic)
hole deviation.
Also available:
azimuth
frequency,
modified
Schmidt plots,
histograms,
and listings.
PASS
ONE
CO#fNSAlED fUHATlCW4
DENTaT mrom
COM?ENSATED
NElJmoN roIosm
Fig. 49.46-CYBERLOOK Pass One log.
An example of wellsite log analysis is the curve. The left half of Track 3 has the water saturation
CvBERLOOK"pmgram, 36 which requires as a minimum and the right half has the porosity and bulk volume free
suite of logs a deep investigation resistivity, water. A differential caliper is presented as a dotted
CNL”-FDC” (compensated neutron/density logs), a curve with bit size in the middle of Track 3. A gas flag
gamma ray, or SP curve. The CYBERLOOK computation appears in the depth track when a large hydrocarbon cor-
is based on the dual-water model and is normally made rection was necessary to obtain the porosity from
in two passes. neutron/density logs.
On the Pass One log (Fig. 49.46), the SP curve is on VOLAP is an example of a complex analysis program
Track 1 with the gamma ray. On Track 2, in four cycles, (Fig. 49.48). It is based on the dual-water model, as is
are found the R, curve, the R, (computed fmm R,), the CYBERLOOK program mentioned previously, but the
and the porosity given by the CNL. Track 3 shows the computations are far more refined and the results more
porosity given by the density, 40, the porosity given by accurate. For a detailed study of the dual-water model,
the neutron, fpN, and a cmssplot porosity computed from see Refs. 37 and 38. The dual water model simply says
‘#‘D ami ‘#‘N. that in a shaly sand, its equivalent formation water con-
On Pass Two log (Fig. 49.47), the Track 1 gives the ductivity is dependent on the relative amount of
shale index, which is the minimum shale index of several “bound” water and “free” water.
shale indicators obtained from the SP curve, the gamma The conductivity of the bound water is found by the
ray, and the maximum and minimum neutron readings. use of the nearby shale resistivity and the total porosity
Track 2 shows R, as a dashed curve and Ro as a solid given by the average of CNL. In a like manner, the free
CYBERLOOK
WIT RESISTWIlY WATER POROWY
owIu Y* Y ,oQ) ,JANRAllON ANALYSJS
GRAIN DtWTY DEEP RENTIVITY 1 (AUPoI (-) M SIZE

-------- v (* ----
640
Fig. 4%47-CYBERLOOK Pass Two log.
water conductivity is found by use of the resistivity of A,. = corrected attenuation of a formation
the clean water sand and its total porosity. In a shaly A log = recorded attenuation of a formation
water sand, the equivalent water conductivity is found in C = equivalent conductivity of losses in the
the same way by using the resistivity of the shaly water formation
sand and its total porosity. Knowing the bound and free C,t = conductivity as given by induction log
water conductivities, it is easy to compute their fractions CT = total conductivity signal
of the total porosity that are necessary to obtain the same
Ci = conductivity of invaded zone
equivalent water conductivity of the shaly water sand.
C, = conductivity of mud
The fractions of bound and free water can be related to
C, = true conductivity of formation
the relative deflections of the gamma ray or SP curve,
etc., thus permitting the use of such calibrations when c x0 = conductivity of flushed zone
analyzing hydrocarbon saturated zones. The analysis is E = electric field
done by using a dispersed-clay-type equation. E,. = total electrochemical EMF
EJ = liquid-junction EMF
Nomenclature EM = shale-membrane EMF
a,,f = chemical activity of mud filtrate Epsp = pseudostatic SP
a,. = chemical activity of formation water Esp = static SP
tllOli
POROSITY PRESENTATION K,. = electrochemical coefficient
m = cementation exponent or factor
n = saturation exponent
R, = apparent resistivity
R = annulus resistivity
i: = corrected resistivity
RIL = induction-log resistivity
RpL = proximity-log resistivity
R, = resistivity of invaded zone
R,,. = resistivity of mudcake
R4 = resistivity of mud filtrate
R, = true formation resistivity
R, = formation-water resistivity
R = equivalent formation-water resistivity
RI = resistivity of the water found in the
invaded zone
R = resistivity of flushed zone
i: = resistivity of a clean (nonshaly) formation
saturated with 100% water
RI,1 = resistivity of 1- X 1-in. microinverse
R2 = resistivity of 2-in. micronormal
R 16 = short-normal resistivity
Si = water saturation in the invaded zone
S,, = residual oil saturation
S, = formation water saturation
S x0 = water saturation in the flushed zone
‘ph = propagation time for hydrocarbon
- + tP/ = travel time in the lossy medium
tPm
= loss-free propagation time of matrix
tPo
= loss-free propagation time
tpwo = loss-free propagation time of water
~ Y= maximum producible oil index
i l
“SP = SP reduction factor
+++
y = complex propagation factor
t = relative dielectric permittivity
p = magnetic permeability
4~ = density porosity
WEPT = electromagnetic propagation tool porosity
$HC = hydrocarbon porosity
1 4~ = neutron porosity
w = angular frequency
Fig. 49.48-High-porosity presentation.
Abbreviations
CNLTM = compensated neutron log
En = electric field at the first receiver DIL = dual induction-laterolog 8
FR = formation resistivity factor EPT = electromagnetic propagation tool
FR,\ = resistivity factor of formation water ES = electrical survey
FR,,, = resistivity factor of water in invaded zone FDC ‘rM= compensated density log
f,,. = fraction of interstitial (connate) water in the ID = deep-reading induction device
total mixture IEL = induction-electrical log
Gi = geometrical factor of invaded zone IES = induction-electrical survey
G,, = geometrical factor of mud IL = induction log
G,j = pseudogeometrical factor of the invaded ILd = deep induction log
zone IM = medium-reading induction device
G,! = geometrical spreading loss ISF = induction spherically-focused log
G, = geometrical factor, true formation LL = laterolog
G,,, = geometrical factor of flushed zone LLD = deep laterolog
iR = resistivity index LLS = shallow laterolog
j = vectorial operator J-l ML = microlog
MLL = microlaterolog 22. Doll, H.G.: “Laterolog-A New Resistivity Loggmg Method
MSFL = shallow MICROSFL with Electrodes Using an Automatic Focusing System,” J. Pet.
Tech. (Nov. 1951) 305-16; Trans., AIME, 192.
PL = proximity log 23. Doll, H.G.: “Micro Log-A New Electrical Logging Method for
SDL = simultaneous dual laterolog Detailed Determinations of Permeable Beds,” J. Pet. Tech. (June
SFL = spherically focused log 1950) 155-64; Trans., AIME, 189.
24. Doll, H.G.: “The MicroLaterolog,” J. Per. Tech. (Jan. 1953)
SSP = static SP 17-32; Trans., AIME, 198.
25. Tixier, M.P.: “Electrical Log Analysis in the Rocky Mountains.”
Oil and Gas J. (June 1949) 48, 143-48.
26. Tixier, M.P.: “Porosity Index in Ltmestone from Electrical
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202-17; Trans., AIME, 192. (Oct. 1952) 17, 790-805.
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EL-1002. Determine Maximum Producible 011 Index in a Formatton.” Oil
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210. b. “Interpretation Charts for Electric Logs and Contact Logs,”
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14. Wyllie, M.R.J.: “Investigatron of Electrokmetic Component of
the Self-Potential Curve,“J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1951) l-18; Truns., Alger, R.P.: “Interpretation of Electrical Logs in Fresh Water Wells in
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216.
18. Doll, H.G.: “SP Log: Theoretical Analysis and Principles of ln- Doll. H.G.: “SP Log in Shaly Sands.” J. Per. Tech. (July 1950)
tetpretation,” J. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1948) 146-85; Truns., AIME, 205514; Trun.~. I AIME, 189.
179.
19. Goudouin, M., Tixier. M.P., and Simard. G.L.: “Experimental Guyed, H.: “Electric Analog of Resistivity Logging,” Grophwics
Study on Influence of Chemical Composition of Electrolytes on (1955) 615-29.
SP Curve,” J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1957) 58-72: Trans., AIME. 210.
20. Doll, H.G.: “Introduction to Induction Logging and Application Guyed. H.: “Electric Log Interpretation,” Oil Week/~ (Dec. 1955).
to Logging of Wells Drilled with Oil-base Mud.” J. Pet. Te&.
(June 1949) 148-62; Truns.. AIME, 186. “Guyed’s Electrical Well Logging,” Bull., Wellex Inc.. A-132.
21. Dumanoir, J.L., Tixier. M.P.. and Martin, M.: “Interpretation of
the Inductton-Electrical Log in Fresh Mud,” J. Pet. Tech. (July “Interpretation Handbook for Resistivity Logs,” Bull., Schlumberger
1957) 202-17: Trans., AIME. 210. Well Surveying Corp. (1949).
Johnson, H.M.: “A History of Well Logging,” Geophysics (1962) Mayer, C. and Sibbit, A.: “Global, A New Approach to Computer
507-27. Processed Log Interpretation,” paper SPE 9341 presented at the
1980 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
Jorden, J.R. and Campbell, F.L.: Well Logging I-Rock Properties, Sept. 21-24.
Borehole Environmenr, Mud and Temperature Logging, Monograph
Series, SPE, Dallas (1984). Millican, M.L., Raymer, L.L., and Alger, R.P.: “Wellsite Record-
ings of the Movable Oil Plot,” paper presented at the 1964 SPWLA
Annual Logging Symposium, Midland, TX, May 13-15.
Keller, G.V.: “Modified Mono-Electrodes for Improved Resistivity
Logging,” Prod. Monthly (July 1950) 14, 13-16. Morris, R.L. and Biggs, W.P.: “Using Log-Derived Values of Water
Saturation and Permeability,” paper presented at the 1967 SPWLA
Kewer, J.K. and Pmkop, C.L.: “Effect of the Presence of Hydmcar- Annual Logging Symposium.
bons on Well Logging Potential,” Oil and Gas J. (Dec. 1955)
102-06. Pitson, S.J.: “Formation Evaluation by Log Interpretation,” World
Oil (May 1957) 170-83.
Lipson, L.B. and Overton, H.L.: “The Effect of Treating Agents on
the Electrochemical Activities of Drilling Mud Filtrates,” paper Tixier, M.P., Morris, R.L., and Connell, J.G.: “Log Evaluation of
SPE 867G presented at the 1957 SPE Annual Meeting, Dallas, Oct. Low Resistivity Pay Sands in the Gulf Coast,” Log Analyst
7-10. (Nov./Dee. 1968).
“Log Interpretation, Vol. I-Principles, Vol. II-Applications,” Wyllie, M.R.J.: The Fundamentals ofElectric Log Interpretation. sec-
Bull., Schlumberger Well Services (1974). ond edition, Academic Press Inc., New York City (1957).
Chapter 50
Nuclear Logging Techniques
Darwin V. Ellis, Schlumberger-Doll Research*
Introduction
In this chapter, the use of nuclear radiation in wireline Presence of Hydrocarbons. An obvious method for the
logging will be presented. To avoid repetition, the reader detection of hydrocarbons is based on their chemical
is referred to Chap. 49 for a basic introduction to the compositions. Since there is no oxygen in most
principles of wireline logging in terms of the operation hydrocarbons, the ratio of the atomic concentration of
and genera1 types of devices used in the area of electrical carbon to oxygen for a hydrocarbon is significantly dif-
logging; Chap. 51 discusses the third major area- ferent from the ratio for most sedimentary rocks and for-
acoustic well logging. mation fluids. Thus, a measurement of the ratio of the
To introduce the general subject of nuclear logging, it number of carbon atoms to oxygen atoms (C/O) con-
is appropriate to provide a motivation for the use of tained in a formation would indicate directly the
nuclear measurement techniques in well logging. This presence of hydrocarbons when no carbon is present in
can be done best by constructing a list of petrophysical the matrix. This is to be contrasted with the method of
parameters of interest in the evaluation of hydrocarbon- electrical measurements, where detection of hydrocar-
bearing formations. In the most straightforward applica- bons is based on the contrast of conductivities between
tion, the purpose of well logging is to provide saline water and hydrocarbon in a porous medium.
measurements that can be related to the volume fraction
and type of hydrocarbon present in porous formations. In Porosity. The porosity or nonmatrix portion of a rock
the case of openhole logging (as distinguished from sample can be determined from a measurement of its
measurements made in a production well with steel cas- bulk density. The fundamental equation that relates the
ing), there are four principal parameters of interest: (I) bulk density, Pb, to the solid matrix, which has a density
presence of hydrocarbons, (2) porosity, 4, (3) water pmrr, and the porosity or volume fraction, $, which con-
saturation, S,, and (4) permeability, k. To this list, ad- tains a fluid of density pf, is
ditional parameters or descriptors can be added: (5)
lithology, (6) clay identification, and (7) pore fluid iden- Pb=&f+(l-~)Pma. ___. . ...(l)
tification. For cased-hole logging the same list of
petrophysical parameters of interest may hold, but with
perhaps more emphasis on fluid identification. From this relationship, the porosity, 4, can be deter-
mined from a measurement of bulk density, assuming
Relationship of Petrophysical Parameters and that the matrix density and fluid density are known.
Physical Parameters These will be known with any precision only if the fluid
type and properties and the lithology are known. In prac-
These petrophysical parameters of interest are derived
tical terms, the density range of fluids is between 0.8 and
normally from a number of measurements provided by
1.2 g/cm3 (although calcium chloride solutions may
logging services. For the moment, we will concentrate
reach 1.4 g/cm3), and most matrix densities are between
on some bulk physical parameters associated with them
2.60 and 2.96 g/cm3.
that may be amenable to measurement through the use of
Another means of detection and quantification of
nuclear techniques.
porosity is based on the fact that the formation porosity is
‘Aulhcf of the original chapter on this toptc in the 1962 edition was John L.P. filled with liquid or gas, all of which contain dispropor-
Campbell. tionate amounts of hydrogen. This hydrogen may be
associated with the brackish formation water or with the A third property of clays is the great abundance of
hydrocarbons. Thus, detection of hydrogen is a means of hydrogen associated with the clay mineral structure.
inferring porosity in an otherwise solid rock matrix. Thus, detection of the presence of hydrogen is another
means of clay identification.
Hydrocarbon Saturation. The determination of Pore fluid identification is based on indirect
hydrocarbon saturation can proceed once the porosity of measurements and inferences. The presence of gas in the
a formation has been determined. It can be done (1) by formation pores will have a significant impact on the
the direct measurement of C/O and comparison to the bulk density for reasonable porosities as well as on the
value expected for fully oil- and water-saturated cases, neutron-slowing-down properties. The distinction be-
or (2) by a more indirect measurement of the effective tween oil and water again is measured most directly by
salinity of the formation in question. the atomic C/O density ratio or based on the thermal
neutron absorption properties of the water phase, which
Permeability. There is no clear-cut physical parameter generally contains chlorides
amenable to nuclear measurements that will predict for- Fig. 50.1 summarizes the relationships between
mation permeability accurately. However, there is one petrophysical descriptors and physical parameters,
measurement technique-nuclear magnetic resonance- which can be determined quantitatively through the use
that can be related to permeability; it is discussed in of nuclear radiation and measurement techniques. A
Chap. 53. third column has been added to indicate the additional in-
formation necessary to interpret the suggested bulk prop-
Lithology, Clay Types, and Fluid Identification. erty measured to obtain the desired petrophysical
These parameters have been grouped together because of descriptor.
a common approach for their determination, which is
basically some aspect of their chemical composition. Physical Parameters and Nuclear Radiation
There are two principal interests in identifying the Before presenting the basic nuclear phenomena
lithology. One is for a reasonable matrix density to be necessary to describe the operation of most of the com-
assigned to a formation so that porosity can be extracted mon nuclear logging devices, we need to link, in general
from the density measurement. The other is to provide terms, the physical parameters discussed previously to
identification of formations for use in well-to-well cor- the types of general nuclear techniques that will be
relation. Since the neutron properties of rocks are described later in mote detail. To be specific, it should
somewhat dependent on the type of lithology, it is possi- be pointed out that the types of nuclear radiation used in
ble to determine the three principal lithological matrices well logging are gamma radiation and neutrons. These
by comparison of the gamma ray attenuation and two types of penetrating radiation are the only ones that
neutron-slowing-down properties of the medium. Well- are able to traverse the pressure housings of the logging
to-well correlation often is done most simply by com- tools and the formation of interest and still return a
parison of the natural radioactivity of the formations. measurable signal. It is for this reason that (Yand fi radia-
However, a more direct approach for the identification tion are of no particular interest for exploring formation
of the lithology (i.e., sandstone, limestone, or dolomite) characteristics; their penetration ranges are much too
is not based on the density but rather on the unique small to be of any practical use.
chemical composition of each of these matrices. One In the preceding section, it is clear that many of the
method of identifying the lithology would be to make a proposed parameters to be measured are. in fact, no
chemical identification of the various elements mom than the chemical composition of the earth forma-
associated with the matrix. Another slightly more refined tion. Instead of the obvious but time-consuming and ex-
approach to the determination of the lithology depends pensive chemical analysis of formation samples, a
on another bulk property of the material: its average technique of gamma ray spectroscopy can be used. This
atomic number. The average atomic number of the for- is based on the fact that the nucleus of any atom, after
mation, which reflects to some extent the lithological having been put into an excited state by a previous
composition, can be obtained by measuring the low- nuclear reaction, can emit gamma rays of characteristic
energy gamma ray absorption properties of the material. energies, which uniquely identify the atom in question.
Identification and quantification of clays are much Gamma ray spectroscopy refers to the detection and
more difficult, since the chemical compositions of clays identification of these characteristic gamma rays.
are so varied. Hence, the chemical composition of clays Another use of gamma rays is in conjunction with the
is a key to their detection. A measurement of the measurement of bulk density. The bulk density of a
presence of elements such as Al, Si, Fe, and K must be material has a significant influence on the scattering and
counted as a means to their identification. An earlier transmission of gamma rays through it. At very low
technique, which measured the total natural gamma ray energies, the transmission of gamma rays is influenced
activity of earth formations, was based on the fact that additionally by the chemical composition. This addi-
the naturally occurring radioactive daughter products tional absorption is related to the atomic number, Z, of
(subsequent products of radioactive decay of an element) the absorber.
of uranium, thorium, and potassium were associated The interest in using neutrons in well logging tech-
with clay minerals. Sometimes, however, one or more of niques comes from several properties of their interaction
these elements (U, Th, K) is present in a formation con- with matter. First, the transmission and moderation of
taining no clay. Examples of this include the case of neutrons are influenced by the bulk properties of the
potassium feldspar in the rock matrix or uranium dis- medium and, in particular, by the amount of hydrogen
solved in the formation water. present. The scattering of neutrons by hydrogen is very
NUCLEAR LOGGING TECHNIQUES 50-3
Petroph ysical Physical Necessary

Descriptors Parameter Additional
Information
I
Cl0 Ratio Lithology
I
Bulk Densitv
w Lithology
Hydrogen Content
Apparent Salinity
Bulk Density
I / Hydrogen Content
Lithology Average Atomic
Number, t Porosity
Clay Identification Th, U, K

Ca, Si, S, Fe
Al, .
Fig. 5&l--Relationship between petrophysical descriptors and measurable physical parameters
efficient in reducing the neutron energy. Second, in- and named, quite unimaginatively, CY,/3, and y radiation.
teraction of high-energy neutrons with certain nuclei can It subsequently was discovered that (Yradiation consisted
excite characteristic gamma rays for subsequent elemen- of fast-moving He particles stripped of their electrons
tal identification by gamma ray spectroscopy. At very and that /3 radiation consisted of energetic electrons. The
low energies, neutrons can be absorbed, thereby reduc- gamma rays were found to be packets of electromagnetic
ing the flux, and as a byproduct, another set of radiation, also referred to as photons.
characteristic gamma rays may be emitted. Some of The discovery of this radiation then provoked its quan-
these capture gamma rays are emitted after some delay tification, namely the measurement of the amount of
and are referred to as activation gamma rays. So there energy transported. The unit chosen is known as the
are two types of measurements that can be based on the electron-volt (eV), which is equal to the kinetic energy
use of neutrons: the scattering or slowing-down proper- acquired by an electron accelerated through an electric
ties of formations and neutron production of gamma rays potential of 1 V. For the types of radiation discussed in
(either by absorption or inelastic high-energy reactions the following sections, the range of energies is between
with elements) of characteristic energies for use in spec- fractions of an eV and millions of electrons volts (MeV).
troscopic identification. Fig. 50.2 illustrates the types of Another convenient multiple for discussing gamma ray
nuclear measurement techniques that can be used to energies is the kiloelectron volt (keV).
measure physical parameters related to the relevant Since a! and /3 radiation consist of energetic charged
petrophysical descriptors sought. particles, their interaction with matter is primarily
ionization. That is, they interact with the electrons of
material by losing energy rapidly during their passage
Nuclear Physics for Logging Applications and transferring it to electrons. In most materials their
Nuclear Radiation range is rather limited and is a function of the material
Nuclear radiation refers to the transport of energy by a properties (2, the atomic charge or number of electrons
nuclear particle. In the earliest investigation of radioac- per atom, and its density) and the energy of the particle.
tive materials, three types of radiation were identified They consequently have not been of any practical impor-
Nuclear Measurement
Physical Parameter Technique or Parameter
: ,C/O Rati?:- l Induced Inelastic Gamma Ray Spect.

I
@Gamma Ray Attenuation
Neutron Slowing-Down Length

Hydrogen Capture Gamma Ray Spect.
*Induced Inelastic Gamma Ray Spect.
Apparent Salinity* b Thermal Neutron Absorption X-Section
Bulk Density ;~;i. ” ..’ 6 Gamma Ray Attenuation
Average Atomic Number b Gamma Ray Photoelectric Absorption
Th. U, KF “.““. ‘-. Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy
)lnduced Capture Gamma Ray Spect.
Activiation & High Resolution Spect.
w Gamma Ray Attenuation

b Neutron Diffusion Length
*Thermal Neutron Absorption X-Section
---+ Chlorine Capture Gamma Ray Spect.
Fig. 50.2-Nuclear measurement techniques linked to measurable physical parameters of petro-

physical interest.
tance for well logging applications. Gamma rays, on the where X is the decay constant. For a collection of Np
other hand, are extremely penetrating radiation, which particles, the number decaying, dN, is just
makes them of great importance for well logging
applications.
dN= - AdrN,, , .... ......... . ... (3)
Radioactive decay of certain naturally occurring
substances such as radium was responsible for the
developments mentioned and needs further discussion. resulting in the expression for radioactive decay, namely
Radioactive decay is a time-varying pmperty of nuclei
whereby a transition from one nuclear energy state to
another lower one is made spontaneously. The result is
that the excess energy is shed by the nucleus by one or
more of the types of radiation previously mentioned. The
basic experimental fact of radioactivity is that the proba-
bility of any one nucleus decaying, within an interval of where N,, now is the number of particles remaining at
time dt, is proportional to dt-i.e., it is independent of time r, of the initial number of particles Ni . The constant
external influences, including the decay of another of proportionality, X, is related to the better-known
nucleus. This probability is proportional only to the time parameter, the half-life, t ,,z, by
interval of observation. So for a single radioactive atom
the probability P(dt) of decaying in the interval of time dr
is expressed as
0.693
tlh =-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3
P(dr)=Xdr, . .. . . . .(2) h
NUCLEAR LOGGING TECHNIQUES
No physical quantity can ever be measured exactly,

but in the case of nuclear processes where the number of
events observed is small, randomness is important. The
practical complication of this statistical process of
nuclear decay is that only the bulk or average properties
can be predicted with any certainty. We can talk only
about the measurement of a group of particles together
and the distribution of the measured value about some
mean.
TO understand one important property of nuclear radia-
tion, it is necessary to digress a moment for a quick x
review of the binomial distribution, a
which was
discovered in the 18th century by Bernoulli. It describes
the probability, P, , that an event that has a probability P
of occurring will occur x times when the observation is
repeated z times. The probability thus specified was
identified with the binomial expansion of (P+q)i, where
q=l-P, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(6)
Number of Occurrences, x
so that the general term of the expansion is Fig. 50.3-The Poisson distribution for the case of mean value
(CL)of 100. The probability, P,, is shown for values
of x around the expected mean value.
p,= -P”( z! 1 -,)ZPX, ..,...... . . . (7)
x!(z-n)!
There have been a number of clever techniques for
dealing with the statistical fluctuations inherent in
which gives the probability of x occurrences in z trials. nuclear counting rates. Probably best known is the R-C
This expression can be applied to radioactive decay, in circuit, which has a time constant associated with it and
which P, represents the probability of having x nuclei permits the recording of a continuous moving average.
decay in time dt when there are z atoms present. For this There are now more modem digital signal processing
case, generally the probability P is very small but the techniques (such as Kalman filtering) to provide more
number of particles observed (z) is very large so that Eq. refined filtered counting rates or outputs derived from
7 simplifies to statistically varying counting rates. However, the only
sure approach to reduce the fluctuations is to increase the
e-P average number measured, either by using higher-output
P,=/L~--, .. . . . . .(8) sources, more efficient counters, or longer counting
x.I times per sample.
which is known as the Poisson distribution. It gives the Particle Reactions. There are certain nuclear particle in-
probability of observing x decays in a given time where teractions of interest to well logging. To discuss these as
an average of ji decays is to be expected. Fig. 50.3 necessary in the following sections, a few mathematical
shows the general form of the Poisson distribution with definitions are presented here to help the mechanisms of
the maximum probability at the mean value, which was the reactions.
taken as 100 for this example. The curve resembles the As in radioactive decay, the process of nuclear reac-
usual bell-shaped distribution curve with a width tions is also statistical in nature. The question of interest
specified by a parameter u, the standard deviation. is how readily these reactions will take place. Fig. 50.4
The practical importance of this discussion is that the shows the idealization of the nuclear reaction process. A
appropriate u for the Poisson distribution that beam of radiation (it may be gamma rays or neutrons) of
characterizes the statistics of counting random nuclear an intensity pi is seen to enter the slab of material. The
events is not an independent parameter (as is the case for intensity of the radiation, 9 i , is called the flux and has
most measurements) but is related to the mean value ,% units of numbers of particles per unit surface area per
by unit time.
The slab of material is characterized by N,, the
number of particles per unit volume with which the flux
0=x$ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(9) of radiation may interact. The experimental fact ob-
served is that after passing through a slab of material of
thickness 6/z, a certain fraction of the incident particles
This means that if N,. counts from a radiation detector have undergone interactions, and that number is propor-
are expected per time interval, then, in repeated observa- tional to the thickness and the number of target nuclei
tions, about 32% of the measurements will deviate and the incident flux. This is expressed mathematically
beyond the value of N, + 6. This is a quantitative as
description of the statistics associated with all nuclear
logging techniques. 6\k=a~Np6h, .. .. .. . (10)
This forms the basis for the cheapest, easiest, and most
N, nuclei cm3 reliable method for neutron production. The physical ex-
planations of this reaction are beyond the scope of in-
terest of the present work and may be found in Refs. 1
and 2. The practical construction of a neutron source
consists of finding a naturally occurring cr emitter and
mixing it with an appropriate light element having a
large (cy,n)* cross section. Some possibilities for (Yemit-
ters are Pu, Ra, Am, and PO. Three target elements are
Be, B, and Li. The actual spectrum (energy distribution)
of emitted neutrons is quite complicated and depends
somewhat on the geometric details of the cy emitter and
target; but generally speaking, the peak of the neutron
distribution is around 4 MeV.
Another method of exploiting particle-induced reac-
tions is by use of charged particle accelerators. In one
realization currently used in well logging, deuterium and
tritium ions are accelerated toward a target impregnated
with the hydrogen isotopes deuterium (D) and tritium
Fig. 50.4-Idealized view of nuclear radlation interactlng with (T). The reaction is written as
matter showing the reduction in flux traversing a thick-
ness of material characterized by the number of in-
teracting particles per cubic centimeter. D+T-+4He+n+ 17.6MeV. . . .(l3)
The cross section for this reaction has a maximum at

where the constant of proportionality, (T, is called the about 100 keV of D projectile energy, which dictates the
cross section of the interaction. The units of this accelerating voltages in such a device.
microscopic cross section u are area/interacting target Despite the engineering difficulties of constructing
nucleus. Cross section is used because in a classical such a device, the advantages for logging are many. One
sense it is the apparent area each target nucleus presents is the relative high energy of the produced neutrons.
to the incoming beam. In effect, it collects all the nuclear They are emitted at 14.1 MeV (nor 17.6 MeV, because
interaction details into one useful number. The practical some of the energy of this reaction is given up to the
unit is called the “barn” and is equal to lO-24 cm’. The alpha particle). These high-energy neutrons are useful
macroscopic cross section, C, is the product of (Tand N, for producing other interesting nuclear reactions in the
and has the dimension of area/particle times par- formation, as discussed later. The other advantage is that
ticles/volume or inverse length. In practical terms, C can a source of this type can be controlled-i.e., switched off
be calculated easily because Ni, is related to Avogadro’s and on at will. This provides a degree of safety un-
number, NA , and the material density, ph. by paralleled for radioactive sources as well as opening the
door to measurements involving timing as a means of
determining some interesting nuclear properties of the
formation.
N*=%P,, . . ..___...____.__. (11) Now that we have covered the two types of nuclear
M
radiations currently used in logging devices, let us ex-
amine how gamma rays and neutrons interact with matter
where M is the molecular weight of the target for a single and define some macroscopic properties of matter that
particle per molecule. can be used to characterize this behavior.
In general, the cross sections for most reactions must
be determined experimentally and are often available in Fundamentals of Gamma Ray Interactions
graphical or tabular form. The quantity &N,, in Eq. IO
For the purposes of our discussion there are three types
has dimensions of (cm” . set) - ’ and has the interpreta-
of gamma ray interactions that are of interest: the
tion of the reaction rate per unit volume resulting from
photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair pro-
the incident flux.
duction. The type of interaction a gamma ray will
undergo depends on the properties of the material and the
Nuclear Reactions. To discuss the second type of radia- energy of the gamma ray. The ordering of these three in-
tion of great importance to well logging applica- teractions reflects the transition of the dominant process
tions-neutrons. which are not the result of naturally oc- as the gamma ray energy increases.
curring radioactive decay schemes-a brief discussion of The photoelectric effect concerns the interaction of a
artificial or induced radioactivity is given here. gamma ray with an atomic electron in the material. In
The classic reaction that inspired the discovery of the this process the incident gamma ray disappears and
neutron was the bombardment of beryllium by alpha par- transfers its energy to the bound electron. Depending on
ticles and can be written as
‘This shorthand (a, n) tndlcates a reamon of an /a parWe wth an unspec,f,ed

nucleus, n. resulttng I” the produclm of a neulron and anolher uns,,ec,f,ed
9Be+4He+ “C+n+5.76 MeV. .(12) nucleus.
the energy of the incident gamma ray, generally the elec-

tron is freed from its nucleus and begins collisions with
the adjacent material. Normally the ejected electron is
replaced by another electron with the accompanying
emission of a characteristic fluorescence X-ray with an
energy dependent on the atomic number of the material
and generally below 100 keV.
The cross section for the photoelectric effect, P,,~~,
varies strongly with energy. falling off as nearly the cube
of the gamma ray energy (EGO). It is also highly depen- .Ol 0.1 1.0 10 100
dent on the atomic number (Z) of the absorbing medium. Gamma Ray Energy (MeV)
In the energy range of 40 to 80 keV, the cross section per
atom of atomic number Z is given by
Fig. 50.5~Regions of dominance of the three major gamma ray
interactions in terms of the gamma ray energy, E,,.
and the atomic number, 2, of the target material. The
(14) two lines separating the three regions indicate where
the two adjacent interactlons occur with equal prob-
ability.
For most earth formations the photoelectric effect
becomes the dominant process for gamma ray energies
below about 100 keV.
The photoelectric effect is an important process in ma ray interacts with the electric field of the nucleus. and
understanding one of the conventional gamma ray detec- if the gamma ray energy is above the threshold energy of
tion devices and a well logging tool” that is sensitive to 1.022 MeV, it disappears and an electron/positron pair is
the lithology of the scattering formation. The tool in formed. The subsequent annihilation of the positron
question makes a measurement of the photoelectric ab- (positively charged electron) results in the emission of
sorption factor, F,, , which is proportional to the two gamma rays of 5 1 I keV each. The cross section of
photoelectric cross section per electron. this process is somewhat energy-dependent and is zero
Since this quantity is very sensitive to the average below the required threshold energy of 1.022 MeV. In
atomic number of the medium, Z, it can be used to obtain addition, it also depends on the charge of the nucleus.
a direct measurement of the lithology of the scattering To establish the regions of dominance of the three
medium. This is because the principal rock matrices types of interactions, refer to Fig. 50.5. It shows, as a
(sandstone, limestone, and dolomite) have considerably function of gamma ray energy and atomic number of the
different photoelectric absorption characteristics and the absorber, the regions in which the probabilities of the
pore fluids play only a minor role because of their various processes are equal. The regions of dominance
low Z’s, are quite clear.
The Compton scattering process involves the interac- From the earlier definition of cross section, the fun-
tion of a gamma ray and an electron. It is a process in damental law of gamma ray attenuation can be stated as
which only part of the gamma ray energy is imparted to
the electron and the energy of the gamma ray, conse-
‘l’=‘P,e-““h, _. _. _. . _. .(l6)
quently, is reduced. Unlike the photoelectric effect, the
probability for Compton scattering changes relatively
slowly with energy.
where *; is the flux incident on a scatterer of thickness
To see the bulk effect of Compton scattering in a
h, n is the number of scatterers per unit volume, and u is
material consisting of nuclei of atomic mass A and
the cross section for scattering per scatterer.
atomic number Z, one can use the linear absorption coef-
In the case of gamma-gamma density devices, the
ficient, which is just the Compton cross section, gc(,,
source of gamma rays is chosen to have an energy for
multiplied by the number of electrons per cubic
which the primary interaction is Compton scattering. In
centimeter:
this case the scatterers are electrons and u refers to the
Compton cross section per electron. This results in the
N A following expression for the attenuation of the source
cc0 =u&Ap~Z, . . (15) energy gamma rays:
The final Z factor in this equation takes into account that q~‘=q’,~-~&fW,~h . .. . . (17)
there are Z electrons per atom. Consequently, the at-
tenuation of gamma rays resulting from Compton scat-
tering will be some function of the bulk density (ph) and where h, in this case, is very nearly the source-to-
the ratio of Z/A. The fact that Z/A = % for most elements detector spacing.
of interest is the basis for the determination of bulk den- It is convenient to define the electron density index as
sity from gamma ray scattering devices.
The third and final gamma ray interaction is that of
Z
pair production. It, like the photoelectric process, is one pp=2--ph, .. . . (18)
of absorotion rather than scattering.” In this case the ceam- n
*
1
Neutron Speed
km/psec)
Photoelectric
Compton
Source :. ::
2.2-
0.22-
0.1 1 10 O.il 0.1 t 10 102 103 104 105 106 10' Energy (eV)
Gamma Ray Energy, MeV 1 keV 1MeV
Fig. 50.6-The mass absorption coefficient for gamma ray Fig. 60.7-The relationship between neutron energy and speed
interactions in aluminum. for the three broad classifications of neutron energies.
so that the attenuation of the gamma rays is seen to be each one. The reactions of neutrons with matter are
proportional to the spacing, h, between source and detec- much more varied and complex than those of the gamma
tor and the electron density index, which in turn can be rays. For simplification we will confine ourselves to four
related to the bulk density if the properties (specifically principal types of interactions of neutrons with matter.
Z/A) of the scattering material are known. For most Fig. 50.7 defines in broad terms the energy range of
sedimentary rocks the ratio of Z/A is nearly r/z so that p r interest for neutrons. For logging applications it can be
is very nearly equal to ph. seen that the energy range of interest is over about 9
Another unit for measuring the gamma ray attenuation decades: from source neutrons of 5 to 15 MeV in the
properties of a material is the mass absorption coeffi- broad fast neutron range above 10 eV, to epithermal
cient, K, ,* which regroups the constants in Eq. neutrons in the range of 0.2 to 10 eV and thermal
17-i.e., neutrons, which are distributed around 0.025 eV at room
temperature.
..... ......... . ..I.. . . (19) To have an idea of the time scale for later discussions
K,=ZNAo,
A of the themralization process, it is useful to note the rela-
tionship between neutron energy and its associated
so that the gamma ray attenuation equation can be writ- velocity. To evaluate the velocity of a neutron, we can
ten as use (at low energies) the classical relationship between
kinetic energy, Ek, velocity, v, and mass, m,
*=9$-K-. .. .. .. .. . . . .(20)
Ek=%mv2, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(21)
The convenience of the mass absorption coefficient for
Compton scattering is that it is remarkably similar for all
materials since Z/A = % and the density dependence has so that the velocity, v, is given by
been eliminated. Fig. 50.6 shows the mass attenuation
coefficients (in cm*/& for aluminum. This element,
with a density of 2.7 g/cm3 and atomic number of 13, is 2Ek
v= J -. . .. .. . . ... . ... . . . ... .. . .. . . . ..(22)
quite typical of earth formations. The average atomic m
number ranges from 11 to 16 between quartz and
limestone, while the grain densities are between 2.65 If this expression for velocity is evaluated for thermal
and 2.71 g/cm3. energies (0.025 eV), the result is 2200 m/s or 0.22
cm/ps. Thus, the velocity at any energy E (in eV) is
Fundamentals of Neutron Interactions given by
As in the case of gamma rays, the interaction of neutrons
with materials can be categorized by the types of interac-
tions with the appropriate cross sections that describe
'The symbol used in physicstormass absorption
cOefflCienl
IsP
v=o.22 J E
~o,025’ .. .. . ......... ....
where v is the velocity, cm/pLs. Therefore, the speed of

an epithermal neutron of 2.5 eV is 2.2 cmips, and for a
near-source energy neutron of 2.5 MeV the velocity is
2200 cmips. These velocities are also noted on Fig. 0.8
50.7.
Of the four principal types of interactions, the first two
generally are referred to as moderating interactions, or
interactions in which the energy (or speed) of the neutron 0.6
is reduced. One of these is known as elastic scattering
and the other, inelastic scattering. Classical mechanics E/E0
(elastic billiard ball analysis) can describe the
moderating power of the struck nucleus. The energy of 0.4
the neutron is reduced more efficiently as the mass of the

struck nucleus approaches the mass of the neutron. Thus,
hydrogen and other low-atomic-mass elements are quite
efficient in reducing fast-neutron energy. Fig. 50.8 il-
lustrates, for elastic neutron scattering with several
elements, the range of reduction in neutron energy
available for a single collision. It is seen that for the most I 1 I I
common earth formation elements the maximum energy 0 H 10 20 30 40
reduction per collision for the heavy elements is about 10 A, Atomic Mass
to 25 %, However, for the case of hydrogen it is seen that
the entire neutronenergy can be lost in a single collision. Fig. 50.8-The range of energy reduction possible for neutron
In the case of inelastic scattering, a portion of the elastic scattering with several important elements for
energy of the incident neutron goes into exciting the formation evaluation. E, is the energy before scat-
tering, and E is the energy after scattering. Hydro-
target nucleus. This reduces the energy of the incident gen is seen to provide the greatest possible energy
neutron and, in addition, the target nucleus usually will reduction for a single collision.
produce a characteristic gamma ray upon de-excitation.
This type of reaction always has a threshold energy
(below which it will not happen) associated with it and is
exploited in the measurement of the C/O ratio in earth
formations. Total 11
The second general category of neutron interactions is Cross-Section
known as absorptive interactions. The two general types
are radiative capture and reactions in general. In
radiative capture, unlike the moderating interactions Elastic
Scattering
considered above, the neutron (usually near thermal
tn. n)
energies) is absorbed by the target nucleus and then
disappears, and subsequent characteristic gamma rays
are produced. .The general category of neutron reactions Inelastic
is quite broad; it will be sufficient to say that the interac- Scattering
tion of neutrons with other nuclei can provoke the emis- (n, n’)
sion of other particles such as alphas, protons, /3’s, or
even several subsequent neutrons. All these reactions,
although common, have a very small probability for hap- Reaction
pening relative to the other interactions of interest to us ,:“:, ( 1
and usually occur over a restricted and high-energy
range.
To show the complexity of the cross sections for
neutron interactions see Fig. 50.9, which schematically
indicates the variations with energy. The top figure
refers to the total cross section as a function of neutron Neutron Energy, EN
energy, EN, and the four following figures indicate how
this can be decomposed. The first line (n,n) refers to Fig. 50.9-A schematic illustration of the components involved
elastic scattering, which is shown to be rather constant for the total neutron cross sectlon as a function of
energy. The characteristics of four specific cross sec-
with energy except for some resonances at low energies. tions are shown.
The next line shows inelastic interactions (n,n’) showing
some characteristic threshold below which this reaction
is not possible; the fourth line is one of the many particle
reactions possible (n,(y); and the final line (although
there could be others) is the radiative capture (n,?),
which is seen to increase in probability at low energies.
Despite these complexities, there are some gross prop-
erties that can be assigned to materials on the basis of
H2O
/
/-,40 p*u.
,:::i:::-20 p,u,
\
0 p.u.
0.1 ~
0.1 1.0 10
Neutron Energy, MeV
Fig. 50.10-The mean free path of fast neulrons in water and water-filled limestone at several porosities as a function of energy.
their neutron cross sections. The first is the macroscopic usually is expressed as the average logarithmic energy
cross section, which is defined as the product of the cross decrement, [ :
section in question times the number of atoms per cubic
centimeter, N,-i.e.,
=I@;)--in(E)= -ln(EIE;). . . (25)
NAPb
Ei=NpUi=- CTi. . . . . . .. It can be shown from classic mechanics that the average
A log energy decrement is simply related to the atomic mass,
A, of the struck nucleus by
The dimensions of the macroscopic cross section C; are
inverse centimeters and the interpretation is that its 2
reciprocal is the mean-free-path length in centimeters be- Fz-.-.-
A+2/3’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (26)
tween interactions of Type i. Frequently in logging, use
is made of the macroscopic absorption cross section at
thermal energies. The units of this (so-called capture units, for large values of atomic mass A. The average log ener-
c.u.) are just 1,000 times the Cj defined previously, gy decrement allows an estimation of the average num-
where Ui refers to the thermal absorption cross section, ber of collisions, n, to reduce the neutron from an initial
which is dominant at thermal energies for most elements. energy Ei to some lower energy E from the following
Fig. 50.10 shows the total mean free path in limestone reasoning. If the sequence E 1, E2 . . E, represents the
of 0, 20, 40, and 100 porosity units (PU) as a function average energy after each collision, then we can write
of energy for fast neutrons. At the energy of chemical
source emission (2 to 4 MeV), it is seen that there is very
little porosity dependence. It is only as the neutrons are ln(%) =ln($$. .F) .. . (27)
slowed down that the mean free path becomes strongly
porosity-dependent.
As mentioned earlier, in the case of elastic scattering.
low-mass nuclei are more efficient in reducing the ener- =ln($) ’ =n In($) _., (28)
gy of the ccattered neutron. As can be inferred from Fig.
50.8, the result of a collision can be considered. on aver-
age, as a percentage decrease of the neutron energy. This =nf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(29)
TABLE CO.l-NEUTRON SLOWING-

DOWN PARAMETERS
Moderator t
H 1.0 14.5
0.158 91.3
: 0.12 121
Ca 0.05 305
Hz0 0.92 15.8
20-PU limestone 0.514 29.7
0-PU limestone 0.115 132
‘Average number of collwons from 4.2 MeV to 1 eV
.Sandstone
Thus, the average number of collisions is given by
. .........................
The constant .$can be computed for a mixture of elements

by weighting the value of each 2:i for element i with the
appropriate total scattering cross section u;. Table 50.1
shows some typical values for the average logarithmic
30 40 50 60 ID 80 90
energy decrement and the number of collisions necessary
Water-FilledPorosity.p.u.
to reduce source energy neutrons (4.2 MeV) to 1 eV.
There are two more parameters that help to character-
Fig. 50.11-The calculated slowing-downlength, L,. as a func-
ize neutron interactions with bulk material. One parame- tion of water-filled porosity for three rock matrices:
ter is known as the slowing-down length, L,Y, and the sandstone, limestone and dolomite.
other as the diffusion length, Ld. L,s can be described as
roughly proportional to the average distance a neutron (in
an infinite homogeneous medium) travels from its emis-
sion at high energy until it arrives at the lower edge of
the epithermal energy region. This distance can be
calculated4 with a detailed knowledge of the cross sec-
tions of the constituent elements. Fig. 50.11 shows the
variation of L, as a function of water-filled porosity for
limestone, sandstone, and dolomite.
Ld can be thought of as the distance a thermal energy
neutron travels between the point at which it became ther-
mal until its final capture. This distance is given by
Ld=v@E), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(31)
where D is the thermal diffusion coefficient and c is the

macroscopic thermal absorption cross section of the ma-
terial. The diffusion coefficient, D, also can be calculated
from the knowledge of the cross sections of the material Fig. 50.12-The calculated thermal diffusion coefficient, D, as
and is shown in Fig. 50.12 as a function of porosity for a function of water-filled porosity for three rock ma-
the three principle matrices. trices: sandstone, limestone, and dolomite.
Since thermal neutrons will be affected strongly by the
presence of thermal absorbers, it is interesting to look at
an abbreviated list of elements that frequently are found
in formations that have large macroscopic thermal absorp-
tion cross sections, This is found in Table 50.2, where
the units are capture cross section (c.u.) per gram of ma-
terial. Of particular interest is chlorine, the implication
being that salt water will have some measurable effect on
the thermal neutron population as well as iron and bo-
ron, which frequently are associated with clays.
Gamma Ray tive, and some moderate (several hundreds of volts) elec-
Trajectory
trical potential is maintained between the central wire and
the cylinder. The detection process is initiated by the for-
mation of some ionized gas molecules. These freed elec-
trons are accelerated by the radial electric field and in
successive collisions produce additional free electrons,
which finally results in a measurable charge collection on
the central wire.
lnsulat& End Plate I For gamma rays to be detected with such a device, the
Avalanche gas somehow must be ionized initially. Since the gas den-
Discharge sity is moderate, even at rather high pressure available
in commercial tubes, and the atomic number of useful
Fig. 50.13-Components of a gas-discharge radiation detector. gases is relatively low, there is little possibility of the gam-
ma rays interacting directly with the gas. The main de-
tection mechanism is photoelectric absorption or recoil
electron ejection from Compton scattering in the metal
Photo-Cathode shield. For the gamma rays absorbed near the inner radius
/ of the cylinder, there is some probability of the ejected
electron escaping into the gas and providing the initial
ionization. This also is illustrated in Fig. 50.13.
It should be evident from the foregoing discussion that
the detection efficiency of such detectors is not high. It
can be improved somewhat by the incorporation of con-
ductive high-atomic-number gamma absorbers, such as
silver, as an inner lining of the cylinder. Although they
Nal(TI) Photo-
can be operated in a proportional mode, the energy reso-
Crystal Multiplier Tube
lution of these detectors is not of great practical use. The
most positive aspects of gas-discharge counters are their
Fig. 50.14-Schematic of the steps involved in gamma ray de- simplicity, ruggedness, and reliability for functioning in
tection by the production of a measurable electri-
cal signal in a photomultiplier coupled to an Nal the hostile environment of well logging. Because of their
crystal. poor efficiency and inapplicability to spectroscopic gam-
ma ray detection, they are being replaced rapidly by a
newer generation of scintillation detectors.
A more common type of gamma ray detector uses a
Another auxiliary parameter, the migration length scintillation crystal. Once again, the active detector ele-
(L,), has been defined as ment is sensitive to ionizing radiation, such as energetic
electrons. When these particles travel within the crystal
L; =L;+L~. .. . . . . . (32) lattice, they impart their energy to a cascade of secon-
dary electrons, which finally are trapped by impurity
atoms. As the electrons are trapped, visible or near-visible
It can be viewed as a distance that represents the combi- light is emitted. The light flashes are then detected by a
nation of the path traveled during the slowing-down phase photomultiplier tube optically coupled to the crystal and
(L,) and the distance traveled in the thermal phase be- transformed into an electrical pulse. This is indicated sche-
fore being captured (Ld). The use of this parameter pro-
matically in Fig. 50.14. The output pulse height can be
vides a convenient way of predicting the response of a related to the total energy deposited in the crystal by the
thermal neutron porosity device, which is discussed in initial high-energy electron. The great advantage of such
more detail in a later section. a detection scheme is the possibility of performing gam-
ma ray spectroscopy--that is, to detect the actual energy
Nuclear Radiation Detectors of the incident gamma ray, which, in some cases, will
Gamma Ray Detectors. The devices for the detection identify uniquely the source of the emitted gamma ray,
of gamma rays involve the exploitation of one or more as in the case of induced gamma ray logging.
of the three processes of gamma ray interactions with mat- However, a scintillation detector is a detector of gam-
ter described earlier. Three general types of gamma ray ma rays only to the extent that an electron is produced
detectors in current use will be described next. The first in the crystal through one or more of the three basic gam-
variety, the ionized-gas counter, is a direct descendant
of the earliest efforts in nuclear radiation detection. The
second and most common present-day gamma ray detec-
TABLE 50.2~-MACROSCOPIC THERMAL
tor used in well logging applications is the scintillation ABSORPTION CROSS SECTIONS
detector. The third type of device, the solid-state detec- {X[c.u./(g/cm3)])
tor, is just beginning to be used in logging applications.
The common form of the ionized-gas or gas-discharge Boron 42 300
Chlorine 564
counter consists of a metal cylinder with an axial wire Hydrogen 198
passing through it (Fig. 50.13) and insulated from it. The Manganese 146
cylinder is filled with a gas that is normally nonconduc- Iron 27.5
ma ray interaction mechanisms: photoelectric absorption,

Compton scattering, and pair production. Thus, the gam-
ma ray detection efficiency of a scintillator will depend
on its size, density, and average atomic number (for photo-
electric absorption). A scintillator in common use is a
crystal of sodium iodide doped with a thallium impurity,
Photo-Multiplier
NaI (Tl), which has good gamma ray absorption proper-
ties and a fairly rapid scintillation decay time (- 0.23
psec) to allow for high-counting-rate spectroscopy.
The use of such a device for gamma ray spectroscopy
implies that the output light pulse is proportional to the Optical Coupling
incident gamma ray energy; however, this is possible only
for the case of total absorption of the gamma ray. Some
of the difficulties that can complicate the detected spec-
trum are shown in Fig. 50.15, for the case of a tool de-
signed to look for the unique gamma rays emitted by
inelastic neutron reactions with carbon and oxygen. The
figure illustrates what might happen to an inelastic car-
bon gamma ray that is produced at the site marked (IS)
with an initial energy of 4.44 MeV. It first makes a Comp-
ton scattering in the borehole fluid (CS) and loses 90 keV
of energy before traversing the tool housing and entering
the NaI detector with an energy of 4.05 MeV. At the point
marked (PP) it suffers a pair-production interaction,
producing one electron and one positron with energies of (4.
2.00 and 1.03 MeV, respectively, the missing 1.02 MeV
having gone into the creation of the electron/positron pair. (0.41)
Both particles impart their energy to the scintillation proc-
ess indicated by the dashed lines. When the positron has
given up all its kinetic energy, it annihilates with an elec-
tron to produce two gamma rays, each of 0.51 MeV ener-
Na(TI) Crystal
Reflective Coating
M
gy. One of the gamma rays undergoes Compton scattering
at (CS), and the reduced-energy gamma ray (0.41 MeV)
is finally absorbed photoelectrically within the crystal at
point (Ph.A). The other 0.51-MeV gamma ray is shown
escaping the crystal, to the right, and being absorbed in
the tool housing without contributing to the total energy
transferred to the crystal. The energy recorded by the
crystal for the event depicted is 3.54 MeV (4.05
MeV - 1.02 MeV pair-production $0.511 MeV annihi- Fig. 50.15~Illustration of the possible sources of gamma ray
energy degradation in an Nal detector system.
lation) instead of the 4.44 MeV that we would like to be
measurin
Thus, t%.e degradation of the structure of the incident
gamma ray spectrum is seen to be inherent in the physics
of the many processes involved in the detection. Only if Full Energy
the gamma ray is absorbed totally by the detector is the l’Photo-Electricll
light output of the scintillator proportional to the incident Light Flashes Peak
gamma ray energy. This would be the case for the photo- Produced by
electric absorption, for example. Fig. 50.16 shows the Compton Recoil
energy deposited in this case as the single line to the right Electrons /
marked E,.
If only a Compton interaction occurs, then a fraction
of the energy will be registered. The possible range of
energy deposition in this case follows the distribution
shown in Fig. 50.16 from zero to the Compton edge,
which corresponds to the maximum energy being trans-
ferred from the gamma ray to the electron. Additionally,
if the gamma ray is of sufficiently high energy there may
be a pair-production reaction, and if one or more of the -
5 1 1-keV photons escapes the detector without interaction, Energy Transferred Compton Ey
the so-called first and second escape peaks will be pro- to Crystal Edge
duced in the detected spectrum. Fig. 50.17 indicates the
additional distortion introduced by this process. Fig. 50.16~Idealized response from a scintillation detector to
In addition to the distortions in the measured spectrum mono-energetic gamma rays of energy E, showing
produced by the possible interactions within the detector, the photo-peak and the Compton tail.
result is sharp energy resolution. Another result is that

the detector must be operated at extremely low tempera-
tures. This is because at room temperatures the electrons
have sufficient energy to cross the 0.7.eV band gap and
camouflage those freed by gamma ray interactions.
Although the gamma ray spectra obtained with Gc detec-
tors are superb, their overall counting rates are less than
those obtained by NaI detectors. Application of solid-state
detectors is limited to devices concerned with precise spec-
troscopic elemental definition or in-situ chemical analysis.
Neutron Detectors. Neutrons are detected through

nuclear reactions in which energetic charged particles are
produced. Thus, most neutron detectors consist of a tar-
get material for this conversion coupled with a conven-
tional detector, such as a proportional counter or
scintillator, to achieve the measurement. Since the cross
Energy Transferred to Crystal
section for neutron interactions in most materials is a
strong function of neutron energy, different techniques
have been developed for different energy regions. For well
Fig. X1.17-Idealized spectrum distortion in a scintillator caused
by pair-production. The highest energy peak corre-
logging applications, at present, it is the detection of ther-
sponds to photoelectric absorption or the full ener- mal and epithermal neutrons that is of interest. The de
gy of the incident monoenergetic gamma ray, and tection schemes considered in this section are appropriate
the two lower energy escape peaks correspond to for these low-energy neutrons.
escape from the crystal of one or two of the annihi-
The determination of useful nuclear reactions for neu-
lation gamma rays of 511 keV.
tron detectors involves satisfying several criteria: the cross
section for reaction must be very large, the target nuclide
should be of high isotopic abundance. and the energy
a dominant perturbation to the measurement is the detec- liberated in the reaction following the neutron capture
tor resolution. This refers to the broadening of the line should be high for subsequent ease of detection by con-
spectra, as can be observed clearly in Fig. 50.17. The ventional means. Three target nuclei have been found
width of the observed gamma ray lines is, in the case of generally to satisfy these conditions: “B, ‘Li, and ‘He.
an NaI detector, primarily a function of the gamma ray In the case of the first two targets, the (n,ol) reaction is
energy, the size of the crystal, and the optical coupling used, and for 3He it is the (n,p) reaction.
between the crystal and photomultiplier, as well as the The boron reaction is exploited widely in the form of
characteristics of the photomultiplier. One of the major BF3 in a proportional tube. In this case the boron trifluo-
drawbacks of the scintillation detectors is their poor ener- ride serves as the target and as the proportional tube gas.
gy resolution. The reason is that detection in this type of For this application the gas is enriched in “‘B, to attain
device requires a number of inefficient steps, the result a high detection efficiency. Another approach is to use
being that the energy required to produce one informa- boron as the inner coating of a proportional counter, which
tion carrier (a photo-electron in the photo-multiplier) is may use some other proportional gas more suitable than
about 1,000 eV. Thus, the number of carriers for a typi- BFJ for applications involving fast timing, for example.
cal radiation detection is rather small; the statistical fluc- Since a suitable lithium compound gas does not exist,
tuations on such a small number place an inherent the lithium reaction is not exploited in a proportional coun-
limitation on the energy resolution. ter. However, lithium scintillators, similar to those of so-
The use of semiconductor materials as radiation detec- dium iodide for gamma ray detection, are available.
tors can produce many more information carriers per de- Because of the large amount of energy released by the
tected event and, thus, can achieve a very-high-energy (n,cr) reaction, neutrons are registered at an energy of
resolution. In a solid-state device such as the germanium about 4. I MeV, which provides a means of discriminat-
detector, the semiconductor properties are used to trans- ing against the gamma rays, which also will be detected
fer the charged-particle energy into a usable electrical readily by the LiI crystal.
pulse in a much more direct manner. When a gamma ray The most common neutron detector in well logging,
interacts with the detector, charged particles are produced. however, is based on the ‘He (n,p) reaction. In this case
These, in turn, transfer energy to electrons bound (by only ‘He is used as the target and proportional gas in a coun-
0.7 eV for Ge) in the crystal lattice, enabling many of ter. It is preferred to BF3 because it has a higher cross
them to become free. Each free electron leaves a positive section than the boron reaction and the gas pressure can
hole in the electron structure of the crystal. Under a strong be made much higher without degradation of its propor-
electrical field applied to the detector crystal, the free elec- tional operation. The overall simplicity of a proportional
trons and holes migrate quickly to the electrodes and cre- tube is preferred to the additional complications associated
ate an electrical impulse. with a scintillator.
The excellent resolution arises because the band gap For the three reactions discussed, the cross sections vary
is so small. About 3.5 x lo5 electrons are freed by the inversely with the square root of the neutron energy 50
detection of a l-MeV gamma ray to contribute to the re- that the detection efficiency for neutrons will vary in the
sulting pulse with no intervening inefficient steps. The same manner. The detectors using these reactions, then,
are basically thermal neutron detectors. For some logging 1.46

applications, it is desirable to measure the cpithcrmal neu-
tron flux while being insensitive to thermal neutrons. This
can be achieved by making a minor modification to any
of the three types of detectors previously mentioned. It
consists of using an exterior thermal-neutron-absorbing
material with a large cross section, such as cadmium. to
shield the detector. Thermal neutrons will be absorbed
in the shield, but the reaction particles. whose range is
small (on the order of tenths of millimeters). will not reach
the counter. The higher-energy neutrons that manage to
penetrate the shield will be detected by the thermal neu-
tron detector with somewhat reduced efficiency.
Nuclear Radiation Logging Devices

The logging devices discussed in the following section fall
under two general categories: those that measure natural
radiation fields and those that produce radiation fields and
measure some aspect of their interaction with the forma-
tion. The first group contains tools that measure the natur-
al gamma ray activity of earth formations resulting from
the spontaneous decay of radioactive materials. The sec-
ond category can be broken down into the type of radia-
tion used-gamma rays or neutrons. The latter may be 0 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
subdivided further into the use of chemical or steady-state Gamma Ray Energy, MeV
neutron sources or pulsed particle accelerator-based
sources described earlier.
Fig. 50.18-Theoretical gamma ray emission spectra from the
Rather than trace the historical development, which has three naturally occurring radioactive products.
been well documented by Segesman,” only the most re-
cent logging devices will be discussed. Both neutron
porosity and gamma-gamma density devices have under-
gone substantial evolution since their respective introduc- ray flux emanating from the formation. However, it is
tions as commercial services. The earliest devices now known that different types of shale have different total
invariably used a single detector. As the use of these types gamma ray activity because of the Th, U, and K concen-
of measurements grew, more emphasis was put on im- trations. Fig. 50.18 shows the various gamma ray line
proving the quantitative nature of the measurements and emissions associated with each. This indicates that by de-
a better appreciation of environmental effects was gained. termining the intensity of the particular gamma ray ener-
This led to the development of borehole-compensated gies it is possible to identify the quantity of each
devices generally using a second detector at a lesser spat- radioactive emitter in the formation. With the develop-
ing from the source that, because of its larger sensitivity ment of improved spectroscopic-quality gamma ray de-
to environmental effects, provides a correction to be ap- tectors, it became natural to refine the gamma ray
plied to the principal detector. measurement into a measurement of the actual concen-
trations of the three components.
The measurement element for recent gamma ray or
Gamma Ray Devices spectral gamma ray logging devices is the NaI detector.
There are two series of naturally occurring radioactive The gamma ray devices measure the total number of gam-
isotopes that occur in significant quantities in sedimen- ma rays above some practical lower limit (on the order
tary rocks: the uranium and thorium series. The only other of 100 keV). This total counting rate will be (I) a func-
significant naturally occurring radioisotope is that of tion of the distribution and quantity of radioactive mate-
potassium (40K). Clay minerals that are formed during rial in the formation and (2) influenced by the size and
the decomposition of igneous rocks in general have a very efficiency of the detector used. For this reason some
high cation exchange capacity. Because of this property calibration standards have been established by the API,
they are able to retain trace amounts of radioactive min- and all total-intensity gamma ray logs are recorded in API
erals that originally may have been components of the units.
feldspars and micas that go into the production of clay The definition of the API unit of radioactivity comes
minerals. This process generally results in a higher con- from the artificially radioactive formation constructed at
centration of radioactive elements in shales than in sand- the U. of Houston facility. A formation containing ap-
stones or carbonate rocks not produced by weathering. proximately 4% K, 24 ppm Th, and 12 ppm U was con-
However, some radioactivity can be associated with car- structed and defined to be 200 API units. The details of
bonate rock and sandstones because of transport of radi- this calibration facility can be found in Ref. 6.
oactive minerals in solution in the formation waters. Spectral gamma ray devices basically use the same type
The principal use of the gamma ray log is to distinguish of detection system as the total gamma ray devices, but
between the shales and the nonshales. Historically, the instead of one broad energy region for detection. the gam-
first gamma ray devices measured only the total gamma ma rays are analyzed into several different energy bins.
n emitters/cm3 This simply says that the total counting rate is propor-
tional to nlpb, which can be expressed as the weight per-
cent of the material that is radioactive. Consequently, the
utility of expressing the radioactive contents as weight
fractions is seen.
One of the fundamental difficulties in the interpretation
of the gamma ray device measurements is inherent in its
very concept. There are nonradioactive clays and there
are “hot” dolomites. The use of spectral gamma ray
devices can often point out an anomaly such as a “hot”
dolomite or other formation with some unusual excess of
U, or in other cases K or Th.
Both types of devices suffer to some small degree from
To Emitters in Shell
the borehole environment. Because of mud in the bore-
hole and varying hole diameters, the gamma rays emit-
ted from the formation must pass through different
amounts of gamma ray absorbers to reach the detector.
Additional complications can arise because of mud addi-
tives such as barite or KCl. In the first case, the barium
Emitters in Shell content of the mud becomes a very efficient absorber of
4nnr*dr low-energy gamma rays emanating from the formation.
In the second case, the borehole fluid is also a source of
Fig. 50.19-Geometry for the gamma ray flux al a point from uni- radioactive potassium, which is contained in the KC1 ad-
formly distributed sources in an infinite medium. ditive. Ref. 7 discusses a method for correcting for these
effects.
This allows for the determination (after comparing to nor- Gamma-Gamma Density Devices
malized standard formations where the concentrations of As noted in an earlier section, the transmission of gam-
K, U, and Th are known) of the concentrations of these ma rays through matter can be related to the electron den-
elements present in the measured formation. These log sity if the predominant interaction is Compton scattering.
output quantities usually are expressed as a percent by Thus, a gamma ray transmission-type measurement
weight of the total material. through a formation can be used to determine its density
It is of interest to note that the gamma ray intensity from and with some information on the material composition
a uniformly distributed source (whose concentration is (lithology and pore fluids) the porosity can be determined.
maintained at a constant value when expressed in weight The gamma ray source usually used in density devices
percent of the medium in which it is embedded) is in- is ‘37Cs, which emits gamma rays at 662 keV, well be-
dependent of the formation density, even though the at- low the limit for pair production. This isotope has a half
tenuation is a direct function of the formation density. This life of about 30 years, which provides a usable, stable
can be seen from the following argument. intensity during a reasonable period. Some devices use
Consider an infinite homogeneous medium containing 6oCo, which emits two gamma rays at 1332 and 1173
n gamma ray emitters per cubic centimeter, each with a keV.
source strength of emission of one gamma ray per sec- The earliest devices consisted of the gamma ray source
ond. To calculate the total gamma ray flux that would be and a single detector, which initially was called a Geiger-
seen by a detector at a given point in this medium, refer Miiller tube. However, to compensate for the frequent oc-
to Fig. 50.19. The contribution to the total counting rate currence of intervening mudcake, modern devices incor-
from a spherical shell of thickness dr at a distance r from porate two detectors (generally both NaI) in a housing that
the detector would be the number of emitters contained shields them from direct radiation from the source and
in this shell multiplied by the attenuation over the path is forced up against the formation with a hydraulically
length r to the detector, operated arm. This arm provides a force of application
as well as a measurement of the diameter (along one axis)
of the borehole.
-K,Pb’
The measurement principle derives from the fact that
d’P=4*r2.dre -, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (33)
4ar2 the counting rate of a detector will vary exponentially with
the density of the formation. Consequently, the forma-
tion density can be determined simply from an observed
and the total counting rate is just the integral
counting rate. However, in the case of intervening mud-
cake of unknown density and thickness, there will be a
disturbance of the counting rate. Fig. 50.20 shows the
*=n -eeKaPbrdr, .. . ..... . (34)
s usual logging situation. To correct for this intervening
0 mudcake, the apparent density of the long- and short-
spacing devices can be derived. Laboratory measurements
1 then are used to define the correction, Ap, that must be
*=n- KoPb. ........................... (35) applied to the apparent density from the long-spacing de-
tector to read the value of the formation density behind it.
In at least one device the shape of the gamma ray spec-

trum is measured and correlated with the photoelectric
absorption parameters of the formation, which, in turn,
can be linked with the lithology of the formation. The
photoelectric factor, Fpe, is proportional to the photo-
electric cross section per electron. Fig. 50.21 shows the
utility of such a measured parameter for distinguishing
between the three principal matrices.
Since the Fpe of mixtures does not combine volumetri-
cally, a new parameter, U, which has the property of com-
bining linearly, has been developed for interpretation
Long Spacing
purposes. The definition of U is the product of Fpp and
Detector
electron density,
U=Fpepe, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(36)
Short Spacing
and corresponds to the macroscopic photoelectric cross Detector
section. This follows from the definition of Fpe, which
is the photoelectric cross section per electron, and pp,
which is proportional to the number of electrons per cu- Source
bic centimeter. Thus, the value of U for any mixture can
be computed by making a simple volumetric addition of
the Uassociated with each of the pure components of the
mixture. Table 50.3 lists some useful lithology parame-
ters for a number of commonly encountered minerals. Fig.
50.22 shows the use of U and density in the determina-
tion of lithology once the effect of porosity has been elim-
inated.
Examination of Table 50.3 shows the enormous sensi-
tivity of the parameter U or Fpe to elements with a large
atomic number. In particular, note the values of Fpe for Fig. 50.20--Schematic of a compensated density device in a
the several iron compounds and for barium. In the case borehole with mudcake.
of iron, this sensitivity can be exploited to make a deter-
mination of shale content of the formation if there is iron
associated with the clay mineral. This is discussed in the
section on interpretation. However, the sensitivity to barite
makes the Fpe measurement difficult in heavily weight- Porosity
ed barite muds. If there is a substantial thickness of barite *
mudcake between the tool skid and the formation or if 4
there is invasion of BaS04 particles into the formation,

the resultant photoelectric absorption can seriously dis-
turb the measurement.
Neutron Porosity Devices

Historically, the neutron device was the first nuclear
device to be used to obtain an estimate of formation
porosity. The principle of operation is based on the fact
that hydrogen, with its relatively large scattering cross
section and small mass, is very efficient in the slowing Dolomite
of fast neutrons. Thus, a measurement of the flux of i
epithermal neutrons resulting from the interaction of high-
energy source neutrons with a formation will be related
to its hydrogen content. If the hydrogen (in the form of Fig. 50.21-Values of the photoelectric factor, Fpe, [or the three
principal matrices showing the relative Insensitivity
water or hydrocarbons) is contained within the pore space,
to porosity.
then the measurement will yield porosity. The simplest
version of the device consists of a source of fast neutrons
such as Pu-Be or Am-Be with average source energies
of several MeV and a detector of much lower-energy neu-
trons at some distance from the source. Two general
categories will be considered on the basis of the types of
neutrons detected-epithermal or thermal.
To be a little more quantitative about the response of
neutron porosity devices, we can use the results of two-
group diffusion theory, * which show that the flux of
50-l a PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
TABLE 50.3-LITHOLOGY PARAMETERS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
Molecular
Elements Formula Weight z Fpe pb L
It
u’
Hydrogen H 1.008 1 0.00025
Carbon C 12.011 6 0.15898
Oxygen 0 16.000 8 0.44784
Sodium Na 22.991 11 1.4093
Magnesium WI 24.32 12 1.9277
Aluminum Al 26.98 13 2.5715 2.700 2.602
Silicon Si 28.09 14 3.3579
Sulfur S 32.066 16 5.4304 2.070 2.066
Chlorine Cl 35.457 17 6.7549
Potassium K 39.100 19 10.081
Calcium Ca 40.08 20 12.126
Titanium Ti 47.90 22 17.089
Iron Fe 55.65 26 31.181
Strontium Sr 87.63 38 122.24
Zirconium Zr 91.22 40 147.03
Barium Ba 137.36 56 493.72
Minerals
Anhydrite CaSO s 136.146 5.055 2.960 2.957 14.95
Barite BaSO, 233.366 266.8 4.500 4.011 1070.0
Calcite CaCO 3 100.09 5.084 2.710 2.708 13.77
Carnallite KCI.MgCI,,GH,O 277.88 4.089 1.61 1.645 6.73
Celestite SrSO, 183.696 55.13 3.960 3.708 204.0
Corundum AI,O, 101.90 1.552 3.970 3.894 6.04
Dolomite CaCO, .MgCO, I 84.42 3.142 2.870 2.864 9.00
Gypsum CaSO,.ZH,O 172.18 3.420 2.320 2.372 8.11
Halite NaCl 58.45 4.65 2.165 2.074 8.65
Hematite Fed& 159.70 21.48 5.210 4.987 107.0
llmenite FeO.TiO, 151.75 16.63 4.70 4.46 74.2
M&O, 84.33 0.829 3.037 3.025 2.51
Magnetite Fe304 231.55 22.08 5.180 4.922 109.0
FeS 2 i 19.98 16.97 4.870 4.708 79.9
Pyrite FeS 2 I 19.98 16.97 5.000 4.834 82.0
Quartz Si02 60.09 1.806 2.654 2.650 4.79
Rutile TiO 79.90 10.08 4.260 4.052 40.8
Sylvite KC; 74.557 8.510 1.984 1.916 16.3
Zircon ZrSiO, 183.31 69.10 4.560 4.279 296.0
Liauids
Water 18.016 0 358 1.000 1.110 0.40
Salt water 0.807 1.086 I.185 0.96
Oil 0.119 0.850' 0.948’ 0.11
0.125 0.850" 0.970’ 0.12
Clean sandstone 1.745 2.308 2.330 4.07

Dirty sandstone 2.70 2.394 2.414 6.52
Average shale 3.42 2.650' 2.645' 9.05
Anthracite C:H:O- 0.161 1.700' 1.749’ 0.28
coal 93:3:4
Bituminous C:H:O- 0.180 1.400’ 1.468’ 0.26
coal a2:5:13
2.65
2.70
I I i
5 6 7 8 9 10
Umaa
Fig. 50.22-Matrix identification chart from U and density once the effect of porosity has been eliminated
epithermal neutrons, in an infinite medium containing a where D is the epithermal diffusion coefficient, which is
point source of fast neutrons, falls off exponentially with related to the transport mean free path of neutrons. At
the distance from the source, L, with a characteristic a fixed spacing, counting rates should vary nearly ex-
length, L,s, which is determined by the constituents of the ponentially with the slowing-down length of the forma-
medium: tion. An indication of this type of behavior can be seen
in Fig. 50.23, which shows, on the left, the counting rate
~ ,=L eeLILs of one of the early epithermal neutron devices as a func-
cp, D L , . . (37) tion of porosity, and on the right as a function of slowing-
down length. The matrix effect is much reduced in the
Slowmg-Down Length.Ls.cm
Fig. 50.23-Counting rates for a long-spacing epiihermal detector in test formations of varrous porositres.
On the left, the data are plotted as a function of the formation porosity with th:ee data trends
resulting that car respond to the three matrices of the test formattons. On the right, the same
data have been replotted as a function of the corresponding slowing-down length for each of
the test formattons.
second presentation. It also shows how the counting rate

'6
s
az in any other material, once its slowing-down length has
m5 been calculated, then can be estimated or, conversely, how
.E
z the slowing-down length of the formation can be deter-
a 4 mined from a measurement of the epithermal flux. It was
u
seen in Fig. 50.11 that the slowing-down length is strongly
23
6
dependent on the amount of hydrogen present in the mix-
7 ture for which it is calculated.
k 2
z"
Fig. 50.11 also shows the slowing-down length as a
6 '
function of porosity for three common matrix materials:
.o limestone, dolomite, and sandstone. From this presenta-
z 0
LT 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 100 tion, it can be seen that if the matrix is known, the appro-
Porosity, %
priate true porosity can be determined. As an operational
expedient it has been convenient to convert the epither-
mal counting rate into porosity directly, assuming a lime-
Fig. 50.24-The ratio of near to far detector counting rates as
stone matrix with a slight correction to be made for the
a function of porosity for a thermal neutron porosi-
ty device. other two matrices. The separation of the three curves
in the previous figure suggests how such a correction is
made.
One of the first really quantitative devices of this type
used a single epithermal detector in a skid applied mechan-
ically against the borehole wall. This sidewall epithermal
neutron device had the advantage of minimizing borehole
effects, although it is sensitive to the actual size of the
borehole and can be disturbed by the presence of mud-
cake between the pad surface and the borehole wall.
A more recent development is the dual-detector com-
c pensated neutron device. This type of device uses a pair
of thermal detectors for increased counting rate to improve
the statistical uncertainty of the derived porosity values
at high porosity. The second detector, the nearer to the
source, is used to provide compensation for borehole ef-
-Sandstone fects. Although thermal neutron detection is used, it can
be shown8 that if the source-to-detector spacings are ap-
propriately chosen, the ratio of the two counting rates
should vary exponentially as the inverse of the slowing-
down length just as in the case of the single epithermal
detector. In practice, however, it is found that some ad-
ditional corrections must be made to the measurements,
which can deviate from expected values if the thermal cap-
+ ture properties of the borehole and formation are signifi-
cantly different. These generally are provided by the
-A- service companies in the forms of charts or nomographs.
More recently they have been provided as a part of com-
puterized interpretation.
The migration length, discussed in an earlier section,
provides a convenient way to characterize the response
YY
of the thermal neutron device. Fig. 50.24, taken from Ed-
90 loo
mundson,’ shows the ratio of the near to the far count-
Porosity, p.u,
ing rate of such a device for three types of lithologies as
a function of porosity. If the porosity values on the points
Fig. 50.25-The calculated migration length, L,, as a function of this plot are converted through the use of Fig. 50.25,
of porosity for the three principal matrices: sand-
stone, limestone, and dolomite. which shows the migration length, L, , as a function of
porosity, then the counting rates for the three lithologies
lie on a single ljne, as seen in Fig. 50.26. This demon-
strates that the response characteristics of the neutron
porosity tools are given by some function of the slowing-
down length and diffusion length rather than porosity.
Although the API committee6 that set up the gamma
ray calibration standards also took some steps to stan-
dardize neutron log responses, their recommendations for
API units have not been implemented. The conventional
approach to neutron log output is to calibrate the tool in
limestone primary formations and to report all readings
NUCLEAR LOGGING TECHNIQUES 50.21
in apparent limestone porosity. Conversion charts are then

necessary to correct the apparent limestone porosity for q Sandslone (Quartz)
the matrix in which the measurement actually was made. 0 Limestone
(As noted previously, some consideration should be given 4 Dolomite
to using the slowing-down length and diffusion length as @ Water (100%)
the units for reporting the log measurements.) These meas-
urements would be converted to porosity by use of charts
similar to Figs. 50.11 and 50.25, lying entirely in the
2-
realm of interpretation.
One of the biggest limitations of the thermal porosity l-
device is the disturbance on the measurement that can be
01 I
caused by shale, either from its iron or potassium con- 7.5 10 15 23 25 30 35
tent or associated trace elements with high thermal cap- Migration Length, Lm, cm
ture cross section. However, even without the additional
disturbance of thermal absorbers, clays and shales pre-
sent a problem for all neutron porosity interpretation be- Fig. 50.26-The ratio data of Fig. 50.24 plotted as a function of
the migration length, L,, corresponding to the
cause of the hydroxyls associated with the clay mineral
matrix and porosity of the test formation meas-
structure. Fig. 50.27 illustrates this point by showing the urements.
variation of slowing-down length of a sand/illite and
sand/kaolinite mixture as a function of porosity. In both
cases the sand and shale volumes are in equal proportions.
It is clear that if the presence of clay in addition to the
sand is not taken into account, large errors in porosity
32.1
can result. Also note that the apparent porosity of kaolinite
is much larger than that of illite. The examples shown
in the figures indicate that a 20-PU sand/illite mixture will
appear to be about 2.5 PU, whereas the 20-PU
sandjkaolinite mixture will have an apparent porosity of 27.5
about 36 PU. This will be seen in a later section to be

caused by the differing hydroxyl content of these two clay
minerals.
It is also of note that the most recent neutron porosity
device consists of a pair of thermal and a pair of epither-
mal detectors. This enables measuring an apparent porosi-
ty unaffected by thermal absorbers and simultaneously
obtaining a measurement of the macroscopic thermal ab-
sorption coefficient, C, which additionally describes the
formation.
Pulsed Neutron Logging Devices

12.5
Pulsed neutron logging devices respond to the macroscop-
ic thermal absorption capture cross section. The macro-
10.0
scopic thermal absorption cross section depends on the
chemical constituents of the matrix and pore fluids. Chlo-
7.5
rine, which is nearly always a constituent of formation
waters, has a large absorption cross section. Thus, a meas-
5.0
urement of the absorption cross section can provide the 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
means of identifying salt water and measuring formation Porosity, p.u.

fluid saturation.
To determine the macroscopic thermal cross section, Fig. 50.27-The calculated slowing-down length as a function
the actual phenomenon being measured is the lifetime of of porosity for sand and sand/clay mixtures. For the
thermal neutrons in an absorptive medium. In a manner two lower lines the matrix is composed of equal mix-
analogous to radioactive decay, we can predict the time- tures, by volume, of sand and kaolinite or illite.
dependent behavior of thermal neutrons. The reaction rate
for thermal neutron absorption is given by the product
of the macroscopic cross section C and the velocity of the
neutron, v. So for a system of NN neutrons the rate of
thermal absorption is given by
dNN= -Cvdt, . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . (38)
which when integrated yields
NN=NiC”“, ... ... . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . (39)

tn Fast Neutron
Burst from
Since the derivation of the decay-time measurement is
based on the simple model of a cloud of thermal neutrons
being present and then decaying, it is of some interest to
see just how long it is after the burst of 14-MeV neutrons
Pulsed Source
z that they become thermalized. To estimate this time we
2
> need only to refer to the section on neutron physics, where
c the average number of collisions for thermalization and
: the mean free path were discussed. The simplest estimate
7 Build-up & Decay of the time required is to suppose that between each col-
z of Thermal Neutrons lision the average distance traveled is the mean free path
(l/C,). The time between one collision and the next, At,
is then given approximately by
1
0 100 200 300
Time, ks At,i’ c, v, . . . . . . . . . . . . ..I............ ..(41)
Fig. 50.28--Schematic timing diagram of a pulsed neutron cap-

ture/gamma ray device. where C, is the total cross section and v is given in terms
of the energy E by Eq. 23. The 1Iv factor can be replaced
by using Eq. 23 in conjunction with the expression (Eq.
30) for the average number of collisions, a, yielding
which relates the number present at time t to an initial
number Ni at time zero. The exponential decay constant 1
is seen to depend inversely on the desired quantity C. -oQ~'*, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(42)
The practical realization of such a pulsed neutron log- V
ging device depends on a pulsed source of high-energy

neutrons. Such a device was discussed previously. The where E is the average logarithmic energy decrement de-
basic mode of operation consists of pulsing the source of fined in Eq. 25.
14-MeV neutrons for a brief period. This forms a cloud The value of an average mean free path for formations
of high-energy neutrons in the borehole and formation, of interest can be estimated from Fig. 50.10. From the
which then becomes thermalized through multiple colli- above information, the total time, t, (psec), from emis-
sions. This process is illustrated in Fig. 50.28. Only at sion to thermal energies is given by
thermal energies does the absorption become important
and the neutrons begin to disappear in accordance with
Eq. 39. As each neutron is captured, whether it be by
hydrogen or chlorine, gamma rays are emitted, and the
decay of the gamma ray counting rate is the actual meas-
urement that reflects the decay of the neutron population. Evaluation of this expression for 20%-porosity limestone
As seen from Eq. 39, the decay constant for a particu- gives an estimate of about 2.8 psec and in water it is only
lar formation is given by 1lv.L The value of the capture 0.5 psec, both of which are much smaller than the decay
cross section C is listed in Table 50.4 for a number of times shown in Table 50.4.
pertinent cases. Included in the table is the decay time Numerous measurement schemes are used for control-
associated with the particular matrix, which was computed ling the period during which the 14-MeV neutrons are
from the relationship produced and the period during which the gamma rays
are measured. Some devices use dual-detector systems in
K an attempt to correct for the small disturbance that can
?d=- c , .............................. be introduced by the borehole size and salinity as well
abs as to provide some measure of the porosity.
where K is 4550 psec, because v for thermal neutrons is Inelastic and Capture Gamma Ray Spectrometry
0.22 cmlpsec and Cabs, the thermal absorption cross sec-
The primary motivation for the development of induced
tion, is in capture units.
gamma ray spectroscopy devices was the possibility of
performing in-situ chemical analysis of the formation con-
stituents. The tantalizing possibility of directly measuring
the ratio of the number of carbon atoms to oxygen atoms
TABLE 50.4-CAPTURE CROSS SECTIONS
AND DECAY TIMES
and thus providing the first direct downhole measurement
of the presence of hydrocarbons spurred the development
c it/ of a number of technologically sophisticated devices. This
- (C.U.) -(w=c) is to be contrasted with a traditional approach that depends
Quartz 4.26 1066 on the analysis of a core or side-wall sample.
Dolomite 4.7 966 Tools of this type are based on a type of chemical anal-
Lime 7.07 643
20-PU lime 10.06 452 ysis that can be performed through the use of neutrons
Waler 22 206 and gamma ray spectroscopy. Neutrons are used to ex-
Salt water (26% NaCI) 125 36 cite the nuclei, which then emit gamma rays of precise
energies uniquely identifying the isotope in question.

There are two neutron reactions that can produce such
gamma ray emissions: inelastic scattering, which can
occur with very-high-energy neutrons, and capture reac-
tions with thermalized neutrons as exploited in pulsed neu-
tron logging.
Few elements for well-logging applications have large
inelastic cross sections, but fortunately carbon and oxy-
gen do. Fig. 50.29 shows the cross sections for the pro-
duction of gamma rays from inelastic scattering from
carbon and oxygen. These inelastic induced gamma rays
are observed not only by spectroscopic gamma ray de-
tection but also in conjunction with timing. To avoid con-
fusion with gamma rays produced from thermal capture,
the inelastic gamma rays are detected during the burst of
14-MeV neutrons. At some later time, gamma rays aris-
ing from thermal absorption are detected, providing sen-
sitivity to a large number of elements such as H, Fe, Cl,
Si, Ca, S, etc. At least two different neutron pulsing and
gamma ray detection sequences are currently in use. One
method lo uses a fixed time of about 50 to 100 psec be-
tween neutron bursts, and another method, ’’ which col-
lects information on the capture gamma rays, uses a
variable neutron-pulse interval that is controlled by the
I I I J
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
characteristic decay time of the thermalized neutrons.
Tool design differences can optimize the detection of
Neutron Energy, E,, MeV the inelastic or capture gamma rays. Some designs incor-
porate the measurement of both through appropriate tim-
Fig. 50.29-Cross sections for the production of inelastic gam- ing cycles. In addition to the measurement of the gamma
ma rays by carbon and oxygen as a function of the ray yields of the various elements, the macroscopic cross
incident neutron energy.
section C can be determined from an analysis of the de-
cay of the total gamma ray signal, which is also meas-
ured. The only practical limitation on the number of
elements is determined by counting statistics and the in-
herent detector resolution.
GeDetector An experimental tool that uses a high-resolution Ge de-
tector has measured more than two dozen different ele-
ments in borehole logging. This type of detector must be
operated at very low temperatures (- I96”C), which in-
troduces a number of technological problems for bore-
hole measurements. However. the advantage that it brings
is in the much improved resolution, which increases the
number of distinct gamma rays that can be distinguished
in the spectrum. Fig. 50.30 shows the dramatic improve-
ment compared to a conventional NaI detector for the ex-
amination of a natural uranium sample. Two elements that
are readily detectable with such a device are aluminum,
which is very useful in the classification and quantifica-
tion of in-situ clays, and vanadium, which can be
correlated I2 with the API gravity of the associated oil.
Gamma Ray Energy. MeV Interpretation of Nuclear Logs

The following section discusses how the previously men-
Fig. 50.30-Comparison spectra from a high-resoluhon solid- tioned nuclear logging tools are used in interpretation.
state detector (Ge) compared to the gamma ray However, it should be stated at the outset that this is not
spectrum detected with a more conventional Nal de- intended to be a self-contained log interpretation course.
tector.
A number of references’“-” of such works should be
consulted for further information.
The approach taken here is more or less a stand-alone
interpretation of each tool. An examination of all the com-
bination measurements and the interpretation techniques
used with each tool is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Nonetheless, several of the more standard tool combina-
tion interpretation approaches are discussed. Fig. 50.31
Interpretation Steps Nuclear Measurements Used
‘.’,.
: I Cor;el~iions of ’ ” ’ : “j”j ‘. I : ~ :‘.: i : : : : jGamma Ray j j I ; : : :
/ “Clean” Zones :: ‘. 1 j : i Natural Th, U.K. Spectrosc&

,. : .:
‘. G&n&Density ‘: :
Porosity
.. Neutron Pordsity : : :
,,
//“’
-Photoelectric F&&r ip,‘betisity/Neutron ’
Lithology &
Induced Gamma Spectroscopy:
Clay Typing
High Resolution’Gamma Ray Spectroscopy
I /
Pulsed Neutron
Saturation
C/O~(Gamma Spectroscopy)
Fig. 50.31-four interpretation tasks and the nuclear measurements associated with them.
indicates four of the steps in the interpretation process When thorium and uranium are measured in ppm and
and the nuclear measurements used to obtain the desired potassium in weight percent, it is found that ratios of the
results. The indicated list of measurement devices or tech- coefficients (A:B:C) are 1:2:4; i.e., 1 wt % K contributes
niques is in the order of the discussion that follows. four times more to YAPI than 1 ppm of thorium. It is ob-
vious from this that in a shaly sand, if a mineral rich in
Interpretation of Gamma Ray Measurements potassium (such as mica) is present, the total gamma ray
The gamma ray log traditionally has been used for cor- signal will increase and give a false indication of pcrcen-
relating zones from well to well, crude lithology identifi- tage shale when, in fact, this additional radioactivity is
cation, and rough volume of shale estimation. With the caused by the mica.
current state of knowledge of clay composition and other There are two solid reasons for using a spectral gam-
more refined lithology determinations, it is clear that the ma ray measurement over the standard gamma ray, which
surest use of the gamma ray is, indeed, for correlation. is really reliable only for correlation. The first is for the
For estimating the volume of shale, the approach is to detection of radioactive anomalies, such as referred to
scan the log for minimum and maximum gamma ray read- previously, and the second is to make some estimation
ings, Ymin and ymax. The minimum reading then is of the clay types by classifying them in terms of the rela-
assumed to be the clean point and the maximum reading tive contributions of the three radioactive components. For
is taken as the shale point. Then the gamma ray reading this second point the reader is referred to publications on
in API units at any other point in the well, ylog , is scaled spectral gamma ray interpretation. I*-*’
accordingly: Fig. 50.32 shows a log example from the North Sea
in a micaceous sand. At 10,612 to 10,620 ft, a shale is
Ylog -Ymin
indicated that has a total gamma ray signal of about 90
V sh a . . .._................... API units. With just the total gamma ray as an indicator
Ymax -Ymin it appears that the zone 10,568 to 10,522 ft contains about
half the amount of shale estimated for the lower zone.
This ratio usually is referred to as the gamma ray index However, the decomposition of the gamma ray signal
and can be scaled into percent shaliness according to shows quite clearly that the amounts of U, Th, and K in
charts I3 depending o n rock type. This method is some- these two zones are quite different. In fact, the upper zone
times appropriate, if in fact the maximum gamma ray is a mixture of sand and mica, whereas the lower zone
reading corresponds to the same type of shale as the values is, indeed, shale.
that are being interpreted. In the next example, Fig. 50.33, the gamma ray alone
Numerous examples show the deficiencies of this would indicate that below the lower boundary of the shale
method, and for this reason the spectral gamma ray tool bed at 12,836 ft, there is a relatively clean sand. It can
was developed. Tools of this type measure, in fact, the be seen, however, from the K trace that the high level
relative concentration of three radioactive components of of potassium in the shale zone persists several feet below
the total gamma ray signal. It is interesting to point out 12,836. This excess potassium was found to be caused
the relationship between the concentration of the three by feldspar, which has considerable impact on the grain
radioactive components and the total gamma ray signal density to be used in the interpretation of density logs.
in API units. It is given by The third example, Fig. 50.34, shows how a uranium-
rich formation would be misinterpreted (in simple gam-
YAPt=AxTh+BxU+CxK. . . (45) ma ray interpretation) as being shale. The sudden increase
, -#
Gamma Ray Depths Thorium Uranium Potassium
50 4J 0
0 API 200 0 ppm200 wmloo % 5 50 %o 0
Fig. 50.32-A spectral gamma ray log from the North Sea in a micaceous sand.
Porosity and
Gamma Ray Depths Thorium Uranium Potassium Fluids Analysis
bv Volume
Hydrocarbon I water
Fig. 50.33-A spectralgamma ray log from Nigeria where a continuing trace of K is attributed to the presence of feldspar.
in uranium content alone signals that this is not a simple which volumetrically links the density of the pore fluid,
shale of the variety in the adjacent levels. Core analysis pf, and the rock matrix density, pmo, to the bulk densi-
showed this zone, however, to be rich in organic materi- ty, Pb.
al and U is often trapped in organic complexes. However, there are a few difficulties to overcome to
interpret the output of such a density device, especially
the matter of electron density index, oe. It was shown
Porosity Determination
in an earlier discussion that the gamma-gamma density
Gamma-Gamma Density Devices. The basic output of device is measuring the electron density index. Table 50.3
the gamma-gamma density device, bulk density, is con- shows a comparison between bulk density and electron
ceptually the simplest measured parameter to interpret in density index. It is in close correspondence for nearly all
terms of porosity. The basic relation (Eq. 1) is the compounds listed except for water and hydrocarbons.
This is because the average value of Z/A is about % for
Pb =d’&‘f+(l -d’h’ma, all elements except hydrogen. It is seen that because of
Tppm Uwm K%
0 GRAPl 150 0 20, 0 10,o 5 0 100 %
B i i i i i i / i4
Fig. 50.34-A spectral gamma ray log showing a zone of anomalous U concentration
this discrepancy for hydrogen, the bulk density and elec- Returning to the interpretation problem, the solution of
tron density index of water differ by about 11% Eq. 1 for porosity yields
To compensate for this fact, a simple transform of the
electron density index is made so that in water-filled lime-
Pm -Pb
stone the transformed or log density, p log. agrees with $=- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (47)
the bulk density. Fig. 50.35 shows this simple transform p*-Pf’ .
where the bulk density for 0-PU limestone and water are
plotted against the electron density values. The equation so the problem rests on knowing the values to insert for
of the straight line connecting these two points, fluid and matrix density. Before examining the means for
determining these values, it is perhaps of some interest
to know to what precision these two parameters must be
pb=1.07~p,-o.188, . . . .. . . . . (46) known.
It is interesting to look at the uncertainty that can be
tolerated on the value used for the matrix density, pm0 .
corresponds to the published transform I4 used by the log- From the previous equation we can write
ging companies. It is worthwhile to point out that this
1
transformed density, p l0g, will also agree to within 0.004 Pb -Pmo 1
g/cm3 for the other principal matrix materials listed in dC$= -~ ap,. (48)
the table. (Pf-PmlJ2 Pf -Pm2
As mentioned earlier, the modern gamma-gamma den-

sity devices are compensated measuring devices. They use
two detectors at different spacings from the gamma ray
source to compensate for the possible intervening pres-
ence of mudcake or drilling fluid. Normally. in addition
2.5 to the density curve the log will also show a trace of the
compensation, generally referred to as the Ap curve. This
curve represents the correction made to the apparent den-
sity seen by the long-spacing detector (P,,~) based on the
discrepancy between the long- and short-spacing meas-
urements.
The counting rate from either detector can be convert-
ed to an ap arent density after a series of laboratory
calibrations. Y* If there is not any intervening material be-
tween the tool surface and the formation being measured,
then the two values will be equal. As the mudcake thick-
ness increases, the two density values will diverge for
some reasonable value of thickness (generally less than
1 in.). The quantity Ap is determined by experimentation,
as a function of the density differences, to be the amount
to be added to the apparent long-spacing density, pls, to
match the bulk density of the formation-i.e.,
1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3
p,,=pls +Ap. ...,... . ... . (50)
Electron Density, per g/cc
Although it commonly is thought that Ap is a measure
Fig. 50.35-The transform between the measured electron den- of the mudcake thickness, h,,, it is, in fact, proportion-
sity index, pe, and bulk density, pb.
al to the product of mudcake thickness and the density
contrast between the mudcake, pmc, and the formation
density-i.e.,
If this is evaluated for the case of a sand of about 30% Apcxh,,(pb -pmc). ... . ... . (51)
porosity we can use the values pb =2.16, pf= 1.OO, and
pmn =2.65 and obtain Beyond some thickness (- 1 in.), the compensation
scheme will break down and the ph value will be in
doubt. However, this point cannot be identified simply
d$=0.43dp,. ... . ... . . . . . (49)
by use of a cutoff value of Ap. A very small gap of water
(p,, = 1) in front of a low-porosity formation would yield
Thus, for the uncertainty in 4 to be less than 0.02, the a large value of Ap and yet be perfectly compensated for,
uncertainty in p ma must be less than 0.05 g/cm3. A more whereas a 1-in.-thick mudcake of medium density in front
detailed analysis of the uncertainty in grain density that of a high-porosity zone may yield a small Ap with some
can be tolerated can be found in Ref. 2 1. residual error in the compensation. Nonetheless, it is cer-
For values of fluid density it is necessary to know the tain that the Ap curve will be used as quality control on
type of fluid in the pores. The fluid density for hydrocar- the bulk density with some fixed cutoff value despite this
bon may range from 0.2 to 0.8. Salt-saturated water caution.
(NaCI) may be as high as 1.2 g/cm 3, and with the pres-
ence of CaCl2, values even as great as 1.4 g/cm 3 may Neutron Porosity Devices. Modem neutron porosity
occur. However, the uncertainty that can be tolerated in devices are of two types, depending on the energy range
pf is much greater than that for p ma. An error analysis of detection: thermal or epithermal. By convention. the
of Eq. 41 for the values chosen above shows that log output usually is scaled in equivalent limestone porosi-
&#J=O. 188pf, which allows about double the margin of ty units. Under appropriate circumstances, this would cor-
error. respond to the true porosity of a clean, water-filled
The value for matrix density in simple cases can be limestone formation. In the following discussion it is
taken from Table 50.3, which shows a rather narrow var- assumed that the log reading already has been corrected
iation between 2.65 g/cm3 for quartz and 2.96 g/cm3 for for the various environmental effects. In addition to the
anhydrite. Grain densities for shales are an entirely environmental corrections that must be made before the
separate matter and will not be covered here. The obvi- porosity values are interpreted, there are three effects that
ous problem left is assigning a matrix density, which can must be considered in more detail.
only be done with a knowledge of the lithology. In es- Matrix Efsect. As in density logging, it is necessary
sence, all density interpretation aimed at porosity deter- to know the rock matrix to make any practical use of the
mination revolves on this. app:lent limestone porosity value measured. Fig. 50.36
Before going on to the determination of lithology and shows, for a thermal and an epithermal device, the matrix
thus an estimate of grain density, quality control of the correction necessary to transform the measured units into
density measurement should be discussed. the appropriate porosity units. It should be noted that these
-SNP’
--CNL.
30 0
-%NP’mr Neutron PorosityIndex ILimestone~.
p.u 0 10 20 30 40
--r&l CNLlcorNeutron PorosityIndex (Limestonel.
p.u Porosity, p.u.
Fig. 50.36-Matrix correction chart for two specific neutron Fig. 50.37-Experimental values for the ratio of epithermal
porosity tools. counting rates as a function of porosity in limestone
calibration formations.
two charts are for two very specific tools (CNL* and that allows the prediction of the measured ratio from the
SNP*). When such tools are involved, the appropriate known slowing-down length of the formation.
chart for the corresponding tool should be used, since 3. The next step is to establish the connection between
some of the so-called matrix effect is tool-design depend- the slowing-down length, L, , and porosity for limestone
ent. However, a large part of the matrix effect can be un- as shown in Fig. SO.39 and seen earlier in Fig. 50.11.
derstood in terms of the two basic parameters used to This curve now represents the limestone “transform” of
describe the bulk parameters of the formation (i.e., the Eq. 52 and the porosity axis represents true porosity.
slowing-down length and the migration length). 4. The slowing-down lengths of sandstone and dolo-
First consider the case of epithermal detection. To dem- mite now are calculated as a function of porosity and are
onstrate the construction of the matrix-effect correction shown also in Fig. 50.39. They fall on either side of the
curves, there are four steps to consider. limestone response because of their different chemical
1. The first step is the link between the measurement compositions, which influence their slowing-down
(for this case we take the simple case of using the ratio lengths.
of near- to far-detector counting rate) and porosity in the
primary laboratory calibration standards. This is a
freshwater-filled limestone with g-in. borehole. Fig. 50.37
shows the behavior of the ratio, F=NN,, lNNe as a func-
tion of limestone porosity, +rS. From this plot a fit can
be established to ascribe a functiqnal relationship between
the measured parameter F and the limestone porosity @jS,
F=J@,,). .. .. . ..... .... .. . . . . . . (52)
2. In the second step, the relationship between the meas-

ured parameter F and the slowing-down length, L, , must
be established for measurement in all three of the prin-
cipal matrices. That this can be done easily is shown in
Fig. 50.38, where measurements in quartz, dolomite, and
limestone are shown for a range of porosities. From this
plot a new fit can be found,
F=f(L,), . .... ... .... . . . . . . . (53)

Fig. 50.38-Data of Fig. 50.37 plotted as a function of the equiva-
lent slowing-down length, L,, of the corresponding
‘Mark of Schlumberger formations.
The apparent limestone porosity for either formation

can be found by selecting a porosity, lo-PU sandstone
for example, and finding the corresponding slowing-down
length (approximately 15.5 cm). The apparent limestone
25.0 porosity then is obtained by finding the porosity associated
with the limestone formation of the same 15, value. In this
case it is 8.5 PU. The same case for dolomite indicates
14 PU instead of 10 PU.
A similar procedure can be used for a thermal neutron
porosity device. As shown earlier, it has been found use-
ful to cast the results in terms of the migration length
L m. 9 Because the L, contains some information con-
cerning the macroscopic thermal absorption cross section,
the results are qualitatively similar to the preceding but
differ slightly in magnitude. This can be seen by perform-
ing the preceding exercise on the plots of L, vs. porosity
of Fig. 50.25.
Fig. 50.40 shows the neutron/density crossplot for a
dual-detector thermal device. The matrix effect can be ob-
served by comparing the equiporosity points on the in-
dividual lithology lines with the apparent limestone
porosity scale on the abscissa. These discrepancies are
the same as indicated in the portion of Fig. 50.36 indi-
cated as “thermal.” Ref. 23 discusses the effect of ab-
sorbers on the thermal tool response.
Gas Effect. Neutron porosity devices have been
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
calibrated for liquid-filled porosity. However, the replace-
Porosity, p.u ment of the liquid in the pores by gas will have a con-
siderable impact on the slowing-down length of the
Fig. 50.39-Estimation of the epithermal matrix effect from formation and thus on the apparent porosity. In general
slowing-down length, L,. as a function of porosity
for sandstone and dolomite
terms, partial replacement of the water component of the
mixture by a much lighter gas will increase the neutron
slowing-down length and thus the apparent porosity will
decrease. The actual apparent porosity decrease will be
a function primarily of the true porosity, the water satu-
ration, the gas density, and, to some extent, the litholo-
gy. In a situation such as this, replacement of fluid in the
pores by a less-dense gas will decrease the bulk density
of the formation. These two effects have been exploited
in well logging by making the density and neutron porosity
measurements in a single measurement pass. On the log
presentation these two effects cause the density and neu-
tron traces to separate, which can be recognized easily
as being caused by the presence of gas, if the invasion
is less than 6 in.
To quantify the traditional neutron-density pas separa-
tion indication and to illustrate the possibility ofcstimat-
ing gas saturation from an epithermal neutron
mcasuremcnt and a density mcasurcmcnt. conxidcr Figs.
SO.41 and 50.42. In both these figures the slowing-down
length of a sand formation has been computed between
Lcro and 40 PU at 2-PU increments. These values of
slowing-down length have been plotted as a function ol
the corresponding bulk density of the formation for the
five gas saturations indicated on the figures. In the caxc
of Fig. 50.41. the gas density, P,~%has been taken to bc
Equtvalent Limestone Porosity, % O.OOI g/cm”. and in Fig. S0.47. the gas dcnslty has been
taken to be about 0.25 g/cm3. which covers the cntirc
Fig. 50.40-A neutron/density cross plot for a thermal neutron range possible under normal rcscrvoir conditions. In cithcr
porosity device. The lithology of a formatlon can be
cam it is clear that. for the presence 01‘gas at a fixed
identified by plotting points representlng o, (In
limestone porosity units) and pb. Point A may rep- poroGty. the slowing-down length is lqcr than th;lt ah-
resent a 22.p.u. limestone or. less likely, a mixture sociated with the water-tilled porosity. The mterpretation
of sandstone and dolomite. of this larger value of L, ih an apparent decrease in
porosity. In the caxc of the total ,:a\ saturation curve of
Fig. 50.41-A plot of slowing-down length, L,, vs. bulk densi- Fig. 50.42-Effect of gas saturation in sandstone for a gas den-
ty, pb, for sandstone formations with varying gas sity of 0.25 g/cm 3.
saturation. Invasion of borehole fluid is assumed to
be negligible and the gas density is taken to be 0.001
glcm3.
Fig. 50.41, L, values greater than - 28 cm would cor- +D

respond to zero or negative apparent porosities on the log 0.65 0.05
readings. @N
On the plots of L, vs. ph. a pair of points (L,, , p,,) will
yield the saturation and porosity corresponding to the con-
ditions of gas density specified. For both figures the as-
sumption for the calculation is that the matrix is sandstone
with no shale. The gas density difference for the two plots
spans the range of expected gas densities. The saturation
referred to on the figures is with reference to a gas/water
mixture. For the lowest curve on both figures, the porosity
is entirely filled with water.
Since the slowing-down length normally is not presented
on a neutron porosity log, an example taken from the log
600
of Fig. 50.43 can serve as a guide. From the gas zone
clearly indicated on this figure we can use the following
values for the illustration: @N, neutron porosity (sand)=
27 PU and $0, density porosity (sand)=35 PU.
The lowermost curves on Figs. 50.41 and SO.42 serve
to determine the correspondence between +N and the
slowing-down length. L, It is indicated by the horizon-
tal line to be about I I cm for this example. The density
porosity of 35 PU can be seen to correspond to a density
of about 2.07 g/cm”. as indicated by the vertical lint.
The intersection of these two points at the coordinate
(2.07. I I), shown in the figure, indicates about 25%’ gas
saturation in the case of a gas density of 0.25 g/cm” (Fig. 670
50.42), and a saturation of about 12.5% if the gas dcnsi-
ty ix taken to be nearly zero. The porosity of the forma-
tion can be found by following the slope of the
equiporosity lines from the example coordinate to the low-
er liquid-saturated line and is seen to indicate a value of
about 33 PU for both casts.
700
With more information concerning the gas properties
of a reservoir, this interpretation can be used instead to
yield an indication of the invasion of the drilling fluid into
the zone of investigation of the neutron and density
devices. Fig. 50.43-Log example of the neutron/density combination ex-
hibiting the characteristic crossover behavior In a
Shale Effect. Generally. the presence of shale tends to
gas zone.
increase the neutron porosity values. The reason for this
lies in two effects: additional hydrogen resulting from the
hydroxyls in the clay minerals, and in the case of ther-

mal porosity devices, the possibility of additional ther-
mal neutron absorbers such as boron associated with the
clay minerals.
Initially, consider the case of thermal absorbers and con-
sider just two types of clay minerals, kaolinite and illite.
For these two clays (and many others) we refer to the data
compiled by Edmundson et al. 9 The chemical formula
for kaolinite is A14Si40 tc(OH)s and the formula for il-
lite is K2Si6A1sFe302e(OH)4.
The important point to note about these formulations
is the differing amount of (OH). A rough calculation in-
dicates that kaolinite has about one-third the hydrogen den-
sity of water and that illite, with a lesser amount of
hydroxyls, has about one-tenth the hydrogen density of
water. In the case of either of these “pure” clay miner-
Fig. 50.44-Comparison of (1/L,)3 for sandstone, kaolinite, and als, a neutron porosity device will detect some large value
illite as a function of porosity. The apparent porosi- of porosity, since the slowing-down length will be influ-
ty of pure illite is seen to be about 53 p.u. and for enced greatly by the presence of the (OH) components.
illite, 12 p.u.
That the slowing-down length is considerably affected
can be seen in Fig. 50.44, which shows the value of L,
of sand, illite, and kaolinite from 0 to 100 PU. The or-
dinate in this figure is (1/L,)3, which has been chosen
because it tends to vary linearly with the combination of
two materials of differing values of L c. Values for the
two pure clay minerals are indicated at 0 PU. From the
figure, the apparent porosity would be about 53 PU for
pure kaolinite and about 12 PU for illite. This is consis-
tent with the trend expected from the hydrogen density.
For the slowing-down length, the choice of the replace-
ment of three Fe atoms for three Al atoms is immaterial,
but it will have an impact on the thermal neutron absorp-
tion because of capture by the iron.
By using a plot similar to Fig. 50.44, the expected
response of an epithermal neutron porosity device to a
mixture of kaolinite and sand can be predicted. Fig. 50.45
shows an example of this. In the case of a true 30 PU
(that is, 30% of the volume is water-filled), the mixed-
Flg. 50.45-Variation of (l/L,)3 vs. porosity for sand and matrix line indicates the change of L, with a change in
sandlkaolinite mixtures. A line at 30 p.u. indicates the sand/kaolinite matrix. Following the indicated line,
the effect of changing the matrix from sand to a matrix of 70% sand and 30% kaolinite would have an
kaolinite, and another indicates the change in
apparent porosity of about 41% compared to the actual
(l/L,)3 expected when the 30 p.u. is filled progres-
sively with kaolinite. value of 30 % .
On the other hand, we can take the case of 30 PU, or
more precisely the case of 70 ~01% being sand, and ask
what happens to the value of L, as the porosity is filled
“I 1 with kaolinite. This process also is indicated by the
porosity-infilling line in Fig. 50.45. It is clear that the
endpoint of this line must lie on the line of the 30/70
kaolinite mixture. As indicated in this case, the minimum
apparent porosity as deduced from the slowing-down
length will be about 12 PU where, in fact, there will be
no porosity available for fluids.
The impact on thermal neutron porosity devices is
0 LM+6w somewhat more difficult to predict and will depend in de-
q so +sw
tail on the tool design and consequent response. A simi-
lar type of graphical construction using the migration
A WL+sW
length instead of the slowing-down length can be used to
l LM+Fw+B
see that for the normal neutron absorbers, such as iron,
I 6 I in the clay minerals there is not a large effect. However,
0 10 20 30
Ax, cu
if boron is present in any substantial quantity, this will
not be the case. To deal with this problem Arnold et al. 24
Fig. 50.46-Correction for a thermal neutron porosity tool as a have determined experimentally a correction for the ap-
function of the formation, C.‘4 parent porosity of a dual-detector thermal neutron porosity
device as a function of the macroscopic absorption cross

section KL of the formation. It is shown in Fig. 50.46.
Despite the foregoing discussion. it must be recognized
that neutron porosity devices do. in fact, respond to
porosity. among other things. The dynamic range of the
measurement at low porosity is excellent because of the
sensitivity of the slowing-down length in this range. The
problems of interpretation caused by the influence of shale
are tractable when the neutron measurements arc com-
bined with other tools.
Lithology Determination
Neutron/Density Combination. One of the traditional
methods of lithology interpretation is the neutron/densi-
ty combination. The useful property of combining these
two measurements can be seen in Fig. 50.40: the three
principal lithologies form three different response lines.
The grain density. P,,~~,. increases in an almost linear
fashion from sand to dolomite. so that it is tempting to
draw lines of equal grain density for intermediate points Neutron Porosity
Index.4,.,,.
P.U.
that do not lie on any of the three lines. This type of
presentation is shown in Fig. 50.47. With this approach, Fig. 50.47-Extracting apparent grain density, prna, from the
the particular lithology mixture is not of great importance neutron/density cross plot.
but a fair estimation of the appropriate grain density is
obtained despite the fact that p,,],, is not a characterizing
parameter for neutron logs. One elementary use of the Fpr curve in conjunction
The combination of the neutron and density measure- with density is to make a simple two-mineral model. This
ments in this fashion can solve only simple binary miner- is no more than formalization of the relationships seen
al combinations. To interpret the results unambiguously, in the preceding figure. This is done by solving the fol-
the two minerals must be known. For example, one can lowing set of equations for U and p, and using the fact
imagine a result. marked as Point A on Fig. 50.40, aris- that the volumes sum to unity:
ing from a formation consisting of a sand and dolomite
mixture. In this case, with no additional knowledge. the u,,,,=iJ,v, +U2V2+iJf$,
interpretation of the indicated point, intermediate between
dolomite and sandstone. would be limestone. plog=p,V, +prV2+pf.$. (56)
Photoelectric Factor. Discrepancies such as these can be
and
resolved by the use of additional information. In particu-
lar. one such nuclear measurement is the photoelectric
I=V, + v2 ++.
factor. F,,, It is convenient for purposes of interpreta-
tion to use the quantity U (Eq. 36). It has the property
of combining volumetrically for the case of several sub-
stances being present in the scattering region whose in-
dividual absorption characteristics can be computed. For
a two-component system (fluid and matrix) of porosity
C#Jthis can be written as
u=ufc#l+u,,,,,(1 -f$). (54)
F,,,. for this mixture then can be determined from Eq. 36,
where
P~=(Pc)l.~+(Pr),,,n(l -4). .(55)
The results of this type of computation are shown in the

crossplot of Fig. 50.48, which shows how F,,,. varies as
a function of density for the three principal matrices: lime-
stone. dolomite, and sandstone. The interesting thing
about this presentation is the order in which the three lines
fall; dolomite now is bracketed by limestone and sand-
stone. It is obvious that in the hypothetical case of the
Bulk Omsity, pb,g/cc
sandy dolomite. given previously. the ambiguity about the
presence of limestone would be removed when inspect- Fig. 50.46-A cross plot of the photoelectric factor vs. density.
ing the corresponding value of F,,,, In this case it would Lines for the three principa! matrices are indicated.
clearly indicate a sand/dolomite mixture. The points represent the sampled log data.
Iron Content To demonstrate the quantitative nature of the F,‘,,, mcas-

D-l% by Weight) -10% 1 F urement, consider the following argument for the deter-
pe-3
mination of the weight percent of a trace photoelectric
absorber in an otherwise two-component system. If F,,,,.,
represents the photoelectric factor of the trace absorber
and the associated volume fraction is V, (which is con-
sidered to be much smaller than unity), the following ap-
proximate equation applies:
1600 XMeasuredl
(1~~,~+CI,,,(,(l~~)+II,V,, . . .. .. . . (57)
where V., < < 1 and
U,=p,,F,,<~,. _. _. .(58)
Note that the third term in this equation represents the

product of the trace element absorption factor and its as-
sociated mass contained in I cm3:
U,V., =F,,<.\.p.,V\. _. _. _. .(59)
Thus. the weight per cubic centimeter of the absorber can

be determined from the measured parameter (i.e.. from
the product of the measured p and F,,,,) Cl from the fol-
lowing:
~-~,~-~,,,,A~-~)
p,v\= (6’3)
F ,w,
The fraction by weight of the solid fraction. f\, , is then

given by
Fig. 50.49-A log example showing the conversion of the excess

F,, in a shaly sand to the weight fraction of iron.
In Track 1, the estimate from Fpe (Eq. 61) is com-
pared to values obtained by core analysis.
An interesting application of this idea is shown for the

log data of Fig. 50.48. The measured F,,,, curve is shown
in Track 2 of Fig. 50.49 along with the curve of the an-
The indicated parameters for the two suspected minerals ticipated F,, based on pure sandstone. The shading rep-
can be inserted in this equation to solve for the appropri- resents the “excess” photoelectric factor, which can be
ate porosity and lithology mix. converted to percent weight of iron by use of the above
However, there is no reason to limit this type ofanaly- argument. The resulting curve of the iron concentration
sis to two minerals. It can be expanded to many more with is found in Track 1 of Fig. 50.49, along with a series of
the addition of supplementary measurements such as Th, discrete measurements of the iron concentration made on
U. K. Al. Fe, and Si. The natural combination with the the core samples. The good argument demonstrates the
gamma ray spectral information has been shown useful validity of the supposition that, in this case, the F,,(, meas-
for complex mineralogy in which two different three- urement is responding primarily to the iron concentration
mineral combinations can be treated. 2s in the shale and the volume of shale present. A similar
Another interesting use of F,, can be to get an esti- procedure could be followed for any other suspected trace
mation of shale in sand. The F,,(>values measured in element of sufficient concentration and photoelectric ab-
shales are related primarily to their iron content. For an sorption factor.
example of this application, refer to Fig. 50.48. The data
points shown on the crossplot are from some sand and Induced-Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy. The induced gam-
shale sequences. The clean-sand points are evident by their ma spectroscopy tools are very important for lithology
placement with respect to the indicated sand line. The determination in complex situations. In the case of induced
shale points are those scattered to higher values of F,, . capture gamma rays a large number of elements can be
In this case the lithology measurement is responding to identified: hydrogen, silicon. calcium. iron, sulfur, and
the photoelectric absorption resulting from the iron as- chlorine. Lithology identification can be made by com-
sociated with the shale. In this particular case the shale paring the yields of particular elements. For example, an-
is known to be a mixture of kaolinite and illite and the hydrite is identified easily by the strong gamma ray yield
iron is associated with the illite. from sulfur and calcium associated with this mineral.
TABLE 50.5-ATOMIC DENSITIES IN UNITS OF

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER (6.023 x 10z3)
Density Oxygen Carbon

(g/cm 7 (atoms/cm3) (atoms/cm 3,
Limestone 2.71 0.081 0.027
Dolomite 2.87 0.094 0.031
Quartz 2.65 0.088 -
Anhydrite 2 96 0.087 -
Oil 0.85 - 0.061
Water 1.0 0.056 -
Limestone can be distinguished from sandstone by com-

paring the silicon and calcium yields. Numerous
references”.” show examples of these types of proce- Fig. 50.50-Gamma ray spectrum obtained with a high resolu-
dures as well as interpretation schemes proposed by some tion Ge gamma ray spectrometer and Cf neutron
service companies. source.
High-resolution spectroscopic devices will provide
enormous advances in mineralogical identification. Such
devices use solid-state gamma ray detectors instead of the
conventional Nat detectors, which suffer from poor reso- Vanadium Aluminium
lution. One of the most promising
devices is the possibility
measurements.
applications of such
of making aluminum activation
Because aluminum is a common consti-
tuent of clay minerals. it is well adapted to quantitative
clay content determination. As an example of the type of
.FEzik--
0 (w-d 200 0 (W
information that is obtainable from a high-resolution gam-

ma ray spectroscopy device. refer to Fig. 50.50. which
shows the gamma ray spectrum obtained after irradiation
of the formation with a zs’Cf source. Along with the
gamma rays from the naturally occurring thorium, ura-
nium. and potassium, the artificially produced radiation
from manganese, sodium, aluminum, and vanadium is
seen.
The gamma ray intensities from the aluminum and
vanadium isotopes can be used to produce a log calibrat-
ed in weight percent of the two elements. In the case of
the aluminum, the measurement is a continuous one made
at about 400 ftihr and is shown in Fig. 50.5 I along with
core measurements from the same well. To detect the
vanadium, since it is present in rather small amounts, sta-
tionary readings were taken. These values are indicated
along with error bars representing the uncertainty of the
measurement caused by counting statistics. These two
traces illustrate the type of detailed evaluations that can
be made by logging devices, which previously could be
made only with extensive core analysis.
Saturation Determination
Inelastic Gamma Ray Spectroscopy. Two nuclear tools
are well adapted for the determination of saturation. The
first is based on the determination of the ratio of carbon Fig. 50.51 -Aluminum and vanadium logs of an oil-bearing shaly
to oxygen atoms in the formation. The use of such a ratio sand derived from a high-resolution gamma ray
is shown clearly in Table 50.5. where it is seen that thcrc spectrometer. The solid bars represent the results
is a significant difference between the atomic C/O ratios of core analysis. The dashed bars indicate the log
value of vanadium and its statistical uncertainty.
of oil, water, and the common matrix minerals.
Fig. 50.52 shows how the atomic C/O ratio changes
as a function of porosity and water saturation for the three
principal matrices. From this figure it is clear that for
clean formations of a given lithology the interpretation
is relatively straightforward. An inherent difficulty in the
measurement is immediately obvious. At low porosities
the dynamic range of the C/O ratio as a function of water
S-36 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
0.7
0.6
0 0.5
‘Z
2
g 0.4
z
G
0.3
0.2
Porosity, +
/* ,./- Fig. 50.53--Solution of S, with Z.
0.1
,.aO/*
*-I . In terms of water saturation, the fluid component is broken
0 cc I 1 I 1 into water and hydrocarbon components:
10 20 30 40
c I<,~=(I -$P,,,,, +G,,.C,,. +$(I -S,,.)C,,. (63)
Porosity, 4, %
The graphical solution of this equation for S,, is shown
Fig. 50.52-Variation of C/O as a function of porosity and water in Fig. 50.53. To use this approach the I alues of C,, and
saturation. El, must be known.
The presence of shale, which may contain thermal ab-
sorbers such as boron, will seriously disturb this simple
saturation shrinks to zero. Examples of interpretation of interpretation scheme. but a number of references”’ in-
this ratio in more complex situations can be found in the dicate methods for dealing with the problem. For satura-
references. 28Zu tion determination, the results of a single measurement
run are questionable if the water sahnlty is less than
Pulsed Neutron Logging. The second type of nuclear 50,000 ppm and if the porosity is below 15 o/c. particular-
device used for the determination of water saturation. par- ly in shaly zones.
ticularly in cased wells, is the pulsed neutron device. This Perhaps the greatest successful application of this type
log responds primarily to the time taken for the thermal of device is in the time-lapse technique. In this procedure
neutrons to be absorbed by the formation. The most com- the change in saturation between two runs in a producing
mon important thermal neutron absorber is chlorine. reservoir can be determined simply from the diffcrcnce
which is present in most formation waters. Hence, the ofthe two measured C values, the porosity. and the differ-
response of the pulsed neutron tool resembles the usual ence in C,, and C,,--i.e.,
opcnhole resistivity measurements.
c, -cz
The advantage. however, of the pulsed neutron tech- s,,., -S,,.z = . ..,,.............. (64)
nique is the ability to log in cased hole. It can distinguish 4G I,‘-c/E)
between oil and salt water contained in the pores. If the
porosity is known, gas/oil interfaces can be distinguished. Uncertainties in the quantity (such as C,,,,, . 2:,,, and clay
Under ideal conditions of salinity. porosity, and litholo- volume) disappear in this differential measurement
gy. the water saturation, S,,.. can be computed. technique.
In the simplest case of a single mineral, the measured
value of C 1,j(,can be thought of as consisting of two com- Future Interpretation Models
ponents. on; from the matrix and the other from the for- New interpretation models will evolve from a more fun-
mation fluid: damental approach to the interpretation of complex lithol-
ogies in which relationships are formed between the
geochemistry of the formation, as determined from core
&,jg =(I -r$)z:,,,,, +4C,. (62) analysis, and log measurements.
The premise of this approach is that the total geo- F,, = photoelectric absorption factor
chemical signature of a formation may yield valuable in- F prx = photoelectric factor of trace absorber
formation on the minerals present, including clays, the h= thickness
grain size, and other indications of the environment of h,,. = mudcake thickness
deposition and diagenetic alteration. This information may
K= conversion constant between 7d and Cabs
be related to the types and abundances of clay minerals
K, = mass absorption coefficient
present, to the electrical properties of the clays and,
L= distance from the source
perhaps, even to the location of the clays. It seems
reasonable, for example, that chemical data can not only
Ld = diffusion length
distinguish kaolinite from illite, but also that the chemi- L, = migration length
cal properties of a detrital kaolinite will differ from those L.7 = slowing-down length
of a kaolinite grown slowly in pore spaces. m= mass
One of the primary tools for the penetration into this M= molecular weight
area of interpretation is the high-resolution spectroscop- n= number of scatterers per unit volume
ic tool, which was described previously. It will enable n= average number of collisions
us to obtain a precise mineral identification at each loca- NA = Avogadro’s number
tion of interest. However, other devices, such as the in-
Ni = initial number of particles
duced gamma ray spectroscopy tool. the gamma-gamma
NN = number of neutrons
density device with a direct measurement of lithology , and
Nrvf = neutron counting rate at far detector
the combination thermal and epithermal neutron device,
are being examined for their responses to particular min- NN~ = neutron counting rate at near detector
erals of interest, for incorporation into this interpretation Np = number of particles
scheme. N, = counts from a radiation detector
In addition to the possibility of obtaining grain-size es- P= probability
timates from this approach and thus an additional input pi = probability of having x nuclei decay in
to permeability transforms, one result will be the real pos- time dr
sibility of the detection, quantification, and classification probability of nonoccurrence
4=
of the clay minerals from log measurements.” One of r= path length (radius) to the detector
the primary benefits of such an interpretation output will
s, = water saturation
be a reservoir damage risk assessment. This will be based
t= time
on the knowledge that has been acquired through unfor-
tunate experience concerning potential damage to a reser-
t% = half-life
voir that can occur when the clay mineral content is not U= product of Fpe and electron density
considered in production planning. For example, acidi- Uf = fluid parameter
zation of a formation containing chlorite, an iron-rich clay u = matrix parameter
mineral, can produce an iron oxide gel that fills pores, cl; = trace element parameter
ruining a potentially valuable formation. Another exam- v= velocity
ple is that diagenetic pore-lining kaolinite particles will V.rh = volume of shale
remain in place at low production rates. At higher rates, associated volume fraction
v.x =
however. the particles may break loose, lodge in pore x= number of decays
throats, and damage production.
I= particles observed
Although geochemical interpretation is in its infancy,
z= atomic number
initial experience with clay type and grain-size prediction
Cd= emitter
from core analysis data and log data has been very en-
couraging. Refinement of this type of interpretation mode1 Ylog = gamma ray reading in API units at any
may lead to a new cycle of future tool development. One point in the well
can imagine measuring specific geochemical parameters Ymax - maximum gamma ray reading
with an entire range of new tools rather than inferring Ymin = minimum gamma ray reading
them from perturbations on measurements designed for 6h = thickness of slab material
other purposes. h= decay constant
Y= average value of Poisson distribution
Nomenclature t= average logarithmic energy decrement
A = atomic mass Ph = bulk density
D = thermal diffusion coefficient PP = electron density index
E = energy Pf = fluid density
EGR = gamma ray energy P# = gas density
E; = initial energy Plog = log density
Ek = kinetic energy P/F = apparent long-spacing denGty
EN = neutron energy Pmcr = solid matrix density
E, = energy before scattering Pm = mudcake density
E, = energy of mono-energetic gamma rays lJ= microscopic cross section or standard
Jr = fraction by weight of solid fraction deviation
F = measured parameter UC0 = Compton cross section
OP” = cross section for the photoelectric effect 12. 7he Roir of Trace Metals in Petroleum. T.F. Yen (ed.). Ann Ar-
bor Science Publishers Inc.. Ann Arbor (1975).
C= macroscopic thermal absorption cross
I3 Well Logging and Interprefatiorr Techniques. Dresser Atlas, Houston
section (1982).
thermal absorption cross section I4 Log Interpretation-Vol. 1, Principles, Schlumberger, Ridgefield.
CN (1974).
macroscopic Compton cross section
15. Desbrandes, R.: Theorie et Inrerpretarion des Diqraphies, Edi-
formation fluid cross section tlons Technip, Paris (1968).
hydrocarbon cross section 16 Serra, 0.: “Diagraphies Differ&-Bases de I’lnterpretation,”
Bull., Cent. Rech. Explor:Prod Elf-Aquitainc. Editions Technip.
macroscopic cross section
Paris (1979).
observed formation cross section I7 Hilchie, D.W.: Applied Openhole rLq Interpret&on, Douglas W.
matrix cross section Hilchie Inc., Golden, CO (1978).
18 Hassan, M.. Hossin. A., and Combaz. A.: “Fundamentals of the
total cross section
Differential Gamma Ray Log-Interpretation Technique.” Trans..
water cross section SPWLA (1976) paper H. -
decay time I9 F&l, W.H.: “Gamma Ray Spectral Data Assists in Complex For-
mation Evaluation,” The Log Amdyst (Sept.-Oct. 1979) 20. No.
porosity
5. 3-38.
density porosity 20 Serra, 0.. Baldwin, J.. and Qutrem. J.A., “Theory. Jnterpretatton
limestone porosity and Practical Applications of Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy.”
Truns.. SPWLA (July 1980) paper Q.
neutron porosity
21 Granberry, R.J., Jenkins, R.E., and Bush, D.C.: “Gram Density
radiation flux Values of Cores from some Gulf Coast Formattons and their Im-
intensity of radiation portance in Formation Evaluation,” paper presented at the 1968
SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, New Orleans. June 23-26.
flux of epithermal neutrons
22 Ellis. D.V. r’t t/l.: “Litho-Density Tool Calibration,” Bx P<,(. 01,~.
J. (Aug. 19X5) 515-23.
23 Ellis, D.V. and Case, C.R.: “CNT-A Dolomite Response.” paper
References S presented at the 1983 SPWLA Annual Logging Sympostum, Cal-
gary, June 27-30.
Evans, R.D.: 771~Aiomic Nuclrus. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New 24 Arnold, D.M. and Smith, H.D. Jr.: “Experimental Determination
York City (1967) 426-38. of Envmxrmental Corrections for a Dual-Spaced Neutron Porost-
Weidner. R.T. and Sells, R.L.: Hmwntar~ Modern Phwics, Allyn ty Log,” paper W presented at the 1981 SPWLA Annual Logging
and Bacon, Boston (1960) 372-78. Symposium. Mexico City, June 23-26.
Bertozzi, W., Elbs, D.V., and Wahl, J.S.: “The Physrcal Foun 25 Quirein, J.A.. Gardner, J.S., and Watson. J.T.: “Combined Natural
dation of Formation Lithology Loggmg with Gamma Rays.” Geo- Gamma Ray SpectraliLitho-Density Measurements Applied to Com-
phwics (Oct. 1981) 46, No. 10. plex Lnhologies,” paper SPE 1 I143 presented at the 1982 SPE
4 Kreft, A.: “Calculation of the Neutron Slowmg Down Length in Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sept.
Rocks and Soils,” Nukleonrka (1974) XIX. 26-29.
5 Segesman, F.F.: “Well-loggmg Method,” Geophwjc~ (Nov. 1980) 26 Flaum, C. and Pirie, G.: “Determination of Lithology from In-
45, No. 11. duced Gamma Ray Spectroscopy,” paper H presented at the 1981
6. Belknap, W.B. era/.: “API Cahbration Factlity for Nuclear Logs.” SPWLA Annual Loggmg Symposntm, Mexico City, June 23-26.
Drill. and Prod. Prac.. API. Dallas (1959). 27 Gilchrist, W.A. Jr. et rrl., “Applicatton of Gamma Ray Spectroscopy
7. Ellis. D.V.: “Correctton of NGT Logs for the Presence ot KCI to Formation Evaluation.” paper presented at the 19X2 SPWLA
and Barite Muds,” paper presented at the 1982 SPWLA Annual Annual Loggin: Symposium, Corpus Chrtsti, July 5-9.
Logging Symposium, Corpus Chrtsti, July 6-8. 28 Westaway. P.. Hertzog, R.C., and Plasek, R.E.: “The Gamma
8. Allen, L.S. et&.: “Dual-Spaced Neutron Logging for Porosity.” Spectrometer Tool Inelastic and Capture GaInma-Ray Spectroscopy
Geop,phwics (Feb. 1967) 32, No. 1. for Rescrvo~r Analysis,” Sot Per. .h,g. J. (June 1983) 553-64.
9. Edmundson, H. and Raymer. L.L.: “Radioactive Loggmg 29 Oliver, D.W., Frost, E., and Fettl, W.H.: “Contmuous Car-
Parameters for Common Minerals,” paper presented at the 1979 bon/Oxygen Logging-Instrumentation. Interpretive Concept\ and
SPWLA Annual Logging Sympostum, Tulsa, June 3-6. Field Applications,” paper TT presented at the I981 SPWLA An-
10. Culver, R.B.. Hopkinson. E.C.. and Youmans. A.H.: “Car- nual Logging Symposium, Mexico Cny. June 23-26.
bon/Oxygen (C/O) Logging Instrumentation.” Sot. I’?(. ,!?a~. J 30 Pulsed Neutron Lqging. W.A. Hoyer (ed.), SPWLA Reprint
(Oct. 1974) 463-70 Volume (1979).
II Hertrog. R.C. and Plaseh. R E.: “Neutron-Excited Gamma-Ray 31 Herron, M.M.: “Mineralogy from Geochemical Well Logging.”
Spcctrometry for Well Logging.” IEEE Tmm. NW. S-u (Feb. paper presented at the 1984 Annual Meeting of the Clay Mmerals
lY79) NS-26. No. I. Society, Baton Rouge. Oct. l-4.
Chapter 51
Acoustic Logging
A. (Turk) Timur. chc\,roa COT.
Introduction
Acoustic wave propagation methods have become an in- changes in its size and shape.’ In this theory, it is as-
tegral part of formation evaluation since the first sumed that displacements are small and the body returns
downhole measurement of velocities was conducted in to its original condition after the forces are removed. Ap-
1927. ’ These early measurements were conducted to ob- plied forces and the resulting deformations are described
tain time/depth curves to use in interpreting seismic by stresses and strains.
data.’ In the 1930’s, proposals were made to conduct Stress is the force, F, per unit area. A, applied; strain,
velocity measurements in a fashion similar to electric t, is deformation per unit length, t. or volume, V, as il-
logging, by using an acoustic transmitter and one or lustrated in Fig. 5 1.1.
more receivers. First successful implementation of this Within the elastic limit, as shown in Fig. 51.2.
technology was in the late 1940’s and early 1950’~.~-’ stresses are found to be proportional to strains (Hooke’s
Commercial acoustic velocity logs were first introduced law). The ratio of stress to strain is a different constant
in 1954 by Seismograph Service Corp. in the U.S. and for different loading conditions. These proportionality
by United Geophysical in Canada. constants are defined as elastic moduli. which are fun
Since then, technology involving borehole measure- damental properties of a material.
ments of acoustic wave propagation properties has
developed significantly and has become established as a Young’s Modulus, E. This is the ratio of tensile or com-
major formation evaluation method. These acoustic pressive stress (FL/A) to the resultant strain (tL, =ALlL):
wave propagation methods used in well logging can be
broadly classified into two groups: transmission and FLiA
reflection. Properties measured in each method and their E=-
applications in formation evaluation are listed in Table ALIL
51.1
Compressional wave velocities measured by acoustic Shear (or Torsion) Modulus, G. The ratio of shearing
logging were found to be related to porosity so closely stress (F,IA) to the shearing
strain E,, =(AL/L) is
that the acoustic log became a standard porosity tool.
which it still is in many areas. The second most common
F,7IA
use of borehole acoustic measurements is in evaluating G=-.
cement jobs by measurements inside casing. 6s
This chapter describes the use of acoustic wave propa-
gation properties in formation evaluation after a brief
Bulk Modulus, K. Bulk modulus describes the change
description of elasticity. acoustic wave propagation
of V under hydrostatic pressure, p:
properties in rocks, and methods of recording these in
the borehole.
Elasticity K=P
AVIV
Introduction
The theory of elasticity investigates relationships be-
tween external forces applied to a body and resulting where K is also the reciprocal of compressibility, c.
TABLE 51.1-ACOUSTIC WAVE PROPAGATION METHODS This disturbance is then transmitted along the material by
a series of compressions and rarefactions. The distur-
Property Applicatton bance travels at a constant velocity that is a fundamental
Transmission seismic and geological property of the material. The elastic moduli and the den-
interpretation sity determine the velocity of propagation for each
porosity material.
Compressional- and shear- lithology
Two types of mechanical wave propagation will be
wave velocttles hydrocarbon content
geopressure detection described qualitatively. Detailed discussions of acoustic
mechanical properties of wave propagation are given in Refs. 7 through 11.
rocks
Compressional- and shear- cement bond quality Compressional Waves. Compressional waves are those
wave attenuations location of fractures in which the mechanical disturbance is transmitted by a
rock consolidation
particle motion parallel to the direction of wave propaga-
permeability indication
Reflection tion (Fig. 51.3). They are also called longitudinal,
location of vugs and
fractures
pressure, primary, or P-waves. Particles of the material
Transit time and amplitude orientation of fractures and oscillate around this rest position in simple harmonic
of reflected waves bed boundaries motion. As they move from equilibrium, they push or
channeling and microannulus pull their neighbors, thereby transmitting the disturbance
casing quality
through the material. The velocity of this compressional
wave motion, lip, is a constant for a given material:
v,=+(K+4/,G)“, . ... . . .(I)

P
Poisson’s Ratio, p, This is a measure of the geometric
change of shape under uniaxial stress. It is expressed as
where p is the density.
the ratio of the fractional change in diameter, d,
(transverse strain, eT) to the fractional change in length
Shear Waves. Shear waves, also called transverse, tor-
(longitudinal strain, EL):
sional, or S-waves, are those where particle motion is
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation (Fig.
Adld 51.4).
p=aL,L.. Particles in the material again move about their rest
position with simple harmonic motion. For this motion
to be transmitted, however, each particle must have a
Relationships Among Elastic Parameters. These four
force of attraction to its neighbor. Whereas compres-
elastic parameters are not independent; any one
sional waves can be propagated simply by elastic colli-
parameter can be expressed in terms of two others:
sion of one molecule with the next, attractive forces must
exist between adjacent molecules to transmit shear
E=2(1 +p)G
waves. Since these forces are very small in gases and liq-
uids, fluids do not transmit shear waves.
The velocity of shear waves, v,, , is also a constant for
a given material:
Acoustic Waves
Acoustic waves propagate mechanical energy. For in- G %
stance, if an elastic material is subjected to an instan- v,,= - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
taneous force at one end. it is compressed (Fig. 51.3). 0 P
Yield StrengIh
Breaking Point
Elastic Limit
STRESS
t
Hooke’s Law Region
STRAIN -
Fig. 51.1-Longitudinal, transverse, and shear deformations. Fig. 51 .P-Stress/strain diagram for an elastic material
ACOUSTIC LOGGING 51-3
a A B A B A
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . ..I.. . . .-. . * . . .. . . .
. . .. . *:::: r-- .... .
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..a... . . me.* . .
. . ... :* ..*** *. .*...*. :..*..::::
:*....
.
.
..I.......
. . . . . . . .. .
.
.
.
.
..-.. . . ..m.
. s.... . . . ..-.
*
.
*
.
.
.
. .. . .
. .. . .
.
. . . a.
.
.. .. . . . . . . . :.::*..* .“..:. .*:::a .*...*.*:::. .,..
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . w...... . . . .. . . .
. . .. . Dlrecllon :. .:...*......:::::f:.............‘
. .-.. . .. *.......
.*...*a-...-,- *.
.
.
. . . . . . . .. .
. . . . . . . .. .
.
.
_
.
..-.. . ..-..
. . .. . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
. .. . .
. .. . .
.
. . .. .
.
. . . . . 01Parllcle -.*: . . . . . :.:::...:..,.,....:.::::. . .. .. ..
.*a.. .*... . .,.*
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .” . . . . . .“. . . . . .. . . .
.. .. . “lbM,lO”I .**... .*... :.: :::.. ,.....*... *.-- Z.“..
. . . . . . . . *. . . .
.*... *. . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .-. . . . ... . . .
. . .. . :::::::.....: .*,,.. . . . . ::::::. ..: . . . .
. . . ..I.. *... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . * . ... . . .
.. .. . .:...:.a ***... .,.*. .:.*, *.-...a.. .-.-.::e:
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . ..“.. . . ..m.* . . ... . . .
. . ... *.a *...- a.. .-
- *
Dlreclloncd L-A- rJileCtion -a
PartIck W.Wde”gth 0‘wave Dlrecllon Of
MOllO” Propagalion Ware PmpagafK.n
Fig. 51.3-Compressional wave. Fig. 51.4-Shear wave.
Characteristics of Acoustic Waves distance, s, from the source is

Acoustic waves have many characteristics similar to
A=A 0 e-ffs 1
light waves. They undergo interference, diffraction,
reflection, and refraction. At a boundary separating
materials of two different velocities, they are mode con- where A,, is the amplitude at the source.
verted, reflected, and refracted according to Snell’s law. A schematic diagram of an experimental apparatus is
For either compressional or shear waves, velocities are given in Fig. 51.5 to illustrate the measurement of
related to frequency, f, by acoustic properties. Two piezoelectric elements are at-
tached to the specimen as shown. A pulser provides the
L’= hf, electric pulse to the transmitting piezoelectric element
and also triggers the oscilloscope trace. The transmitter
where X is the wave length. vibrates according to the change of voltage with time,
Motion of either compressional or shear waves in an generating a mechanical pulse in the specimen. As it
extended medium is characterized by an infinite number travels through the specimen, the mechanical pulse is at-
of particles, each vibrating in simple harmonic motion. tenuated. The receiving piezoelectric element converts
A simple description of this wave propagation is given this attenuated pulse into an electric pulse that is
by a plane wave solution of the wave equation: displayed on the oscilloscope screen.
The travel time of the mechanical pulse through the
specimen is read on the horizontal scale of the
u=A cos(2+2n~). oscilloscope, and the velocity is calculated from
L
where u is the particle motion at a given point, s, away v=-.
from the source and at any given time, t. At any given t
time, t=O, the displacement along the wave varies as By using a set of either P-wave or S-wave transducers,
cos(2as/X); hence, the u is equal to signal amplitude A, both velocities, vp and v,?, can be measured as de-
where s is equal to even multiples of wavelength-i.e., scribed. These velocities, assuming an infinite,
s=O, X, 2X. Motion of each particle, on the other hand, isotropic, homogeneous, and elastic medium, are related
is described by a simple harmonic motion given by to elastic moduli by
4
u=A cos(27rjl). v,~~=P=K+~G, .. .. . . _. (3)
An additional feature of acoustic waves to be con-

sidered is attenuation. As one moves away from the v,‘p=G, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...(4)
source, the intensity of sound decreases. This decrease
of acoustic waves results from (1) geometric spread of
energy, reflection, refraction. and scattering, and (2) ab-
sorption, whereby mechanical energy is converted into
heat.
The decrease in intensity because of absorption is
given by
,=I e-2cu.\
0
where I,, is the acoustic intensity at the source, I is inten-

sity at a distance, s, from the source, and 01 is the coeffi-
cient of absorption.
The acoustic intensity is proportional to the square of Fig. 51.5-Experimental apparatus for measurement of veloci-
the amplitude; therefore, the amplitude, A. of a wave at a ty and attenuation.
Acoustic Properties I Or, in more common units, attenuation is given in

decibels per unit length, defined as
20
a=- log A’.
L2-L1 A2
Other parameters defining attenuation are the quality

\ Models / factor, F,, and the logarithmic decrement, 6. Coeffi-
cients of compressional and shear wave attenuation (op,
as) are related to the respective quality factors (Fqp,
F,,y) and the logarithmic decrements (6,,, 8,) by
1 ffv 6
-=-=-
F, of a, ... .... . . .... . . (6)
where v is velocity and f is frequency.

Fig. 51 .&Factors affecting acoustic properties of rocks. Acoustic Wave Propagation in Rocks
Introduction
Acoustic wave propagation properties of rocks are
known to depend on porosity, rock matrix composition,
stress (overburden and pore fluid pressures), tempera-
and
ture, fluid composition, and texture (structural
framework of grains and pore spaces), as illustrated in
o.s(v,/v,)* - 1 Fig. 51.6. I2 A unified approach involving measure-
/A= (v,,v,)2 -1 , . . .. . (5)
ments of compressional and shear-wave velocities,
analyses of rock composition, and use of theoretical
models to interpret these data was described in Refs. 13
where P, K, and G are P-wave, bulk, and shear moduli, through 16.
respectively, p is Poisson’s ratio, and p is density.
As mentioned earlier, these same elastic constants can Acoustic Properties
be obtained directly by measuring lateral and Acoustic wave propagation properties were described in
longitudinal strains as functions of stress. Elastic con- the preceding section for homogeneous, elastic media.
stants measured in this manner are referred to as static Applications of these relationships to rocks, however,
elastic constants in contrast to dynamic elastic constants are complicated by the presence of pores and cracks, and
measured through the use of acoustic wave propagation fluids contained in them. A simplified, theoretical
techniques. development is described in the Appendix to illustrate
One method for measurement of attenuation requires some of these complications by incorporating rock-
specimens of two different lengths from the same frame, pore-fluid, and rock-grain compressibilities into
material. Assuming that the voltage amplitude of the the velocity equations.
received signal from the specimen of length L t is A I and As indicated earlier, acoustic wave properties in rocks
from the specimen of length L2 is AZ, and that voltage are functions of numerous independent variables.
amplitudes are proportional to the amplitudes of Therefore, evaluation of various theories of acoustic
mechanical pulses, the two amplitudes can be expressed wave propagation requires laboratory experiments con-
as ducted on rock samples under controlled pressure,
temperature, and saturation conditions.
Various experimental methods have been developed
A, =A,CaLI for measuring acoustic wave propagation properties of
rock samples. Detailed description of one of the
laboratory systems is given by Timur. ” It is designed to
and conduct sequential measurements of properties of both
the compressional and the shear waves on rock samples
subjected to simulated subsurface conditions. A typical
A
2
=A
0
e-uL2 experimental setup is shown in Fig. 51.7, where a rock
sample is assembled between two transducers in a sam-
ple holder. This assembly is placed in a pressure vessel
Hence, the coefficient of absorption, nepers/cm, is ob- and subjected to varying overburden and pore fluid
tained from pressures and temperatures. A minicomputer digitally
records the compressional and shear-wave pulses
1 transmitted through the rock samples, as well as sample
cy=- InA’. temperature, overburden and pore fluid pressures, and
L2-L, A2 sample length changes.
ACOUSTIC LOGGING
Es
v,
Navalo Sandstone
” Porosity 11.5. Density 2.46
I
vi PO/P1 2.30
I OVERBURDEN PRESSURE, PSI x 101

00.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 26.00 r
1 7
- 0.00 0.16 0.31 0.47 0.62 0.78 0.94 109 z
Pore Fluid
Insulated
P and S Wave
Transmitter
_ Sample
Thermocouple Fig. 51.8-Pressure dependence of compressional- and shear-
(Jacketed)
wave velocities in a Navajo sandstone.
_ P and S Wave
Linear Variable
2iirifT@ Porosity dependence of v,, has also been investigated
Differential Transformer
to some extent.25m28 A change in shear-wave travel
times (lit),$) per unit change in porosity ($J) is found to be
almost twice the corresponding change in I /II,,
Fig. 51.7-A typical sample (d= 8.9 cm, L = 5.1 cm) assembled
Rock Composition
for acoustic measurements.
Rock composition affects the velocities in significant
ways, as illustrated in Fig. 51.12.‘” Laboratory data
plotted in this figure are for cores saturated with brine
and subjected to an overburden pressure of 3,000 psi.
A typical set of compressional and shear-wave veloci- The two principal minerals in the rock were quartz. in
ty data obtained with this apparatus is shown in Fig. the form of tripolite, and calcite. They were mixed in
5 1.8. The rate of change of porosity in this sample with relative proportions ranging from approximately 50%
varying overburden and pore fluid pressures is shown in calcite/50% quartz to 80% calcite/20% quartz. The
Fig. 5 1.9. These data were obtained from concurrcnt samples with lower porosity had a continuous calcite
measurements of changes in the sample pore and bulk matrix, whereas the samples with a higher porosity had a
volumes during acoustic measurements. continuous quartz matrix.
Fig, 5 1.10 illustrates typical compressional and shear Effects of rock composition usually are taken into ac-
wave attenuation data. obtained from the amplitude count by establishing velocity/porosity relationships for
spectra of transmitted pulses. each group of rocks of similar composition through cor-
relations of both the laboratory and the field data. This is
Porosity illustrated in Fig. 51.12 by two separate groupings, one
Porosity dependence of v,, in rocks has been intensively for calcite matrix and the other for quartz.
investigated. “W This forms the basis for estimating Rock composition plays a significant role in acoustic
porosities from in-situ measurements with an acoustic wave propagation properties. A procedure for com-
velocity log. prehensive analyses needed for this purpose was de-
Results of early laboratory measurement of scribed by Jones et al. I3 First, they conducted a com-
compressional-wave velocities determined on water- bination of measurements of X-ray diffraction, elemental
saturated sandstones are plotted vs. porosities in Fig. analysis, clay analysis, and grain density measurements.
5 1.1 I. ” The porosity/velocity relationship is within the Each of these then was assigned an experimental error,
indicated statistics as long as the lithology remains and linear programming was used to establish the rock
relatively constant. mineral composition, as shown in Table 51.2.
100
Berea Sandstone
h r 16
60
Fq
40
20
4
1
I , I I
,L 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE. PSI x 101 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, psi
Fig. 51.9-Pressure dependence of porosily of Navajo sand- Fig. 51 .I+Pressure dependence of compresslonal and shear
stone. attenuation in a Berea sandstone saturated with
brine.
Stress samples including dolomite, limestone, and sandstone

Pressure dependence of velocities of compressional and and for a sandpack. 29 In general, velocities increase
shear waves also has been the subject of numerous with increasing p0 and decrease with increasing pt.
studies. Velocities of elastic waves traveling in a porous From a theoretical analysis of elastic wave propaga-
medium are known to be functions of both the external tion in sphere packs, Brandt3’ predicted velocities to be
(overburden) pressure, pO, and the internal (pore fluid) functions of (p, -npf), where n is a number between 0
pressure, pf. Some of the experimental results indicating and 1. Experimental data of Hicks and Berry”’ and
dependence of compressional-wave velocity on confin- Wyliie et al. I9 indicated n to be close to unity, whereas
ing pressure are given in Fig. 5 1.13 for various rock data obtained by Banthia et al. 32 indicated values of n to
VELOCITY, km/s VELOCITY, km/s

2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 6 3 3.5 4 5 6 7
1 I I T r --- -1 I I I I--II
ft/sec x 103 ft/sec x lo3
B ;ci II!-- _12 13 15 17 1 10 12 15 20
I 1 I r-1 7
35
Time Average ft/sec (m/s)
Malrix 19500 (5944)
‘9 ’,I Fluid 5000 (1524)
30 \p Calcite ft/sec (m/s)
0
\ 0 Matrix 22500 (6858)
Brine 5235 (1596) 4
10 Quartz
(Tripolite)
Matrix 19200 (5852)
5 5 Brine 5235 (1596)
I
, 1 I /
0 I , I I I \I \
120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
RECIPROCAL VELOCITY. sec/ft x 10m6 P-WAVE TRAVEL TIME, sec/ft x 10m6
Fig. 51 .l I-Velocttylporosity data determined in laboratory for Fig. 51.12-Comparison of compressional-wave velocities as
water-saturated sandstones compared with time- function of porosity for brine-saturated tripolite
average relation for quartz/water system. samples under confining pressure of 3,000 psi.
ACOUSTIC LOGGING
TABLE 51.2-ROCK COMPOSITION
Sample Navajo sandstone

Petrography medium-porosity, well-sorted quartzite
Grain density 2.60
Grain porosity 19.4
X-ray, wt%
Quartz 93.0
Calcite 1
Dolomite -
Clay 1.7
Feldspar 0.7
Pyrite
Anhydrite 0.4
NAA and AAS, wt%
Si 42.60 z
Al 1.20 G 13
Ti 0.79 0 -Y
Fe 0.20 Sandstone
MQ 0.02 11 d = 18
Ca 0.20
Na 0.00
0.16 i
:: 54.00
Phyllo-silicate 6.00
Computed volume, %
Quartz 68.37
Calcite -
Dolomite -
4.73
Clay
Feldspar
Pyrite
0.57
-
0 2000 4000 6000
PRESSURE, psi
8000 10.000
Anhydrite
Silica 6.93
Siderite - Fig. 51.13-Compressional-wave velocity vs. confining pres-
sure for brine-saturated carbonates, sandstone
and sand pack.
be significantly less than 1. To investigate this rocks. The shapes of the velocity vs. temperature curves
discrepancy, Gardner et al. 33 conducted experiments were functions of rock composition, pore structure, and
taking into account the past pressure history of samples. the pore fluids. Some of the velocity vs. porosity data at
They found that p n and pi are equally effective in chang- subfreezing temperature is illustrated in Fig. 5 1.16. 39-43
ing velocities-i.e., n = 1, provided that the differential
pressure (pd =po -pf) follows a pressure cycle Fluid Composition
previously imposed on the sample (Fig. 51.14). An understanding of the effects of fluid composition on
elastic wave properties has become much more signifi-
Temperature cant with the increasing interest in detection of hydrocar-
The effect of temperature on elastic wave velocities is bons with seismic measurements. As a result, these ef-
considered to be of second order and usually is neglected fects have been the subject of many studies, both
in seismic exploration and acoustic log interpretations. theoretical and experimental, in the recent literature. The
To study this effect, early laboratory experiments’4-38
were conducted by measuring velocity as a function of
overburden pressure at constant values of temperature in-
stead of as a function of temperature at constant
pressure. Also, the effects of pore fluid pressure were
not considered. Later, the effects of temperature on the
velocities were investigated through laboratory measure-
ments on rock samples subjected to simulated subsurface
pressure conditions ” (Fig. 51.15). On the average, the
compressional wave velocities were found to decrease by
1.7% and the shear-wave velocities by 0.9% for 100°C
increase in temperature.
Below freezing temperatures, however, the effect of
temperature on elastic wave velocities become much
more significant. An increase of 50% or more in com-
pressional wave velocities is observed upon freezing the
pore fluid in some rock samples.39 Below freezing,
compressional wave velocity in water-saturated rocks
was found to increase with decreasing temperature, Fig. 51.14-Compressional-wave velocity as a function of dif-
whereas it was nearly independent of temperature in dry ferential pressure.
Berea Sandstone first important theoretical contribution was made by

Gassmann,44 who described the relationships between
0 0 ,A h (,po = 1360, pf = 600 bars)
pore fluid, rock skeleton (or frame), and the rock grains
a 3.05
I by starting with first principles of the theory of elasticity.
Later, Biot45,46 developed a more comprehensive theory
Do v
o (PO = 345, pf = 150 bars)
of elastic wave propagation in a fluid-saturated, isotropic
0 a
and microhomogeneous porous solid over a wide fre-
0 , 7 9 c Lp? = 138, pf = 60 tars) quency range. Biot’s theory, which reduces to that of
Gassmann at low frequencies, incorporates the effects of
0 Compressional Wave Velocity
fluid composition through the density and compressibili-
A Shear Wave Velocity ty of the saturant fluid (see Appendix).
(p. = 1380, pf = 600 bars Geertsma4’ investigated the applications of Biot’s
c ,i ? fi-~ x -A% theory to the interpretation of acoustic logs and estimated
expected range of velocity dispersion by comparing
velocities at zero and infinitely high frequencies. Since
the estimated velocity dispersion was found to be
generally less than 3%, the low frequency approximation
of Biot’s theory and, hence, Gassmann’s theory is useful
2.30 for most applications. Brown and Korringa” further
L--~ .~ I generalized Gassmann’s theory and succeeded in remov-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 lE0 200 ing the requirement of macrohomogeneity.
TEMPERATURE. “C The experimental data of King, 4’ shown in Fig. 5 1.17
for brine-, kerosene-, and air-saturated (dry) Boise sand-
Fig. 51.15-Temperature dependence of compressional- and stone ($=25 %), illustrated the predicted behavior;
shear-wave velocities in brine-saturated Berea compressional-wave velocity is greater in brine-saturated
sandstone. rocks than in comparable gas-saturated rocks, with the
reverse true for shear-wave velocity.
On the other hand, experimental data of Gregory 5o in
Fig. 51.18 indicate that for some rocks, shear-wave
velocity behavior upon the change of saturation from gas
0.40 to brine is opposite to the predictions of the Biot theory.
Simpson
This may be due to the presence of isolated microcracks
(Ref. 41)
9 in these rocks, whereas the BiotiGassmann theories
0.35 assume the pore structure to be open and interconnected.
10
E Texture
% Umiat
p- 0.30 Texture in this context is the structural framework of the
k rock consisting of solid matrix and pore structure. Its im-
:: portance in elastic wave propagation has been
ii dramatically illustrated in Fig. 51.19. The data in this
’ 0.25
14 c figure are the compressional and shear-wave velocities in
i G
dry and water-saturated Troy granite with a porosity of
8 0
d 0.3 %. 5’ Velocities were measured as functions of con-
E '6 >
5 0.20 fining pressure by maintaining pore fluid pressure (pf) at
ii 16 1 bar. Compressional-wave velocities are higher when
6 20 the rock is water-saturated, whereas the shear-wave
0.15 22 velocities are unchanged between the two states. What is
7
most interesting, however, is that a porosity of only
lLaboratory Measuremenls 0 is:
0.3% is affecting the velocities b 20% or more.
/ AField Measurements from Alaska g
SE! Classical bounding theories5z-5r obviously cannot ac-
0.10 -10 32
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100 count for these large changes in the respective moduli
POROSITY, PERCENT because of large differences between the properties of
rock matrix and fluid in the pores. This is because they
used the total porosity without considering how it is
Fig. 51.16-Compressional-wave velocity of frozen rocks as a
function of porosity. distributed.
Scanning electron micrographs (SEM’s) shown in Fig.
5 1.20 show pore space in Troy granite to consist mainly
of thin cracks, typical of most granites. 56
The effects of these cracks on elastic wave propagation
properties have been investigated extensively, and many
theoretical models have been developed. 14q5’ The
theoretical curves shown in Fig. 51.19 were obtained by
fitting the velocity data with the noninteractive scattering
theory. I4 For these theoretical formulations, the rock is
ACOUSTIC LOGGING
---O Brine
2.9
-r? - -A Kerosene
E
x -0 Dry
5 2.7 0.90
ti
d 2.1
>
0.85
1.9
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
POROSITY, O/o
1.7
Fig. 51.18~S-wave velocity ratio vs. porosity for dry, (v,),, and
fully water-saturated, (v,),. rocks.
1.5
Boise Sandstone
6 = 25%
1.3 DEPTH, km
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, k bar
Fig. 51.17-Observed and theoretical compressional- and

shear-wave velocities in Boise sandstone as a
function of pressure for three saturation flulds. The
circles, triangles, and squares are laboratory data --- 0 Sat’d
from King for brine-, kerosene- and air-saturated
(dry) samples. - 0 Dry
assumed to consist of a solid matrix and pores of

spherical and oblate spheroidal shapes. Using the SEM’s
as a guide and the porosity as a constraint, the pore space
was modeled by a spectrum of pore shapes ranging from
spheres to very fine cracks. Theoretical velocities were
calculated as a function of pressure by first determining
the ranges in pore shapes at each pressure condition.
Depending on the fit, the pore aspect ratio (ratio of minor
to major axis of an ellipsoid) spectra were adjusted and
1:: 1~ , , Troyyranite
calculations were repeated until good fits were obtained
to all velocities. Theoretical curves plotted on Fig. 5 1.19
are based on the final model.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Effects of various pore shapes on acoustic velocities as
predicted by the noninteractive scattering theory are il- DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE, k bar
lustrated in Fig. 51.21. The effects shown in this figure
are for a rock with matrix properties of K,,, =0.44 Fig. 51.19-Observed and theoretical compresslonal (v,) and
shear (w,) velocities in dry and water-saturated
megabar, G=0.37 megabar, and pm=2.7 g/cm’; for
Troy granite as a function of differential pressure.
water with K,,, =23.2 kilobar and pw, = 1 g/cm”; and for The data (points) are from Ref. 51.
gaswithK,=1,5XlO-‘kilobarandp,=lO-’g/cm’.
As indicated, for a given porosity, the thinner (smaller
aspect ratio) pores affect the velocities much more than
the spherical pores.
Fig. 51.20~-Scanning electron micrographs of pore system cn Troy granite

12345012345
This theory also was used to analyze the “well-
behaved” (according to Biot/Gassmann) experimental --
-\
-.
data of Fig. 51.17, where the results are plotted as solid 1 y --Az,.oi \ 1.c
and long- and short-dashed curves. Additionally, I\ 1, \
I\ \
however, it also can explain the “unexpected’ ’behavior
I \ ', I \ '1
of the experimental data of Fig. 5 I. 18, as illustrated in
Fig. 5 1.2 1 by its predictions for the S-wave velocities in I \\ ',o,, . \ '\ 'h
rocks with pores of various shapes.

1 \
Modeling of the real rock can be achieved by approx- I '1
imating the regular pores by spheres and rounded I \
\
spheroids and by approximating the grain boundary \ . '
I \ O.O!
I
spaces and flat pores by low-aspect-ratio cracks. I -
\
“il-:“‘
\,,,,r ::,“:r;a:r
However, there is no practical way to measure a pore \o.os
\ 0.01
aspect-ratio spectrum independently. An extensive study P-Wave 1 S-Wave
by Hadley 58 involved counting hundreds of cracks on 1 I I I I I I / 1 I 1 1
POROSITY, % POROSITY, %
three SEM’s, each covering about 1 mm2 of rock sur-
face. These results are being used for testing “crack” Fig. 51.21-Normalized P- and S-wave velocities vs. columr 1
theories. So far, these theories have added much to our concentration of inclusions (porosity) of different
aspect ratios for water- and -gas-saiurated pores,
understanding of acoustic wave propagation; their prac-
respectively.
tical applications, however, have not yet materialized.
Summary Acoustic Wave Propagation Methods

Factors affecting acoustic wave propagation properties Introduction
of rocks were illustrated in a qualitative fashion with em- Acoustic wave propagation methods used in well logging
phasis on compressional and shear-wave velocities, can be classified into two groups: transmission and
mostly because attenuation properties are much less reflection (Table 51.1). In the transmission method, one
understood. Among the factors influencing velocities, or more transmitters emit acoustic energy, which is
porosity, lithology (mineral composition and structural transmitted by formation and/or casing and is detected
framework), saturation and differential pressure are con- by one or more receivers. In the reflection method, one
sidered primary, and the others, with certain qualifica- or more transducers emit acoustic energy, part of which
tions, secondary. As the previous discussion indicates, is reflected by the borehole wall and/or casing and is
significant advances have been made in understanding detected by the same transducer.
the properties of acoustic wave propagation in rocks. In this section, both the transmission and reflection
Further advances will be made because of the methods will be described, starting with a description of
significance of this work, not only in formation evalua- acoustic wave propagation in a borehole and followed by
tion, but also in seismic exploration. various methods of recording acoustic data.
(A) Wavefronts
Fig. 51.22-Compressional, P, and shear, S, wave propagation

in or around a fluid-filled borehole.
traveling with a velocity, vf. in the mud. When these

Pseudo-Rayleigh waves reach the borehole face, they are both reflected
and refracted. For angles of incidence less than the Pm
wave critical angle tI1,,
part of the energy is transmitted into the formation in the

Compressional form of compressional wave and another part as a shear
wave, and the remainder is reflected back into the mud
as a compressional wave, all according to Snell’s law.
At or near the P-wave critical angle, a shear wave is
i I
still transmitted into the formation and P-wave reflected
Airy Phase back into the mud, but a P-wave is critically refracted
and travels with the v,’ in the formation, close and
IIMt+ parallel to the borehole wall, while continuously
radiating P-wave energy back into the mud at the same
Fig. 51.23-Acoustic waveform. P-wave critical angle (Fig. 5 I .22).
At the S-wave critical angle (o,,).
O,y=sin-’ “f ,
Acoustic Wave Propagation in a ( v5 >
Fluid-Filled Borehole
the S-wave is critically refracted and travels with the \J,,
The propagation of elastic waves in a borehole filled
in the formation along a path similar to that of the
with liquid has been studied extensively.60-70 Only a
refracted P-wave. It also continuously radiates P-wave
qualitative description of the phenomenon will be given
energy back into the mud at the S-wave critical angle
here for identifying the components of an acoustic pulse
(Fig. 51.22). Beyond the S-wave critical angle, all the
reoorded in a borehole.
incident energy is reflected back into the mud to form the
The general geometry for the transmission method is
guided pseudo-Rayleigh waves (Fig. 5 1.24).
illustrated in Fig. 51.22, which shows a single receiver
To summarize, the compressional wave travels as a P-
logging sonde. Two pressure transducers are spaced on
wave between the transmitter and the formation, in the
an acoustically insulated body, the upper one to generate
formation, and also between the formation and the
compressional waves in the borehole fluid and the lower
receiver (PPP); the shear wave travels as a P-wave be-
one to detect compressional waves reaching it. The
tween the transmitter and the formation, an S-wave in
receiver converts these waves to electrical signals. These
the formation, and again as a P-wave between the forma-
are transmitted to the surface and displayed on an
tion and the receiver (PSP). If the formation shear-wave
oscilloscope as a record of received-signal amplitude vs.
velocity is slower than borehole fluid velocity, shear
time and recorded either in analog form on film or
waves cannot be refracted along the borehole wall;
digitally on magnetic tape.
therefore, no shear head wave is generated.
This received signal, which is referred to as the
As described earlier, compressional and shear waves
acoustic waveform, represents several acoustic waves
travel at velocities determined by the elastic moduli and
and is illustrated by the synthetic waveform trace shown
the density of the formation:
in Fig. 51.23. For the usual case of a liquid-filled
borehole in a formation with both the compressional- and
shear-wave velocities higher than borehole fluid veloci-
ty, two body (or head) waves and two guided waves are
.(7)
propagated. These waves are shown in Fig. 5 1.23 in the
order of their arrival time at the receiver: (I) compres- and
sional wave, (2) shear wave. (3) pseudo-Rayleigh
waves, and (4) Stoneley waves.
Compressional and shear waves, which are also called (.. . .
P. primary, and S, secondary waves, respectively, are
head or body waves because they travel in the body of
the formation. Pseudo-Raylcigh and Stoneley waves, p,, is the bulk density of formation, and I,, and I, are
which also are called reflected conical (or normal mode) compressional- and shear-wave transit times.
and tube wave (or water arrival). respectively, arc guid- The body waves travel at all frequencies at speeds
ed waves because they require the presence of the given by Eqs. 8 and 9. They are nondispersive (variation
borehole for their existence. of velocity with frequency is negligible), and undergo at-
A description of the various ray paths of these waves tenuation and geometric spreading. Attenuation, 01, of
may help further in understanding elastic wave propaga- the body waves is proportional to the logarithmic ratio of
tion in and around the borehole. The acoustic transmitter the amplitudes, A 1 and A?, at distances s t and s? from
shown in Fig. 51.22 generates compressional waves the source 15,t6:
where (Y is in decibelift and F,, is a geometrical

spreading factor.
The tingy packet shown between the compressional
and shear waves is called the leaky or PL mode. 66 It is a
guided wave generated by the interaction of the forma-
tion with totally reflected compressional waves between
the compressional and shear critical angles. Paillet and
White@ have shown that the leaky mode propagates at a
velocity close to that of compressional waves in the for-
mation and its phase velocity decreases with increasing
frequency. They also have shown that the leaky mode
amplitude, and hence the shape of the compressional
<
wave train, varies with a change of Poisson’s ratio.
Pseudo-Rayleigh and Stoneley waves are the two main
guided waves. They both arrive after the shear wave,
have larger amplitudes and longer durations than cithcr
the compressional or the shear wave, and are disper-
aivc.67 The pseudo-Rayleigh wave is gcneratcd by the
total internal reflection of the acoustic energy at the
borehole face beyond the shear critical angle. It travels
within the borehole by multiple internal reflections
without loss of energy into the formation; therefore, it is
----- p
a guided wave. Its amplitude decays exponentially in the
formation away from the borehole face, but is oscillatory - s
in the fluid. A pseudo-Rayleigh wave is not generated -. -. Guided Waves
unless I’., > l’f and it travels with a velocity 11,.such that
vf< I’,. s v,> with an Airy phase traveling slower than ‘f.
Fig. 5 I .25 shows the dispersion characteristics for the
Fig. 51.24-Two-receiver sonde and the ray paths of body and
phase and group velocities of the guided waves in a
guided waves.
fluid-filled borehole. ” The parameters used are (1) for
the formation, P-wave velocity= I5 x IO3 ftisec, S-wave
velocity=9~ 10’ ftisec, density=2.3 g/cm”, and (2)
for the borehole fluid, P-wave velocity=6x 10’ ftisec,
density = 1.2 g/cm3 : the borehole diameter is 8 in. The
phase and group velocities plotted are normalized to the CUtOIl
P-wave velocity of the borehole fluid. Frequency
As shown in this figure, the pseudo-Rayleigh waves

are very dispersive. At the low-frequency end. there is a
cutoff frequency below which these waves are not
generated. At this frequency, the pseudo-Rayleigh wave
phase velocity is equal to the shear-wave velocity of the
- - Group
formation and it steeply decreases with increasing fre-
quency and asymptotically approaches at high frequen-
cies the velocity of the fluid in the mud. Group velocity
of pseudo-Rayleigh wave has an Airy phase that travels
more slowly than the borehole fluid velocity (Fig.
5 1.25). Pseudo-Rayleigh waves have large amplitudes
and arrive after the refracted shear wave, often making I I I
0 10 20 30
identification of the smaller-amplitude S-wave arrival
FREQUENCY. ktiz
difficult. However, only a small error is made if the
velocity estimates are made by using the pscudo-
Rayleigh arrivals. Fig. .51.25-Dispersion characteristics of the pseudo-Rayleigh
and Stoneley waves.
The second type of guided waves is the Stoneley
wave. which is the true surface wave coupled between
the borehole fluid and the formation. The particular mo-
tion of these waves is shown in Fig. 5 1.26. 7’ where Y is
the borehole radius. Their amplitudes decay exponential-
ly both in the fluid and in the formation away from the
borehole face. As shown in Fig. 51.24, they are slightly
dispersive. have no geometric spreading, and travel at
velocities slightly slower than that of the borehole fluid

or formation shear wave velocity, whichever is less.
Unlike the formation shear wave or pseudo-Rayleigh
waves, Stoneley waves always are present, whether or
not v,~ is greater than vf. They arrive as a compact pulse
slightly later than that for a direct fluid arrival or shear
arrival if v,~< vf. Stoneley wave amplitudes are high at
low fre uencies and decay rapidly with increasing fre-
quency. 9 ’ In the low-frequency end, the Stoneley waves
are called tube waves and travel with a velocity, v,,
given by’
i Rock
I
r 0 r=R “f
Elorehole v, = Kf ,~, . . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . ... . . ... (9)
F.X.?
( 57 >
Fig. 51.26-Stoneley (or tube) wave particle motions
where Kf is the bulk modulus of the fluid, given by
Q=P~; >
and
Therefore, in formations with v, < vf, so that neither

Formrtlo” shear nor pseudo-Rayleigh waves are present, the
Stoneley wave can be used to estimate formation shear-
wave velocity if formation bulk density is available from
a density log.
The dispersion characteristics described so far (of the
pseudo-Rayleigh and the Stoneley waves) are for a
borehole containing a point source. The effects of the
logging sonde on dispersion behavior also have been in-
vestigated by Cheng and Toks6z.67 Their study in-
Fig. 51.27-Transit time measurement by a single-receiver dicated, first, that the dispersion curves for the pseudo-
tool. Rayleigh wave are shifted to lower frequencies as the
borehole radius increases. They further found that for a
relatively rigid tool, presence of a logging sonde simply
makes the borehole diameter appear smaller, thus shift-
ing the dispersion curves to higher frequencies.
As stated at the beginning of this section. only a
qualitative description was given of the elastic wave
propagation in a fluid-filled borehole. Ray theory is only
an approximation when describing elastic wave proper-
ties in a cylindrical geometry. Accurate description of
this phenomenon requires solution of the wave equation
for cylindrical boundary conditions. The reader is re-
ferred to the references given at the beginning of this sec-
ou1put tion for a more quantitative treatment.
From
Receiver 1
Methods of Recording Acoustic Data

As described in the previous section, an acoustic
waveform is rich in information. It may have four com-
ponent waves: compressional, shear, pseudo-Rayleigh,
OlAput and Stoneley. Each of these, in turn, has four measurable
From
Receiver 2 properties: velocity, amplitude, amplitude attenuation,
and frequency. 27
Various methods of logging were developed to record
one or more of these properties. A brief description of
Fig. 51.28-Transit time measurement by a two-receiver tool. some of these logging techniques, with emphasis on
those in more common use. follows.
-------- MeasuredTnnsltTlmr
Fig. 51.29-The effect of hole enlargement on the response of

Transmitter
acoustic velocity logging tools: (a) one-receiver
type and (b) two-receiver type.
Conventional Acoustic Logging

The most commonly used property of acoustic waves in
a borehole is the velocity of compressional waves. In
conventional acoustic logging, the time, t, required for a
compressional wave to travel through 1 ft of formation is
recorded as a function of depth. This parameter, 1, re-
ferred to as the interval transit time, transit time, or
travel time, is the reciprocal of the velocity of the com-
pressional waves:
,=,,J-
“P
Transit time also is referred to as compressional-wave

slowness and is identified as fP to differentiate it from
shear wave transit time:
lr Transmitter
Velocities observed in acoustic logging vary from
4,000 to 25,000 ft/sec; hence, the travel times range
from 40 to 250 ~s/ft.
Tool Characteristics. The original acoustic logging

tool, as mentioned earlier, used one transmitter and one Fig. 51.30-Borehole-compensated acoustic log
receiver (Fig. 51.27). Values of L recorded in this ar-
rangement, however, also include travel time of sound in
mud in the borehole. To remove this component, a
dual-receiver commercial tool was introduced74 to
measure the time difference between the arrival of the
signal at the first receiver and at the second receiver
(Fig. 51.28).
Two-receiver systems, however, also were found to be
unsatisfactory, especially at boundaries of hole ir-
regularity, 75 as illustrated in Fig. 5 1.29.
To improve accuracy of 1 measurement further, a
borehole-compensated sonde (Fig. 51.30) with two
Caliper BHC Sonic Log

Hole Diam. 2’ Span
Inches t p see/it
i 16 100 70 40
Measurements from Lower Transmftler LT

+I
Fig. 51.31-Travel time measurement with the borehole-com- Fig. 51.32-Presentation of acoustic log
pensated acoustic log.
transmitters and four receivers was developed.76 This Log Presentation. Transit time 1 measured by acoustic
borehole-compensated tool may be considered to be velocity logs is recorded as a function of depth across
composed of two separate two-receiver systems. As il- Tracks 2 and 3 in units of microseconds per foot
lustrated by the measurement scheme in Fig, 5 1.3 1, per- (psecift). The typical example shown in Fig. 51.32 also
turbations caused by hole irregularities are oppositely has the integrated travel time recorded at the left edge of
directed; therefore, they cancel. These sondes usually Track 2 as a series of pips, placed at l-millisecond
have a 2-ft span between the receivers with a 3-ft spacing intervals.
between each transmitter and its near receiver.
Additional Curves Recorded. A three-arm caliper and
a gamma ray curve can be recorded simultaneously in
Track I of the conventional acoustic logs (Fig. 51.32).
The gamma ray curve can be replaced or supplemented
by a spontaneous-potential (SP) curve; however, this SP
should be used only for qualitative interpretation because
of proximity of the electrode to the metal in the sonde.
h
Tool Span. The usual span for the acoustic log receivers
is 2 ft; however, tools with receiver spacings of 3 in.77
to 1 rn” or longer also have been developed for special
applications.
The shorter the span, of course, the more detail given
by the tool. The relative effects of bed thickness. h, and
tool span on measured transit times are illustrated in Fig.
5 1.33. The log measures only the formation between the
ib, receivers. The measured transit time is the weighted
average of transit times in formations between the
Fig. 51.33-The effect of bed thickness on the response of an receivers.
acoustic velocity logging device: (a) bed thinner
than the span and (b) bed thicker than the span.
Cycle Skipping and Triggering on the Noise. In transit
time logging, the first arrival of the acoustic pulse must
trigger both receivers of the sonde to yield correct values
SP 1 / 1’Span 3’Span 3’Span

Cycle Sklpptng
5 7; P 4 .Accentuated
L-
- I
Detection
Levels
Near
Receiver -
Far
Receiver
I I + 1 Cycle
14
Fig. 51.34-Cycle skip and triggering on the noise Fig. 51.35-Sonic log run in Edwards limestone: (a) 1-ft span,
(b) 34 span, and (c) 34 span with intentionally ac-
centuated cycle-skipping.
of t. Under certain conditions, even though the first ar- An essential factor is to ensure the proper calibration
rival is strong enough to trigger the first receiver, it may of the logging system. Calibration procedures of each
be attenuated to such an extent that by the time it reaches commercially available acoustic velocity system are
the far receiver it may be too weak to trigger it (Fig. described in respective service company manuals. These
5 I .34). Instead, the far receiver may be triggered by a should be required before and after logging to ensure the
later arrival in the same acoustic pulse. This causes large accuracy of the surface equipment. It is important to em-
and abrupt increases in the recorded transit time values. phasize, however, that most calibration procedures do
This phenomenon, known as “cycle skipping,” may oc-
cur when the signal is strongly attenuated by (1) gas
sands, especially if they cause gas in the mud; (2) poorly Induction Interval
consolidated formations: (3) recently drillstem-tested in- Resistivity Travel Time
tervals, because of the release of gas; (4) fractured for- (API Units) (f]M) (psecht)
mations: and (5) aerated mud. 50 100 0.2 2.0 200 150 100
If the detection levels are set too low, however, either
one or both receivers may be triggered by noise, which is -7- x
always present as the tool is being dragged up the hole.
Depending on the receivers involved, triggering may
cause 1 spikes either too short or too long. Examples of
cycle skipping and trig ering by noise are illustrated in
Figs. 51.35 and 51.36. $9
Calibration. The precision of measurement of acoustic

transit time with the acoustic log is determined by the
precision of the timing circuitry, which, in turn. is con-
trolled by the frequency of the quartz crystal used. For
the usual crystals of 2.5 MHz, the potential resolution of
the transit time measurement is f0.4 psecift.
The accuracy of the transit time measurement,
however, depends on many other factors in addition to
the precision of the timing circuitry. A discussion of
some of the factors affecting the measurement of transit
time is given by Thomas.‘j Fig. 51.36-Cycle skip and noise on acoustic log
TIME, @SEC
just that. They merely check linearity of some of the cir-
2000 3000 cuitry in the surface instrumentation without any input
from the downhole sonde.
A true calibration requires measuring the response of
the complete system, surface instrumentation, and sonde
in a standard environment. For this purpose, the tool is
placed in a fluid-filled steel sleeve and transit time is
checked against the known value of 57 psec/ft. In addi-
tion, some free pipe in the surface casing should be
logged while going in and coming out of the hole, and
checked against the value for steel of 57 psec/ft.
Anhydrite beds, with a transit time of 50 pseclft, and
other formations with known transit times sometimes can
be used to check the accuracy of the log; however, these
methods are useful only if the downhole velocities in
naturally occurring rocks are known not to vary from
location to location or with depth of burial.
Amplitude/Time Recording
As described earlier, the acoustic wave (Fig. 51.37a)
contains information other than compressional wave
velocity. One of the methods developed to record some
of this formation is the amplitude/time recording. In this
method, which is also called the “X-Y mode,” the
amplitude of acoustic energy is recorded as a function of
time at preassigned depths along the wellbore (Fig.
5 1.37~). Usually, this is achieved by analog recording of
the output of one of the receivers on film.
Within the last few years, however, the introduction of
wellsite and downhole computers has made possible the
digital recording of waveforms from an array of acoustic
Fig. 51.37-Acoustic waveform recording receivers. For example, with one of these tools, a
waveform is digitized at every %-in. depth interval of
the borehole to obtain more than 500 data points. Pro-
cessing of this wealth of new information is a current
area of research that is expected to increase significantly
the usefulness of borehole acoustic measurements.
Intensity/Time Recording
For most applications, analog recordings of waveforms
L
Sonde
at %-in. depth intervals are rather cumbersome
or a log, waveforms are recorded in the intensity/time

mode. In this presentation,
to use.
Hence, for routine use, to obtain a continuous recording
each waveform is reduced to

a series of dashes of varying width and intensity, de-
pending on its frequency and amplitude (Fig. 51.37b).
The process can be visualized by rotating the acoustic
waveform of Fig. 51.37b by 90” on its horizontal axis
and then recording the positive-going portions of the
wave train as series of dashes and leaving the negative-
going portions as blank spaces, as shown in Fig. 51.37
c. The intensity/time log (Fig. 51.37d) is obtained by
stacking these dashed lines from each depth interval.
Unfortunately, this process has not been standardized.
Some service companies have the negative part of the
waveform as the dark dashes and the positive part as the
Fig. 51.38-Approximate volume of investigation of conven- light blanks; other companies, vice versa. Also, some
tional acoustic logs. service companies have the time increasing from left to
right, while other companies increase in the opposite
direction. The various trade names for this presentation
are Variable Density Log’” (VDL) by Schlumberger and
Dresser, 3-D Log’” by Birdwell, and Micro-Seismogram
Log’” by Welex.
Long-Spaced Acoustic Logging

Introduction. Conventional acoustic logs have a
relatively shallow depth of investigation, Di. The ap-
proximate bulk volume of the rock investigated by con-
Long Spacing
ventional acoustic logs is illustrated in Fig. 51.38. so
8-10 ft Sonde
This region is most subject to alterations because of 190
stress relief, mechanical damage caused by drilling, and
160
chemical alteration (clay hydration) caused by drilling
fluid. An important early study by Hicks” clearly 170
demonstrated that acoustic velocities in certain forma-
160
tions sensitive to damage were significantly lower when
measured near the borehole face than when measured - 150 Conventional
deeper in the formation. Hicks” clearly demonstrated 7
3-5 ft Sonde
that these borehole effects on acoustic velocities i 140
diminish with increased transmitter-to-receiver spacing.
2 130
Since then, many investigators have observed drastically
poor logging data caused by borehole enlargement and 120
formation alteration around the borehole.
110
Borehole Size, Effects of borehole geometry on log Transmitter-Near

100
Receiver Spacing
measurements can be considered in terms of hole rugosi-
ty and hole enlargement. Borehole rugosity, which can 90
cause significant errors in pad-type tools (such as densi-

ty. sidewall neutron porosity, microrcsistivity, and high- 6 8 10 12 14 16 16 20
frequency dielectric measurements) can produce diffrac- HOLE DIAMETER. IN.
tions in acoustic waves propagating along the borehole.
In general, these should not affect the first-arrival com- Fig. 51.39-Maximum detectable formation transit time,
pressional transit time measurements but can affect the various transmitter-to-near-receiver spacing.
Fig. 51.40-Effects of cavity on density, sldewell neutron, and acoustic logs.

Conventional Long Spacing

(3-5 11) (E-10 11)
40 120 100 150
R
5
I
a 150 120
< 30
R 9 100
Long Spacing
‘r\;; i
Acoustic Log e :::I
f
d :_p 2
:.
:.1 g a
p 10
z:i; i E’ 20 A
o:::.’ n I
- n I; 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ALTERATION DEPTH
9 IO 11 12 13 14 1s
R e::jI ; (Inches from Borehole Wall)

:. ::.
‘.:::
:. .’
::: r Fig. 51.42-Effects of formation alteration on measurements
., :.:.:. with convemional (3 lo 5 ft) and long-spacing (8 to
:.
‘.:. m 10 ft) acoustic sondes.
Conventional :. a
R
Acoustic Log t
‘
‘....:,‘.
.. line, the long-spaced tool measures high formation tran-
‘..,.I. i
‘. .’.‘‘.. 0 sit times in larger-diameter holes in the range where con-
ventional tools would record incorrectly low formation
‘. ..
& travel times.
n
Even though these borehole size effects are important.
conventional borehole-compensated acoustic logs can
T record reliable measurements under much more adverse
borehole conditions than other porosity tools, such as
density and neutron tools. The influence of a cavity on
the density, sidewall neutron, and conventional acoustic
Fig. 51.41-Comparison of depth of investigations of conven- tools is compared in Fig. 5 1.40. s3 In this figure, over
tional and long-spacing acoustic logs. the elliptical cavity indicated by the calipers on the den-
sity and acoustic logs, both the density and sidewall
neutron curves are useless, whereas the acoustic log pro-
vides reliable data. This feature of the acoustic log is
used to complement density and neutron porosity that are
amplitudes. The hole size, however, can have a signifi- not reliable because of poor hole conditions.
cant effect on the transit time measurements if the hole is
large enough and the tool is centralized because the Formation Alteration. A more important factor affect-
acoustic energy traveling directly down the hole in the ing the borehole acoustic measurements is formation
mud might arrive at the receiver before the formation alteration or damage around the borehole (Fig. 51.41).
compressional wave. This can occur because of stress relaxation near the
Hole size effects on acoustic measurements have been borehole wall, mechanical damage caused by prolonged
investigated extensively. ‘%** For a centralized tool, exposure to drilling, or chemical alteration of the foma-
Goetz et al. 8L computed the travel times along the direct tion by interaction of drilling fluid with sensitive clays in
mud path and the refracted path in the formation, for the formation. Under these conditions, accurate
various hole sizes. Some of their results are illustrated in measurements of acoustic velocities depend on hole size
Fig. 5 I .39 in terms of I vs. borehole diameter. Below the and transmitter receiver spacing, as well as velocities of
line labeled conventional 3- to 5-ft sonde, a centered tool both altered and unaltered zones around the borehole.
will read the formation transit time. Between this line Formation alteration was investigated by Goetz et
and the dashed line (computed for a receiver with a 5ft ul. ** by assumi n g a step profile transit time around the
spacing from the transmitter), a centered tool will record borehole, with the altered or damaged zone having a
a value intermediate between formation and mud transit transit time kd that is greater than the undisturbed forma-
times. Above the dashed line, a conventional acoustic tion 1 and a mud transit time of 200 psec/ft. They com-
log measures the velocity of compressional waves in the puted the depths of investigation of conventional
mud. The upper solid line is for a longer-spacing acoustic (3- to 5-ft) and long-spacing (8- to lo-ft)
acoustic log with 8- to lo-ft receiver spacing. Below this acoustic logs in a 10.in.-diameter borehole. They also
,’
LTd’
10'
12'
10'
Fig. 51.44-Borehole-compensated transit time measure-
ments: (a) conventional and (b) depth derived.
to 12-ft spacing. Borehole compensation is accomplished

by a depth-derived measurement scheme illustrated in
Fig. 51.44b, rather than the inverted array technique
shown in Fig. 5 1.44a, which was described earlier (Fig.
5 1.3 1). To obtain the transit time at depth level, first the
transmitter Tr is pulsed twice and the respective times
fI =Tr -RI, t? =Tr --‘RI are recorded. The transit
LTl time for this case is given by
II -tz
tI =- psecift,
2
Fig. 51.43-Schlumberger long-spacing sonic log.
which is subject to errors discussed earlier if the hole size
is different at the two receiver positions.
After the tool has moved 9 ft 8 in. up hole, the
transmitters will be spanning the same depth interval be-
calculated formation alteration (td-t) as a function of tween the points of refraction. This time they are each
alteration depth for unaltered formation transit times of pulsed, and the travel times, t3 =Tt -+R? and
100, 120, and 150 psec/ft. Their results, plotted in Fig. f4 =Tz +Rz are recorded by the second receiver (Rz).
5 I .42, illustrate the ability of the longer-spacing tool to For this second case, the transit time is given by
overcome the effects of formation damage. In this
figure, the area to the left of each curve represents the f4 -13
11 = - psecift,
conditions for reliable measurements. For example, at an 2
alteration of 20 psecift, a conventional tool can handle
an alteration of 5 in. if the formation transit time, I, is which is subject to the same errors as t, but in an op-
100 psec/ft, but only 3 in. if t= 150 psec/ft. posite direction. The depth-derived transit time for the 8
to IO-ft spacing is obtained by averaging these two
Long-Spacing Acoustic Logging Tool. Both the measurements:
borehole enlargement and the formation alteration ef-
fects can be accommodated by acoustic tools with longer II +t2
transmitter-to-receiver spacings. A schematic diagram of t-
one such tool, the Long Spacing Sonic’” by 2
Schlumberger, s4 is shown in Fig. 5 1.43. Two transmit-
ters, 2 ft apart, are at the bottom, and two receivers, 2 ft A similar borehole compensation is obtained for the
apart, are at the top, with 8ft spacing between the two lo- to 12-ft spacing by using the second transmitter T2
sections. Two long-spacing logs are recorded concur- in the first position, instead of T , , and the first receiver
rently, one with 8- to IO-ft spacing and the other with lo- R r in the second position, instead of RZ
250 pseclft
LJJ
BHC Sonic ‘( :. Spacing

Travel Time
(psedft)
140 40
Hole O::n 4 Days
--------_---_
--Hole Open 79 Days
-r-r-~Ir-lr-~-r1-l r y-r 7 T r
.
r- -;
<T- ., -'
i ..-
-I
C'>
CT ,,
_ '
r
. j
Fig. 51.45-Formation alteration caused by exposure to mud; Fig. 51.46-Conventional and long-spacing acoustic logs tn a
bit size 12% in. sand/shale section.
Effects of prolonged exposure to drilling and drilling The example in Fig. 5 1.47 is a comparison of the two
mud on acoustic velocities measured with a conventional acoustic tools in shallow and deeper Louisiana gulf coast
borehole-compensated acoustic log are illustrated in ex- sand/shale sequences. s6 Physical characteristics of both
ample logs in Fig. 5 1.45 taken from the reference by the shale at 3,470 ft and the sand at 3.500 ft have been
Misk et al.*’ The dashed curve is obtained after the hole altered by drilling and interaction with mud filtmte. The
has been exposed to drilling for 4 days with the borehole conventional spaced tool is reading 15 psecift higher
relatively undamaged; the solid curve is after 79 days of because of this alteration. This is also reflected by a
exposure. During this period, the formation over much lo-millisecond difference between the respective transit
of the interval has been damaged enough to increase the 1 time integration curves shown in the depth tract. In the
by 30 psecift or more. deeper section, as the formations become more com-
As described previously, long-spacing acoustic logs pacted, the formation alteration is reduced; hence, the
are less affected by altered zones A comparison of con- conventional and long-spacing measurements are in
ventional and long-spaced acoustic logs is shown in Fig. agreement within the interval 8,500 to 8,600 ft.
51.46 for a sand/shale section.73 In the upper section, Even though, in most instances. the t values from 8- to
the conventional log is reading higher values of I than IO-ft and lo- to 12-ft spaced receivers are in agreement,
those by the long-spacing tool, probably because of shale very deep formation alteration can sometimes affect the I
alteration. In Sand Z, both logs are in agreement. values recorded by the S- to IO-ft receivers. The example
whereas in sections directly above and below Sand Z. the in Fig. 51.48 is from a shallow well with modified
conventional log is reading significantly higher values of depths. ” In the upper zone, the 8- to IO-h spacing is
t. probably because of hole washouts. reading values higher by IO psecift than those given by
- psedft
GR 160 60
b
:I
il i
i
Fig. 51.47-Conventional (BHC) and long-spacing (LSS) Fig. 51.48-Very deep formation alteration.
acoustic logs in a Louisiana gulf coast sand/shale
sequence.
the lo- to 12-ft spacing, because of very deep formation to 20 in. In the lower section, the borehole is not washed
alteration. In the lower section, the 8 to IO-ft spacing out but the conventional tool is reading up to 60 ,usec/ft
still reads a few microseconds higher down to the com- too high because of formation alteration. Below 8,700 ft,
pacted formations below depth 227 ft. all three curves (i.e., the 3- to 5-ft, 8 to lo-ft, and IO- to
In the final example shown in Fig. 51.49, the better 12-ft curves), are in agreement.
response of the long-spaced logs in enlarged boneholes is
illustrated. In the upper section, the conventional spaced Summary. Borehole size and formation alteration can
tool is reading the mud transit time in a hole washed out significantly affect the properties of acoustic waves
1
\ ’ I-
I -
\
I
/
c ,‘“L
I
3’-5’+\
BHC :
I
Fig. 51.50-Identification of shear arrivals on analog recording
1 of (a) acoustic waveforms and (b) variable-density
I- (3D) presentations.
I
I -
I
I_
I
/ traveling in a borehole. The long-spaced acoustic tools
I- are much less affected by borehole conditions and yield
-I more reliable values of compressional-wave transit times
under borehole conditions in which conventional tools
i
would be grossly in error. The vertical bed boundary
resolution of the long-spaced tool is the same as that of
the conventional tool since the receiver spacing is 2 ft for
both. Because of the longer transmitter-to-receiver spac-
ing, the acoustic energy has to travel farther; therefore, it
is attenuated more. This has caused more frequent spik-
ing and cycle skipping on the long-spaced acoustic logs;
however, this technology is improving through the in-
troduction of more powerful transmitters, more sensitive
receivers, downhole digitizing, and surface processing
of waveforms.
Shear-Wave Logging
The borehole acoustic measurement methods described
so far have been for obtaining compressional wave
velocities. The desirability of obtaining other informa-
tion contained in the acoustic waveform has long been
recognized. I7 Most of the effort has been directed
toward obtaining the velocity of shear waves.
Early attempts involved hand-picking the shear-wave
arrivals on the analog recording of either waveforms or
variable-density-microseismogram or three-dimension-
al (3.D)-presentations as illustrated in Fig. 5 1.50e3
Another method involves automatic recording of
shear-wave travel times by a bias technique. “v’)’ In this
method, a high-amplitude event following the
compressional-wave arrivals is assumed to be the shear
wave arrival. The transit time of these waves is measured
by setting the voltage bias level higher than the compres-
sional-wave amplitudes.
A thorough investigation of conventional methods for
Fig. 51.49~-Response of conventional and long-spacing
acoustic logs In an enlarged borehole. determining shear-wave velocities from long- and short-
spaced acoustic logs was conducated by Koerperich.”
In this study. borehole experiments were conducted by
using a conventional Schlumberger Borehole Compen-
sated Sonic Log@ (BHC) with two transmitters and four
receivers at 3- and 5-ft spacing and a Schlumberger ex-
perimental long-spaced tool with a single transmitter and
four receivers located at 10, 12. 14. and 16 ft from the
transmitter. Waveforms recorded with these tools in a Depth. r “S‘ Wave Time Pick T-R
II Spacing
carbonate section are shown in Fig. 51.51 for several
transmitter-to-receiver spacings. As indicated in this 591.6 3’
figure, it is easier to identify the later arrivals on the

591.6 5
longer-spacing waveforms because of the greater separa-
tion in arrival times.
Some measurement results from this study are shown 5946-v - 10’
in Figs. 51.52 and 51.53 for a carbonate and a
sand/shale section, respectively. For both compressional 594 7 12’
and shear waves, long spacings generally yield slightly

lower travel times (higher velocities) than short spac-
ings. Another important aspect of this study involved
laboratory measurements of acoustic velocities on core
0 1000 2000
samples. Compressional and shear-wave velocities were Time.qec
measured on core plugs subjected to simulated subsur-
face overburden and pore pressure conditions. These
Fig. 51.51-Acoustic waveforms recorded at various trans-
results are lotted as circles in Figs. 51.52 and 51.53. mitter-to-receiver spacings in a carbonate section.
Koerperich r, states that average agreement between the
laboratory and log shear velocities (for both the long-
and short-spaced tools) is within 2% for carbonates and
8% in sandstones, and that it is slightly better for the
compressional waves. He states further that these dif-
ferences between the laboratory and the log values are Another acoustic array log is a 12-receiver experimen-
nonsystematic. tal sonde developed by Schlumberger. ” It has a single
The foregoing discussion demonstrates that determina- IO-kHz transmitter and an array of 12 receivers. The
tion of shear transit times in a borehole by hand-picking receivers have been arranged both in a nonuniform array
the arrival times from waveforms or from variable- spanning 4 ft with spacings of 0, 6, 9, 12, 1.5, 18, 21,
density presentations is at best a tedious and not very ac- 24, 27, 30, 36, 42, and 48 in. and in a uniform array
curate process. Further, attempts to automate this pro- spanning 5.5 ft with 6 in. between the receivers. The
cess by threshold detection have been subject to errors spacing between the transmitter and a receiver array is
when using an axial transmitter/receiver logging adjustable between 5 and 25 ft.
technology designed primarily for measurement of An experimental tool developed by Elf Aquitaine uses
compressional-wave travel times. The reasons for these an array of transmitters and an array of receivers. ” The
errors are explained by some of the recent modeling transmitting array has five transmitters uniformly spaced
studies of acoustic wave propagation in a fluid-filled at 0.25 m apart; hence, it has a span of 1 m. The receiv-
borehole. 6sm67These studies demonstrate that the shearing array has 12 receivers uniformly spaced at I-m inter-
wave arrival is indistinguishable from the onset of the vals. The distance between the receiving and the
reflected conical waves on the synthetic acoustic transmitting arrays is set at 1 m.
waveforms. However, the phase and group velocities of Finally, the prototype sonde by Schlumberger (shown
the reflected conical wave at its low-frequency cutoff are in Fig. 51.56) has an eight-receiver array and two
equal to the formation shear-wave velocity (see Fig. transmitters.‘j In addition, it has two additional
5 1.25). Hence. if the onset of the reflected conical wave receivers spaced at 3 and 5 ft from the transmitter to
is measured in error, the transit time will be close to that simulate conventional tools. It also has the capability to
of the shear wave. This might be the case in some of the measure the compressional-wave velocity of the
previously discussed studies. borehole fluid. Again, waveforms are digitized
downhole and transmitted to the surface for recording
Acoustic Array Logging and analysis.
Borehole modeling of acoustic wave propagation has As apparent from the previous discussion, this is a
demonstrated the need for a new generation of acoustic very active area of development. Tools are constantly
logging technology to extract more information from being developed to explore the extraction of additional
acoustic waveforms. Acoustic logging tools having ar- information, such as pseudo-Rayleigh and Stoneley
rays of transmitters and receivers, and complex digital wave velocities, from acoustic waveforms. Capabilities
signal processing capabilities have been developed to are being developed to record large amounts of data. For
analyze the data obtained. example, more data are obtained with one of these array
One such tool is shown in Fig. 51.54.” It has a Iower- tools in a l-mile-deep well than are recovered in a l-mile
frequency transmitter (1 1 kHz vs. the conventional 20 seismic section.
kHz), an array of four receivers placed at a longer spac- A parallel and complementary area of development is
ing from the transmitter, and a downhole digitizer to signal processing methods for analyzing these data.
record waveforms without cable distortions. Surface in- Processing methods such as direct phase determina-
strumentation records the signals digitally. The process- tion, y4 slowness time coherence, 93 and semblance 77,95
ing method, using a four-fold correlation algorithm. have been developed to permit automated analysis of
analyzes waveforms from the four receivers simulta- shear-wave transit times. Array processors are being ad-
neously to obtain compressional and shear-wave transit ded to wellsite data acquisition systems to permit real-
times (Fig. 51.55). time signal processing.
Fig. 51.52-Borehole and laboratory measurements of compressional- and shear-wave transit times
in a carbonate section.
Fig. 51.53-Borehole and laboratory measurements of compressional- and shear-wave transit times
in a sand/shale section.
Gamma
I
0
Ray
APIU ,
-------------
r----
-;rx;]
,
L------------------l
Van
Cartridge
1 (Telemetry. Analog-to-
Digital bonvertk)
T&&
0.3 Ill
Compr.
0.3 Ill tP -
0.3 In
C
spacers
iii
Fig. 51.54-A four-receiver acoustic array log with a downhole Fig. 51.55-Compressional- and shear-wave transit time log ob-
digitizer. tained by analysis of the waveforms recorded with
the sonde in Fig. 51.54.
So far, emphasis has been on extraction of shear-wave generate a picture of the borehole wall. When the
velocity from acoustic waveforms. With continued im- borehole wall is smooth, the amplitude of the reflected
provement in tool design and signal processing, it is ex- signal is high; it is recorded as a light spot. Low-
pected that in the not too distant future, acoustic logs will amplitude reflections from fractured or vuggy walls are
record not only the velocities of compressional, shear, recorded as dark spots. The resulting log is essentially a
pseudo-Rayleigh and Stoneley waves, but their attenua- black and white picture of the borehole wall, split ver-
tions as well. tically along magnetic north and flattened (Figs. 51.58
through 5 1.60).
For the borehole televiewer (BHTV) log, the vertical
Reflection Method scale is depth and the horizontal scale corresponds to
The reflection method of acoustic wave propagation log- azimuth of the borehole wall. An isometric view of a
ging is basically similar to sonar. A single transducer vertical fracture intersecting the wellbore in an east-west
rotates at constant speed, emitting acoustic pulses in the direction is shown on the left in Fig. .51.58.97 The cor-
megahertz range and recording their echoes from the responding BHTV log on the right shows the fracture as
borehole face (Fig. 51.57). As in the transmission two vertical dark lines 180” apart. Similarly, an
method, both travel times and amplitudes are used. The isometric of a south-dipping fracture or bedding plane is
azimuth of the beam also is recorded. shown with the corresponding BHTV log in Fig. 5 1.59.
The first such logging tool, the borehole televiewer, Vh An example of a BHTV log (SeisvieweP by Bird-
used only the amplitude of the reflected signals to we1198) based on amplitude imaging is shown in Fig.
S
Receiver Electronics
R
E W
N
1III.
~ Fluid-Delta T Measurement
Wideband Receivers *o- --_ .

Spaced 6” Apart --.
il N E S W N
Vertical Fracture BHTV Log
Intersecting Well Bore
Fig. 51.58-Isometric of a vertical fracture intersecting a bore-

Rg\ Two Standard Ceramic Receivers
hole and corresponding BHTV log.
51.60 for a borehole intersected by two fractures. The

corresponding isometric on the right describes the two
UT\ Two Low-Frequency Transmitters
different dips and strikes.
Significant hardware and signal processing im-
LT/’ provements have been made to early BHTV
technology. 97,99-101 Current technology uses transit
time information to obtain an image, in addition to the
Transmitter Electronics image obtained from the amplitudes of the reflected
signals. Transit time images complement amplitude im-
ages in many ways. Transit time measurement is essen-
l-l tially a near-perfect borehole geometry tool with a
resolution of 0.05 in. BHTV images developed from the
Fig. 51.56-An eight-recerver acoustic array sonde.
transit time measurements can be considered as two-
dimensional (2D) relief maps of the borehole.
Further use of transit time measurements is made in
generating tilted polar scan displays. 99 These are essen-
tially 3D casts of the borehole, which can be viewed
from all directions. The tilted polar scan of Fig. 51.61
shows a damaged section of a casing viewed from two
angles, which also can be viewed from any desired
angle.
Applications
Introduction
Some present and possible future applications of acoustic
logging will be presented to illustrate the use of borehole
acoustic measurements described earlier and listed in
Table 51.1. Discussion here will emphasize the more
important uses, and only references will be given to
more routine and less significant ones.
Seismic and Geological Interpretation

Borehole measurements of acoustic properties were
developed originally to obtain time/depth curves to use
Fig. 51.5743lock diagram of BHTV logging system.
in seismic interpretation. lo2 In addition to recording
transit times of the compressional waves as functions of
depth, acoustic logs also integrate these data and record a
tick mark on the log for each millisecond of elapsed
time. These marks are then used in conjunction with
check-shot surveys for seismic interpretation. 79,‘03
Recent advances in borehole shear-wave velocity
recording also have allowed this technology to be used
with surface seismic shear surveys in a way similar to the
compressional-wave velocity log use with the seismic
compressional surveys. ‘04
An important geological application of acoustic logs

has been for correlating geologic sections. As described
earlier (see Fig. 51.39), acoustic log response is much
less affected by borehole irregularities than are some of
the other porosity logs. As a result, acoustic logs provide
valid data over a large proportion of the borehole.
Further, acoustic logs usually show much character
and detail. Therefore, they have been useful for locating
bed boundaries, identifying gas/oil interfaces, and deter-
mining subsurface geology. An example of geological
correlation is shown in Fig. 5 1.62; even though the two
wells in this figure are 10 miles apart, the character of
the compressional transit time curves is quite similar.
Porosity
Borehole measurements of acoustic velocities were in-
strumental in the development of quantitative formation
evaluation in the 1950’s, although they were developed
BHTV Log
initially to aid seismic interpretation. Over the years, the
primary use of acoustic logs in formation evaluation has Dip: Orientation of Minimum
been the determination of porosity from measurements Angle: tan-’ h/d
of compressional-wave transit time (t= l/v,). Earlier in

this chapter, factors affecting acoustic properties were Fig. 51.59~isometric of fracture or bedding plane intersecting
described through both theoretical and experimental borehole at moderate dip angle, and corresponding
studies of elastic wave propagation in porous media. On BHTV log.
the basis of these discussions, it would be at best naive to
expect a simple linear relationship between porosity and
compressional-wave transit time. However, empirical
observations have indeed demonstrated the validity of
such a relationship under certain special conditions.
N E S W N
5560
Consolidated Rocks. A commonly used linear relation- Dip
ship for estimating porosity from acoustic measurements 5561 Ang leq ir ec lia n
58’ N 70 E
(based on laboratory measurements of acoustic velocity
5562
and porosity in porous rocks and other materials) was
proposed by Wyllie et al. 18,t9 Commonly referred to as Angle Direction
5563 740 N 46 w
the Wyllie time-average equation, it is expressed as
5564
1 G , (l-4)
. . .. . . (10) 5565
VP “L V,
or in terms of transit times, as

Fig. 51.60-BHTV indicating two fractures of different dips and
strikes.
t=&+(l-4)1,, ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
where
( (= 1lvP) = transit time of the compressional
waves for the liquid-saturated
porous medium,
I~(= l/vL) = transit time for saturant liquid that
forms the solid frame of the porous
medium,
t, (= l/v,) = transit time for rock matrix that forms
the solid frame of the porous
medium, and
$I = porosity.
This relationship can be rearranged as
1’(hL -tm)++t, .. .... .... . . . . (12)

Fig. 51.61-BHTV tilted polar image of a section of a damaged
casing.
where the slope is m=tL-t,,, and the intercept is b=t,.

The most attractive feature of Eq. 12 is its simplicity.
It states that the transit time of an acoustic wave in a
porous rock is the porosity-weighted average of its tran-
sit times in the matrix and the liquid in its pores. Also, it
extrapolates to correct values for 0 and 100% poros-
ities-i.e., I, and tL, respectively.
This simplicity coupled with pedagogically pleasing
qualities made Eq. 12 popular and, more importantly,
established acoustic logging as an important tool in for-
mation evaluation. As stated, however, there is no
theoretical justification for such a simple relationship. In
the Appendix, the linear relationship, Eq. 13, is shown
Fig. 51.62-Acoustic log correlation between two wells
to be a second-order approximation of a comprehensive
relationship, Eq. A-9, with the intercept h approximately
equal to the matrix transit time and the slope m strongly
dependent on elastic properties of the porous rock frame
and the compressibility of pore fluid. Nevertheless,
under the right conditions, a linear dependence of transit
time on porosity has been established through literally
hundreds of empirical observations.
A graphical representation of the time-average equa-
Porosity Evaluation from I tion, Eq. 11, is given in Fig. 51.63. lo5 This is a good
beginning for determining porosity from acoustic log
measurements when no other information is available. It
provides acceptable values of porosity for well-
t -t, I
compacted rocks with uniform pore size distribution and
d=-X-
under effective stress (difference between the over-
Ipwtm FCP
burden stress and pore fluid pressure) of at least 4,000
psi.
In most applications, the linear relationship of Eq. 13
has been found to be more useful than the time-average
equation, Eq. 11, provided that the values of b and m can
be determined. As indicated in the Appendix, the
parameter b is approximately equal to (l/v,,,); therefore,
it depends on rock matrix properties. Published values
for b range from 50 to 60 yseclft for sandstones, from 45
to 50 for limestones, and from 40 to 48 for dolomites.
Velocities of compressional and shear waves for a
large number of materials are given in handbooks by
Clark lo6 and by Simmons and Wang. lo7 An extensive
,I/(//.//.. list of compressional and shear transit times have been
30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100 110 120 130
I,, /Jsec/ll compiled by Wells et al. lo8 for minerals and rocks en-
v, ftlsec i,. @?c/ft countered in oil and mineral exploration. Probably the
most comprehensive compilation of compressional and
Sandsloner 16,000 - 19,500 55.5 - 51.3
shear-wave velocities for marine sediments, rock-
Limestones 21,000 - 23,000 47.6 - 43.5
Dolomites 23,000 - 26,000 43.5 - 38.5
forming minerals, and rocks is given, for various
pressures and temperatures, in a recent handbook by
Carmichael. ‘09 A set of compressional and shear-wave
Fig. 51.63-Porosity evaluation from acoustic log
velocity data from the literature is listed in Table 5 1.3 ”
for selected materials, to illustrate the range of velocities
encountered in and around the borehole.
The values of m depend on the elastic moduli of the
rock frame, which in turn are controlled by the effective
stress and pore structure and by the compressibility of
the pore fluid. Changes in velocities have been observed
to become smaller with increasing effective stress.
Therefore, pressure dependence of m may be small
enough to be neglected in normally pressured sections
below 7,000 ft. Effects of pore structure might be
TABLE 51.3-ACOUSTIC VELOCITIES
Material v,(fllsec) v,(ftlsec)

Nonporous solrds
anhydrite 20,000 11,400
calcite 20,100* -
cement (cured) 12,000
dolomite 23,000 12,700
granite 19,700 11,200
gypsum 19,000 -
limestone 21,000 11,100
quartz 16,900 * 12,000
salt 15,000* 8,000
steel 20,000 9,500
Water-saturated porous rocks in situ Porosity (o/o)

dolomites 5 to 20 20,000 to 15,000 11,000 to 7,500
limestones 5 to 20 18.500 to 13.000 9,500 to 7,000
sandstones 5 to 20 16,000 to 11,500 9,500 to 6,000
sands (unconsolidated) 20 to 35 11,500 to 9,000 -
shales‘ 7,000 to 17,000 -
Liquids’ *
water (pure) 4,800
water (100,000 mg NaCIIL) 5,200
water (200,000 mg NaCIIL) 5.500
drilling mud 61000
petroleum 4,200
Gases
air (dry or motst) 1,100
hydrogen 4,250
methane 1,500
described qualitatively by stating that the magnitude of m the close agreement between acoustic-log-measured
increases with decreasing grain contact areas. Thus, m is transit times and core-measured porosities for carbonate
small for crystalline rocks and larger for granular and sections in two wells.
shalier rocks, ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 psec/ft for car- In fact, the acoustic log in certain areas is the most
bonates and from I to 3 psec/ft for sandstones. consistently reliable porosity device. To reiterate, the
Compressibility of the pore fluid depends on whether conditions required are (1) lithology is accurately
it is gas, oil, or water and becomes significant in poorly known, (2) porosity is largely intergranular, and (3)
consolidated rocks (see Eq. A-7). In well-consolidated rocks are well compacted and subjected to a differential
rocks under high effective stress, the relative contribu- stress of at least 4,000 psi.
tion of pore fluid compressibility to the overall rock As with other conventional porosity logs, variations in
elastic moduli is small; therefore, variations of m lithology make porosity estimates from compressional-
because of pore fluid content may be neglected. wave transit times unreliable. To overcome this. acoustic
The large range in values of b and m necessitates the logs are used with density and/or neutron logs, or with
use of core analysis data to calibrate the acoustic log for measurements of shear-wave transit times described in
estimating porosity. For this purpose, porosities and the next section.
travel times are measured on core samples under the
equivalent subsurface pressure conditions, and the linear
relationship between the two is established by statistical Secondary Porosity. Another application of the acoustic
analysis. If laboratory measurements of I are not log is for estimation of “secondary porosity” in vugular
available, restored pressure measurements of porosity, and/or fractured rocks. For this, it is assumed that com-
or porosity corrected for equivalent subsurface condi- pressional wave velocity is affected only by the primary
tions can be correlated to I from the acoustic log to or intergranular porosity. The density and neutron logs
establish the linear relationship. provided that adequate are assumed to respond to total porosity. Hence, any dif-
depth correspondence between core and log data can be ference between these is assumed to be secondary
established. porosity consisting of vugs and/or fractures. An example
There are numerous field examples of acoustic log of this is shown in Fig. 5 1.65, where the section contains
measurements yielding reliable estimates of porosity in anhydrite with fracture porosity. ’‘u Notice that while the
well-compacted, clean sandstones and carbonates, pro- transit time I remains approximately constant over the
vided that the lithology is known. Fig. 51.64 illustrates entire section, density oh decreases from 2.97 to 2.83
South Ralph
Wevburn Saskatchewan Steelman (Kvqsford) Field Saskatchewan
Mlsswpplan LImestone M~ss~rs~pp~en Limestone
Tranr,, Tlrn.3 /Jsec/tt Tranl,, Tlrnl? /.lsecm

100 85 70 55 40 100 85 70 55 40
Salt Potential Spacing - 1 ft, 2 Receivws Specsng - 1 ft. 2 Receivers

Self Potential
millivolts Poro.lfy - (%) mdlivolts Porolltv - (%)
35 30 25 21 15 10 5 0
~--
/
3
>
L-
Sonic Log
/---- Zore I
ore Analysis 4naIySiS-j-
/
/ I
I --_--+-I
----i--1
t ‘?. ’ ;
I r
-
i
+
-1
I~<-, L
L-
Note: Porosity Scale Based on Matrix Velocity , Vm q 23,000 ft/sec
Fig. 51.64-Acoustic log vs. core analysis porosity

ACOUSTIC LOGGING
g/cm 3 . and the neutron porosity 4 W increases from 0 IO

4%. thereby indicating a secondary porosity of 4%.
Poorly Consolidated Rocks. In poorly consolidated

sandstones, reliability of porosity estimates from
acoustic logs is rather poor. In these cases, usually a
combination of density and neutron logs is preferred.
-
One significant advantage of the acoustic log is that it is
much less affected by the hole conditions, such as
washouts and rugosity. This was illustrated in Fig. 5 I .39
where the density and sidewall neutron logs were re-
sponding to hole conditions whereas the acoustic log was
found to yield reliable estimates of porosity.
Several methods have been developed to obtain
porosity information from acoustic logs in poorly com-
pacted sands. 21.1’1 One approach 2’ involves adjustment
of porosity calculated from the time-average equation us-
ing a compaction correction factor Fc,,. First. the ap-
parent porosity $,, is computed from
‘-‘,,I
I$,=-. ... . . .(14)
~1‘
- ’01
t
Then this value is corrected by F,, to obtain the cor-
rected porosity, 4,.. from
&=$. . . .(15)
‘P
The values of Fc7, (Fig. 5 1.63) range from 1 to 1.6 or

higher. One method used to estimate F,, is based on
estimating the compaction of sands from the compaction
of adjacent shales. If the transit time of adjacent shales is
100 psecift or less, they are assumed to be compacted.
Hence. to obtain the correction factor, the transit time L,,,~
observed in the nearby shales is divided by 100.
FcP=*. . . . .. .. ..... . . .(16)

100
Fig. 51.65~Secondary porosity in the Auquilco formation. Neu-
quen basin, Argentina.
Other methods for determining F,, include determina-
tion of porosity either from a resistivity log in a water-
bearing sand or from other porosity logs such as density
and/or neutron, and then comparing the value with 4,,
obtained from the acoustic log.
More recently another empirical relationship for
estimating porosity from compressional-wave velocity
was developed by Raymer et al. ’’’ on the basis of exten-
sive field observations of transit time vs. porosity. The
relationship reported is for the full porosity range from 0
to 100%; however, for the porosity range of interest, 0 to
37%, it is expressed as
TRANSIT TIME, psedlt
where v, is 17,850 filsec for sandstone, 20,500 ftisec

for limestone, and 22,750 ftisec for dolomite, respec- Fig. 51.66-An empirical relationship for estimating porosity in
tively; and of is velocity of sound in the pore fluid. sandstone, limestone, and dolomite.
Time Average Eq.

1, 56 psec/li.
a) Laminated
c) Grain Boundary Structural
l Clean Sands
A Shaly Sands
b) Framework Structural
Velocity, ft/sec
d) Dispersed
0 Sandstone
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 7J60
50 I, INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME, vsec/ft CD Clay
Fig. 51.67-Velocity/porosity correlations for moderately con- Fig. 51.68-Shaly sand models for acoustic wave propagation
solidated to unconsolidated sands. studies.
A graphical representation of this empirical relation-

ship is given in Fig. 51.66. Raymer et al. t It found this
relationship to be a better estimator of porosity than the
time-average equation. They also reported that it is ap-
plicable to both consolidated and unconsolidated rocks.
Predictions from this relationship and from the time-
average equations were investigated by Hartley It* for
the moderately consolidated to unconsolidated sands of
the Gulf of Mexico. The lack of agreement indicated in
Fig. 5 1.67 led Hartley to the universally applicable con-
clusion that empirical relationships “may provide er-
roneous porosities if they are applied outside of the data
fif set from which they were developed.”
9-
5 0 - Laminated Shaly Sands. Another aspect of Hartley’s study t ” con-
1 siders the effects of shaliness in porosity interpretation.
-- Structural
-.- Dispersed In Fig. 5 1.67, porosity predictions from the empirical
relations are worse for the shaly sands. Effects of shales
on acoustic velocities are not very well understood; as a
result, they are difficult to account for. A recent
Compressional theoretical study by Mineart’” shed much light on this
problem by relating clay effects to their distribution
within the rock framework. Minear used the Kuster-
Toksoz ‘I4 model of porous media and divided clay
distributions into four groups. As illustrated in Fig.
51.68, these four groups are (1) the laminated model
(Fig. 51.68a), in which clay-mineral-rich and shaly
layers alternate with clean sandstone layers. (2) the
framework structural model (Fig. 51.68b), in which
10 20 30 40 50 60
shale grains substitute for quartz grains randomly, (3) the
CLAY/SHALE FRACTION OF FORMATION, % grain boundary structural model (Fig. 5 1.68c), in which
shale grains occur at some, but not all. boundaries be-
Fig. 51.69-Estimated shale effects on compressional and tween the quartz grains, and (4) the dispersed clay model
shear velocities. (Fig. 51.68d), in which clays occur dispersed in the pore
fluid or lining the pores but not between the grain
contacts.
90 100 110 120 130 140 150

I,, dn
Laboralory Data (Ref. 27) Field Data (hiked Lithologlar Excluded)

C Limestone OLtmertone
ADolomite QDolomltc
1 Sandstones 0 Sandntone
Fig. 51.70-Compressional-wave transit time vs. shear-wave Fig. 51.71-Compressional- to shear-wave velocity ratio vs.
transit time. compressional-wave velocity. Data from Fig. 51.70.
One of the obvious conclusions in this study is that the (v,Iv,) are closely spaced for dolomites and
time-average equation is applicable to the laminated limestones- 1.8 and I .9, respectively. The sandstones
model. A more interesting conclusion, however, states range from 1.6 for low-porosity sands to 1.75 for high-
that the framework (Fig. 51.68b) and grain-boundary porosity sands under low effective stress.
(Fig. 5 1.68~) shales seem to have the same effect on Lithology identification is also illustrated in Fig.
acoustic velocities. Further results of this study are sum- 51.71 by replotting the velocity ratio data of Fig. 5 1.70
marized in Fig. 51.69. The differences, t&ly -tclean, vs. compressional wave velocities.
between the transit times of the shaly and clean forma- Use of borehole measurements of compressional and
tion for both the compressional and shear waves are plot- shear transit times is described by NationsEX for deter-
ted vs. the clay or shale fraction for a sandstone with a mining porosity and lithology in mixed-lithology rocks.
porosity of 30%. Structural and laminated shales have He assumes that velocity ratio is a constant for a “pure”
approximately the same effect on I,, and l-5 but increase rock type: 1.6 for sandstones, 1.8 for dolomites, and 1.9
t,, more than I,, Dispersed clay, if it has a density close for limestones. He further assumes that mixed-lithology
to that for sandstone, has about the same effect on L,, as rocks will exhibit a ratio that is directly proportional to
the structural and the laminated clays: however, its effect the content of the two minemls and that porosity is
on I,, is only about one-third of that by the other two. distributed equally between the two. From the velocity
ratio, he first determines the mineralogical composition;
Lithology then, on the basis of this information, assigns the ap-
Estimation of lithology from conventional acoustic log propriate matrix transit time for calculating porosity. An
measurements may be made by solving for the matrix example of the results of this technique is illustrated in
travel time from the time-average equation if the porosity Fig. 5 1.72 for dolomite/sandstone and dolomite/
is known from another source. Even though this tech- limestone mixtures.
nique has been used under certain conditions, matrix
transit times of the most common rock types determined
Hydrocarbon Content
in this fashion are not distinct enough to make this a very
useful method. Acoustic signals on microseismogram or variable-
A more deterministic method for establishing lithology density logs are known to disappear sometimes in oil and
from acoustic log measurements is based on the relation- gas zones in unconsolidated formations. This property is
ships shown in Fig. 5 1.70. In this figure, laboratory- and used to locate oil/water contacts. as well as gas caps, but
borehole-measured values of compressional-wave transit is not completely reliable. Sometimes, even within the
times are plotted against shear-wave transit times. bame zone, signal disappearance may or may not be in-
Laboratory data cover a porosity range of 5 to 30% for dicative of presence of hydrocarbons.
sandstones and 5 to 2.5 % for carbonates. and an effective Laboratory studies conducted by Gardner and Har-
stress range of 0 to 6.000 psi.” As indicated, each ris”’ on sandpacks indicate that shear-wave velocities
lithology has a well-defined trend, regardless of porosity decrease when liquid is added to sandpacks, whereas the
or effective stress (depth). Lines of equal velocity ratio compressional-wave velocity increases (Fig. 51.73).
Lithology Set
0 Dolomite-Sandstone
*Dolomite-Limestone
4\
Water Saturated
- 1000
ps,
200 PSI
Dolomitlc Sandstone
3
c
3
With Part of Pore 0.
Space Not Connecte 0.
0
0 I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
FDC-CNL POROSITY, POROSITY. ‘.
Fig. 51.72-Porosity from compressional-wave transit time cor- Fig. 51.74-Ratio of compressional-wave to shear-wave veloci-
rected for lithology by the velocity ratio vs. porosity ty for sands and consolidated rock.
from density/neutron crossplot for complex
lithologies.
These observed differences between compressional

and shear-wave velocities are illustrated by plotting
velocity ratio as a function of porosity and pressure (Fig.
5 1.74). Also shown in this figure is the velocity ratio
range of 1.75 & 0.20 for the consolidated sedimentary
rocks. A velocity ratio greater than two indicates an un-
consolidated sand saturated with liquid. Below this value
it may be either an unconsolidated sand containing gas or
a consolidated rock.
For the consolidated rocks, the ranges of velocity
ratios for liquid and gas saturation were obtained by
Gregory50 through laboratory measurements. The
results of his study are summarized in Fig. 51.75.
Additional experimental data obtained on a sandpack
are shown in Fig. 51.76. ’I6 Laboratory measurements
of compressional- and shear-wave velocities are
measured as a function of water saturation and plotted on
\ this figure together with measured values of density.
\
-we_
\
These data and the previous observations may be inter-
preted in general terms through use of the Gassmann-
,y
5000 psig Biot theory described in the Appendix. Taking the
square roots of Eqs. A-l and A-2 gives, respectively,
\
\
I
L’,,= - PC/ +f(Kf)
Ph ‘%[
I I
20 40
and
POROSITY, 40
Fig. 51.73-Variation of compressional-wave and shear-wave G %

velocilles of wet and dry sands with porosity at v,,= - .
5,000 psig differential pressure. ( Ph >
Predictions of these equations also are plotted on Fig.

5 1.76 as dashed lines. One of the predictions of Eq. A-l
is that for 100% gas saturation, incompressibility of pore
ACOUSTIC LOGGING
1 .QO
fii
,.20 _ Consolidated Sedimentary Rocks $J 5.0 I I
Pressure Range - O-10,000 psi = I
1.10 I I I I I 1 1 1 i Measured (VP) ,
Ii 1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 e 4.0’7 -- I ---L-__-!-- i 1.
POROSITY, %
Computed rvp)’ / -----/
I
Fig. 51.75-Variations of velocity ratio with porosity for water- i I
saturated and gas-saturated rocks.
fluid (K$ is much smaller than that of the rock matrix 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(K,,,); hence, f(Kf) becomes negligibly small (see Eq.
WATER SATURATION, S,
A-4). Therefore, P-wave velocities calculated from this
equation for the gas-saturated rocks are smaller than Fig. 51.76-Compressional- and shear-wave velocity and bulk
those for the liquid-saturated rocks. density vs. saturation for a sand pack.
The S-wave velocity, however, becomes the function
of gas saturation through dependence on the bulk density
because the shear modulus G is the same for the rock
Sonic, ii secift -200 180 130
whether it contains gas or liquid. Hence, as indicated in Induction Log I I I
Eq. A-2, shear-wave velocity increases upon introduc- Resistivily f!M 1 1.o 10.0 100.0
I I I
tion of gas to the extent that the bulk density decreases.
Returning to the P-wave velocities, since the com-
pressibility of gas is much larger than that of water, a
small amount of gas reduces pore fluid compressibility
essentially to that of gas as predicted by Eq. A-7 (see
Appendix).
Cf=S,,.c,,. i-(1 -S,,.)c,,
where cX is gas compressibility. Hence, a small amount

of gas reduces compressional-wave velocities signifi-
cantly, but additional gas saturation has little further ef-
fect. This was illustrated by the laboratory data and
theoretical prediction plotted in Fig. 5 I .76. A field ex-
ample shown in Fig. 51.77 confirms this by
demonstrating that compressional-wave transit time does
not differentiate the upper zone at 90% gas saturation
from the lower one containing 20% gas, because the I
curve essentially is responding to the velocity of the mud
in both intervals.
Effects of gas saturation on the compressional to
shear-wave velocity ratio is illustrated in Fig. 5 1.78 for a
deep dolomite reservoir. ‘I7 Over the 18,500 to
18,520-ft interval the v,,Iv, ratio is 1.8; this is as ex-
pected for a dolomite lithology. Over the gas zone below
18,520 ft, however, this ratio is reduced to 1.6, and
clearly differentiates the gas zone. A similar gas effect is
shown in Fig. 5 I .79 for a sandstone reservoir. In this
case, the vp/v, ratio is reduced from 1.67 to 1.5 1, again
clearly dehneating the gas zone. Fig. 51.77-Gas effect on acoustic log
Fig. 51.78-Gas effect on compressional- to shear-wave veloci- Fig. 51.81-Scope pictures from selected levels in the log on
ty ratio in a dolomite reservoir. Fig. 51.80.
1.6 1.7 In general, the effects of gas saturation on acoustic

t Velocity velocities in rock may be summarized as follows.
rllTl
Ralio
1. Compressional-wave velocity is greater in liquid-
saturated rocks than in comparable gas-saturated rocks,
whereas the reverse is true for shear-wave velocities.
2. The difference in compressional-wave velocity for
the liquid- and gas-saturated states becomes negligibly
small with increasing depth, whereas the equivalent dif-
ference for the shear-wave velocities remains constant.
Fig. 51.79-Gas effect on compressional- to shear-wave veloci- 3. Under equivalent pressure conditions, compres-
ty ratio in sandstone reservoir. sional-wave velocity decrease upon gas saturation (in
poorly consolidated rocks) is much greater than that in
well-consolidated rocks.
Attenuations of elastic waves are also used to identify
gas zones. ’I8 This is illustrated in the typical Gulf Coast
sandsshowninFigs.51.80and51.81.InFig.51.80,the
induction log indicates two gas zones: one in a thin
stringer at 5,476 ft and the other in a massive sand at
5,520 ft underlain by water. Scope pictures in Fig. 5 1.8 1
were recorded with a single-transmitter, dual-receiver
acoustic log while going into the hole described in the
previous figure. In Fig. 51.81a, the lower-receiver
signal is just becoming affected as it moves very close to
the gas stringer. One foot lower, at 5,477 ft, the lower
receiver is in the top of the gas zone. In Fig. 5 1.8 lc, the
t lower receiver is in the gas sand and the upper receiver is
being affected. In the massive gas sand at 5,540 ft, both
receivers are showing almost total compressional wave
loss, whereas in the water sand at 5,580 ft, a strong
Fig. 51.80-Typical gulf coast induction log indicating Iwo gas signal is apparent at both receivers. For comparison, a
sands. typical shale response at 5,462 ft is given in Fig. 5 1.8lf.
Geopressure Detection 0
Geopressure refers to a buried rock/fluid system in
which the fluid pressure is greater than the hydrostatic
pressure of a full column of formation water.
-
Geopressure also is called abnormal pressure or over- 2
pressure. Abnormally high fluid pressures are found
worldwide. Such pressures occur when fluid in the pore
space begins to support more overburden than just
fluids-i.e., not all the compressional forces are 4 -
transmitted by the rock matrix only.
The ability to predict the occurrence and magnitude of
abnormal pressures is a requirement in planning efficient
drilling and, ultimately, completion procedures. Hott- 6
man and Johnson”’ established a procedure for deter-
mining the first occurrence of geopressure and the
precise depth vs. pressure relationship. They observed
that for hydrostatic-pressure formations in a given 8 -
geological province, a plot of the logarithm of
compressional-wave travel time in shales, i,,h, vs. depth
is generally a straight line. The divergence of the observ-
ed travel time kc,,, from that obtained with the established 10
normal trend kli is a measure of the pore-fluid pressure in
the shale and, hence, in the adjacent permeable forma-
tion (Fig. 51.82). They also established a trend of
resistivity vs. depth for shales and used it similarly in
conjunction with acoustic log data.
12
A field example showing acoustic log response in an 'ob
abnormal pressure section in the North Sea is given on
the right track of Fig. 5 1.83. ‘*” A remarkably accurate / I
prediction of abnormal pressure by surface seismic
14
measurements is shown for comparison in the left track.
A procedure for evaluation of formation pressure is
summarized as follows. “’
1. Plot shale velocity or transit time and establish a
normal compaction trend line. Fig. 51.82-Prediction of Qeopressure from shale transit time.
2. Locate the anomalous pressure top at the depth at
which plotted data points diverge from the normal trend.
3. Take the difference between observed shale transit
time and normal shale transit time.
4. Convert the difference to formation pressure gra-
dient by means of an empirically derived curve for a Predicted Actual
given age and for a given area (Fig. 5 1.84 was used for
the example shown in Fig. 51.83).
5. Multiply the pressure gradient obtained by depth to
Abnormal
compute the formation fluid pressure at that depth. Abnormal
Pressure TopL
Another approach for evaluating abnormal pressures is Pressure Top
Normal
suggested by Eaton. ‘*’ He proposes the following em- Pressure or
pirical relationship for predicting pore fluid pressure Lithology Change
(Pf): Abnormal-’
Pressure
1(
i
t&-f, = 36
where I,,‘,-‘n = 38
Mud Wt. = 14.0
Mud Wt. = 13.3 1 ____.~.~
D = depth, ft
Top Chalk
Top Chalk
p/D = pore fluid pressure gradient, psi/ft,
p,/D = overburden stress gradient, psi/ft,
(P/D) ,r = normal hydrostatic pressure gradient
(0.456 psiift for Gulf Coast, 0.434 for
Fig. 51.83-Comparison of seismic prediction and actual down-
fresh waters), hole pressure environment.
1, = transit time on the extrapolated normal

curve at depth,
17 ‘oh = observed transit time at depth, and

m = empirical exponent varying regionally
around a value of three.
Cement Bond Quality

The primary purposes of oilwell cementing are to secure
casing to prevent leakage to the surface and to isolate
producing zones from water zones. With the increasing
cost of completing wells, accurate determination of the
quality of the casing cementation has become necessary
to avoid costly recompletion and squeeze cementing
jobs.
The successful cementing of a well is affected by
many factors: cement setting time, pressure, tempera-
ture, hole size and deviation, formation and cement
characteristics, casing surface, and damage to the ce-
ment bond by perforating or squeezing operations. These
and many other factors must be considered when
evaluating the effectiveness of a cement job.
Early in acoustic logging, it was observed that the
MEASURED, I&, - NORMAL fs,, amplitude of an acoustic signal in a firmly cemented pipe
is only a fraction of that of a free pipe. tZ3 Since then,
Fig. 51.84-Transit-time/pressure correlation, North Sea. downhole acoustic measurements have been firmly
established as the primary technology for determining
cement bondin not only to the casing but to the forma-
tion as well . ” %.‘25 Under favorable conditions even the
compressive strength of cement can be determined. ‘I6
Free Pipe. A schematic axial transmitter and receiver

0 200 I400 600 600 1000 configuration is shown in Fig. 5 1.85 for cement bond
..,
logging. ‘*’ In a free pipe, most of the energy is confined
to the casing and the borehole fluid, as indicated in Fig.
.#,,I ,I..
5 I .85. The resulting acoustic waveform as recorded by
the receiver is also shown in this figure. The following
observations characterize waveforms observed in free,
unbonded casing.
‘I 1. The first arrival of the waveform is equal to the total
‘I ‘; travel time in casing between transmitter and receiver,
,I
I- Caring Travel Time plus the travel time in fluid between the tool and the
pipe.
2. The amplitude of the entire waveform is high.
3. The waveform exhibits a highly uniform frequency.
Fig. 51.8%Free pipe
4. The waveform is persistent and lasts a relatively
long time.
Good Bond to Casing and Formation. When the ce-

ment is perfectly bonded to both the casing and the for-
mation, a very favorable acoustic coupling is developed.
As a result, maximum energy is transferred to the forma-
tion, and very little energy is transmitted through the cas-
ing and cement sheath. As shown in Fig. 51.86, the
waveform shows practically no signal at the casing ar-
rival time and very little amplitude until the formation ar-
rival time.
Bond to Casing and to a High-Velocity Formation. In

areas of high-velocity formations, signals from the for-
mation arrive at the same time as or earlier than the cas-
ing signal, thereby complicating the interpretation
significantly (Fig. 51.87).
-. \
Fig. 51.86-Good bond to casing and formation Cement Bond to Casing Only. A commonly occurring
condition is that the periphery of the casing is totally sur-
rounded and bonded by a hardened sheath of cement that
0 200 ,; 400 600 800 1000

1
.I : 1
.*: t.-. I,
1 ‘1
i
,-Casing Travel Time I- Casing ikeI Time
I
Fig. 51.87-Bond to casing and to a high-velocity formation. Fig. 51.88-Cement bond to casing only.
is not bonded to the formation (Fig. 5 1.88). This might varnish, the effect tends to appear over a long section of
happen because the cement does not bond with mudcake log. Channeling ordinarily occurs over shorter sections.
of poorly consolidated formations, or the mudcake dries Examples of various bonding conditions are illustrated
and shrinks away from cement. by the variable-density (3D) log shown in Fig. 5 I .90. “’
Under this condition, energy traveling through the cas- The interval from X552 to X614 ft shows a good pipe
ing is attenuated drastically because of the highly at- bond but no formation bond. Only a few formation ar-
tenuating cement sheath. The annulus outside the cement rivals can be seen, indicating a lack of acoustical cou-
sheath offers very unfavorable acoustic coupling; hence. pling between the cement sheath and the formation itself.
very littlc energy is transferred to the annular fluid and Above and below this interval are sections of poorly
virtually none into the formation. This is indicated by the bonded pipe. This probably is due to channeling. This is
lack of later-arriving formation energy in the waveform suggested by the strong pipe signal overriding a weak
of Fig. 51.88. The energy observed at Y!O psec is the formation signal. The interval from X468 to X518 ft i$
beginning of the fluid wave for the transmitter-to- well bonded, as evidenced by the strong formation
receiver spacing of 5 ft. signal. However, there is evidence of a microannulus
between X506 and X518 ft. Here the fonnation signal is
Partial Bonding. A most difficult situation in evaluating distorted somewhat by a casing signal. “’
cement bond quality is the condition of partial bond (Fig. A recently introduced technology, the Cement Evalua-
5 I .89). A small gap may be formed between the casing tion Tool by Schlumberger. shows great promise in dif-
and cement in an otherwise well-bonded casing. In this ferentiating between microannulus and channeling. I”’
situation the waveform typically contains two distinct This tool is based on the acoustic reflection method;
wave energies. The first wave energy arrives at casing however, unlike the boreholc telcviewcr with one
time, since part of the casing is free to vibrate. The sec- rotating transducer, it has eight transducers placed on a
ond wave energy arrives at a time indicated by the centralized sonde at 45” from each other in a helical
velocity of the formation. Hence, both a moderately path. These transducers, emitter and receiver. are about
strong casing arrival and a moderate-to-strong formation
arrival exists.
The typical partial-bonding waveform is characteristic
of either a microannulus or a channel in the cement. A
microannulus is a very small separation between casing
and cement. Normally, a hydraulic seal exists with a
microannulus. but not with a channel in the cement.
0 200 ,400 600 800 1000
Thus. it is important to differentiate between the two. ‘I I
The best way is to rerun the bond log with pressure on -f~ ,‘I,.
-~ ., 4 ,
the casing. If a microannulus exists, the casing will ex- /
_I
pand, decreasing the separation and transferring acoustic
energy to and from the formation. The casing signal will
decrease and formation signals will then become more
evident. However, if only channeling exists, pressuring
the casing will not greatly alter the log.
- C&g Tk~el Time
Another way to differentiate between microannulus
and channeling is by noting the length of section over
which the condition exists. ‘I5 Since microannulus is
thought to be caused by the condition of the exterior sur-
face of the casing, such as the presence of grease or mill Fig. 51.89-Partial bonding
I- usec lncreasina
Good Bond
Probable
Micro-Annulus
Channel-Poor Bond
Good Bond to Casing

No Bond to Formation
Channel-Poor Bond
Fig. 51.90-Good bond to casing-no bond to formation Fig. 51.92-Full waveforms and variable-density log for dif-
ferent bonding conditions.
1 in. in diameter and operate at 500 kHz. They repeated-

ly send a short ultrasonic pulse toward the casing to
make it resonate in its thickness mode. Cement behind
the casing is detected as a rapid damping of this
resonance, whereas a lack of cement gives a longer
resonance decay.
An example of a cement evaluation log is shown in
Fig. 5 1.91. I30 The right track can be viewed as a map of
cement behind the casing. It is divided into eight chan-
nels, each one representing one transducer with a
shading from white (free pipe) to black (good cement).
In this example, a channel is clearly visible as a white
streak.
Summary of Bonding Conditions. Typical full

waveforms for various bonding conditions are sum-
marized in Fig. 51.92. 128
When there is no cement bonded to the casing, a free
casing signal is indicated on the variable-density log as
straight dark lines with distortion at the collars. This
distortion occurs for a vertical distance equal to the spac-
ing between the transmitter and receiver of the logging
instrument (6 ft on the example shown in Fig. 51.92).
When there is good cement bonding both to the casing
and to the formation, there is no casing signal. but there
is a strong formation signal. The difference in response
for the low- and high-velocity arrivals for a well-bonded
Maxlmwn section is clearly illustrated in the lower section of the
variable-density log of Fig. 51.92.
Cased-Hole Evaluation
Most existing wells were completed before the advent of
reliable porosity logging devices; therefore, accurate
porosity data for planning of enhanced recovery opera-
tions must be obtained through existing casing. Radioac-
tivity logging measurements commonly are used for this
purpose; this information, however, can be sup-
Fig. 51.91-Ultrasonic cement evaluation log plemented by the acoustic log measurements in wells
where a good cement bond exists between casing and the

formation. 13’ A recent study ‘X2 involving laboratory Interval Transit Time 1
modeling and computer simulations has indicated that
500 pslm A0
acoustic logging can be successful in both bonded and I I
unbonded casing.
Through-casing acoustic logs have provided reliable
measurements of compressional and shear-wave velocity
data for evaluating porosity and lithology. An openhole
and cased-hole comparison is shown in Fig. 5 1.93 for
the compressional and shear-wave transit times t,, and I,,
The logs were obtained by analysis of the waveforms
digitally recorded with the acoustic logging system
shown in Fig. 51.54. The agreement between compres-
sional and shear transit time logs run in open and cased
holes is excellent. This further enhances the role of
acoustic measurements in cased-hole evaluation.
Mechanical Properties ,
A knowledge of the mechanical properties of rocks is im-
I
portant in drilling, production, and formation evaluation.
Mechanical properties include the elastic properties such 2 Cased Hole
as Young’s modulus, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio,
and bulk pore compressibilities, as well as the inelastic
properties such as fracture pressure gradient and forma-
tion strength. Borehole measurements of acoustic prop-
erties in combination with density log measurements are
being used more and more for in-situ determination of
mechanical properties of rocks.
Elastic Moduli. Elastic constants describe the

mechanical properties of matter: Young’s modulus,
shear modulus, bulk modulus, and Poisson’s ratio.
Knowledge of these moduli for rocks is needed in study-
ing the propagation of acoustic waves, as well as in prac-
tical engineering problems connected with drilling, for-
mation fracturing. and predicting reservoir performance.
A commonly used approach to gather this information
is to obtain core samples and to conduct laboratory ex-
periments. For meaningful results. these measurements Fig. 51.93-Comparison of digital-sonic logs in a well before
and after casing.
must be made at equivalent subsurface conditions.
Needless to say, these are time-consuming and costly.
Even then the results are suspect because the process of
coring removes the overburden stress from the sample
and causes other disturbances that may not be reversible. Since then, many other investigators have used
Numerous studies have been conducted that compared borehole acoustic measurements to determine elastic
elastic moduli obtained by the static (from measurements moduli. 89,‘37,‘38 Compressional- and shear-wave veloc-
of stress and strain) and the dynamic (from acoustic ities obtained from the acoustic log measurements are
velocities and density) methods. In rocks subjected to used with values of density from a density log to calcu-
lower effective stresses, the dynamic elastic moduli are late Young’s modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus,
higher than the static values; as the stress increases, and Poisson’s ratio by assuming an infinite, iso-
however, these differences decrease. ‘33.‘31 Theoretical tropic, homogeneous, and elastic medium (see Eqs. 3
studies by Walsh ‘X predicted that this could be caused through 6).
by the resence of cracks in rocks. In fact, Simmons and Applications of these in-situ-determined values of
Brace’ P’ found the static and dynamic moduli to be in moduli include predicting sand production and sub-
close agreement when rocks are subjected to higher sidence, and determining fracturing characteristics of
stresses (30,000 psi) so that the cracks are closed. formations. An application involving fracture
The relationship of the in-situ-measured elastic moduli characteristics is shown in Fig. 51.94.h” The core and
to those determined in the laboratory was investigated by log data are from a section of igneous and metamorphic
Myung and Helander. “’ They made laboratory rocks. The fracture characteristics of the core are shown
measurements of compressional- and shear-wave velociL graphically as well as plotted quantitatively as rock
ties on core samples under simulated subsurface pressure quality designation (RQD), which is the ratio of the
conditions and reported a close agreement between in- cumulative length of unfractured core to the unit length
situ and laboratory-determined values of dynamic elastic of core. Elastic moduli curves are quite similar to the
moduli. RQD curve.
R.Q.D. Elastic Properties 3-D Velocity
,&ECINCREASING I
mo4oobooaoomoonoouoo 91aJw
Fig. 51.94-Comparison of rock quality designatton (R.Q.D.), elastic properties, and 3D velocity log
Fracturing. Fracturing of formations is a commonly However, a knowledge of fracture pressure is needed for
used well stimulation technique. To detennine the best proper design of fracturing operation to stimulate
zoncb for fracturing. laboratory compressibility tests can hydrocarbon production from tight formations. An
be run on rock samples from the zones of interest. Frac- estimate of fracture pressure (p/,.) is given by Hubbert
ture design requires a knowledge of elastic moduli. and Willis: “”
which can be obtained from borehole measurements.
An earlier use of boreholc acoustic measurements was
for the identification of zones favorable for fracturing.
Hi@amplitude and high-velocity Lhear w;1vc\ have
been associated with zonch that can be fractured sue-
w\fully. whereas Tones with low-velocity and low- where
amplitudc S-waves wcrc found to be quite plastic. In the 1~0 = overburden pressure.
example shown in Fig. 51 .c)S. Anderson and Walker”” 11, = pore-fluid pressure.
inclicatc 3 wcil-defined shear wave in the /lone from p = Poisson’> ratio. and
4.600 to 4.54.5 ft and none ahovc this LOW. D = depth.
During drilling. control of hydrostatic prcssurc in the
horeholc is nccc.shaQ to not cscccd fracturing prczsuro ot Recent applications of this relationship are discusxcd hy
the formations. thcrcby causing circulation 10~. Atkinson. I41
Am&ude
an +
4500
4600
Comp. 1Shear
Fig. 51.95-Evaluation of fracturing prospects.
Sand Control. Sand-production control has been a cost- performance of these reservoirs is much less understood.
ly problem affecting the economics of oil and gas pro- Techniques for evaluating naturally fractured reservoirs
duction in many areas. To avoid unnecessary sand- are reviewed in the literature by Aguilera and van
control measures, various techniques have been Poollen, IJ5 Suau and Gartner, ‘A6 and Aguilera. “’
developed that use borehole measurements of acoustic Among these, techniques based on measurements of
propertics, 13X.IJ?~l4~ acoustic properties are prominent. Cycle skipping
In the example shown in Fig. 5 I .96. the need for sand observed on the transit time curve has been associated
control is predicted by assuming that hydrocarbon effects with fracturing in certain formations. Also. reduction of
on acoustic properties are predominant in poorly con- signal amplitude has been correlated with fractures.
solidated formations. “’ In the oil zones shown, transit More successful applications, however. involve the use
times are significantly higher than the value in the water of variable-density or waveform logs. ‘4x.‘4y For these
zone, and the amplitudes are reduced, thereby indicating logs, when fractures occur, anomalies also occur in the
poorly consolidated rocks. acoustic wave banding pattern. Sometimes these are
diagonal patterns. but more often they occur as sudden
Fracture Evaluation breaks in the banding.
Many of the important reservoirs in the world produce Fig. 51.97 shows a variable-density log (3-D log)
from naturally occurring fractures, yet evaluating the from a granite section in New Hampshire. “’ In Zone C.
ohmmVm
RESISTIWTY
0 18” Normal
125-130
5650..
t
Fig. 51.96-Hydrocarbon effects indicate the need for sand control.
the compressional wave is not attenuated, whereas the

shear-wave amplitude is reduced significantly. A
theoretical study by Knopoff and McDonald”’ would
predict this to be due to a low-angle (or horizontal) frac-
ture. High-amplitude compressional and shear energies
indicate that Zone B has no fractures. High attenuation
of the compressional and shear waves in Zone A is inter-
preted to be caused by an oblique fracture. The diagonal
energy pattern below Zone C is caused by the presence
of a reflector (fracture) near the borehole.
In the foregoing analysis, fractures are considered to
be thin reflectors causing distortion in wave propagation
because of acoustic impedance mismatch with the sur-
rounding rock. Since abrupt changes in lithology and
porosity also can cause similar acoustic impedance
mismatches, this simplified interpretation becomes much
more complex.
When the hole conditions are favorable and there is no
mudcake or heavy muds in the hole, the borehole reflec-
tion method provides a more straightforward technique
for the evaluation of fractures. A borehole televiewer
sonde operating in a circular borehole intersectin a ver-
tical fracture is shown on the left in Fig. 51.98. 8(” The
Fig. 51.97-Variable density (3D) log in fractured granite. borehole televiewer log obtained in this configuration.
shown on the right. clearly depicts the vertical fracture as
two dark lines.
Fig. 51.98-Vertical fracture intersecting a circular borehole and its representation on BHTV
amplitude log
The amplitude image from the BHTV, however, can- Later, iv a theoretical study, RosenbaumM applied
not distinguish whether the fracture is open or filled. An Biot’s theory to the investigation of propagation of
open fracture produces an image on the amplitude log acoustic pulses in a fluid-filled borehole surrounded by a
because little or no signal returns to the sonde. A filled porous medium. He predicted that permeability could be
fracture also can produce an image if there is sufficient estimated from an analysis of tube wave data contained
acoustic impedance contrast between the filling material in the acoustic waveform recorded in a borehole. He sug-
and the host rock to produce a weaker signal. Therefore, gested that, for a sealed interface between the borehole
both open and filled fractures may produce similar dark and formation, maximum sensitivity to permeability was
images on the amplitude log. obtained in the interval between S-wave arrival and the
Transit time imaging, however, responds not to varia- fluid wave. For the open interface (no mudcake), the en-
tions of signal amplitude but rather to the travel time tire signal following the S-wave arrival could be used.
(and, hence, the distance) from the borehole wall. On the The P-wave arrival was least sensitive to permeability
transit time log, the distance to the borehole face is and could be used for normalization.
represented by a gray scale designating white for far, Results of this study were first tested by Staai and
dark for near, and black for no signal. Therefore, an Robinson 15’ in the Groningen gas field, The
open fracture produces a black image on the transit time Netherlands. They recorded acoustic waveforms and
image, whereas a filled fracture does not. Fig. 51.99 analyzed them to obtain a permeability profile, which
shows a vertical fracture on the amplitude log on the left. compared favorably with the core analysis data.
The similar black outline on the transit time log on the More recently, Rosenbaum’s prediction@ of the rela-
right confirms that this is an open fracture. tionship between the energy loss of the tube (Stoneley)
wave and permeability was investigated more extensive-
ly by Williams et al. ‘52 Using a special long-spacing
Permeability acoustic logging tool, they measured the tube wave tran-
Theoretical studies by Biot45.46 have indicated that sit time and energy ratio in wells located in different
changes in acoustic attenuation may reflect the fluid geographic locations with formations of varying
mobility (the ratio of permeability to viscosity). Later lithology, permeability, saturating fluid, depth, and
studies by Wyllie et al. 24 and Gardner and Harris”’ geological age. From these wells, they also obtained
considered the logarithmic decrement (Eq. 6) of acoustic whole core samples for measurements of permeability.
energy to be a result of solid friction (“jostling” decre- For these widely varying conditions, they report
ment) in the rock matrix and viscous drag (“sloshing” qualitative correlations between core-measured permea-
decrement) within the saturant fluid. bilities and the tube wave data.
The solid matrix losses (jostling losses) were studied An example shown in Fig. 5 1.100 for a Cretaceous
experimentally by Gardner and Harris, ‘I5 with respect carbonate section is highly promising as it indicates that
to the effects of overburden pressure and fluid saturation. both tube amplitude ratio, Am /AR’ , and transit time cor-
The results of their investigation indicate the jostling relate well with a permeability increase of three orders of
decrement of a sandstone under overburden pressures to magnitude in the center zone.
be almost independent of fluid saturation and signal fre-
quency. Hence, changes in the logarithmic decrement Conclusions
can be attributed to sloshing loss, which, according to Borehole measurements of acoustic properties have a
Biot,45.46 reflects changes in fluid mobility. wide range of applications in exploration, production,
51-46
TRANSIT TIME
AMPLITUDE
Black-No Slgnal
Dark-Weak Slgnal Dark-Near
While-Strong SIgnal White-Far
I E S W N N E S W N
Fig. 51.100-Permeability correlation with tube wave data

5210
Nomenclature
5220 A = area; or signal amplitude
A,, = signal amplitude at the source
h = intercept defined by Eq. 13
c = compressibility
d = diameter
Di = depth of investigation
5230 E = Young’s modulus
f‘ = frequency
f(Kf) = function of incompressibility of a fluid
in pore spaces
Fig. 51.99-Vertical fracture of the BHTV amplitude log on the
F = force
left, confirmed to be open by the BHTV transit time F,, = compaction correction factor
log on the right.. F, = quality factor
G = shear modulus
I = intensity
and formation evaluation. Theoretical and experimental
studies have significantly improved our understanding of I,, = acoustic intensity at the source
the relationships between acoustic wave propagation and K = bulk modulus
formation evaluation parameters, such as porosity, fluid L = length
saturation, and lithology. This, in turn, has prompted the m = slope
development of new and improved borehole acoustic n = number
measurement technology and sophisticated digital signal p = pressure
processing technology to analyze the large amount of pCi = differential pressure
data. Even then. current applications often use only a pf = internal (pore fluid) pressure
small fraction of the information available in acoustic
pf/D = pore fluid pressure gradient. psiift
waveforms.
Advances in the understanding of acoustic wave prop- (pf./D) ,I = normal hydrostatic pressure gradient
agation are interactively complementing improvements (0.456 psiift for U.S. gulf coast)
in downhole recording and transmission technology. and P.fr = fracture pressure
developments in signal processing. This should result PO = external (overburden) pressure
not only in a broader and more quantitative use of the p,,lD = overburden stress gradient. psiift
present applications, but also in the development of P,l = P-wave modulus for the rock frame (or
many new applications. the dry rock)
r = borehole radius APPENDIX

s = arbitrary point Theory of Elastic Wave Propagation
S = saturation in Rocks
f = travel time
The first theoretical expression of elastic behavior of a
t = transit time
saturated porous medium was given by Gassmann.U
I( = I/Y,,) = transit time for the compressional Later, Biot45,46 developed a more comprehensive theory
waves for a liquid-saturated porous of elastic wave propagation in a fluid-saturated,
medium isotropic, porous solid over a wide frequency range. The
I~~(= I/Y~,) = transit time for saturant liquid predicted velocity dispersion by this theory is. in
‘,I = damaged zone transit time general, less than 3% ” ; therefore, the low-frequency
I,,,( =1/t,,,,) = transit time for rock matrix that forms approximation should be useful for most applications.
the solid frame of a porous medium Velocities predicted by this theory at the lower fre-
transit time on the extrapolated normal quencies can be expressed simply by
1,, =
curve at depth
1oh = observed transit time at depth 7 P‘l +mf)
\‘; = . (A-1)
N = particle motion at s Ph
1’= velocity
“f = compressional-wave velocity of drilling and
mud
I’,, = compressional-wave velocity G
\‘r = pseudo-Rayleigh-wave velocity Lj,,Z= - ....... .... ........ .. . (A-2)
\‘,, = shear-wave velocity Pb
\‘, = tube- or Stoneley-wave velocity

coefficient of absorption; or attenuation where Pd is the P-wave modulus for the rock frame (or
O!=
the dry rock), and f(Kf) is the function of the incom-
coefficient
pressibility of the fluid in the pore spaces. The P-wave
6= logarithmic decrement
modulus for the dry rock can be expressed, in turn, by
E= strain
CL = longitudinal strain
t, = shearing strain Pd=Kd+;Gd: .t.. (A-3)
CT = transverse strain
0, = S-wave critical angle and the functionf(Kf), by
X= wave length
P”= Poisson’s ratio (1-K,,/K,,,)’
density flKf.1=Kj (A-4)
P=
porosity
(I-K$K,,,M+(K,,, -K,,)K+K,,,’ ’
4=
Subscripts in which K is incompressibility (or bulk modulus), G is

a= apparent shear modulus, and the subscripts d, f, and m refer to the
rock frame (or the dry rock), fluid, and rock matrix.
C= corrected
For rocks containing both water and hydrocarbons, the
(1 = dry rock
bulk density is expressed as
f= pore fluid
,? = gas p/,=$p,.+(l -d)p,,,, . .(A-5)
hc = hydrocarbon
L= liquid where
/n = matrix
N= neutron Pf=S,,P,,.+(l -S,,.)p,,(,, .(A-6)
0 = overburden or oil
P= pore volume; or P-wave modulus and the fluid incompressibility. K,, which is the inverse
.s = S-wave modulus of compressibility, cf, is given by
S/l = shale
1\’ = water c, =S,,.c,,.+(l -S,,,)C,,< , (A-7)
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank A.A. Brown, G.S. De, and K.J. Dunn of where S denotes saturation, and the subscript hc refers to
Chevron Oil Field Research Co. and M.N. Toksoz of the hydrocarbon.
Massachusetts Inst. of Technology for reviewing the Rock frame incompressibility, K,,. in Eq. A-3. which
manuscript. Debbie Ivey for typing. and. more impor- is the inverse of compressibility of dry rock, (‘,I, is
tantly. the participants of the Chevron Formation related to PV compressibility, c,, . by
Evaluation seminar durmg the past 20 years for many
helpful suggestions toward the evolution of this chapter. c,,=&.,~ +c,,$. (A-X)
on the basis of Van der Knaap’s” definitions. Substitu- 14. ToksBz. M.N., Cheng. C.H.. and Timur, A.: “Velocities ot
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621-45.
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112. Hartley, K.B.: “Factors Affecting Sandstone Acoustic Compres- SPE Annual Meeting, San Antonio, Oct. 8-11.
sional Velocities and An Examination of Empirical Correlations 140. Hubbert, M.K. and Willis. D.G.: “Mechanics of Hydraulic
Between Velocities and Porosities.” Tram:, SPWLA (1981) Fracturing,” J. Pet. Tech. (June 1957) 153-66; Tuans...AIME,
paper PP. 210.
113. Minear, J.W.: “Clay Models and Acoustic Velocities,” paper 141. Atkinson, A.: “Fracture Pressure Gradients from Acoustic and
SPE I I031 presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical Con- Density Log Data: An Updated Approach,” Trans.. SPWLA
ference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sept. 26-29. (1977) 18. paper AA.
114. Kuster, G.T. and Toksiiz, M.N.: “Velocity and Attenuation of 142. Walker, T.: “Acoustic Character of Unconsolidated Sands,”
Seismic Waves in Two-Phase Media: Part 1: Theoretical For- Welex paper (197 1).
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115. Gardner, G.H.F. and Harris, M.H.: “Velocity and Attenuation ductlon Rate Possible from Friable Sandstones without Using
of Elastic Waves in Sands,” Trans., SPWLA (1968) 9, paper M. Sand Control,” .I. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1972) 1157-60; Trans.,
116. Domenico, S.N.: “Effect of Brine-Gas Mixture on Velocity in AIME, 253.
an Unconsolidated Sand Reservoir,” 77~ Log Anulyst (1977) 18, 144. Tixier, M.P., Loveless, G.W,, and Anderson, R.A.: “Estima-
38-46. tion of Formation Strength From the Mechanical Properties
117. Kithas, B.A.: “Lithology, Gas Detection, and Rock Properties Log,” J. Pet. Tech. (March 1975) 283-93.
from Acoustic Logging Systems,” Trans., SPWLA (1976) 17, 145. Aguilera, A. and van Poollen, H.K.: “Current Status on the
paper R. Study of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs,” The Log Analyst
118. Laws, W.R., Edwards, C.A.M., and Wichmann, P.A.: “A (1977) 18, 3-23.
Study of the Acoustic and Density Changes Associated with 146. Suau, I. and Gartner, J.: “Fracture Detection from the Logs,”
High-Amplitude Events on Seismic Data,” Trans., SPWLA Trans., Sixth European Formation Evaluation Symposium of the
(1974) IS, paper D. SPWLA London Chapter (1979) paper L.
119. Hottman, d.& and Johnson, R.K.: “Estimation of Formation 147. Aguilera, A. : Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, PennWell
Pressures from Log-Derived Shale Properties,” J. Pvt. Tech. Publishing Co., Tulsa (1980) 703.
(June 1965) 717-22: Trans.. AIME, 23b. 148. Walker, T.: “Progress Repon on Acoustic Amplitude Logging
120. Herring, E-A.: “North Sea Abnormal Pressures Determined for Formation Evaluation,” paper SPE 45 I presented at the 1962
from Logs,” Pet. Erg. (1973) 45. 72-84. SPE Annual Meeting, Los Angeles, Oct. 7-10.
121. Fertl, W.H.: Abnormal F&motion Pressure, Elsevier Scientific 149. Myung, J.I. and Baltosser, R W.: “Fracture Evaluation by the
Publishing Co., New York City (1976) 382. Borehole Logging Method,” Stabilirq Rock Slopes, Thirteenth
12’2. Eaton, B.A.: “The Equation for Geopressure Prediction from Well Symposium on Rock Mechanics (1972) 31-56.
Logs,” paper SPE 5544 presented at the 1975 SPE Annual Tech- 150. Knopoff, L. and McDonald, G.H.F.: “Attenuation of Small
nical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Sept. 2X-Oct. 1. Amplitude Stress Waves in Solids.” Gct>ph,wic.c(1958) 34.
123. Grosmangin, M., Kokesh, F.P., and Majani, P.: “A Sonic 151. Staal. J.J. and Robinson, J.D.: “Permeability Profiles from
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Casings,” J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1961) 165-71; Trms.. AIME. Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Oct.
222. 9-12.
124. Walker, T.: “A Full-Wave Display of Acoustic Signal in Cased 152. Williams, D.M. et al.: “The Long Spacing Acoustic Logging
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Chapter 52
Mud Logging
Alun H. Whittaker, Exploration Logging IX.*
Introduction
Conventional mud logging has been commercially linked to minicomputers introduced a range of drilling
available since 1939. The service involves extraction of optimization and control services. Unlike conventional
gases from the returning mud stream and analysis of the mud logging and geopressure detection, these services
gas for combustible hydrocarbons. Commonly, the are essentially nongeological. Generally, engineering
resulting analyses are logged at drilled depth and plotted personnel are added to the logging crew for these
alongside a drill-time or rate of penetration log and a cut- services.
tings sample geological log. Although the mud log data In the 1980’s three new aspects to mud logging ser-
cannot be related directly to undisturbed reservoir prop- vices have been introduced. First, direct links between a
erties, they are important indicators of potentially pro- wellsite minicomputer and an office data center allow
ductive horizons in the well. The conventional mud log centralized surveillance and control of several wells. The
continues to be the most important geological data logging unit provides a wellsite access point to the cen-
source available before wireline logs are run. tral computer data base and analytical software.
The mud logging unit offers a useful location for the Second, there is the increasing use of the mud logging
operation of other wellsite analyses and services. It pro- unit as the surface receiving and control center for
vides a clean, well-lighted laboratory area with a stable downhole measurement-while-drilling (MWD) services.
electrical supply and is continuously operated by The mud logging unit provides both a convenient work-
geologists or geologically trained technicians. Many ing environment and support data (e.g., total depth
mud logging contractors have made use of these assets to measurement) for this service. Additionally, the ability
augment conventional mud logging with an extensive to integrate mud logging and MWD data in a single com-
range of geological and engineering services. Often puter adds economy and speed to the well evaluation
unrelated to the traditional gas analysis function of the process.
unit, these services nevertheless generally are considered Third, the 1980’s have brought the first fundamental
aspects of mud logging now in the same manner as changes in the methods of hydrocation and geological
sonic, density, and neutron logs often are grouped with analysis, which continue to be the common denominator
“electric logs.” of all mud logging services. Improved sampling techni-
The earliest expansion of mud logging services began ques, pyrolysis, chromatography, and other geochemical
in the 1960’s with the introduction of improved methods techniques have enhanced the diagnostic and quantitative
of geopressure detection. New techniques were added to value of mud logging. Wellsire geochemical screening
the logging unit and it became common for a separate for reservoir and source-bed type may now be performed
“pressure log” to be prepared alongside the mud log. in the mud logging unit.
The 24-hour activity of the mud logging unit allowed
continuous operation of this service in which early detec- Service Types
tion was essential. The number and range of mud logging contractors is
In the 1970’s, the advent of rugged microelectronics possibly greater than that of any other oilfield service.
allowed the introduction of more sophisticated and The logging services offered by any single contractor
automated equipment into the logging unit. Most may range from basic hydrocarbon logging, using equip-
notably, the use of drilling rig data-acquisition systems ment barely more sophisticated than that introduced 40
years ago, to complex chemical and physical analyses
and a complete engineering surveillance and control
‘The chapter on this topic In the 1962 edibon was written by A.J. Pearson.
center.
Similarly, logging personnel may be graduate of maximum mud flow rate. Ports in the lower part of the
geologists or engineers, or technicians of various levels trap allow mud to enter and leave the trap. An electric or
of expertise. In specifying the mud log service for a well, pneumatic agitator motor provides both pumping and
the operator’s engineer, geologist, and the logging con- degassing of mud passing through the trap.
tractor should define the objectives and problems an- Gas evolved from the mud is mixed with ambient air in
ticipated and select those aspects of the service required. the upper part of the trap and drawn through a vacuum
Since extra service usually implies extra cost, line to the logging unit for analysis. This device provides
economics must play a part in the decision. In engineer- a relatively cheap and reliable method of obtaining a
ing monitoring, it is relatively easy to compute the sav- continuous gas sample. However, the efficiency of the
ing in drilling time or cost required to justify some addi- device is somewhat affected by drilling practice. Pump
tion to logging service day rate. This is discussed in rate and ditch mud level will influence mud flow rate
detail at the end of this chapter. through the trap; mud rheology will be a factor in the
Although overlaps occur, the services provided in mud degassing efficiency of the trap; and mud and ambient
logging may be grouped in line with the traditional air temperature around the trap and vacuum line will af-
oilfield disciplines: (1) formation evaluation ser- fect the relative efficiency with which light and heavy
vices ’-hydrocarbon analysis, geological analysis, and hydrocarbons are extracted and retained in the gas phase.
geochemical analysis; (2) petroleum engineering ser- This latter effect is most noticeable in areas of high diur-
vices-geopressure evaluation and petrophysical nal temperature variation, where heavier alkane gases
measurements; (3) drilling en@neering services-data seen in daylight may condense and be lost in the cold of
acquisition and data analysis. This order is convenient night.
for the following discussion of logging services since it An alternative to the conventional gas trap is the
closely parallels the historical development of mud log- steam, or vacuum, mud still. In this device, a small sam-
ging and the level of sophistication of logging units used ple of drilling mud is collected at the ditch, returned to
today. the logging unit, and distilled under vacuum. The
method provides a relatively high and uniform extraction
Formation Evaluation Services efficiency for all hydrocarbons. It is, however, a time-
Gas Extraction Methods consuming manual process. Analyses are noncontinuous
Although the modem mud logging unit may perform and subject to human error; for example, light hydrocar-
many different services, probably its most critical one is bons can evaporate while the sample stands prior to
the analysis of hydrocarbon gases. 2 Before this analysis analysis.
can be performed, a sample of gas must be extracted While a useful addition to the conventional gas trap at
from the drilling mud. This is performed by the gas trap times, the mud still does not provide a real alternative.
(Fig. 52.1). The development of a continuous gas trap with good and
The gas trap is a square or cylindrical metal box im- consistent efficiency of extraction is a high priority in the
mersed in the shale shaker ditch, preferably in a location improvement of mud logging technology.
Fig. Cl-Gas extraction at the ditch

MUD LOGGING 52-3
Hydrocarbon Analysis :VACuUM

PUMPr PRESSURE
1 REGULATOR
The basic form of gas analysis involves the analysis by
combustion of the bulk sample. Although commonly
called “total gas analysis,” it is, in reality, analysis for
total combustible gases and primarily detects the low-
molecular-weight alkanes (paraffins) such as methane,
ethane, propane, butane, and pentane (with partial con-
centrations of hexane and heptane at higher ambient
temperatures).
Catalytic Combustion Detector (CCD). After filtration

and drying, the gas stream is injected at constant
pressure and flowrate into a detector chamber (Fig.
52.2). The original type of mud logging gas detector, Fig. 52.2-Gas analysis system.
and probably still the most widely used, is the catalytic
combustion, or “hot wire” detector (Fig. 52.3).
The hot wire detector is a Wheatstone bridge circuit
consisting of four resistances: a fixed resistor, Rf; a
rheostat, R,, used to trim or balance the bridge; and a
matched pair of coiled platinum wire filaments, Rd and
R,. The two filaments are enclosed in an analysis cell ZERO ADJUST
with the detector filament, Rd, exposed to the flow of POTENTIOMETER
gas sample and the reference filament, R,, isolated in
pure air.
When a bridge voltage, V, is applied, the filaments
become heated. A voltage between two and three volts is
commonly selected to give a high enough filament
temperature for hydrocarbon combustion at the filament
surface (actual voltage used depends on the particular
detector design). Combustion heat causes the
temperature and hence resistance of the detector filament
to rise relative to the reference filament. The bridge is
unbalanced and current flows between the two sides of
the bridge. Using a galvanometer of resistance R, , this
current, I,, can be measured. Since combustion occurs
at the filament surface only, the galvanometer current is L SPAN ADJUST
quite sensitive and linear with changing gas POTENTIOMETER
concentration.
Obviously, detector response will depend on both the
concentration and composition of the sample gas phase,
since each hydrocarbon species will have its own par-
ticular heat of combustion. Table 52.1 shows these for Fig. 52.3-Catalytic combustion detector.
the low-molecular-weight alkanes.
Since gas composition is unknown, the total gas detec-
tor cannot be calibrated for tme compositional response.
The detector is calibrated with a mixture of a single
alkane, usually methane, in air. Detector response is
then reported in percentage “equivalent methane in air”
or EMA. Using a variable resistance, R,, in the bridge TABLE 52.1-HEATS OF COMBUSTION OF THE SIMPLE
ALKANES
it is possible to adjust the bridge current, I,, and
graduate the galvanometer directly in percentage EMA. (3n + 1)
An older practice, which is now becoming obsolete, was Cn +2n+2) +-O,-nCO,+(n+l) H,O+E
2
to take the galvanometer reading in milliamps and
relabel it as “gas units.” Such units are obviously equip-
Molecular E
ment specific although some company or regional stan- n=1 Weight (kcallmol) kcallgm Structure
dards have been enforced. Where this practice continues, Methane 1 16 191 11.9 i
confusion can be avoided by requiring the logging con-
tractor to report calibration data on the mud log heading. Ethane 2 30 342 11.4 u”
For example, the contractor would report “ 100 total gas
Propane 3 44 493 11.2 tit
units=2% EMA.”
Fig. 52.4 shows the response of a typical CCD to com-
Iso-butane 4 56 648 11.2 A
monly occurring combustible gases. Notice that a
response of 1% EMA, or 50 total gas units, may indicate Butane 4 58 650 11.2 j-c+4
a concentration of 1% methane or a somewhat lower
+ Ii20
HYDROGEN
+1 7+ *In
SAMPLE +-J
Fig. 52.5-Flame ionization detector.
ZERO 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 x2 I.4 16 , 8 20 thermal conductivity of the gas mixture and induce a
AO.JvsT PERCENT ““DROt.aRBON IN AIR
small heating effect at the detector filament. This
Fig. 52.4-Catalytic combustion detector response. positive response is commonly so small as to be in-
significant when compared with the greater hydrocarbon
response. However, if the concentration of noncombusti-
concentration of a mixture of methane and heavier ble gases becomes so high as to prevent complete com-
alkanes. Total gas response may be thought of as a “gas bustion of hydrocarbon with air, a much larger negative
richness indicator,” increasing both with gas concentra- response will occur.
tion and with addition of heavier fractions. Hydrogen will bum in the detector, even at low
To assist in discriminating light alkanes from heavy voltage, giving a concentration response similar to
ones, a second identical detector may be used. By setting methane. Although free hydrogen does occur as an in-
a lower bridge voltage (1 to 1.4 V) and filament termediate product of petroleum maturation, it is ex-
temperature, the detector is no longer capable of induc- tremely reactive and diffusive. Occurrence of hydrogen
ing combustion of methane. The resulting detector out- in a petroleum gas show is therefore most uncommon.
put, still reported in percentage EMA, is commonly Significant concentrations of hydrogen have been shown
labeled petroleum vapors, wet gas, or heavies, although to result from deep-seated structural movement, but the
only qualitative comparison of the two detector most common origin is from the corrosion of aluminum
responses allows recognition of dry and oil-associated drillpipe or of steel drillpipe in extremely low pH drilling
gas shows. fluids.
Response of the CCD can be maintained linearly up to A serious disadvantage of the CCD is the tendency of
the stoichiometric, or ideal, combustion composition of the catalyst surface to become poisoned by the ac-
hydrocarbon in air. Above this composition, approx- cumulation of impurities and partial combustion prod-
imately 9.5% EMA, the detector “saturates,” in- ucts. This may result in a slow, progressive degradation
complete combustion occurs, and response becomes of performance or a sudden, catastrophic loss, when, for
nonlinear. At higher concentrations, the sample must be example, silicon compounds are present in the mud.
diluted with air before it is introduced into the sample Regular detector calibration is essential to maintain
chamber to maintain a combustible gas mixture. reliable operation.
Theoretically, by using progressive sample dilution, a
CCD can be maintained linearly up to concentrations of Flame Ionization Detector. The inherent limitations of
100% EMA. In reality, each dilution stage requires a the CCD resulted in a search for a more reliable detector
reduction in gas sample volume and an increasing mix- technology. The most accepted and increasingly used is
ing error. It is generally accepted that 40% EMA is the the flame ionization, or “hydrogen flame,” detector
maximum limit of reliability of a CCD. (FID) (Fig. 52.5).
As an alternative to progressive dilution, where high One important difference between the flame ionization
gas concentrations are regularly expected, the detector and the catalytic combustion principles is that the flame
can be reconfigured to operate as a thermal conductivity ionization method involves complete combustion of the
detector (TCD). Though the detector circuit remains sample. A small quantity of sample is introduced into a
essentially unchanged, it is operated at a lower voltage hydrogen/oxygen mixture that is continuously burning in
such that no gas combustion occurs. Bridge current now a combustion chamber. The heat generated by the
is reversed, responding to the cooling effect of the gas hydrogen flame is sufficient to initiate complete combus-
stream passing over the detector filament. Methane, tion of all hydrocarbons in the sample. A large oxygen
which has a substantially greater thermal conductivity excess is maintained relative to the small sample volume
than air, will produce a large cooling effect, which may and saturation never occurs. The heat output of the
be linearly calibrated up to very high concentrations. The hydrogen flame is the sum of the heats of combustion of
device is, however, poorly responsive to the heavier hydrogen and the sample hydrocarbons.
alkanes, CO2 and hydrogen sulfide (HzS), which have Unfortunately, most of the heat produced is from the
thermal conductivities close to that of air. The high con- large volume flow of pure hydrogen. The small, dilute
ductivity gases, hydrogen and helium, will give flow of hydrocarbons produces such a small proportion
responses even greater than that of methane. of the total heat of combustion that it cannot be measured
The CCD is quite selective for hydrocarbons. Carbon accurately. Combustion heat then cannot be used as a
dioxide (COZ) and hydrogen sulfide (HzS) will not bum measure of hydrocarbon concentration. Detection of the
at the detector filament. They will marginally reduce the hydrocarbons instead relies upon an unusual in-
MUD LOGGING 52-5
termediate stage in combustion that only occurs in

hydrocarbons burning at high temperatures. This in-
volves the creation of unstable electrically charged
anions and cations. By placing a positive electrode, or
anode, in the form of a cylindrical chimney above the
hydrogen flame, the negative anions may be collected
and the resultant electric current used to determine
hydrocarbon concentration.
The ionization/combustion sequence is a complex one
that involves many intermediate and alternate reaction
steps. The number of ions created, and therefore the cur-
rent flowing, is in direct proportion to the concentration
of the alkanes and to the number of carbon atoms in the 0 0.2 0:4 0.6 0.8 1 :o
alkanes (Fig. 52.6). The FID response in percentage HYDROCARBON CONCENTRATION % IN AIR
EMA is, therefore, like the CCD, a richness indicator
Fig. 52.6-Flame ionization detector response.
showing increases with increasing concentration and in-
creasing alkane molecular weight.
The FID is totally selective for compounds containing
carbon-to-hydrogen (C-H) bonds. Other gases and im- In routine logging, a chromatograph usually will be set
purities in the sample stream produce zero or negligible to cycle through continuous automatic analyses for
response and do not degrade detector performance. methane, ethane, propane, isobutane and n-butane. This
Although the detector response is effectively linear requires approximately 3 to 5 minutes. If heavier alkanes
throughout all concentrations, the electrometer used to (e.g., pentanes) need to be detected, the automatic con-
monitor and amplify the detector current has perfor- trol is disengaged and the analysis allowed to continue
mance limits of linearity. Since mud log gas shows may for a longer period of time.
vary from tens of parts per million (ppm) to tens of per-
Infrared Absorption Detector. The third, and least
cent, both electrical signal attenuation and sample split-
used, form of detector is the infrared absorption detector.
ting are required to ensure low-range sensitivity and
This instrument uses the principle that any chemical
high-range linearity of FID response. In most modem in-
bond will absorb infrared energy of a specific frequency
struments this is handled automatically, ensuring a
governed by the chemical nature and geometry of that
higher degree of accuracy than manual sample dilution.
bond. For example, methane contains four identical
carbon-to-hydrogen (C-H) bonds. If a gas sample is ir-
Gas Chromatography. In addition to a total gas detec-
radiated with infrared energy at a frequency
tor, most modem logging units will also contain a gas
characteristic of this bond, the energy absorbed by the
chromatograph. This device allows the separation of the
sample will be in proportion to the number of C-H bonds
individual alkanes and their separated detection, giving a
and hence to the concentration of methane in the sample.
gas analysis of composition and concentration. While
All other alkanes contain C-H and carbon-to-carbon
this analysis is of greater value than the total gas
(C-C) bonds. Although these bonds are chemically iden-
response in EMA, the chromatograph does not provide a
tical, they vary in geometry and hence characteristic in-
continuous analysis but processes batch samples
frared frequency, depending on their position within the
separated by a number of minutes. In drilling terms, this
alkane molecule. Theoretically it should be possible to
translates into separate analyses several feet apart. The
pass the gas sample through a series of test cells, testing
chromatograph does not replace the total gas recorder in
for infrared absorption at a series of characteristic in-
showing the fine detail and progressive changes in a gas
frared frequencies. Combination of the results would
show.
provide a continuous analysis of both alkane type and
In gas chromatography, a fixed volume gas sample is
concentration-i.e., the equivalent of a continuous
carried through a separating column by a carrier gas,
chromatogmph.
usually air. The column contains liquid solvent surface
Unfortunately, the C-H and C-C bonds show such a
or a fine molecular sieve solid. By difference in gas
large number of minutely varying geometries that, in-
solubility or by differential diffusion, the gas mixture
stead of a series of discrete characteristic frequencies, a
becomes separated into its components, the lightest
continuous band of overlapping absorptions occurs. At
traveling most quickly through the column and the
best, using a two-absorption cell system, it is possible to
heaviest most slowly.
provide an estimate of methane concentration and total
Depending on the nature of the column, each compo- hydrocarbon concentration, in EMA. This result is com-
nent will pass through and exit the column in a parable to the result obtainable from a dual CCD system
characteristic time. From the column, the components and inferior to the results from an FID-equipped gas
pass in turn to a detector, which may be a CCD, TCD, or chromatograph.
FID. The detector is calibrated with a gas mixture of
known composition and concentrations. A separate Detection of Nonhydrocarbon Gases. ’ The most
calibration factor for each component can be used for commonly occurring nonhydrocarbon gases in petroleum
detector response as the components occur in turn. exploration are CO*, HzS, helium, nitrogen, and
Since heavier components take longer to traverse the hydrogen. As discussed previously, the occurrence of
column, the time and depth interval between samples is naturally produced hydrogen is rare. Helium and
governed by the number of components to be analyzed. nitrogen also tend to have regionally or geologically
specific occurrences. CO2 and H2 S arc common trace or also toxic in relatively low concentrations. In many
significant components of natural gases and equipment areas, detectors specific to these gases are considered
for their detection should be used on any exploration standard mud logging equipment.
well.
Infrared Absorption Detector. Continuous CO2 detec-
Chromatograph-Thermal Conductivity Detector. tion is best handled with infrared absorption. An infrared
The most versatile device for detection of nonhydrocar- analyzer is used that is responsive to the characteristic
bons is a chromatograph equipped with a TCD. By se- frequency of the carbon-to-oxygen (C-O) bond unique to
lecting an appropriate column material and length, any COz. Correction of atmospheric CO2 concentration is
single component or combination may be separated. The performed by alternately scanning two sample cells. One
TCD will provide a response to any gas that has a ther- contains a sample from the gas trap and the other con-
mal conductivity different from that of the carrier gas. tains ambient air. Differential output provides a measure
This response will differ for each sample gas/carrier gas of CO2 concentration above atmospheric.
combination but, by using gas mixtures of known com-
Tube-Type Detector. Several types of H2S detectors
position, calibration curves for each component can be
are used, all of which monitor a change resulting from
developed.
the chemical oxidation of the gas. The simplest detector
Best response and sensitivity is achieved when the
is the tube-type device in which the sample gas mixture
maximum difference exists between the thermal conduc-
is drawn at a controlled flow rate through a glass tube
tivities of the sample gas and the carrier gas. Thermal
containing reactive lead acetate. The lead acetate, which
conductivity generally declines exponentially with in-
is deposited on a substrate of high-surface-area silica gel
creasing molecular weight. Thus the light gases
granules, reacts with HzS to produce lead sulfide and
(hydrogen and helium) may be readily detected by use of
changes from white to dark brown or black in the
air as the carrier gas. For the heavier gases (nitrogen,
process:
CO;, , and HzS) that have thermal conductivities closer
to that of air, a lighter and higher thermal conductivity
Pb(CH3C00)2 +H2S-‘2CH3COOH+PbS.
carrier gas must be used. Helium is a common choice but
hydrogen also may be used if available.
Since the amount of lead acetate in any unit length of
An important consideration when assessing the
tube is constant, the tube may be graduated in terms of
reliability of analyses for nitrogen and CO2 is their
concentration of H2S in a fixed volume of sample.
presence in the sample caused by the introduction of air
The panel-mounted instrument has two tubes installed.
into the gas trap and the aeration of drilling fluid.
Flow of sample from the ditch is constant through one of
Air of normal atmospheric composition, dissolved and the tubes, and, if H2 S is present in the gas being evolved
entrained in drilling fluid, will be introduced continuous- at the ditch, the lead acetate begins to discolor pro-
ly into the borehole. In the hot downhole environment, gressively from bottom to top (the direction of sample
corrosion and other oxidation reactions will deplete oxy- flow). Since the sample, and hence the discoloration, is
gen from this air resulting in a relative increase in continuous, this response is qualitative only. The
nitrogen and CO* concentration. Oxidation of car- discoloration indicates that H2S is present in only trace
bonaceous material will further add to CO2 enrichment. or in enriched quantities, but no estimate of actual con-
Alternatively, the presence of corrosion inhibitors in the centration can be made.
mud may deplete both oxygen and CO*. Regardless of As soon as this discoloration is seen, a warning must
the mechanism involved, oxygen depletion will increase be given since even trace quantities of gas can be
with temperature and length of circulation time through dangerous. A quantitative analysis can be made by
the downhole system. switching flow to the second tube and introducing a
At the surface, this oxygen-depleted air and any gas timed sample. In this case, a fixed amount of discolora-
recovered from the formation is mixed with ambient air tion occurs and the scale allows reading of the H2S
at the gas trap. This air will vary in composition with the concentration.
surrounding atmosphere-e.g., emissions from rig An alternative configuration for the tube indicator is in
motors, vehicles, and others. a small handbellows, often called a “puffer” or “snif-
Any show of nitrogen or CO2 from the formation must fer,” which can be used to sample the atmosphere in
be recognized above background concentrations, which various locations around the rig.
will show some random variation and a progressive in- Since the lead acetate reaction is not reversible, once
crease as the hole is deepened and mud circulation the tube is used it must be replaced. The instrument can-
becomes hotter and of longer duration. Regardless of the not keep a continuous record of HzS concentration but
analytical method used, precision of the ppm level can- only a series of individual measurements. This is a
not be provided by the analysis. When only trace quan- drawback, but not a serious one since any quantity of
tities of gas are expected or when a precise composi- H 2 S in the atmosphere is both a health hazard and an in-
tional analysis is required, mud logging analysis of CO2 dication that the mud system is totally saturated. Once
or nitrogen cannot be relied upon. HzS is detected, mud treatment to remove it must begin.
Of the nonhydrocarbon petroleum gases, HIS and Gas measurement is required to ensure that it is removed
CO? are the most significant. They are the most com- and does not reappear.
monly occurring gases in high concentrations and The tube indicator may be used to detect CO2 or any
because of their polar nature pose serious problems of other gas for which a discoloring reactant is available.
corrosion of drilling and production equipment. H2S is For CO*, hydrazine is used in place of lead acetate.
MUD LOGGING 52-7
Presence of CO2 is indicated by a purple coloration of hence the electrical resistance) of the layer is a direct
the chemical in the tube: function of the concentration of H2S in the sample pres-
ent in the vicinity of the sensor.
Alternative configurations of this device involve
CO2 +N2H4 -‘NH2NHCOOH.
multiple installations with either samples being drawn
from, or sensor elements located in, various locations
The tube method, however, is poorly suited to con- around the rig with centralized monitoring and alarm
tinuous monitoring since there will be a uniform rate of functions. Locating the sensor in a remote location may
discoloration by atmospheric CO2 cause problems if the sensor is exposed to potential
damage or mistreatment. It does, however, remove the
Paper-Tape-Type Detector. A more sophisticated ver- risk of loss of response resulting from gas dissolving in
sion of this detection principle uses continuous paper condensation in long vacuum lines.
tape, impregnated with lead acetate, to allow continuous The device has high reliability and accuracy and is
analysis and a quantitative electrical output for chart widely used in the industry. There are, however, two
recording and activation of alarms. deficiencies that should always be considered. The first
The detector mechanism is similar in appearance to an and most important is that if the sensor is operated for a
open-reel tape recorder. Its operation and operating com- period of time without any H2S present, it tends to lose
ponents are analogous to that of tape recording. Paper reaction speed. (It is important to note here that the sen-
tape, a porous filter paper coated with an even concentra- sor does not lose sensitivity! It will respond, within
tion of lead acetate, is wound from reel to reel at a con- calibration, to the presence of H2S, but will respond
stant speed. The tape passes through a sample chamber somewhat sluggishly to the first appearance.)
through which gas from the ditch passes continuously. For safety reasons, the sensor must be reactivated
The tape will be discolored by an amount proportional to regularly by using a sample of H2S to maintain its reac-
the concentration of lead acetate on the tape, the speed at tion speed.
which the tape is moving (both of which are constant), Second, the sensor will respond to certain organic
and the concentration of H2S in the sample. From the sulfides that may be present in oil or result from mud ad-
sample cell the tape passes to a detector where light from ditive decomposition. The response to these compounds
a collimated source is reflected from the tape to a is low but may result in a false H2 S show.
photoelectric cell. The output of the photoelectric cell is
readily calibrated in terms of H2S concentrations by Soluble Sulfide Analyzer. One disadvantage common
passing through the system test paper strips with zones of to all Hz S gas analyzers results from the high solubility
different color that correspond to a range of known of the gas in water. H2.S will not be liberated from the
concentrations. drilling fluid and will not be seen by a gas analyzer until
The paper-tape-type detector may be used for the a saturated solution of the gas exists. Since serious corro-
detection of COz or other gases if a suitably impregnated sion problems may be caused by low concentrations of
paper tape is available. Unlike the tube indicator, it is the gas in mud and even a few ppm of the gas in air is a
possible to discriminate between a baseline of at- health hazard, it can be seen that by the time that HzS
mospheric discoloration and a true “show” above gas is detected at the surface, a major problem already
baseline. has developed.
Although the paper-tape-type is superior to the tube in- Early detection of H2 S requites analysis of the drilling
dicator, both suffer the disadvantage of requiring mud. This can be accomplished by regular sampling and
periodic replacement of the reactive material, lead wet chemical analysis, but the mud logging service can
acetate, and the possible degradation of the product in provide continuous soluble sulfide analysis by using a
storage. Indicator tubes and rolls of paper tape are sup- selective ion electrode measurement system.
plied in sealed, dated packages and should never be used With this device, a sensor probe, which is immersed in
if the seal is broken or the package is beyond its expira- the drilling fluid, contains pH (hydrogen ion) and pS
tion date. (sulfide ion) specific electrodes and a temperature sen-
sor. When HzS dissolves in water it will in part
Solid-State Electrical Detector. The most modem Hz S dissociate into bisulfide (HS -) ions and sulfide (S ~ -)
analyzers involve use of a solid-state electrical detector. ions. The solubility of H2S and the degree of dissocia-
This device depends on the reversible reduction of tion are controlled by the pH and temperature of the solu-
metallic oxides by HzS as its means of detection. A tion If these two parameters and the concentration of a
semiconductor sensor element is exposed to a flow of gas single dissolved sulfide species are measured it is possi-
drawn from the ditch. The surface of this element con- ble to deduce the concentration of all other species. In
sists of a proprietary metallic oxide layer. In the presence the soluble sulfide analyzer this is done automatically by
of HzS, this layer will be partly reduced to metallic a microprocessor. By using this device it is possible to
sulfides, and its electrical resistance will change: detect H2 S and begin treatment to remove it from the
mud without concentrations ever becoming high enough
for gas detectors to be effective or for personnel to be
(metal) O+HzS-+(metal) S+HzO.
placed at risk.
This is an equilibrium reaction. If Hz S ceases to be pres- Geological Analysis

ent, the reaction reverses with the reoxidation of sulfides After gas analysis, the most important function of mud
to oxides. At all times, the sulfide-to-oxide ratio (and logging is the sampling and evaluation of drill cuttings.
52-a PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Even when the mud logging unit operator is not a profes- The lag can be determined by placing a tracer in the
sional geologist, the minimum requirement is for iden- drillpipe at the surface when the kelly bushing is
tification and brief description of sample lithology, “broken off,” allowing the tracer to be pumped through
estimation of reservoir properties (amount and type of the hole and back to the surface, and counting the
porosity and permeability), and description of oil number of strokes requited of the circulating pump to
staining. make this circulation. From this total pump stroke count,
the number of strokes required to pump the tracer down
Sample Lag Time. Hydrocarbon and geological through the pipe to the bottom of the hole is subtracted.
analysis depend on the representative sampling of drill This figure is calculated on the basis of the capacity of
cuttings and gases liberated by the cutting action of the the drillpipe and the displacement of the circulating
drillbit. In interpreting the analytical results, it is pump. The result is the “lag stroke.”
necessary to account for the lag time and physical effects Various materials (such as whole oats, barley, or strips
of the gas and cuttings travel from the bottom of the hole of colored cellophane) may be used as tracers and picked
to the surface. ’ up on the shaker screen for approximating the lag. Under
Lagging of samples is essential so that results may be ordinary circumstances, however, calcium carbide
reported or logged at the depth from which the sample placed in the drillpipe will react with the mud to form
originated (at the time the sample arrives at surface, the acetylene. This gas will be picked up by the mud gas
depth, of course, will be somewhat greater). Lag time detector and is the most convenient and reliable method
may be obtained simply by calculating the time for determining the lag. Acetylene gas appears as wet
necessary to displace the total annular volume of drilling gas on the gas detector and is easily distinguished from
fluid as given by methane produced from the formation.
van=v, -VP, ,..,.....,.....,...........(l) Representative Cuttings Samples. There is no

substitute for representative cuttings samples accurately
correlated to the depth from which they came. They are
qP
van=- v ) . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . (2) the required supportive data for the evaluation of any
an mud logging, geological, geophysical, or engineering
data. Every rig has a shaker screen for separating the cut-
and tings from the mud as they reach the surface. The shaker
screen may or may not be a good place from which to
D take cuttings samples. 3-5 If the shaker screen is used, a
I/=-, ... .. . .......... ..... . . .(3) board or catching box should be placed at the foot of the
VCWI screen for collecting composite samples. This becomes
especially important where drill rate is low, to ensure
where that the sample collected is representative of the whole
V = annular volume, m3/m, interval drilled and not just the final few inches.
VT = hole capacity, m3/m, Where a traditional “rhumba” shaker is used, dif-
ferences in flow through the possum belly (ditch at the
VP = pipe capacity and displacement, m3/m,
rear of the shale shaker) will result in density and size
V, = annular velocity, m/s, sortings of cuttings across the various screens. This sort-
qP
= pump output, m3/s, ing can be of assistance to the logging geologist in par-
tl = lag time, s, and tially separating large cavings from the smaller bot-
D = depth, m. tomhole cuttings. However, great care must be taken to
ensure that a representative sample is caught. Where a
Separate calculations must be performed for each an- modem “doubledeck” shaker is used, cuttings on both
nular section (drillpipe in casing, drillpipe in open hole, the upper and lower screens should be sampled.
drill collars in open hole, etc.). A sampling depth interval should be set that thz mud
Calculated lag times ate used when first drilling out of logger can be expected to maintain while keeping up
casing or in hard rock areas where an in-gauge hole is ex- with other responsibilities. Sample intervals can be
pected. However, a calculated lag time cannot take into shortened as the hole is deepened and drill rate falls. The
account capacity variation in out-of-gauge holes or varia- mud logger should never allow more than 15 minutes to
tion in pump rate or efficiency (for example, when the pass between catching samples. For example, if the sam-
pump is stopped to make a connection). ple interval is 10 ff and the drill rate is 10 ft/hr, the mud
Determining and using lag in terms of pump strokes logger should take four scoops of samples over the hour
has distinct advantages over lag determined on a time to fill the sample bag for the interval. Special samples
basis. The counters tracking the cuttings up the hole stop should always be taken whenever background gas
automatically when the pump is stopped. Clocks would changes are seen or the lag time after drilling breaks oc-
continue to run, and some subtractive factor would have cur. If a board or catcher box is used, it must be cleaned
to be introduced. The most important advantage, off after each sample is taken.
however, lies in accuracy. A lag determined in terms of Samples should be taken from the desilter or desander
an interval of time is correct for only one speed of the outlets whenever these are running. In this way, the log-
circulating pump (that speed at which the lag determina- ging geologist can establish the quantity and appearance
tion was run), whereas the lag in pump cycles is accurate of sand and line solids commonly contaminating the mud
for any pump rate. system. If an unconsolidated formation is penetrated,
MUD LOGGING 52-9
sample from the desander will contain both formation rate of reaction, which is rapid for calcite and slow for
sand and mud solids. The logging geologist must be able dolomite, provides a guide to relative composition.
to discriminate between these. This test can be made more quantitative by use of a
Washing and preparing the cuttings to be examined are calcimeter. In this device a weighed sample is treated
probably as important as the examination itself. In hard with acid in a sealed reaction chamber. Reaction is
rock areas, the cuttings are usually quite easily cleaned, monitored by measuring either the volume or pressure of
in which case washing is a matter of merely hosing the evolved CO;! over time until reaction is complete. Out-
sample in a container of water to remove the mud film. put is percentage of calcite and dolomite in the rock
Washing the cuttings in many areas, however, par- sample.
titularly areas and zones of tertiary sands and shales, is In more complex mixed carbonates and sulfates (e.g.,
more difficult and requires several precautions. The anhydrite and gypsum), a chemical stain kit may be
clays and shales present are often soft and of a consjsten- used. Small samples of washed drill cuttings are spot-
cy which goes into solution and makes mud. Care must tested with a series of chemical test solutions.
be taken to wash away as little of the shale as possible, Characteristic coloration of a test solution is indicative of
and, in determining the sample composition, to take into the presence of a particular mineral in the sample.
account that which is washed away. Many excellent texts are available that discuss the
After washing the cuttings to remove the mud, they are geological aspects of mud logging. These include Low, 6
washed through a 5-mm sieve unless doing so will fur- Maher, 7 and McNeal. * Since this chapter deals primari-
ther cause excessive loss of shale or clay. It is generally ly with the technology of mud logging, they are not
considered that the cuttings will pass through the S-mm discussed further here.
sieve, and that the material that does not is cavings and
may be discarded. However, the material that does not
pass through should be examined for sand cuttings. If
they should be present, these afford an excellent oppor- Hydrocarbon Content of Samples
tunity for study of larger-than-normal cuttings chips. In addition to a geological evaluation, cuttings samples
Cuttings from wells drilled with oil-based or oil- must be tested for hydrocarbon content. A blender or
emulsion muds are usually more representative of the cuttings gas analysis must be performed on every sample
drilled formation than cuttings drilled with water-based caught. This involves disintegration of a sample of cut-
mud because the oil emulsion prevents sloughing and tings in a blender, extraction of a sample of liberated
dispersion of clays and shales into the mud. At the same gas, and injection into a total gas analyzer. This can be
time, washing and handling cuttings drilled with this performed by manual extraction with syringe and injec-
type mud poses somewhat of a problem; they cannot be tion into the unit’s online gas analyzer. However, for
cleaned by washing in water alone. It is usually speed and continuity of operation, modem logging units
necessary to wash the cuttings first in a detergent solu- use automatic extraction and injection into an indepen-
tion to remove the mud. Some of the liquid commercial dent catalytic combustion cuttings gas analyzer.
detergents available may be used. In extreme cases, it As soon as a representative cuttings sample has been
may be necessary to wash the cuttings first with a taken, a measured amount (100 cm3 in a measuring cup)
nonfluorescent solvent such as naptha, and then wash of unwashed sample is placed in the blender jar and
them in a detergent solution to remove the solvent. Use covered by 600 cm3 of water, then blended for 30
of a solvent is not advisable unless absolutely necessary seconds and left to stand for another 30 seconds before
because of the risk of removing any oil staining present. taking a gas sample. If the hole is caving badly, the
An oven mounted on the wall of the logging unit can amount of cuttings may be increased but should be con-
be used to dry a portion of the cuttings sample after it has sistent-especially before and through a show. With hard
been washed, but some of the washed cuttings are ex- carbonates, low-porosity sandstones, or similar reservoir
amined wet under the microscope. A sample of un- rocks that cannot be efficiently pulverized by the cutter
washed cuttings also is required for cuttings analysis in blades (40 to 60 seconds’ blending is recommended), the
the blender. Although these cuttings should not be blender jar should be allowed to stand for 2 or 3 minutes
rigorously washed, a light rinsing to remove surface before taking any gas readings. After the gas analysis is
drilling mud film is advisable. performed, the water should be inspected for oil signs or
The logging geologist should extract a small amount of petroleum odor. Any droplets can be skimmed off for ex-
sample from each stage of the sample preparation proc- amination. The crushed rock material also may be of
ess. From examination of all samples, an accurate value in clarifying lithological evaluation.
estimate of sample composition can be produced. 3 Once The blender is a good evaluation tool because it gives
the percentages of the various constituents have been some indication of the quality of the reservoir with
estimated, the sample description in logical order should respect to the porosity and the GOR. A good porosity
contain (1) rock type, (2) color, (3) hardness (indura- sandstone generally will be well-flushed by the time it
tion), (4) grain size, (5) grain shape, (6) sorting, (7) reaches the surface, so the amount of cuttings gas ob-
luster, (8) cementation or matrix, (9) structure, (10) tained will increase proportionately to the decreasing
porosity, (11) accessories, and (12) inclusions. porosity. This is also true with a sucrosic dolomite or
Only a visual sample examination usually is required high-porosity limestone such as chalk. However, if the
at the wellsite in elastic (sand/shale) formations. In car- reservoir is a fractured carbonate, etc., with all the oil
bonates, other tests may be required to determine the and/or gas in the fractures, little or no cuttings gas will
chemical and physical nature of the rock. The simplest of be recorded and the use of the blender as a porosity in-
these is to test cuttings with dilute hydrochloric acid; the dicator is of limited value, because future production is
going to be more dependent on the complexity of the pearance suggesting heavy oil. However, the same cut-
reservoir fracturing than the inherent porosity and tings examined under ultraviolet light will show a bright
permeability of the rock itself. blue-white fluorescence characteristic of the highest
In oil reservoirs, gas is normally in solution with the gravity. This incompatability allows the identification of
oil, and the agitation of a covered sample provides an ex- a contaminant and avoids the logging of a false show. A
cellent index of the amount of gas with the oil, which is good mud logger should examine all mud additives
significant in view of the gas already recorded from the stocked at the wellsite and determine, before their use,
ditch. A high cuttings gas with an oil show should be their characteristic properties and appearance when
treated as a very significant show and should be one of mixed with drilling mud or cuttings.
the more important factors to consider in the overall If a true oil stain is identified, a single, representative
evaluation. cutting should be tested with an organic solvent. This is
When large intervals of reservoir rock are cored, the the “cut test.” Solvent cut is valuable in assessing
blender readings obtained are not likely to be as infor- fluorescence and allows deductions to be made of oil
mative as those obtained if the section had been drilled mobility and permeability of the reservoir. By removing
normally. Generally, the amount of sample is reduced the oil from the colored background of the cutting, the
because the center is still in the core barrel. With the solvent allows a better estimate of fluorescence. The way
often slower drill rate, the percentage of cavings may be in which the solvent cut occurs (e.g., instantly for high-
increased. Also, if a diamond head is being used, the gravity oils, more slowly for more viscous lower-gravity
rock will be coming back in a very ground-up and often oils, or irregularly streaming from limited permeability)
badly altered state. Thus, if the geologist is agreeable, also yields useful information. If no cut can be obtained
representative loo-cm3 samples from the more broken- from a washed cutting, the test should be repeated on a
up parts of the recovered cores may be blended with dried cutting, a crushed cutting, or after application of
water, and any readings can be used to supplement the dilute hydrochloric acid. This will produce the required
readings obtained during the actual coring. cut and yield further evidence on permeability or effec-
Inspection for liquid hydrocarbons should be made at tive porosity. After the cut solvent has evaporated, a
the microscope (oil-stained cuttings), the blender jar residue of oil remains in the cut dish, displaying the oil’s
(petroleum sheen and odor after blending), and in an natural color.
ultraviolet light inspection box (fluorescent oil droplets Finally, if sufficient oil is present, it may be possible
on cuttings and diluted mud samples). to determine its refractive index. Just as oil stain color
Visible oil stain and color is an important indication of and fluorescence progressively change with oil type,
oil presence and type as are ultraviolet fluorescence in- refractive index correlates well with oil gravity. Portable
tensity and color, grading from dull brown for the refractometers that require only a small droplet of sample
heaviest (residual or wet) oil to bright blue-white for are available for use in the mud logging unit. By using a
light oils and condensate. However, crosschecking of small quantity of oil (skimmed from the surface of the
observations is essential to confirm the presence of oil. blender jar or a diluted mud sample), a very reliable
Many mud additives, contaminants, minerals, or rig estimate of oil gravity can be obtained.
floor debris will have an oily appearance or odor and
may fluoresce under ultraviolet light. Only if visible Geochemical Analysis
stain and ultraviolet fluorescence yield the same conclu- More sophisticated analyses of hydrocarbon and
sion is oil confirmed. For example, samples con- hydrocarbon source material involve the principle of
taminated with pipe-dope will have a dark oily ap- pyrolysis-thermal decomposition of a sample in an inert
atmosphere. Three such devices are presently available:
the Rock-Eva1 II*” (RE), the Oil Show Analyzer’”
(OSA), and the Therrnalytic Hydrocarbon Analyzer’”
(THA). All these devices use variations of the lnstitut
FranGais du Pitrole-Centre de Recherches du Groupe
Petrofina (IFP-FINA) temperature-programmed
pyroanalysis method developed by Espitalie. 3,9 The
process involves the heating of a weighed rock sample
through an increasing temperature program in an inert
helium stream. Since combustion cannot occur, the
helium carries away from the sample hydrocarbons and
CO2 resulting from the thermal volatilization of
petroleum and organic source material in the rock. These
evolved gases may be analyzed by flame ionization and
thermal conductivity detectors. The amount of gas ex-
pressed as milligrams per gram of rock, the evolved gas,
and the time and temperature of evolution may be used to
characterize the richness and type of a reservoir or source
rock.
The differences between the three devices are shown
in Fig. 52.7. The RE 11uses a uniform temperature ramp
of 25”Umin up to 550°C. The helium stream carrying
Fig. 52.7-Comparative results of REII, OSA, and THA evolved gases passes to a CO2 trap and then to an FID.
MUD LOGGING 52-11
On completion of the pyrolysis the trapped CO2 is isolating and detecting methane, ethane, propane,
passed to a TCD. The output showing temperature, FID butane, and isobutane or a second, low-voltage catalytic
and TCD response is called a “pyrogram.” combustion detector, allowing discrimination of “total
The RE II pyrogram characteristically shows two gas” from “petroleum vapors.”
distinct peaks in FID response. The first, SI , represents 4. A separate cuttings gas analyzer, allowing gas
true hydrocarbons, oil and gas, volatilized from the sam- analysis from blended cuttings samples.
ple. The second, 52, represents hydrocarbons generated 5. A microscope and ultraviolet light inspection
by the thermal cracking of hydrogen-rich organic source chamber for the identification and description of
material, kerogen, in the sample. The temperature, lithology and liquid hydrocarbons.
Tmaxi at which the peak of S2 occurs is indicative of the 6. A pumpstroke counter, which, in conjunction with
maturity of the kerogen. Mature kerogen, capable of calcium carbide lag tests, allows gas readings and cut-
generating oil or gas, will have a T,,, in the range of tings samples to be lagged back to correct drilled depth.
435 to 470°C. A lower T,,, indicates immature kerogen In addition, the unit requires a drilling depth and time
and a T,,, above 470°C indicates postmature material recorder for the determination of sample depth and the
that has already yielded the majority of its hydrocarbon calculation of rate of penetration, an important rock
product. strength/porosity indicator. Ideally, this should be in-
The TCD response, S3, represents the yield of CO2 dependent of the driller’s depth recorder.
from the thermal cracking of oxygen-rich kerogen in the Since mud logging samples (gas, oil, and cuttings) are
sample. A comparison of S2 and S3 provides the relative extracted from the mudstream, changes in mud
hydrogen/oxygen richness of the kerogen. This is useful chemistry and rheology must be considered when
in estimating source type. Hydrogen-rich kerogen is evaluating mud log results. The logging unit should be
prone to rich oil yields, whereas oxygen richness gives equipped to perform basic mud tests-e.g., mud
more gas-prone and lower-yield kerogen. balance, Marsh funnel, sand test kit, and filter press.
The oil show analyzer (OSA) differs from the RE II in Laboratory glassware and chemicals are required to per-
that it uses a nonuniform temperature consisting of two form chemical tests and titrations on cuttings and mud
temperature steps followed by a temperature ramp. filtrate samples.
Following completion of pyrolysis the sample is further Although pressure control is not a standard function of
heated in an oxygen atmosphere causing the complete mud logging (see Petroleum Engineering Services), the
combustion of all remaining organic carbon in the mud logger, by continuously monitoring mud gas con-
sample. tent, should be aware of situations of potential drilling
The OSA pyrogram generally shows three hazard. It is therefore usual for the mud logging unit to
characteristic peaks in FID response with SO and Sl cor- be equipped with a level monitor for the active mud pit.
responding to the two temperature steps and representing This allows the mud logger to be a second line of
the splitting of the RE II Sl peak into a lower- defense, after the driller, in detecting a well kick or loss
temperature (gas-indicating) peak and a higher- of circulation.
temperature (oil-indicating) peak. The S2 peak and T,,,
The Mud Log
are the same as those seen in RE II. S4 represents CO2
produced by pyrolysis (S3 equivalent) and by combus- Format ’
tion. Combination of the pyrolysis and combustion gas Fig. 52.8 shows a typical modem mud log. There are
products provides a measure of the total organic carbon currently no industry standards for mud logs, and presen-
content or the gross organic richness of the rock. tation varies among operators. However, the track order
RE II has become widely used as a laboratory instru commonly follows that shown in the example.
ment and both it and the OSA have seen use in the mud Truck I is used for rate of penetration (ROP). Also in-
logging unit in frontier exploration. The restriction on cluded in this column are items of drilling data that may
their wider implementation in mud logging has been the affect interpretation of the log (bit types, changes in
high complexity (and price) of these instruments, which drilling parameters, circulation breaks, etc.).
has limited their use to the most advanced logging units Track 2 is for depth notation and for symbolic
and demanding exploration environments. representation of special evaluations (for example, cored
The THA, a much simpler device, is better suited to or tested intervals).
routine mud logging services. It uses only an FID and a Truck 3 is a graphical representation of formations
temperature program similar to the OSA pyrolysis phase penetrated. Usually the column is subdivided into 10
(without the final combustion phase). The THA equal columns and graphic symbols are used to represent
pyrogram provides SO, Sl, S2 and T,,, . Neither CO;! 10% increments of lithology types seen in cuttings.
analysis, S3, nor S4 is available from the THA. Unlike other tracks on the log, the lithology track is not a
calibrated physical measurement but a subjective assess-
The Modern Mud Logging Unit ment. Care should be taken to establish rules of drafting
There are six basic requirements for a modem mud log- acceptable to the preparer and user of the log. -
ging unit* based on the previous discussions. Even after removal of cavings and contaminants, a
1. A total combustible gas analyzer using catalytic cuttings sample is not truly representative of a single
combustion or flame ionization detector. depth interval. Variation in particle size and density
2. A gas sample dilution system, allowing cause differences in annular recovery rate and mixing of
maintenance of linear detector response at high gas con- cuttings in the annulus. A true cuttings percentage will
centrations or a backup thermal conductivity detector. never show sharp formation boundaries as a result of this
3. An automatic cycling chromatograph capable of mixing. For example, a thin sandstone within a massive
IOLE SIZE
XL MUD LOGGING
COMPANY :ASING RECORD \EBREVIATIONS
30 AT 400 9”aAT 4185
COMPANY ABC OIL COMPANY OF THE 20’AT 735 7 A, 5340’
NETHERLANDS
x *T 2995 AT
WELL DESMOND Xl
F,ELD ANDORRA IUD TYPES
REG,ON DUTCH NORTH SEA SEAWATER GEL TV 2300’
COORDINATES 5’ ‘0’ 50” N KCL POLYMER TO 5345’
02 1530’E TO ~
API WELL INDEX NO
.ITHOLOGY SYMBOLS
SPUD DATE 514!78
ELEVATION AKBlo MSL 84 5
RKB lo SF 174 2
TOTAL DEPTH 5345
CONTRACTOR DEEPER DRILLING CO
,q,G , TYPE CHARLIE JONES’JACKUP
LOG INTERVAL
DEPTH FROM 400 TO 5345
DATE FROM5478 TO 20 5 78
SCALE -UNIT
1 500 69, STANDARD
LOG PREPARED BY A EVANS,G JONES
f3 EDWARDS
FORMATION EVALUATION LOG
Fig. 52.8-Mud log formal

MUD LOGGING 52-13
shale with sharp boundaries shown clearly by ROP and thin horizons may be submerged in a high background
total gas analysis may appear from cuttings to be a sandy and not identified from total gas alone (Fig. 52.9).
shale horizon of much greater vertical extent. Even gas reliably identified as resulting from a drilled
A geologist may use all available data to prepare an in- interval may be misleading as a show-quality indicator.
terpretive lithological log. That is, in the previous exam- Factors that affect the magnitude of a gas show include
ple, to sharply show the sandstone boundaries as in- the volume of the rock cylinder crushed in the drilling
dicated by ROP. Sometimes a mud logger will attempt to process, controlled by bit diameter and ROP and dilution
add some degree of interpretation to a cuttings log. of liberated gas in mud (i.e., the flow rate of drilling
Again, in the example the mud logger would show the mud passing bottom as the hole is cut). Thus, gas show
presence of sand in all the cuttings samples but exag- magnitude will be expected to increase in larger diameter
gerate the percent sand in the sample coinciding with the holes, at higher ROP’s, or at reduced mud flow rate
higher ROP. (Fig. 52.10).
This “semi-interpretation” may result in confusion A simple technique is available to remove these factors
when later sample examinations are compared with the from evaluation by normalizing gas show magnitude to a
mud log and, in my opinion, mud loggers should be in- standard or “normal” set of drilling conditions:
structed to prepare a true cuttings log representing the
percentages of lithologies actually seen in the sample. If
the mud logger is geologically qualified and the
operator’s geologist requires geological interpretation,
R, (4)
then an interpretive lithological log should be prepared
as an additional track on the mud log.
Track 4 presents the results of hydrocarbon analyses.
It may consist of one single width track but most often is where
l-R OB ’ ”
subdivided into two or more separate tracks, as in the ex- G pOs = observed total gas, %,
ample. Track 4 will include the results of total gas, cut- G,, = normalized total gas, %,
tings gas, and chromatographic analyses and when oil 4oB = observed mud flow rate, m”/s,
shows occur, an estimate of oil show quality and oil cut
9n = “normal” mud flow rate, m’/s,
will be added. Supplementary gas analyses (helium, d OB = observed bit diameter, m,
hydrogen, CO 2, or H 1 S) also may be added to this track d, = “normal” bit diameter, m,
or plotted on a supplementary log.
R = observed ROP, m/s, and
Track 5 primarily is used for brief sample descriptions.
it = “normal” ROP, m/s.
Also included in this track are mud test results, casing
and cementation records, hole deviations, carbide test
results, and many other operating data used in interpreta- Once a “normal” set of conditions are selected, the
tion of the mud log. On wider format logs, Track 5 also equation can be readily simplified giving
may be subdivided to add an interpretive lithology and
an extra data track to be used for the results of special
analyses or calculations. 0.010
G,, = Gpo~
R OB
Interpretation
The object of logging drilling-mud gas shows is to iden- -
and
tify potentially productive oil and gas horizons. While
such zones often may be indicated by major
events-e.g., large gas and fluorescence shows-more 0.0126 Gpos90B
G,, = (d,B)2 RoB ) . . . . . . .. . (5)
critical interpretation is required to avoid false alarms or
missed opportunities.
where
Total Gas shows 9n = 0.050 m3/s (793 galimin),
The magnitude of a total gas show is not in itself a con- d, = 0.251 m (9.875 in.), and
clusive indication of show quality. Gas detected at the R, = 0.010 m/s (118 ft/hr).
surface originates in three ways: (1) from the disintegra-
tion of a cylinder of rock by the drill bit as the hole is Normalization can be very useful in correlation of gas
deepened, (2) from the influx of gas from previously shows between wells drilled with very different pro-
drilled formations exposed in the borehole wall, and (3) grams. However, it should be remembered that nor-
from the drilling mud itself in the form of recycled oil malization cannot remove the effect of influx and con-
and gas and decomposition of mud additives. tamination; nor does it account for varying gas trap effi-
In extreme cases (for example, in long, geopressured ciency with ambient conditions.
shale sections or when using oil-based drilling fluids) in- Finally, remember that the gas produced by drilling is
flux or contamination may constitute the majority of gas liberated by the crushing of material at the bottom of the
seen at the surface. In such circumstances the magnitude hole and is representative of the fluid composition within
of a gas show from a potential reservoir must be the rock pore space at the time of impact. Remember that
evaluated against the established background gas level oil and gas flow from a producing well; they are not
from overlying sediments. Gas shows from relatively mined. The presence of a fluid within a rock is not
Fig. 52.9-Mud log total gas shows.
hydrostatic pressure, exsolution and expansion of gas

should effectively flush the cuttings, leaving only a small
volume of residual fluid at the surface. When higher cut-
tings total gas, relative to ditch total gas, is observed,
this is an indication that this flushing has been impeded.
An obvious explanation is that the rock lacks sufficient
permeability to allow gas expansion and flushing.
However, residual low-gravity oil or tar will have a
similar effect in impeding gas exsolution and escape. In-
spection of cuttings lithology, fluorescence, and the cut
test should provide confirming evidence (Fig. 52.1 I).
For example, strong cementation or shaliness in the cut-
tings would be indicative of low permeability, whereas
dark or dull oil stain and fluorescence with a slow cut or
absence of cut is more indicative of heavy oil.
At the opposite extreme of mobility, a formation may
be so permeable that it is flushed effectively with mud
filtrate even before being drilled. On recovery to surface
neither mud nor cuttings will contain hydrocarbons. In-
deed, no cuttings may be seen since such formations are
commonly unconsolidated and disintegrate on recovery.
In this circumstance the first observations will be a
sharp increase in rate of penetration followed, after the
Fig. 52.10-Variation of total gas with drilling parameters.
lag time, by a “negative” gas show; total gas declines
below the original background. Testing the desander ef-
fluent or a mud sampling probably will show an increase
necessarily indicative of productivity of that fluid ,fram in loose sand grains. The negative gas shows confirms
that rock. Comparison of total gas analyses from mud only the excellent permeability, and for this reason alone
and cuttings and chromatography can yield useful clues the zone deserves closer inspection when a resistivity log
as to the productivity of a hydrocarbon-containing is available. No evidence is available of the formation’s
formation. fluid content from the mud log.
Total gas from the cuttings blender test is a good in- Most potential reservoirs fall between these two ex-
dicator of fluid mobility. As the crushed rock cuttings tremes: producing (1) a positive gas show and (2) cut-
are carried to surface and relieved of formation tings blender gas, depending on permeability and oil
MUD LOGGING 52-l 5
ss. LT GRI-B”FF. FY,

sue *NG. GO POR. N “IS
S-iAlN. GO PL IEL FLOR
~LT,~L~u~H CUT FLOR,
PLAS:OCC SD”
ss. Y”. F-NED GR. PR

SRT. FRI. W/lNT0W
SLTST. ABUW BR IEL
OIL FLOR, STRMG YEL-
GOLD CUT FLOR
--I
SS. BRN, NEO-CRS,
W/RN0 OTL. W SRT. OL
BRN OIL STN. EVEN
.
,.... 0”LL *EL-BRN FLOR,
. YE0 STRAW CUT. BRT
“EL CUT FLOR
r
!:-I. ;:!:{.‘.:
..I.. . ,/. /
, .:,.. . . :. :... ‘. 5% LT GRY-ERW. YE0
“ ::”
I:..:: I‘I ;::
::: GR. SUB RNO. W SRT.
: : FRI. WI S1L CUT. DULL
--f-e++ ,:I; 1;: i : : i i ORNG BRN FLOR. SLO
, *. ,. BRT LT YEL CUT FLOR
::._...::. :;I,:;’ j .: :
:, :.,: r:;.:l: : ;
p-’ ..& I ,./.
gravity. Color and fluorescence of the oil stain and The end result of this process is reflected in a gas show
results of the cut test are indicative of oil type. However, chromatogram. A gas-productive interval will show
note again that presence of hydrocarbons in the rock and predominantly methane and ethane with only traces of
even presence of porosity and permeability are not con- the heavier alkanes. Oil productivity is signaled by the
clusive evidence of hydrocarbon productivity. enrichment of the heavier alkanes, especially propane.
Decreasing oil gravity is reflected by progressively
greater proportions of propane and the butanes. In lower-
Chromatogram Interpretation gravity oils, the concentration of these gases may exceed
The hydrocarbon chromatogram is often a useful guide that of ethane. But all productive horizons will contain
to reservoir productivity. It is not the actual amount of methane as the dominant alkane. Zones in which
any one alkane that is significant but the relative amounts methane represents at least half of the total gas usually
of light and heavy components characteristic of the contain heavy residual oil from which the lighter gas and
overall reservoir fluid. Such characteristics normally can liquid fractions have migrated, leaving an immovable,
be recognized on the mud log itself. An aid to this can be nonproductive fluid.
the calculation and plotting of the numerical ratios of the These general rules of chromatograph evaluation can
values of the various hydrocarbons (e.g., C2/C I) prove useful in reservoir evaluation but of course should
C3/C1, etc.). Such gas-ratio plots will often yield not be used in isolation. Conclusions regarding oil gravi-
distinctive “character” or “events” not always im- ty and mobility should be compared with the results of
mediately evident from the chromatogram itself. blender tests, cuttings examination, fluorescence, and
However, interpretation of the plots depends on the same cut tests. Furthermore, evaluation should proceed from
logical procedures. the prior-show baseline values and throughout the show
Most petroleum hydrocarbons originate from a similar interval. Considering the variables inherent in the drill-
organic source and proceed in their maturation by a ing, transportation, and extractions of samples, no con-
similar temperature- and pressure-controlled physico- clusion may be drawn from a single sample or analysis.
chemical process. For this reason, petroleum accumula-
tions, although markedly different in composition, tend Conventional Mud Log
to show a spectral relationship to each other in terms of
The conventional mud log offers more drilling and for-
the type and amount of hydrocarbon species present.
mation evaluation data in a single form than any other
Therefore, although two crude oils of 30”API gravity
data source. Many of these data are subject to uncon-
may be extremely different in total composition, they
trolled variables in the measurement technology and by
will contain some similar components in similar com-
the very nature of borehole environment. As a result, no
positional relationships to each other. Since petroleum
simple conclusive rules of quantitative log evaluation are
maturation continues by the continuous “cracking” of
available. However, integration of all the data on the log
complex branch molecules into simpler straight chain
with geological and regional experience can make the
molecules, these significant relationships are readily
conventional mud log a most powerful exploration tool.
seen in the petroleum gases methane through butane.
Thus, study of chromatographic analysis of these gases
Petroleum Engineering Services
often may lead to a gross estimate of the type and quality
of the reservoir. Geopressure Evaluation
At low temperatures and shallow burial, biological and The petroleum engineering functions of mud logging
catalytic decomposition of organic debris results in a developed from the introduction of a number of pressure
low-yield production of methane and CO2 Though the evaluation techniques during the 1960’s. These tech-
CO2 will dissolve in and migrate with pore waters, the niques are practiced conveniently in the logging unit and
methane will accumulate in porous zones either as free in some cases use data or equipment already available in
gas or in solution in water. Such zones will yield im- the unit. Also, interpretation of the resultant data rc-
pressive gas shows when drilled, but with few excep- quires the same integrative approach, using drilling data
tions will produce only gas-cut water. and geological evaluation, as required in mud log inter-
It is a reasonable general rule that a gas show contain- pretation. Unlike mud log evaluation, however, pressure
ing methane as the only significant component is not evaluation techniques are able to provide reliable quan-
commercially productive and is unworthy of further titative estimates of formation parameters, such as
evaluation. However, it also should be remembered that pressures and porosity. lo
exceptional cases do occur, including the southern North Drilling into a geopressured zone causes a change in a
Sea nonassociated gas reservoirs that produce +94% number of basic formation/drilling relationships. This
methane. change is usually a reversal of a gradual de th-related
At higher temperatures, organic material first trend in a lithologically uniform formation. IP Compac-
polymerizes to form kerogen, which is then tion increases uniformly with depth in a normal
hydrogenated and cracked with increasing temperature to pressured clay rock. A geopressured zone may be poorly
form bitumens, tars, and progressively higher-gravity oil compacted relative to those zones overlying it. Porosity
and gas. Associated petroleum gases are fragments of and water content decrease uniformly with depth in a
this cracking process and as cracking continues, the pro- normal pressured clay rock. A geopressured zone in
portion of light to heavy gases increases in a manner which dewatering has been slowed will show a reversal
similar to the lightening of the liquid hydrocarbon. This in the trend, with increased water content and increased
fractionation of gases and liquids continues during the porosity. Other factors relating to fluid movement, such
migration of the hydrocarbons from source to reservoir. as ionic concentrations, hydrocarbon saturations, etc.,
MUD LOGGING 52-17
may be different in geopressured zones. Differential

pressure across bottom is the difference between the
drilling mud hydrostatic pressure and the fluid pressure
in pores of the undrilled formation at the bottom of the
hole. Since drilling mud usually is denser than formation
fluids, this difference will be positive and will increase
with depth. In a geopressured zone, the formation pore
pressure is abnormally high and the differential pressure
across bottom will decline or even become negative.
Thus, any measureable parameter that reflects any or
all of these factors may be used as a means of inter-
preting changes in formation pressure and eventually as a
means of evaluating and obtaining quantitative estimates
of formation pore pressures.
Gas Analysis. The incursion of formation fluids into the

borehole may result from a number of causes, some but
not all of which result from an underbalanced condi-
tion-either temporary or permanent. ‘* If an under-
balanced condition exists, there will be a natural tenden-
cy for fluid to flow from the formation into the borehole.
With a formation having good porosity and permeability,
this flow will be massive and a kick will occur. Such a
kick will be indicated by the incursion of formation fluid
downhole, causing the expulsion of mud from the
borehole at surface. Were this to continue, a blowout
would result. It is the logging geologist’s responsibility
(other duties permitting) to monitor the mud pit level and
to report any unpredicted or unexplained level changes. Fig. 52.12-Connection gas indicating underbalance.
A massive incursion of fluid resulting in a well kick is
unlikely to be misinterpreted as a gas show. In fact, if the
hole is full, the kick should be recognized by a rise in pit Circulating bottomhole pressure is higher than when
level long before the fluid causing it has time to appear at the mud is static. This is caused by annular pressure
surface. losses when circulating. It is therefore possible for a
However, minor incursions caused by slight or tem- feed-in, caving, or even a kick to result because of a
porary underbalance, or where insufficient permeability resultant underbalance when circulation is stopped. Fur-
to provide a sustained kick exists, do occur and must be thermore, pressure is further reduced because of the
interpreted correctly. swabbing effect when pipe is moved upward-e.g.,
When an underbalance sufficient to cause a kick exists when making a connection. The literal meaning of
but there is insufficient permeability to sustain a massive “swabbing” is the pulling of a full-gauge tool from the
fluid influx, a steady fluid “feed-in” may result. If this hole, acting like the plunger in a syringe and initiating
minor flow is from a discrete formation already cut, it fluid flow into the borehole. Swabbing by moving the
will be noticeable - producing a sustained minimum gas drillstring does not work in this way. When pipe is
background even when circulating but not drilling. If this pulled upward, the high-viscosity gelled mud will at-
is the case, the logging geologist should make a note of tempt to move with the pipe, thus reducing the effective
this sustained circulating gas on the mud log. hydrostatic pressure acting on the borehole wall.
If the feed-in is from the formation currently being Pressure reduction is a function of pulling speed, mud
drilled, then as a greater and greater area of formation in rheology, and annular diameter. The important con-
the borehole wall is exposed by drilling, increasing flow sideration is that pressure reduction takes place not just
will take place. If this is the case, the mud gas will ex- below the bit but at all points in the open hole.
hibit a sustained minimum when circulating but will con- Downtime gas or connection gas is a gas show
sistently rise as drilling proceeds. Cuttings gas will in- resulting from the momentary underbalance caused by
evitably be high relative to mud gas since it is only the pump shutdown and/or pipe movement. It can be
lack of permeability that is preventing the feed-in from recognized by the occurrence of discrete gas show ap-
becoming a kick. Where permeability is effectively ab- pearance at, or slightly less than, the lag time after cir-
sent (e.g., in clays or shales) even a minor feed-in cannot culation recommences. This is gas actually being pro-
take place. Fluid pressure in the rock will gain access to duced by the formation and, while not being plotted on
the borehole by the opening of pre-existent microfrac- the mud log, the value should be reported on the log
tures and partings in the rock. The result will be the cav- because it is indicative of formation permeability and
ing or sloughing of rock fragments into the borehole, ac- fluid content. When a connection gas occurs, the logging
companied by a small amount of gas. A minimum gas geologist also should check a flowline mud sample for
background and, in this case, cavings recovery exist evidence of produced oil or salt water with the gas. The
when circulating without drilling. incidence of connection gas should be reported to the
TOTAL GAS I NORMALIZED I
:ONNEiC
GA:SE
Fig. 52.13-Normalized total gas.
drilling supervisor, who may choose to increase mud drilled with a constant mud density, whereas in Well B
density in response to the indicated underbalance. mud density was controlled to maintain a constant
It is important to remember that the entire openhole positive differential pressure (overbalance).
section will be underbalanced by swabbing. The connec- In the upper portion of the section, the two gas curves
tion gas may not come from the bottom of the hole but are similar and the normalized gas curves coincide
from some horizon above. In fact, two or even more con- almost exactly. In the lower portion a progressive devia-
nection gases may result from a connection. For this tion between the two wells is seen that is somewhat
reason it is important that lag time and annular velocities reduced but remains evident even in the normalized
should be identified accurately by the logging geologist curves. We can interpret this as being caused by the
so that connection gases can be identified with the pro- penetration of a transition zone into a geopressured zone.
ducing formation and the mud log annotated In Well A, maintaining a constant mud density results
accordingly. in a decreasing overbalance and eventually an under-
Drilling into a permeable reservoir with an underbalance or increasing negative differential pressure.
balance is potentially dangerous because a kick may Connection gases occur and become larger with deeper
result. Even if a kick does not occur immediately, the penetration. Additionally, feed-in of gas from the under-
hazardous situation will be marked by an increasing balanced borehole wall causes an increase in background
feed-in as more formation is drilled, accompanied by gas that, since it is not a product of freshly cut formation,
progressively larger connection gases (Fig. 52.12). The cannot be accounted for in the normalization calculation.
condition should be reported by the logging geologist Well B, on which a constant overbalance was main-
and noted on the mud log. If increases in mud density tained by increases in mud density, did not show in-
alleviate or remove the effect, this should also be noted creases in gas background or connection gases. Indeed,
on the mud log in explanation of the consequent reduc- if any zone showed good permeability, the overbalance
tion in gas. may have resulted in flushing gas away from the
Fig. 52.13 demonstrates the effect of varying differen- borehole and a reduction in observed total gas.
tial pressure on gas show magnitude. The total gas By careful observation of these phenomena, a fairly
curves for two wells drilled through a similar section are accurate log of differential pressure (and hence pore
shown. The data for both wells have been normalized to pressure) may be obtained. This information should be
reduce the effects of hole diameter, ROP, mud pump used in conjunction with the other techniques described
output, and surface extraction efficiency. Well A was in the following paragraphs.
MUD LOGGING 52-19
Cuttings Evaluation. During the normal mud-logging

process, cuttings are sieved and graded to a size assumed
FRONT
to be representative of drilled cuttings. The larger
fragments are cavings from the walls of the borehole and
hQ.
play no part in the compilation of a lithological log.
In geopressure evaluation, these cavings play a major
role. The presence of cavings in the sample indicates that
the borehole wall is unstable. The most noticeable and
L11
usually most predominant cavings are those of clay, PLAN
‘ACE
shale, or calcareous lithologies. Coal, however, will
cave as a matter of course, hence interpretations should
not include coal cavings. The amount of cavings in the
bulk sample is an indication of the degree of instability
of the borehole walls. Simply watching the cuttings Fig. 52.14-Cavings resulting from underbalance and stress
traverse the shaker screens will give a reasonable indica- relief.
tion of the amount and size of the cavings in relation to
the bulk sample.
Cavings are produced by underbalanced drilling and
stress relief. Abrasion of the walls by the drillpipe will density should increase with depth. Any deviation from
also cause cavings, but generally these will not be discer- this consistent trend may indicate that geopressures ex-
nible from cuttings because of their small size. ist. The magnitude of the bulk density change will vary
If the pore pressure is higher than the hydrostatic with the type and magnitude of the geopressure. Often,
pressure in the borehole, the hydrostatic pressure dif- the bulk density will decrease, but in other cases it may
ferential will cause the pore fluids to move toward the remain constant or continue to increase but at a lower
borehole. In an impermeable formation, the resultant rate than the previously established trend. Several
pressure gradient adjacent to the borehole wall may methods are used for measurement of shale bulk density.
become great enough to overcome the tensile strength of Pycnometer Method. By using a container with
the rock. When this occurs, the rock fails in tension and repeatable volume, this method involves measuring
cavings are formed. change of weight resulting from displacement of fluid by
All parts of the earth’s crust contain stresses that the sample. The most practical application of this
change with depth, area, lithology, history, etc. Drilling method at the wellsite is to use a mud balance.
a hole in the ground relieves some stresses other than Place enough cuttings in the cup so that the balance in-
those in the vertical plane, and the hole geometry in rela- dicates 8.34 lbm/gal (i.e., density of fresh water) with
tion to some stresses acts to concentrate them. If the the cap on. Fill the cup with water and weigh again. The
borehole wall is not supported sufficiently by the mud new reading is W2 in the following equation.
column, it may fail either (1) in compression from the
vertical stress or (2) in tension from the horizontal stress,
or both. 8.34
-Ys= 16.68-w2 , . ... .
The drilling process causes the formation of
microcracks and fractures, and these act as areas of stress
concentration and potential initial failure points. Thus it
is sometimes noticed that part of a borehole may cave where ys is the specific gravity of sample and Wz is the
copiously for a short time and then become stable. This “mud weight” of sample and water, lbmigal.
is because of the removal of the damaged zone (i.e., cav- Mercury Pump Method. The bulk volume of a known
ings) adjacent to the bore/formation interface. Formation weight of sample is measured. The bulk weight of a
is exposed that is more coherent and lacks concentrations prepared sample is first established using an accurate
of stress, thus it absorbs the extra energy without failing. chemical balance. The bulk volume of selected cuttings
Cavings produced by underbalanced drilling are is then determined using a high-pressure mercury pump
typically long, splintery, concave, and delicate (Fig. by the Kobe system (Boyle’s law principle) at a pressure
52.14a). Cavings produced by stress relief tend to be of about 24 psi, which is recorded on the attached
more blocky and can vary in size tremendously, depend- pressure gauge. Mercury is used to compress the air
ing on the formation characteristics. Examples are around the cuttings but does not contact the sample
shown in Fig. 52.14b. material.
Remember that if the cavings are clays, they may react The high accuracy of the instrument and large amount
with the mud and lose their distinctive morphology. In- of sample used (approximately 25 g = 2,000 individual
terpretations based on reactive clays should be pursued shale cuttings) give good consistency of results. Because
with caution. The quantity and nature of cavings should of the accuracy and convenience in operation, this
be regularly reported on the mud log or on a supplemen- method should be used whenever possible; however,
tary data log if pressure evaluation services are being very careful and consistent sample handling is necessary
performed. for best results.
Buoyancy Method. The sample is weighed in air and in
Shale Bulk Density. Shale density determination can be a liquid of known density. This is an alternative version
of great value since it provides information on the com- of the pycnometer method. Theoretically, it should be a
paction of the shale. Under normal conditions, shale more accurate method if an accurate laboratory balance
is used. In practice, it is most inaccurate since the densi- trap air and water and result in low apparent densities. In
ty of the liquid will vary with ambient temperature. addition, the fluids used have unpleasant odors and some
Density Comparison Methods. The simplest of these is of them may be hazardous to health. Toxicity labels
the “float-and-sink” method. Shale cuttings are im- should be checked for specific mixtures but it is a good
mersed in fluid mixtures of different densities in which general rule to use these fluids in a fume hood or with a
they will either float or sink, depending on relative den- vapor extraction system.
sities. This method is inexpensive and quick but is It is commonly observed that shale density may
limited in sensitivity because of large difference in the decrease as much as 0.5 g/cm3 or more. If this reduction
densities of available fluids (approximately 0.1 to 0.05 occurs over a significant depth interval, the calculated
g/cm3 and easy contamination of calibrated fluids. overburden gradient may reverse. The low-density zone
Density Gradient Method. This consists of a fluid col- also may change in lithologic character. Fissility,
umn in which density varies uniformly with depth. This plasticity, carbonate content, color change, and other
is prepared by the partial mixing of a light fluid differences may not be apparent. Measurements from
(neothene) and a heavy fluid (tetrabromoethane) in cuttings from water-based muds usually are too low,
which beads of known density are suspended. A calibra- simply because of the adsorption characteristics of clays.
tion curve of density vs. depth is prepared. Shale cut- Likewise, measurements taken from wireline logs can
tings immersed in the column will sink to the level at also give false indications. Specifically, the formation
which their density is the same as the fluid. Depth is density log can be affected by a rugose hole and the
recorded and density read off from the calibration curve. shallow depth of investigation may not read beyond the
Both of the heavy liquid methods (density comparison hydrated zone. The result is erroneously low readings,
and density gradients), while being quick and simple, causing excessive calculated porosities. The sonic log
have the disadvantage of determining the density of in- will be affected greatly by hydrated clays, resulting in
dividual cuttings. Special care must be taken to ensure very high transit times, high porosities, and too low
that cuttings are true bottomhole cuttings, and several densities.
determinations should be made for each interval to avoid Values may be successfully obtained from these logs
anomalous results. Six or eight cuttings should be chosen when water-based muds are used, but caution should be
that are representative and free of dust or cracks that may exercised as errors may exist, as explained earlier.
SHALE DATA PRESSURE LOG

I
Fig. 52.15-Shale data log.

MUD LOGGING 52-21
The best densities are those obtained from wells drilled

with less reactive muds, such as oil- or potash-based
fluids. Both actual cutting densities and log densities
should be accurate because the clay remains in its virgin
state.
Increases in density beyond the normal trend because
of decreased porosity or calcification should be noted
carefully since these may constitute caprocks above
geopressures. Precipitation of pyrite or high iron concen-
tration results in abnormally high bulk densities in clays
and shales. It has been proposed that in some wells the
occurrence of pyrite in shales masked the density reduc-
tion caused by porosity increase. Careful microscopic
examination of clays may indicate the occurrence of very
fine pyrite, and high iron concentration is indicated by a
red/brown color cast. Pore pressure interpretations can-
not be accomplished by using shale density if heavy
minerals are present; however, since shale density is Fig. 52.16-Shale factor response.
mainly used for qualitative purposes in geopressure
evaluation, the role of the other geopressure indicators will have an affinity for water in an amount proportional
remains unchanged. to the montmorillonite content, and this will be shown by
Any decrease in density (without change in clay a proportional value of shale factor. Note that the shale
character) may be recognized as a pressure transition factor as measured at the wellsite will not give values
zone. corresponding to actual chemical CEC. This is because
Recognition of a normal bulk density trend line may be of impurities in the sample, methodology, experimental
difficult because of degree of scatter in the rectangular error, and the fact that the methylene blue dye (used in
coordinate plot. A semilog plot considerably reduces this the titration) is a very large molecule and thus cannot be
scatter, but the normal bulk density range (approximate- adsorbed in interlayer sites.
ly 1.6 to 2.7 g/cm3) results in a more distorted trend line If the clay is calcareous, and calcimetty is also being
and difficulty in recognizing deviations (Fig. 52.15). performed, then the shale factor may be corrected for
carbonate content as given by
Shale Factor. Ion-exchange reactions take place be-
tween an adsorbent solid and a solution. Ions bound to 100
the solid surface are released into the solution and other Fstu = xFsha, ...... ..... . ..
ions from the solution become fixed at the surface. Ion 100 - Cca*
exchange can proceed by the exchange of positive ions
(cations) or negative ions (anions) but not both. The where
reactivity of a solid compound in ion exchange reactions F $ht = true shale factor, meq/lOO g,
is governed by its specific surface (surface area per unit F sha = apparent shale factor, meq/lOO g, and
volume) and by the surface density of ion exchange sites c cart, = carbonate content, %.
(points on the surface where ions may be bound). Reac-
tivity is expressed as cation or anion exchange capacity For example, a calcareous clay has a carbonate content
(CEC or AEC) using units of milliequivalents (of a of 37 % , and an apparent shale factor of 16:
suitable ion) per hundred grams (of the compound).
Various clay types have different CEC’s and conse-
100
quently different adsorption capacities. A smectite-rich Fsht = -1oo-37(16)=25 meq/lOO g.
clay will undergo diagenesis to illite with increasing
temperature and ionic exchange. For diagenesis to pro-
ceed, water must be flushed from the clays. If potassium Theoretically, shale factor should indicate whether
exchange cations are not available, a montmorillonite montmorillonite dehydration or compaction disequilibri-
clay will lose its water but will not convert to illite. um was the major mechanism in generating an apparent
Thus, if this type of clay is drilled with a water-based geopressure. Geopressures caused by compaction dis-
mud, the clay will immediately rehydrate and cause equilibrium indicate that the pressured zone is immature
severe drilling problems. with respect to shallower, normally pressured sediments.
Shale factor is a measure of clay CEC. CEC will This implies that diagenesis has been restricted by the in-
decrease as clays convert from montmorillonite-rich to efficiency of the dewarering mechanism, resulting in
illite-rich with temperature (and thus with depth). Pure clays containing a larger proportion of montmorillonite
montmorillonite clays have a CEC of approximately 100 within the geopressured zone. Shale factor would thus
meq/lOO g. Pure illites show no swelling characteristics, decrease to the top of the geopressured zone, increase
but their CEC is generally between 10 and 40 meqilO0 within the zone, and then decrease as the pore pressure
g. Kaolinites have a CEC of approximately 10 meq/lOO gradients decline (Fig. 52.16). Any overall increase in
g. Of the most common clay types, it is only the smectite shale factor within a geopressured zone indicates that
group (including montmorillonite) that has an affinity for compaction disequilibrium has played a part in its
water. Thus, any clay zone that contains montmorillonite formation.
EARTH’S SURFACE normally pressured formations may be constant, geo-

pressured formations exhibit abnormally high geo-
thermal gradients. l3
Since a constant flow of heat occurs radially from the
earth’s core to the surface, the total flow of heat across
any depth increment will be constant. However, the
temperature differential across an increment depends on
the thermal conductivity of the material. Since overall
heat flow from the earth’s surface is generally constant
within any particular area, the heat flux through the
various formations with depth is in equilibrium. The rate
of change of temperature across a formation with a low
thermal conductivity (caused mainly by high porosity)
will be high; conversely, a low geothermal gradient is in-
- HEATFLOW LINES --- EQUITEMPERATURE LlNES
dicative of high thermal conductivity formations-i.e.,
lower porosity. Water and hydrocarbon migration to
Fig. 52.17-Distortion of heat flow around an insulating
geopressured zone.
shallower depths may also affect the geothermal gra-
dient. Pore fluids, as insulators, retain heat so that on
migration these hot fluids modify the temperatures of the
formations that they pass through and ultimately become
If, however, a geopressured zone was caused by mont- trapped. Fowler14 cited examples from the Middle East,
morillonite dehydration, then upon entering the interval Canada, and U.S. oil fields of geothermal gradient
a sharp decrease in montmorillonite content will be bulges that indicated possible entrapment of hot fluids
observed. Hence the geopressured zone will contain less from greater depths. The mechanism also may be related
montmorillonite, because it has been converted to illite, to montmorillonite dehydration, because the huge
which releases to the pore spaces water that has been volume of water squeezed from the clay provides the im-
unable to escape fast enough and results in a pore petus for migration. “Dead” basins (i.e., no source
pressure increase. Shale factor thus will decrease in the rocks) have been shown to exhibit normal geothermal
pressured zone (Fig. 52.16). gradients, hence on initial exploration wells the geother-
Shale factor cannot be a geopressure indicator. The mal gradient may indicate the potential of the whole
differing responses described are not definitive, and area.
geopressure has to be indicated from other sources An insulating zone produces a distortion in the isother-
before an interpretation by use of shale factor can be mal lines that normally run perpendicular to the lines of
achieved. Geoprcssures caused by montmorillonite heat flow (Fig. 52.17; Ref. 15).
dehydration and compaction disequilibrium may cause Because of the high geothermal gradient, these are
no change in shale factor; also, if geopressures were more closely spaced in the insulating zone. In the zones
caused by another process (e.g., aquathermal pressuring above and below, the isothermal lines are more widely
that results when trapped pore fluids are heated but are spaced in compensation and the zones exhibit a reduced
unable to expand and is therefore independent of matrix geothermal gradient. The converse occurs in beds of
composition), a change may not be reflected in shale fac- high thermal conductivity (i.e., sands and some
tor with depth. limestones)
In the past, the consensus was that shale factor should Since water has a thermal conductivity of about one-
increase in geopressured zones and could thus act as an third to one-sixth that of most rock matrix materials, it
indicator. Re-evaluation of the various geopressure can be seen that thermal conductivity is directly related
mechanisms show that this is not necessarily the case. to the degree of compaction of a formation. The higher-
However, shale factor should be capable of delineating than-normal water content of geopressured shales
between compaction disequilibrium and montmorillonite reduces the thermal conductivity. Therefore, the top of a
dehydration as the major geopressure mechanism. geopressured zone is marked by a sharp increase in
geothermal gradient. The temperature of the mud at the
Flowline Temperature. The geothermal gradient, the flowline may reflect the geotemperature, and recording
rate at which subsurface temperature increases with of flowline temperature is a practical method to deter-
depth, can be calculated from mine temperature gradient, provided variable factors
such as pump rate, lag time, ambient temperature,
‘2-11 lithology, and temperature changes at the surface that are
gG= D -D (loo), . .. . ..... . . caused by mud mixing and chemical treatments can be
2 I accounted for. In areas where large annual temperature
variations occur, considerable differences may be noted
where in flowline temperatures; even diurnal temperature fluc-
gG = geothermal gradient, “C/100 m,
tuations may cause a 10°C variation in flowline
T, = temperature, “C (at depth D, , m), and temperature while drilling.
T2 = temperature, “C (at depth D2, m). Prior to reaching a geopressured zone, a temperature
transition zone will be encountered in which, because of
For any given area, the geothermal gradient is usually distortion of the isothermal lines, there will be a reduc-
assumed constant. While the average gradient across tion in geothermal gradient. In practice, this effect is
MUD LOGGING 52-23
TEMPERATURE DATA LOG I
Fig. 52.18-Flowline temperature log.
reflected in the flowline temperature gradient, even to rate of re-establishment of equilibrium include total mud
the extent of a fall in flowline temperature (i.e., a volume. The practice of reducing active pit volume to a
negative gradient), followed by an extremely large in- minimum, dictated by hole size, aids in reducing the
crease in flowline temperature as the geopressured zone time required to attain equilibrium after tripping and
is penetrated (Fig. 52.18). reduces the circulation time needed to stabilize flowline
A dual temperature probe system with sensors at the temperature. A discontinuity in the plot also occurs at
flowline and suction pit is effective in removing surface each casing depth and corresponds to a change in hole
effect, if lagged differential temperature is plotted. It is size. A higher annular velocity in open hole reduces the
normally sufficient for the points to be plotted at 30-e in- amount of heat gained from exposed formations, and a
tervals unless more frequent temperature variation is lower annular velocity in the marine riser increases the
noticed, but points plotted at 104 intervals allow more amount of heat lost to the sea. However, these factors
accurate data and better resolution for improved inter- only lead to a change in measured temperature; the rate
pretation. Circulations, mud additions, water additions, of change of temperature should remain unchanged.
and other significant events should be noted. Since pressure predictions can be based on temperature
It is found that the resultant temperature curve is gradient rather than on temperature magnitude, each
broken when the bit is changed, or during short trips or depth segment between discontinuities can be analyzed
other downtime, and a certain time is necessary for the separately for gradient trends. It is also helpful to replot a
mud system to re-establish a temperature equilibrium smoothed curve of segments end to end without regard
upon circulation. The rate at which this thermal for absolute temperature values. In certain cases it has
equilibrium is re-established may be significant. as a been found that, instead of plotting the individual
more rapid re-establishment may indicate an increased segments as an end-to-end smoothed curve, end-to-end
geothermal gradient. Drilling variables that affect the plotting of the individual segment trend lines may be of
removing the need to derive empirical matrix strength

constants, but making d-exponent lithology-specific as
in
d=
where
d = drilling exponent (dimensionless),
R = ROP, ft/hr,
N = rotary speed, rev/min,
W = WOB, lbm, and
db = bit diameter, in.
IIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE RATE OF PENETR*T,ON

In a constant lithology, d-exponent will increase as the
0°C
,CROSS BOTTOM (PSI) (CONSTANT N.W.0.EC0)
depth, compaction, and differential pressure across bot-
tom increase. Upon penetration of a geopressured zone,
Fig. 52.19~-Response of drilling rate to geopressure.
compaction and differential pressure will decrease and
be reflected by a decrease in d-exponent (Fig. 52.19).
Differential pressure is dependent on mud density as
value. This trend-to-trend smoothed curve is merely a
well as formation pore pressure. Therefore, any change
graphical method of removing irrelevant scatter from the in the mud density used promotes an unwanted change in
plot. d-exponent.
The reduction in temperature gradient caused by Rehm and McClendon” proposed a “mud weight
distortion of isothermal lines may be noticed before the corrected” drilling exponent of the form
geopressured zone is encountered; that is, an advance
warning of geopressure may be given. Thus a fall in
flowline temperature gradient followed by a sharp rise
when the geopressure transition zone is drilled provides a
warning that even closer attention must be paid to other
dxc
=
drilling parameters to achieve confirmation of possible
geopressures. However, like other methods of pressure
evaluation, flowline temperature reflects a varying where
physical parameter in an assumed constant rock type; d,, = corrected d-exponent (dimensionless),
therefore, changes in lithology must be closely
R = ROP, ftlhr,
monitored to avoid false indications.
N = rotary speed, revimin,
Drilling Models. Bingham I6 proposed that the relation- dh = bit diameter, in.,
ship between ROP, weight on bit (WOB), rotary speed, g+, = normal formation balance gradient, lbm/gal,
and bit diameter may be expressed in the general form Pet = effective circulating density, lbm/gal, and
W = WOB, 1,000 lbm,
R
-= ,....................... (9)
or in the metric form
N
where . . (12)
R = ROP, ft/min,
N = rotary speed, rev/min,
db = bit diameter, ft,
W = WOB, lbm, with R in m/hr, N in rpm, Win tonnes (1,000 kg), db in
Kn = matrix strength constant (dimensionless), cm, and g,p and ,oec in gicm3.
and This correction was empirically derived but has been
d = formation “drillability” exponent applied worldwide with much success. The use of actual
(dimensionless). mud density in place of effective circulating density
(ECD) has been found to be acceptable within normal
limits of accuracy. ECD should, however, be used when
Jorden and Shirley ” solved Eq. 9 ford, inserted con- available.
stants to allow common oilfield units to be used and to Factors not considered by d-exponent in its basic form
produce values of d-exponent in a convenient workable are drilling hydraulics, tooth efficiency, and matrix
range. Most important, however, they let KD be unity, strength.
MUD LOGGING 52-25
I J
SEMlLOG SCALE
0°C
Fig. 52.20-Example of formation pore pressure gradients for

d, plot.
Drilling hydraulics become important in large holes

where efficient hole cleaning is impossible and in soft
formation where jetting will make a large contribution to
drilling.
Matrix strength controls both magnitude and rate of
Fig. 52.21-Logging unit systems.
change of d-exponent with depth.
Tooth efficiency can affect d-exponent in two ways:
(1) tooth wear will cause a gradual increase in d-
exponent (i.e., decrease in ROP), and (2) a change of bit where
type may produce a change in d-exponent, especially if = actual pore pressure at depth of interest,
PPa
the change is a radical one (e.g., from milled-tooth bit to psi, or formation balance gradient,
an insert or diamond bit). lbmlgal equivalent mud density (EMD),
If differential pressure becomes large, the simple ratio
= normal pore pressure, psi, or formation
correction to the d-exponent will not eradicate the effect PPn
on ROP. balance gradient, lbmlgal (EMD),

Furthermore, the relationships among force applied, dxc-0
= observed corrected d-exponent at depth of
Wldb,rotary speed, N, differential pressure, g,,~,/p~(., interest, and
and ROP, R,are more complex than the d-exponent for- dx-n= expected corrected d-exponent on normal
mulation would imply. While working well within cer- trend line at depth of interest.
tain normal working ranges, radical changes in any of
these parameters (for example, change in hole size after Using this relationship, it is possible to calculate pore
setting casing) may result in a shift in d-exponent trend. pressure or formation balance gradient (equivalent mud
When plotted on a logarithmic scale against depth, the density to balance pore pressure) from d-exponent.
d-exponent will exhibit an approximately linear increas- Alternatively, the relationship may be used to prepare an
ing trend through “normal,” hydrostatically pressured overlay allowing direct reading of formation balance gra-
formations. Where geopressure, abnormally high forma- dient from the d-exponent plot (Fig. 52.20).
tion fluid pressure is encountered, d-exponent values Drilling exponents may be calculated from driller’s
will fall consistently below the extrapolation of this nor- data using a simple calculator and manual plotting and
mal trend. It has been shown empirically that d-exponent trend recognition. However, quality of the data is greatly
deviation may be related to formation pore pressure improved when a data-acquisition system provides
anomaly by the simple ratio WOB, rotary speed, and mud density directly to the log-
ging unit and a minicomputer is used to read these sen-
---
Ppa - dxcn ) . . . .. . .. .(13) sors automatically, to perform the calculations, and to
Ppn d.xco print or plot the results. Computer-equipped mud log-
it :, :::::t::::i::::l::1:i:Xt
Fig. 52.22-Formation pressure log.
ging units were introduced to provide pressure evalua- value in remote locations where logistics or distance pre-
tion services in areas of known geopressured problems vent rapid transport of samples to an analytical
(e.g., offshore U.S. gulf coast) and high-risk, hazardous laboratory.
exploration areas (e.g., the North Sea). Fig. 52.21
shows the available equipment configurations of a
Core Analysis. In addition to gas and fluid analysis,
computerized logging unit. In addition to pore pressure,
conventional core analyses I9 (porosity, bulk density,
this type of unit commonly provides a pressure log in-
permeability, and saturations) also may be performed in
cluding supplementary calculations of fracture pressure, the logging unit when the drilling operation is remote
overburden pressure, and kick tolerance (Fig. 52.22). from the laboratory. Wellsite core analysis offers the ad-
vantages of rapid evaluation and high-quality samples
Petrophysical Measurements
from fresh core but is rarely of the high quality to be ex-
Mud Log Data. As discussed previously, mud log data pected from the specialized equipment and personnel in a
are qualitative in nature. It is not possible with conven- core laboratory. A new technique, which is suitable to
tional mud log measurements to obtain quantitative the logging unit, uses a pulsed nuclear magnetic
values of such parameters as porosity, permeability, resonance analyzer to determine fluid content, total and
hydrocarbon saturations, etc. However, the mud logging free-fluid porosity, and permeability. This device, work-
unit may provide special equipment or services, allowing ing on a principle analogous to the nuclear magnetic log-
more quantitative evaluations. ging tool (NML), provides accurate, repeatable data
For example, while a mud log gas analysis cannot be from minimal quantities of sample and without complex
truly representative of gas production composition, gas sample preparation. Samples may be obtained without
analysis of recovered fluids from a well test can be. Us- causing core or sidewall core destruction and the test
ing conventional gas analyzers and chromatograph, a may be performed on cuttings.
quantitative analysis of recovered natural gas may be ob-
tained. For more complex fluids, special chromato-
graphs, pyrolyzers, or analyzers can give complete Drilling Porosity
analysis of oils or sour gas. The logging unit also may The d-exponent (Fig. 52.20) develops a consistent trend
provide ionic analysis of recovered waters and, by use of with depth controlled by increasing overburden loading
tritium ( 3H) or nitrate (NO3) tracers, provide and compaction. Changes in formation pore pressure
discrimination between recovery of mud filtrate and true gradient will result in major, consistent deviations from
formation water. These types of service can be of special this trend. The d-exponent data also will exhibit minor,
MUD LOGGING 52-27
1~~~
POROSITY PERMEABILITY ROCK PROPERTIE FORMATION PSEUD( )-SON1
DENSITY
[MILLIDARCIES] I
Fig. 52.23-Drilling porosity log.
inconsistent scatter about the prevailing trend, reflecting Drilling Engineering Services
continuous variation in rock mineralogy, cohesion, and The mud logging unit can provide two levels of service
porosity. of value to the drilling engineer-data acquisition and
More sophisticated, second-generation drilling ex- data analysis.
ponents are able to isolate the major pore pressure and
minor rock character variations. With this type of Data Acquisition
analysis it is possible to provide a continuous log of pore An automatic data acquisition system located in the log-
pressure and “drilling porosity.” It is important to ging unit will monitor sensors installed on equipment,
remember that drilling porosity, although scaled in flowline, mud pits, pumps, etc. Simple calculations are
percentage units, is not a true porosity measurement. It is performed on the data (e.g., calculation of total depth
primarily a rock strength indicator, reflecting both and ROP, summation of pit volumes, comparison of cur-
porosity and intergrain cohesion. As such, its response is rent values with high- and low-alarm setpoints). Results
very similar to that of the sonic log, and the two logs cor- then are displayed on TV monitors at various locations
relate extremely well (Fig. 52.23). around the rig and may be recorded on a printer or
Unlike the d-exponent, the second generation drilling magnetic tape. By use of a dedicated land line or satellite
exponents require complex manipulations and iterations, link, data can be transmitted to a remote location, allow-
limiting their use to logging units equipped with a coming several rigs to be monitored from a single central
puter. Also, unlike the d-exponent, they do not involve a control room.
widely published and used single method. Although This type of equipment was introduced by mud log-
based on similar drilling response models, all mud logging service companies as a means of obtaining drilling
ging contractors offer drilling porosity logs involving and mud data more reliably and rapidly than could be ex-
their own unique mathematical methods that are com- pected from standard rig instrumentation. While these
monly held as proprietary secrets. While understandable data were required initially for pressure evaluation
from a commercial view, this policy places the user in analyses, the data acquisition system provided an impor-
the position of being able to judge the value and reliabili- tant secondary function as a rig monitoring service by
ty of a particular log only on the bases of his or her own supplying the drilling engineer accurate, up-to-date drill-
experience and limited published results. It is hoped that, ing information while away from the rig floor and a com-
with the maturation of this type of service, wider plete foot-by-foot record of drilling progress and perfor-
publication and discussion of methods will begin. mance on paper or magnetic tape.
Since that time. several conventional rig instrumenta- Selecting a Mud Logging Service
tion manufacturers have upgraded their product lines to Mud logging contractors commonly offer three levels of
include similar data acquisition systems that operate in standard service: (1) standard mud logging; (2) mud log-
an unmanned, or “stand-alone,” mode. While this of- ging and data acquisition, and (3) mud logging and data
fers the operator the advantage of flexibility in selecting analysis (including pressure evaluation). For the most
services (i.e., the mud logging service best suited to the basic level of mud logging, a single operator may tje
geologist and the data acquisition service best suited to responsible for 24-hour operation. More sophisticated
the engineer), it does have drawbacks. services and data acquisition usually require two
Reliability of a data acquisition system is primarily geologists working 12-hour tours. Data analysis services
controlled by the operation of its sensors. In the rigorous require two people, a geologist and an engineer. on each
environment of the rig this requires regular attention. tour.
The success of a stand-alone data acquisition system is Each of these services may be augmented with extra
related entirely to the training and motivation of the rig equipment such as sensors, special gas detectors,
crew or the availability of manufacturer’s service pyroanalyzers, more powerful computers or peripherals
personnel. and specialist personnel at extra day rate as the drilling
The mud logging unit is manned at all times. Trained program demands. 2,10
personnel are available at all times to calibrate, maintain, At least two mud logging contractors now offer an ad-
and service the data acquisition system and its sensors. ditional, fourth level of service in which mud logging
Since these personnel are already at the wellsite as part and data analysis are combined with an MWD service.
of the mud logging service, this extra margin of reliabili- Very little of the information gathered by a mud log-
ty is achieved without extra cost beyond the similar cost ging unit is not obtainable from some other source. For
of the data acquisition hardware. example, stand-alone instrumentation can monitor gas,
mud, and drilling parameters; rig crews can catch
samples; porosity is available from wireline logs; and oil
Data Analysis company geologists and engineers may perform
Beyond simple data acquisition, the mud logging service geological evaluation and drilling data analysis. Why
also may supply computers, software, and specialized then is mud logging such a widely used service?
wellsite personnel for drilling data analysis. The The advantage of mud logging service is that all these
desirability of such services depends on the difficulty data may be derived from a single source, the mud log-
and cost of the drilling operation, availability of oil com- ging unit, located at the wellsite and continuously
pany expertise at the wellsite, and quality of communica- manned with dedicated, specially trained personnel.
tion with the exploration headquarters. Therefore the data are obtained more reliably, more
For example, infill drilling in an established domestic quickly, and usually more economically than from any
field using a well-developed drilling program, ex- other combination of sources.
perienced wellsite supervisors, and close communication Reliability and speed therefore are the tests required in
with home office requires data acquisition only as a selecting a mud logging contractor. The equipment must
means of monitoring optimal and safe adherence to the be designed and maintained adequately to provide
drilling program. On the other hand, on an offshore reliable and safe operation in the rigorous wellsite en-
wildcat, the availability of data analysis and expertise at vironment. The wellsite crew must be trained to operate,
the wellsite can be very cost effective. *O An increase in maintain, and troubleshoot the equipment and to under-
drilling efficiency or a decrease in downtime sufficient to stand its output. The contractor must maintain adequate
save a single day of rig time can, in these circumstances, service personnel and inventory to allow rapid repair or
produce sufficient savings to pay for data analysis ser- changeout in the event of major malfunctions. The log-
vices for the whole well. ging crew must be trained in geological and engineering
Data analysis services offered include: (1) bit op- theory, be experienced in practical drilling operations,
timization-selection of bit type and operating and have a thorough knowledge of the geological sec-
parameters to optimize bit ROP and bit life; (2) bit tion, drilling program, and operational procedures of the
economics-cost per unit depth and breakeven calcula- particular well and operator.
tion between bit types; (3) drilling hydraulics2’ -op- Once a contractor is selected, economy becomes the
timization of drillstring, nozzle, and annulus hydraulics; prime consideration in choosing a level of service. In
(4) directional analysis-determination of well path, bot- day-rate drilling, time and money may be directly
tomhole position, and intersection points for deviated equated. Any service that speeds well progress, reduces
wells; (5) trip monitoring-calculation of string weights, downtime, or promotes decision-making is potentially a
swab pressures and fillup requirements for tripping, cost saver. Even on footage drilling, personnel, com-
monitoring of pit level deviations, and overpull (fric- munications, etc., are cost-generating factors which may
tional drag in the borehole); (6) casing calcula- be reduced by improved drilling efficiency. On rank
tions-assembly of casing tally, calculation of cement wildcat exploration wells, the “bird in the hand”
volumes and mixing requirements, and monitoring of philosophy may be desirable to obtain data at the earliest
displacement; (7) pressure control-calculation of mud possible time as a hedge against the risk of it being
weight, volume and pressure requirements for safe well unavailable later. For example, to obtain porosity
control lo; and (8) logistics-usage and inventory control measurements from the mud logging unit while drilling
of well expandables, equipment maintenance schedul- is an investment against later borehole loss or damage
ing, well progress data base, and report generation. that may prevent later wireline logging.
MUD LOGGING 52-29
Quantification of cost saving is possible by using the For cost effectiveness (i.e., for the additional service
same methods used to calculate drilling cost per foot. In to save its own cost or more), overall well cost must be
its simplest form this is unchanged or reduced. Thus,
Cbe + Crr/
A(cdXD,)=(cd XD,)‘-(cd XD,)Io, . (18)
Cd= D, ) . ... . . (14)
A(CdXD,)= -Acml -[E(c,,), xAt,,l
where
Cd = drilling cost, $/m, +AC,, x[C(t,), -At,,], .... (19)
C, = rig cost, $/D,
Cbp = cost of bits and expendables, $,
11 = time on location, days,
D, = total well depth, m. AC,, I
AC,, + [~(c,,>, +Af,, 1
(20)
[E(t,), -At,,] ’ . ’’’’
For optimization of services and products this can be ex-
panded to the form If this is evaluated as true, that the day rate for the ex-
tra equipment is in fact less than the evaluated expres-
Cd=[(CFI +CF2 +. ~CFn)+(Cdrl +CdR.. .cdrn) sion, then the service is cost effective on the particular
well. In this case, substituting some reasonable figures
X(t,+tt+t,+t,+td)];D, . . . . . . . . .(15) such as:
and Onshore Offshore

ACFbl = $l,ooo ACF~I = $1,000
z(cdr) n = $6,000/D E(c&)n = $19,OlWD
CdxD,=C(CF),,
+C(C,,),
xc(t),,.. I.....
(16) Ar,l = 12 hours=0.5 day Atrj = 12 houn=O.S day
C(AZ[)~ = 30 days E(Afl), = 35 days
where
CF = individual fixed cost items or footage we obtain for onshore:
charges services, $,
Cdr = individual day rate services, rentals, 1,000+(6,000)(0.5)
AC,, I
salaries, etc., $, (30 -0.5)
t, = rotating time, days,
t, = tripping time, days, =$135.59/D.
to = off-bottom time (reaming, conditioning,
well control, etc.), days,
The extra equipment will result in an overall cost sav-
t, = evaluation time (logging, testing, coring,
etc.), days, and ing on the well so long as it does not increase the mud
logging daily rate by more than $135/D.
td = downtime (breakdowns, weather, decision
We obtain for offshore:
making, etc.), days.
Using this formulation, it is possible to calculate the 1,000+(19,000)(0.5)

decrease in one cost category required to offset an in- AC,, 5
(35 -0.5)
crease in any other.
=$304.35/D.
For example, consider the use of drilling optimization.
Let us assume, conservatively, that regional statistics in-
dicate that by upgrading a mud logging unit to include Using these same figures, let us now assume that, in
data acquisition equipment no overall ROP improvement addition to saving one bit, an overall decrease of 5% in
is obtained but that a well can be completed using one drilling time is also achieved. If I, =21 days, saving in
less bit. Well cost as a result of this is given by rotating time=21 ~5% = 1.05 days, then for onshore:
Ac I 1,000+[6,000 (0.5+1.05)]
(cd xD,)‘=[C(c~)n -AcFbll
XT
(30-0.5-1.05)
+WC,,), +Ac,,l[W,), --Art, I, . (17) =$362.04/D.
where
For offshore:
ACFbl = cost of one bit saved, dollars,
AC,, = extra cost of mud logging, dollars/D,
1,000+[19,000 (0.5+1.05)]
(f,),? = total time on location, days AC,, =
At,, = time for one trip saved, day, and (35-0.5-1.05)
(Cd xD,)’ = well cost. dollars, =$910.31/D.
These cost justifications, or cost savings, refer only to gc = geothermal gradient, “C/100 m
the extra cost of data acquisition above that of standard gq% = normal formation balance gradient,
mud logging and include only those benefits resulting lbm/gal
from drilling optimization. Other cost savings resulting KD = matrix strength constant (dimensionless)
from better rig and mud monitoring and well control may N= rotary-speed, rev/min
also be quantifiable from a study of regional drilling actual pore pressure at depth of interest,
Ppu =
statistics. psi, or formation balance gradient,
A cost benefit analysis of this type is a worthwhile ap-
lbm/gal equivalent mud density
proach to all aspects of drilling cost reduction. Cost sav-
ing resulting from advanced evaluation and monitoring @MD)
commonly is appreciated in expensive offshore explora- P/m = normal pore pressure, psi, or formation
tion. As the above examples show, such techniques may balance gradient, lbm/gal (EMD)
be equally successful in comparatively cheaper onshore 4n = “normal” mud flow rate (m3/s)
development drilling, especially where problems such as qoB = observed mud flow rate (m3/s)
geopressure or crooked holes occur. q/J= pump output, m3/s)
R= ROP, ft/min
Standards For and Status of Services R, = “normal” ROP (m/s)
The terms “mud logging” covers a diverse range of ser- R OS =
observed ROP (m/s)
vices and qualities of service. It is regrettable that, in the td = downtime (breakdowns, weather, deci-
U.S. especially, the whole industry is accorded a status sion making, etc.), days
reflecting its lowest level. Field employees of the higher t, = evaluation time (logging, testing, corm
quality and more reputable contractors commonly ing, etc.), days
eschew the term “mud logger,” preferring the title fl = lag time, seconds
“logging geologist” or “logging engineer,” depending total time on location, days
Ol), =
on their educational background. The wide range of I, = off-bottom time (reaming, conditioning,
equipment and techniques used by such companies com-
well control, etc.), days
monly results in their personnel being the best educated
t, = rotating time, days
and trained service personnel present on any wellsite.
In 1980, the Sot. of Professional Well Log Analysts t, = tripping time, days
(SPWLA) established a Hydrocarbon Well Log Stan- v = annular volume, m 3/m
dards Committee comprising members of both the ser- ;; =
hole capacity, m3/m
vice company and exploration company sides of the VP = pipe capacity and displacement, m3/m
field. The efforts of the committee have done much varl =
annular velocity, m/s
toward establishing standards and status representative w= WOB, Ibm
of the best of the industy. 22,23 I express my gratitude to (CdXD,)’ = well cost, dollars
this committee and its members for these efforts and for AC Fbl = cost of one bit saved, dollars
assistance in the development of this chapter. AC,, = extra cost of mud logging, dollars/D
At,, = time for one trip saved, day
Nomenclature Per = effective circulating density, Ibm/gal
= cost of bits and expendables, dollars
Cbr
References
C carh = carbonate content, %
1. “Field Geologists Training Guide.” Exploration Logging Inc.,
Cd = drilling cost, dollars/m Sacramento, CA (Jan. 1979).
C dr = individual day rate services, rentals, 2. “Mud Logging: Principles and Interpretation,” Exploration Log-
salaries, etc., dollars ging Inc., Sacramento, CA (Aug. 1979).
3. “Formation Evaluation-Part I: Geological Procedures.” Ex-
Cf = individual fixed cost items or footage ploration Logging Inc., Sacramento, CA (Feb. 1981).
charges services, dollars 4. Hopkins, EA.: -“ Factors Affecting Cuttings Removal During
C, = rig cost, dollars/D Rotary Drilling,” .I. Pet. Tech. (June 1967) 807-14; Trans..
AIME, 240.
d = formation “drillability” exponent 5. Sifferman, T.R. et al.: “Drill Cuttmg Transport m Full Scale Ver-
(dimensionless) tical Annuli,” J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1974) 1295-1302.
db = bit diameter, ft or in. 6. Low, J.W.: “Examination of Well Cuttings,” Quarterly cjj r/w
Colorado School ofMines (1951) 46, No. 4. l-48.
d, = “normal” bit diameter (m) 7. Maher, J.C.: Guide book V/I/: Lqging Drill Curtings, Oklahoma
d0~ = observed bit diameter (m) Geological Survey, Norman (1959).
d,,. = corrected d-exponent (dimensionless) 8. McNeil, R.P.: “Lithologic Analysis of Sedimentary Rocks.”
Eu[(., AAPG (April 1959) 43, No. 4, 854-79.
d,,.,,= expected corrected d-exponent on nor- 9. Clementr, D.M., Demaison, G.J., and Daly, A.R.: “Wellsite
mal trend line at depth of interest Geochemistry by Programmed Pyrolysis.” paper OTC 3410
d,,, = observed corrected d-exponent at depth presented at the 1979 Offshore Technology &if&-ence. Houston,
April 30-May 3.
of interest 10. “Theory and Evaluation of Formation Pressures: The Pressure
Fh = apparent shale factor, meq/lOO g Log Reference Manual.” Exploration Logging Inc., Sacramento,
F h = true shale factor, meq/lOO g CA (Sept. 1981).
I I. Hottman, C.E. and Johnson, R.K.: “Estimation of Formation
G P” = normalized total gas (%) Pressures from Log-Derived Shale Properties,” .I. Per. Tech.
G poB = observed total gas (R) (June 1965) 717-22: Trans.. AIME. 234.
MUD LOGGING 52-31
12. Goldsmith. R.G.: “Why Gas-Cut Mud is Not Always a Serums 19. Anderson, G.: Corin,q und Core AnaI~~sisHundbook. Petroleum
Problem,” Work! Oil (Oct. 1972) 175, No. 5, 51-54, 101. Publishing Co., Tulsa (1975).
13. Dawdle, W.L. and Cobb, W.M.: “Statrc Formation Temperature 20. Bellottt, P. and Giacca, D.: “Pressure Evaluation Improves Drill-
From Well Logs,” J. Per. Tech. (Nov. 1975) 1326-30. ing Programs,” Oil and Gus J. (Sept. 11, 1978) 76-85.
14. Fowler. P.T.: “Telling Live Basms from Dead Ones by 21. “Drilling Hydraulics Manual,” Exploration Loggmg Inc.,
Temperature,” World Oil (May 1980) 190, No. 6, 107-22. Sacramento, CA (July 1983) 8. l-8; 9, l-10; 10, 1-7: D, l-4.
15. Lewis, C.R. and Rose, S.C.: “A Theory Relating High 22. “SPWLA Standard No. 1: Standard Hydrocarbon Well Log
Temnerature and Ovemressures.” J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1970) Form.” SPWLA. Houston (June 1981).
ll-lb. 23. “SPWLA Standard No. 2: Hydrocarbon Well Log Calibration
16. Bineham. M.G.: A New Amroach to lnfemretinn Rock Dnllabiii- Standards,” SPWLA, Houston (June 1981).
ry, Fetroieum Publishing i3b., Tulsa (1965). ”
17. J&en, J.R. and Shirley, O.J.: “Applicatmn of Drillmg Perfor-
mance Data to Overpressure Detection,” J. Per. Tech. (Nov. General Reference
1966) 1387-94.
18. Rehm. B. and McClendon, R.: “Measurement of Formation Jorden, J.R. and Campbell, F.L.: Well Log,& I-Rock Prupenies,
Pressure From Drilling Data,” Dn’llin~, Reprint Series, SPE. Borehole Environmenf, Mud and Temperarure Logging. Monograph
Dallas (1973) 6a, 49-60. Series, SPE, Dallas (1984) 9.
Chapter 53
Other Well Logs
Richard M. Bateman, vizibg IK. *
Introduction
Many well logs generally are not classified as electrical, WOB, borehole pressure, borehole temperature, tool
nuclear, or acoustic logs. The most important of these face angle, natural formation gamma ray activity, forma-
are discussed in this chapter. Included as miscellaneous tion acoustic travel time, formation resistivity, hole
well logs are: (1) measurements taken while drilling deviation from vertical, and hole azimuth with respect to
(MWD), (2) directional surveys, (3) dipmeter logs, (4) geographic coordinates. The sensors and the telemetry
caliper logs, and (5) casing inspection logs. All of these system can be activated by a surface power source, a
are used by the petroleum engineer on occasions. The downhole turbine, or downhole batteries. In the case of a
logs are discussed in the order listed, which was selected surface power source it is necessary to make electrical
for convenience only and is unrelated to the importance connections between the surface and the downhole sen-
of the logs. sors, which, in turn, requires either special drillpipe or
an electric cable. With a downhole turbine the cir-
culating mud itself drives an electric generator located in
MWD plays an increasingly important role in modem the MWD drill collar. This, in turn, leads to an increase
drilling practices. It allows an operator almost immediate in the hydraulic horsepower required of the mud pumps
feedback on both the geometry of the hole being drilled to maintain circulation. In the case of batteries no special
and the characteristics of the formations penetrated. cabling or additional mud pumping is required, but the
Without MWD this kind of information is available only MWD system is limited by the life of the batteries used.
from conventional sources such as deviation surveys and Once they are discharged no fmther measurements can
logs that, a priori, must be run after the drilling has taken be made and the MWD sub must be retrieved and re-
place. Of particular benefit, MWD can be applied when dressed with fresh batteries.
drilling directional wells and/or when overpressured for- The telemetry system most commonly used is that of
mations are of concern. coded mud pressure pulses. The output from a specific
By having the kind of information MWD can supply sensor is converted from analog to a digital form and en-
more or less in real time, the driller may take appropriate coded as a series of pressure pulses, which are detected
action, such as changing the weight on bit (WOB), in- and decoded at the surface. The pressure pulses may be
creasing the mud weight, or pulling out of the hole for a in the form of overpressure or underpressure anomalies
conventional logging run once the desired formation has introduced, respectively, by either a relief valve “short-
been reached. ing” the mud circulation or a check valve “choking” it.
Many different MWD measuring systems are in com- However, coded mud pressure pulses are not the only
mercial use today. However, they all have common means available for telemetry. Other methods, either in
characteristics: (1) a downhole sensor sub, (2) a power use or under experimentation, include: (1) elec-
source, (3) a telemetry system, and (4) surface equip- tromagnetic e-mode (electric current) or h-mode
ment. The downhole sensor subs may contain instrumen- (magnetic field); (2) acoustic telemetry through drillpipe
tation capable of measuring parameters such as torque, and/or tubing in straight hole, or through the earth by
seismic waves; (3) hardwire systems; (4) systems with
*Aulhor of the OrIginal chap!er on this topic. enblled “Miscellaneous Well Logs.” I” self-energizing repeaters; and (5) hybrid systems that
the 1962 edilion was A.J. Pearson
combine various transmission methods. ’
The surface equipment consists of a decoder of the

mud pulses (or other parameter, depending on the
telemetry system in use) together with signal processing
hardware and software that together produce the data that
- Mud Flow
the drilling engineer needs. Output may be in the form of
a visual display, either on the rig floor or at a remote site,
or as a hard copy listing, or log, of the parameters
recorded. Data also may be recorded on magnetic tape
for future use.
- Transmitter In most systems, the transmission of data to the sur-
face is selective. For example, a measurement of hole
deviation and azimuth may require that the drilling proc-
._ Generator
ess be suspended temporarily and the drillstring held mo-
tionless for a short period. Readings then are ac-
cumulated in a “buffer’ ’and only transmitted to the sur-
- Turbine face when mud circulation recommences.
Fig. 53.1 illustrates an MWD downhole assembly
with its mud pulse transmitter, turbine generator, and
.- Electrical Cable sensor sub.
Fig. 53.2 shows a data transmission schematic for
MWD. Typically, each measurement or “word” is
transmitted as part of a data frame, which in turn consists
of a synchronization word and 15 measurement words.
Some measurements are transmitted more than once in
each frame. Current telemetry systems are capable of
.- Sensor Package transmitting a complete frame in a matter of 1 or 2
minutes. The actual sampling rate in terms of
measurements per unit of depth is inversely proportional
to the rate of penetration (unit of depth/ unit of time). *
- Drill Collar Fig. 53.3 shows a complete MWD logging system
schematic and integrates surface and downhole sensors,
the telemetry system, the surface hardware and software
(for computer processing of the data), and the final prod-
uct in the form of a log. 3
Fig. 53.4 shows an MWD log on which is displayed
gamma-ray, short normal resistivity, annular tempera-
Fig.53.1-Typical MWD downhole assembly. ture, downhole WOB, surface WOB, and computed
directional data (drift and azimuth).
M
”
L
r
,
P
L
E
x
E
R
Fig. 53.2-MWD data transmissionschematic.

OTHER WELL LOGS 53-3
Fig. 53.3-MWD logging system schematic
Fig. 53.5 shows a comparison between an MWD- recorded at given depth or time intervals. These single-
generated computed directional survey and a multishot shot records are accumulated and used to plot the hole
run in the same well. Table 53.1 illustrates a directional path. Multishot surveys are the result of several shots run
survey listing corresponding to the plan view shown in at given depth intervals after the hole has been drilled.
Fig. 53.5. Continuous surveys are run after a portion of the hole has
been drilled. These are recorded continuously over the
Directional Surveys selected interval. Although continuous, multishot, and
Directional surveys4T5 are used to determine the location single-shot instruments are all different, there is another
of the hole path with respect to the surface location. This classification of instruments that must be considered
information is used (1) to prove legally that the bot- when choosing a survey.
tomhole location is under the correct surface property, Surveys run inside metal casing cannot use the
(2) to ascertain the bottomhole location in purposely magnetic compass for hole direction. Gyroscopes nor-
deviated wells, (3) to determine the radius of curvature mally are used whenever a survey is needed inside cas-
of the hole as it affects the ability to run casing or tools, ing. These gyroscopes must be aligned on the surface
and (4) to differentiate between measured depth and true before proceeding with the survey. They also should
vertical depth (TVD) when using formation elevations have their alignment verified as part of the after-survey
for structural mapping. checks.
The openhole directional surveys normally use
magnetic compass orientation to fix the hole direction.
Available Tools This requires the input of the deviation between
The two basic types of directional surveys are continuous magnetic and true north. All devices use a pendulum
surveys and station surveys. The station surveys can be system for determining the angle of hole deviation.
either single shot or multishot. Single or multi refers to All continuous dipmeter surveys measure data that can
the number of stations recorded. Single shot surveys nor- yield a directional survey. This directional survey is
mally are recorded during the drilling operation and are available either as part of the dipmeter or as a separate
Fig. 53.4-An MWDrotary drilling log.
survey over portions of the hole where formation dips are method of calculating station-type surveys, (4) profes-
not desired. At present, this instrument does not work in sional qualifications of person supervising or certifying
a cased hole, so the survey must be tied in to known the results, and (5) documentation, presentation, and
coordinates at the bottom of the casing. distribution of results. These criteria must be considered
Any device that uses a magnetic compass to fix direc- when choosing a service company and a type of survey.
tion will be affected by metal in or near the borehole.
This effect must be considered when a survey is run in an Computation of Results
open hole that has been whipstocked past abandoned Directional surveys are available in any area where
drillpipe or may be near a cased wellbore. directional drilling is done or where dtpmeters are
Fig. 53.6 illustrates a gyroscopic survey tool incor- available. The field log may be a series of station
porating an accelerometer. readings or a continuous curve showing hole direction
and deviation. The computed results will include a well
Legal Requirements plat that shows the vertical projection of the wellbore.
Each state has a separate definition of what constitutes a Additional plots may show wellbore projections on a
“legal” directional survey. These definitions may in- vertical plane passing through the surface location. A
clude specifications such as (I) length of downhole sen- tabulated listing will show the wellbore coordinates and
sor, (2) whether or not such assembly is centered, (3) deviation angle,
NORT”
-100 100 300 500 700 900 I100 1300 IS00 1700
1500 I
T I I j
I
,
1900
I /
SOjIO LINE 1 opo ORTR rFpO?l YSl? FTI
bR$HEO LXNE I
1100 1
900
e
:3
100
6
‘ij
5
so0
j
300
100
-100
-300
Fig. 53.5-Comparison of MWD directional

with multishotdirectional
Methods of Calculation. There are many methods of 3. Angle Averaging Method. This method uses a sim-
calculating directional surveys. 6 Most companies use ple mathematical average of the inclination and azimuth
one of the following five basic methods. angles at the top and bottom of the course length to com-
1. Tangential Method. This method uses the inclina- pute the survey using the tangential method. This is more
tion and azimuth angles at the bottom of each course accurate than the tangential method but still simple
length (distance between readings or stations). This is
enough for hand calculations in the field. Course length
usually the most common and least accurate method.
should be kept as short as feasible.
The error introduced increases with the inclination angle
4. Radius of Curvature Method. This method uses the
and the course length. This method is not recommended.
2. Balanced Tangential Method. This method uses inclination and azimuth angles at the top and bottom of
the inclination and azimuth angles at both the top and the course length to generate a space curve representing
bottom of each course length to tangentially balance the the curve path. This space curve passes through the
two sets of measurements over the course length. This measured angles at the top and the bottom of the course
method is more accurate than the tangential method but length. This method usually is considered the most ac-
is still sensitive to the course length. curate but is still sensitive to course length.
TABLE 53.1~MWD DATA LISTING FOR DIRECTIONAL SURVEY
Readings Analysis(confidencelevel=99.0%)
Course Azimuth Vertical
Survey Length Angle Angle Dogleg Depth UncertaintyRange
Number Deoth m (degrees) (degrees) 1100 ft (fi) North East Vertical Maior Axis
~-
5425.0 30.0 37.80 41.80 2.34 5,180.4 696 559 1.3 10.0 9.5 343
5457.5 32.5 37.67 43.50 3.22 5.206.1 710 573 1.3 10.0 9.5 344
90 5,478.0 20.5 36.53 43.50 5.52 5,222.5 719 581 1.3 10.0 9.6 344
91 5.509.0 31.0 35.73 44.00 2.75 5,247.5 732 594 1.3 10.0 9.6 345
92 5.540.0 31.0 35.72 41.80 4.14 5,272.7 746 606 1.3 10.0 9.6 346
93 5571.0 31.0 35.08 42.40 2.33 5.298.0 759 618 1.3 10.1 9.6 347
94 5.589.0 18.0 35.08 42.40 0.00 5,312.7 767 625 1.3 10.1 9.6 347
95 5,605.O 16.0 34.35 42.80 4.79 5,325.a 773 631 1.3 10.1 9.6 347
96 5,631.0 26.0 33.90 43.30 2.03 5,347.4 784 641 1.3 10.1 9.6 348
97 5.695.0 64.0 32.17 46.30 3.72 5,401.o 809 666 1.4 10.1 9.6 351
98 5,735.0 40.0 31.28 47.40 2.64 5,435.0 823 681 1.4 10.1 9.7 352
99 5,756.0 21.0 30.97 46.60 2.47 5,453.0 831 689 1.4 10.1 9.7 353
100 5,821.0 65.0 28.87 45.10 3.43 5,509.3 853 712 1.4 10.1 9.7 356
101 5,852.0 31.0 27.88 47.20 4.52 5,536.6 863 723 1.4 10.1 9.7 357
102 5,949.0 97.0 26.52 45.40 1.64 5,622.g 894 755 1.4 10.2 9.8 3
103 6932.7 83.7 24.65 46.10 2.26 5,698.4 919 781 1.5 10.2 9.8 6
104 6,090.O 57.3 23.63 48.90 2.67 5,750.7 935 798 1.5 10.2 9.8 8
105 6,117.0 27.0 22.80 47.00 4.15 5,775.5 942 806 1.5 10.2 9.8 8
106 6,150.2 33.2 22.45 46.10 1.48 5,806.i 951 815 1.5 10.2 9.8 9
107 6,216.2 66.0 21.27 46.80 1.83 5,867.4 968 833 1.5 10.2 9.8 10
108 6,241.8 25.6 20.93 46.00 1.71 5,891.2 974 840 1.5 10.2 9.8 10
109 6,272.0 30.2 19.68 48.20 4.85 5,919.6 981 840 1.5 10.3 9.8 11
110 6,302.O 30.0 19.78 44.80 3.84 5,947.8 988 855 1.5 10.3 9.8 11
111 6,337.0 35.0 19.30 46.10 1.85 5,980.a 997 863 1.5 10.3 9.8 11
112 6,402.O 65.0 18.28 41.80 2.64 6,042.3 1,012 878 1.5 10.3 9.8 12
113 6,455.8 53.8 17.17 49.50 4.82 6,093.6 1,023 889 1.5 10.3 9.8 13
114 6,553.3 97.5 15.87 50.10 1.34 6,187.0 1,041 911 1.5 10.3 9.8 14
115 6,600.3 47.0 14.92 59.50 5.67 6,232.3 1,048 921 1.5 10.3 9.8 14
116 6,678.3 78.0 14.62 47.20 4.03 6,307.8 1,060 937 1.5 10.3 9.8 15
117 6,708.3 30.0 14.78 53.50 5.35 6,336.8 1,065 942 1.5 10.3 9.8 15
118 6.740.3 32.0 14.32 5590 2.38 6,367.8 1,069 949 1.5 10.3 9.9 15
119 8,771.3 31.0 13.85 59.50 3.20 6,397.8 1,073 955 1.5 10.3 9.9 15
120 6838.3 67.0 1318 57.90 1.14 6,463.0 1.082 969 1.5 10.4 9.9 16
121 6,893.g 55.6 12.63 57.60 0.99 6,517.2 1,088 979 1.5 10.4 9.9 16
122 6,926.7 32.8 12.87 63.30 3.90 6,549.2 1,092 986 1.5 10.4 9.9 16
123 6,989.4 62.7 12.55 67.80 1.66 6,610.3 1,097 998 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
124 7,020.O 30.6 12.58 66.30 1.06 6,640.2 1,100 1,004 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
125 7,054.o 34.0 12.60 65.70 0.35 6,673.4 1,103 1,011 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
126 73084.4 30.4 12.40 67.10 1.18 6,703.l 1,106 1,017 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
127 7,114.2 29.8 11.50 66.90 3.02 6,732.2 1,108 1,023 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
128 7,153.g 39.7 10.90 66.90 1.51 69771.1 1,111 1,030 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
129 7,184.8 30.9 10.00 68.60 3.08 6,801.5 1,113 1,035 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
130 7,240.l 55.3 7.90 68.90 3.80 6,856.2 1,116 1,043 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
131 73272.7 32.6 7.40 63.00 2.85 6,888.5 1,118 1,047 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
132 79285.8 13.1 7.00 66.90 4.81 6,901.5 1,119 1,048 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
133 7,316.g 31.1 7.40 58.70 3.54 6,932.3 1,121 1,052 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
134 7,346.0 29.1 5.90 58.40 5.15 6,961.Z 1,122 1,055 1.6 10.4 9.9 16
5. Mercury Methods. This method is used by the U.S. continuously measuring devices, such as dipmeter tools,
Government at the Mercury Test Site in Nevada. This is may be more accurate than station reading devices.
a combination of the tangential and balanced tangential Dipmeter devices normally compute every 1 or 2 ft
methods. The portion of the course length defined by the although data listings may be accumulated and listed on-
length of the surveying instrument is treated by the ly every 50 ft.
tangential method. The remainder of the course length is
treated by the balanced tangential method. Presentations. Directional data are normally presented
All these methods are critical to the course length or both in well sketches and tabulated data. Well sketches
separation between stations. As the course length in- include two elements.
creases, their inaccuracies and deviations from each 1. Plunar View. This is a vertical projection of the
other increase. As the course length decreases, they all wellbore path on a horizontal plane. Such a projection
become more accurate. On very short course lengths (10 shows the separation between the wellbore and the sur-
ft or less) there is very little to choose between the face location. The wellbore path is marked with
methods. For this reason, directionals computed from measured depths.
2. Vertical Sections. These are of two types. The first TO

is a projection of the wellbore on a vertical plane through ELECTRONIC5
SECTION
the surface location and aligned at various azimuths. The
second is plot of depth against closure where closure is TOP 4
the horizontal distance of the wellbore from the surface

location. The tabulated data listing will show the
measured depth, vertical depth, hole azimuth, deviation
angle, x and y distances, and closure distance.
Field Examples. Fig. 53.7 shows a number of presenta-

tions of deviation survey computations including: (.A) SLIP RINGS
plan view,(R) vertical section, and (C)depth vs. closure.
The deviation survey listing is also shown in Table 53.2.
Dipmeter Logging
Introduction
The dipmeter tools arc run to determine the direction and
angle of formation dip from the survey of one borehole.
This information is of obvious importance in the study of
structural and stratigraphic problems. 7
‘ACCELEROMETER
As illustrated in Fig. 53.8, the angle of formation dip
is the angle between a horizontal plane and the bedding
plane of the formation. The strike of a formation is the
direction of the horizontal line formed by the intersection
of these two planes. Although strike is a common
INPUT AXIS
geologic term (particularly in surface geology), it is
more convenient to use “dip azimuth” in discussing the
dipmeter. The direction of dip is perpendicular to the KATE tiYH0
strike. In the remainder of this section dip azimuth will
be used instead of strike.
Dipmeter tools are in a class by themselves. The SPIN AXIS-
technique, the purpose, and the intemretation of
dipmeter logs arc entirely different from those of other
logging tools. The dipmeter’s purpose is to measure the
dips of formations. To do this, the tool must \ INPUT AXIS
simultaneously and continuously do two separate jobs:

first, it must orient itself in space, normally with respect
to magnetic north and vertical, and second, it must react
to formation bedding planes. WY~IMBAL
All present dipmeter tools go about this job in the same

way. An inclinometer section supplies continuous
measurements of deviation, both the amount and the
direction, and of the orientations of the tool’s electrode
array, either with respect to the borehole direction or rVRCjIJl. MOTVK.
magnetic north (a few specialized tools for far north

operations use gyroscopic orientation, nominally with
true north). At the same time, an electrode array is main-
tained in contact with the borehole wall by pressured
linkages. The electrodes respond to resistivity variations,
while the expanding linkages activate a caliper
-RESOLVER
recording.
These pads, normally numbering four, are identical,
c
and so mounted as to remain in a plane normal to the tool
axis. When an anomaly is detected by at least three pads,
these deflections plus the caliper reading identify three
points in what is assumed to be a plane, the plane of
deposition of the formation. This identification is then
referred to vertical and true north, giving the true dip of
the formation.
Recording correct data with a dipmeter tool is a
straightforward, more or less mechanical process,
though the tools used to do it are some of the most Fig. .53.6-Eastman Whipstock Seeker-l.
sophisticated in the industry. Interpreting the data draws
heavily on computer technology.
Fig. 53.7C- Deviationsurvey depth vs. closure.
Fig.53.7A-Deviation survey plan view
Tools Available. All major service companies use four-

arm dipmeter tools. Fig. 53.9 shows a typical dipmeter
tool’s mechanical section with the four pads, the elec-
trodes, and the caliper assembly visible. Most of these
tools will operate to 20,000 psi and 350°F in holes be-
tween 6 and 16 in. in diameter. Different varieties of
T
tools handle low- and high-deviation holes by using dif-
ferent methods of measuring hole deviation and hole
azimuth angles. Fig. 53.10 illustrates a monitor log and
a computer-answer log.
c
I Calibration. The dipmeter is essentially a physical tool,
and its calibration is physical. The inclinometer section
L is adjusted to read correctly in a special test jig. Special

care is given to ensure that the deviation sensor registers
zero with the tool held vertical. The operation of the in-
clinometer is checked before and after each log run, first
by allowing the tool to hang vertical in the derrick, then
by rotating the tool manually through at least one full
revolution.
The calipers are checked as usual, by calibration jigs
of known diameter. Four-arm dipmeters record a
separate caliper with each opposing pair of pads, which
can thus flex independently of each other while remain-
ing in the same plane. Finally, the sensitivity of the elec-
trodes is checked by shorting them out in sequence; this
also verities the correct wiring of the electrode array.
Oil-Base Muds. Dipmeters run in oil-base muds present

Fig. 53.78-Deviation survey vertical
section. a special problem. Because the oil-base mud will not
connect the resistivity electrodes to the formation elec-
trically it is necessary to use special knife-edge blade
TABLE 53.2-DEVIATION SURVEY LISTING’
Measured Vertical Deuatlon

Depth Depth HOk Angle North East
(W (W Dlrectlon (degrees) DUfi Dllfl ClOSUF2
5000 5000 95 004 - 0 00 0 02 002
10000 10000 95 0 08 -001 0 07 007
15000 15000 95 011 -001 0 15 0 15
200 00 20000 95 015 -002 0 26 0 26
25000 25000 95 0 19 -004 041 041
300 00 30000 95 023 -005 0 59 0 59
35000 350.00 95 026 -007 081 081
40000 40000 95 0 30 - 0 09 105 1 06
45000 450.00 95 034 -012 1 33 134
Fig. 53.8~Illustration
of dip,strike,
and dip azimuth 500 00 500.00 95 038 -014 1 64 165
550 00 550.00 95 041 -017 199 199
600 00 599 99 95 045 -021 2 36 2 37
65000 649 99 95 0 49 -024 2 77 2 78
70000 699 99 95 053 -0 28 322 323
75000 749 99 95 057 -0 32 365 371
electrodes. These blades mechanically cut into the for- 800 00 799 99 95 0 60 -037 420 422
mation and make contact with the water in the formation. 85000 a49 98 95 0 64 -041 4 74 4 76
900.00 899 98 95 068 -0 47 5 32 5 34
This method does not give the quality of data that is ob- 950 00 949 98 95 0 72 -052 5 92 595
tained with the conventional system in water-base mud. 1,000 00 993 97 95 0 75 -057 6 56 659
The reason for this is the considerable amount of noise 1.050 00 1.049 37 95 0 79 -063 7 23 726
1.10000 1,099 96 95 083 -0 69 7 94 797
introduced into the resistivity recording caused by the 1.15000 1.14996 95 087 -076 868 8 71
knife blade sliding along the borehole wall. The better 1.200 00 I.19995 35 0 90 -083 345 948
1,250 00 1,249 94 95 0 94 -090 1025 1029
the contact made between the knife edge and the forma- 1.300 00 1,299 94 95 0 98 -097 1109 11 13
tion, the better the quality of the resistivity 1.35000 1.349 93 95 102 -105 11 96 1200
1.40000 1.399 92 95 106 -1 12 12 86 1291
measurements. Two important things can be done to im- 1.45000 1.449 91 95 -1 21
109 13 79 1384
prove this contact. 1.50000 1.499 90 95 1 13 -1 29 14 76 1482
1. Make sure that the knife-edge blade is sharp 1.550 00 1.549 a9 95 1 17 i 38 15 76 1582
1.600 00 1.599 aa 95 121 -147 16 79 1686
Demanding new blades is the best way to ensure sharp 1.650.00 1.649 87 95 124 -156 1786 1793
edges. New blades are also less likely to have electrical 1,700.00 1.699 86 95 128 -166 1896 1903
1.75000 1,749 a4 95 132 -1 76 2009 20 16
insulation problems. 1,800 00 1.799 83 95 136 -1 86 2125 21 33
2. Have the logging company dress and adjust their 1.850 00 1.849 82 95 140 -196 2245 2253
1,900 00 1,899 a0 95 143 -207 2368 2377
dipmeter tool to apply the maximum arm pressure. This 1.950 00 1,949 79 55 147 -218 2494 2503
will force the knife edge electrodes into the formation 2.000 00 1.999 77 95 1 51 -230 2623 2633
mechanically. This adjustment may be made with dif- 2.050 00 2,049 75 95 155 -241 2756 2767
2.100 00 2.099 73 95 I 58 -2 53 28 92 2903
ferent spring mechanisms or by applying greater pad 2.150 00 2,149 71 95 162 -265 3032 3043
pressure through a hydraulic linkage. Either way this is 2.200 00 2.199 69 95 166 -2 78 31 74 31 86
2,250 00 2.249 67 95 170 -290 3320 3333
very important to obtain good resistivity data. 2,300 00 2,299 65 95 1 73 -304 3463 34.32
Because the oil-base mud dipmeter is a low-usage tool, 2.350 00 2,349 62 95 1 77 -317 3622 3635
2,400 00 2,399 60 95 181 -330 3777 3792
the service company should be given maximum notice so
2.450 00 2,449 57 95 185 -344 3936 39 51
they can prepare for the job. All special instructions and 2.500 00 2.499 55 95 i a9 -359 4099 41 14
stipulations should be given at the same time. 2.550 00 2.549 52 95 192 -373 4264 4280
2,600 00 2.599 49 95 1 96 -388 4433 4450
When recording the log, it should be remembered that 2.650 00 2.649 46 95 2 00 -403 4605 4623
the final data can be expected to be only 10 to 20% as 2.700 00 2.699 43 95 2 04 -418 4780 4799
2.750 00 2.749 40 95 207 -434 4959 4978
good as an ordinary dipmeter. Therefore, it is advisable 2.800 00 2.793 37 95 2 11 -450 5141 51 60
to consider multiple repeats over critical zones. The data 2.850 00 2.849 33 95 215 -466 5326 5346
usually will be valid only for general structural use so 2.900 00 2.899 29 95 2 19 -482 5514 5536
2.950 00 2,949 26 95 2 22 -499 5706 5728
particular attention should be paid to shale zones. All 3.000.00 2.999 22 95 2 26 -5 16 5901 5924
resistivity curves should have good character, although 3 050 00 3.049 18 95 2 30 -534 6099 61 23
their similarity will not extend down to small details. A

slow or dead curve usually indicates a faulty knife-edge 'Referencedfrom RKB=l5 ft.MSL=Otl
electrode. The orientation curves are unchanged from an Magneticdecl!nation
0.00 degrees went of north
ordinary dipmeter so the same comments apply to both.
The Computed Dipmeter Log

The computation of dipmeter surveys8 requires
sophisticated software and a substantial computer. The
task requires that the anomalies recorded on the resistivi-
ty traces at bed boundaries be correlated and the
displacement of each with respect to the others along the
borehole be determined. Once this step has been taken
then any two pairs of displacements are sufficient to
define a plane. Where more than three resistivity curves
are recorded, as with most modem dipmeter tools (4-,
6-, and 8-pad tools are in use), then multiple pairs of
Low Angle displacements may be chosen and multiple apparent bed-

RELATIVE
AZIMUTH *xxx ding planes defined. The correct choice of the most prob-
OF REFERENCE able bedding plane is determined by the interpretation
BEAAINGx*X~
y-
logic in the dipmeter program. The correlation of one
DHD’ 4+--L-
resistivity curve to another is a more mechanical task and
is controlled by the interpreter’s choice of three
parameters-the correlation length, the search angle, and
the step length-as illustrated in Fig. 53.11. A short in-
terval of one curve is correlated to a second curve at
discrete steps throughout a depth range defined by the
search angle. At each step a correlation function is
HIGH SIDE evaluated.
OF TOOL When the value of the correlation function is deter-
mined at each step, then a correlogram can be built and a
fN search made for a maximum value. This maximum in-
dicates the displacement of the curve sector defined on
the first curve by the correlation interval from a similar
section on the second curve. Successive correlations are
continued in the same correlation interval with other
- NO 1 PAD curves and then in the next correlation interval and so
REFERENCE
ELECTRODE
forth.
Once a plane at any point in the well has been defined
its orientation relative to vertical and geographic north
also must be computed. This requires that the position of
the tool in the hole and the deviation and azimuth of the
hole itself be known. These data are supplied from the
orientation section of the tool.
The dipmeter log, as recorded, is not evaluated easily
for quality, so an appraisal of the computed log should
be included in dipmeter quality control. A computed
High Angle dipmeter log may be available on location, if a computer
RELATIVE xxx logging unit is available, but it is normal to wait for days
or even weeks for the results if processing is done at a
central computer office.
Working with the computed log, look for two distinct
defects: undetected problems with the recorded data and
problems with the computation. A computed dipmeter
\ should model real-life geology; if it seems not to do that,
NO 1 PAD
HIGH SIDE. an investigation is in order. If the problem is in the com-
putation, it normally can be solved by repeating the com-
putation job. Even if the problem is with log
measurements, the logging company’s computer experts
often can solve it by special handling.
Application of Dipmeter and Directional Data

Dipmeter Patterns. Once a dipmeter log has been nm
and computed then the results have to be interpreted in
the light of known geological and geophysical facts. In
general dipmeter results are used to find gross structural
NO 1 PAD features, fine stratigraphic features, and true vertical and
true stratigraphic thicknesses.
The most common method of representing computed
dipmeter results is by an “arrow” or “tadpole” plot. A
series of special characters is plotted as a function of
xx Az,m”th of hole dev,al,on-Clockwise angle fro”. ms3gnetlC
North to DHD depth with their origin indicating the dip magnitude and
XLX Rmtive bearmg-Clockwse angle from DHO to Reference a short line indicating the dip azimuth, as illustrated in
Electrode
Fig. 53.12A. For the purpose of reference the uphole
xxxx Arlmuth 01 Reference Electrode-Clockwse angle from mag- direction on the plot is considered north and the
net~c North to Reference Electrode
clockwise direction the short line points from its base is
the dip azimuth angle. When viewed together as pat-
Fig. 53.9-Four-arm dipmeter tool. terns, these dip vectors or L‘tadpoles” can be interpreted
in terms of gross geological structure or sedimentary
detail as illustrated in Fig. 53.12B.
OTHER WELL LOGS 53-l1
RESISTIVITY ARROW
INCREASES - ,P PLOT iu”
Fig.53.10-Dipmeter monitor log and computed dipmeter log
I
1
I
I
I SEARCH ANGLE
I
CORRELATION
INTERVAL
NEXT CORRELATION
INTERVAL
Fig. 53.1 l-Dipmeter computation terms “correlation

interval,”
“step,” and “search,”
YETHOD OF PLOTTfNG a
Folded Structure
0’ 10’ 20’ + DIP MAGNlTUDE SP fCross Section N. S /Dip Pan*m
IDIP
DIRECTION
S I
L I J
EXAMPLE 10” N45”E
/‘4I Unconformity
ie i SP 1Cross SIctlcn SE NW
BLUE PAT,ERN
Fig. 53.12-Dipmeter interpretationrules showing (a) method

of plottingdips and (b)patternsof dips.
Fig. 53.13 shows three common structures: a folded

structure (anticline), an unconformity, and a normal
fault. Fig. 53.14 shows three common sedimentary
features: a channel cut and fill, a buried bar with shale
drape, and current bedding.
Other complex patterns may develop, such as those
related to: (1) missing and repeat sections (Fig. 53.15A),
(2) stratigraphy of continental deposits (Fig. 53. lSB),
(3) stratigraphy of continental shelf deltas (Fig. 53. IX),
(4) stratigraphy of continental shelf tide/wave-dominated
deposits (Figs. 53.15D and E), and (5) continental slope
and abyssal environments (Fig. 53.1 SF). Other forms of
representing dip data are also used to good effect, such
as polar and stereographic plots and azimuth frequency
diagrams.
One of the main uses for dip data as far as the reservoir
engineer is concerned is in computation of reservoir
volumes, which require true vertical thickness
measurements (TVT). For the geologist a related
measure. the true stratigraphic thickness (TST) is of im-
mediate concern. 9-‘3
In the simple case where the wells are vertical and the
bedding is horizontal, correlations can be made directly
between logs of neighboring wells. Reservoir volume is
calculated by multiplying reservoir thickness (directly
derived from the logs) by reservoir area (delimited by
other means). Fig. 53.13-Common geologic structures and corresponding
dipmeter patterns.
However, this simple case is exceptional because (1)
most reservoirs exist as the result of some structural
event or accident, implying some formation dip at least
at the reservoir periphery, and (2) most wells deviate to
some extent from vertical, intentionally or not. As long
OTHER WELL LOGS
Buried Bar with Shale Drape

u c.ma.sadmuw-SE 1040
?ml?mm
4
4
4
4
.
. Fig. 53.15A-Missing and repeat sections.
---------
,
,
\
.-L---d
4
4
Current Bedding
Y @#-msrQnNE-SW
I- I
Fig. 53.158- Stratigraphic

interpretation,
continentalenviron-
ment.
Fig. 5X14- Dipmeter patternsin sedimentary features

Fig. 53.15(3- Stratigraphicinterpretation,

continental shelf, Fig. 53.15D- Stratigraphicinterpretation,
continental shelf,
deltadominated. tidalwave dominated.
r-
z I I
,= D,,l “EFLEC,s,““cr”““‘ D,,
Fig. 53.15E- Stratigraphicinterpretation,

continental shelf, Fig. 53,15F- Continentalslope and abyssal environments.
tidalwave dominated.
as dips and deviations do not exceed a few degrees, the

simple vertical-horizontal case is approximated closely
enough not to need corrections. But when deviations and
dips exceed about 10 degrees, corrections are needed
because apparent formation thicknesses measured on
logs are greater than true stratigraphic thicknesses by dif-
ferent amounts in different wells. This adds to the dif-
ficulty of well-to-well log correlation. Also, if wells are Frue Vertical Depths
deviated from vertical, and if formations have substantial
dip, apparent thicknesses differ from the vertical
thicknesses needed for reservoir volume calculation, and
must be corrected.
To achieve these corrections in a convenient manner,
modem data processing affords three different computed
Fig. 53.16-Principle of true vertical
depth (TVD).
log products: the true vertical depth (TVD), TST, and
TVT plots. Proper interpretation of these plots requires
considerable caution and may be quite difficult.
Common Principles of TVD, TST, and TVT Plots.

Figs. 53.16 through 53.18 illustrate the principles of
thickness transformations. Formation parameters record-
ed by logging tools are reproduced without alteration,
but their depths are altered to suit respective purposes.
Depths should be thought of as summations of overlying
formation thicknesses.
Two methods exist for computation of altered depths:
(1) common surj&e point, which assumes a hole drilled
from the same surface point or formation top with a dif-
ferent course, and (2) common subsur&ace point, which
assumes a hole drilled either vertically, or normal to the
bed dip, from some point in the actual well course, such
as a formation top, or a point of formation dip change.
Depths may be reset arbitrarily at the common point. In
this approach it is set to zero, thus representing only
thickness as counted down from the common point.
Z’VDPlot. This plot ignores formation dip and corrects
for well deviation only. Thus, it represents formations as
they would look in a vertically drilled well, provided the
formations had zero dip. It is useful in areas of direc-
tional drilling where dip is low, for well-to-well correla-
Fig. 53.17-Principle of true stratigraphic
thickness(TST).
tions, and for reservoir volume calculations. It usually is
run only in the common surface point mode.
TST Plot. This plot accounts for formation dip, and re-
quires knowledge of true well course, whether vertical or
not. It displays formations as though the well had been
drilled perpendicular to them. If a change of dip occurs,
an equal and opposite change of deviation is assumed.
If only one dip is present, the plot represents the logs
that would have been obtained if the well had been
drilled at the same location perpendicular to that dip. If
more than one dip is present, the interpretation becomes
more complicated. At each dip change, some
stratigraphic column must either disappear, or thin, or
thicken, or even repeat itself.
17/T Plot. This plot is closely related to the TST, and
as such accounts for both well deviation and formation
dip. It shows formation thickness as though the well had
been drilled vertically through the dipping beds.
Evidently, a TVT in a vertical hole would be identical to
the original log. The TVT is meant to be used for reser-
voir volume calculations from deviated hole logs.
Reductions in Special Cases. If the well is vertical and
Fig. 53.16-Principle of true vertical
thickness(TVT).
the formations are horizontal, all three transformed logs
would be identical to the original log, and the processing
would be a waste of computer time. If the well is Caliper Logs

deviated and the formations arc horizontal, the TST and Introduction
the TVT are identical to the TVD, and running the latter
is sufficient. If the well is vertical and the formations The caliper log measures the diameter of the borehole.
dip, the TVD and TVT plots would be wasted computer The first caliper logs were developed to determine
time, but the TST may be useful in well-to-well correla- borehole size in holes shot with nitroglycerin. These ear-
ly logs showed large variations in hole size even in the
tions. If the well is drilled perpendicular to the formation
dip (as it often tends to be in hard rocks in particular) the portions of the hole that had not been shot. This il-
lustrated the need for the caliper log over the entire hole.
TST would be a waste of computer time, but the TVT is
needed for reservoir calculations, and the TVD may be
of use if deviation is pronounced. Methods of Recording
Algorithms. The algorithms used for computing the Several types of caliper are currently in use. One type
TVD, TST, and TVT have been covered well in the consists of three or four spring-driven arms, which con-
literature. I4 Any implementation of these algorithms for tact the wall of the borehole. The instrument is lowered
computer applications should be approached with cau- to the total depth (TD), and the arms are released either
tion. Many programming languages differ in their treat- mechanically or electrically. The spring tension against
ment of trigonometric functions for angles exceeding the arms centers the tool in the well. The arms move in
90”. Another area requiring care is in the matter of preci- and out with the change in wellbore diameter. The arm
sion. When depth data are processed, a repetitive ac- motion is transmitted to a rheostat so that change in the
cumulation of depth increments is made. As many as resistance of an electric circuit is proportional to the hole
IO4 or more additions must be made in a normal well. diameter. The borehole diameter is recorded at the sur-
Thus the precision of each increment must be at least one face by measuring the potential across this resistance.
part in IO6 or better. Depending on the computer used Another instrument uses three flexible springs, which
(16 bit, 32 bit, etc.) the programming of these algorithms contact the wall of the borehole. These springs are con-
should demand appropriate precision. nected to a plunger that moves up or down as the springs
By way of summary, all three plots perform valuable expand or contract with changes in borehole diameter.
functions, but all three may be misleading if not used The plunger passes through two coils. When an alter-
with the proper caution, in particular with respect to ab- nating current is passed through one coil. an elec-
solute depths. tromotive force (EMF) is induced in the other coil. The
1, The TVD is incorrect in both formation thicknesses amount of this induced EMF is a function of the plunger
and in absolute depths if formations have appreciable position and is proportional to borehole diameter. Either
dip. of the preceding instruments may be adjusted so that they
2. The TST is always correct in formation thicknesses. will record borehole area rather than hole diameter. If the
It should be run in the common subsurface point mode. caliper log is used to determine hole volume, area should
If changes of dips are present, it should reset the subsur- be recorded on a linear scale. If the caliper log is used to
face point at each change of dip and make independent determine hole configuration, the hole diameter is
plots through each dip zone. This resetting may be made recorded on a linear scale.
automatically if the program allows it, and manually A third type of caliper log is the microcaliper, which is
otherwise. discussed in connection with the electrical-log
3, The TVT may produce apparent thicknesses greater microdevices. This instrument uses two pads rather than
than measured thicknesses. Such thicknesses may be fit- arms or flexible springs. Hole diameter is determined by
titious when beds are truncated in their vertical extension the movement of these pads, which are held against the
by unconformities or faults. It should be run in indepen- borehole wall by springs.
dent sections for each change of dip, in the common sub-
surface point mode, as for the TST. Typical Borehole Configuration
A schematic of a typical borehole is shown in Fig.
53.19. As illustrated in this figure, some formations cave
considerably, causing enlarged holes. Other formations
do not cave, and because of the presence of mudcake,
the hole size actually may be reduced to less than bit
size. Although not illustrated in Fig. 53.19. some fotma-
tions may swell, causing reduction in hole size.
The primary cause of formation caving is the action of
the drilling fluid. Action of the bit and the drillpipe also
have an effect. Most drilling muds are composed
primarily of water. The chemical action of this water on
shales (hydration of the shales) causes many shales to
disintegrate and slough into the hole. The amount and
rate of this sloughing depend on the nature of the mud
and shale. Other shales (heaving shales) swell rather than
disintegrate.
If a freshwater mud is used to drill a salt section, it will
Fig. 53.19-A typical borehole.
dissolve salt until the mud becomes salt-saturated. The
drilling fluid does not react with formations such as
limestone, dolomite, and sandstone. However, if those

formations are permeable, a mudcake will be formed, as
illustrated in Fig. 53.19. This mudcake forms rapidly.
The character (density and thickness) of the mudcake
varies with the mud used to drill the well. Of course,
thickness of the mudcake is limited by erosion of the
drilling fluid while circulating.
In some areas the shallow portion of the hole is drilled
with water. If loosely cemented sands are encountered,
they may cave under this condition.
The action of the bit is probably not too important. But i
if a thin sand is surrounded by shales that have caved, the
bit probably knocks off part of the sand ledge with each
round trip.
Action of the-drillpipe against the side of the hole
causes some enlargement even in sandstones and Fig. 53.20- Borehole geometry log.
limestone. Usually this enlargement is not great enough
to affect hole volume appreciably, but it may cause the
drillpipe to become differentially pressure stuck, Casing Inspection Logs
necessitating a fishing job. Formation wear by the Introduction
drillpipe will cause the hole to be noncylindrical, in
which case a four-arm caliper will display the long and Inspection of the mechanical state of the completion
short axes of the hole. string is an important aspect of production logging.
Many production (or injection) problems can be traced
back to mechanical damage to, or corrosion of, the com-
Interpretation and Application of Caliper Logs pletion string. A number of casing inspection methods
are available including: (1) multifingered caliper logs,
Caliper logs usually are recorded on vertical scales from (2) electrical potential logs, (3) electromagnetic inspec-
1 in.= 100 ft to 5 in.= 100 ft. The horizontal scale is tion devices, and (4) borehole televiewers or borehole
selected to show a detail picture of hole diameter and is TV. Of these the majority measure the extent to which
usually on the order of 1 in. =4 in. Because of the dif- corrosion has taken place. Only the electrical potential
ference in scales, it is easy to get the impression from log may indicate where corrosion is currently occurring.
caliper logs that tremendous cavities are created. When With the exception of the caliper logs, all the devices re-
plotted on the same horizontal and vertical scales, it is quire that the tubing be pulled before running the survey,
evident that the normal borehole is quite regular. This since most are designed to inspect casing rather than tub-
should be remembered when using the caliper log. ing, and all are large-diameter tools.
The primary uses of the caliper log are: (1) to compute
hole volume to determine the amount of cement needed Caliper Logs for Tubing and Casing Inspection
to fill up to a certain depth, (2) to determine hole Various arrangements of caliper mechanisms ate
diameter accurately for use in interpreting other logs, available to gauge the internal shape of a casing or tubing
and (3) to locate permeable zones as evidenced by the string. Fig. 53.21 illustrates three such tools. Table 53.3
presence of a filter cake. Other applications of the caliper lists the various sizes available, their respective number
log include proper location of casing centralizers, and of feelers, and the appropriate casing size.
packer seats for openhole drillstem tests.
Caliper logs are also available in conjunction with hole Tubing Profile Calipers. Tubing profile calipers will
deviation and hole azimuth measurements, in which case determine the extent of wear and corrosion, and will
the log is referred to as a borehole geometry log. detect holes in the tubing string-all in a single run into
Fig. 53.20 is an example of a borehole geometry log the well. The large number of feelers on each size of
using a standard three-track presentation. The borehole caliper ensures detection of even very small irregularities
orientation is displayed in Track 1, while the two in- in the tubing wall.
dependent orthogonal caliper readings are recorded in In pumping wells, the tubing caliper log may be run by
Track 2 with a standard scaling. The caliper data are also one person and there is no need for a pulling unit crew to
available in Track 3 but with a reduced sensitivity. be present. A “pull sheet” showing the maximum
Together with the bit size and future casing size, this percentage of wall loss of every joint of tubing in the
visual display, enhanced by the shading between the well may be prepared. Before the well is pulled, a pro-
calipers and the bit size, quickly gives a clear impression gram of rearranging the tubing string can be provided.
of the borehole shape. Within the depth track the total Moving partially worn joints nearer the surface and
hole volume integration is recorded along the edge of discarding thin-wall joints substantially prolongs the ef-
Track 1, and the cement volume (the difference between fective life of tubing strings and reduces pulling costs in
the total hole volume and the future casing volume) is pumping wells. In flowing or gas lift wells, the tubing
presented along the edge of Track 2. profile caliper provides an economical method to check
53-I8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
TABLE 53.3-TUBING AND CASING

PROFILE CALIPERS
Sizes of Tubing ProfileCalipers

Tool
Diameter Number of OD
(in.) Feelers (in.)
1% 20 2
1’/2 20 wl6
1% 26 2%
2% 6 32 27/s
2’%6 44 3%
3’h 44 4
Sizes of Casing ProfileCalipers

3% 40 4% t0 6
5% 64 6% to 7510
7v? 64 8% lo 9
7% 64 9%
8’/4 64 10%
9% 64 11%
1 IS/l6 64 133/e
13% 64 16
17% 64 20
periodically for corrosion damage, to monitor the effec-

tiveness of a corrosion inhibitor program, or to detect
and remove damaged tubing joints when working over a
well.
Split Detector. This is an accessory tool that may be run

in combination with the tubing profile caliper. This tool,
functioning much like a magnetic collar locator, is
designed to detect and log vertical splits or hairline
cracks in the tubing that might be difficult to locate with
the profile caliper. In practice, the split detector is used
to log down the tubing, and the profile caliper to log up
the tubing. This gives a complete inspection for wall
thickness and splits in one run of the cable in the well.
Casing Profile Calipers. Casing profile calipers are

available to log 4%in.- through 20-in.-OD casing. The
Tubing Profile Casing Pmfrle tool is especially valuable where drilling operations have
Caliper Caliper been carried on for an extended period of time through a
string of casing. The determination of casing wear is of
great importance when deciding if a liner can be hung
Fig. 53.21-Casing and tubing profile
calipertools safely, or if a full production string is required. In pro-
ducing wells, the casing profile caliper will locate holes
or areas of corrosion that may require remedial work.
The tool is also valuable when abandoning wells because
it permits grading of casing to be salvaged before it is
pulled.
Casing Minimum-ID Calipers. The minimum-ID

caliper can pass through and accurately measure restric-
tions as small as 3% in. in casing with a nominal ID up to
13% in. This log is of particular value in determining
areas of collapsed or deformed casing, identifying
casing-weight change intervals, or detecting parted
casing.
Examples of these logs are given in Fig. 53.22.
TUBING PROFILE CALIPER CASING PROFILE CALIPER CASING MINIMUM I.D. CALIPER
Fig. 53.22-Tubing and casing profile

logs.
Electrical Potential Logs protection. Note that in Fig. 53.25 the metal loss has
An electrical potential log determines the galvanic cur- been reduced to practically zero by the application of an
rent flow entering or leaving the casing. This will inappropriate cathodic protection.
dicate not only where corrosion is taking place and the
amount of iron being lost, but also where cathodic pro- Electromagnetic Devices
tection will be effective. The magnitude and direction of The most commonly used casing corrosion inspection
the current within and external to the casing is derived tools are of the electromagnetic type. They come in two
mathematically from electrical potential measurements versions, those that attempt to measure the remaining
made at fixed intervals throughout the casing string. To metal thickness in a casing string I5 and those that try to
achieve reliable results from this kind of survey, the detect defects in the inner or outer wall of the casing. I6
borehole fluid must be an electrical insulator (i.e., the Although frequently run together, these tools will be
hole must be either empty or filled with oil or gas). Mud discussed separately.
or other aqueous solutions will provide a “short” that in-
validates the measurements. The log itself is a recording Electromagnetic Thickness Tools. The electromagnetic
vs. depth of the small galvanic voltages detected. Fig. thickness tools are available under a variety of trade
53.23 illustrates such a log with three different runs names such as ETT (Schlumberger), Magnelog
recorded, each with a differing level of cathodic protec- (Dresser), and Electronic Casing Caliper Log (Mc-
tion applied to the casing. Cullough). They operate in a manner similar to openhole
Figs. 53.24 and 53.25 show an interpretation of casing induction tools. Each consists of a transmitter coil and a
potential profile logs nm both with and without cathodic receiver coil. An AC is sent through the transmitter coil.
This sets up an alternating magnetic field, which in-

teracts both with the casing and the receiver coil (see
Fig. 53.26). The coils are spaced about three casing
diameters apart to ensure that the flux lines sensed by the
receiver coil are those that have passed through the
casing.
The signal induced in the receiver coil will be out of
phase with the transmitted signal. In general the phase
difference is controlled by the thickness of the casing
wall. Thus the raw log measurement is one of phase lag
in degrees and the log is scaled in degrees. Fig. 53.27 il-
lustrates an ETT log in severely corroded casing. Note
that an increasing thickness corresponds to an increase in
the phase shift angle and vice-versa. Some presentations
of this log show a resealing in terms of actual pipe
thickness. This requires that the operator make some
calibration readings in the type of casing present in the
well. It is quite common to see quite large differences in
thickness between adjacent stands resulting from a
number of variables, such as the drift diameter of the
pipe, the weight per foot, the magnetic relative
permeability of the steel used, etc.
The ETT-type tool is good at finding vertical splits in
pipe, since the magnetic flux lines pass perpendicular to
the casing wall. A horizontal circumferential anomaly is
less well defined.
Eddy Current and Flux leakage Tools (Pipe Analysis

Fig. 53.23-Casing potentialprofile. Log). Another closely related measurement uses a slight-
ly different technique and forms the basis of the Pipe
Analysis Log (PAL). I6 Two electromagnetic measure-
ments are of interest in the context of the pipe analysis
tool-magnetic flux leakage and eddy current
distortion. ”
Fig. 53.24-Casing potential

profile
analysis-withoutcathodic Fig. 53.25-Casing potentialproflle-withcathodic protection.
protection.
I;2ux leakage. If the poles of a magnet are positioned

near a sheet of steel, magnetic flux will flow through the
sheet (Fig. 53.28). So long as the metal has no flaws the
flux lines will be parallel to the surface. However, at the
location of a cavity either on the surface of the sheet or
inside it, the uniform flux pattern will be distorted. The
flux lines will move away from the surface of the steel at
the location of the anomaly, an effect known as flux
leakage. The amount of flux distortion will depend on
the size of the defect. If a coil is moved at a constant
speed along the direction of magnetic flux parallel to the
metal sheet, a voltage will be induced in the coil as it
passes through the area of flux leakage. The larger the
anomaly, the greater the flux leakage and, therefore, the
greater the voltage. The magnetic flux is distorted on
both faces of the sheet, regardless of the location of the Fig. 53.26-Electromagnetic thicknesstool
PHASE SHIFT
3M
Fig. 53.27-Electromagnetic thickness log.

defect, and therefore the coil needs to be moved along

Magnetic flux
1 only one surface to survey the sheet completely. Since
the coil must be moved through a changing magnetic
flux to produce a voltage, no signal is generated when it
is moved parallel to the surface of an undamaged sheet of
steel _
Eddy Currents. When relatively high frequency AC is

applied to a coil close to a sheet of steel, the resulting
magnetic field induces eddy currents in the steel (Fig.
Sensor 53.29). These eddy currents, in turn, produce a magnetic
coil field that tends to cancel the original field, and the total
magnetic field is the vector sum of the two fields. A
J
measure voltage would be induced in a sensor (receiver)
coil situated in the magnetic field. The generation of ed-
dy currents is, at relatively high frequencies, a near-
FL surface effect. Therefore, if the surface of the steel adja-
cent to the coil is damaged then the magnitude of the ed-
dy currents will be reduced, and, consequently, the total
Flux f magnetic field will be increased. This will result in a
leakage variation in the sensor coil voltage. A flaw in the sheet of
metal on the surface away from the coils will not be
detected and, depending on its distance from the surface,
a cavity within the sheet will not influence the eddy cur-
1
rents either.
Tool Principle. The measuring sonde consists of an iron

core with the pole pieces of an electromagnet at each
end, and 12 sensor pads in two arrays between the pole
I pieces (Fig. 53.30). The two arrays are offset radially to
/iagnet
lole piece /’
Casing H
.l ensure complete coverage of the inner surface of the cas-
ing. Each of the pads contains a transmitting coil (for the
eddy current measurement) and two sensor coils wound
in opposite directions (for both the flux leakage and eddy
current measurements). The two sensor coils are wound
Fig. 53.28-Magnetic fluxleakage principle. in opposite directions so that for both measurements
Transmlttcr
coil
Fig. 53.29-Eddy currentprinciple

there is zero voltage as long as no anomaly exists, but a

signal will be produced when the quality of the casing is
different below the two coils. The same sensor coils can
be used for both measurements since two distinct fre-
quencies are involved. A frequency of 2 kHz is used for
the eddy current measurement, giving a depth of in-
vestigation of about 1 mm. The sensor pads are mounted
on springs so that they are held in contact with the cas-
ing, facilitated through centralization of the sonde.
Various sizes of magnet pole pieces are available and are
selected according to the casing ID to optimize the signal 6 ARM
strength for the flux leakage measurement. CENTRALIZER
Six measurements of flux leakage and eddy current
distortion are made on each array, and the maximum
signal from each array is sent uphole to the surface in-
strumentation. Four signals, the eddy current and flux
leakage data from the two arrays, are recorded.
The flux leakage data correspond to anomalies located
anywhere in the casing, while eddy current distortion oc-
curs only at the inside wall of the casing. The standard MAGNET
presentation of the measurements is as shown in Fig.
53.31, with the data from the two arrays displayed in
Tracks 2 and 3. Enhanced data arc displayed in Track 1,
making any anomalies more obvious.
UPPER
Interpretation. The measurements are generally PAD ARRAY
suitable only for qualitative interpretation. This is
because any voltages induced in the sensor coils depend
not only on the size of any flaws in the casing, but also
on the magnetic permeability of the casing, the logging
speed, and the abruptness of a defect. The measurement,
therefore, is used primarily to locate the presence of LOWER
small defects in the casing, such as pits and holes.
PAD ARRAY
Defects such as gradual decreasing of the wall thickness
cannot be detected. To get a complete picture of the state
of the casing the electromagnetic thickness tool also
should be used to measure the casing wall thickness,
since the PAT device will give zero signal in the two ex- MAGNET
tremes of no casing and perfect casing (except at the
collars).
Two sets of data are recorded, one set influenced by
defects occurring anywhere in the casing, and the other
by faults on the inner surface. By examining the log,
therefore, it can be inferred whether the casing is dam-
aged on the inner or outer wall, assuming that there is no
defect within the casing. Although the magnetic flux
bulges away from both sides of the casing at the location 6 ARM
of a defect, the effect is greater on the side of the flaw, C ENTRALIZER
hence for the flux leakage measurement, smaller defects
can be detected on the inner surface than on the outer
surface. Because of the overlapping configuration of the
two-pad arrays all of the inner surface of the casing is
surveyed, but there is a casing-diameter-dependent
defect size below which the flaw will be seen by only
one array, and above which it will be seen by both
arrays.
The eddy current measurements are not able to detect
flaws smaller than about 0.39-in. diameter, while the
flux leakage limit is somewhat lower (0.25 in.). This
means that if an anomaly of less than %-in. diameter is
present it cannot be determined whether it is on the inner
or outer surface. If a deflection is noted on the eddy cur- Fig. 53.30-The pipe analysis tool
rent measurement but not on the flux measurement it is
T
r
ENHANCED CURVES LOWER ARRAY UPPER ARRAY
Total wall Inner wall lnner wall Total wall

/
rrl j i
1 I I I;IFI I I I
/ /
I I i
/
iI4
z
Z-=-
.-_ .--
_-
-- -
.
-
I !
---
-=
----
COI
Se\ ‘erc
Surface
Fig. 53.31-The pipe analysis log In severely corroded casing.

OTHER WELL LOGS
LOWER ARRAY I UPPER ARRAY
Total wall inner wall Inner wall Total wall
\-.
,i
., -
lz-. I _- -
Fig. 53.32-Pipe analysis log over a perforated section of casing.

assumed that the defect on the inner wall is less than 1 References
mm deep, and also usually can be ignored. In addition, I. Kamp, A.W.: “Downhole Telemetry From the User’s Point of
events can be seen on the flux leakage readings that are View,” J. Pet. Tech. (Oct. 1983) 1792-96.
not caused by casing damage but are a result of the 2. Grosso, D.S., Raynal, J.C., and Radar. D.: “Report on MWD
presence of localized magnetization in the casing. This is Experimental Downhole Sensors,” J. Per. Tech. (May 1983)
899-904,
one reason why a reference PAT survey should be run in
3. “Measurements While Drilling (M.W.D.) Technical Specifica-
new casing, so that a time-lapse technique can be applied tions,” Schlumberger Well Services. Houston.
to determine the casing damage. 4 Hodgson, H. and Gemado, S.G.: “Computerized Well Planning
for Directional Wells,” paper SPE 12071 presented at the 1983
The example of Fig. 53.32 includes sections of per-
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco,
forated casing (798 to 805 m, 807 to 819 m and 821 to Oct. 3-6.
830 m), and there is a clear indication of damaged and 5 Scott, A.C. and Wright, J.W.: “A New Generation Directional
undamaged casing. The flux leakage measurement (total Survey System Using Continuous Fyrocompassmg Techmques,”
wall) is responding strongly through the perforated inter- paper SPE 11169 presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sept. 29-Oct. 2.
vals, the eddy current curve less so. This is probably a 6 Walstrom, J.E., Harvey, R.P.. and Eddy, H.D.: “A Comparison
result of the diameter of the perforations being fairly of Various Directional Survey Methods and an Approach to Model
close to the detection limit of the eddy current measure- Error Analysis.” J. Per. Tech. (Aug. 1972) 935-43.
ment. In the upper section the tool response is much 7. “Dipmeter- Interpretation-Volume-l-Fundamentals,” Schlum-
lower, indicating a certain amount of corrosion on both
Iberger Ltd., New York City (1981) 8. 10. 53.
8. Bateman, R.M. and Konen, C.E.: “The Log Analyst and the Pro-
surfaces of the casing, but probably nothing major. The grammable Pocket Calculator-Part Ill-Dipmeter Computa-
large deflections occurring on all the curves are caused Ilion.” The Log Anal~w (Jan.-Feb. 1978) 19. No. I, 3-l 1.
by the casing collars. 9. IBateman, R.M. and Hepp, V R.: “Application of True Vertical
Depth, True Stratigraphic Thickness and True Vertical Thickness
Log Displays,” paper presented at the 1981 SPWLA Annual Log-
ging Symposium.
Casing Collar-Locator Log IO. Pennbaker. P.E.: “Vertical Net Sandstone Determination for
lsopach Mapping of Hydrocarbon Re.servoin.” Bull., AAPG
The collar locator is used to locate casing collars, usually (Aug. 1972) 53, No. 8, 1520-29.
in conjunction with another cased-hole service such as a II. Hepp, V.R.: “Vertical Net Sandstone Determination for lsopach
nuclear log or a perforating gun. Perhaps its most com- Mapping of Hydrocatin Reservoirs-Dixussmn.” Bull., AAPG
mon use is in precisely locating perforating points. To do (1973) 57, 1784-87.
12. Holt. O.R., Schoonovers, L.G., and Wlchmann. P.A.: “True
this the collar locator is run with a nuclear log (either the Vertical Depth, True Vertical Thickness, and True Stratigraphic
gamma-ray or neutron log) after the casing is set. This Thickness Logs,” Truns., SPWLA Logging Symposium (1977)
survey accurately positions casing collar in reference to paper Y.
the nuclear log. By correlating the nuclear log with logs 13. Peveraro, R.: “Vertical Depth CorrectIon Methods for Deviation
Survey and Well Log Interpretation,” Truns., SPWLA European
run in an open hole, casing collars can be positioned ac-
Symposium, London (1979) paper P.
curately with reference to the openhole logs. The collar 14. Bateman. R.M. and Konen, C.E.: “The Log Analyst and the Pro-
locator is then run with the perforating gun. The collars grammable Pocket Calculator-Part VI-Finding True Straw
adjacent to the desired perforating interval are located graphic Thickness and True Vertical Thickness of Dipping Beds
and the desired interval perforated using the casing col- Cut by DirectIonal Wells.” 771~Log Aria/w (March-April 1979).
15. Cuthbert, J.F. and Johnson, W.M. Jr., “New Casing lnspectmn
lars as reference points. Use of the collar locator makes it Log,” paper SPE 5090 presented at the 1974 SPE Annual
possible to locate perforations within a few inches of the Meeting, Houston, Oct. 6-9.
desired interval. 16. Illiyan.-I.S., Cotton, W.J. Jr.. and Brown, G.A.: “Test Resultsof
a Corrosion Logging Technique Using Electromagnetic Thickness
Various types of collar locators are now in use. Some and Pipe Analysis Logging -Tools,“-J. Per. Tkh. (April 1983)
of the collar locators are sensitive enough to locate old 801-08.
perforations in casing. The collar locator also can be 17. “Well Evaluation Development-Continental Europe.” Schlum-
used to locate the casing shoe in openhole completions. berger Ltd., New York City (1982).
Chapter 54
Acidizing
A.W. Coulter Jr., Dwell-Schlumberger
A.R. Hendrickson, Dowell-Schlumberger
S.J. Martine2.u. of Tulsa *
Introduction
The use of acids to stimulate or to improve oil produc- at treating and well conditions, reservoir properties, and
tion from carbonate reservoirs was first attempted in 1895. rock characteristics are required to design an effective and
Patents covering the use of both hydrochloric and sulfur- efficient acidizing treatment. Since it is beyond the scope
ic acids for this purpose were issued at that time. Although of this text to cover all aspects of acidizing in detail, this
several “well treatments” were conducted, the process discussion will be limited to a general description of ma-
failed to arouse general interest because of severe corro- terials, techniques, and design considerations. A bibli-
sion of well casing and other metal equipment, The next ography is provided for those requiring a more detailed
attempts to use acid occurred between 1925 and 1930. discussion of a particular subject. Also, the major well
These consisted of using hydrochloric acid (HCl) to dis- stimulation companies providing acidizing services offer
solve scale in wells in the Glenpool field of Oklahoma literature and technical assistance for problem analysis and
and to increase production from the Jefferson Limestone treatment design.
(Devonian) in Kentucky. None of these efforts were suc-
cessful and “acidizing” once again was abandoned. General Principles
The discovery of arsenic inhibitors, which allowed HCl The primary purpose of any acidizing treatment is to dis-
to react with the formation rock without seriously damag- solve either the formation rock or materials, natural or
ing the metal well equipment, revived interest in oilwell induced, within the pore spaces of the rock. Originally,
acidizing in 1932. At that time, Pure Oil Co. and Dow acidizing was applied to carbonate formations to dissolve
Chemical Co. used these inhibitors with HCl to treat a the rock itself. Over a period of time, special acid for-
well producing from a limestone formation in Isabella mulations were developed for use in sandstone formations
County, MI. Results of this treatment were outstanding. to remove damaging materials induced by drilling or com-
When similar treatments in neighboring wells produced pletion fluids or by production practices.
even more spectacular results, the acidizing industry was There are two primary requirements that an acid must
born. meet to be acceptable as a treating fluid: (1) it must react
Throughout the years following those early treatments, with carbonates or other minerals to form soluble prod-
the acidizing industry has grown to one using hundreds ucts, and (2) it must be capable of being inhibited to pre-
of millions of gallons of acid applied in tens of thousands vent excessive reaction with metal goods in the well. Other
of wells each year. Technology has developed with in- important considerations are availability, cost, and safe-
creasing rapidity, and many changes and innovations have ty in handling. While there are many formulations avail-
been made to improve the effectiveness of acidizing treat- able, only four major types of acid have found extensive
ments. Because of new techniques of application and de- application in well treatments: hydrochloric, hydrofluoric,
velopment of additives to alter the characteristics of the acetic, and formic acids.
acid itself, acidizing has become a highly skilled science.
A knowledge of available materials, chemical reactions Hydrochloric Acid (HCI)
An aqeuous solution of HCl is most commonly used for
‘Authors of the OrigInal chapter on this topic I” the 1962 editlon Included th!s aulhor acidizing treatments, for reasons of economy and because
(deceased). P E. Rlzgerald. and Harold E Staadt it leaves no insoluble reaction product. When HCl is
T 3500 pumped into a limestone formation, a chemical reaction

I I
In
takes place, producing calcium chloride, CO*, and water.
/ 3000
16 This reaction is represented by the following equation:
I4
12
IO
n One thousand gallons of 15% HCI will dissolve approxi-

b mately 10.8 cu ft (1,840 lbm) of limestone. It will liber-
ate approximately 7,000 cu ft of CO1 , measured at
4
atmospheric conditions, and produce 2,042.4 lbm of cal-
2
cium chloride. This salt is dissolved in the original water
0
0 4 n I2 16 20 24 of the acid solution, plus 39.75 gal of water formed dur-
STRENGTH OF ACID, PERCENT BY WEIGHT ing the reaction. The specific gravity of this solution will
be 1.181 (20.4% calcium chloride). While 15 wt% HCI
Fig. 54.1-Solution of limestone in acid.
has been the most commonly used, concentrations of 20
and 28% have become extremely popular over the past
2 decades. Regardless of the acid strength used, the reac-
tion is the same and equivalent amounts of carbonate rock
TABLE 54.1~-HYDROCHLORIC ACID DENSITY AT 6O“F are dissolved. For example, 10,000 gal of 3% HCl solu-
tion will dissolve the same amount of rock as 1,000 gal
% HCI SpecificGravity' "Baume** lbmlgal psilft
depth of 28% HCl. Fig. 54.1 shows the effect of acid concen-
1.00 1.0048 0.7 8.377 0.4351 tration on the amount of limestone dissolved. The main
2.00 1.0097 1.4 8.418 0.4372 differences between the two solutions are their reaction
3.00 1.0147 2.1 8.460 0.4392
rates (or spending times) and their physical volumes.
4.00 1.0197 2.8 8.501 0.4415
5.00 1.0248 3.5 8.544 0.4437
Although lower concentrations of acid have greater
6.00 1.0299 4.2 8.586 0.4459 equivalent volumes, their reaction times and depth of
7.00 1.0350 4.9 8.629 0.4482 penetration into the reservoir, from the wellbore, are con-
8.00 1.0402 5.6 8.672 0.4504 siderably less than those of the higher-strength solutions.
9.00 1.0447 8.2 8.710 0.4524
10.00 0.4547
Reaction rates and penetration will be discussed later.
1.0500 6.9 8.754
11.00 1.0550 7.6 8 796 0.4568 Similar reactions occur when dolomite or impure lime-
12.00 1.0600 8.2 8.837 0.4590 stone is treated with HCI. Dolomitic lime contains a large
13.00 1.0646 8.8 8.876 0.4610 percentage of magnesium combined as calcium magnesi-
14.00 1.0702 9.5 8.922 0.4634
um carbonate. Although it reacts more slowly, this min-
15.00 1.0749 10.1 8.962 0.4654
16.00 1.0801 10.8 9.006 0.4677 eral also dissolves in HCl, and the resulting magnesium
17.00 1.0849 11.4 9.045 0.4698 chloride is soluble in the spent acid. Other impurities oc-
18.00 1.0902 12.0 9.089 0.4721 curring in limestone and dolomite are often insoluble in
19.00 1.0952 12.6 9.132 0.4743 acid, and if appreciable percentages of such components
20.00 1.1002 13.2 9.171 0.4764
are present, special additives must be included in the acid
21.00 1.1057 13.9 9.218 0.4788
22.00 1.1108 14.5 9.261 0.4810 solution to ensure their removal.
23.00 1.1159 15.1 9.303 0.4832 HCl ordinarily is manufactured in concentrations of 32
24.00 1.1214 15.7 9.349 0.4855 to 36 wt% HCl and is diluted at service company stations
25.00 1.1261 16.3 9.385 0.4876
to 15, 20, or 28% for field use. The concentrated acid,
26.00 1.1310 16.9 9.433 0.4899
27.00 1.1368 17.5 9.478 0.4922
the various chemical additives, and water are mixed in
28.00 1.1422 18.0 9.523 0.4946 the tank truck used to haul the acid to the wellsite. Table
29.00 1.1471 18.6 9.563 0.4967 54.1 lists the weights of various concentrations of HCI.
30.00 1.1526 19.2 9.609 0.4991 These data are useful in calculating mixing proportions
31.00 1.1577 19.8 9.663 0.5012
32.00 1.1628 20.3 9.694 0.5035
for acid dilution, using the following equation:
33.00 1.1680 20.9 9.738 0.5057
34.00 1.1727 21.4 9.777 0.5078
35.00 1.1779 21.9 9.820 0.5100 vda cda 7 da
36.00 1.1827 22.4 9.860 0.5121 vl-0 =
37.00 1.1880 22.9 9.924 0.5144 Cca(HCI)Yca '
38.00 1.1924 23.4 9.941 0.5163
39.00 1.1963 23.8 9.974 0.5180
40.00 1.2008 24.3 10.011 0.5199 where
41.00 1.2053 24.7 10.049 0.5219 V/da = final volume of dilute acid,
cdd = desired concentration of dilute acid,
?'du = specific gravity of dilute acid,
145
V,, = volume of concentrated acid required,
Cccr(HCI)= percent of HCI in concentrated acid, and
ycO = specific gravity of concentrated acid.
Approximate proportions of concentrated acid and water

required for dilution are shown in Fig. 54.2.
ACIDIZING 54-3
Determination of acid strength can be estimated in the FORMULA FOR MIXING ACID IN ANY DESIRED
field using either a hydrometer or a field titration kit. The CONCENTRATION:
accuracy of hydrometer readings depends on the care and VOLUME OF STRONG =
technique used by the field engineer. Both the hydrome- (VOL OF WEAK) (%WEAK) (SF? GR.OF WEAK)
ter and the glass cylinder in which the test is made should (=&OF STRONG) (SF’. GR.OF STRONG)
be free from oil or dirt. The spindle should float freely
GALLONS OFCONCENTRATED
in the acid, and all readings should be made at the lowest
7 HYDROCHLORIC ACID TO MAKE
level of the acid meniscus. The temperature of the acid
t 1,000 GALLONS OF DILUTE ACID
sample should be taken and the hydrometer reading cor- -8 - 32
rected to 60°F. - 30
Determination of acid strength by titration is simplified -9
-28
by the use of 0.59 N standard sodium hydroxide solution. - IO
If a 2-mL sample of the acid is titrated with this standard -II $? 3
solution to a methyl orange end point, the burette read- s-23
ing (milliliters of sodium hydroxide used) will be equal
to the acid strength (percent HCI).
-12
-13 0
1
& ’ 2:
Q-20
-14 2
2-I;
Acetic and Formic Acids I5 a -17
-16 z k-16
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and formic acid (HCOOH) are -17 0
Z-15
weakly ionized, slowly reacting, organic acids. They are -189 E =-I4
used much less frequently than HCI and are suitable -2om
- 13
primarily for wells with high bottomhole temperatures
-2& k-12
(BHT’s above 250°F) or where prolonged reaction times
2,
are desired. The reaction of these acids with limestone
is described by the following equation: EKBG
-282
2HOrg+CaCOj +CaOrgz +HzO+CO,. :3oE
: 32 z
HAc is available in concentrations up to 100% as glacial -34w
:36g
HAc. while HCOOH is available in 70 to 90% concen-
1380
trations. For field use, HAc solutions normally are dilut- -400
ed to I5 % or less.
Above this concentration, one of the reaction products,
calcium acetate, can precipitate from its “spent acid” so-
lution because of its limited solubility. Similarly, the con-
centration of HCOOH normally is limited to 9 to 10% Fig. 54.2-Dilution of concentrated HCI
because of the limited solubility of calcium formate. At
a 10% concentration, 1,000 gal HAc will dissolve 740
Ibm of limestone, whereas 1,000 gal HCOOH dissolves
970 lbm. Where more dissolving power per gallon of acid TABLE 54.2-DIFFERENT ACIDIZING SOLUTIONS
is desired, HCI is sometimes mixed with HCOOH or
Acid Relatwe
HAc. Such blends still provide extended reaction times.
Concentration CaCO, Eouivalent Reaction
when compared with HCl. HCOOH and HAc also may
Type (Ibm/l,i)OO
bal acid) time’
be blended together. Table 54.2 illustrates some of the
7.5 HCI 890 0.7
more common acid strengths and blends. 15 HCI 1,840 1.0
28 HCI 3,670 6.0
Hydrofluoric Acid (HF) 36 HCI 4,860 12.0
10 Formic 910 5.0
HF is used in combination with HCI and has been referred 10 Acetlc 710 12.0
to as “intensified acid” or “mud removal” acid. depend- 15 Acetic 1,065 18.0
ing on the formulation and use. HF is used primarily to
remove clay-particle damage in sandstone formations, to 7.5 Formic/
14 HCI mixture 2,420 6.0
improve permeability of clay-containing formations, and
to increase solubility of dolomitic formations. Its utility IO Acetic/
is based on the fact that some clays. silica, and other ma- 14 HCI mixture 2,380 12.0
terials normally insoluble in HCI have some degree of
solubility in HF. For example, I .OOOgal of an acid solu- 8 Formic/
14 Acetic mixture 1,700 18.0
tion containing 3% HF and 12% HCI will dissolve 500
lbm of clay and up to I .450 lbm of CaC03, ‘Approwlmale time for acid react!on 10 be COmpleled ( %qx?nl ‘) to an equ~vaienf
strength of 2 5% HCI solution Values are compared by using spending lime 01
15% HCI as 1
4HF+SiO? -tSiFJ +2H10
and
ZHF+SiF,+HzSiF,.
; 0.41 I I I
0.4 I I
I
\-MUD ACID z 0.3u
0.3 7’
0.2
I
0. I
/-REGULAR ACID
I
0 I I I I
0 6 12 18 24 1
TIME OF CONTACT IN HOURS 2 TIME OF CONTACT IN HOURS
Fia. 54.3-Solubilitvof bentonite in mud removal acid Fia. 54.4-Solubilitvof silicasand in mud removal acid
Figs. 54.3 and 54.4 compare solubilities of bentonite and hydrolyzes to form hydroxyfluoboric acid and HF, which
silica in HCl and HF acids. will dissolve clays.
In carbonates, application of HF/HCl mixtures must be
controlled carefully because of cost and possible precipi- HBF4 +HZO-‘HBF30H+HF.
tation of reaction products such as calcium fluorides or
complex fluosilicates, which have a very limited solubil- This reaction provides a slow-release source of HF, which
ity. For reaction with silicates, such as natural clays or can penetrate deeply before spending. Perhaps more im-
clays in drilling fluids, the blends usually contain 2 to 10% portant, the slowly generated hydroxyfluoboric acid reacts
HF and 5 to 26% HCI. The concentration of HCl used with clays to form a nonswelling, nondispersing product
in the blend should be equal to or greater than that of the that stabilizes fine clays and holds fine particles of silica
HF. in place.
The so-called “intensified acids” used in dolomitic for-
mations are mainly HCl containing small concentrations Acid Reaction Rates
of HF, usually about 0.25 % Intercrystalline films of sil- A knowledge of the factors affecting the reaction rate of
ica, insoluble in HCl, often occur in the crystal structure acids is important for several reasons. First, these fac-
of dolomite. When such are present, they prevent the acid tors, correlated with reservoir and formation character-
from contacting the soluble portions of the rock. The pres- istics, form a guide for the selection of acid type and
ence of fluoride intensifier in the acid will destroy such volume for a given treatment. Next, a study of these fac-
films, allowing the acid to react more completely with tors can furnish an understanding of what parameters
the soluble portions of the rock. Fig. 54.5 illustrates the govern spending time, which will determine how far a
comparative reaction rates of HCI and intensified acid on given formulation can penetrate into the formation before
dolomite formations. spending. Many factors govern the reaction rate of an
More recent developments of HF involve the use of acid, such as pressure, temperature, flow velocity, acid
delayed-action agents in sandstone acidizing. The first of concentration, reaction products, viscosity, acid type,
these was a self-generating mud acid system, reported by area/volume ratio, and formation composition (physical
Templeton er al. ’ The system provides slow generation and chemical). These factors have been the subject of ex-
of acid from the hydrolysis of methyl formate. yielding tensively reported research for many years. Details of such
methyl alcohol and HCOOH acid. The acid then reacts studies are available in published literature. Only a brief
with ammonium fluoride to yield HF in situ. They attrib- general discussion will be presented here.
ute the success of the system to getting the HF reaction
away from the wellbore into areas that conventional HF Pressure
solutions normally do not reach before spending. Equal- Fig. 54.6 shows the effect of pressure on the reaction rate
ly important factors are the techniques of application and of 15% HCl with limestone and dolomite at 80°F. Above
of returning the well to production following treatment. 500 psi, pressure has little effect on reaction rate. At bot-
The treatment technique mvolves use of an aromatic sol- tomhole treating pressures, there is only a small differ-
vent and mud acid preflush, along with the self-generating ence (a factor of 1.5 to 2) in the comparative reaction of
mud acid (SGMA). The wells are returned to production acid with limestone and dolomite compared to the rather
by opening the choke gradually over a 90-day period and large difference (a factor of about 10) at atmospheric
never allowing an excessive drawdown. The process is pressure.
available from most service companies as SGMA.
A significant development in this area of slow-reacting, Temperature
HF-supplying, clay-dissolving acid has been the fluoboric Acid reaction rate increases directly with temperature. At
acid system reported by Thomas and Crowe.’ This acid 140 to 150”F, the reaction rate of HCI and limestone is
ACIDIZING 54-5
.INTENSIFIED
- MARBLE
5 IO 15 20 25 400 800 1200 1400 2000 2400

TIME IN MINUTES PRESSURE (PSI)
Fig. 54.5-Comparative reaction rates of conventional and Fig. 54.6-Effect of pressureon reaction rate (15% HCI tit
80°F).
intensified
acids.
approximately twice that at 80°F. It must be recognized

that the temperature controlling the reaction is affected
by the injection temperature of the acid (a major factor),
and by the heat liberated by the reaction itself (a minor
factor). Computerized programs are used to estimate the
bottomhole fluid temperature at various stages, allowing
more effective acid treatment design.
Flow Velocity
Fig. 54.7 shows that increased flow velocity increases the I
reaction rate of 15 % HCl with CaCO 3. This velocity ef- 10 IO0 1,000 10,000 40,000
fect is more pronounced in narrower fractures. Reaction , ACID FLOW VELOCITY ,s,ce,
rate is a function of shear rate, 6 v/b, set - ’ as illustrat- FIAClUlE WIDTII

ed by the following equation:
Fig. 54.7-Effect of flow on reaction rate (15% HCI with
R=[(28.5 v/b)0.8+184]x10-6, . . . . . . . . . . . ...(l) CaCO,).
where R is the reaction rate in lbmisq ft-set, v is the flow

velocity in fracture, ft/sec, and b is the fracture width,
ft. (The reaction rate is for 15% HCl with marble at 80°F 54.8. Above 25% HCl, the reaction rate actually decreases
under 1,100 psi pressure.) because of reduced acid activity. As acid spends, the reac-
The flow velocity in fractures and channels depends on tion rate decreases as a result of reduced acid concentra-
injection rate and actual geometry of the flow path. tion and the retarding effect of dissolved reaction products,
such as calcium or magnesium chloride.
vd=O. 18i,,l(rfb) (radial fracture), . . .(2a)
Area/Volume Ratio
vlf= 1,15i,,l(hb) (linear fracture), . .. (2b) Area/volume (A/V) ratio is one of the major factors affect-
ing reaction rate spending time, and may vary over a wide
v,, = 17.2i,,/d2 (cylindrical channel). . . . .(2c) range. This ratio, the area in contact with a given volume
of acid, is inversely proportional to pore radius or frac-
where ture width. Fig. 54.9 shows the time required for 15%
v = flow velocity in fractures and channels, HCl to spend on marble, at 80°F and 1,100 psi, for three
ftlsec, different A/V ratios.
= acid injection rate, bbl/min, The term “spending time” has very little meaning or
1ac
value by itself. It must be related to flow geometry and,
rf = fracture radius, ft,
thus, to the distance the acid penetrates before it is spent.
h = fracture height, ft,
In matrix acidizing, extremely high A/V ratios may be
d = channel diameter, in., and encountered. For example, a IO-md, 20%-porosity lime-
b = fracture width, in. stone may have an A/V ratio of 28,000 to 1. In such a
formation, it would be very difficult to obtain significant
Acid Concentration penetration before spending. A natural fracture, 0.00 1 in.
Reaction rate increases with acid concentration up to 24 wide, has an A/V ratio of 3,200: 1. A 0. l-in. fracture has
to 25% HCl, but not proportionally, as shown in Fig. an A/V ratio of 32: 1. The smaller ratios in wider frac-
“0 10 20 30 40 50 60 ‘0
Th4E (min)
Fig. 54.9-Effect of A/V ratioon spending time (15% HCI, 80°F

and 1,100 psi).
Two formations having the same acid solubility and per-

meability may respond differently to acid treatment be-
cause of variances in physical structure.
I
Acid Additives
0 5 IO I5 20 25 30 35
The use of a corrosion inhibitor as an additive made pos-
PERCENT HCI sible the firstcommercially feasible acidizing treatments.
Since that time, many auxiliary chemicals have been de-
veloped to modify acid solutions, influencing their appli-
Fig. 54.8-Effect of concentrationon reactionrate and spend-
ing rate. cation and recovery.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Inhibitors are chemical materials that, when dissolved in
TABLE 54.3-EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE acid solutions, greatly retard the reaction rate of the acid
ON ORGANIC INHIBITOR PROTECTION
TIME
with metals. They are used in acidizing to avoid damage
to casing, tubing, pumps, valves. and other well equip-
Protection ment. Inhibitors cannot completely stop all reaction be-
Concentration Temperature Time tween the acid and metal; however, they do slow the
WI C’F) (hours)
reaction, eliminating 95 to 98% of the metal loss that
0.6 175 24 would otherwise occur. Most inhibitors have practically
1.0 250 6
2.0 300 6
no effect on the reaction rate of acid with limestone, dolo-
2.0’ 350 4 mite, or acid-soluble scale deposits.
The length of time that an inhibitor is effective depends
‘With mhtbltor aId on the acid temperature, type of acid, acid concentration,
type of steel, and the inhibitor concentration.
Organic inhibitors in HCI are effective up to 400”F,
but above 200°F relatively large concentrations are re-
tures allow greater penetration of the acid into the reser- quired. The effect of temperature on corrosion inhibition
voir before spending is complete. is illustrated in Table 54.3.
Equations have been developed for estimating BHT’s
Formation Composition during acid treatments. By knowing these temperatures,
Probably the most important factor that governs effective- adequate corrosion protection can be provided, even in
ness of an acidizing treatment is the rock composition. wells with static BHT’s up to 400°F.
Its chemical and physical characteristics determine how
and where the acid will react with and dissolve the rock. Surfactants
From the standpoint of chemical composition, there is Surfactants are chemicals used to lower the surface terl-
little difference in the reaction rate of HCI on most lime- sion or interfacial tension of fresh acid or spent acid so-
stones, all other factors remaining constant. The physi- lutions. The use of a surfactant improves the treating
cal rock texture. however, can control pore size efficiency in a number of ways.
distribution. A/V ratio, pore geometry, and other prop- The presence of a surfactant improves the penetrating
erties. This, in turn, influences the type of flow channels ability of the acid solution entering a formation. This is
created by acid reaction and is the key to acid response. extremely desirable in matrix acidizing treatments. be-
ACIDIZING 54-7
z
-
ST
3; I
2 lpoo
0’800yORDlNARY
a A C I D ,
0
g 6 0 0 /
i;i
Egjpek&
k!
3
0 5 IO 15 20
PENETRATION IN FORMATION- FEET
z
E PHI t-942 PH3 PHI PH5
Fig. 54.10—Effect of surface-tension-reducing agent in facili- Fig. 54.11—Photograph showing effect of pH on the volume of
tating return of spent acid. silicate particles.
cause it provides deeper penetration of acid into the for- mites. One of the characteristics of these silicates is that
mation. In addition, surfactants permit the acid to they will swell in spent acid. Naturally, this is undesirble
penetrate oily films clinging to the surface of the rock and because swollen silicate particles may block formation
lining the pores, so that the acid can come in contact with flow channels, reducing well production.
the rock and dissolve it. Silicate-control additives are chemicals that prevent
The use of surfactants also facilitates the return of spent released silicate particles from adsorbing water. Some
acid following the treatment (Fig. 54.10). Wetting of the buffer the pH of the solution near the isoelectric point
formation is more nearly complete and there is less (where the volume of the swelled clays is at a minimum).
resistance to flow of the acid, so that the spent acid is Others cause shrinkage of the silicate particles by replac-
readily returned through the treated section. This is es- ing the adsorbed water molecules with a water-repellent
pecially important in low-pressure wells. organic film. Thus, possible formation plugging is
Another advantage in the use of surfactants in acid is prevented, treating pressures are lowered, faster cleanup
the demulsifying action obtained. Many surfactants are is provided, and the occurrence of particle-stabilized emul-
capable of inhibiting the occurrence of emulsions or de- sions is minimized. This is illustrated in Fig. 54.11.
stroying those already formed.
Surfactants also promote dispersion and suspension of Iron-Control Agents
fine solids to provide better cleanup following treatment. Iron control is approached two ways. The oldest and most
These solids may be either mud solids or natural fines common approach is to use sequestering agents, which
released from the formation. They are suspended and act by complexing iron ions, thereby preventing precipi-
physically removed from the formation. tation when the acid spends. A second method is use of
Special surfactants are used as antisludge agents. Some reducing agents that reduce any ferric ions (Fe3+) to fer-
crudes form an insoluble sludge when in contact with acid. rous ions (Fe2+), which do not precipitate as the hydrox-
The sludge consists of asphaltenes, resin, paraffin, and ide or hydrous oxide until the pH of the system is above
other complex hydrocarbons. The acid reacts with the 7. Since acids in contact with the formation rock will not
crude at the interface, forming an insoluble film. The spend to a pH that high, the hydroxide will not damage
coalescence of this film, which results on the sludge par- the well. Spent acid usually has a pH between 4.5 and
ticles, can be avoided by use of proper additives. Ethyl- 6.5, no higher.
ene glycol monobutyl ether is a mutual solvent surfactant Erythorbic acid is one of the most effective reducing
used in matrix sandstone acidizing to water-wet the for- agents that can be used for this purpose. The reduction
mation. This agent prevents particle migration and sub- of all the ferric iron to ferrous iron, however, does not
sequent particle plugging. It improves cleanup by prevent the precipitation of ferrous sulfide (FeS), which
preventing the stabilization of emulsions by fine particles. precipitates when the acid spends to a pH of 2, as it will
Many different surfactants are used in acidizing. Type and readily in almost any formation. To protect fully against
concentration for a particular application should be select- iron precipitation in a sour well, a complexing agent is
ed on the basis of laboratory testing. needed. Citric, lactic, and acetic acids as well as EDTA
or NTA are popular sequestrants. In some wells where
Silicate-Control Agents H 2S can become mixed with the acid it also may be ad-
Various silicate compounds, commonly known as clays visable to use both the reducing agent and the sequester-
and silts, usually are present in most limestones and dolo- ing agents, since ferric iron can react with H 2S to
precipitate free sulfur, which itself can damage permea- face because of the presence of an interfering oil film.
bility The loss of effectiveness of acetic acid at tempera- This is particularly true for emulsions with at least 20%
tures above 125°F and the possibility of precipitating oil as the outer phase. Certain surfactants recently have
calcium citrate also are factors that should be considered been found to be beneficial in reducing reaction rate and,
in guarding against iron precipitates. thus, extending spending time and penetration distance.
These surfactants, in the presence of oil, provide a
Alcohols hydrophobic or water-repellent, oil-like film on the rock
Methyl and isopropyl alcohols sometimes are used at con- surface that restricts acid/rock contact. Fluid-loss mate-
centrations of 5 to 20 ~01% of acid to reduce surface ten- rials and gelling agents (acid-thickening additives) also
sion. Methyl alcohol is sometimes used at concentrations, tend to reduce the reaction of HCl by film development
up to 66 % to increase vapor pressure of the acid and spent on rocks.
acid solution. Use of alcohols thus improves both rate and High concentrations of an acid provide longer reaction
degree of cleanup, which can be particularly helpful in times than lower concentrations because (1) there is more
dry gas wells. acid to react, (2) the additional reaction products further
retard reaction rates, and (3) the enlarged flow path, with
Gelling and Fluid Loss Agents reduced A/V ratio, extends the spending time and penetra-
tion of a high-concentration acid. For example, 28% HCl
Natural gums and synthetic polymers are added to acid may take four to six times longer to react completely than
to increase the viscosity of the acid solution. 3 This does 15% HCl. In this case, the reaction time is extend-
reduces leakoff into large pore spaces and, to some ex-
ed in spite of the initially faster reaction rate of the
tent, into natural hairline fractures. It also provides some
28% HCl.
degree of reaction rate retardation.
Other materials used to control leakoff are fine (IOO-
mesh) sand4 and fine salt.5 These materials bridge in Acidizing Techniques
hairline fractures to reduce fluid flow out of the main frac-
There are three fundamental techniques used in acidizing
ture during fracture acidizing treatments.
treatments.
Another successful fluid-loss control agent is a mixture
1. We&ore Cleunup. This entails fill-up and soak of
of finely ground, oil-soluble resins. 6 Originally designed
acid in the wellbore. Fluid movement is at a minimum,
as a diverting agent for use through gravel packs during
unless some mechanical means of agitation is used.
sandstone matrix acidizing treatments, this agent was later
2. Matrix Acidiz,ing. This is done by injecting acid into
shown to be effective as a fluid-loss agent in fracture
the matrix pore structure of the formation, below the
acidizing, when used at higher concentrations. ’
hydraulic fracturing pressure. Flow pattern is essentially
through the natural permeability structure.
Liquefied Gases
3. Acid Fmcturing. This is injection into the forma-
Liquid nitrogen and liquid CO2 sometimes are used in tion above hydraulic fracturing pressure. Flow pattern is
acid solutions to provide added energy for better well essentially through hydraulic fractures: however, much
cleanup. Nitrogen also is used to make foamed acid, which of the fluid does leak off into the matrix along the frac-
provides excellent leakoff control in low permeability ture faces.
rock. 8.9 The technique selected will depend on what the opera-
tor wishes to accomplish with the treatment.
Retarded Acids Matrix acidizing may be selected as a proper technique
It is often desirable in acid fracturing treatments to retard for one or more of the following reasons: (1) to remove
the reaction rate of the acid to provide deeper penetra- either natural or induced formation damage, (2) to achieve
tion of active acid into the formation. Retardation may low-pressure breakdown of the formation before fractur-
be accomplished by use of slower-reacting acids (HAc ing, (3) to achieve uniform breakdown of all perforations,
and HCOOH), by adding chemicals to reduce reaction (4) to leave zone barriers intact, or (5) to achieve reduced
rate, or by increasing concentration to extend spending treating costs.
time. The principal types of formation damage are mud in-
HAc and HCOOH are weakly ionized and sometimes vasion, cement, precipitates, saturation changes, and
are used to obtain longer reaction time. The additional migration of fines. The effect of damage on injectivity
cost of these acids may prohibit extensive use in certain or productivity is shown in Figs. 54.12 and 54.13. It can
formations. Deeper matrix penetration than would be ob- be seen that the greatest flow increase results from restor-
tained by HAc or HCOOH is obtained by the faster- ing the natural rock permeability. The magnitude of this
reacting HCl because the channeling or wormhole effect primary flow increase depends on the extent (radius) of
produced by the HCl reduces the A/V ratio, thus prolong- the damage. Further increase in pore size by matrix acidiz-
ing reaction time. In fractures, the HAc and HCOOH ing results in only a limited increase in flow (stimulation).
would obtain deeper penetration than HCl; however, larg- If the producing formation does not have enough natural
er volumes would be required to dissolve an equivalent permeability, then a hydraulic fracturing treatment should
amount of rock. be considered. The primary purpose of fracturing is to
Some chemicals, added to HCl, form a barrier on the achieve injectivity or productivity beyond the natural
rock surface, which interferes with its normal contact and reservoir capability. An effective fracture may create a
“retards” the reaction rate of the acid. Acid-in-oil emul- new permeability path, interconnect existing permeabil-
sions generally exhibit retarded reaction rates. The acid ity streaks, or break into an untapped portion of the
in the emulsion does not completely contact the rock sur- reservoir.
ACIDIZING 54-9
00 25
5 m
0
I 2 3 4 6 7 0 9 lo
RADIAL EXTENTd c4ALGul ZorE. FEET I IO 100 1000
PERCENT OF NATURAL PERMEAElllTY
Fig. 54.12-Effect of damaged zone on flow.
Fig. 54.13-Effect of permeabilitychanges on radialflow.
The success of any fracturing treatment depends on two

factors: fracture conductivity and effective penetration,
as illustrated in Fig. 54.14. If enough etched fracture con-
ductivity can be achieved, then increased penetration be-
comes important. For any given formation, there will be
an optimum conductivity and penetration, which will be
controlled by cost. In other words, there will be some
point where production increase per dollar spent will be
a maximum. This must be determined by pretreatment
design.
Laboratory Testing
The physical and chemical characteristics of the forma-
tion rock often affect the results of an acidizing treatment.
McGUlRE AND SIKORA
In some cases, the use of special additive chemicals will
improve the action of the acid or avoid cleanup difficul- IO' IO' IO' ID' IO'
ties in returning the spent acid following the job. It is im- RELATIVE CONDUCTIVITY, bk#,,-In
portant, therefore, that samples of the formation rock

(either cores or cuttings) and, if possible, samples of the Fig. 54.14-Relationship of conductivityand penetration to
crude oil and formation brine be subjected to laboratory productivityincrease.J= productivity index of well
testing before acidizing to design the most effective after stimulation,J, = productivityindex before
stimulation,ri= radiusof fracture(ft),
re = drainage
treatment.
radius (ft).k,=permeability of fracture (md),
Customarily, permeability. porosity, and oil- and water- k, = permeabilityof formation (md), and b = frac-
saturation tests are run on formation core samples, using ture width (in.).
standardized core-analysis procedures. In addition, acid-
solubility tests are run to determine to what extent the for-
mation will respond to an acidizing treatment. with the acid to be used in the acidizing treatment and
Formation solubility may be determined two different then are shaken. The mixture is allowed to stand, and the
ways. In the first method, a weighed chunk of the rock time required for the oil and acid to separate is observed.
is immersed in an excess of acid and maintained at for- Additional tests are run on mixtures of the crude oil with
mation temperature. After an hour, any insoluble residue acid that has been spent completely on pulverized forma-
is washed. dried, and weighed. With samples known to tion rock. If the formation crude shows a tendency to
contain silicates, additional tests may be run in which the emulsify with either the fresh acid or the spent acid, the
rock is exposed to the dissolving action of combined HCl use of an appropriate surfactant is indicated.
and HF. Similar tests using a mixture of crude and acid are made
A more rapid test, suitable for samples known to con- to determine acid sludging tendencies. Sludge is identi-
sist largely of limestone or dolomite, entails dissolving fied by filtering the mixture through a small mesh screen.
a weighed sample of the rock in an excess of HCl and Appropriate surfactants that are added to the acid to pre-
measuring the volume of CO* gas evolved during the vent sludge formation are evaluated.
reaction. A simple apparatus for conducting this test is Other determinations of rock characteristics include
shown in Fig. 54.15. tests for clay swelling tendencies and tests to determine
In addition to these tests of the formation rock, the emul- rock composition (such as X-ray diffraction analysis) to
sifying tendencies of the formation crude should be deter- indicate need for stabilizers, sequestering agents, or other
mined whenever possible. Samples of the crude are mixed acid additives.
TABLE 54.4-FLOW THROUGH PORES OF VARIOUS

SIZES
Diameter of Pore Pore Volume Flow Through Pores

(A w (% of Total Flow)
il 60 10
1 to 2 25 15
2 to 5 12 30
5 and above 3 45
for wells with temperatures in excess of 250 to 300°F.

Any acid solution should be modified by use of proper
additives to meet special situations.
Acid inhibitor selection must be based primarily on
treating temperature and, to some extent, on the type of
acid formulation.
Surfactant type and concentration should be selected to
minimize emulsion tendencies and, perhaps, to aid in dis-
persing fine undissolved solids. These may be drilling
mud, cement solids, or natural clay particles released from
the formation. Suspension and removal of these materi-
als can play an important part in the overall treatment
results.
Diverting agents may be used to promote uniform
penetration in long sections. Acid-swellable synthetic
polymers, controlled-solubility particulate solids, perfo-
ration ball sealers, gel slugs, etc., have been used suc-
cessfully to provide more uniform injectivity. Assuring
the distribution of acid into the entire interval is a critical
part of carrying out a matrix treatment. Otherwise, large
portions of the interval may get very little, if any, acid.
In matrix acidizing, injection rates should be controlled
so that the formation is not fractured. The use of as high
a rate as possible without exceeding the fracturing pres-
sure is recommended. In certain cases, it may be neces-
sary to create a fracture to open perforations, after which
pressure can be reduced below fracturing pressure, thus
providing a matrix flow pattern.
Controlling the injection pressure is the primary con-
Fig. 54.15-Laboratory solubillty
tester(carbon dioxide evolu- cern. Maintaining bottomhole pressures below hydraulic
tion method). fracturing pressures may restrict injection rates to only
fractional barrels per minute. An increasing rate may then
be possible as the treatment progresses.
Acid Treatment Design Because of differences in the size and shape of the pores,
penetration of acid in a carbonate rock is far from uni-
Three techniques of acidizing have been described previ- form. Porosity anomalies may result from vugs, hairline
ously. Wellbore cleanup treatments normally do not re- fissures, or tortuous capillary-like pores. Because of these
quire complicated design procedures. Matrix and fracture heterogeneities, a “channeling” or “wormholing” occurs
acldlzmg treatments. on the other hand, can involve ex- with most acid formulations. The resultant effect is the
tensive predesign laboratory testing and complicated de- attainment of much greater acid penetration of matrix than
sign procedures and calculations. expected.
The wide distribution of flow in a rock of varying pore
Matrix Acidizing-Carbonate Formations diameters (Table 54.4) is further accentuated by acidiz-
Matrix acidizing in carbonates normally is used to break ing. As discussed in a preceding section, the fast-reacting
down all perforations and to remove damage. Plugging HCl may provide greater penetration of the limestone
materials can be removed and permeability restored in matrix than the slow-reacting acetic acid, but not as great
two ways: (1) by dissolving the damaging material itself as with the emulsified or gelled acids. Evidently, the slow
or (2) by dissolving part of the rock in which the damage reaction of acetic acid does not change the flow distribu-
exists. In carbonate rocks with acid solubilities greater tion rapidly enough to “channel,” but rather results in
than 50%) the latter method is often most effective. The several small pore enlargements for short distances as op-
dislodged solid particles or liquids then can bc removed posed to a few large, long channels.
physically by the return of the spent acids to the well. Since the formation damage normally does not exist for
HCI normally is used in matrix treatments of car- a great distance from the wellbore, the volume of acid
bonates, but HAc and/or HCOOH should be considered needed is small. With a formation porosity of IO%, 60
ACIDIZING 54-11
gal of acid per foot of section will fill the porosity to a

radius of 5 ft. Usually, matrix treatment volumes range
from 50 to 250 gal per foot of section. If damage is deep-
er than 5 to 10 ft, then larger volumes of acid, a means
of retarding the reaction rate, or, perhaps, fracturing tech-
niques, may be required. Very little rock must be dis-
solved to result in a significant amount of damage repair
or permeability increase. Removal of only 1% of lime-
stone or dolomite rock for a distance of about 5 ft from
the wellbore requires only 70 gal of 15 % HClift of verti-
cal interval.
An overflush in the matrix acidizing treatment is rec-
ommended. This will ensure efficient displacement of the
acid into the matrix. A minimum shut-in time is recom-
mended before returning the spent acid to the well. Since "0 5 IO 15 20
the spending time of acid is short, a long shut-in time of MUD ACID VOLUMf RfPUIRfMENT5 (p.l/f12)
several hours is not necessary, even for the so-called
‘‘retarded acid. ’’The overflush fluid may be brine, water, Fig. 54.16--Response of cores from producing formations to
oil, or a weak acid. Enough volume should be used to mud acid.
ensure maximum penetration of the last portion of the
acid, before it is spent.
Matrix Acidizing--Sandstone Formations acid should be returned to the wellbore as soon as the in-
The purpose of sandstone acidizing is to restore permea- itial spending time has elapsed. The spent HF/HCl acids
bility by dissolving away formation-damaging clay-like should not be allowed to mix with formation brine, if at
minerals or other acid-soluble materials. The clay may all possible because of the danger of precipitates.
be inherent in the formation or may be the result of drill- Inhibitors, surfactants, and diverting methods should
ing mud or workover fluid invasion. be selected just as in an HCl acid treatment. As in the
The type of acid used most often in sandstones is a mix- case of matrix acid treatment in carbonates, an overflush
ture of HF and HCl. These mixtures commonly are rem is recommended. Suitable fluids include weak acid, oil,
ferred to as mud acids or mud removal acids. As or water. Formation brine should not be used to over-
previously discussed, fluoboric acid also has become flush HF/HCl. Short shut-in times should be used-a few
popular in sandstone formations. Concentrations of 2 to hours at the most.
6 % HF and 8 to 12 % HCl normally are used. If a signifi-
cant amount of calcium carbonate is present in the for- Fracture Acidizing-Carbonate Formations
mation (5 to lo%), a spearhead of HCl should be used The primary purpose of an acid fracturing treatment of
to react with it before the HF/HCl is injected. With car- a carbonate formation is to achieve productivity or injec-
bonate content above 20%, HF acid probably is not need- tivity beyond the natural capabilities of the reservoir. It
ed, except to give entry through clay damage. is most applicable in formations with a low and/or ineffec-
As in any matrix-type treatment, injection of the tive permeability structure. The effectiveness of an in-
HF/HCl should he below fracturing pressure. The volume duced hydraulic fracture is a function of both its
of acid required depends on the depth and severity of the conductivity and the extent of penetration of the drainage
damage. A total of 50 to 250 gal of acid per foot of inter- radius of the well.
val is the normal treatment volume, if damage is not ex- These factors will depend on well and reservoir prop-
tensive. An acid solubility test may not be a realistic erties, formation characteristics, injection rate, type and
evaluation of acid requirements. volume of acid used, and shape and orientation of the frac-
Results of a field study by Gidley et al. lo confirmed ture. All these factors have been correlated by several
some earlier recommendations based on laboratory core companies into “guides” to acid fracture treatment de-
flow studies. These results showed much greater success sign. Such guides provide mathematical relationships for
when more than 125 gal/t? acid was used. determining the fracture area and conductivity achieved
The reported core flow test showed what response the by different volumes of specific acid formulations at var-
formation will have to acid. This is illustrated in Fig. ious injection formulations. These guides are programmed
54.16. Although some of these formations have approxi- for computer calculation, so that rapid comparison of var-
mately the same acid (HF/HCI) solubility, permeability, ious treatment designs can be made for selection of best
and porosity, the response to acid is quite different. results per dollar of treatment cost. These guides are not
Initial reduction in permeability is a common occurrence sufficiently similar to get clear comparison between differ-
observed with many formation core flow tests. It is at- ent companies but should be compared only with other
tributed to sloughing particles (clays, silica, fines, etc.) calculations from the same system.
that apparently bridge in the flow channels and restrict
flow, before their further reaction with the acid. An in- Critical Wells
adequate acid volume treatment could lead to a restricted In ultradeep, high-temperature wells, many factors must
permeability in a formation, if the bridging is severe. be considered in the stimulation treatment design. First,
Since secondary reactions may occur, resulting in pos- the high BHT can drastically affect reaction rate of acid,
sible precipitation of damaging reaction products, mud inhibition, and other properties of the acid formulation.
These effects can be partially offset by formation cool- 9. Scherubel, GA. and Crowe, C.W.: “Foamed Acid: A New
down techniques. Basically, this consists of pumping a Concept in Fracture Acidiaing,” paper SPE 7568 presented at&he
1978 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Houston,
pad volume of fluid (generally gelled water) into the for- Oct. 1-3.
mation to cool the rock to a more normal treating tem- 10. Gidley, J.L., Ryan, J.C., and Mayhill, T.D. : “Study of Field
perature. Most companies have computer programs Applications of Sandstone Acidizing,” /. Per. Tech. (Nov. 1976)
available to calculate pad volumes required for a given 1289-94.
temperature reduction.
General References
Another problem is created when fluids with tempera-
tures lower than BHT’s are used. This problem is me- Abram, A. ef al: “The Development and Application of a High pH Acid
Stimulation System for a Deep Mississippi Gas Well,” paper SPE 7565
chanical and involves tubing movement. In ultradeep
presented at the 1978 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
wells, such contraction can create stress in the tubing Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 1-3.
greater than tubing strength, resulting in a parted string.
The solution to this problem is to slack off or to release Barron, A.N., Hendrickson,A.R., and Wieland, D.R.: “The Effect
tension at the top of the tubing string as the job progress- of Flow on Acid Reactivity in a Carbonate Fracture,” J. Per. Tech.
(April 1962) 409-15; Trans., AIME, 225
es. Again, computer programs are available from most
service companies to predict tubing movement under given Black, H.N. and Stubbs, B.A.: “A Case History Study-Evaluation
conditions. of San Andres Stimulation Results,” paper SPE 5649 presented at the
1975 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Sept.
29-Oct. 1.
Summary
In summary, acidizing is a process that uses reactive ma- Broddus, E.C. and Knox, J.A.: “Influence of Acid Type and Quantity
in Limestone Etching,” paper API No. 851-39-I presented at API
terials to increase well production by dissolving either the Production Dev. Mid-Continent Dist., Wichita, March 31-April 2,
reservoir rock or damaging materials blocking the pore 1965.
spaces of the rock. Different kinds of acids and additives
are available, so that treating fluids can be tailored to meet Burkill, G.C.C. and Pierre, M.L.: “Successful Matrix Acidizing of
individual well needs. Acid formulations may be applied Sandstones Requires a Reliable Estimate of Wellbore Damage,” paper
SPE 5590 presented at the 1975 SPE Annual Technical Conference
in either matrix- or fracture-type treatment, depending on and Exhibition, Dallas, Sept. 29-Oct. I,
the degree of stimulation or production increase desired.
While acidizing, and acidizing treatment design, in de- Chat&in, J-C., Silberberg, I.H., and Schechter, R.S.: “Thermodynamic
tail are beyond the scope of this text, published literature Limitations in Organic Acid-Carbonate Systems,” Sot. Per. Eng. J.
(Aug. 1976) 189-95.
offers answers and assistance in solving many of the prob-
lems encountered. The General References cover many Church, D.C., Quisenberry, J.L., and Fox, K.B.: “Field Evaluation
of the recent technical developments in this field. In ad- of Gelled Acid for Carbonate Formations,” J. Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1981)
dition, most service companies providing acidizing serv- 241 l-74
ice offer laboratory facilities, technical assistance, and
Clark. G.J., Wong, T.C.T., and Mungan, N.: “New Acid Systems for
computer programs for problem analyses and treatment Sandstone Stimulation,” Proc., SPE Formation Damage Control
design. Symposium, Lafayette, LA (March 24-25, 1982) 187-97.
Coppel, C.P.: “Factors Causing Emulsion Upsets in Surface Facilities

Following Acid Stimulation,” J. Per. Tech. (Sept. 1975) 1060-66.
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Chapter 55
Formation Fracturing
S.J. Martinez, U. 01 TUIU *
R.E. Steanson. DOM~~II Schlumhergcr *:*:
* :i;
A.W. Coulter. D oi~cil Schlumherrcr
Introduction
Fracturing techniques were developed in 1948 and the first low permeability if the connecting channels are very small
commercial fracturing treatments were conducted in 1949. and fluid flow is restricted.
The process rapidly gained popularity because of its high In the case of high permeability. drilling fluids may
success ratio, and within a very few years. thousands of enter the flow channels and later impair flow into the well-
wells per year were being stimulated by hydraulic frac- bore. In the cast of low permeability, the flow channels
turing treatments. may not permit enough flow into the wcllbore. In either
Early treatments consisted of pumping 1,000 to 3.000 case. the well may not be commercial because fluid can-
gal of fracturing fluid, containing about I Ibm of not flow into the wellborc fast enough. It then becomes
20/40-mesh sand/gal. at rates of I to 2 bbbmin. Today. necessary to create an artificial channel that w*ill increase
a single treatment can require several hundred thousand the ability of the reservoir rock to conduct tluid into the
gallons of fluid and more than a million pounds of prop- wellbore. Such channels often can be crcatcd by hydraulic
ping agent. Although irtjection rates have exceeded 300 fracturing.
bblimin in some instances, rates of 20 to 60 bblimin are During hydraulic fracturing treatments. what actually
about average. Materials, equipment, and techniques have happens when a rock ruptures. or fractures. can be ex
become highly sophisticated. A bibliography is present- plained by basic rock mechanics. All subsurface rocks are
ed at the end of this chapter for those interested in a de- stressed in three directions because of the weight of over-
tailed discussion of particular technologies. This lying formations and their horizontal reactions. Whether
discussion is limited to a generalized description of frac- one of the horizontal stresses or the vertical stress ia the
turing theory, materials, techniques, equipment, and treat- greatest will depend on the additional stresses imposed
ment planning and design. on the rock by prior folding. faulting. or other peologi-
cal movement in the area. These tectonic stresses will con-
trol the direction of the fracture and determine wghethcr
Hydraulic Fracturing Theory the fracture plane will be horizontal. vertical, or inclined.
Oil and gas accumulations occur in the pore spaces or Every formation rock has some measure of strength de-
natural fractures of a subsurface rock where structural pending on its structure. compaction, and cementation.
and/or stratigraphic features form a trap. When a well It has tensile strength in both vertical and horizontal direc-
is drilled into an oil-bearing rock. the fluids must flow tions. The forces tending to hold the rock together are
through the surrounding rock into the wellbore before they the stresses on the rock and the strength of the rock it-
can be brought to the surface. If the pore spaces of the self. When a wellbore is filled with fluid and pressure
rock are interconnected so that channels exist through is applied at the surface, the pressure ofthe fluid in a per-
which the oil can flow. the rock is “permeable.” The ease foration or even in the port spaces of the rock will in-
wzith which tlutd can how through a rock determines its crease. This hydraulic pressure is applied equally in all
degree of permeability. It has high permeability ifoil. gas, directions. If the pressure is increased, the forces applied
or water can flow easily through existing channels and by the fluid pressure in the rock will become equal to the
forces tending to hold the rock together. Any additional
pressure applied will cause the rock to split or fracture.
The fracture will extend as long as sufficient pressure is
applied by injection of additional fluids.
When the treatment is complete and flow is reversed With few exceptions. wells in the same reservoir will
to produce the well. pressure will gradually return have nearly identical fracture gradients. Thus. the gra-
(decline) to reservoir pressure. As this occurs, the force5 dient from one well generally will serve as a guide for
tending to hold the rock together come into play again the entire pool.
and the fracture will close or “heal.” To prevent closure,
some solid material must be placed in the fracture to hold Fracture Area
it open. Such materials are called “propping agents.”
In 1957, Howard and Fast’ presented a mathematical
Since the permeability of these propping agents is much
equation to determine the surface area of a newly opened
higher than that of the surrounding formation. the ability
fracture. The equation, based on the quantity of fractur-
of the propped fracture to conduct fluids to the wellbore
ing materials used and the rate at which they are injected
can result in good production increases. In fact, fractur-
into the formation, takes into account the physical charac-
ing has made profitable production possible from many
terisitics of the fracturing fluids and the specific reser-
wells and fields that otherwise would not have been prof-
voir conditions. This equation is:
itable.
Formations Fractured ib
A,=--- e-” .erfc(x) + __ - 1 . (2)
Fracturing has been used successfully in all formations 47rK’ I
except those that are very soft. Fracturing has proved suc-
cessful in sand, limestone, dolomitic limestone, dolomite.
where
conglomerates, granite washes, hard or brittle shale, an-
hydrite, chert, and various silicates. The plastic nature
of soft shales and clays makes them difficult to fracture, 2K&t
x =
Fracturing has helped wells producing from formations
b ’
that have such a wide range of permeabifities that it is
impossible to set upper and lower permeability limits of
formations that might be helped by fracturing. Produc- and
tion increases have been obtained from zones having per- A, = total area of one face of the fracture at any
meabilities ranging from less than 0.1 to as high as time during injection. sq ft,
900 md. i= constant injection rate during fracture
extension, cu ft/min,
Fracture Planes t= total pumping time, minutes,
Analysis of pressures encountered on many thousands of b= fracture width (breadth), ft,
fracturing treatments has shown that the bottomhole pres- K= fluid coefficient, a constant that is a meas-
sures (BHP) recorded during the injection of fracturing ure of the flow resistance of the fluid
materials range from 0.40 to I .80 psi/ft depth. ’ Only in leaking off into the formation during
a few treatments have fracturing pressure gradients been fracture operations, and
outside of this range. Those were almost all in shallow erfc(x) = complementary error function of x.
experimental treatments. The fracture gradient of is cal-
culated from treatment data by Eq. I:
Essentially, during a fracturing treatment, only the
volume of fracturing fluid that remains within the wall
PI! fP> -Pj of the fracture is effective. The fluid that leaks off into
Rf= D ) (1) the pores of the rock is lost insofar as added fracture ex-
tension is concerned.
When the width of a fracture is known or assumed (frac-
where
ture width is normally calculated using either Perkins and
gt = unit fracture gradient, psiift,
Kern3 or Khristianovitch and Zheltov4 models), the
p/r = total hydrostatic pressure, psi, volume of the fracture can be calculated. With these data,
p,, = total surface treating pressure, psi, it is possible to plot the controllable variables of a fluid
pf = total friction loss, psi, and volume and injection rate against the fracture area pro-
b = depth of producing interval, ft. duced for any particular fluid coefficient. Examples of
such graphs, for various injection rates. are shown in Figs.
Analysis of thousands of treatments plus experimental 55.1 through 55.5.
work in reservoirs with known fracture gradients indi- The rate of fluid leakoff into the formation, as expressed
cate that horizontal fractures are produced in reservoirs by the fluid coefficient, is controlled by three variables:
having fracture gradients of 1 .O or higher. This is gener- the viscosity and compressibility of the reservoir fluid,
ally in shallow wells less than 2,000 ft deep. Vertical frac- the viscosity of the fracturing fluid, and the fluid-loss char-
tures are produced in reservoirs having fracture gradrents acteristics of the fracturing fluid.
of 0.7 or lower. Such gradients are normally encountered
in wells deeper than 4,000 ft. Very few cases have been Reservoir-Controlled Fluids
found where formations have gradients in the intermedi- This group includes those fracturing fluids having low vis-
ate range between 0.7 and 1 .O. Consequently. the use of cosity and high fluid-loss characteristics, in which the rate
fracture gradients to predict the general inclination of frac- of leakoff is controlled by the compressibility and viscosity
tures should be useful in almost every case. of the reservoir fluid.
FORMATION FRACTURING 55-3
(AVERAGE FRACTURE WIDTH =O.l INCH) (AVERAGE FRACTURE WIDTH=O.I INCH)

FRACTURE SAND FILL, THOUSANDS OF LB FRACTURE SAND FILL. THOUSANDS OF LB
60 05 I70 255 425 170 255 425
1, / I \ I I / E-100.000 GAL 1
4
f
26
8
I\ I \ \ I\’ ’ ‘X’
F-250;000 GAL
I, u .\I\1
ZO,BPM
I I \
B-10,000 GAL’
C-25.000 GAL1 I \I , I I
D50.000 GAL E 05O;OOO GAL
I I I I I
_ “A ,,
In
.”
70 40 f=cJ RO IO0
_- -_ 200._-xl0 500 10 ” 0” 100 200 300
FRACTURE AREA,bNE FACE, THOUSANDS OF SQ FT~ FRACT::E AREA::NE: :ACE, THOUSANDS OF SO
Fig. 55.1-Effect of fluid coeflicient and volumeon fracture area Fig. 55.2-Effect of fluid coefficient and volume on fracture area
at constant injection rate of 10 bbllmin. at constant inpction rate of 20 bbllmin
(AVERAGE FRACTURE WIDTH =O.l INCH)

FRACTURE SAND FILL, THOUSANDS OF LB
8.5 17 25 43 60 85 I70 255 425
IO
P
I
10 FRACT% 40 60 80 100 200 300 500
AREA, ONE FACE, THOUSANDS OF SO FT FRACTURE AREA, ONE FACE, THOUSANDS OF SO FT
Fig. 55.3-Effect of fluid coefficient and volume on fracture area Fig. 55.4-Effect of fluid coefficient and volume on fracture area
at constant injection rate of 30 bbllmin. at constant injection rate of 40 bbllmin.
(AVERAGE FRACTURE WIDTH : 0.1 INCH)

FRACTURE SAND FILL, THOUSANDS OF LB
.8.5 I7 25 43 60 85 170 255 425
50BPM I IhlllN
I I I \.
x S-IO;000 GAL’
C-25,000 GAL h
D-50,000 GAL
\
II I I IIIIIITV I ?.
IO FRACT%E 40 60 80 100 200 300 500
AREA, ONE FACE, THOUSANDS OF SQ FT
Fig. 55.5-Effect of fluld coefficient and volume on fracture area

at constant injection rate of 50 bbllmin.
The coefficient for this type of fracturing fluid may be The effective porosity represents the space in the matrix
dctcrmined from Eq. 3.’ into which fracturing fluid will leak off. In figuring ef-
fective porosity, the effects of residual oil and water satu-
ration should be considered. The permeability factor in
K,. =0.0374~+ -. (3) the equation almost always will be the permeability ofthe
PR water-wet formation. but it could be that of an oil-wet
formation. The average md-ft of exposed section also is
where considered.
K, = fluid coefficient (compressibility-viscosity
controlled), ftimin “, Fluid-Loss-Controlled Fluids
Ap = differential pressure, across the face of the This group includes fracturing fluids containing special
fracture, psi, fluid-loss additives designed to reduce the loss of fluid
k,, = effective formation permeability, darcies, taking place during a fracturing treatment.
4,. = effective formation porosity. 7%. The fluid coefficient for this type of fracturing fluid is
(‘R = isothermal coefficient of compressibility of based on Eq. 5’:
the reservoir fluid, psi -I. and
111
PK = reservoir fluid viscosity. cp. K,=0.0328z, . (5)
Compressibility considerations are generally found to be
most applicable in high-pressure, low-volume-factor wells where
that have high saturations. K, = fluid coefficient, wall building (fluid-loss
additive), ftimin “,
Viscosity-Controlled Fluids 17~= the slope of the fluid-loss curve, plotting
This group includes those fracturing fluids in which the cumulative filtrate volume vs. the square
rate of leakoff is controlled by the viscosity of the fluid root of flow time, mL/min”. and
itself. The coefficient for this type of fracturing fluid is
A = cross-sectional area of test media through
cxpresscd by Eq. 4.’
which flow takes place. cm2.
In this case, the coefficient is obtained from an ex-

perimental test to determine the fluid loss resulting from
the use of a particular fluid-loss additive in a particular
where fracturing fluid. The test must be performed at. or cor-
K, = fluid coefficient (viscosity controlled), rected to, bottomhole temperature (BHT) and pressure
ftimin ” . conditions. Spurt loss is the leakoff occurring while the
X,. = cffcctivc formation permeability. darcies, tluid-retaining wall (filter cake) is being built up. It can
111 = differential pressure across the face of the bc determined from this test by extrapolating the straight-
fracture. psi-this ih the product of the line portion ofthe curve back to zero time on the ordinate.
fracture gradient and depth. minus The value at this intercept is the spurt loss.
normal reservoir pressure. (,q, XD)-~JR.
Stimulation Results
9, = ct‘fcctivc formation porosity. %. and
p, = fracturing fluid viscosity. cp. The increased production obtained following a fractur-
ing treatment is the result of increased fracture penctra-
tion and conductivity. The greater penetration produces
a larger drainage area from which reservoir fluids can be
produced. Increased fracture conductivity results from the
lowered resistance to flow through the fracture. permit-
‘2r ting greater production of fluid under reservoir energy
conditions.
Fig. 55.6> shows the relationship between fracture
penetration, fracture conductivity ratio, and production
increase. These curves represent fracture penetration as
a decimal fraction of the drainage radius. If a good con-
ductivity ratio can be achieved, then a fracture penetrat-
ing 100% of the drainage radius can provide as much as
a 1%fold increase in the production.
Fracture conductivity is controlled largely by propping
I I I I I I I I agent permeability, size. and placement. Strength of the
0.5 5 50 propping agent is also very important, The effect of thcsc
CONDUCTIVITY RATIO properties on fracture conducti\ ity will hc discussed later.
Fracture penetration is rclatcd directly to fracture-tluid
Fig. 55.6-Increased fracture penetration by containment of the cll.iclency and containment ot.thc fracture withln the pro-
fracture in the productwe interval can provide much duction zone. A good fracturing tluicl should hc trclati\,c-
greater production Increases. I\ IOM in cost and ha1.c low tluid 1~s. IOU friction lo\\.
good proppant transport characteristics. tcmpcraturc sta- special crosslinking svstcms and stabtli/ers. The high-
hility. ability to thin for good cleanup, and compatibility viscosity gels arc particularly useful in deep well\ bccattsc
with reservoir rock and tluids. Containment of the frac- of their temperature stability. They are able to create wide.
ture within the productive interval is a function not only deeply penetrating fractures at lower rates and can main-
of tluid properties but also of technique. tain their viscosity over the longer pumping times rcquircd
in deeper wells. Fig. 55.7 shows the viscosity profile ot
Fracturing Materials one such fluid.
Two other characteristics of fracturing Iluids normally
Fracturing Fluids
are reported and are used in computer job design. Thcsc
Fracturing fluids may be divided into three broad divi- arc the consistency index, I,.. and the behavior index. l,,.
sions: oil based. water based. and mix based. Classitica- The power law model is used to calculate thcsc charac-
tion depends primarily on the main constituent of the teristics. The consistency index is based on pipe tlow gc-
fracturing fluid. The aqueous-based fluids are either water ometry. The power law parameters arc defined as follows:
or acid. and the mix-based fluids are emulsions.
I,, = behavior index; log slope of the shear
Oil-Based Fluids. In the past. refined oils, crude oils and stress vs. shear rate curve.
soap-type gels of crude, kerosene. or diesel oil wcrc quite
dimensionless. and
common. Because of safety considerations, lack of tem-
I,. = consistency index; shear stress at I set t.
perature stability, and cost of tailoring these materials to
be efficient fluids, they are seldom used today. A new Ibf-see - ’ift’
thickened and crosslinked hydrocarbon gel. made from
either light refined oils or crude oil. is used extensively Apparent viscosity is related to the consistency index and
in hydraulic fracturing of oil- and gas-condensate wells behavior index as follows:
producing from reservoirs adversely affected by water or
brine. These gels exhibit all the characteristics of an cffi- 47.880/,.
cicnt fracturing fluid. lJL,/= . ,-, 3
Y ‘I
Water-Based Fluids. Gels. Water-based tluids arc natural
or synthetic polymer gels of water or hydrochloric acid. where
They may be either linear or crosslinked gels. The watcr- PO = apparent viscosity, cp. and
based fluids are used almost exclusively except in those y = shear rate. see t
extremely water-sensitive reservoirs previously men-
tioned. The popularity of aqueous fluids is based on many Since shear history (shear rate and time at shear) ad-
factors. including these four: (1) they are safe to handle, versely affects the rheology of some crosslinked gels. test
(2) their cost is low in comparison to oil-based tluids, methods have been developed that more accurately
(3) they are. or can be formulated to be, compatible with describe the fluids at the time they enter the fracture. Ta-
nearly all reservoir fluids and conditions, and (4) they can ble 55. I compares data developed by the API test method
be tailored to meet almost any treating requirements. and shear history method.h The data provided by the
Rheological properties, friction pressure. fluid loss, and shear history method give more reliable prediction of fric-
break time can be closely controlled to provide an effi- tion losses while pumping. Such information is a requi-
cient fracturing fluid over a wide range of well and rescr- site in job design to predict fracture geometry and reduce
voir conditions. The primary disadvantage of aqueous
fluids is that they may not be applicable in formations that
are adversely affected by water.
Waterfrac services use linear (uncrosslinked) gels of
fresh water. salt water, or produced brine as efficient and
economical fracturing fluids. Guar and hydroxypropyl
guar thickening agents are available to satisfy the rcquire-
menta of a wide range of reservoir properties. They can
be used in either batch- or continuous-mix techniques. A
cellulose derivative thickener is available for applications
in which fluids with extremely low residue are required.
The viscosity of fluids used in waterfrac services is con-
trolled by thickening-agent concentration.
High-viscosity fracturing fluids have been developed
that contribute directly to wider. better-propped, and
more-conductive fractures. Fracture width is increased
by increasing the viscosity of the fracturing fluid. Wider
fractures permit use of larger proppant, which has grcat-
er permeability. These viscous fluids also have the 6 1 a
proppant-transport properties required to carry higher con- TIME. HR

centrations of proppant deeper into the fracture. They
achieve their high viscosity at gel concentrations in the Fig. 55.7-Viscosity profile of high-viscosity, crosslinked, aque-
same range as the traditional waterfrac fluids by using ous gel.
TABLE 55.1-COMPARISON OF RHEOLOGY DATA GENERATED BY API

RP39M AND SHEAR HISTORY METHOD FOR CROSSLINKED AQUEOUS FLUID
CONTAINING 30-lbm/l,OOO-gal THICKENER AND lo-lbm/lOO-gal STABILIZER
RP39M-XL“A” SHSM’-XL”A”
Temperature Time cp at 170 cp at 170
P’F) (hours) I, I, set-’ I, I set - ’
225 0 - - - 0.7512 o.0017 23
1 0.570 0.065 342 0.7709 0.0015 22
2 0.588 0.045 259 0.7912 0.0013 20
4 0.630 0.021 150 0.8309 0.0009 18
6 0.672 0.011 98 0.8713 0.0007 17
8 0.710 0.0058 63 0.9115 0.0005 15
250 0 - - - 0.7306 0.0021 25

1 0.656 0.127 220 0.7743 0.0014 21
2 0.674 0.019 170 0.8179 0.0009 17
4 0.712 0.0095 103 0.9044 0.0004 11
6 0.752 0.0046 62 0.9918 0.0002 7
8 0.792 0.0024 39 - - -
275 0 - - - 0.7156 0.0020 22

1 0.718 0.014 157 0.7371 0.0014 17
4 0.740 0.010 126 0.7688 0.0009 13
6 0.805 0.0048 84 - -
8 0.842 0.0037 79 - -
*Shear hIstory slmulatlon method
the possibility of premature screenout. Figs. 55.8 through based fluid, foam is a dispersion of a gas, usually nitro-
55.13 are examples of friction-loss data for various fluids. gen, within a liquid. A surfactant is used as a foaming
In many of the high-viscosity fluids, shear history ef- agent to initiate the dispersion. Stabilizers are used where
fects are minimized by using additives to delay crosslink- high temperatures or long pumping time occur. The volu-
ing until the fluid reaches the bottom of the hole. This metric ratio of the gas to the total volume of the foam,
technique also reduces friction losses since high viscosi- under downhole conditions, is called the quality of the
ty does not develop until after the fluid has passed through foam. Quality is expressed as a number equal to the per-
the tubulars. centage. A 75-quality foam is 75% gas by volume at
downhole temperature and pressure. In fracturing, foam
Foams.During recent years, foams have become extreme- quality usually ranges from 65 to 85 (compositions con-
ly popular as fracturing fluids. Normally classed as water- taining less than 52% gas are not normally stable foams).
FLOW RAlf , bbI/mi~
Fig. 55.8-Typical friction-loss curves for linear gel of fresh water Fig. 55.9-Typical friction-loss curve of linear aqueous gel using
or brine using guar or hydroxpropyl guar thickeners. cellulose thickener
FORMATION FRACTURING
flow RATE , bbl/min FLOW RATE , bbI/mla
Fig. 55.10-Typical friction-loss curve for crosslinked aqueous Fig. 55.1 l-Typical friction-loss curve for gelled oil fracturing
gel using guar-based thickener. fluid.
Foam is designed primarily for low-permeability or cleanup and allows quicker well evaluation (gas in foam
low-pressure gas wells. However, it may have equal ad- helps return liquids to the wellbore).
vantages in low-pressure oil wells. In oil wells it may be Some disadvantages of foam are: (1) more surface pres-
necessary to use a different foaming agent that is com- sure is required because of low hydrostatic head; and
patible with reservoir fluids and reduces the possibility (2) there is the added expense of gas, especially under
of emulsions. high pressure where volume is reduced.
Some advantages of foam are: (1) good proppant trans-
port, (2) solids-free fluid-loss control, (3) low fluid loss,
(4) minimum fluid retention owing to its low water con- Mix-Based Fluids. Mix-based fluids are oil-in-water dis-
tent, (5) compatibility with reservoir fluids, and (6) low persions or emulsions that serve as highly efficient water-
hydrostatic pressure of returned fluids, which gives rapid based fracturing fluids.
I I l1llll
4-+++: x:0 ,b ’ ’’“‘I
10 10 10‘0IPlO99
I
‘01 7
I
II
1111111
I , 78910 20 30 40 IO 709090 0
fLOW RATE , bbl lmim fLOW RATE , bbl/m,n
Fig. 55.1 P-Typical friction-loss curve for oil-in-water dispersion- Fig. 55.13-Typical friction-loss curve for heavy oil-in-water
type fracturing fluid. emulsion-type fracturing fluid.
have been established so that the main considerations are

1 grain strength and grain size. If a proppant is not strong
---Fy--- am.-, enough to withstand closure stress of the fracture, it will
- 1,--w
-- --_ __
> .... ....,, - --:-z-. crush. and permeability will be reduced greatly. Also, as
.
.. -q.y. 3 reservoir pressure is reduced by fluid production, the
.... ‘h.. 5
.. %_ closure stress will increase. Therefore, it is important that
7 ._ 4
proppant strength be selected for the stress that will be
\ :: 1.20-40m&ala% beads
present during the later life of the well. Fig. 55. I4 shows
.. 3.20JOmeshexwimentalprop the effect of closure stress on permeability of various prop-
:.4.28-48mesh sxpenmental
prop
Testsrun
using
:&20-M meshsinlaredbauxlle ping agents when the formation is a hard, competent rock.
aluminumpIties Sand is an acceptable propping agent at closure stresses
andlinear
ttow.
width= 0.3in: .... up to 6,000 psi. At stresses greater than this, high-strength
'Y.
\ ..
proppants such as sintered bauxite particles or plastic-
I .-.I
5.oM) 7,5M) 10,000 12.5w 15,ow 17,500 2f
coated sand grains should be used.
2.5w
Overburden
presrure.pri In soft formations, the proppant will tend to embed into
the formation under closure stress and reduce fracture
Fig. 55.14-Effect of closure stress on permeability of various width. This, in turn, reduces fracture flow capacity. In
propping agents. the past, deformable proppants such as rounded walnut
shells and aluminum pellets have been used in an attempt
to overcome this problem. By deforming or spreading out,
The viscous emulsions are water-outside-phase emul- these proppants presented a larger surface area to the fact
sions containing two parts oil (crude or refined) and one of the fracture and resisted embedment. The low density
part water or brine. These arc commonly called “poly- and malleability of these proppants caused both pumping
emulsions” and are designed to provide high-viscosity and placement problems, and they were never widely ac-
fracturing fluids at temperatures up to 350°F. They are ceptcd. There was also a corrosion or oxidation of the
seldom used because of fire hazard and cost. aluminum that resulted in loss of pack permeability.
A crosslinked gel provides high viscosity in the water A better solution to embedment is a wide. packed frac-
volume (95 %a). and a 5 % oil phase is dispersed through- ture. In such a fracture, width reduction resulting from
out the mixture to give excellent fluid-loss control prop- embedment is a small percentage of total fracture width,
erties without requiring the addition of solids. The leakoff and adequate flow capacity is maintained even after
control is the result of two-phase fluid flow that reduces embedment occurs.
the relative permeability of the formation more than con-
ventional fracturing fluids do over a wide permeability Grain Size. A large proppant grain size provides a tnore
range. The fluid is highly efficient even when compared permeable pack under low closure stress conditions and
to viscous-emulsion fracturing fluids. Normally. the 5% can be used in shallow wells. However. dirty formations
oil content is low enough to avoid significant effects on or those subject to significant fines migration are poor
either friction pressure or hydrostatic head. even when candidates for large-size proppants. The fines tend to in-
used with the highly viscous water or brine gels. vade the proppant pack. causing partial plugging and rapid
Fracturing tluid composition is normally proprietary in- reduction in permeability. In these cases. smaller sizes
formation of the service company supplying it. While of proppant that resist invasion of fines are better.
competitive iluids are available from most of the service Larger gram sizes are generally not considered for deep-
companies, rheological and friction-loss data will vary ac- er wells because of greater susceptibility to crushing.
cording to the fluid. Therefore. handbooks provided by
the service companies should bc used to obtain data for Proppant Placement. The manner in which a propping
job design. agent is placed in a fracture is also important. As previ-
ously stated, soft or high-permeability formations need
Propping Agents a wide, fully packed fracture. In very-low-permeability
Propping agents are used to maintain fracture-flow ca- formations, only a thin fracture may be necessary. How-
pacity after completion of a hydraulic fracturing treatment. ever. fracture length becomes important in such forma-
The amount of proppant used, the manner in which it is tions because the greater the surface arca of formation
placed in the fracture, and the properties of the material exposed to the propped fracture, the greater the volume
itself all play a vital role in maintaining productivity of oil or gas that can drain into the fracture. Since fluid
throughout the life of the well, The selection of the prop- enters the fracture along its entire length. long fractures
ping agent and scheduling of the proppant during the treat- must be wider at the wellbore than at the tip to accom-
mcnt are important parts of the overall completion and modate the increasing amount of fluid as the fracture nears
treatment design. the wellbore. To accomplish this fracture geometry. the
The ux physical properties of propping agents that af- proppant must be scheduled so that its concentration in
feet the resultant fracture conductivity are grain strength. the fracture fluid increases steadily as the treatment
progresses.
2crrain size. grain size distribution, grain roundness t’ac-
tor. quality (amount of fines and impurities). and prop-
pant density Fracturing Techniques
Although fracturing treatments usually arc pctformcd by
Grain Strength. While all thcsc physical properties have pumping materials down the casing or tubing at rates as
;I decided cffcct on fracture conductivity. quality standards high as well limitations and economics will permit. spc-
cial techniques sometimes are used to help control verti- Individual pumping units are powered by engines rang-
cal fracture growth. Such control is directly related to ing from less than 100 to more than 1,300 hp. For high
fracturing efficiency. In the case of massive zones, ade- horsepower requirements, multiple units are used.
quate fracture height to cover the entire zone is desirable. Fluids used in hydraulic fracturing are mixed in
With narrow zones, containment of the fracture within blenders. They are either batch mixed before a job and
the productive zone improves efficiency and penetration stored in tanks on location or continuously mixed during
and prevents fracture growth into undesirable zones. the job. Blenders are capable of metering both dry and
While vertical growth can be controlled to some extent liquid additives into a fluid, mixing the fluid and addi-
by controlling injection rate. more sophisticated tech- tives, and metering and mixing propping agent into the
niques are required for optimum efficiency. fluids. After mixing and blending, the slurries are sup-
A Limited Entry@ technique involves designing the plied by the blender to the suction on the high-pressure
number and size of perforations to match an economically pumps under pressure. Blending units capable of handling
feasible pump rate so that all perforations are forced to volumes in excess of 100 bblimin are available.
accept fluid during the treatment. Liquid nitrogen is the gas normally used for foam or
Another specialty technique to limit downward growth energized tluid. Special transport and pumping equipment
of a vertical fracture involves building an artificial lower is required to handle the nitrogen, which generally is me-
barrier. This is done by using low injection rates and fluids tered into the treating line on the downstream (high-
with poor proppant transport characteristics at the begin- pressure) side of the triplex or multiplier pumps.
ning of the treatment. Propping agent can create a prop- Another piece of equipment recently added to fractur-
pant pack at the bottom of the fracture. A pressure drop ing fleets is the treatment monitoring vehicle. This vehi-
will exist across this pack and will divert the fluid that cle gathers data, uses a computer to analyze them. and
follows outward and upward, thus slowing or even stop- presents the results as they occur, or in “real time.” The
ping downward fracture growth. data are presented by a printer, plotter, and on a CRT
Similarly, a buoyant propping agent can create an ar- screen. Real-time analysis and presentation of data allow
tificial upper barrier by floating to the top of the fracture positive control of a treatment. Ample warning of prob-
and bridging to form a proppant pack. In this case also, lems normally is available so that changes can be made
the pressure drop across the pack will force subsequent to permit successful completion of the job. Also. the
fluids outward to increase fracture length. equipment can be used to monitor a tninifrac job before
the main treatment. Analysis of the minifrac can either
Multiple-Zone Fracturing verify job design or indicate needed design changes be-
Whcrc multiple zones are open to the wellbore. mechan- fore the main treatment.
ical devices such as packers or bridge plugs can be used
to isolate zones so that each can be treated individually.
Where it is desirable to fracture more than one zone in Treatment Planning and Design
a single treatment, sized particulate materials or perfora- Success of a hydraulic fracturing treatment depends on
tion ball sealers can be used. The particulate materials creating a deeply penetrating, highly conductive fracture
usually are suspended in a viscous fluid and filter out at in the producing zone. Research, engineering studies, and
the fracture entrance. After treatment, they generally flow experience have provided reliable planning or treatment
back with produced fluids. They also can break down design guides. Job calculations with these guides are based
through chemical reaction. Ball sealers seat in perfora- on reservoir conditions, laboratory tests. theoretical data.
tions and divert fluid flow. They are unseated by reverse well information, and experience in a given area. Most
flow and either fall to the bottom or are produced along service companies and many oil-producing companies
with the returning fluids. When ball sealers are used. a have job-design calculations computerized to aid in rapid
mechanical device to catch the balls should be used at the and accurate design comparisons. Special computer pro-
surface to prevent the balls from plugging valves or other grams are available also to calculate tubing expansion and
surface equipment. contraction, bottomhole cool-down (fluid temperature at
the wellbore and in the fracture), proppant scheduling to
Fracturing Equipment provide best propped fracture geometry, and anticipated
Hydraulic fracturing equipment consists of pumps and productivity increase.
blenders. high-pressure manifolds and treating line, re- Evaluating and selecting optimal treating conditions for
motely controlled master valves, and tree savers. any individual well includes several steps. First, accurate
Pumping equipment is the conventional triplex pump. reservoir and well-completion data must be accumulated
quintaplex pump. or a pressure-multiplier type of pump. to provide a sound basis for engineered treatment preplan-
The latter employs an entirely different putnping concept ning. Next, the fracture area and the extent of formation
from the triplex pump. It operates by using a low-pressure penetration necessary to provide the desired productivity
working fluid to push a large piston. This large piston increase are calculated. The fracture conductivity. as re-
is directly connected to a smaller piston, or ram, which lated to the permeability of the matrix, is detertnined also.
handles the treating fluid. Because of a slow cycle speed. After this. the comparative efficiency of various frac-
the pressure multiplicrs are capable of long pumping times turing fluids, based on specific well conditions. is dcter-
at high pressures. Both the triplex and pressure multipli- mined. as well as the volumes and injection rates necessary
cr arc capable of high-pressure operation. Above to provide the desired fracture extension. Horsepower rc-
12.000-psi treating pressure, however. the multiplier is quirements for each type of treatment then can be calcu-
prcfcrred. Thcsc units are capable of operating at prcs- lated; and fracturing materials and tcchniqucs can be
hutch slightly in cxccss of 70.000 psi. sclccted that. theoretically. will most cf’ficicntlv and eco-
nomically produce the desired productivity increase. Only and

when all these factors are considered collectively can a
well-integrated fracturing treatment be carried out.
K, =0.001076;, ...... .... .. ... . .(5)
Nomenclature
A= cross-sectional area of test media through where
which flow takes place, cm* K,.,K,, and K, are in m/s I’,
A, = total area of one face of the fracture at any Ap is in kPa,
time during injection, sq ft k, is in pm*,
4, is in percent,
b= fracture width (breadth), ft
CR = isothermal coefficient of compressibility of CR is in kPa-‘,
the reservoir fluid, psi - ’ pR is in Pa’s,
D= depth of producing interval, ft m is in mL/s’, and
erfc(x) = complementary error function of x A is in m*.
gf = unit fracture gradient, psi/ft

i= constant injection rate during fracture
References
extension, cu ftlmin 1. Hurst, R.E.. Franks. J.E., and Rollins, J-T.: “Horsepower Require-
ments for Well Stimulation.” Drill Blr (Oct. 1958) 25.
Ill = behavior index; log slope of the shear- 2. Howard, G.C and Fast. C.R.: Hydmulic Frcrcturin~. Monograph
stress vs. shear-rate curve, dimensionless Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1970) 2.
I,. = consistency index: shear stress at 1 set-‘, 3. Perkins, T.K. Jr. and Kern, L.R.: “Widths of Hydraulic Fractures.”
J. Pet. Tech. (Sept. 1961) 937-49; ‘firms.. AIME. 222.
lbf-set - ’ift 2 4. Khristianovitch, S.A. and Zheltov, Y.P.: “Formation of Vertical
k, = effective formation permeability, darcies Fracture by Means of Highly Viscous Fluids.” Proc., Fourth World
K= fluid coefficient, a constant that is a meas- Pet. Coni., Rome (1955) i. 579.
5. McGuire, W.J. and Sikora, V.J.: “The Effect of Vertical Fractures
ure of the flow resistance of the fluid on Well Productivity,” J. Pet. Terh. (Oct. 1960) 72-74: Truns.,
leaking off into the formation during AIME. 219.
fracture operations 6. Cralgie, L.J.: “A New Method for Determining the Rheology of
Crosslinked Fracturing Fluids Using Shear HIstory Simulation,”
K,. = fluid coefficient (compressibility-viscosity paper SPE 11635 presented at the 1983 SPElDOE Low-Permeability
controlled), ft/min ‘X Gas Reservoirs Symposium, Denver, March 14-16.
K, = fluid coefficient, wall building (fluid-loss
additive), ft/min ‘X General References
K,. = fluid coefficient (viscosity controlled),
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ft/min % in Deeply Buried Sediments,” paper SPE I1069 presented at the 1982
m= slope of fluid-loss curve, plotting SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. New Orleans, Sept.
26-29.
cumulative filtrate volume vs. square
root of flow time, mL/min” Abou-Sayed, AS.. Ahmed, U., and Jones. A.: “Systematic Approach
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P/r = Symposium, Denver, May 27-29.
PR = normal reservoir pressure, psi
P., = total surface treating pressure, psi Agarwal. R.G.. Carter, R.D., and Pollock. C.B.: “Evaluation and Per-
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psi
total pumping time, minutes Ahmed, U., Strawn, J., and Schatz. J.: “Effect of Stress Distribution
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Key Equations in SI Metric Units
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kc 6 6,CR
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k,ApO,
p, ..,..,,, . . (4)
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tmn. New Orleans, Sept. 26-29.
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Govier. G.W. and Aziz, K.: The F/or\, ofCo!np/er Mirrures in Pipes.
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and Exhibition, Dallas, Sept. 21-24.
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West&n Gas Sands Project Multiwell Experiment Updates.” paper
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Gas Reservoirs Symposium. Denver. May 27-29. Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver. Oct. 9-12.
Lcx~rboura. J.A.. Sif’lrman. T.R and Wahl. H.A : “Evaluation ot Smtth. M.B.: “Stimulation Design l’or Short. PI-cctw Hqdraullc
Frscturlng Fluid Stnbillty Usins 1 Heated Pres~ur~zccl Flow Loop.” Fractures-MHF.” p;iper SPE LO>13 prewntcd jlt the the lY81 SPh
Srr. for. EQ. .I. (June 1984) 24Y-55. Annual Techntcal Conlcrcncc and Exhibition. San Antonio. Oct. 1-7.
McDaniel. R.R.. Deywrher. A.K.. trnd Calluntn. M.J : “An Improved Smtth. M.B.. Logan. J.M.. ;tnd Wood. M.D.: “Fracture Afttnulh--,A
Method lor Meawrtnf Flutd Los5 ut Stmulated Fracture Condtttonh.” Shallow Experiment.” 71n/r.j., ASME (June IYXOI 102. YY- 105.
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McLcwi. H.O. Jr.: “A Simplified Apprcwh to Design of Fracturing
Annual Technical Conl’erencc and Exhibition. New Orlcan~. Sept.
Trcntmcnt\ Li\ing High-Vihcwitg Crosslinked Fluids.” paper SPE
26-29.
II614 prewntcd at the 1983 SPEiDOE Lcw-Permeability Gab Rexr-
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High Temperature Fracturing.” paper SPE X344 presented at the lY7Y
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pant\ liv Treatment of Deep Well Fractures.” paper SPE 68 16 present- 23-26.
cd at the 1977 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhthttion,
Denber. Y-12. Teufel. L. W.: “Determination 01‘lwSitu Stressw t’rum Anelawc Stram
Recovery Measurements ol’orientcd Core: Appltcation\ to H!draul-
Noltc. K.G.: “Dutcrmtnation of Fracturing Paramrter~ t’rom Fractur- ic Fracturing Treatment Design.” paper SPE I t h49 pre\entctl at the
tng Prehwre Dechne.” pqxr SPE 8341 presented at the I979 SPE 19X3 SPElDOE Low-Pcrmcahilit) Ciao Re\ervwr\ Symportum. Dcn-
.Annual Tcchniwl Conference and Exhibition. Las Vegas. Sept. 23-26. vu. March 14-16.
Teutel. L.W. and Clark. J.A.: “Hydrattllc Frxturc Propagatwn m

Noire. K.G.: “Fracture Design Considerations Based on Preawre Anal-
Layered Roth: Experimental Studie 01‘Fracturc Contammcnt.” S,w.
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PC/. OI,~. I. (Feb. 1984) 19-32.
pwiurn. Tyler. TX. May 20.
Thiercelin. M. and Lemancryk. .R “The Etiect of Stre\s Gradvmt on
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the Height ot Vertical Hydraulic Fractures.” pap! SPE I I626 prlxntv
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ed at the IYX3 SPEIDOE Low-Pcrmcuhilil) Ga\ Rswt-I air\ Sympo-
\ium. Denver. March 14-16.
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PC/. hy J. (Aug. 1972, 306-14.
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State Productton Increase.” J. PC,. 7iTh. (ii,) IYhY) 633-38: />tr,,;..
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AIME. 246.
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J. (Dec. iY83) 870-78. wn Poollcn. H.K.. TimIcy. J.M.. and Saundcrh. C.D. “H>draultc
Frncturins-Fracture Flow Capacltg w. Well Prwlucttvtty.” J. PC/.
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cd itt the 1983 SPE!DOE Low-Permeability Gas Reservoirs Veatch. R.W. Jr. and Crowell. R.F.: “Joint Rc\e,rrch/Oper:ltic,nh Pro-
Sympostum. Denver. March 14-16. grams Accelerate Massive Hydraulic Fracturing Technology.” .I. PH.
Twh. (Dec. 1982) 2763-75.
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SPE Formawn Damage Control Symposium. Lafayette. March 24-25. tured Well+ in a Tight Solutton Gas-Drive Rtwxwrlr.” paper SPE
I1084 presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical Ccmlcrcncc and
Exhibition. New Orleans. Sept 26-29.
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Wendorft’. C.L.: “Frac Sand Quality Control-A Muht tar Good Frac
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nual Meeting. Houston. Nov. 5-9.
t,on. La\ Vegas. Sept. 23-26.
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15t.y. J. (Dec. 1980) 487-500.
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Chapter 56
Remedial Cleanup, Sand Control,
and Other Stimulation Treatments
A.W. Coulter Jr., Dwell Schlumberger*
S.J. Martinez, Information Services Div., U. of Tulsa*
K.F. Fischer, Dwell Schlumberger*
Introduction
Although fracturing and acidizing are the most common use of a jetting tool. One or more streams of sand-laden
types of well stimulation used today, other types of stimu- fluid are forced through a hardened, specially designed
lation treatments also are used. Some of these treatments nozzle at pressures of 1,000 psi and up, to impinge against
use acid-type materials but are not generally classed as the wall of the borehole.
acidizing jobs. These treatments are specifically designed These jets, striking against the face of the open hole,
for the removal of a blocking agent such as gypsum loosen and break up gyp deposits, and may penetrate the
(gyp), drilling mud. paraffin, formation silicate, par- formation. If the tool is moved up and down while jet-
ticles, or other materials on the wellbore face and in the ting, the entire borehole can be cleaned. This same tool
formation immediately adjacent. may be used for perforating pipe; the high-pressure jets
The first stimulation treatments used in oil and gas wells of sand-laden fluid are able to cut through %-in-thick steel
involved explosives such as dynamite or nitroglycerin. pipe in 15 to 30 seconds. They can then penetrate the for-
This method was used for many decades before being dis- mation to a depth of 12 or 15 in. in another 5 minutes
continued for safety reasons. More recent attempts to or so, forming large unobstructed channels for the pro-
stimulate with explosives involved displacement of explo- duction of reservoir fluids.
sive material into the producing formation in a fracture-
type treatment. The material was then detonated. Because Mud Removal
this method was hazardous, research involving explosives Several materials are used to remove drilling mud from
has been discontinued. the borehole and the adjacent formation. The most com-
monly used material is a mud-dissolving acid consisting
Reperforation of inhibited hydrochloric acid (HCI) with an added fluo-
In some cases it is useful to reperforate a well in the same ride. This material dissolves part of the mud and loosens
zone in which it was originally perforated. The detona- the remainder so that it may be flushed out. Mud-removal
tion of the gun loosens blocking materials in the forma- agents are often used ahead of fracturing, acid jobs, or
tion adjacent to the well and in the previous perforations, cement, to clean the face of the pay, to allow a lower
and simultaneously creates more drainage holes into the breakdown pressure, and to minimize mud contamination.
wellbore. Also, over a period of time, some of the origi- Acid cleanup solutions, containing special surfactants
nal perforation tunnels might become totally blocked by that increase penetration and provide special mud-
migratory fines, scale, gyp, or paraffin. Reperforation in dispersing properties, are also used when an infiltration
such cases could greatly increase drainage area into the of mud into the formation is suspected.
wellbore. Other solutions, containing phosphates or other chem-
icals, may be used to loosen and disperse mud particles
Abrasive Jet Cleaning so they can be more easily flushed from their position in
Another method used to clean up shot holes or to remove or adjacent to the wellbore.
gyp contaminating the formation near the wellbore makes Special blends of surfactants, iron chelating agents, and
mud-dispersing agents also have been effective in remov-
ing mud from the formation.
Water Blocks and Emulsions equipment. This in turn minimizes the adherence of
paraffin accumulations to the treated surfaces.
Oil- and/or water-based solutions containing low-surface-
tension, emulsion-breaking agents have been used suc- Large-Volume Injection Treatments
cessfully to remove water blocks or emulsions from a for-
A simple technique often used to free or to open block-
mation. More recently, solutions of special surfactants and
ages within the formation consists simply of pumping large
alcohols have become popular. These materials are
volumes of crude oil, kerosene, or distillate into the for-
pumped into the formation to contact the water or emul-
mation. These treatments are especially effective when
sion block. By changing the blocking material’s physical
the formation is blocked by fine silicates or other solids.
characteristics, the solution enables the blocking fluid to
Pumping the oil into the formation may rearrange these
be produced. Treatments of this type usually consist of
fine particles so that flow channels to the wellbore are
a specialized, commercially available product with an oil-
reopened. Sometimes it is helpful to add surface-active
carrying agent. If a large zone is to be treated, diverting
agents or emulsion-breaking agents to the oil.
agents, ball sealers, or packers should be used to ensure
that the solution contacts the blocking fluids. Otherwise, Steam Injection
the chemicals will probably enter the more permeable and
In some areas where low-gravity crude is produced, steam
nonblocked portions of the formation and miss the block-
is used to heat and reduce the viscosity of the oil and there-
age completely.
by allow the oil to move more easily to the wellbore. Two
Scale Deposits types of steam injection are used. In some areas, steam
is injected into a central injection well and the oil pro-
When a well produces some water, gyp deposits may ac-
duced from adjacent or surrounding wells.
cumulate on the formation face and on downhole equip-
The other type of injection is often referred to as “huff
ment and thereby reduce production. These deposits may
‘n’ puff.” This consists of alternate steam-injection and
have low solubility and be difficult to remove. Solutions
oil-production cycles from the same well.
of HCI and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) can
often be used to remove such scales. Soluble portions of General Comments
the scale are dissolved by the HCl while the chelating ac-
In any case of production decline, it is important to have
tion of EDTA breaks up and dissolves much of the re-
all available facts and to make the best possible analysis
maining scale portions. When deposits contain
from these facts as to the factors contributing to the
hydrocarbons mixed with acid-soluble scales, a solvent-
decline. If the problem is not analyzed as completely as
in-acid blend of aromatic solvents dispersed in HCl can
possible before treatment, a great deal of money may be
be used to clean the wellbore, downhole equipment, and
wasted in the use of an incorrect treatment. Also,
the first few inches of formation around the wellbore (crit-
whenever a fluid is to be pumped into a specific part of
ical area) through which all fluids must pass to enter the
a zone, some chemical or mechanical method should be
wellbore. These blends are designed as a single stage that
used to ensure that the fluid enters the proper zone.
provides the benefits of both an organic solvent and an
acid solvent that contact the deposits continuously. Sand Control
Paraffin Removal Sand Formation Properties and Geology
Several good commercial paraffin solvents are on the mar- Most oil and gas wells produce through sandstone for-
ket. These materials can be circulated past the affected mations that were deposited in a marine or detrital envi-
parts of the wellbore or simply dumped into the borehole ronment. Marine-deposited sands, where most of the
and allowed to soak opposite the trouble area for a peri- hydrocarbons are found, are often cemented with calcare-
od of time. Soaking, however, is much less effective be- ous or siliceous minerals and may be strongly consoli-
cause the solvent becomes saturated at the point of contact dated. In contrast, Miocene and younger sands are often
and stagnates. unconsolidated or only partially consolidated with soft clay
In the past, many paraffin solvents havt contained chlo- or silt. These structurally weak formations may not re-
rinated materials having an organic chloride ion. Presuma- strain grain movement. When produced at high flow rates,
bly such materials have been taken off the market because they may produce sand along with the fluids.
of problems encountered in refineries with poisoning of
certain catalysts by organic chlorides. The nonorganic Why Sand is Produced
chloride ion from HCl is water soluble, and it can be read- Fluid movement through sandstone reservoirs creates
ily extracted from the oil during refining processes. There- stresses on the sand grains because of fluid pressure differ-
fore, the problem of catalyst poisoning does not arise when ences, fluid friction, and overburden pressures. If these
HCl is used in paraffin-removal formulations such as acid stresses exceed the formation-restraining forces, then sand
dispersions. grains and fines can move and may be produced with the
Hot-oil treatments also are commonly used to remove fluid. Rapid changes in fluid production rates and fluid
paraffin. In such a treatment, heated oil is pumped down phases cause unstable conditions that can result in in-
the tubing and into the formation. The hot oil dissolves creased sand production. When a well starts to produce
the paraffin deposits and carries them out of the wellbore water, it will often start to produce sand. Muecke ’ dem-
when the well is produced. When this technique is used, onstrated that particle movement takes place in a mul-
hot-oil treatments are usually performed on a regularly tiphase system when the wetting phase starts to move.
scheduled basis. Even consolidated sandstone can be mechanically and
Paraffin inhibitors are a recent development. These are chemically damaged with time as the reservoir is pro-
designed to create a hydrophilic surface on the metal well duced. Overburden stress on sand grains increases as the
REMEDIAL CLEANUP, SAND CONTROL, & OTHER STIMULATION TREATMENTS 56-3
reservoir pressure decreases. Water movement can dis- screen, in primary or remedial work, and through coiled
solve minerals that cement sand grains as well as change or concentric tubing.
the carrying capacity of the formation fluids. Fines migra- The type of sand-control method selected will depend
tion can reduce the permeability in the perforation tun- on the specific well conditions. Important variables such
nels. This can result in a higher pressure drop into the as grain-size distribution, clay content, interval length,
wellbore and a change in formation stresses. A calcite- bottomhole temperature, wellbore deviation, mechanical
cemented formation can be damaged by an improperly configuration, bottomhole pressure, anticipated produc-
designed acid treatment, and increased sand production tion rates, and cost should be considered before deciding
can result. on the method of sand control best suited to the well.
Consequences of Sand Production Formation Sampling

Sand movement in unconsolidated formations and its ul- The most important design parameter in sand control is
timate production with oil and/or gas creates a number the formation sand grain size. The success of gravel-pack
of costly and potentially dangerous problems. Most com- methods relies upon formation particles being restrained
mon among these problems are the following.2,3 by the larger pack gravel. Chances for a successful sand
1, Production interruptions can be caused by sand plug- control job are highest when representative samples of
ging the casing, tubing, flowlines, or separator. the formation are available for sieve analysis. This ena-
2. Casing collapse can be caused by changes in over- bles selection of the proper size of gravel.
burden pressure and stresses within the formation. The most representative formation samples are obtained
3. Downhole and surface equipment can be destroyed, from rubber-sleeve core barrels. Sidewall cores, although
resulting in downtime for equipment replacements, spills, they contain crushed grains and mud contamination, are
cleanup or even an uncontrolled blowout. the second choice. Bailed or separator samples are not
4. Disposal of produced sands is costly because regu- representative since sand grains may have been
lations require the disposed sands to be essentially oil-free. segregated-the larger grains remaining in the hole and
the smaller grains being produced with the well fluids.
Methods of Sand Control
Higher allowable production rates have increased the need Formation Analysis
for more effective and durable sand-control systems, Formation sand sieve analyses should be conducted to de-
which exhibit minimal permeability impairment. Experi- termine formation properties under bottomhole conditions.
ence indicates that sand control should be implemented Treatment steps in acidizing, clay stabilization, and sand
before the formation is seriously disturbed by sand control can be determined. Typical sandstone analyses in-
removal.4 Four general types of sand-control methods clude permeability, porosity, response to acid, mineral-
have been developed to reduce or to prevent the move- ogy, petrographic analysis, scanning electron microscope
ment of formation sands with produced fluids. analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, and optical emission
1. In some cases, sand production can be prevented spectrographic analysis.
merely by restricting the production rate and thus reduc-
ing the drag forces on the sand grains. 4 This simple ap- Well Preparation
proach is usually uneconomical. Increasing perforation A successful sand-control installation is dependent on fol-
size and density along with the use of clean, nondamag- lowing the recommended procedures for all phases of the
ing completion fluids will help to decrease fluid velocity drilling and completion operations. Selection of the proper
and drawdown pressure at higher production rates. gravel size or resin, use of nondamaging drilling and com-
2. Gravel packing is the oldest, simplest, and most con- pletion fluids, perforation density and cleanliness, and
sistently reliable method of sand control. It has wide ap- gravel placement are among the important factors affect-
plication both on land and offshore. Advances in ing well productivity. The following are some of the fac-
gravel-pack technology, which use a viscous fluid to car- tors that should be considered before any sand control
ry high gravel concentrations around a screen, have re- procedures are initiated.
sulted in faster and more productive gravel packs.
Improved completion tools and through-tubing tools that Cleanliness. Clean Tubing. Steps must be taken to en-
eliminate the need for costly workover rigs have expand- sure that new or used tubing is as free as possible of rust,
ed the application of gravel packing. scale, mill varnish, and other contaminants or obstruc-
3. Sand consolidation plastic treatments inject resins tions. Many of the contaminants can be removed chemi-
into the producing interval, binding the formation sand cally through the use of solvents or mechanically by
grains together while leaving the pore spaces open. With “rabbiting” the joints before running.
use of special preflush systems and diverting agents, in- Acidizing the tubing string after it has been run will
tervals up to 30 ft thick have been successfully consoli- remove rust and some of the pipe dope that accumulates
dated and provided with the strength necessary to allow (see next section) inside the tubing. The string can be acid-
high production rates. ized by pumping HCl down the string to within 100 to
4. Resin-coated gravel packing places gravel coated 200 ft of the bottom and then immediately reverse-
with a resin both inside and outside the perforations and circulating the acid out. Complexing or reducing agents
in the casing. As the resin cures, the sand grains are bound should then be used. The acid should not be allowed to
together. A strong, highly permeable, synthetic sandstone exit the tubing string nor to reach the perforations. Any
filter results. After curing, the excess resin-coated grav- iron present in the ferric state could precipitate as
el is drilled from the casing, resulting in a full-open well- gelatinous ferric hydroxide (FeOH), which can be ex-
bore. This gravel pack can be used with or without a tremely damaging to the formation.
TABLE 56.1-PRESSURE DROP ACROSS A SAND-FILLED PERFORATION
Ap (psi) With
Flow Rate, q Perforation Diameter of
Gravel (BPDlperforaiion) 3/8in. ‘12 in. Vi in. 1 in.
U.S. 10120 mesh, 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.05
500 darcies 10 24.0 8.0 2.3 1.oo
25 132.0 44.0 10.0 4.00
50 495.0 175.0 37.0 13.00
100 2,079.o 666.0 137.0 48.00
U.S. 20/40 mesh, 2.0 1.o 0.4 0.20
119 darcies 10 55.0 21.0 6.0 3.00
25 272.0 99.0 25.0 11 .oo
50 983.0 357.0 81 .O 31 .oo
100 4,037.o 1,298.O 282.0 104.00
U.S. 40/60 mesh, 6.0 3.0 1.3 0.70
40 darcies 10 177.0 67.0 20.0 9.00
25 893.0 324.0 80.0 33.00
50 3,250.O 1,178.O 260.0 98.00
100 13,400.o 4,360.O 927.0 323.00
Formation sand, 450.0 190.0 64.0 32.00
1 darcy 10 27,760.O 9,280.O 2,091 .O 808.00
Pipe Dope. Pipe dope, when improperly applied, may An in-gauge borehole is important, and the string should
be squeezed inside the tubing at the joints and can be trans- be equipped with adequate centralizers, particularly in
ported into the formation by treatment fluids or become deviated holes. Spacer fluids and cement slurry proper-
lodged in the screen or liner slots, resulting in decreased ties must be controlled. The string should be equipped
production. It is virtually impossible to remove the solids with scratchers through critical zones and either rotated
found in pipe dope from an oil or gas well chemically. or reciprocated during placement of the slurry. Turbu-
Pipe dope should therefore be applied sparingly to the pin lent flow is recommended.
end of the tubing. It should not be used inside the collar If there is any indication of poor bonding, a squeeze
where it can be squeezed into the tubing strmg when the cement job should be performed. Intervals to be treated
joint is made up. separately should be effectively isolated by bonded ce-
Filtering of Fluids. Significant reduction of oil and gas ment to reduce the possibility of communication between
production can be caused by formation damage caused zones.
by solids in the fluids used in well completion or work-
over operations. Clays, silt, or organic solids injected into Perforations. The success of sand-control treatments in
a perforated interval can become trapped in the forma- cased holes, measured in terms of well productivity and
tion matrix or in the perforation tunnels where they can treatment life, is greatly affected by perforation size and
act as a low-permeability choke, reducing the productivity density and by perforating damage. Perforation tunnels
of the well. must be open so they can be filled with pack gravel to
prevent filling with formation sand. If perforations are
Cement Bond. A good bond between the cement and the plugged, gravel cannot be deposited in the tunnels (as car-
formation and between the cement and the casing is es- rier fluids flow into the formation) and formation con-
sential to isolate the producing zone. Primary cementing solidation chemicals cannot be injected.
is one of the most critical phases in a successful well com- If formation sand is lodged in the perforation tunnels,
pletion. and good cementing practices should be followed. the pressure drop within the perforation can be excessive,
even though the permeability of the formation sand is rcla-
tively high. Experimental results indicate that fluid flow
can be turbulent in gravel-filled perforation tunnels with
pressure drops far greater than those predicted by Dar-
cy’s linear flow equations. As shown in Table 56.1, pres-
sure drop within a gravel-filled perforation tunnel can be
quite significant. 4m6
The greater the perforation density, the less the draw-
down through each perforation tunnel and the less the ve-
locity through each effective perforation. Intervals
perforated 4 shotsift show cumulative production before
sanding to be seven times greater than intervals perforat-
ed with only 1 shot/ft. Two perforations per foot show
two-thirds the capacity of 4 shots/ft.’
In wells gravel-packed effectively. the lower fluid ve-
locity resulting from high perforation density and large-
Fig. 56.1-Hrgher perforatron density rncreases the success ra- diameter perforations reduces screen erosion and increases
tro for sand consolrdatron treatments. the ltfc of the sand-control treatment. Pressure drop
through higher-density, large-diameter perforations also

is reduced, resulting in higher wellhead pressure and
greater oil or gas production.
For sand consolidation, closely spaced perforations (8
to I2 shots/ft) increase the likelihood of a uniform plas-
tic pattern around the wellbore, even if some of the per-
forations are plugged. Fig. 56.1 illustrates what can
happen when a perforation is plugged. Note that the sand
is not consolidated behind the plugged perforation on the
right side of Fig. 56.1(a), and that this is the spot where
a failure is most apt to occur.
Perforation Cleaning. The high-pressure jet from a per-

forating gun pierces the casing and forms a hole by pul-
verizing cement and formation into compacted particles.
Cement and material from the jet charge are mixed with
the formation material in the compacted zone while loose Fig. 56.2-Drawing of a perforation tunnel showing fluid inva-
debris fills the perforation tunnel. It is necessary to re- sion from the wellbore into the formation, and debris
move this debris from the perforation tunnel to increase in the perforation and the compacted zone surround-
ing the perforation tunnel.
the probability of success in sand consolidation or gravel
packing. Fig. 56.2 shows the damage that can occur in
the perforation and on the face of the formation during
drilling and perforating. 8
Perforation-cleaning methods include backflow, under- The formation solubility should be determined in both
balanced perforating, backsurging, washing, and acid mud acid and HCI. If mud acid is used, a formation solu-
stimulation, or combinations of these. These methods are bility at least 10% greater in mud acid than in HCl is pre-
discussed next. ferred. Moreover, the formation solubility in HCl should
Backflow. Flowing the well may not clean up more than be less than 20% to avoid calcium fluoride precipitation.
a few perforations and, if enough differential is available A typical three-step acid stimulation consists of an HCI
to purge debris from the perforations, the well may sand preflush, matrix treatment with mud acid, and an HCI
up. Backflow must be done slowly and carefully. overflush.
Underbalance. Perforating with hydrostatic pressure HCl Prejlush. A preflush of 50 to 100 gal/fi of perfo-
less than formation pressure allows tunnel debris to be rations is advisable. The HCI is used to prevent contact
carried into the wellbore with the first surge of fluid from of mud acid with calcareous materials or formation brine.
the formation. This prevents or reduces the chances of precipitation of
Backsurging. Backsurging techniques dislodge gun calcium fluoride and various fluosilicates.
debris and loose material from perforation tunnels by sud- Matrix Treatment With Acid. The proper volume of
den exposure of a perforated zone to an open chamber mud acid should be injected to remove damage near the
at atmospheric pressure. The differential pressure created wellbore. Usually 50 to 200 gal/ft of perforations is re-
causes formation fluids to surge through the perforations quired. Success in matrix acidizing depends on acid con-
into the casing, flushing the perforation tunnels. Back- tacting the entire production interval. This is achieved
surging has proved to be very successful in improving through the use of diverting agents.
productivity. A mutual solvent comprised of ethylene glycol
Perforation Washing. Washing IS achieved by strad- monobutyl ether ‘).I0 is sometimes needed to achieve good
dling a small increment of the perforated interval with results. It is an effective water-wetting agent, demulsifi-
a special tool and injecting nondamaging fluids into the er. and interfacial-tension reducer.
perforations in the increment. The fluid circulates out- Overflush. Completion or workover brine should not
side the casing and back through the perforations nearest be used as an overflush for mud acid because of the pos-
the tool seals, removing debris and formation sand from sible precipitation of sodium, potassium, or calcium
the perforations and from behind the casing. The tool is tluosilicates. The use of dilute HCI, ammonium-chloride
moved in increments equal to the seal spacing until the solution, light oil, or nitrogen as the overflush agent is
entire perforated interval is washed. recommended.
After the perforations are washed or surged and debris
is circulated out, a positive-depth indicator is placed in Clay Control
the well below the perforations to establish a reference In many cases, formation permeability may be damaged
point from which the string is accurately spaced out. This by the various clay materials present. Many clays are
is especially important in multiple completions with close- water sensitive, and contact with foreign fluids may cause
ly spaced producing intervals. damage by two mechanisms. The first, and probably the
M&-LXAcid Stimulation. The purpose of matrix acidiz- more critical, mechanism is dispersion and migration of
ing is to penetrate the formation at less than fracturing the clay particles. Dispersion may be caused by charge
pressure and to remove damage from perforation tunnels differences or by fluid movement. The dispersed clays
and the critical area surrounding the wellbore. Mud filter are then free to move through the formation until they
cake, silt, and clay are typical damaging materials that enter an opening too small to pass, thus lodging and reduc-
may be removed by mud acid to restore a well’s natural ing permeability. The second mechanism is expansion or
productivity. swelling of the clay particles. Water absorbed between
the clay particles causes the particles to expand, with a

corresponding decrease in pore volume and the plugging
of pore channels.
To avoid a production decrease, it is important to sta-
bilize clays before or along with a sand-control treatment.
Gravel Selection
Gravel should be sized to prevent invasion of the pack
by the finest formation sand. I’-13 For example, if 20%
of a gravel pack is fine sands, the permeability will be
35% less than if no fines were present. 13,14
A gravel size should be selected that will restrict the
DIAMETER RATIO PACK MEDIAN/FORM MEDIAN movement of fine formation sand but will not reduce the
flow of fluids to uneconomical rates. Saucier I2 suggests
that the gravel size for controlling uniform sands should
Fig. 56.3-Gravel-pack permeability impairment caused by for-
be five to six times the diameter of the mean (median)
mation sand invasion is illustrated by curve of change
in ratio of increases. A ratio of 5 to 6 is the largest formation sand grain size. Degree of pack impairment is
gravel that will stop all sand entry. Theoretical curve illustrated in Fig. 56.3, which shows the ratio of effec-
beyond 14 indicates sand flowing freely through grav- tive to initial pack permeability vs. the ratio of the pack
el (after Ref. 12).
median diameter to the formation median diameter.
Proper gravel size is determined by the following steps.
1. Obtain a representative formation sample; closely
spaced samples from rubber-sleeve cores provide the best
TABLE 56.2A-AVAILABLE GRAVEL SIZES
design bases.
Approximate 2. Perform a sieve analysis.
Gravel Median 3. Plot the sieve analysis data on either a cumulative
Size IJ.S. Sieve Diameter logarithmic diagram (S-plot) or a logarithmic probability
(in.) - Number [in.) diagram.
0.006 to 0.017 40/l 00 0.012 4. Calculate the gravel median grain diameter using a
0.008 to 0.017 40/70 0.013
five-to-six multiple of the 50-percentile formation grain
0.010 to 0.017 40160 0.014
0.012 lo 0.023 30150 0.017 diameter. When multiple cores from a single zone are
0.017 lo 0.033 20/40 0.025 provided, they should be analyzed and plotted separate-
0.023 to 0.047 16130 0.035 ly. The samples should not be mixed. The sample with
0.033 to 0.066 12120 0.050 the smallest 50-percentile grain diameter is used to select
0.033 to 0.079 1o/20 0.056
0.047 to 0.079 10116 0.063
the gravel. Tables 56.2A and 56.2B list some of the com-
0.066 to 0.094 8112 0.080 mercial gravel sizes available. Gravel should be screened
0.079 to 0.132 6/10 0.106 and checked to verify size and distribution.
Sieve analysis data for two rubber-sleeve, core-barrel
samples, taken from the same zone, are tabulated and are
plotted in Figs. 56.4 and 56.5. Note that Sample A is from
TABLE 5&2B-FORMATION SAND a portion of the zone that contains coarser sand than the
SIEVE ANALYSIS portion from which Sample B was taken. If Sample A
alone had been taken, a coarser gravel would have been
U.S. Sieve Cumulative Wt% Retained
selected, and a gravel-pack failure could have resulted.
Number Sample A Sample B
In Fig. 56.6, produced, bailed, and core-barrel sam-
30 0.2 0.1
ples from the same well zone have been plotted. The core-
40 1.2 0.6
50 5.1 2.5 barrel sample plots as a straight line (minor variations are
70 16.0 7.5 typical, however). The dashed variation shown could in-
100 35.0 19.0 dicate a sieving or weight problem. A bailed sample would
140 62.0 39.0 typically rise on the left because finer formation grains
200 82.0 58.0
270 93.0 77.0 would have been produced, leaving the larger grains in
325 97.0 86.0 the wellbore. Conversely, a produced sample would rise
400 98.3 90.0 on the right, indicating an excess of fines.
PAN 100.0 100.0 The same data are shown in an S-plot (Fig. 56.7). Each
of the curves is typically S-shaped, and any curve plotted
by itself would not readily be interpreted as varying from
the norm. An error in gravel selection could result if the
sample type were not known.
Gravel Quality. Studies have indicated that gravels con-

taining fine particles outside the specified range will have
lower permeability. I4 Some supply sources furnish grav-
el with excessive amounts of particles smaller than spec-
ified. Angular gravels may bc broken during shipping and
CUMULATIVE LOG DIAGRAM (S.PLOT)

U.S. SIEVE NUMBER
GRAIN DIAMETER, in
Fig. 56.4-Data from sieve analyses of Formation Sand Sam- Fig. 56.6-Logarithmic probability diagram of produced, bailed,
ples A and B, taken from the same zone, are plotted and core-barrel samples from the same well.
here. Note that using Plot A would result in the selec-
tion of 20/40-mesh gravel rather than the better choice
of 40/60-mesh gravel for packing this zone, as indi-
cated by Plot B. corrosion-resistant; it also has a lower pressure drop, and
it will not unravel if the wire is eroded or broken.
The wrapping wire on these screens is usually made
from 304 stainless steel while the pipe core is Pipe Grade
handling, thereby creating fine particles that reduce the S or K. Other wire and pipe materials are available.
quality of the gravel. Rounded gravels provide tighter, The configuration of the openings in all screens is very
more uniform compaction and somewhat higher permea- important. If the sides of the slots are parallel, plugging
bility than angular gravels. may occur as the small sand grains bridge the slot. To
reduce the chance of this occurring, the wire used to wrap
Screen Selection the screen is wedge-shaped.
Many types of wire-wrapped screens are available, in- Fig. 56.8 shows the construction features of an all-
cluding ribbed, all-welded, grooved, and wrapped-on- welded screen.
pipe. The all-welded screen has the wrapping wire For gravel packing, the gauge of the screen should be
resistance-welded to wire ribs at each point of contact. small enough to prevent the passage of the gravel-pack
Spacer lugs, solder strips, and weld beads are not required sand. Slot width is usually taken as one-half to two-thirds
and, therefore, the all-welded screen is stronger and more of the diameter of the smallest gravel-pack grains.
LOGARITHMIC PROBABILITYDIAGRAM CUYULATIYE LO6 OI~GRAM (I-PLO11

U 5. SIIYE “UMGEI
;Em.8;
I
H g;:::-* - P s*llPeP D*rl;il itorn1
CUMULATIVE PERCENTBY WEIGHT
Fig. 56.5-Data for Samples A and B are again plotted here. Fig. 56.7-Cumulative log diagrams (S-plot) of produced, bailed,
Sieve-analysis data for sands with a normal grain-size and core-barrel samples from the same well. Note that
distribution will plot as a straight line on a log proba- a bailed sample would result in the selection of a
bility grid. The logarithmic probability diagram has an coarser gravel.
advantage over the S-plot in that sampling errors are
more readily detected. Variations from the straight-
line plot could be caused by sieving and weighing
errors, incorrect sample preparation, or by the sam-
pling method itself.
56-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBC,‘Y
(brine, diesel oil, etc.) flows through the screen and cross-
over tool into the tubing/casing annulus and back to the
surface.
A wash pipe extends from the crossover tool. inside
the blank pipe and screen, to the bottom of the screen.
Returns are taken through the wash pipe. It is recom-
mended that the wash pipe outside diameter be 0.6 times
the screen liner inside diameter and made up with flush
joints. This ratio of wash pipe outside diameter to liner
inside diameter optimizes gravel distribution along the
screen in deviated holes.
The screen and blank pipe should be centralized every
15 ft, and the length of the screen should be such that
it extends above and below the perforated interval by 3
to 5 ft. A calculated quantity of a high-density slurry at
15 Ibm of gravel per gallon of fluid (density of l3.8Y
Ibm/gal if fluid is water) is circulated into place. As the
grave1 settles out and packs in the hole outside the screen.
injection pressure will increase. When the injection pres-
sure has increased to between 750 and 1.500 psi above
the originally established injection pressure, pumping is
stopped. When the sandpack causes such a pressure in-
crease, the condition is called a screenout.
The slurry remaining in the reservoir above the screen
(established by the blank pipe) will settle out so that am-
ple gravel exists above the top of the screen. Since about
60% of the slurry volume consists of gravel. 100 ft of
slurry will result in 60 ft of settled gravel.
Fig. 56.B-All-welded screen In grave1 packing intervals with the circulating method
and a high-density slurry, a lower tell-tale is recom-
mended. The lower tell-tale is a short section of screen,
not less than 5 ft long, located below the production
The screen diameter should be as large as possible and screen. A seal sub, installed between the lower tell-tale
yet leave adequate room for packing gravel. Table 56.3 and the production screen, seals the wash pipe. Returns
shows the dimensions and inlet areas for several sizes of are thus taken only through the lower tell-tale. By this
wire-wrapped screens. Screens are available with slot method, gravel is placed at the bottom of the screen. and
openings from 0.006 to 0.250 in. in 0.001 -in. increments. a denser pack can be achieved. After screenout of the tell-
The screen length should overlap the perforated inter- tale screen, the wash pipe is pulled up into the produc-
val both above and below by 3 to 5 ft. Blank pipe should tion screen to complete the gravel pack.
be run above the screen to provide a reservoir for extra Squeeze gravel packing uses a gravel slurry consisting
gravel. Blank pipe length should be three to four times of 15 lbm of gravel added to a gallon of viscous carrier
the screen length with a minimum length of 60 ft. fluid. This gives a high-density (13.89 lbmigal) slurry.
The carrier fluid transports the gravel into place and is
Gravel Packing squeezed away into the formation. A viscosity breaker
Methods. The term “gravel.” as used here. refers to a in the carrier fluid reduces the viscosity according to a
uniform, graded, commercial silica sand that is placed in preplanned schedule; this allows for fast well cleanup.
the wellbore and perforation tunnels for the purpose of Reverse circulating gravel packing is a low-density
mechanically retaining formation sands. These are de- method using r/4to 2 Ibm of gravel per gallon of carrier
scribed next. fluid. The slurry is circulated down the tubing/casing an-
Circulating gravel packs are done in two steps: an out- nulus. The gravel is retained on the outside of the screen
side pack and an inside pack. The outside pack or pre- while the carrier fluid flows through the screen and to
pack places gravel outside the perforations, where voids the surface through the tubing. After the pack is completed
may exist in the formation surrounding the casing and in and all the gravel in the annulus has settled, the tubing
the perforations. An outside pack is, of course, not used is pulled out of the hole, leaving the screen assembly with
in openhole completions. The outstde pack is usually at- a polished nipple on top in the hole. A productton packer
tained by pumping a gravel slurry through an open-ended with an overshot seal assembly is then run over the
workstring with the application of fluid pressure. To polished nipple. If the pack is done in perforated casing,
achieve good gravel placement, fluid must be lost to the a prepack is usually done first.
formation. Several disadvantages associated with a reverse circulat-
The inside pack is achieved by pumping a slurry coning gravel pack include (1) long rig time, (2) pack voids.
taining from 1/4to 15 Ibm of gravel per gallon of fluid (3) slurry pumped down the annulus scouring dirt and mill
down the workstring and through a crossover tool into scale from the inside of the casing and the outside of the
the annular space between the screen and the casing. The tubing, and (4) possible formation damage caused by large
gravel is held in place by the screen while the carrier fluid amounts of dirty fluid circulated and lost to the formation.
REMEDIAL CLEANUP, SAND CONTROL, & OTHER STIMULATION TREATMENTS 56-Q
TABLE 56.3-COMMON SCREEN SPECIFICATIONS AND SIZES
Pipe Base Screen

Screen Surface Open Area in
Total
Hole Hole sq in./ft for slot opening
(in.)
OD Weight ID Holes Diam. Area
(in.) (Ibmlft) (in.) per ft (in.) (sq in.lft) 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.020
1.050 1.14 0.824 72 ‘/‘l 3.53 1.55 6.8 a.2 9.6 14.4
1.315 1.70 1.049 60 7’6 4.60 1.82 8.0 9.7 11.3 16.9
1.660 2.30 I ,380 72 ?A6 5.52 2.16 9.4 11.5 13.4 20.1
1 .soo 2.75 1.610 a4 %6 6.44 2.40 10.5 12.7 14.9 22.3
2.063 3.25 1.751 a4 %6 6.44 2.56 11.2 13.6 15.9 23.9
2.375 4.60 1.995 96 76 10.60 2.88 12.6 15.3 17.8 26.8
2.875 6.40 2.441 108 % 11.93 3.38 14.8 17.9 20.9 31.5
3.500 9.20 2.992 108 ‘12 21.21 4.00 17.5 21.2 24.8 37.3
4.000 9.50 3.548 120 ‘12 23.56 4.50 19.7 23.9 27.9 41.9
4.500 9.50 4.090 144 ‘12 28.27 5.00 21.8 26.5 31 .o 46.5
5.000 13.00 4.494 156 ‘12 30.63 5.51 24.1 29.2 34.1 51.3
5.500 14.00 5.012 168 ‘12 32.99 6.01 26.3 31.9 37.2 55.9
6.625 24.00 5.921 180 ‘12 35.34 7.14 31.2 37.9 44.2 66.5
7.000 23.00 6.366 192 ‘12 37.70 7.52 32.9 39.9 46.6 70.0
7.625 26.40 6.969 204 ‘/2 40.06 a.15 35.6 43.3 50.5 75.9
9.625 36.00 a.921 264 ‘/2 51.84 10.17 44.4 54.0 63.0 94.7
Cased Hole Comoletion

Casing Screen Pipe Size
(in.) (in.)
4% wl6
5 2%
5% 2%
6% 2%
7 27/8 to 3%
7% 27/8 to 3’/2
8% 4
9% 4% t0 !i’h
10% 5 to 5%
Openhole Completion
Openhole Screen
Casing Diameter Pipe Size
(in.) (In.) (in.)
5% 12 2%
65/s to 7% 14 to 16 4
75/s to as/e 14 lo 18 5%
95/8 to 10% 16 to 20 7
Wash-down gravel packs are done by dumping the grav- 5 Brulst. E.H.: “Better Perl’ormance nf Gulf Coast Well\.” paper
el down the casing, allowing it to settle. and then run- SPE 4777 presented at the 1974 SPE Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, New Orleans, Jan. 3l-Feb. I.
ning a screen-and-wash pipe assembly with a wash-down Gurley, D.G., Copeland. C.T.. and Hendrick. J.O. Jr.: “Debign.
6.
set shoe into the hole. Circulation is established through Plan. and Execute Gravel Pack Operations for MaxImum Produc-
the shoe, and the screen assembly is lowered as the grav- tion.“ J. Prr. Tech. (Oct. 1977) 1X9-66.
el is washed up the annulus. When the shoe tags bottom. 7 Stein. N., Odeh. A-S., and Jones, L.G.: “Estimating Maximum
Sand-Free Production Rates from Friable Sands for Different Well
circulation is immediately stopped, and the gravel allowed
Completion Geometries.” J. Pa. Tech. (Oct. 1974) 1156-58.
to settle around the screen. The screen is then released, 8. Klotz. J.A.. Krueger, R.F., and Pye. D.S.: “Maximum Well
and a production packer with a seal sub is run into the Producttvity in Damaged Formations Requires Deep. Clean Per-
hole to seal the production string. forations,” paper SPE 4792 presented at the 1974 SPE Symposi-
um on Formation Damage Control. New Orleans, Jan. 3l-Feb I.
9. Brooks, F.A.: “Evaluation of Preflushes for Sand Consolidaiton
References Plastcs,” J. Par. TK~. (Oct. 1974) 1095-l 102.
IO. Gidley. J.L.: “Stnnulation of Sand\tonc Formations With the Acid-
Mutual Solvent Method.‘~ J PH. Tech. (May 19711 SSl-58.
I I. Gulati. M.S. and Maly. G.P.: “Thin-Sectjon and Permeability
Studtca Call for Smaller Gravels in Gravel Packtng,” paper SPE
4773 presented at the 1974 SPE Symposium on Formation Damage
Control. New Orleans. Jan. 3l-Feb. I.
12. Saucier. R.J.: “Gravel Pack Design Consideration\.” J. Pet. Ted?
(Feb. 1974) 205-12.
13. Williams. B.B., Ellioct. L.S.. and Weaver. R.H.: “Productwity
of Inside Casing Gra\,el Psck Completions.” J. Pc,r. Twh. (April
1972) 419-25.
I-1. Sparlin. D.D.: “Sand and Gravel-A Srudy of Their Permeabili-
tws,” paper SPE 4772 presented at the 1974 SPE Sympwium on
Formation Damage Conrrol. New Orleans, Jan. 3 I-Feb. I.
Chapter 57
Oil and Gas Leases
Joe B. Clarke Jr., Vermilion Oil and Gas Corp.*
The Landowner’s Interest

Property
All property can be classified as either real or personal. surface owners. The mineral owner has the right to grant
Real property is land and that which is affixed or ap- mineral leases. A royalty owner has a right to receive
purtenant to land. Personal property is every kind of royalty or a share of production as obtained but has no
property that is not real property. Oil and gas in place are right to grant mineral leases or receive bonuses or
considered to be a part of the land and are therefore a rentals.
form of real property. When oil and gas are reduced to
possession by being brought to the surface, they become Ownership of Hydrocarbons in Place. Various ideas
personal property. and theories have been suggested as to the nature of
Ownership of property is the right to possess and use ownership of oil and gas in the reservoir prior to extrac-
the property to the exclusion of others. Land cannot be tion. Two principal ideas have evolved: the absolute-
without ownership. The rightful owners may be hard to ownership and the nonownership theories. In the
determine, but ownership nevertheless exists. The extent absolute-ownership theory, hydrocarbons are considered
of an owner’s rights may vary. Absolute ownership is a a part of the land and absolute ownership of the land is
superior status excluding participation by anyone else. absolute ownership of the oil and gas in place. This
The absolute owner is most frequently referred to as the theory divests the absolute owner of the hydrocarbons in
fee owner and absolute ownership as fee ownership. place when there is drainage across property lines. The
There is a form of qualified ownership referring to a nonownership theory requires the acceptance of oil and
status establishing an equal right of participation in gas as fugitive minerals. Absolute ownership of the land
another person. For example, two parties are co-owners will therefore carry with it only the exclusive right to
of a tract of land. Each party has certain rights to use and drill on the land in an attempt to reduce the oil and gas to
enjoy the land, but the rights of each party are qualified possession. Absolute ownership of the oil and gas is not
by the rights of the other party. Another form of owner- attained until the oil and gas are reduced to actual
ship is limited ownership, which is a restricted right. The possession.
absolute owner who grants a l-year grazing lease brings Regardless of which theory of ownership each of the
a form of limited ownership into being. various states adheres to in its statutes, the courts are in
The absolute or fee owner is entitled to possession, agreement that oil and gas in place are minerals and a
which means the actual or physical occupancy of a thing. part of the land; when they are reduced to possession,
The party in possession of a thing is occasionally not the they become personal property; a landowner has the
owner of that thing. Possession undoubtedly carries with right to drill a well on the property in an attempt to
it the intention to hold, but possession does not mean reduce the oil and gas to possession, and without liability
ownership. for drainage from adjacent lands; these privileges and
responsibilities can be transferred to others.
The fee owner owns the surface of land and the
minerals thereunder. The surface owner has no right to Rule of Capture
grant an oil and gas lease or mineral lease. However, the
The theories of ownership provide for the migratory
rights of mineral owners are often subject to the rights of
nature of oil and gas under certain conditions. The im-
‘This author also wrote the original chapter on thm topic rn the 1962 editlon.
possibility of determining liability for drainage whem
landowners produce in a lawful manner from a well on fect of partition is to terminate the ownership of the un-
their land is recognized. This freedom from liability for divided interests of the joint owners and to establish
drainage is referred to as the “rule of capture,” Since ownership in each co-owner as to the divided share. Par-
landowners cannot recover damages or enjoin the tition is effected either voluntarily or involuntarily. The
operator when their property is being drained by a well latter is called compulsory or judicial partition and con-
on adjacent lands, they must protect themselves as best sists of partition in kind or partition by sale and division
they can. In short, they must drill, or have the lessee of the proceeds. Partition in kind is, in general, the most
drill, a well on their own land as promptly as possible in equitable form of partition. Where such partition is im-
order to prevent further drainage. This “offset drilling practical or unfair, partition by sale and division of the
rule” is modified in these days of increased conservation proceeds is resorted to.
legislation. Many states have statutes relating to well A lessee who acquires an oil and gas lease from less
spacing, allocation of production, pooling, etc., which than the entire group of cotenants is faced with certain
provide equitable relief for the landowners who are being problems, each of which has to be solved on its own
drained by other means than the drilling of a well on their merits under the applicable statutes. Partition of a tract
land, and which tend to prevent the drilling of un- subsequent to the granting of an oil and gas lease by the
necessary wells. co-owners does not enlarge the obligations of the lessee.
In such an instance, the lessee would not be required to
Mineral Severance drill an offset to prevent drainage in the event that the
Severance of the minerals can occur in a number of completed oil well is on one of the partitioned tracts.
ways. One of the most common ways is the conveyance
of the land itself by a deed that provides for the reserva- Trespass. The landowner and his mineral lessee have
tion or exception of all or a part of the minerals to the several remedies for unauthorized entry and use of the
grantor. Mineral severance is often accomplished by a surface and minerals. In determining the measure of
deed conveying all or a part of the minerals themselves. damages for unauthorized intrusion it must first be deter-
A severance of oil and gas from the surface is recognized mined whether the trespass was made in good faith or in
in all jurisdictions. bad faith. The measure of damages for unauthorized pro-
A lease or a conveyance using the term “minerals” duction in the case of good-faith trespassers is the value
will include oil and gas without otherwise describing of the oil and gas at the surface less the reasonable costs
them. A conveyance of a named mineral without the of production; the measure of damages in the case of
phrase “and other minerals” will convey only the bad-faith trespassers is the value of the oil and gas at the
mineral named. In some areas, “oil and gas” leases are surface.
obtained; in other areas, “oil, gas, and mineral” leases Unauthorized penetration of the subsurface is a form
are obtained. of trespass. A lessee who commences a well on a tract of
The owner of the mineral estate is entitled to the use of land and allows or causes the borehole to deviate from
the surface as it may be necessary, subject to certain the vertical in such a manner so as to drill into the sub-
rights of the surface owner, for the exploration and surface belonging to an owner who has not leased to the
recovery of the minerals. The foreclosure of a mortgage lessee is liable for trespass. In questions involving this
as to the surface estate is not effective as to the mineral type of trespass, a court order may be obtained for a well
estate, provided the execution of the mortgage is subse- survey to determine whether or not a trespass has oc-
quent to the date of the mineral severance. curred. Should such a well produce, the measure of
damages would be the value of the hydrocarbons re-
Adverse Possession. Adverse possession refers to the moved. If the well results in a dry hole, the trespasser is
possession of real estate that is open, visible, con- liable to the landowner for damages for the destruction of
tinuous, and exclusive. The statutes of the various states the mineral value of the land.
establish the manner in which titles can be acquired by Fee or absolute ownership carries with it the right of
adverse possession. If such possession is continued for absolute control, including the right to grant oil and gas
the time and in the manner prescribed by the statutes, the leases, to conduct exploratory operations on the land, to
effect is to divest the owner of title and to vest in the authorize others to so use the premises, etc. It therefore
adverse possessor a new title. If the minerals have not follows that a party who conducts exploratory operations
been severed, adverse possession of the surface is without permission violates the rights of the landowner
adverse possession of the minerals. Minerals severed and is accordingly liable. In this type of trespass,
from the surface prior to the commencement of adverse damages may be recovered from the standpoint that such
possession cannot be acquired by adverse possession. operation may have reduced or removed the marketabili-
The years of occupancy, the construction and ty of an oil and gas lease on the land or reduced the leas-
maintenance of fences, the construction and use of ing value of the land itself.
houses and outbuildings, the drilling of water wells, the
grazing of cattle, the cutting of timber, the growing of Correlative Rights. Despite the rule of capture, there
crops, the payment of taxes, etc., are all important items has been much said and written, and some legislation,
to be considered by the title examiner in determining regarding correlative rights. Property owners overlying a
whether or not a basis exists for the establishment of an common source of supply are restricted in their right to
adverse title under the statutes of the state involved. remove hydrocarbons by their duties to adjoining land-
owners. They are obligated not to injure the reservoir or
Partition. Partition is a division of real estate among co- dissipate the reservoir energy, and they cannot remove a
owners whereby each acquires a separate tract The ef- disproportionate share of the hydrocarbons. In general,
OIL AND GAS LEASES 57-3
owners may not use their land in such a manner as to in- A landowner can execute an oil and gas lease on lands
jure the property of others. The principle of correlative that are subject to the qualified rights of others provided
rights is enforced by law in those states that have enacted the lease does not interfere with such prior rights. The
comprehensive conservation legislation, most common example is the landowner who grants a
surface lease for grazing purposes and then at a subse-
The Oil and Gas Lease quent date executes an oil and gas lease. The lessee in
Background the oil and gas lease cannot be prevented from entering
A large number of printed lease forms are in use in the on the surface to exercise the rights granted in the lease,
oil industry. The evolution of the oil-and-gas-lease con- but at the same time the lessee is responsible to the tenant
tract has been a slow process. Present-day forms are for damages to the extent that the tenant’s rights are in-
quite lengthy when compared with the contracts made in terfered with. A tenant’s consent agreement is usually
the earlier years of the oil industry. The many obtained prior to operations of any kind.
refinements made since then have been based on the hard An administrator is one who is vested with the right of
lessons learned through experience and on the many administration of an estate and is appointed by the court.
court decisions rendered as a result of the inevitable con- An executor is a person appointed by a testator, or the
troversies which arose as the industry grew. party making a will, to execute his will. A trustee is a
The courts have held, keeping in mind the fugitive person holding property in trust for another party. Ex-
nature of oil and gas, that the primary purpose of the oil ecutors, administrators, and trustees have authority to
and gas lease is development. Should the oil and gas execute oil and gas leases provided such specific authori-
lease not contain an express provision in this regard, the ty is given by will, by the court, or by statutory pmvi-
law will imply an obligation on the part of the lessee to sion. A power of attorney is an instrument authorizing
explore and develop the leased premises. one to act as the attorney or agent of the person granting
An oil and gas lease is a conveyance or an interest or it, and terminates upon the death of the grantor.
right. It is also a contract between the lessor and the In the case of married persons, the husband may, in
lessee. Since an oil and gas lease conveys an interest in general, execute a lease without the joinder of his wife.
real estate, it must be in writing in accordance with the Homestead statutes usually require that all instruments
statute of frauds. A lease is sufficient if the names of the creating encumbrances upon the homestead be signed by
parties, the description of the property involved, and the both parties. The wife, in general, can execute a lease on
terms of the agreement are set forth. It is not necessary her separate property. In community-property states the
that the lessee sign the lease to make it legally effective. husband may or may not have the right to grant a lease
Witnesses are not required in order to make the instru- on the community estate without joinder by his wife;
ment effective between the parties. An acknowledgment however, most lessees will insist upon the joinder of the
is required only in connection with the recording of the wife.
instrument and does not affect the validity of the instru- The law differs among the states as to whether or not a
ment between parties. Recording the lease is not co-owner can execute a lease without the consent of the
necessary to the validity of the instrument between the other cotenant. In most of the states, such a lease would
parties, but is required to afford protection against bona be effective only as to the interest of the executing coten-
fide purchasers. ant. Two or more lessees, each having leases on undivid-
ed interests in the same tract, are cotenants. Each is en-
The Lessor titled to drill on any part of the leased premises but, if
A party owning a mineral interest and having the per- successful, must account to the other cotenant for his
sonal capacity to contract has the capacity to execute a proportionate share of the production, less the cost of
valid oil and gas lease. Oil and gas leases from minors production.
and insane persons are usually executed by guardians of
such persons under the direction and approval of the Consideration, Date, Description, and Delivery
court. The disabilities of minors may be removed in A valid oil and gas lease requires a consideration, a
some states by judicial proceedings and leases obtained nominal cash payment or other consideration generally
directly from such persons. Leases executed by minors being sufficient. An undated lease takes effect upon ex-
are voidable at their election upon reaching majority. A ecution and delivery. An exact description of the land to
lease executed by a person subsequently adjudged insane be leased is not necessary, provided the land can be iden-
is voidable. tified with reasonable certainty. Delivery and acceptance
Landowners often leave a will devising certain real of an oil and gas lease are required as with other con-
property to their children subject to a life estate or veyances: the intent of the lessor to make the instrument
usufruct in the surviving widow, who is called the life te- legally effective must be apparent.
nant or usufructuary. The children are called the re-
maindennen or naked owners. Neither the life tenant nor The Granting Clause. This clause in an oil and gas
the remaindetman has the right to lease without the con- lease is usually the first paragraph in the lease and is one
sent of the other. Both parties must join in the execution of the most important paragraphs in the entire contract.
of an oil and gas lease for it to be valid. It is important The rights of the lessee are very broadly set forth. The
that the rights of the lessors as to the bonus, delay ren- remaining provisions of the contract modify or enlarge
tals, and royalty payments be clearly set forth in the upon the provisions of this paragraph.
lease. Generally, the bonus and rental payments are The granting of the lease is for the purpose of the
payable to the life tenant, and royalty is payable to the development of the mineral estate. Accordingly, the
remaindennan. lessee must have those exclusive rights that are necessary
to carry out the basic purpose of the lease. This includes the absence of production, through the date of expiration
the right to build pits and erect tanks and other equip- and after the primary term by the lessee’s operations,
ment pertinent to the lessee’s operations. The lessee has which are conducted in a diligent manner looking toward
the right to construct, maintain, and use roads, pipelines, the discovery and production of oil and gas. Most leases
and/or canals on the leased premises. The lessee is not provide that the lease may be kept in force for an in-
liable for operations on the leased premises unless the definite period of time in this manner provided that not
surface is used excessively, the operations are negligent, more than 60 or perhaps 90 days elapse between the
or any express provisions in the lease are violated. The cessation of any such operations and the commencement
lessee is required to restore the premises to their original of additional operations. Such additional operations
condition, insofar as is practicable, when required by the might include reworking operations on any abandoned
lease. The lessee has the right to conduct exploratory producer or deepening operations on a dry hole or
operations on the leased premises and to conduct possibly drilling operations for a new well at another
secondary-recovery operations and to dispose of salt location on the leased premises.
water by reinjection into suitable formations.
Drilling and Delay Rental Clause. A simplified drilling
The landowner is entitled to the use of the surface, less
and delay rental clause might say that “the lease shall
that required by the lessee, who has the responsibility of
terminate on blank date unless on or before such date the
protecting this remaining surface for the benefit of the
lessee either commences operations for the drilling of a
lessor. The lessee must exercise complete control over
well on said land or pays to the lessor a rental of blank
the surface storage of liquids and is responsible for dollars per acre for all or that part of the land which
damages in the event of leakage and injury to the adjoin- lessee elects to continue to hold, which payment shall
ing surface. maintain lessee’s rights in effect as to such land without
drilling operations for 1 year from the above date.” The
The Habendum Clause. A simple form of this clause lessee may continue to maintain such rights without drill-
provides that “this lease shall be for a term of blank ing operations for successive 1Zmonths periods by mak-
years from the date hereof, called primary term, and so
ing similar payments to the lessor.
long thereafter as oil or gas is produced. ” This clause Early oil and gas leases usually provided for the com-
fixes the ultimate duration of the lessee’s interest. The mencement of a well. Changes were gradually made in
lease may be terminated sooner, for example, by the
the lease to allow the lessee to defer drilling operations
failure of the lessee to pay delay rentals. The primary by the payment of an annual sum called the delay rental.
term will limit the life of the lease prior to the establish- This alternative obligation to drill or pay a delay rental,
ment of production from the leased premises. The
when considered with the right of the lessee to surrender
primary term is one of the items that must be negotiated the lease at any time, is called an “or clause.” Further
at the time of the purchase. The term most commonly changes were made. Wording was added to the lease to
used is either 3 or 5 years. It is usually difficult to ac-
provide that, if no well was commenced before a certain
quire leases with terms longer than 5 years. In very ac-
time, usually 1 year from the date of the lease, the lease
tive areas primary terms of 3 years and less are usual.
would terminate unless the lessee paid a delay rental.
For the lease to be extended beyond its primary term,
This further revised wording is known as the “unless
production must occur, subject to certain exceptions to
clause.”
be discussed subsequently. The fact that oil or gas may Regardless of which clause is used, the lessee has the
have been discovered on the leased premises will not in right either to commence a well within a specified time,
itself keep the lease in force unless specific provisions pay a delay rental in lieu of commencing operations, or
are made to the contrary. This is especially applicable to terminate the lease by the nonpayment of delay rentals.
oil. In the case of gas, provision is frequently made in Almost all leases in use today are of the “unless” type.
the lease to extend the lease past its primary term in the Since the lessee is under no obligation either to pay
event the lessee is not able to market the gas for lack of delay rentals or commence operations for the drilling of a
transmission lines, lack of a gas market, etc. When such well, the practice has been to pay a substantial considera-
a provision appears in a lease, it is referred to as a shut-in tion, called the bonus, for the granting of the lease. The
gas clause. It usually provides for the payment of a sum bonus may be any agreed-upon sum but is usually large
of money on an annual basis in an amount that may be as when compared with the delay rental. The bonus is suffi-
high as the lessor would ordinarily receive as delay cient to keep the lease in force and effect until such time,
rentals. usually 1 year, as a delay rental may be provided for.
The word “produced” in the habendum clause has The bonus is subject to negotiation at the time of the pur-
been held to mean “produced in paying quantities. ” chase of the lease. The bonus may run from $1 to many
What constitutes production in paying quantities has thousands of dollars per acre, depending on the size of
been the subject of much dispute. In general, if a lease is the tract, the royalty, anticipated oil and gas reserves, the
past its primary term, and enough production is being quality and quantity of geological and geophysical data
obtained from the lease so that a profit is made, however available, etc.
small, in excess of the cost of operation, disregarding the Most leases provide for the commencement of “opera-
drilling and completing costs, such lease is held by pro- tions. ” The commencement of actual drilling is not
duction in paying quantities. necessary unless specifically provided for. Operations
While a lease may generally be maintained in force incident to the actual drilling are sufficient and include
past its primary term only by production, there are other building roads, digging pits, building the derrick, etc.
ways provided for in the lease to maintain the lease past Such operations must be continuous, diligent, and in
the primary term. A lease can often be kept in force, in good faith.
The effect of the drilling of a dry hole during the royalties within a reasonable time could result in a
primary term by the lessee may vary from one lease form forfeiture of the lease in a court action. Some delay,
to another. Most leases provide that, if a dry hole is com- perhaps several months, in disbursing royalty is to be ex-
pleted on the leased premises within the primary term, pected; title must be approved by the oil or gas purchaser
the lease may be kept in force by the commencement of and division orders circulated among those who will
additional operations or by resuming the payment of share in the production.
delay rentals as provided for in the lease. Oil royalties are payable to the lessor either in oil or to
In the “unless” type of lease, there is no obligation to the lessor’s credit in the pipeline, which is called pay-
pay the delay rental and there is no liability for failure to ment in kind, or by payment in money based on the value
pay. Unless otherwise specifically provided for in the of the royalty oil. Execution of a division order waives
lease, the entire amount of the delay rental must be paid. the lessor’s right to receive royalty in kind. Royalty is
Most leases permit the lessee to surrender a portion of computed as a share of the gross and not as a share of the
the leased premises and then pay delay rentals on the net production, which means the royalty is not burdened
balance. Delay rentals in most states are not a matter for with any production costs. However, the lessor is re-
negotiation as is the bonus and are usually in the amount quired to pay his proportionate share of the cost of
of $l/acre/yr. Such is not the case in some areas, as in transportation and gross production taxes.
southern Louisiana. Here the delay rental is just as im- Condensate or distillate is a liquid produced along with
portant as is the bonus as an item to be negotiated upon; gas, but which originally was in the vapor phase in the
it is the practice for rentals to be in an amount equal to at reservoir. Casinghead gas is gas produced from an oil
least one-third to one-half of the bonus consideration on well. A gas well produces gas as distinguished from cas-
a per-acre basis. inghead gas and may be defined in terms of gas/oil ratio
The lease provides that rentals may be made on or by various regulatory bodies. The royalty payable on oil
before the specified date, payable to the lessor or to the is also the royalty payable on condensate and other liquid
lessor’s credit in a bank designated by the lessor. Most hydrocarbons when separated on the leased premises.
rentals are tendered by the lessee 3 to 6 weeks in advance The royalties payable on gas are always payable in
of the due date to provide time for the lessee to receive a money and never in kind, and are subject to transporta-
receipt from the lessor’s depository bank evidencing tion costs. Royalty on gas is payable only on that gas
deposit of the rentals to the lessor’s credit. The lease also which is sold or used off the leased premises. Royalty is
contains a proportionate-reduction clause or lesser- not payable to the lessor on gas used by the lessee as a
interest clause, which allows the lessee to reduce the means of lifting the oil to the surface or that is injected
amount of the delay rentals and royalty payments where into the reservoir for pressure-maintenance purposes.
the lessor does not own a full interest. A gasoline plant may be justified in areas where there
are sufficient reserves of rich gas. A lessee will often
Royalty Clause. A simple royalty clause might provide enter into a contract with a processing plant whereby his
that the royalties to be paid by the lessee are (1) on oil gas wells are produced full-well stream to the plant for
and liquid hydrocarbons, one-eighth of that produced extraction of liquid hydrocarbons. The independently
and saved from the land; (2) on gas, one-eighth of the owned plant will retain a percentage of the value of the
market value at the well of the gas used by the lessee in liquid hydrocarbons removed as a processing charge and
operations not connected with the land leased, the royal- credit the lessee with the value of the balance of the
ty on gas sold by the lessee to be one-eighth of the separated liquids as well as with all the residue gas. The
amount realized at the well from such sales; (3) one- lessee then disburses royalty to the lessor in accordance
eighth of the market value at the mouth of the well of gas with the terms of the lease. If the lessee owns an interest
used by the lessee in manufacturing gasoline. in the plant, the lessee may be required to pay royalty on
The most common royalty is one-eighth, experience extracted liquids and residue gas less only the actual
having shown this to be the most equitable fraction to be operating costs of the plant depending upon the terms of
paid to the lessor in relatively unexplored areas. the lease.
However, in known trends it is often difficult to purchase
leases providing for a royalty of only one-eighth. Here The Pooling Clause. The pooling clause provides that
again, the royalty is an item that must be negotiated in the lessee, at its option, is given the right and power to
much the same manner as the bonus or delay rental. pool or combine the land or mineral interest covered by
Royalties of one-sixth and more are now quite common the lease, or any portion thereof, with other land, lease
in some areas. or leases, and mineral interests in the immediate vicinity
The royalty interest created at the execution of the thereof, when in the lessee’s judgment it is necessary
lease is payable to the lessor in the event of production. or advisable to do so in order to develop or operate the
It does not refer to any additional royalties that may be leased premises properly to promote the conservation of
created by the lessee out of the working interest and that oil and/or gas. The clause further states that “any unit or
are called overriding royalties. It does not refer to an ad- pool created for the production of oil shall not exceed 40
vance royalty that can be deducted from any subsequent- acres and that any unit for the production of gas shall not
ly accruing royalties. It does not refer to a minimum exceed blank acres.” The number of acres inserted in the
royalty, which is a sum the lessee agrees to pay in the event of a gas well will vary from 160 to 640, depending
event of production regardless of whether or not it is on local practice.
equivalent to the lessor’s share of gross production. The term “pooling” refers to the combining of small
A failure to pay royalties does not in itself effect tracts for the purpose of forming a unit on which a well
automatic termination of the lease. Failure to pay may be drilled. A lease form should be used that contains
an appropriate pooling clause. It may not be quite so im- the rental payment of the assignee shall not operate to
portant to obtain this right in certain areas where only oil defeat or affect the lease insofar as it covers that portion
is produced or in those states that provide for forced retained by the lessee.
pooling and integration. The pooling right is related to The “warranty clause” provides that the lessor war-
development, and the owner of the working interest has rants and agrees to defend the title the land leased. If the
the responsibility for such development. covenant of general warranty is breached, the lessee can
The lessee must act in good faith in exercising the recover the consideration paid for the lease with interest
pooling privileges granted in the lease. When a lessee and the expenses incurred in defending possession. The
declares a unit and places the unit declaration of record lessee is given the right to redeem for the lessor, by pay-
in accordance with the lease, it is presumably done in the ment, any mortgages, taxes, or other liens on the leased
interest of proper development and conservation. Cau- premises and to apply to the repayment of the lessee any
tion should be exercised in planning a unit to be declared rentals and/or royalties accruing under the lease.
so the unit will be in reasonable conformance to the sub-
surface and seismic data available. A lessee who The Implied Covenant. It is important to keep in mind
declares a unit of an unusual shape for the obvious pur- that the underlying purpose of the lease is to secure pro-
pose of holding a lease past its expiration date, or that induction. Most leases have very little to say about the
cludes acreage most likely not productive, or that tends manner in which wells will be drilled, or even if a well
to disregard available geological control is probably not will be drilled at all. Little is ever said about the well
acting in good faith. Such a declared unit may be density or the intervals at which development wells will
vulnerable to attack by the lessors. be drilled. The lack of specific agreement between the
When a lease contains a pooling clause, appropriate lessor and lessee in these regards is intentional. Too
changes will appear elsewhere in the lease. The haben- much is unknown about the nature and characteristics of
dum clause may read, “this lease shall be for a term of any reservoir present. The obligations of the lessee are
blank years from the date hereof, called primary term, the obligations of an ordinarily prudent operator under
and so long thereafter as oil or gas is produced either on the same or similar circumstances, considering the
this land or on acreage pooled therewith, or with any part lessor’s interest as well as his own. The obligation to
thereof. ” Operations for the drilling of a well or produc- develop the leased premises as would a prudent operator
tion from a well on a unit constitute operations or pro- arises only after discovery of oil or gas and continues for
duction from each of the tracts pooled. the life of the lease.
Miscellaneous Clauses. Many miscellaneous clauses Assignments by the Landowner

are found in leases for the benefit of the lessor or the
lessee. The lessee is restricted in locating a well on the Right to Transfer. Fee owners can dispose of their land
leased premises to the extent that no well may be drilled in any way they see fit, either in whole or in part. They
nearer than 200 ft to any house or barn. The lessee is re- can convey the surface and reserve the minerals, or vice
quired to lay pipelines at such a depth as not to interfere versa. They can sell all or a divided part or an undivided
with plowing and cultivating operations. The lessee may interest in the minerals. They can sell all or a part of their
be required to pay for all damages in connection with its interest in the proceeds from the minerals. They can
operations on the land, although the damages are often create a subordinate interest and transfer it to another
restricted to timber and growing crops. party, as is done when a lease is granted.
A paragraph is often found in leases that has as its pur-
pose the inclusion of small strips of adjacent land owned Mineral Deeds and Interests. A mineral deed transfers
by the lessor but not specifically described in the lease. the minerals or the right to obtain them as they exist in
The lessor usually intends to include such small parcels place. The owner of minerals has the right to go on the
of land in the lease, but for various reasons a description land, conduct exploratory operations, and produce oil
of the strip may have been omitted. This paragraph is and gas. If the minerals are subject to a lease at the time
called the “Mother Hubbard clause.” It is not intended of the mineral conveyance, the mineral grantee may not
that large tracts of land be subject to this clause but only exercise these rights until the lease terminates. The
strips or parcels of perhaps several acres in size. The mineral owner has the right to execute a lease and to
lessee is given the right to use without cost gas, oil, and receive the bonus money therefrom. The mineral owner
water produced on the leased premises for lessee’s has the right to receive rentals and to share in the
operations thereon. The lessee is given the right to royalties if and when payable under any lease. Mineral
remove machinery and fixtures from the leased interests are most often created by unqualified grants or
premises, including casing, within a reasonable period of reservations. However, many mineral conveyances are
time after the lease has terminated. for a specified term of years, or for a specified term and
The lease provides that the interests of the parties are so long thereafter as oil or gas is produced.
assignable in whole or in part. No change in ownership
of the land imposes any additional burden on the lessee Royalty Deeds and Interests. Royalty is a share in pro-
until the lessee has been furnished with a certified copy duction and, when applied to a lease, refers to the share
of the recorded instrument evidencing the transfer. Since of the oil and gas that is received by the lessor from pro-
portions of many leases are eventually assigned, a clause duction under the lease. This share is usually one-eighth
is inserted to protect the lessee in the event of default in of the whole, although it may be any other fraction
rental payments by the lessee’s partial assignee. It pro- agreed upon. Royalty also refers to an interest that is
vides that in the event of partial assignment a default in created by grant or reservation either before or after the
execution of a lease. The right to royalty is contingent on Production Payments. Oil payments, perhaps more
production and carries with it no right or interest in the correctly referred to as production payments, are related
minerals. The owner of a royalty interest receives no to overriding royalties in that they are usually carved out
bonus and no delay rental payments. A royalty interest is of the working interest and bear no cost of production.
an expense-free interest in the gross production and not The overriding royalty differs from the production pay-
in the net production. Royalties as well as minerals may ment in that the former continues for the life of the lease
be conveyed in fee or for a specified term of years, or for and the latter terminates upon the payment of a specified
a specified term and as long thereafter as oil or gas is sum of money from a stipulated percentage or fraction of
produced. the working interest. Production payments can be of
When referring to a conveyed royalty interest, it is practically any size and can be made payable out of any
customary to refer to the number of royalty acres con- fraction or percentage of the working interest.
veyed, as well as to the fractional interest. If a landowner The production payment is occasionally used in
sold half of his one-eighth royalty in a tract of 80 acres, negotiating a lease. A company may be willing to spend
the royalty grantee is said to have purchased 40 royalty not more than $lOO/acre as bonus for a lease but at the
acres. If a royalty buyer purchased one-eighth of the same time be willing to provide for a production pay-
same landowner’s one-eighth royalty, the royalty pur- ment of perhaps $2OO/acre payable out of one-sixteenth
chaser would be entitled to one-sixty-fourth of all proof seven-eighths. A landowner can occasionally be
duction and is said to own 10 royalty acres. shown the advantages of a production payment, with the
result that a deal is made instead of lost.
Assignments by the Lessee The use of the production payment in the large-scale
purchase of producing properties has become common.
The task of how to purchase a producing property for a
Right to Transfer. The lessee is the owner of the lease, minimum cash outlay by the grantee with the grantor
and the interest is usually seven-eighths of the produc- receiving the entire purchase price in cash and with the
tion but may often be much less, depending on the gain taxed at capital gains rates is often accomplished by
amount of royalty. This interest is referred to as the an “ABC” transaction. A is the seller and the owner of
working interest. A lessee may transfer his entire interest the property. B is the purchaser of the property. C is the
either in whole or part, or an undivided portion in the purchaser of the production payment and either has or
lease or a part thereof. The lessee has the right to convey can get the major part of the required cash. To illustrate,
overriding royalties, production payments, undivided in- A owns a producing property that will sell for
terests, or an entire interest in a portion of the leased $l,OOO,OOO. B wants to buy the property but has only
premises. $200,000 for the purchase. A will convey the property to
B for $200,000, retaining a production payment of
Assignments and Subleases. An assignment is a $800,000 plus interest payable out of 85 % of the produc-
transfer of the assignor’s entire interest in a lease either tion. A will then sell the production payment to C for
in its entirety or in a portion thereof. A sublease is a par- $800,000 cash. All parties to the transaction receive the
tial transfer in that the sublessor retains an interest in the maximum tax benefits allowed.
lease in so far as it affects the property subleased. An in-
strument conveying the working interest but providing Unit Operations
for the reservation of an overriding royalty is a sublease
Background
rather than an assignment.
Obligations undertaken by the lessee in the lease are In recent years the objective has been to obtain the max-
called covenants. A contractual relationship exists be- imum ultimate recovery of oil and gas in place. In the
tween the lessor and the lessee, and there is said to be a early days of the industry a great number of unnecessary
privity of contract between the parties. The lessee has the wells were drilled; only a fraction would have been re-
right to assign the leasehold estate to a third party. The quired to obtain maximum efficient withdrawal. In time,
covenants contained in the lease are assumed by the third limits were placed on the amount of production; well-
party and are said to be covenants running with the land. spacing regulations came into existence; the establish-
In the event of a true assignment, the lessee is usually ment of drilling units and the pooling of small tracts of
relieved of his obligations to the lessor. In the event of a land followed. The advantages of cooperative develop-
sublease, the lessee remains liable to the lessor because ment on a small scale became even more apparent when
of the privity of contract between them. considered on the basis of the entire reservoir. Unit
operation of a reservoir, whether for cooperative
development, pressure maintenance, or secondary
Overriding Royalty. An overriding royalty interest is an recovery, requires a knowledge of the hydrocarbons in
interest carved out of the working interest and is not place and an acceptance of the correlative rights of the
burdened with the cost of development or production. It owners; a fair distribution of the proceeds is best ac-
is therefore a kind of royalty interest. An overriding complished by contractual agreements among the royalty
royalty is usually created in a sublease, but may be and working-interest owners.
created by grant. It in no way affects the royalty interest The unit operation of an oil and gas reservoir is to be
that is payable to the lessor. The overriding royalty distinguished from pooling, which is the combination of
owner generally cannot require the lessee to maintain the small tracts to form a drilling unit or comply with spac-
lease in force, to drill a well, or to develop the property, ing regulations. The term “unitization” is usually used
and shares in oil and gas only when, as, and if produced. interchangeably with unit operations. Unitization
therefore refers to the operation of all or a substantial data to justify the drilling of a well. In this instance,
part of the reservoir by a unit operator in accordance with leases are acquired for the very definite purpose of drill-
the terms of a unitization contract. Unit operations may ing in the immediate future. Under such considerations,
include two categories, depending on the manner in the amount of the rentals or the extent of the primary
which they come into existence. term becomes of secondary importance in negotiating the
leases. A landman or lease broker will then be employed
to review the records of the clerk of court to determine
Voluntary Unit Operations. When the owners of the surface and mineral ownerships of all the tracts of land in
interests in a reservoir agree that all or a major portion of the prospect including county roads, state and federal
the reservoir is to be operated as a single unit regardless
highways, rivers, school lands, canals, etc. Mineral
of property or lease lines, a voluntary unit operation leases will then be negotiated and acquired.
comes into existence. The preparation of a unitization
agreement acceptable to all the parties is a major under-
taking. Two contracts are entered into, an operator’s Capital to Drill the Well. Major oil companies have no
contract and a royalty owner’s contract, sometimes real problem in raising the necessary capital to drill
called the unit contract. Many problems are involved re- wells. Such funds are, to a large extent, available from
garding the operation of the reservoir and the drilling of earnings, and to a lesser extent, from borrowings.
additional wells that are best handled in a separate con- However, independents have been historically short of
tract among the owners of the working interest. The cash to drill wells. An “independent” is a small corpora-
royalty-unitization agreement must expressly provide for tion or a partnership or perhaps an individual engaged in
the consolidation of the interests of the lessors. Without oil and gas exploration only. That is, an independent is
such authority, lessors could demand that their tract be not engaged in the transportation and refining of
drilled to prevent drainage or be developed separately. petroleum or in the marketing of petroleum products. In-
The working out of a voluntary-unitization agreement re- dependents drill approximately 85% of all wells drilled
quires a thorough knowledge of the conservation in the U.S. and there are thousands of small companies
statutes. The voluntary-unitization agreement may pro- and individuals engaged flu11 time in oil and gas
vide that the contract will not become effective until ap- exploration.
proved by the appropriate regulatory body. In recent years, the limited partnership has been the
primary source of venture capital for the independent.
Investors buy units of a drilling fund and become limited
Compulsory Unit Operations. Compulsory unit opera-
partners. An experienced and successful independent
tions come into being by order of a regulatory body in
becomes the general partner. Another significant source
accordance with specific statutes. Early statutes provided
of venture capital for drilling wells has been the utility
that, if a certain percentage of the lessees in an area to be
companies and end-users, such as the chemical industry.
unitized petitioned the regulatory body to bestow
A typical independent may spend $5 to $15 million a
jurisdiction to issue appropriate orders, it would do so.
year in drilling money, almost none of which belongs to
The laws of the states vary as to the percentage of owner-
the independent. The capital comes fmm investors and
ship required. There must first be agreement among a
from persons who buy into drilling deals. Regardless of
majority of the lessees and royalty owners concerned
the source of the capital, the independent invariably pro-
regarding a unit plan. Here again a great deal of work
motes or lays off a part of his deal, usually on a third for
and time are required. Numerous conferences are held
a quarter basis. This means that the patty being promoted
among the working-interest owners and studies are made
or who buys into the deal will pay one-third of the cost of
by various committees. Upon finalization of the plan,
drilling the well for a one-quarter interest in the well.
signatures are obtained from the working-interest and
Variations of this type of promotion are endless; but by
royalty-interest owners. A petition to the regulatory body
and large this type of promotion is standard between in-
is made and a hearing is held after proper notice has been
dependents and investors as well.
given to all the interested parties. Upon issuance of the
appropriate orders, accounting adjustments are made
among the working-interest owners and the appointed
unit operator assumes operations of the area. Sources of Prospects. Major oil companies maintain
large staffs of geologists, seismologists, paleontologists,
and other supporting personnel engaged in development
Getting the Well Drilled and exploration efforts. Major oil companies rarely par-
ticipate in drilling on prospects not generated by them.
Lease Purchases. Oil and gas leases are purchased for a On the other hand, most independents do not generate
variety of reasons. Lease purchases are often of a trend their own prospects but must buy them from geologists
nature, with no drillable prospect having been shown to and others who generate geological prospects. The
exist. Such lease purchases could be in a sedimentary geologists, landmen, and others who can generate pros-
basin considered likely to contain accumulation of pects and buy leases on them are then in a position, to a
hydrocarbons, or as extensions to discovery wells. The limited extent, to promote their prospect in dealing with
owners of the leases might then plan to conduct seismic an independent. Invariably, a nominal overriding royalty
operations in an effort to isolate and define likely struc- can be retained on the leases and occasionally a carried
tures on large lease blocks or spreads of acreage. working interest to casing point. In this case it is difficult
However, the owner of a geological idea or unleased to obtain a carried working interest of as much as one-
prospect may have sufficient subsurface and/or seismic quarter because the independent taking the deal must
itself plan on laying off perhaps half of the deal and there tain expenditures, establish liabilities, provide for the
must be some room left in the structuring of the deal to drilling of the first and subsequent wells, provide for
permit all concerned to realize some economic benefit. nonconsent operations, etc. Certain operating costs are
agreed on and an accounting procedure is attached to the
Abstracts and Title Examination. Abstracts will be joint-operating agreement.
ordered on at least the proposed drillsite and offsetting The joint-operating agreement is a very useful tool in
tracts, and perhaps even on the entire prospect. The exploratory operations, particularly where the tracts of
abstract will usually contain exact copies of all in- land are small or where it may be desirable to share the
struments of public record pertinent to the land from pa- risk of an expensive exploratory well. Contract areas can
tent to date. Qualified oil and gas attorneys will review be of practically any size but for exploratory purposes
the abstracts and render a title opinion. There are usually usually run from about 640 to several thousand acres in
numerous title deficiencies, most of which can be met by size. The joint-operating agreement is also used occa-
appropriate curative effort by the landman or title man. sionally in development drilling. It finds frequent ap-
Supplemental title opinions will be obtained after the plication in a unit or pool ordered by a regulatory body
curative materials have been procured. Rarely can every after a well has been completed as a producer.
requirement be met and the lessee may have to elect to
waive such unmet remaining requirements and assume Cash Contributions. A lessee may find it necessary to
the business risk of proceeding with the drilling of the drill a well on a reduced-acreage basis with cash support
well. from the adjacent lessees who might not be willing to
farm out or enter into a joint operation. The most com-
Full-Interest Wells. When a lessee controls the entire mon type of cash contribution is the dry-hole contribu-
acreage on all of the prospects it is fortunate indeed. The tion. It is usually a sum of money per foot drilled, deter-
well can be drilled as the lessee pleases, being restricted mined by reservoir participation, discounted for lack of
only by appropriate regulations. Should the well result in ownership in the well, etc. This type of contribution gets
being a producer the lessee will have control of the entire its name from the fact that no money is payable in the
reservoir, assuming the lessee has more or less correctly event the well is completed as a producer. The idea here
anticipated the extent of the reservoir in the lease pur- is that the offset lessee is willing to make a cash con-
chases. However, this situation is rarely found. Con- tribution toward the drilling of a well that in all probabil-
siderable work has yet to be done when a lessee is plan- ity will be dry but which will at least partially evaluate
ning to drill a well and finds that all of the prospective the leases. In the unlikely event the well is completed as
acreage is not controlled. a producer it is thought that the rewards are sufficiently
great for the owner of the well to make cash payment
from the offset lessee unnecessary. A variation of the
Joint-Operating Agreements. Generally a lessee think- dry-hole contribution is the bottombole contribution,
ing of drilling a well will have at least some leases on the which is payable upon reaching a specified depth
prospect. The remaining leases will be owned by one or regardless of whether or not the well is completed as a
more competitors, presumably people who are also in- producer. Both types of cash contributions are used
terested in drilling wells and establishing production. infrequently.
Since the owners of the leases covering the prospect will
all benefit in the event of production, it would seem Farmouts. A transfer of the working interest with the
equitable that each pay a proportionate part of a well or obligation to drill a well is called a farmout. There are
make a suitable contribution to the well. any number of ways in which a farmout can be
However, it is not often that two or more lessees have negotiated. A farmout agreement provides for the drill-
the same data, or interpret the data in the same way. A ing of a well, or the option to drill a well, at a mutually
lessee may elect to farm out its acreage, do nothing, or agreed location and to a mutually agreed depth on one of
join in the drilling of a well. The other lessees will be the leases owned by the party making the farmout. Upon
contacted in an attempt to determine their interest in get- completion of the well in accordance with the terms of
ting a well drilled. The other lessees may not have sufti- the farmout agreement, the lessee will assign or sublease
cient information to justify their joining in the drilling of a portion of the leases and retain an interest, usually an
a well. The party desiring to drill the well may find it overriding royalty. The amount of the overriding royalty
desirable to make any information available to the adja- will vary widely from area to area and will depend on a
cent lessees. This seismic or other control may represent number of factors including the available geological and
a sizable investment, and the other lessees may be will- geophysical control, the amount of the working interest,
ing to pay for the data, exchange similar data of their the proximity of production, producing history in the
own in another area, or negotiate almost any kind of area, lifting problems, suitable markets, size of the an-
agreement with the owner of the control. If all the lessees ticipated reservoir, the number of acres being farmed
are eventually agreed that a joint well should be drilled, out, well costs, etc.
they will define a contract area that will be jointly The operator that takes the farmout will be looking to
owned. A joint-operating agreement will be entered into the net revenue interest to recover costs. Gross income
and the interests of the parties to the agreement deter- from the sale of production less royalty, overriding
mined on the basis of the surface acreage owned by each royalty, and any other burdens on the leases determines
as compared with the total acres in the contract area. The net revenue interest. Acceptable net revenue interests on
joint-operating agreement will stipulate the interests of farmouts vary widely: a net revenue interest in
the participating parties, specify the operator, limit cer- Oklahoma under a pooled section might be considered
unacceptable if less than 81.25%; in North Dakota in a tor’s share of such costs. A carried interest is a share in
wildcat well, 75%; in Louisiana in a low risk, close-in the net and not the gross production.
prospect, 68 %
A more complicated version of the farmout is found in Net-profits Interest. A net-profits interest is an interest
in gross production measured by the net profits fmm the
the better producing areas. Such farmouts are often made
operation of an oil and gas property. A net-profits in-
on the basis of a portion of the working interest being re-
tained by the party making the farmout. A typical ar- terest is similar to an overriding royalty in that it is
rangement might be the farmout of perhaps 2,000 acres created out of the working interest. The proceeds accru-
ing to a net-profits interest are reducible by certain
on a 60/40 basis for a free well into the tanks to 12,000
development and operating costs, which are specified in
ft. The party taking the farmout would agree to drill and
the net-profits contract. The net-profits interest is subject
complete a 12,000-ft test at the party’s sole cost and risk
and thereby earn an assignment of an undivided 60 % in- to such expenses to the extent of its share of the income.
The owner of a net-profits interest is not required to pay
terest in the 2,000-acre block. If the well is productive
out or advance money for development or operating
the party making the farmout owns 40% interest in the
well and in the production, usually after the operator has costs, as in the case of the owner of a working interest,
and is not liable for such costs. If no net profit is realized
recovered the costs to take full advantage of available tax
deductions. The party taking the farmout will obtain from the operation of the property the net-profits-interest
owner receives no income but neither is the owner liable
payout from the proceeds of the sale of production from
the earning well less any royalties and overriding to the operator for a share of the loss. A net-profits in-
terest can be regarded as a non-operating interest similar
royalties. Subsequent operations on the farmout block
to an overriding royalty. The net-profits agreement finds
would be under the terms of a joint-operating agreement.
its principal application in farmouts. Equitable as it may
Variations of this type of deal are countless. The well
sound, this type of agreement is seldom used.
could be a free well through the wellhead rather than into
the tanks. This means the operator would pay for all
completion costs through the well head but would share Lease Problems During Development
on a 60140 basis in erecting tanks and treating equip- The lessor is often pleased and even overwhelmed by the
ment. Another variation is the free well to the sand. This discovery of hydrocarbons on the land and the sudden
means the operator would drill the well (at sole cost and cash flow of royalty. Problems early in the development
risk) to the objective horizon, run an electrical log, and phase, such as the use of the surface for tank batteries,
core and test as might be required to determine the gathering lines, treating equipment, and roads are usual-
possibility of production. If a decision is made to attempt ly settled quickly. After a period of time, new problems
a completion the operator will pay a negotiated fraction arise of a subtle and sophisticated nature. As some
of the cost of running a production string of casing and lessors seek to maximize their royalty income, they turn
setting subsurface production equipment, with the party to petroleum consultants and oil and gas attorneys for ad-
making the farmout paying the remainder of the cost. vice. From this effort come legal demands for additional
Any interest may be negotiated; one-quarter and one- development or release of undeveloped acreage. While
third interest deals are commonly made. Other variations development can occur both horizontally and vertically,
might allow the operator to recover completion costs lessor demands for development have generally been
before the party making the farmout would be entitled to sustained by the courts in a horizontal sense only,
any share of the production. The party making the farm- A more recent and more complex problem relates to
out might keep an overriding royalty during partial or the gas royalty clause and market value. The typical
complete payout and at the time of the payout would lease refers to the lessors’ royalty as a fraction of market
have the option to exchange the overriding royalty for a value. When a lessee discovers gas and enters into a long
working interest. term contract for the sale of gas, the market value of gas
and the contract price for gas are almost identical.
Carried Interest. A carried-interest contract is an ar- However, the price of natural gas in recent years has
rangement between co-owners of a working interest, risen dramatically. The lessee is sometimes contractually
whereby one agrees to advance all or some part of the bound to a gas price with the purchaser and at the same
development or operating costs on behalf of the others time faces a demand from the lessor for gas prices at
and to recover such advances from future production, if market value. The courts are not uniform from state to
any, accruing to the other owners’ shares of the working state on this issue. The U.S. Natural Gas Policy Act of
interest. The co-owner advancing such costs is referred 1978, with its price ceilings on categories of natural gas,
to as the carrying party and the co-owners for whom may have been of some use in defending lessor suits for
costs are so advanced are referred to as the carried market value on royalty gas. Lessees now appear to be
parties. leaning to short-term gas contracts, provisions for fre-
A carried interest usually comes into being in connec- quent renegotiation of price, rewriting the gas royalty
tion with a farmout. The carried-interest contract may clause to provide for “price received” rather than
apply not only to the first well but to subsequent wells. market value, providing for in-kind royalty on gas, etc.
The party making the farmout may assign a portion of Whether or not lessees will be successful in negotiating
the working interest to an operator who will pay all the such gas contracts in periods of falling demand remains
costs of drilling and equipping the first well, and to be seen. Similarly, it can be expected that lessors and
possibly additional development wells. The grantee must their attorneys will resist any changes in the lease form
look to the production, if any, attributable to the gran- from the conventional wording on gas royalty. Resolu-
tor’s share of the working interest to recovery the gran- tion of this problem lies ahead.
Taxation* that percentage will be 15% of the first 1,000 BOPD pro-
The taxation of income related to oil and gas is a highly duced, or 6 million cu ft/D gas.
specialized field. The increasing complexity of tax laws Intangible Drilling and Development Costs. Tax-
and the very real effect that taxes have on the successful payers owning operating rights and incurring intangible
conduct of any business make it imperative that compe- costs may elect to expense or capitalize such costs. If the
tent tax advice be sought out by any operator. however taxpayer elects to capitalize, the intangible drilling costs
small his organization may hc. The importance of tax may be recovered through depreciation over 5 years, and
planning can hardly be overestimated. Improper ~tructur- are subject to an investment tax credit. Such capitalized
ing of a drilling deal or a sale of a property from a tax costs do not represent a tax preference item. Since
standpoint can have the most serious of consequences. capitalization of such costs offers no real tax benefits,
The larger organizations and major oil companies have most taxpayers elect to expense such costs.
tax departments comprised of specialists in the various Intangible drilling costs may represent 80 to 90% of
subdivisions of taxation. Independents and small the cost of an exploratory well; the remaining portion
organizations must retain the services of tax consultants representing tangible costs of equipment with salvage
on a continuing basis. value. It is no surprise to note the enormous success of
Very briefly, all income less certain exclusions exempt
drilling funds through limited partnerships as such large
from tax is gross income. Taxable income is gross in- deductions are made available to investors.
come less deductions. Tax rates vary for individuals and
corporations, as do long-term capital gains rates for in-
Capital Gains. A sale of a capital asset after a holding
dividuals and corporations. Items of tax preference are
period set by law will subject the taxpayer to greatly
deductions such as the excluded portion of capital gains,
reduced tax rates of a maximum of 20% of the profits of
depletion, accelerated depreciation, and excess intangi-
the sale. The sale of leases, either producing or non-
ble drilling costs on productive property, all of which are producing, is subject to these favorable capital gains tax
subject to a minimum tax. Capital expenditures are not
rates. The attraction of such favorable tax treatment in
immediately deductible as are expenses, and must be the event of future sales of properties has been a further
recovered through depreciation or depletion. Some ex-
inducement to investors in oil and gas exploration
penses. such as accelerated depreciation, are recaptured
at sale, that is, become taxable at ordinary rates. The
Offshore Leasing
cost of tangible property used in business results in cer-
tain tax credits that are subtracted directly from the taxes Jurisdiction. Fifteenth and sixteenth century explorers
due and are not a deduction. claimed vast areas of waters, entire gulfs, seas, and
Capital expenditures include the bonus costs of pur- oceans. However, these early claims, as a practical mat-
chasing mineral leases. well and lease equipment, and ter, were unenforceable. The extent of national
most geological and geophysical exploration costs. sovereignty over the waters has not been resolved in in-
Deductible expense items include overhead, lease ren- ternational law. By presidential proclamation in 1945,
tals. abandoned leases, most intangible drilling costs, the U.S. regards the natural resources of the Outer Con-
and geological and geophysical costs not resulting in tinental Shelf (OCS) as a territory owned by the nation.
lease acquisitions. The Submerged Lands Act of 1953 confirmed the
The enormous sums of money put into oil and gas ex- jurisdiction and control of the U.S. over the natural
ploration by private investors through limited partner- resources of the seabed of the continental shelf seaward
ships deserve further comment. The private investor has of the state boundaries.
taken advantage of the tax provisions in three principal
areas: depletion, intangible drilling and development Producing and Leasing History. The first commercial
costs, and capital gains. oil production in the Gulf of Mexico was discovered in
1947 on a Louisiana state lease. Drilling on federal lands
Depletion. A producing reservoir gradually suffers a under the OCS Lands Act began in 1954. Since 1956,
reduction in the quantity and value of hydrocarbons in the OCS (Atlantic, Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Alaska,
place. Depletion laws were enacted to provide for a comprising over more than 1 billion acres) has produced
return of capital because of mineral extraction. The tax- about 6 billion bbl of oil and about 55 Tcf gas. Leasing
payer has a choice of two methods. Cost depletion pro- has proceeded at a snail’s pace. For years, into the early
vides for a reduction in basis as related to production and 1970’s, the abundance of oil and gas onshore and in
sale of minerals. Percentage depletion provides for a world markets suppressed offshore leasing exploration
deduction of a percentage of the gross income from the with its high costs. As the search intensified, efforts to
property, which is limited to 50% of the net income from schedule lease sales met with great opposition from en-
the property, and to 65 % of net income from all sources. vironmental groups. The time required for environmen-
The U.S. Tax Reduction Act of 1975 effectively re- tal assessment, state and local government comment,
pealed percentage depletion, with certain exceptions. An and so on, sometimes exceeded 3 years. The U.S. Dept.
exemption was allowed for independent producers and of Interior recently has moved to accelerate lease sales;
royalty owners as a percentage of qualified production, almost the entire continental shelf will have been offered
except as to transfers of producing property. For 1984 for lease at scheduled dates through 1987.
Leasing Procedure. The interior secretary prepares a

‘Written More Ihe Tax Reform Act of 1986. which lmplementschanges I” alternal~ve proposed 5-year leasing program. In the preparation
m,n,mum tax. depletion. depreclatlan. ~n~eslment tax cred# and deducton 01
losses phase, the secretary invites and considers suggestions
from the governors of affected states, local government, or produce from them. Exploratory wells are usually
industry, federal agencies, and all interested parties, in- used to obtain information about potential oil and gas ac-
cluding the general public. Time is provided for a cumulation. Development or production wells are nor-
response from the governors and others after preparation mally drilled from a production platform.
of a draft of a proposed program, and prior to publication
in the Federal Register. Time is again provided for a Economic Impact of Offshore Leasing. The interior
response following publication and prior to submission secretary has stated that 85% of America’s untapped oil
to the president and congress for approval. The director wealth is on publicly owned lands, of which two-thirds is
of the Bureau of Land Management issues calls for ‘thought to be offshore. The economic implications for
nominations pursuant to an approved program, confer- the future in exploring and developing such reserves are
ring with the governors where indicated. A list of tracts truly significant. The amount of capital required for such
tentatively selected for leasing is drawn up. The director exploration and development is staggering. But consider
is free to make deletions or additions from the tentative the recent past: the OCS has produced about 6 billion bbl
selection of tracts. A selected tract will, in general, not oil and 55 Tcf gas. There would appear to be little ques-
exceed 5,760 acres. Upon approval by the secretary, the tion about the ever-increasing significance of the leasing,
proposed notice of sale will be published in the Federal exploration, and development of lands comprising the
Register. The governors and local governments con- ocs.
cerned again have an opportunity to comment. The
secretary will make the final decision and will publish
the notice of sale in the Federal Register. The sale itself
will be held no sooner than 30 days after publication.
General References
Tracts are offered for lease by competitive sealed bid-
ding. Leases are issued only to qualified bidders. Leases Hardy, George W. III: Louisiana Petroleum Land Operarims, Inst.
for Energy Development Inc., Oklahoma City (1980).
are issued for an initial period of 5 years, although longer
times are provided for where unusually deep water or Kunrz, Eugene: Kuna Oil and Gas, W.H. AndersonCo., Cincinnati,
adverse conditions would discourage exploration and OH (1960).
development. Annual rentals are due in advance to main- Mosburg, Lewis G. Jr.: Perroleum Land Pracrices, IED Exploration
tain the lease in the absence of production. Royalties bid Inc., Tulsa (1978).
are variable with one-eighth royalty being a minimum. Mosburg, Lewis G. Jr.: Basics ofSwucturing fiplorabn Deals, IED
Royalties on all leases in the Gulf of Mexico average Exploration Inc., Tulsa (1979).
about one-sixth. “Outer Continental Shelf Mineral Leasmg and Rights-of-Way Grant-
After being awarded a lease, a lessee seeks to obtain ing Programs,” Circular No. 2446, U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
the necessary permits. The lessee or operator will usually Bureau of Land Management (1979).
drill one or more test wells to determine whether Prentice-Hull Federul Tux Handbor~k, Prentice-Hall Inc., Enplewood
hydrocarbons are present. If oil and/or gas is discovered, Cliffs. NJ (1986).
the operator, as a matter of common practice, will aban- Woodard, Robert G.: Basic Land Management, Inst. for Energy
don the exploratory holes without attempting to complete Development Inc., Oklahoma City (1982).
Chapter 58
The SI Metric System of Units and
SPE Metric Standard
Society of Petroleum Engineers
Adopted for use as a voluntary standard by the SPE Board of Directors, June 1982.
Contents
Preface...............
Part 1: S&The lnternahonal System of Units
Introduction
SI Units and Unit Symbols
Application of the Metric System
Rules for Conversion and Rounding
Special Terms and Quantities Involving
Mass and Amount of Substance. 58-7
Mental Guides for Using Metric Units 58-a
Appendix A (Terminology) 50-8
Appendix B (SI Units) 58-9
Appendrx C (Style Gurde for Metnc Usage) 58-11
Appendix D (General Conversion Factors) 58-14
Appendix E (Tables 1.8 and 1.9) 58-20
Part 2: Discussion of Metric Unit Standards .58-21

Introduction ...... ............... 58-21
Review of Selected Units ............. .58-22
Umt Standards Under Discussion ....... 58-24
Notes for Table 2.2 ... ............... 58-25
Notes for Table 2.3 ................. .58-25
Preface
The SPE Board in June 1982 endorsed revisions to “SPE proposed and/or adopted by other groups involved in the
Tentative Metric Standard” (Dec. 1977 JPT. Pages metrication exercise, including those agencies charged
1575 161 1) and adopted it for implementation as this with the responsibility (nationally and internationally)
“SPE Metric Standard.” for establishing metric standards. These few exceptions,
The following standard is the final product of 12 years’ still to be decided, are summarized in the introduction to
work by the Symbols and Metrication Committee. Part 2 of this report.
Members of the Metrication Subcommittee included These standards include most of the units used com-
John M. Campbell, chairman. John M. Campbell & monly by SPE members. The subcommittee is aware that
Co.: Robert A. Campbell. Magnum Engineenng Inc.; some will find the list incomplete for their area of
Robert E. Carlile. Texas Tech U.; J. Donald Clark, specialty. Additions will continue lo be made but too
petroleum consultant; Hank Groeneveld, Mobil Oil long a list can become cumbersome. The subcommittee
Canada: Terry Pollard. retired. et--c@io member: and believes that these standards provide a basis for metric
Howard B. Bradley. professional/technical training practice beyond the units listed. So long as one maintains
consultant. these standards a new unit can be “coined” that should
With very few exceptions. the units shown are those prove acceptable.
Part 1: SI-The International System of Units*

Introduction SI Units and Unit Symbols3
Worldwide scientific, engineering, industrial. and cotn- The short-form designations of units (such as ti for feet.
mercial groups are converting to SI metric units. Many kg for kilograms, m for meters, mol for moles, etc.)
in the U.S. arc now active in such conversion. based on have heretofore been called unit “abbreviations” in SPE
work accomplished by national ’ and international’ terminology to avoid confusion with the tetm “sym
authorities. Various U.S. associations. professional bols” applied to letter symbols used in mathematical
societies. and agencies are involved in this process. in- equations. However, international and national standard
cluding. but not limited to. the American Sot. for practice is to call these unit designations “unit sym-
Testing and Materials (ASTM)? American Petroleum bols”; the latter usage will be followed in this report.
Inst. (API).‘.’ American Nat]. Standards Inst. (AN-
SI), ‘.’ American Sot. of Mechanical Engineers SI Units
(ASME).’ and American Natl. Metric Council SI is based on seven well-defined “base units” that
(ANMC).X The Canadian Petroleutn Assn. (CPA) and quantify seven hn.sc~ ymntitic~ that hi c,orz~wztiorz are
other Canadian groups have been especially active in regarded as dimensionally independent. It is a matter ot
conversion work. ” SPE intends to hccp its worldwide choice how many and which quantities arc considered
memberahlp informed on the conversion to and use of SI base quantities.’ SI has chosen the seven babe quantities
metric unit,. and base units listed in Table I. I * as the basis of the ln-
The term “SI” is an abbreviation for Le Systgme In- tcrnational System. In addition, there arc two “sup-
ternational d’Unit& or The International System of plcmentary quantities” (Table I .2).
Units. Tables 1. I and 1.2 show current practices for
SI is not identical with any of the former cgs, mks, or designating the dimensions of base and supplementary
mksA systems of metric units but is closely related to physical quantities, plus letter symbols for use in
them and is an extension of and improvement over them. mathematical equations.
SI measurement symbols are identical in all languages. SI “&rived units” arc a third claxs. formed by con-
As in any other language, rules of spelling, punctuation, boning. as needed, base units. supplementary units. and
and pronunciation are essential to avoid errors in other derived units according to fhe algebraic relations
numerical work and to make the system easier to use and linking the corresponding quantities. The symbols for
understand on a worldwide basis. These rules, together derived units that do not have their own individual sytn-
with decimal usage, units coherence, and a series of bols arc obtained by using the mathematical signs for
standard prefixes for multiples and submultiples of most multiplication and division. together with appropriate
SI units, provide a rational system with minimum dif- exponent> (e.g.. SI velocity. meter per second. m/s or
ficulty of transition from English units or older systems I11 s I SI anoular velocity. radian per second. radis or
of metric units. Refs. 1 through 4 of this paper are rad.\-‘). e
recommended to the reader wishing official information, Table I.3 contains a number of SI derived unit>. in-
development history, or more detail on SI: material from cluding all the I9 approved units assigned special names
these and other references cited has been used freely in and individual unit hymbolh.
this report. Appendix B provides a more dctallcd cxplanatmn oi
Appendix A provides definitions for some of the terms the S! system of unils. their dct’initions. Xld
used. ahhr-aviations.
‘Prepared by T A Pollard for the subcommittee Based on paper SPE 6212
presented by T A Pollard at Ihe ,976 SPE Annual Techn~ca, Conference and ‘Table and flgure numbers of Ihe or,glnal SPE publ,cat,on are used fhroughout ,h,s
EXhlb, ho”. New Orleans. act 3-6 chapter
THE SI METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS & SPE METRIC STANDARD 58-3
SI Unit Prefixes* Style and Usage

The Sl unit prefixes. multiplication factors, and SI prefix Take care to use unit symbols properly: the agreements
symbols are shown in Table 1.4. Some of the prefixes in international and national standards provide uniform
may seem strange at first, but there are enough familiar rules (summarized in Appendix C). It is essential that
ones in the list to make it relatively easy for technical these rules be followed closely to provide maximum ease
personnel to adjust to their use; kilo, mega, deci, centi, of communication and to avoid costly errors. Handling
milli, and micro are known to most engineers and of unit names varies somewhat among different countries
scientists. because of language differences, but using the rules in
One particular warning is required about the prefixes: Appendix C should minimize most difficulties of
in the SI system, k and M (kilo and mega) stand for 1000 communication.
and 1 000 000, respectively, whereas M and MM or m
and mm have been used previously in the oil industry for Usage for Selected Quantities
designating thousands and millions of gas volumes. Note Mass, Force, and Weight. The principal departure of SI
carefully. however, that there is no parallelism because from the gravimetric system of metric engineering units
SI prefixes are raised to the power of the unit employed, is the use of explicitly distinct units for mass and force.
while the customary M and MM prefixes were not. Ex- In SI. kilogram is restricted to the unit of mass. The
amples: km’ means cubic kilometers, not thousands of nebtlton is the only SI unit of force, defined as I
cubic meters; cm* means square centimeters, nor one- (kg. m)/s’, to be used wherever force is designated, in-
hundredth of a square meter. The designation for 1000 cluding derived units that contain force-e.g., pressure
cubic meters is IO’ m3 and for I million cubic meters is or stress (N/m* =Pa), energy (N.m=J), and power
10’ m’--not km3 and Mm’, respectively. [(N.m)/s=W].
Appendix C gives examples of the vital importance of There is confusion over the use of the term weight as a
following the precise use of upper-case and lower-case quantity to mean either force or mass. In science and
letters for prefixes and for unit symbols. technology, the term weight ofa body usually means the
force that, if applied to the body, would give it an ac-
Application of the Metric System
celeration equal to the local acceleration of free fall (g,
General when referring to the earth’s surface). This acceleration
SI is the form of the metric system preferred for all ap- varies in time and space; weight, if used to mean force,
plications. It is important that this modernized version be varies also. The term force of gravity (mass times ac-
thoroughly understood and properly applied. This sec- celeration of gravity) is more accurate than weight for
tion, together with Appendix material, provides this meaning.
guidance and recommendations concerning style and In commercial and everyday use, on the other hand,
usage of the SI form of the metric system. the term weight nearly always means mass. Thus, when
TABLE 1.1 - SI BASE WANTiTlES AND UNITS
SPE
Letter Symbol
SI Unit Symbol for Mathematical
(“Abbreviation”), Equations,
Base Quantity or Use Roman Use Italic
“Dimension” SI Unit - (Upright) Type (Sloping) Type
length meter L
mass kilogram k” m
time” second t
electric current* * ampere i
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K r
amount of substance mole + mol n
luminous intensity candela cd
‘The seven base unrls. two supplementary units and other terms are deiined I” Appendixes A and 6. Part 1.
“SPE heretofore has arbrlrar~ly used charge q. the product of sfectrlc current and time, as a basic dunenslon. In untt symbols this would be A.s. m SPE mathematical symbols. IV
tWh%nthe moleis used.the eler~ntaryentitw rWSt be Spenhed;they r~ybeatOrt~s. rm%WeS. iOnS.el8c1rOnS.other partlCla% OrSpW&l groupsof suchpartides. In petroleum work.
the terms kilogram m&.““pound mole.” etc., often are shortened erroneously to “mole.”
TABLE 1.2 - SI SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS’
SPE
Letter Symbol
SI Unit Symbol for Mathematical
(“Abbreviation”), Eauations.
Supplementary Quantity or Use Roman Use Italic’
“Dimension” SI Unit (Upright) Type (Sloping) Type
radian rad
plane angle”
solid angle’ ’ steradran sr h
‘The seven base umts, two supplementary units. and other terms are defmed I” Appendaxes A and 8. Part 1
“IS0 speafn?s these two angles as dlmensnnless wth respect to the seven base quanhties
TABLE 1.3 - SOME COMMON SI DERIVED UNITS

SI Unit Symbol
(“Abbreviation”), Formula,
Quantity Unit Use Roman Type Use Roman Type
absorbed dose gray GY J/kg
acceleration meter per second squared ml.9
activity (of radionuclides) becquerel Bq 1Is
angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2
angular velocity radian per second rad/s
area square meter m2
Celsius temperature degree Celsius “C K
density kilogram per cubic meter .., kg/m3
dose equivalent sieverl sv J/kg
electric capacitance farad A.sN ( = GN)
electric charge coulomb E As
electrical conductance siemens S AN
electric field strength volt per meter V/m
electric inductance henry Ii V&A ( = Wb/A)
electric potential volt V W/A
electric resistance ohm n VIA
electromotive force volt V W/A
energy joule J N.m
entropy joule per kelvin J/K
force newton N kgm/$
frequency hertz HZ l/s
illuminance Iux lx lm/m2
luminance candela per square meter cd/m2
luminous flux lumen Im cdsr
magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
magnetic flux weber Wb vs
magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2
potential difference volt V W/A
power watt W J/s
pressure Pascal Pa N/m2
quantity of electricity coulomb C As
quantity of heat joule J N*m
radiant flux watt W J/s
radiant intensity watt per steradian . Wlsr
specific heat joule per kilogram kelvin J(kgW
stress Pascal Pa Nlm2
thermal conductivity watt per meter kelvin W/(m.K)
velocity meter per second . m/s
viscosity, dynamic Pascal second Pas
viscosity, kinematic square meter per second ,.. ml/s
voltage volt V WIA
volume* cubic meter .. m3
wave number 1 per meter . l/m
work joule J N.m
‘In 1964, the General Conference on Welghls and Measures adopted liter as a special name for the cubic decimeter but discouraged the
use of later for volume measurement 01 extreme precision (see Appendix 8).
TABLE 1.4 - SI UNIT PREFIXES

SI Prefix
Symbol, Meaning
SI Use Roman In Other
Multiplication Factor Prefix Type- Pronunciation (U.S.)” Meaning (U.S.) Countries
1 000 OOLl000 000 000 000 = 10’8 exa** E ex’ a (a as in a bout) one quintillion timest trillion
1 ooo 000 000 000 000 = 10’5 peta” P as in p eta1 one quadrillion timest thousand billion
1 000 000 000 000 = 10’2 tera T as in terra ce one trillion timest billion
1 000 000 000 = 1OQ giga G jig’ a (a as in a bout) one billion times7 milliard
1000000 = 106 mega M as in mega phone one million limes
lOOO= 103 kilo k as in kilo watt one thousand times
100 = 102 hectot h heck’ toe one hundred times
10 = 10 deka$ da deck’ a (a as in a bout) ten times
0.1 = 10-l deci$ as in deci mal one tenth of
0.01 = 10m2 centi* as in senri ment one hundredth of
0.001 = 10m3 milli as in mili tary one thousandth of
0.000001 = 1Om6 micro as in micro phone one millionth of
0.000 000 001 = 10eg nano nan’ oh (an as in an t) one billionth oft milliardth
0.000 000 000 001 = lo-l2 pica peek’ oh one trillionth oft billionth
0.000 000 000 000 001 = lo-l5 femto fern’ toe (tern as in one quadrillionth oft thousand billionth
fern inine)
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 1Om’8 atto a as in anafo my one quintillionth oft trillionth
‘The l~rsl syllable of every prehx IS accented lo assure that the prellx will retain Its Ideniiiy Therefore. the prelerred pronunxlion of kllomeler places the accent on the first syllable, not the
second.
“Approved by the 15th General Conlerencs of WaghIs and Measures (CGPM). May-June ,975.
tThese terms should be avoided in technaal wrong because the denomlnatnns above 1 millon are dlflerent in most other countries. as lndlcated I” the last column.
tWhtle hecto, deka.dect, and cents are St prehxes. their use generally should be avolded except for the SI UN mult~pleslorarea. volume, moment, and nontechmcal use of centmwer, as
for body and clothing meas”reme”t.
one speaks of a person’s weight, the quantity referred to Energy. The SI unit of energy, the joule, together with
is mass. Because of the dual use, the term weight should its multiples, is preferred for all applications. The
be avoided in technical practice except under cir- kilowatt-hour is used widely as a measure of electric
cumstances in which its meaning is completely clear. energy, but this unit should not be introduced into any
When the term is used, it is important to know whether new areas; eventually it should be replaced by the
mass or force is intended and to use SI units properly as megajoule.
described above by using kilograms for mass and
newtons for force. Torque and Bending Moment. The vector product of
Gravity is involved in determining mass with a balance force and moment arm is expressed in newton meters
or scale. When a standard mass is used to balance the (N m) by SPE as a convention when expressing torque
measured mass, the effect of gravity on the two masses is energies.
canceled except for the indirect effect of air or fluid
buoyancy. On a spring scale, mass is measured indirect- Pressure and Stress. The SI unit for pressure and stress
ly since the instrument responds to the force of gravity. is the Pascal (newton per square meter); with proper SI
Such scales may be calibrated in mass units if the varia- prefixes it is applicable to all such measurements. Use of
tion in acceleration of gravity and buoyancy corrections the old metric gravitational units-kilogram-force per
are not significant in their use. square centimeter, kilogram-force per square millimeter,
The use of the same name for units of force and mass torr, etc.-is to be discontinued. Use of the bar is
causes confusion. When non-9 units are being con- discouraged by the standards organizations.
verted to SI units, distinction should be made between It has been recommended internationally that pressure
,forcr and mass-e.g., use Ibf to denote force in units themselves should not be modified to indicate
gravimetnc engineering units, and use Ibm for mass. whether the pressure is “absolute” (above zero) or
Use of the metric ton, also called mnne (1.0 Mg), is “gauge” (above atmospheric pressure). If the context
common. leaves any doubt as to which is meant, the word
“pressure” must be qualified appropriately: “...at a
Linear Dimensions. Ref. 3 provides discussions of gauge pressure of 13 kPa,” or “. . .at an absolute
length units applied to linear dimensions and tolerances pressure of 13 kPa,” etc.
of materials and equipment, primarily of interest to
engineers in that field. Units and Names To Be Avoided or Abandoned
Tables 1.1 through 1.3 include all SI units identified by
Temperature. The SI temperature unit is the kelvin (not formal names, with their individual unit symbols. Vir-
“degree Kelvin”); it is the preferred unit to express ther- tually all other named metric units formerly in use (as
modynamic temperature. Degrees Celsius (“C) is an SI well as nonmetric units) are to be avoided or abandoned.
derived unit used to express temperature and temperature There is a long list of such units (e.g., dyne. stokes.
intervals. The Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade) “esu,” gauss, gilbert, abampere, statvolt, angstrom.
is related directly to the kelvin scale as follows: the fermi, micron, mho, candle, calorie, atmosphere, mm
temperature interval 1 “C= 1 K, exactly. Celsius Hg, and metric horsepower). The reasons for abandon-
temperature (Tot) is related to thermodynamic ing the non-9 units are discussed in Appendix B. Two of
temperature (Tx) as follows: Tot =TK --To exactly, the principal reasons are the relative simplicity and the
where To =273.1.5 K by definition. Note that the SI unit coherence of the SI units.
symbol for the kelvin is K without the degree mark,
whereas the older temperature units are known as Rules for Conversion and Rounding3
degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Rankine, and degrees
Conversion
Celsius, with degree marks shown on the unit symbol
(“F, “R, “C). Table 1.7, Appendix D, contains general conversion fac-
tors that give exact values or seven-digit accuracy for im-
plementing these rules except where the nature of the
Time. The SI unit for time is the second, and this is
dimension makes this impractical.
preferred, but use of the minute, hour, day, and year is
The conversion of quantities should be handled with
permissible.
careful regard to the implied correspondence between the
accuracy of the data and the given number of digits. In
Angles. The SI unit for plane angle is the radian. The use all conversions, the number of significant digits retained
of the arc degree and its decimal submultiples is per- should be such that accuracy is neither sacrificed nor
missible when the radian is not a convenient unit. Use of exaggerated.
the minute and second is discouraged except possibly for Proper conversion procedure is to multiply the
cartography. Solid angles should be expressed in specified quantity by the conversion factor exactly as
steradians. given in Table 1.7 and then round to the appropriate
number of significant digits. For example, to convert
Volume. The SI unit of volume is the cubic meter. This 11.4 ft to meters: 11.4x0.3048=3.474 72, which
unit, or one of its regularly formed multiples, is pre- rounds to 3.47 m.
ferred for all applications. The special name liter has
been approved for the cubic decimeter (see Appendix B), Accuracy and Rounding
but use of the liter is restricted to the measurement of liq- Do not round either the conversion factor or the quantity
uids and gases. before performing the multiplication; this reduces ac-
curacy. Proper conversion procedure includes rounding or “maximum,” must be handled so that the stated limit
the converfed quantity to the proper number of signifi- is not violated. For example, a specimen “at least 4 in.
cant digits commensurate with its intended precision. wide” requires a width of at least 101.6 mm, or (round-
The practical aspects of measuring must be considered ed) at least 102 mm.
when using SI equivalents. If a scale divided into six-
teenths of an inch was suitable for making the original Significant Digits. Any digit that is necessuy to drjne
measurements, a metric scale having divisions of 1 mm the specific vulue or quantity is said to he significant.
is obviously suitable for measuring in SI units, and the For example, a distance measured to the nearest I m may
equivalents should not be reported closer than the nearest have been recorded as 157 m; this number has three
1 mm. Similarly, a gauge or caliper graduated in divi- significant digits. If the measurement had been made to
sions of 0.02 mm is comparable to one graduated in divi- the nearest 0.1 m, the distance may have been 157.4
sions of 0.001 in. Analogous situations exist for mass, m-four significant digits. In each case, the value of the
force, and other measurements. A technique to deter- right-hand digit was determined by measuring the value
mine the proper number of significant digits in rounding of an additional digit and then rounding to the desired
converted values is described here for general use. degree of accuracy. In other words, 157.4 was rounded
to 1.57; in the second case, the measurement may have
General Conversion. This approach depends on first been 157.36, rounded to 157.4.
establishing the intended precision or accuracy of the
quantity as a necessary guide to the number of digits to Importance of Zeros. Zeros may be used either to in-
retain. The precision should relate to the number of dicate a specific value, as does any other digit, or to in-
digits in the original. but in many cases that is not a dicate the magnitude of a number. The 1970 U.S.
reliable indicator. A figure of 1. I875 may be a very ac- population figure rounded to thousands was
curate decimalization of a noncritical I xh that should 203 185 000. The six left-hand digits of this number are
have been expressed as I. 19. On the other hand. the significant; each measures a value. The three right-hand
value 2 may mean “about 2” or it may mean a very ac- digits are zeros that merely indicate the magnitude of the
curate value of 2, which should then have been written as number rounded to the nearest thousand. To illustrate
2.0000. It is theretbre necessary to determine the intend- further, each of the following estimates and
ed precision of a quantity before converting. 771;s measurements is of different magnitude, but each is
cstitnale of ititertdnl precisiorl .~/7011/rl twlw he stnullet specified to have only one significant digit:
thctt1 l/l? flrc’ut-flc~\’ c~f’tr7f~L4.slr~emrft txrr 1r.s14a11\ .s17014Id hc
.vt~ul/cr fhur7 one-tend7 the tcrlrrtrt7c~e ~f’otw exists. After 1 000

the precision of the dimension is estimated. the con- 100
verted dimension should be rounded to a minimum 10
number of significant digits (see section on Significant 0.01
Digits) such that a unit of the last place is equal to or 0.001
smaller than the converted precision. 0.000 1.
It is also important to note that, for the first three

1. A stirring rod 6 in. long: In this case, precision is numbers, the identification of significant digits is possi-
estimated to be about % in. (+ i/4 in.). Converted. ‘/z in. ble only through knowledge of the circumstances. For
is 12.7 mm. The convened 6-in. dimension of 152.4 mm example, the number 1000 may have been rounded from
should be rounded to the nearest IO mm, or I50 mm. about 965, or it may have been rounded from 999.7, in
2. SO,OO@psi tensile strength: In this case, precision is which case all three zeros are significant.
estimated to be about t_200 psi (i I .4 MPa) based on an
accuracy of _+0.25% for the tension tester and other fac- Data of Varying Precision. Occasionally, data required
tors. Therefore, the converted dimension, 344.7379 for an investigation must be drawn from a variety of
MPa. should be rounded to the nearest whole unit, 345 sources where they have been recorded with varying
MPa. degrees of ref-mement. Specific rules must be observed
3. Test pressure 2OOk 15 psi: Since one-tenth of the when such data are to be added, subtracted, multiplied,
tolerance is + 1.5 psi (10.34 kPa). the converted dimen- or divided.
hion should be rounded to the nearest 10 kPa. Thus. The rule for addition and subtraction is that the answer
1378.9514-t 103.421 35 kPa becomes 138Oi 100 kPa. shall contain no significant digits farther to the right than
occurs in the least precise number. Consider the addition
Special Cases. Converted values should be rounded to of three numbers drawn from three sources, the first of
the minimum number of significant digits that will main- which reported data in millions, the second in thousands,
tain the required accuracy. In certain cases, deviation and the third in units:
from this practice to use convenient or whole numbers
may be feasible. In that case, the word “approximate” 163 000 000
must be used following the conversion-e.g., I% 217 885 000
in. =47.625 mm exact, 47.6 mm normal rounding, 47.5 96 432 768
mm (approximate) rounded to preferred or convenient 477 317 768
half-millimeter. 48 mm (approximate) rounded to whole
number. This total indicates a precision that is not valid. The
A quantity stated as a limit, such as “not more than” numbers should jirst be rounded to one significant digit
farther to the right than that of the least precise number, Examples:
and the sum taken as follows. 4.463 25 if rounded to three places would be 4.463.
8.376 52 if rounded to three places would be 8.377.
163 Ooo 000
4.365 00 if rounded to two places would be 4.36.
217 900 000
4.355 00 if rounded to two places would be 4.36.
96 400 000
477 300 ooo
Conversion of Linear Dimensions
Then, the total is rounded to 477 000 000 as called for of Interchangeable Parts
by the rule. Note that if the second of the figures to be
Detailed discussions of this subject are provided by
added had been 217 985 000, the rounding before addi-
ASTM,” API,” and ASME’ publications and arc
tion would have produced 218 000 000, in which case
recommended to the interested reader.
the zero following 218 would have been a significant
digit.
Other Units
The rule for multiplication and division is that the
product or quotient shall contain no more significant
Temperature. General guidance for converting
tolerances from degrees Fahrenheit to kelvins or degrees
digits than arc contained in the number with the fewest
Celsius is given in Table 1.5. Normally, temperatures
signijcant digits used in the multiplication or division.
The difference between this rule and the rule for addition expressed in a whole number of degrees Fahrenheit
should be converted to the nearest 0.5 K (or 0.5”C). As
and subtraction should be noted; for addition and sub-
with other quantities, the number of significant digits to
traction, the rule merely requires rounding digits to the
retain will depend on implied accuracy of the original
right of the last significant digit in the least precise
dimension: e.g.,*
number. The following illustration highlights this
difference.
100*5”F (tolerance); implied accuracy. estimated
Multiplication: 113.2~1.43=161.876 rounded total 2°F (nearest I “C) 37.7778&2.7778”C
to 162. rounds to 38+3”C.
Division: 113.2+1.43=79.16 rounded 1.000~50”F (tolerance): implied accuracy.
to 79.2 estimated total 20°F (nearest 10°C)
Addition: 113.2+1.43=114.63 rounded 537.7778k27.7778”C rounds to 54Ok3O”C.
to 114.6
Subtraction: 113.2-1.43=111.77 rounded Pressure or Stress. Pressure or stress values may be
to 111.8. converted by the same prmciple used for other quan-
tities. Values with an uncertainty of more than 2% may
The above product and quotient are limited to three bc converted without rounding by the approximate
significant digits because 1.43 contains only three factor:
significant digits. In contrast. the rounded answers in the
addition and subtraction examples contain four signifi- 1 psi=7 kPa.
cant digits.
Numbers used in the illustration are all estimates or For conversion factors see Table I .7.
measurements. Numben that ure cxwt counts (and con-
aversion ,firctors
that arc exuct) at-c treated as though thq Special Length Unit-the Vara. Table 1.8* Appendix
cmsist of’otlinjrzitr rumher oj’.sip$cant digit.,. Stated E, provides conversion factors and explanatory notes on
more simply. when a unmt is used in computation with a the problems ofconverting the several kinds of vara units
measurement. the number of significant digits in the to mctcrs.
answer is the same as the number of significant digit?, in
rhe measurement. If a count of 40 is multiplied by a
Special Terms and Quantities Involving
measurement of 10.2. the product is 408. However, if 40
Mass and Amount of Substance
wcrc an estimate accurate only to the nearest IO and,
hence. contained one significant digit. the product would The Intl. Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. the lntl.
be 300. Union of Pure and Applied Physics. and the Intl.
Rounding Values lo
‘See Appendlx A and pnor paragraph on “General Conversion.”
When a figure is to be rounded to fewer digits than the
total number available, the procedure should be as
follows.
TABLE 1.5 -CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURE
When the First Digit The Last Digit TOLERANCE REQUIREMENTS
Discarded is Retained is Tolerance Tolerance
(“F) (K or “C)
less than 5 unchanged
21 X0.5
more than 5 increased by 1 z-2 *I
5 followed only unchanged if even, -c5 +3
by zeros* increased by I if odd 210 + 5.5
A15 -8.5
‘Unless a number of rounded values are lo appear I” a gfven problem, mosl roundlngs
conform lo the ,,is, two procedures - 1.e rounding upward when the llrst dlgll dw 220 k-11
carded IS 5 or hlg”er k-25 t 14
Organization for Standardization provide clarifying 4 “General Principles Concerning Quantities. Unirs and Symbols,”
Gm~rcrl fnrroducrion rcj /SO 31. second edition. Intl. Standard
usages for some of the terms involving the base quan-
IS0 3110. Intl. Organization for Standardization. ANSI. New
tities “mass” and “amount of substance.” Two of these
York City (1981).
require modifying the terminology appearing previously 10. “American National Standard Practice for Inch-Millimeter Con-
in SPE’s Symbols Standards. version for Industrial Use,” ANSI 848.1-1933 (Rl947). IS0
Table 1.6 shows the old and the revised usages. R370- 1964, Intl. Organization for Standardization. ANSI, New
York. (A later edition has been issued: “Toleranced Dimen-
sions--Conversion From Inches to Millimeters and Vice Versa.”
Mental Guides for Using Metric Units
IS0 370-1975.)
Table 1.9. Appendix F, is offered as a “memory jog- II. “Factors for High-Precision Conversion.” NBS LC1071 (July
ger’ ’ or guide to help locate the “metric ballpark” 1976).
12. “Information Processing-Representation5 of SI and Other Units
relative to customary units. Table 1.9 is not a conversion
for Uae in Systems With Limited Character Sets.” lntl. Standard
table. For accurate conversions, refer to Table 1.7, or to
IS0 2955-1974. Intl. Organization for Stdndardization. ANSI.
Tables 2.2 and 2.3 for petroleum-industry units, and New York Ctty. (Ref. 5 reproduces the 1973 editton of this stan-
round off the converted values to practical precision as dard in its entirety.)
described earlier. 13. “Supplementary Metnc Practxe Guide for the Canadian
Petroleum Industry.” fourth edition. P.F. Moore (ed.). Canadian
Petroleum Assn. (Oct. 1979).
References* 14. “Letter Symbols for Units of Measurement,” ANSI/IEEE Std.
260-1978. Available from American Natl. Standards Inst.. New
I. “The lntematmnal System of Units (Sl).” NBS Special Publica-
York City.
tion 330. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Natl. Bureau of Standards,
IS. Mechtly. E.A.: “The International System trt Units-Physical
Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Constants and Conversion Factors,” NASA SP-7012. Scientific
Washmgton. D.C. (1981). (Order by SD Catalog No.
and Technical Information Office, NASA, Washmgton. D C.
c13.10:330/3.)
1973 edition available from U.S. Government Printing Office,
7. “S1 Units and Recommendations for the Use of Thctr Multtplca
Washington. D.C.
and of Certain Other Units,” wcond edition, 1981.02-15. Intl.
16. McElwee, P.G.: The Terns Vlrrcj. Available from Commissioner.
Standard IS0 1000. lntl. Oganlzation for Standardlzatton.
General Land Office, State of Texas. Auatm (April 30. 1940).
American Natl. Standards Inst. (ANSI). New York (1981).
3 “Standard for Metrtc Practtce,” E 380-82. Amencan Sot. ftir
Testing and Materials. Philadelphia. (Slmdar matcrlal published APPENDIX A3
in 1EEE Std. 268-1982.)
Terminology
4
To ensure consistently reliable conversion and rounding
practices, a clear understanding of the related
nontechnical terms is prerequisite. Accordingly, certain
5
terms used in this standard are defined as follows.
6. “A Bibliography of Metric Standard,.” ANSI. New York (June Accuracy (as distinguished from precision). The
1975). (Alw &ee ANSI‘\ annual catalog of national and intrma-
degree of conformity of a measured or calculated value
Imnal standard\.)
to some recognized standard or specified value. This
concept involves the systematic error of an operation,
which is seldom negligible.
Approximate. A value that is nearly but not exactly cor-

.&w~c Edirorid G&P. thlrd edition. American Natl. Metric
rect or accurate.
Councd (ANMC). Washington. D.C. (July 1981).
Coherence. A characteristic of a coherent system of
units, as described in Appendix B, such that the product
‘For information on any 01 these references. Cantact the Book Order Dept at SPE
headquarters or quotient of any two unit quantities is the unit of the
TABLE 1.6 - SPECIAL TERMS AND QUANTITIES INVOLVING MASS AND

AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE
Old Usage Standardized Usage
Dimensions
(IS0 Symbols, SI Unit
Term See Table 1 .l) Term Symbol
atomic weight M mass of atom kg
(SPE Symbols Standard)
. .
atomic weight relative atomic mass
(elsewhere)
equivalent - mole mol
mass of molecule M molecular mass kg
molar - molar (means, “divided by l/m01
amount of substance”)
molar@ - concentration mo1/m3
molecular weight M molar mass kg/mol
(SPE Symbols Standard)
l l
molecular weight relative molecular mass
(elsewhere)
normal - obsolete
mDimensonless
resulting quantity. The SI base units, supplementary assigned to each; in some cases, special names and unit
units, and derived units form a coherent set. symbols are given-e.g., the newton (N).
Deviation. Variation from a specified dimension or One Unit per Quantity. The great advantage of SI is
design requirement, usually defining upper and lower that there is one, and only one, unit for each physical
limits (see also Tolerance). quantity-the meter for length (L), kilogram (instead of
gram) for mass (m). second for time (r). etc. From these
Digit. One of the 10 Arabic numerals (0 to 9). elemental units, units for all other mechanical quantities
are derived. These derived units are defined by simple
Dimension(s). Two meanings: (1) A group of fun- equations among the quantities, such as tB=dLldt
damental (physical) quantities, arbitrarily selected, in (velocity), u=dv/dt (acceleration), F=ma (force),
terms of which all other quantities can be measured or W=FL (work or energy), and P= Wit (power). Some of
identified. 9 Dimensions identify the physical nature of, these units have only generic names. such as meter per
or the basic components making up. a physical quantity. second for velocity; others have special names and sym-
They are the bases for the formation of useful dimen- bols, such as newton (N) for force, joule (J) for work or
sionless groups and dimensionless numbers and for the energy. and watt (W) for power. The SI units.fi,r
jbrce,
powerful tool of dimensional analysis. The dimensions energy, and power are the same regardless of \r>hether
for the arbitrarily selected base units of the SI are length, the process is mechanical, electrid, chemiccd, or
mass, time, electric current. thermodynamic tempera- nuclear. A force of 1 N applied for a distance of 1 m can
ture, amount of substance. and luminous intensity. SI produce 1 J of heat, which is identical with what 1 W of
has two supplementary quantities considered dimension- electric power can produce in 1 second.
less-plane angle and solid angle. (2) A geometric ele-
ment in a design, such as length and angle. or the Unique Unit Symbols. Corresponding to the SI advan-
magnitude of such a quantity. tages of a unique unit for each physical quantity are the
advantages resulting from the use of a unique and well-
Figure (numerical). An arithmetic value expressed by defined set of symbols. Such symbols eliminate the con-
one or more digits or a fraction. fusion that can arise from current practices in different
disciplines, such as the use of “b” for both the hur (a
Nominal Value. A value assigned for the purpose of unit of pressure) and barn (a unit of area).
convenient designation; a value existing in name only.
Decimal Relation. Another advantage of SI is its reten-
Precision (as distinguished from accuracy). The tion of the decimal relation between multiples and sub-
degree of mutual agreement between individual multiples of the base units for each physical quantity.
measurements (repeatability and reproducibility). Prefixes are established for designating multiple and sub-
multi le units from “exa” (10”) down to “atto”
Quantity. A concept used for qualitative and quan- (I 0 Ps) for convenience in writing and speaking.
titative descriptions of a physical phenomenon. 9
Coherence. Another major advantage of SI is its
Significant Digit. Any digit that is necessary to define a coherence. This system of units has been chosen in such
value or quantity (see text discussion). a way that the equations between numerical values, in-
cluding the numerical factors, have the same form as the
Tolerance. The total range of variation (usually corresponding equations between the quantities: this
bilateral) permitted for a size, position, or other required constitutes a “coherent” system. Equations between
quantity; the upper and lower limits between which a units of a coherent unit system contain as numerical fac-
dimension must be held. tors only the number 1. In a coherent system, the product
or quotient of any two unit quantities is the unit of the
U.S. Customary Units. Units based on the foot and the resulting quantity. For example, in any coherent system,
pound, commonly used in the U.S. and defined by the unit area results when unit length is multiplied by unit
Natl. Bureau of Standards. ” Some of these units have length (1 m x 1 m= 1 m*), unit force when unit mass* is
the same name as similar units in the U.K. (British, multiplied by unit acceleration (1 kgx 1 m/s* = 1 N),
English, or U.K. units) but are not necessarily equal to unit work when unit force is multiplied by unit length (1
them. N x 1 m= 1 J), and unit power when unit work is divided
by unit time (I J+ 1 second= 1 W). Thus, in a coherent
APPENDIX B3 system in which the meter is the unit of length, the
SI Units square meter is the unit of area, but the are** and hectare
Advantages of SI Units are not coherent. Much worse disparities occur in
systems of “customary units” (both nonmetric and older
SI is a rationalized selection of units from the metric
metric) that require many numerical adjustment factors
system that individually are not new. They include a unit
in equations.
of force (the newton), which was introduced in place of
the kilogram-force to indicate by its name that it is a unit
of force and not of mass. SI is a coherent system with Base Units. Whatever the system of units, whether it be
coherent or noncoherent, particular samples of some
seven base units for which names, symbols, and precise
definitions have been established. Many derived units
arc defined in terms of the base units, with symbols
physical quantities must be selected arbitrarily as units of and placed one mctcr apart in vacuum. would product
those quantities. The remaining units are defined by ap- hctwecn these conductors a force equal to 2 x IO -’
propriate cxperimcnts related to the theoretical intcrrcla- newton per meter of length.” (Adopted by Ninth CGPM
tions of all the quantities. For convenience of analysis. lY48.)
units pertaining to c~r-fuin hrrsc>ylrrrfztitics ~Irf’ by (~~171*0- “Kchi77 (K)-The kelvin. unit of thermodynamic
tior7 rc~~crrrld us dir77~~r7siot7all~~ ir7tlqxwder7t; tl7c.w ur7it.s temperature. is the fraction 11273. IS of the ther-
(I~C crr//c~! basr unirs (Table I I ). and all others (derived modynamic temperature of the triple point of water.” ’
units) can be cxprcsscd algebraically in temls of the base (Adopted by 13th CGPM 1967.)
units. In SI. the unit of mass. the kilogram, is defined as “MCI/C (mol)-The mole is the amount of substance of
the mass of a prototype kilogram preserved by the Intl. a system which contains as many clcmcntary entities as
Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Paris. All thcrc are atoms in 0.012 kilograms of carbon-12.”
other base units are defined in terms of reproducible (Adopted by 14th CGPM 1971.)
phenomena-e.g., the wave lengths and frequencies of “Note-When the mole is used. the elementary en-
specified atomic transitions. tities must be specified and may be atoms. molecules.
ions, electrons. other particles. or specified groups of
Non-S1 Metric Units such particles. ”
Various other units are associated with SI but are not a “Crrn&/u (cd)-The candela is the luminous intensity
part thereof. They are related to units of the system by in a given direction of a source that emits
powers of 10 and are used in specialized branches of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 (E + 12) hertz
physics. An example is the bar, a unit of pressure. ap- (Hz) and that has a radiant intensity In that direction ol
proximately equivalent to 1 atm and exactly equal to 100 l/683 watt per steradian.”
kPa. The bar is used extensively by meteorologists. “Rudiurz (rad)-The radian is the plane angle between
Another such unit is the gal. equal exactly to an accelera- two radii of a circle which cut off on the circumfcrencc
tion of 0.01 m/s?. It is used in geodetic work. These. an arc equal in length to the radius.”
however. are not coherent units-i.e., equations involv- “Sr~~&iu~? (sr)-The stcradian i\ the solid angle
ing both thcsc units and SI units cannot be written which. having its vertex at the center of a sphere. cuts oft
without a factor of proportionality even though that fat- an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a
tor may be a simple power of 10. square with sides of length equal to the radius of the
Originally (1795). the liter was intended to be identical sphere.”
to the cubic decimeter. The Third General Conference
on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1901 defined the
Definitions of SI Derived Units
liter as the volume occupied by the mass of 1 kilogram of
Having Special Names3
pure water at its maximum density under normal at-
Physical Quantity Unit and Definition
mospheric pressure. Careful determinations subsequent-
ly established the liter so defined as equivalent to Absorbed dose The gray (Gy) is the absorbed
1.000 028 dm’. In 1964. the CGPM withdrew this dose when the energy per unit
definition of the liter and declared that “liter” was a mass imparted to matter by
special name for the cubic decimeter. Thus. its use is ionizing radiation is I J/kg.
pemlitted in Sl but is discouraged because it creates two Activity The hrcyuerrl (Bq) is the activi-
units for the same quantity and its use in precision ty of a radionuclide decaying at
measurements might conflict with measurements record- the rate of one spontaneous
ed under the old definition. nuclear transition per second,
Celsius temperature The degree Ce1siu.s (“C) is equal
SI Base Unit Definitions to the kelvin and is used in place
Authorized translations of the original French definitions of the kelvin for expressing
of the seven base and two supplementary units of SI Celsius temperature (symbol
follow’ (parenthetical items added). Tot) defined by Tot =T, -To,
“Mrfer cm)-The meter is the length equal to I 650 where TK is the thermodynamic
763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation cor- temperature and To =273. IS K
responding to the transition between the levels 2p I~) and by definition.
5d5 of the krypton-86 atom.” (Adopted by I lth CGPM Dose equivalent The sievcrt is the dose
1960.) equivalent when the absorbed
“Kilogmn7 (kg)-The kilogram is the unit of mass dose of ionizing radiation
(and is the coherent SI unit); it is equal to the mass of the multiplied by the dimensionless
international prototype of the kilogram.” (Adopted by factors Q (quality factor) and N
First and Third CGPM 1889 and 1901.) (product of any other multiply-
“Sc~nrzci (s)-The second is the duration of 9 192 63 I ing factors) stipulated by the
770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transi- Intl. Commission on Radiolog-
tion between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state ical Protection is I J/kg.
of the cesium- 133 atom.*” (Adopted by 13th CGPM Electric capacitance The&r& (F) is the capacitance
1967.) of a capacitor between the plates
“Atnper~~ (A)-The ampere is that constant current of which there appears a dif-
which. if maintained in tw’o straight parallel conductors ference of potential of I V when
of infinite length. of ncgliglble circular cross-section. it is charged by a quantity of
electricity equal to I C.
WE SI METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS & SPE METRIC STANDARD 58-l 1
Electric The siemens (S) is the electric the force exerted on an element
conductance conductance of a conductor in of current is equal to the vector
which a current of 1 A is pro- product of this element and the
duced by an electric potential magnetic flux density.
difference of 1 V. Power The wutt (W) is the power that
Electric inductance The hpn~l (H) is the inductance represents a rate of energy
of a closed circuit in which an transfer of I J/s.
electromotive force of 1 V is Pressure or stress The pascul (Pa) is the pressure
produced when the electric cur- or stress of I Nim2.
rent in the circuit varies uniform- Electric charge, Electric charge is the time in-
ly at a rate of 1 A/s. quantity of tegral of electric current; its unit,
Electric potential The volr (V) is the difference of electricity the coulomb (C), is equal to 1
difference, elec- electric potential between two A.s.
tromotive force points of a conductor carrying a
No other SI derived units have been assigned special
constant current of 1 A when the
names at this time.
power dissipated between these
points is equal to 1 W. APPENDIX C3’**
Electric resistance The ohm (Q) is the electric
Style Guide for Metric Usage
resistance between two points of
a conductor when a constant dif- Rules for Writing Metric Quantities
ference of potential of I V, ap- Capitals. I/nits-Unit names, including prefixes, are not
plied between these two points, capitalized except at the beginning of a sentence or in
produces in this conductor a cur- titles. Note that for “degree Celsius” the word
rent of I A, this conductor not “degree” is lower case; the modifier “Celsius” is
being the source of any elec- always capitalized. The “degree centrigrade” is now
tromotive force. obsolete.
Energy The joule (J) is the work done Symbols-The short forms for metric units are called
when the point of application of unit symbols. They are lower case except that the first
a force of 1 N is displaced a letter is upper case when the unit is named for a person.
distance of 1 m in the direction (An exception to this rule in the U.S. is the symbol L for
of the force. liter.)
Force The nr~r~~ (N) is that force Examples: Unit Name Unit Symbol
that, when applied to a body meter** m
having a mass of 1 kg. gives it
mm
an acceleration of I m/s’. newton 6
Frequency The hertz (Hz) is the frequency Pascal Pa
of a periodic phenomenon of
Printed unit symbols should have Roman (upright) let-
which the period is 1 second.
ters, because italic (sloping or slanted) letters are re-
Illuminance The Iu.r (Ix) is the illuminance
served for quantity symbols, such as m for mass and L
produced by a luminous flux of I
for length.
Im uniformly distributed over a
Prejx Symbols-All prefix names, their symbols, and
surface of I m2
pronunciation are listed in Table I .4. Notice that the top
Luminous flux The lumen (Im) is the luminous
five are upper case and all the rest lower case.
flux emitted in a solid angle of 1
The importance of following the precise use of upper-
sr by a point source having a
case and lower-case letters is shown by the following ex-
uniform intensity of 1 cd.
amples of prefixes and units.
Magnetic flux The ember, is the magnetic
flux that, liriking a circuit of one G for giga; g for gram.
turn, produces in it an elec- K for kelvin; k for kilo.
tromotive force of 1 V as it is M for mega; m for milli.
reduced to zero at a uniform rate N for newton; n for nano.
in I s. T for tera: t for tonne (metric ton).
Magnetic flux The teslu (T) is the magnetic information Processing-Limited Character Sets-
density flux density of 1 Wb/m2. In an Prefixes and unit symbols retain their prescribed forms
magnetic induction alternative approach to defining regardless of the surrounding typography, except for
the magnetic field quantities the systems with limited character sets. IS0 has provided a
tesla may also be defined as the standard” for such systems; this standard is
magnetic flux density that pro- recommended.
duces on a l-m length of wire
carrying a current of 1 A, Plurals and Fractions. Names of SI units form their
plurals in the usual manner, except for lux, hertz, and
oriented normal to the flux den-
siemens.
sity, a force of 1 N, magnetic
flux density being defined as an ‘The spellings “metre” and “l~tre” are preferred by IS0 but “meter” and “liter” are
axial vector quantity such that ottlclal u s QcNernmenl spelhngs.
Values less than one take the singular form of the unit Compound Units. For a unit name (not a symbol) de-
name; for example, 0.5 kilogram or % kilogram. While rived as a quotient (e.g., for kilometers per hour), it is
decimal notation (0.5, 0.35, 6.87) is generally preferred, preferable not to use a slash (/) as a substitute for “per”
the most simple fractions are acceptable, such as those except where space is limited and a symbol might not be
where the denominator is 2, 3, 4, or 5. understood. Avoid other mixtures of words and symbols.
Symbols of units are the same in singular and Examples: Use meter per second, not m/s. Use only one
plural-e.g., I m and 100 m. “per” in any combination of units-e.g., meter per sec-
ond squared, not meter per second per second.
Periods. A period is nof used after a symbol, except at For a unit symbol derived as a quotient do not, for ex-
the end of a sentence. Examples: “A current of 1.5 mA is ample, write k.p.h. or kph for km/h because the first two
found.. ” “The field measured 350x 125 m.” are understood only in the English language, whereas
km/h is used in all languages. The symbol km/h also can
The Decimal Marker. IS0 specifies the comma as the be written with a negative exponent-e.g., km. h -’ .
decimal marker9 ; in English-language documents a dot Never use more than one slash (/) in any combination
on the line is acceptable. In numbers less than one, a of symbols unless parentheses are used to avoid ambigui-
zero should be written before the decimal sign (to pre- ty; examples are m/s*, not m/s/s; W/(m.K), not
vent the possibility that a faint decimal sign will be W/m/K.
overlooked). Example: The oral expression “point For a unit name derived as a product, a space or a
seven five” is written 0.75 or 0,75. hyphen is recommended but never a “product dot” (a
period raised to a centered position)-e.g., write newton
Grouping of Numbers. Separate digits into groups of meter or newton-meter, not newton.meter. In the case of
three, counting from the decimal marker. A comma the watt hour, the space may be omitted-watthour.
should not be used between the groups of three9 ; in- For a unit symbol derived as a product, use a product
stead, a space is left to avoid confusion, since the comma dot-e.g., N.m. For computer printouts, automatic
is the IS0 standard for the decimal marker. typewriter work, etc., a dot on the line may be used. Do
In a four-digit number, the space is not required unless not use the product dot as a multiplier symbol for
the four-digit number is in a column with numbers of calculations-e.g., use 6.2~5, not 6.2.5.
five digits or more: Do not mix nonmetric units with metric units, except
those for time, plane angle, or rotation-e.g., use
kg/m3, not kglft3 or kg/gal.
For 4,720,525 write 4 720 525 A quantity that constitutes a ratio of two like quantities
For 0.52875 write 0.528 75 should be expressed as a fraction (either common or
For 6,875 write 6875 or 6 875 decimal) or as a percentage-e.g., the slope is l/l00 or
For 0.6875 write 0.6875 or 0.01 or l%, not 10 mm/m or 10 m/km.
0.687 5
SI Prefix Usage. General--S1 prefixes should be used to

indicate orders of magnitude, thus eliminating non-
Spacing. In symbols or names for units having prefixes, significant digits and leading zeros in decimal fractions
no space is left between letters making up the symbol or and providing a convenient alternative to the powers-
the name. Examples are kA, kiloampere; and mg, of-10 notation preferred in computation. For example,
milligram. 12 300 m (in computations) becomes 12.3 km (in non-
When a symbol follows a number to which it refers, a computation situations); 0.0123 hA (12.3 x 10m9 A for
space must be left between the number and the symbol, computations) becomes 12.3 nA (in noncomputation
except when the symbol (such as “) appears in the situations).
superscript position. Examples: 455 kHz, 22 mg, 20 Selection-When expressing a quantity by a numerical
mm, lo6 N, 30 K, 20°C. value and a unit, prefixes should be chosen so that the
When a quantity is used as an adjective, a hyphen numerical value lies between 0.1 and 1000. Generally,
should be used between the number and the symbol (ex- prefixes representing steps of 1000 are recommended
cept “C). Examples: It is a 35-mm film; the film width is (avoiding hecto, deka, deci, and centi). However, some
35 mm. I bought a 6-kg turkey; the turkey weighs 6 kg. situations may justify deviation from the above:
Leave a space on each side of signs for multiplication, 1. In expressing units raised to powers (such as area,
division, addition, and subtraction, except within a com- volume and moment) the prefixes hecto, deka, deci, and
pound symbol. Examples: 4 cm x 3 m (not 4 cm X 3 m); centi may be required-e.g., cubic centimeter for
kg/m3; N.m. volume and cm4 for moment.
2. In tables of values of the same quantity, or in a
Powers. For unit M~ZP.P, use the modifier .rquared or discussion of such values within a given context, it
cubed after the unit name (except for area and generally is preferable to use the same unit multiple
volume)-e.g.. meter per second squared. For area or throughout.
volume, place a modifier before the unit name. including 3. For certain quantities in particular applications, one
derived units:-e.g.. cubic meter and watt per square certain multiple is used customarily; an example is the
meter. millimeter in mechanical engineering drawings, even
For unit symbols. write the symbol for the unit fol- when the values lie far outside the range of 0.1 to 1000
lowed by the power superscript-e.g., 14 m’ and 26 mm.
cm3. Powers of Units-An exponent attached to a symbol
containing a prefix indicates that the multiple or sub- Equations. When customary units appear in equations,
mulripie of the unit (the unit with its prefix) is raised to the SI equivalents should be omitted. Instead of inserting
the power expressed by the exponent. For example, the latter in parentheses, as in the case of text or small
tables, the equations should be restated using SI unit
1 cm3 =(10p2m)3 = 10 -6,3
symbols, or a sentence, paragraph, or note should be
1 ns-’ =(10P9s) -1 =109s-’
added stating the factor to be used to convert the
1 mm*/s =(10-“m)2/s = 10-5m2/s
calculated result in customary units to the preferred SI
units.
Double Pre$xes-Double or multiple prefixes should
not be used. For example, Pronunciation of Metric Terms
use GW (gigawatt), not LMW; The pronunciation of most of the unit names is well
use pm (picometer), not ppm; known and uniformly described in U.S. dictionaries, but
use Gg (gigagram), not Mkg; four have been pronounced in various ways. The follow-
use 13.58 m, not 13 m 580 mm. ing pronunciations are recommended:
Prefix Mixtures-Do not use a mixture of prefixes candela - Accent on the second syllable and
unless the difference in size is extreme. For example, pronounce it like de/l.
use 40 mm wide and 1500 mm long, not 40 mm wide joule - Pronounce it to rhyme with pool.
and 1.5 m long; however, 1500 m of 2-mm-diameter Pascal - The preferred pronunciation rhymes
wire is acceptable. with rascal. An acceptable second
Compound Units--It is preferable that prefixes not be choice puts the accent on the second
used in the denominators of complex units, except for syllable.
kilogram (kg) which is a base unit. However, there are siemens - Pronounce it like sea,nerl ‘.r.
cases where the use of such prefixes is necessary to ob-
tain a numerical value of convenient size. Examples of For pronunciation of unit prefixes, see Table 1.4.
some of these rare exceptions are shown in the tables
contained in these standards. Typewriting Recommendations
Prefixes may be applied to the numerator of a com- Superscripts. The question arises of how numerical
pound unit; thus, megagram per cubic meter (Mg/m3), superscripts should be typed on a machine with a con-
but not kilogram per cubic decimeter (kg/dm3) nor gram ventional keyboard. With an ordinary keyboard.
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Values required outside numerals and the minus sign can be raised to the
the range of the prefixes should be expressed by powers superscript position by rolling the platen half a space
of 10 applied to the base unit. before typing the numeral, using care to avoid in-
Unit of Mass-Among the base units of SI, the terference with the text in the line above.
kilogram is the only one whose name, for historical
reasons, contains a prefix; it is also the coherent SI unit Special Characters. For technical work, it is useful to
for mass (See Appendices A and B for discussions of have Greek letters available on the typewriter. If all SI
coherence.) However, names of decimal multiples and symbols for units are to be typed properly, a key with the
submultiples of the unit of mass are formed by attaching upright Greek lower-case p (pronounced “mew.” not
prefixes to the word “gram.” *‘moo”) is necessary, since this is the symbol for micro.
Prefises Alone-Do not use a prefix without a meaning one millionth. The symbol can be approximated
unit-e.g., use kilogram, not kilo. on a conventional machine by using a lower-case u and
Calculations-Errors in calculations can be minimized adding the tail by hand (p). A third choice is to spell out
if, instead of using prefixes, the base and the coherent the unit name in full.
derived SI units are used, expressing numerical values in For units of electricity, the Greek upper-case omega
powers-of-10 notation-e.g., 1 MJ= lo6 J. (Q) for ohm also will be useful; when it is not available,
the word “ohm” can be spelled out.
Spelling of Vowel Pairs. There are three cases where It is fortunate that, except for the more extensive use
the final vowel in a prefix is omitted: megohm, kilohm, of the Greek p for micro and Q for ohm, the change to SI
and hectare. In all other cases, both vowels are retained units causes no additional difficulty in manuscript
and both are pronounced. No space or hyphen should be preparation.
used.
The Letter for Liter. On most U.S. typewriters, there is
Complicated Expressions. To avoid ambiguity in com- little difference between the lower-case “cl” (“I”) and
plicated expressions, symbols are preferred over words. the numerical “one” (“1”). The European symbol for
liter is a simple upright bar; the Canadians I3 used a
Attachment. Attachment of letters to a unit symbol for script P but now have adopted the upright capital L; AN-
giving information about the nature of the quantity is in- SI now recommends the upright capital L.
correct: MWe for “megawatts electrical (power), ” kPag
for “kilopascais gauge (pressure),” Paa for “pascals ab- Typewriter Modification. Where frequently used, the
solute (pressure),” and Vat for “volts ac” are not ac- thllowing symbols could be included on typewriters:
ceptable. If the context is in doubt on any units used, superscripts ’ and ’ for squared and cubed; Greek p for
supplementary descriptive phrases should be added to micro; ’ for degree; . for a product dot (not a period) for
making the meanings clear. symbols derived as a product; and Greek Q for ohm.
A special type-ball that contains all the superscripts, FL, Where fewer than six decimal places are shown, more
Q, and other characters used in technical reports is precision is not warranted.
vailable for some typewriters. Some machines have The following is a further example of the use of Table
replaceable character keys. 1.7.
To Convert From To Multiply By

Longhand. To assure legibility of the symbols m, n. and
p. it is recommended that these three symbols be written pound-force per
to resemble printing. For example. write nm, not ,I~,,. square foot Pa 4.788 026 E+OI
The symbol p should have a long distinct tail and should pound-force per
have the upright form (not sloping or italic). square inch Pa 6.894 757 E+03
inch m 2.540* E-02
Shorthand. Stenographers will find that the SI symbols
generally are quicker to write than the shorthand forms These conversions mean that
for the unit names.
I Ibf/ft’ becomes 47.880 26 Pa,
APPENDIX D I Ibf/in.’ becomes 6894.757 Pa or
General Conversion Factors” 6.894 757 kPa, and
I inch becomes 0.0254 m (exactly).
General
Table 1.7 is intended to serve two purposes:
The unit symbol for pound-force sometimes is written Ibf
1. To express the definitions of general units of and sometimes lb, or lb/: the form Ibf is recommended.
mcasurc ah exact numerical multiples of coherent
“m&c” units. Relationships that are exact in terms of
Organization
the fundamental SI unit arc followed by an asterisk.
Relationships that are not followed by an astcrlsk either The conversion factors generally arc liatcd alphabetically
arc the result of physical measurements or arc only by units having specific names and compound units
derived from these specific units. A number of units
appmximatc.
2. To provide tnultiplying factors for converting cx- starting with the pound symbol (lb) arc located In the
prcssions of measurements given by numbers and “p” section of the list.
2encral or miscellaneous units to corresponding new Conversion factors classified by physical quantities arc
listed in Refs. 3 and 4.
numbers and metric units.
The conversion factors for other compound units can
be generated easily from numbers given in the
Notation alphabetical list by substitution of converted units. Two
Conversion factors are presented for ready adaptation to examples follow.
computer readout and electronic data transmission. The I. Find the conversion factor for productivity in&x,
factors are written as a number equal to or greater than (B/D)/psi to (mj/d)/Pa. Convert 1 B/D to I.589 873
one and less than IO, with six or fewer decimal places (E-01) m”/d and I psi to 6.894 7.57 (E+03) Pa. Then.
(i.e.. seven or fewer total digits). Each number is fol- substitute
lowed by the letter E (for exponent), a plus or minus
symbol, and two digits that indicate the power of 10 by [ 1.589 873 (E-01)]/]6.894 757 (E-03)]
which the number must be multiplied to obtain the cor- =2.305 916 (E-OS) (m3/d)/Pa.
rect value. For example,
3.523 907 (E-02) is 3.523 907~ IO-’ 2. Find the conversion factor for tonf.mile/ft to
or MJim. Convert I tonf to 8.896 444 (E+03) N: 1 mile to
0.035 239 07. 1.609 344” (E+03) m; and I ii to 3.048* (E-01) m.
Similarly, Then. substitute
3.386 389 (E+03) is 3.386 389~ IO3
or 18.896 444 (E+03)] [I.609 344 (E+03)]
3 386.389. +[3.048 (E-O])]
=4.697 322 (E+07) (N.m)/m or J/m
An asterisk (*) after the numbers shown indicates that =4.697 322 (E+Ol) MJim.
the conversion factor is exact and that all subsequent
digits (for rounding purposes) are zero. All other conver- When conversion factors for complex compound units
sion factors have been rounded to the figures given in ac- are being calculated from Table I .7. numerical uncer-
cordance with procedures outlined in the preceding text. tainties may be present in the seventh (or lesser last
“significant”) digit of the answer because of roundings
‘Based on ASTM Pub E380-82 @?I 3), values Of CO”“elSlO” IaCtOrs tabulated already taken for the last digit of tabulated values.
herewth are identical with those in E380-82, generally slm~far material IS found m Mechtly ” provides conversion factors of more than
Ref 4 Conversion values in earlier edltlons of E 380 (for example E 380.74) are
based on Ref 15 wh,ch has available some faclors w,,h more than seven d,g,,s \cvcn digits for certain quantities.
TABLE 1.7-ALPHABETICAL LIST OF UNITS

(symbols of SI units given in parentheses)
To Convert From To Multiply By
abampere ampere (A) 1.O’ E+Ol
abcoulomb coulomb (C) 1.O’ E+Ol
abfarad farad (F) 1.O’ E+O9
abhenry henry (H) 1.0 E-09
abmho siemens (S) 1.O’ E+09
abohm ohm (0) 1.0’ E-09
abvolt volt (V) 1.0’ E-08
acrefoot (U.S. survey)“’ meter3 (m3) 1.233489 E+03
acre (U.S survey)“’ mete? (m’) 4.046 873 E + 03
ampere hour coulomb (C) 3.6’ E+03
are meter* (m2) 1.O’ E+02
angstrom meter (m) 1.O’ E-10
astronomical unit meter (m) 1.495979 E+ll
atmosphere (standard) Pascal (Pa) 1.013250’ E+05
atmosphere (technical = 1 kgf/cm2) Pascal (Pa) 9.806 650’ E + 04
bar Pascal (Pa) 1.O’ E+05
barn meter* (m*) 1.O’ E-28
barrel (for petroleum, 42 gal) meter3 (m”) 1.589873 E-01
board foot meter3 (m”) 2.359 737 E - 03
Elntish thermal unit (International Table)“’ joule (J) 1.055 056 E + 03
Bntish thermal unit (mean) loule (J) 1.05587 E+03
Bntish thermal unit (thermochemical) joule (J) 1.054 350 E + 03
Bntish thermal unit (39°F) joule (J) 1.05967 E+03
Bntish thermal umt (59°F) joule (J) 1.05480 E+03
Bntlsh thermal unit (60°F) joule (J) 1.05468 E+03
Btu (International Table)-fV(hr-ft2-“F)
(thermal conductlvrty) watt per meter kelvin [W/(mK)] 1.730 735 E f 00
Btu (thermochemical)-ft/(hr-ft*-OF)
(thermal conductlvtty) watt per meter kelvin [W/(mK)] 1.729 577 E + 00
Btu (International Table)-m.i(hr-R*-“F)
(thermal conductlvrty) watt per meter kelvin [W/(m.K)] 1.442 279 E ~ 01
Btu (thermochemical)-in.‘(hr-RZ-“F)
(thermal conductivity) watt per meter kelvin [Wl(m.K)] 1.441 314 E-01
Btu (International Table)-in.i(s-Hz-“F)
(thermal conductivity) watt per meter kelvin [W/(m.K)] 5.192 204 E +02
Btu (thermochemical)-in./(s-f12-“F)
(thermal conductlvily) watt per meter kelvin [Wl(m.K)] 5.188 732 E+02
B1u (International Table)/hr watt(W) 2.930711 E-01
Btu (thermochemical)/hr watt (W) 2.928 751 E - 01
Btu (thermochemical):mm watt(W) 1.757250 E+Ol
Btu (thermochemical)% watt (W) 1.054350 E+03
Btu (International Table)ift? joule per meter2 (Jim*) 1.135653 E+04
Btu (thermochemlcai)ifV joule per meter2 (Jim*) 1.134893 E+04
Btu (thermochemical)i(ft*-hr) watt per mete? (W/ml) 3.152481 E-00
Btu (thermochemical)i(H2-min) watt per meter2 (W/m’) 1.891 489 E + 02
Btu (thermochemical)i(ft*-s) watt per mete? (W/m*) 1.134893 E+04
Btu (thermochemical)/(irxZ-s) watt per mete? (W/m’) 1.634 246 E + 06
Btu (International Table)I(hr-V-OF)
(thermal conductance) watt per meter* kelvin [W/(m’.K)] 5.678 263 E + 00
Btu (thermochemical)i(hr-V-OF)
(thermal conductance) watt per meter* kelvin [W/(m*.K)] 5.674 466 E + 00
Btu (International Table)i(s-R*-“F) watt per meter* kelvin [W/(m*.K)] 2.044 175 E + 04
Btu (thermochemical)@tt*-OF) watt per meter2 kelvin [W/(m’.K)] 2.042 808 E + 04
Btu (International Table)ilbm joule per kilogram (J/kg) 2.326’ E+03
Btu (thermochemical):lbm joule per kilogram (J/kg) 2.324 444 E + 03
Btu (International Table)i(lbm-“F)
(heat capacity) joule per kilogram kelvin [J/(kg.K)] 4.186 8’ E+03
Btu (thermochemical)i(lbm-“F)
(heat capaaty) joule per ktlogram kelvin [J/(kgeK)] 4.184 000 E +03
“Fence 1893 the U S bass 01 length measurement has been dewed IrOm metric standards In 1959 a small rellnement was made I” the defimlmn of the yard to resolve
d,screpanc,es both I” this country and abroad. which changed ,ts length from 3600 3937 m lo 0 9144 m exactly This resulted I” the new value being shorter by two parts I” a
rrvlnn At the same time it was deaded that any data r leet derived from and publIshed as a result of geodetic surveys withm the U S would wna~n with the old standard
(1 f, = ,200 3937 m) unt,l further dec,s,on Th,s loot IS named the U S suvey loot As a result, all U S land measurements I” U S. c”stoma~ ““1,s WIIIrelate tothe meter by the
old standard All the mnvers~on factors I” these tables for umts relerenced to thus loatnote are based on the U.S survey foot. ratherthaiihe inlernatu,nal loot Con&on
Iactors for me land measure glen below may be delemned from the loltowlng relatlonships
1 league = 3 miles (exactly)
1 rod = 16”~ fl (exactly]
1 chain = 66 fl (exactly)
1 SectIon 1 sq mile
1 townsh,p = 36 sq m,les
@This value was adopted m 1956. Some of the older lnlernatlonal Tables use Ihe value 1 055 D4 E + 03 The exact con~ers!on factor IS 1 055 055 852 62‘ E + 03
TABLE 1.7-ALPHABETICAL LIST OF UNITS (continued)

To Convert From To Multiply By”
bushel (U.S.) mete? (ml) 3.523 907 E - 02
caliber (inchj meter (m) 2.54 E-02
calorie (International Table) joule (J) 4.1868’ E+OO
calorie (mean) joule (J) 4.19002 E+OO
calorie (thermochemical) joule (J) 4.184’ E+OO
calorie (15°C) joule (J) 4.185 80 E+OO
calorie (20°C) joule (J) 4.181 90 E+OO
calorie (kilogram, International Table) joule (J) 4.186 8’ E+03
calorie (kilogram, mean) joule (J) 4.190 02 E+03
calorie (kilogram, thermochemical) joule (J) 4.184’ E+03
cal (thermochemical)/cm* joule per meter* (J/m’) 4.184’ E+04
cal (International Table)/g joule per kilogram (J/kg) 4.186’ E+03
cal (thermochemical)ig joule per kilogram (J/kg) 4.184’ E+03
cal (International Table)/(gX) joule per kilogram kelvin [Jl(kgK)] 4.186 8 E+03
cal (thermochemical)/(gX) joule per kilogram kelvin [J/(kg.K)] 4.184’ E+03
cal (thermochemical)imin watt (W) 6.973 333 E - 02
cal (thermochemical)is watt (W) 4.184’ E+OO
cal (thermochemical)/(cmz.min) watt per meter’ (W/m*) 6.973 333 E + 02
cal (thermochemical)/(cm**s) watt per mete? (W/m2) 4.184’ E+O4
cal (thermochemical)~(cm+‘C) watt per meter kelvin [W/(m.K)] 4.184’ E+02
capture unit (cu. = 10m3cm-‘) per meter (m-l) 1.O’ E-01
carat (metric) kilogram (kg) 2.0’ E-04
centimeter of mercury (0°C) Pascal (Pa) 1.33322 Et03
centimeter of water (4°C) Pascal (Pa) 9.806 38 E + 01
centipoise Pascal second (Pas) 1.O’ E-03
centistokes mete? per second (m*/s) 1.O’ E-06
circular mil mete? (m2) 5.067 075 E - 10
cl0 kelvin mete? per watt [(Km*)/W] 2.003 712 E-01
cup meteP (m3) 2.365 882 E - 04
curie becquerel (Bq) 3.7’ Et10
cycle per second hertz (Hz) 1 .O’ E+OO
day (mean solar) second (s) 8.640 000 E + 04
day (sidereal) second (s) 8.616 409 E+04
degree (angle) radian (rad) 1745329 E-02
degree Celsius kelvin (K) T, = T,c + 273.15
degree centigrade (see degree Celsius)
degree Fahrenheit degree Celsius r, = (T, - 32)11.8
degree Fahrenheit kelvin (K) T, = (T, + 459.67)/1.8
degree Rankine kelvin (K) r, = J41.8
“Fshr-ft2/Btu(International Table)
(thermal resistance) kelvin mete? per watt [(Km*)/W] 1.781 102 E-01
“F.hr-ftVBtu (thermochemical)
(thermal resistance) kelvin meter’ per watt [(K.m*)IW] 1.762 250 E - 01
denier kilogram per meter (kg/m) 1.111 111 E-07
dyne newton (N) 1.O’ E-05
dynecm newton meter (N.m) 1.O’ E-07
dyne/cm2 Pascal (Pa) 1.O’ E-01
electronvolt joule (J) 1.602 19 E-19
EMU of capacitance farad (F) 1.O’ E+O9
EMU of current ampere (A) 1.O’ E+Ol
EMU of electric potential volt (V) 1.O’ E-08
EMU of inductance henry U-V 1.O’ E-09
EMU of resistance ohm (0) 1.O’ E-09
ESU of capacitance farad (F) 1.112650 E-12
ESU of current ampere (A) 3.335 6 E- 10
ESU of electnc potential volt (V) 2.997 9 E+02
ESU of inductance henry 0-U 8.987554 E+ll
ESU of resistance ohm (0) 8.987 554 E + 11
erg joule (J) 1.o E-07
erg/cm% watt per meter* (W/m>) 1.O’ E-03
erg/s watt (W) 1.O’ E-07
faraday (based on carbon-l 2) coulomb (C) 9.648 70 E + 04
faraday (chemical) coulomb (C) 9.649 57 E + 04
faraday (physical) coulomb (C) 9.652 19 E+04
fathom meter (m) 1.828 8 E+OO
fermi (femtometer) meter (m) 1.o E-15
fluid ounce (U.S.) meter’ (m3) 2.957 353 E - 05
foot meter (m) 3.048’ E-01
foot (U.S. survey)“1 meter (m) 3.048 006 E -01

foot of water (39.2”F) Pascal (Pa) 2.988 98 E +03
sq ft meter2 (m’) 9.290 304’ E - 02
ft*/hr (thermal diffusivity) mete? per second (m*is) 2.580 640’ E - 05
ftV3 meter? per second (m’is) 9.290 304’ E - 02
cu ft (volume; section modulus) mete? (m3) 2.831 685 E - 02
ftYmin mete? per second (m’1.s) 4.719 474 E -04
W/S mete? per second (mVs) 2.831 685 E -02
ff (moment of section)@) mete? (ml) 8.630 975 E -03
fUhr meter per second (m/s) 8.466 667 E - 05
ft/min meter per second (m/s) 5.080’ E-03
ftk meter per second (m/s) 3.048’ E-01
ft/SZ meter per second2 (misz) 3.048’ E-01
footcandle Iux (lx) 1.076391 E+Ol
footlambert candela per meter2 (cdim2) 3.426 259 E + 00
ft-lbf joule (J) 1.355818 E+OO
ft-lbf/hr watf (W) 3.766 161 E -04
ft-lbfimin watt (wj 2.259 697 E - 02
ft-lbf/s watt (W) 1.355818 E+OO
ft-poundal joule (J) 4.214 011 E -02
free fall, standard (g) meter per second’ (m/s’) 9.806 650’ E + 00
cm/s? meter per second2 (m/s’) 1.O’ E-02
qallon (Canadian liquid) mete? (m3) 4.546 090 E - 03
gallon (U.K. liquid) mete? (m3) 4.546 092 E - 03
gallon (U.S. dry) mete? (m3) 4.404 884 E - 03
gallon (US liquid) mete? (mJ) 3.785412 E-03
gal (U.S. liquid)iday mete? per second (mVs) 4.381 264 E - 08
gal (US. liquid)/min mete? per second (m%) 6.309 020 E - 05
gal (U.S. liquid)/hphr
(SFC, specific fuel consumption) mete? per joule (mYJ) 1.410089 E-09
gamma (magnetic field strength) ampere per meter (Aim) 7.957 747 E - 04
gamma (magnetic flux density) tesla (T) 1.O’ E-09
gauss tesla (T) 1.o E-04
gilbert ampere (A) 7.957 747 E - 01
gill (U.K.) mete? (m3) 1.420 654 E - 04
gill (U.S.) mete? (ma) 1.182941 E-04
grad degree (angular) 9.0’ E-01
grad radian (rad) 1.570796 E-02
grain (117000 Ibm avoirdupois) kilogram (kg) 6.479 891 l E - 05
grain (Ibm avoirdupoisi7000)lgaI
(U.S. liquid) kilogram per mete? (kg/m3) 1.711 806 E-02
gram kilogram (kg) 1.O’ E-03
glcm3 kilogram per mete? (kg/m3) 1.O’ Et03
gram-force/cm2 Pascal (Pa) 9.806 650’ E + 01
hectare meter* (m2) 1.O’ E+04
horsepower (550 ft-lbfis) watt (W) 7.456 999 E + 02
horsepower (boiler) watt (W) 9.809 50 E + 03
horsepower (electric) watt (W) 7.460’ E+02
horsepower (metric) watt (W) 7.354 99 E+02
horsepower (water) watt (W) 7.460 43 E + 02
horsepower (U.K.) watt (W) 7.457 0 E+O2
hour (mean solar) second (s) 3.600 000 E + 03
hour (sidereal) second (s) 3.590 170 E + 03
hundredweight (long) kilogram (kg) 5.080 235 E + 01
hundredweight (short) kilogram (kg) 4.535 924 E + 01
inch meter (m) 2.54’ E-02
inch of mercury (32°F) Pascal (Pa) 3.386 38 E + 03
inch of mercury (60°F) Pascal (Pa) 3.376 85 E + 03
inch of water (39.2”F) Pascal (Pa) 2.490 82 E + 02
inch of water (60°F) Pascal (Pa) 2.488 4 E+02
sq in. meter* (m*) 6.451 6’ E-04
cu in. (volume; section modulus)i41 meteP (m”) 1.638 706 E ~ 05
in.3/min mete? per second (m%) 2.731 177 E-07
in4 (moment of section)13’ meteP (ma) 4.162 314 E-07
in/s meter per second (m/s) 2.54’ E-02
in .I$ meter per second* (m/s2) 2.54’ E-02
kayser 1 per meter (1 /m) 1.O’ E+02
kelvin degree Celsius T., = T, - 273.15
I31Thus sometimes IS tailed the rrwment of merha of a plane sechon about a spafled ~XIS
14’The exact c~nwrslon factor IS 1.636 706 4’E-05

kilocalorie (International Table) joule (J) 4.186 8’ E+03
kilocalorie (mean) joule (J) 4.190 02 E+03
kilocalorie (thermochemical) joule (J) 4.184’ E+03
kilocalorie (thermochemical)imin watt (W) 6.973 333 E + 01
kilocalorie (thermochemical)/s watt (W) 4.184’ E+03
kilogram-force (kgf) newton (N) 9.806 65’ E + 00
kgf.m newton meter (N.m) 9.806 65’ E + 00
kgfs*im (mass) kilogram (kg) 9.806 65’ E + 00
kgf/cm2 Pascal (Pa) 9.806 65’ E + 04
kgf/m* Pascal (Pa) 9.806 65’ E + 00
kgf/mm? Pascal (Pa) 9.806 65’ E + 06
km/h meter per second (m/s) 2.777 778 E - 01
kilopond newton (N) 9.806 65’ E + 00
kilowatthour (kW-hr) joule (J) 3.6 E+06
kip (1000 Ibf) newton (N) 4.448 222 E + 03
kip/in.* (ksi) Pascal (Pa) 6.894 757 E + 06
knot (international) meter per second (m/s) 5.144444 E-01
lambert candela per meteP (cd/m*) 1in’ E+04
lambert candela per mete? (cd/m*) 3.183099 E+03
langley joule per mete? (J/mz) 4.184 E+04
league meter (m) (see Footnote 1)
light year meter (m) 9.46055 E+15
IiteV’ meter-l (ml) 1.0 E-03
maxwell weber (Wb) 1.o E-08
mho siemens (S) 1.o E+OO
microinch meter (m) 2.54’ E-08
microsecond/foot (@ft) microsecond/meter (&m) 3.280 840 E + 00
micron meter (m) 1.O’ E-06
mil meter (m) 2.54’ E-05
mile (international) meter (m) 1.609 344’ E + 03
mile (statute) meter (m) 1.609 3 E+03
mile (U.S. survey)“) meter (m) 1.609 347 E + 03
mile (international nautical) meter (m) 1.852 E+03
mile (U.K. nautical) meter (m) 1.853 184’ E+03
mile (U.S. nautical) meter (m) 1.852’ E+03
sq mile (international) mete? (m2) 2.589 988 E + 06
sq mile (U.S. survey)“’ mete? (m2) 2.589 998 E + 06
mileihr (international) meter per second (m/s) 4.470 4’ E-01
mileihr (international) kilometer per hour (kmih) 1.609 344’ E + 00
mileimin (international) meter per second (m/s) 2.682 24’ E +Ol
mile/s (international) meter per second (m/s) 1.609 344’ E+03
millibar Pascal (Pa) 1.O’ E+02
millimeter of mercury (0°C) Pascal (Pa) 1.33322 E+02
minute (angle) radian (rad) 2.908 882 E - 04
minute (mean solar) second (s) 6.0’ E+Ol
mcnute (sidereal) second (s) 5.983617 E+Ol
month (mean calendar) second (s) 2.628 000 E + 06
oersted ampere per meter (A/m) 7.957 747 E + 01
ohm centimeter ohm meter (0.m) 1.O’ E-02
ohm circular-mil per ft ohm millimeter* per meter
[(0.mm2)m] 1.662 426 E ~ 03
ounce (avoirdupois) kilogram (kg) 2.834 952 E ~ G2
ounce {troy or apothecary) kilogram (kg) 3.110348 E-02
ounce (U.K. fluid) meter3 (m”) 2.841 307 E-05
ounce (U.S. fluidj mete? (m3) 2.957 353 E - 05
ounce-force newton (N) 2.780 139 E-01
ozf.in. newton meter (N.m) 7.061 552 E - 03
oz (avoirdupois)igal (U.K. liquid) kilogram per meterj (kg/m>) 6.236 021 E + 00
oz (avoirdupois)/qal (U.S. liquid) kilogram per metep (kgimJ) 7.489 152 E+OO
oz (avoirdupois)&? kilogram per meterj (kg/mJ) 1.729994 E+03
oz (avoirdupois)/fF kilogram per meter2 (kg/m2) 3.051 517 E-01
oz (avoirdupois)/yd2 kilogram per meter’ (kg/m’) 3.390 575 E - 02
parsec meter (m) 3.085 678 E + 16
peck (U.S.) mete? (m3) 8.809 768 E ~ 03
pennyweight kilogram (kg) 1.555 174 E-03
perm (‘C)@) kilogram per Pascal second meter*
[kg!(Pas.m2)] 5.721 35 E-11
‘%, 1964 the General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted the name liter as a special name for the c,,blc decr,,eter Before ,h,s dec,s,on ,be ,,ter d,f,e,ed
slightly (prewous value, 1 WO 028 dm3 and m expression of preclslon volume measurement this lact must be kept I” mind
t61Not the sameas resewmr “per”, ”
THE Sf METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS & SPE METRIC STANDARD 58-19

To Convert From Multiply By”
perm (23”C)16’ kilogram per Pascal second mete?
[kg/( Pasm2)] 5.74525 E-11
perm.in. (OC)c71 krlogram per Pascal second meter
[kg/(Pasm)] 1.45322 E-12
perm.in. (23°C)“’ kilogram per Pascal second meter
[kmi(Pasm)] 1.459 29 E- 12
phol lumen per mete? (lm/m2) 1.O’ E+04
oica (orinter’s) meter (m) 4.217518 E-03
pint (U.S. dryj metep (m3) 5.506 105 E-04
oint (U.S. liauid) mete? (m3) 4.731 765 E - 04
point (printers)’ meter (m) 3.514 598’ E - 04
poise (absolute viscosity) Pascal second (Pas) 1.o E-01
pound (lbm avoirdupois)@’ kilogram (kg) 4.535 924 E - 01
pound (troy or apothecary) kilogram (kg) 3.732417 E-01
Ibm-ftz (moment of Inertia) kilogram meter’ (kg-m’) 4.214 011 E-02
Ibm-in.? (moment of inertia) kilogram mete? (kg-m*) 2.926 397 E - 04
Ibmift-hr Pascal second (Pas.) 4.133 789 E -04
lbmift -s Pascal second (Pas) 1.488 164 E+OO
IbmW kilogram per mete? (kg/m2) 4.882 428 E + 00
Ibm/ft3 kilogram per mete? (kg/m3) 1.601 846 E +Ol
Ibm/gal (U.K. liquid) kilogram per mete? (kg/m3) 9.977 633 E + 01
lbmigal (U.S. liquid) kilogram per meter3 (kg/m3) 1.198264 E+02
lbmihr kilogram per second (kg/s) 1.259979 E-04
Ibm/(hp hr)
(SFC, specific fuel consumption) krlogram per Joule (kg/J) 1.689 659 E - 07
Ibmlin.3 krlogram per mete? (kg/ma) 2.767 990 E + 04
lbmimin ktlogram per second (kg/s) 7.559 873 E - 03
lbmis kilogram per second (kg/s) 4.535 924 E - 01
Ibm/yd3 kilogram per meter] (kgim3) 5.932 764 E - 01
poundal newton (N) 1.382 550 E - 01
poundalift’ Pascal (Pa) 1.488 164 E+OO
poundal-s/R2 Pascal second (Pas) 1.488 164 E+OO
pound-force (lbf)‘91 newton (N) 4.448 222 E + 00
IbfWO’ newton meter (N.m) 1.355818 E+OO
Ibf-ft:in.“‘J newton meter per meter [(N-m)/m)] 5.337 866 E +Ot
lbf-in.“‘l newton meter (N.m) 1.129848 E-01
Ibf-rn.:ln.l”’ newton meter per meter [(N-m)/mj 4.448 222 E t 00
Ibf-sift’ Pascal second (Pas) 4.788 026 E + 01
lbfift newton per meter (N/m) 1.459 390 E t 01
IbfW Pascal (Pa) 4.788 026 E + 01
Ibfiin. newton per meter (N/m) 1.751 268 Et 02
Ibf/itxz (psi) Pascal (Pa) 6.894 757 E + 03
lbfllbm (thrust/weight [mass] ratio) newton per kilogram (N/kg) 9.806 650 E t 00
quart (U.S. dry) mete? (m3) 1.101 221 E-03
quart (U.S. liauid) meter3 (m3) 9.463 529 E - 04
rad (radiation’dose absorbed) gray (GY) 1.0’ E-02
rhe 1 per Pascal second [ 1/(Pas)] 1.O’ E+Ol
rod meter (m) (see Footnote 1)
roentgen coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) 2.58 E-04
second (angle) radian (rad) 4.848 137 E -06
second (sidereal) second (s) 9.972 696 E -01
section meter2 (m*) (see Footnote 1)
shake second (s) 1.000 000’ E - 08
slug kilogram (kg) 1.459 390 E t 01
slug/(ft-s) Pascal second (Pas) 4.788 026 E t 01
slug/fV kilogram per metel3 (kg/m3) 5.153 788 E+02
statampere ampere (A) 3.335 640 E 110
statcoulomb coulomb (C) 3.335 640 E - 10
statfarad farad (F) 1.112650 E-12
stathenry henry (H) 8.987 554 E + 11
statmho sremens (S) 1.112650 E-12
statohm ohm (It) 8.987 554 Et 11
statvolt volt (V) 2.997 925 E + 02
stere mete? (m”) 1.O’ E+OO
“‘Not the same dlmenslons as “m#!darcy-foot”
‘BJThe exacf conversion factor IS 4 535 923 7’E 01.
lg’The exact conversion factor IS 4 448 221 615 260 5’E + 00
“@‘Torque unit. see text dwzusslon of “Torque and Bending Moment”
““Torque dlwded by length see fexf d!scuss!on 01 Torque and Bendmg Moment

stilb candela per meter* (cd/m*) 1.O’ E+04
stokes (kinematic viscosity) meter* per second (m*/s) 1.O’ E-04
tablespoon metef (m3) 1.470 676 E - 05
teaspoon mete? (m3) 4.928 922 E - 06
tex kilogram per meter (kg/m) 1.O’ E-06
therm joule (J) 1.055 056 E + 08
ton (assay) kilogram (kg) 2.916 667 E-02
ton (tong, 2,240 Ibm) kilogram (kg) 1.016047 E+03
ton (metric) kilogram (kg) 1.o E+03
ton (nuclear equivalent of TNT) joule (J) 4.184 E+09””
ton (refrigeration) watt (W) 3.516 800 E +03
ton (register) metep (m3) 2.831 685 E + 00
ton (short, 2000 Ibm) kllogram (kg) 9.071 847 E + 02
ton (long)/ydJ kilogram per mete? (kg/m3) 1.328 939 E + 03
ton (shott)/hr kilogram per second (kg/s) 2.519958 E-01
ton-force (2000 Ibf) newton (N) 8.896 444 E + 03
tonne kilogram (kg) 1.O’ E+03
torr (mm Hg, 0°C) Pascal (Pa) 1.33322 E+02
township mete? (mz) (see Footnote 1)
unit pole weber (Wb) 1.256 637 E - 67
watthour (W-hr) joule (J) 3.60’ E+03
w.s joule (J) 1.O’ E+OO
W/cm2 watt per meter? (W/m’) 1.O’ Et04
W/in.? watt per meter2 (W/m2) 1.550003 E+03
yard meter (m) 9.144’ E-01
yd2 mete? (m2) 8.361 274 E - 01
Yd3 mete? (m3) 7.645 549 E - 01
ydJ/min mete? per second (m%) 1.274 258 E - 02
year (calendar) second (s) 3.153600 Et07
year (sidereal) second (s) 3.155 815 Ei07
year (tropical) second (s) 3.155693 E+07
“2JOet~ned (not measured) value
APPENDIX E
TABLE 1.8 - CONVERSION FACTORS FOR THE VARA’
Value of Conversion Factor,
Location Vara in Inches Varas to Meters Source
Argentina, Paraguay 34.12 8.666 E-01 Ref. 16
Cadiz, Chile, Peru 33.37 8.476 E-01 Ref. 16
California,
except San Francisco 33.3720 8.478 49 E-01 Ref. 16
San Francisco 33.0 8.38 E-01 Ref. 16
Central America 33.87 8.603 E-01 Ref. 16
Colombia 31.5 8.00 E-01 Ref. 16
Honduras 33.0 8.38 E-01 Ref. 16
Mexico 8.380 E-01 Refs. 16 and 17
Portugal, Brazil 43.0 1.09 Et00 Ref. 16
Spain, Cuba, Venezuela, Philippine Islands 33.38” 8.479 E-01 Ref. 17
Texas
Jan. 26, 1801, to Jan. 27, 1838 32.8748 8.350 20 E-01 Ref. 16
Jan. 27, 1838 to June 17, 1919, for
surveys of state land made for Land Office 33-113 8.466 667 E-01 Ref. 16
Jan. 27, 1838 lo June 17, 1919, on private surveys
(unless changed to 33-113 in. by custom arising
to dignity of law and overcoming former law) 32.8748 8.350 20 E-01 Ref. 16
June 17, 1919, to present 33-113 8.466 667 E-01 Ref. 16
*It IS evident from Ref 16 that accurate defined lengths 01 the vala varied slgnlflcantly, according to hlslotlcal date and localay used For work rqulrlng accura&
Co”“ers~~“s. the user should check Closely lnlo Lhe dale and localIon of the wrveys mvolved, with due regard lo what local ,x,cl,ce may have been at that t,me
and place
“This value quoted horn Webster’s New lnternakmal D~chona~
THE St METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS & SPE METRIC STANDARD 58-21
TABLE l.Q-“MEMORY JOGGER”-METRIC UNITS

“BallPark” Metnc Values;
(Do Not Use As
Conversion Factors)
4000 square meters
-i 0.4 hectare
barrel 0.16 cubic meter
British thermal unit 1000 joules
British thermal unit per pound-mass 1 2300 joules per kilogram
2.3 kilojoules per kilogram
calorie 4 joules
centipoise 1’ millipascal-second
centistokes 1’ square millimeter per second
darcy 1 square micrometer
degree Fahrenheit (temperature difference) 0.5 kelvin
dyne per centimeter 1’ millinewton per meter
foot -i 30 centimeters
0.3 meter
cubic foot (cu ft) 0.03 cubic meter
cubic foot per pound-mass (fWbm) 0.06 cubic meter per kilogram
square foot (sq ft) 0.1 square meter
foot per minute
{ g’” ~i%%&n$%cond
foot-pound-force 1.4 joules
foot-pound-force per minute 0.02 watt
foot-pound-force per second 1.4 watts
horsepower 750 watts (% kilowatt)
horsepower, boiler 10 kilowatts
inch 2.5 centimeters
kilowatthour 3.6’ megajoules
mile 1.6 kilometers
ounce (avoirdupois) 28 grams
ounce (fluid) 30 cubic centimeters
pound-force 4.5 newtons
pound-force per square inch (pressure, psi) 7 kilopascals
pound-mass 0.5 kilogram
pound-mass per cubic foot 16 kilograms per cubic meter
260 hectares
section 2.6 million square meters
2.6 square kilometers
ton, long (2240 pounds-mass) 1000 kilograms
ton, metric (tonne) 1000’ kilograms
ton, short 900 kilograms
‘Exactaqulvalents
APPENDIX F
Part 2: Discussion of Metric Unit Standards*

Introduction
The standards and conventions shown in Part I are part commonly to achieve convenient unit size. Any ap-
of the SPE tentative standards. Table 2. I presents proved prefix may be used in combination with an ap-
nomenclature for Tables 2.2 and 2.3. Table 2.2 is a proved SI unit without violation of these standards ex-
modified form of a table in API 2564 reflecting SPE cept where otherwise noted.
recommendations. Table 2.3 shows a few units com-
monly used in the petroleum industry that are not shown Other Allowable. A small, selected list of non-3 units
in Table 1.7 and 2.2. The columns in these tables are that are approved temporuril~~ for the convenience of the
based on the following. English-metric transition. Use of the allowable units
may be discouraged but is not prohibited. Any tradi-
Quantity and SI Unit. The quantity and the base or tional. non-9 unit not shown is prohibited under these
derived SI unit that describes that quantity. standards.
Customary Unit. The unit most commonly used in ex- Conversion Factor. For certain commonly used units, a
pressing the quantity in English units. conversion factor is shown. The primary purpose in
these tables is to show how the preferrelf metric unit
SPE Preferred. The base or derived SI unit plus the ap-
compares in size with the traditional unit. An effort has
proved prefix, if any, that probably will be used most
been made to keep the unit sizes comparable to minimize
‘Prepared by John M Campbell for the subcommftfee transition difficulties.
A detailed summary of general conversion factors is (a). Note that (a) is used as the abbreviation for year (an-
included as Table 1.7 in Part 1 of this report. num) instead of (yr). The use of the minute as a &me unit
The notation for conversion factors in Tables 2.2 and is discouraged because of abbreviation problems. It
2.3 is explained in the introduction to Table 1.7. should be used only when another time unit is absolutciy
Fig. 2. I shows graphically how SI units are related in inappropriate.
a very coherent manner. Although it may not be readily
apparent, this internal coherence is a primary reason for Date and Time Designation
adoption of the metric system of units. The Subcommittee proposes to recommend a standard
The SPE Metrication Subcommittee is endeavoring to date and time designation to the American Nat]. Stan-
provide SPE members with all information needed on the dards Inst., as shown below. This form already has been
International System of Units and to provide tentative introduced in Canada.
standards (compatible with SI coherence, decimal, and
other principles) for the application of the SI system to 76 - 10 - 03 - 16 : 24 : I4
SPE fields of interest. The tentative SPE standards are year month hour minute second
day
intended to reflect reasonable input from many sources, (76-IO-03-16:24: 14)
and we solicit your positive input with the assurance that
all ideas will receive careful consideration. The sequence is orderly and easy to remember: only
Review of Selected Units needed portions of the sequence would be used - most
documents would use the first three. No recommenda-
Certain of the quantities and units shown in Tables 2.2 tion has been made for distinguishing the century, such
and 2.3 may require clarification of usage (see also the as 1976 vs. 1876 vs. 2076.
notes preceding Tables 2.2 and 2.3).
Time Area
Although second(s) is the base time unit, any unit of time The hectare (ha) is allowable but its use should be con-
may be used - minute (min), hour(h), day (d), and year fined to large areas that describe the area1 extent of a por-
TABLE 2.1 -NOMENCLATURE FOR TABLES 2.2 AND 2.3

Unit
Symbol Name Quantitv Tvpe of Unit
A ampere electric current base SI unit
annum (year) time allowable (not official SI) unit
4 becquerel activity (of radionuclides) derived SI unit = l/s
bar bar pressure allowable (not official SI) unit, = lo5 Pa
C coulomb quantity of electricity derived SI unit, = 1 As
cd candela luminous intensity base SI unit
“C degree Celsius temperature derived SI unit = 1.0 K
degree plane angle allowable (not official SI) unit
d day time allowable (not officialSI) unit, = 24 hours
F farad electric capacitance derived SI unit, = 1 A.sN
GY gray absorbed dose derived SI unit, = J/kg
9 gram mass allowable (not official SI) unit, = 10~3 kg
H henry inductance derived SI unit, = 1 Vs/A
h hour time allowable (not official SI) unit, = 3.6 x 10’s
Hz hertz frequency derived SI unit, = 1 cycle/s
ha hectare area allowable (not official SI) unit, = lo4 m2
J joule work, energy derived SI unit, = 1 N.m
K kelvin temperature base SI unit
kg kilogram mass base SI unit
kn knot velocity allowable (not official Sl) unit, = 5.144 444 x 10-j m/s
= 1.852 km/h
L liter volume allowable (not official Sl) unit, = 1 dm3
Im lumen luminous flux derived SI unit, = 1 cd.sr
IX Iux illuminance derived SI unit, = 1 Im/mZ
m meter length base SI unit
min minute time allowable (not official SI) unit
minute plane angle Allowable cartography (not official SI) unit
N newton force derived SI unit, = 1 kg,m/s2
naut. mile U.S. nautical mile length allowable (not official SI) unit, = 1.652 x lo3 m
R ohm electric resistance derived SI unit, = 1 V/A
Pa Pascal pressure derived SI unit, = 1 N/m*
rad radian plane angle supplementary SI unit
S siemens electrical conductance derived SI unit, = 1 AN
s second time base SI unit
second plane angle allowable cartography (not official 9) unit
sr steradian solid angle supplementary SI unit
T tesla magnetic flux density derived SI unit, = 1 Wb/mZ
tonne mass allowable (not official SI) unit, = lo3 kg = 1 Mg
v volt electric potential derived SI unit, = 1 W/A
W watt power derived SI unit, = 1 J/s
Wb weber magnetic flux derived SI unit, = 1 V..s
THE Sf METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS & SPE METRIC STANDARD 58-23
tion of the earth’s crust (normally replacing the acre or In the U.S., the “ -er” ending for meter and liter is of-
section). ficial. The official symbol for the liter is “L.” In other
Volume countries the symbol may be written as “Y” and spelled
The liter is an allowable unit for small volumes only. It out with the “ -re” ending (metre, litre). Since SPE is in-
should be used for volumes not exceeding 100 L. Above ternational. it is expected that members will use local
this volume (or volume rate), cubic meters should be conventions.
used. The only two prefixes allowed with the liter are Notice that “API barrel” or simply “barrel” disap-
“milli” and “micro:’ pears as an allowable volume term.
BASE UNITS DERIVED UNITS WITH SPECIAL NAMES
MASS
HEAT FLOW RATE
CONOUCTINCE
ELECTRIC CURRENT
INDUCTANCE
OENSITV
SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS
LUMINOUS FLUX lLLUMlNANCE
SOLID ANGLE
SOLID LINES INDICATE MULTIPLICATION.
BROKEN LINES. OIVISION
Fig. Xl-Graphic relationships of SI units with names

Force Unit Standards Under Discussion

Any force term will use the newton (N). Derived units There are some quantities for which the unit standards
involving force also require the newton. The expression have not been clarified to the satisfaction of all parties
of force using a mass term (like the kilogram) is ab- and some controversy remains. These primary quantities
solutely forbidden under these standards. are summarized below.
Mass Permeability
The kilogram is the base unit, but the gram, alone or The SPE-preferred permeability unit is the square
with any approved prefix, is an acceptable SI unit. micrometer (pm*). One darcy (the traditional unit)
For large mass quantities the metric ton (t) may be equals 0.986 923 pm*.
used. Some call this “tonne:’ However, this spelling The fundamental SI unit of permeability (in square
sometimes has been used historically to denote a regular meters) is defined as follows: “a permeability of one
short ton (2,000 lbm). A metric ton is also a megagram meter squared will permit a flow of I m’is of fluid of
(Mg). The terms metric ton or Mg are preferred in text I Pa. s viscosity through an area of I m’ under a
references. pressure gradient of 1 Pa/m.”
The traditional terms of “darcy” and “millidarcy”
Energy and Work have been approved as preferred units of permeability.
The joule (J) is the fundamental energy unit; kilojoules Note 11 of Table 2.2 shows the relationships between
(kJ) or megajoules (MJ) will be used most commonly. traditional and SI units and points out that the units of the
The calorie (large or small) is no longer an acceptable darcy and the square micrometer can be considered
unit under these standards. The kilowatthour is accep- equivalent when high accuracy is not needed or implied.
table for a transition period but eventually should be
replaced by the megajoule. Standard Temperature
Some reference temperature is necessary to show certain
Power properties of materials, such as density. volume. viscosi-
The term horsepower disappears as an allowable unit. ty. and energy level. Historically, the petroleum industry
The kilowatt (kW) or megawatt (MW) will be the almost universally has used 60°F [15.56”C] as this
multiples of the fundamental watt unit used most reference temperature, and metric systems have used
commonly. O”C, 2O”C, and 25°C most commonly, depending on
the data and the area of specialty.
API has opted for 15°C because it is close to 60°F.
Pressure ASME has used 20°C in some of its metric guides. The
The fundamental pressure unit is the Pascal (Pa) but the bulk of continental European data used for gas and oil
kilopascal (kPa) is the most convenient unit. The bar correlations is at O”C, although 15°C is used sometimes.
(100 kPa) is an allowable unit. The pressure term The SPE Subcommittee feels that the choice between
kg/cm2 is not allowable under these standards. 0°C and 15°C is arbitrary. Tentatively, a standard of
15°C has been adopted simply to conform to API stan-
Viscosity dards. It may be desirable to have a flexible temperature
standard for various applications.
The terms poise, centipoise, stokes, and centistokes are
no longer used under these standards. They are replaced Standard Pressure
by the metric units shown in Table 2.2.
To date. some groups have opted for a pressure reference
of 101.325 kPa, which is the equivalent of I std atm.
Temperature The Subcommittee considers this an unacceptable
Although it is permissible to use “C in text references, it number. Its adoption possesses some short-term conve-
is recommended that “K” be used in graphical and nience advantages but condemns future generations to
tabular summaries of data. continual odd-number conversions to reflect the change
of pressure on properties. It also violates the powers-
of-10 aspect of the SI system, one of its primary
Density advantages.
The fundamental SI unit for density is kg/m3. Use of this The current SPE standard is 100 kPa and should be
unit is encouraged. However, a unit like kg/L is used until further notice. It is our hope that reason will
permissible. prevail and others will adopt this standard.
The traditional term “specific gravity” will not be
used. It will be replaced by the term “relative density.” Gauge and Absolute Pressure
API gravity disappears as a measure of relative density. There is no provision for differentiating between gauge
and absolute pressure, and actions by international
Relative Atomic Mass and Molecular Mass bodies prohibit showing the difference by an addendum
The traditional terms “atomic weight” and “molecular to the unit symbol. The Subcommittee recommends that
weight” are replaced in the SI system of units by gauge and absolute be shown using parentheses follow-
“relative atomic mass” and “relative molecular mass,” ing p:
respectively. See Table 1.6. p=643 kPa, p(g)=543 kPa
[p is found from p(g) by adding actual barometric 10. See discussion of “Energy, Torque, and Bending
pressure. (100 kPa is suitable for most engineering Moment,” Part 1.
calculations.)] 11. The permeability conversions shown in Table 2.2
In custody transfer the standard pressure will be are for the traditional definitions of darcy and
specified by contract. Unless there is a special reason not millidarcy.
to do so, the standard pressure will be 100 kPa to In SI units, the square micrometer is the preferred
preserve the “multiples of ten” principle of the metric unit of permeability in fluid flow through a porous
system. medium, having the dimensions of viscosity times
Standard pressure normally is defined and used as an volume flow rate per unit area divided by pressure
absolute pressure. So, psc = 100 kPa is proper notation. gradient, which simplifies to dimensions of length
Absolute pressure is implied if no (g) is added to denote squared. (The fundamental SI unit is the square
gauge pressure specifically. meter, defined by leaving out the factor of IO-‘* in
the equation below).
Standard Volumes A permeability of 1 pm* will permit a flow of
Cubic meters at standard reference conditions must be 1 m3/s of fluid of 1 Pa. s viscosity through an area
equated to a term with the standard “SC” subscript. For of 1 m2 under a pressure gradient of lo’* Pa/m
example, for a gas production rate of 1 200 000 m3/d, (neglecting gravity effects):
write
I pm2 = lo-‘* Pa.s [m3/(s.m2)](m/Pa)
qx,y,=1.2x IO6 m3/d or 1.2 (E+06) m3/d = 10 ~ I2 Pa. s(m/s)(mlPa)
read as “1.2 million cubic meters per day.” = lo-‘* m2
If the rate is 1200 cubic meters per day, write The range of values in petroleum work is best
served by units of 1O-3 pm2. The traditional
q,,Yc=1.2x103 m3/d. millidarcy (md) is an informal name for 10 -3 pm*,
which may be used where high accuracy is not
For gas in place, one could write implied.
For virtually all engineering purposes, the
G,,=11.0x10’* m3. familiar darcy and millidarcy units may be taken to
be equal to 1 pm2 and 10 -3 pm*. respectively.
Notes for Table 2.2 12. The ohm-meter is used in borehole geophysical
1. The cubem (cubic mile) is used in the measurement devices.
of very large volumes, such as the content of a 13. As noted in Sec. 1, the mole is an amount of
sedimentary basin. substance expressible in elementary entities as
2. In surveying, navigation, etc., angles no doubt will atoms, molecules, ions, electrons. and other par-
continue to be measured with instruments that read ticles or specified groups of such particles. Because
out in degrees, minutes, and seconds and need not the expression “kilogram mole” is inconsistent
be converted into radians. But for calculations in- with other SI practices, we have used the abbrevia-
volving rotational energy, radians are preferred. tion “kmol” to designate an amount of substance
3. The unit of a million years is used in which contains as many kilograms (groups of
geochronology. The mega-annum is the preferred molecules) as there are atoms in 0.0 12 kg of carbon
SI unit, but many prefer simply to use mathematical 12 multiplied by the relative molecular mass of the
notation (i.e., X 106). substance involved. In effect, the “k” prefix is
4. This conversion factor is for an ideal gas. merely a convenient way to identify the type of en-
5. Subsurface pressures can be measured in tity and facilitate conversion from the traditional
megapascals or as freshwater heads in meters. If the pound mole without’violating SI conventions.
latter approach is adopted, the hydrostatic gradient
becomes dimensionless. Notes for Table 2.3
6. Quantities listed under “Facility Throughput, 1. The standard cubic foot (scf) and barrel (bbl) rem
Capacity” are to be used only for characterizing the ferred to are measured at 60°F and 14.696 psia; the
size or capacity of a plant or piece of equipment. cubic meter is measured at 15°C and 100 kPa
Quantities listed under “Flow Rate” are for use in (1 bar).
design calculations. 2. The kPa is the preferred SPE unit for pressure. But
7. This conversion factor is based on a density of 1.0 many are using the bar as a pressure measurement.
kg/dm 3 The bar should be considered as a nonapproved
8. Seismic velocities will be expressed in km/s. name (or equivalent) for 100 kPa.
9. The interval transit time unit is used in sonic log- 3. See discussion of “Torque and Bending Moment , ”
ging work. Part I.
TABLE 2.2-TABLES OF RECOMMENDED SI UNITS

Conversion Factor’
Metric Unit Multiply Customary
Customary SPE Other Unit by Factor to
Quantity and SI Unit Unit Preferred Allowable Get Metric Unit
SPACE:’ TIME
Length m naut mile km 1.852’ E+00

mile km 1.809 344* E + 00
chain m 2.011 68 E+Ol
link m 2.011 68 E-01
fathom m 1.828 8’ E+OO
m m 1.O’ E+OO
yd m 9.144’ E-01
fl m 3.048’ E-01
cm 3.048’ E+nl
in. mm 2.54’ E+Ol
cm 2.54’ E+OO
cm mm 1.O’ E+Ol
cm 1.O’ E+00
mm mm 1.O’ E+OO
mil pm 2.54’ E+Ol
micron (f.~) bm 1.O’ E+OO
Length/length m/m fUm+ m/km 1.893 939 E-01
Length/volume m/m3 fUU.S. gal m/m3 8.051 964 E+Ol
ftw m/m3 1.078 391 E+Ol
ft/bbl m/m3 1.917 134 E+OO
Length/temperature m/K see “Temperature, Pressure, Vacuum”
Area m2 sq mile km2 2.589 988 E +00
section km2 2.589 988 E +00
ha 2.589 988 E+O2
acre m2 4.046 858 E+03
ha 4.046 856 E-01
ha m2 1.o Ec04
sq yd m2 8.361 274 E-01
sq fl m2 9.290 304’ E - 02
cm2 9.290 304’ E + 02
sq in. mm2 6.451 8’ E+O2
cm2 6.451 6’ E+OO
cm2 mm2 1.0 Et02
cm2 1.0 Et00
mm2 mm2 1.0 E+OO
Area/volume m2/m3 ft?in? m21cm3 5.699 291 E-03
Area/mass m2/kg cm2ig m*/kg 1.0 E-01
mYg 1.0 E-04
Volume, capacity m3 cubem km’ 4.168 182 E+OO””
acre-ft m3 1.233 489 E+03
ham 1.233 489 E-01
m3 m3 1.o E+OO
cu vd m3 7.645 549 E - 01
bbl (42 U.S. aal) m” 1.589 873 E-01
cu R m3 2.831 685 E-02
dm3 L 2.831 685 E+Ol
U.K. gal m3 4.546 092 E-03
dm3 L 4.546 092 E+OO
U.S. gal m3 3.785 412 E-03
.-tm3 I 37A‘iAl7 F+rul
-
liter dm3 L 1.0’ E+OO -
U.K. qt dm3 L 1.136 523_ Finn
-,-I
11s nt rim3 I Q AR7 5X

_.._-__ J E-01
U.S. pt dm3 L 4.731 765 E-01
‘An asterisk cdcates that the conversion factcf IS exact using the numbers shown. all subsequent numbers are zeros
“Conversion factors for length. area. and volume (and related quanblles) I” Table 2.2 are based on the intemabonal foot See Footnote 1 of Table 1 7. Part 1
TABLE 2.2-TABLES OF RECOMMENDED SI UNITS (continued)

Quantity and SI Unit Unit Preferred Allowable Get Metric Unrt
SPACE,” TIME
Volume, capacity m3 U.K. fl oz cm3 2.841 308 E+Ol

U.S. fl oz cm3 2.957 353 E+Ol
cu in. cmJ 1.638 706 E+Ol
mL cm3 1.O’ E+OO
Volume/length m31m bbliin. m31m 6.259 342 Et00
(linear displacement) bbl/H m3/m 5.216 119 E-01
H3/H m31m 9.290 304’ E - 02
U.S. gal/H m31m 1.241 933 E-02
dm31m Urn 1.241 933 E+Oi
Volume/mass m3ikg see “Density, Specific Volume, Concentration, Dosage”
Plane angle rad rad rad 1.O’ E+OO
deg (“1 rad 1.745 329 E -. 02 121
0 1.O’ E+OO
min (‘) rad 2.908 882 E - 04 12’
1.O’ E+OO
set (“) rad 4.848 137 E - 06 ‘2’
n 1.o E+OO
Solid angle sr sr sr 1.o E+OO
Time S million years (MY) Ma 1.o E + 00 ‘W
v a 1.0 E+OO
wk d 7.0 E+OO
d d 1.o E+OO
hr h 1.o E+OO
min 6.0 E+Ol
min S 6.0 E+Ol
h 1.666 667 E-02
min 1.O’ E+OO
S S 1.o E+OO
millimicrosecond ns 1.0 E+OO
MASS, AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE
Mass U.K. ton (long ton) Mg t 1,016 047 E+OO

US. ton (short ton) Mg t 9.071 847 E-01
U.K. ton kg 5.080 235 E+Ol
U.S. cwt kg 4.535 924 E+Ol
kg kg 1.o E+OO
ibm ka 4.535 924 E-01
oz (troy) 9 3.110 348 E+Ol
oz (av) 9 2.834 952 E + 01
9 9 1.o E+OO
grain m9 6.479 891 E+Ol
m9 m9 1.o E+OO
9 9 1.O’ E+OO
Mass/length kg/m see “Mechanics”
Masslarea kg/m2 see “Mechanics”
Mass/volume kg/m3 see “Density, Specific Volume, Concentration, Dosage”
Mass/mass ‘Wkg see “Density, Specific Volume, Concentration, Dosage”
Amount of mol Ibm mol kmol 4.535 924 E-01
substance g mol kmol 1.O’ E-03
std m3 (WC, 1 atm) kmol 4.461 58 E - 02 II 131
std m3 (15”C, 1 atm) kmol 4.229 32 E- 02 II 131
std ft3 (6O”F, 1 atm) kmol 1.1953 E - 03 II 131

Metric Unit Multrply Customary
CALORIFIC VALUE, HEAT, ENTROPY, HEAT CAPACITY
Calorific value J/kg Btuilbm MJikg 2.326 E-03

(mass basis) kJ/kg J’g 2.326 E+OO
(kW.h)/kg 6.461 112 E-04
Cal/g kJ/kg J’g 4.184’ E+OO
caklbm J/kg 9.224 141 E+OO
Calorific value Jimol kcalig mol kJ/kmol 4.184’ c+o3’3
(mole basis) Btu/lbm mol MJikmol 2.326 E-0313
kJ/kmol 2.326 E + OOt3
Calorific value J/m3 therm/U.K. gal MJlm3 kJ/dm3 2.320 80 E+04
(volume basis - kJ/m3 2.320 80 E+07
solids and liquids) (kW.h)/dm3 6.446 660 E+OO
BtuiUS. gal MJlm3 kJ/dm3 2.787 163 E-01
kJ/m3 2.787 163 E+02
(kW,h)/m3 7.742 119 E-02
Btu!U.K. gal MJlm3 kJ/dm3 2.320 8 E-01
kJ/m3 2.320 8 E+02
(kW.h)/m3 6.446 660 E-02
BtuifP MJlm3 kJidm3 3.725 895 E-02
kJ/m3 3.725 895 E+Ol
(kW.h)/m3 1.034 971 E-02
kcal/m3 MJlm3 kJidm3 4.184’ E-03
kJ/m3 4.184’ E+OO
cal/mL MJ/m3 4.184’ E+OO
ft-1bfiU.S. gal kJ/m” 3.581 692 E-01
Calorific value Jim3 cal/mL kJ/m3 J/dm3 4.184. E+03
(volume basis - kcalim3 kJlm” J/dm3 4.184’ E+OO
gases)
BtuiH3 kJ/m” Jldm3 3.725 895 E+Oi
(kW. h)/m 3 1.034 971 E-02
Specific entropy J1kg.K Btu/(lbm-“R) kJi(kg.K) J/b. N 4.186 8’ E+OO
cali(g-“K) kJi(kg.K) J/b. K) 4.184’ E+OO
kcal!( kg%) kJi(kg.K) J/h. W 4.184’ E+OO
Specific heat J/kg.K kW-hr/(kg-“C) kJ/(kg.K) J4g ’K) 3.6’ E+03
capacity Btu/(lbm-“F) kJ/( kg.K) J/h. K) 4.186 8 E+OO
(mass basis)
kcal/(kg-“C) kJ/( kg.K) J/b. to 4.184’ E+OO
Molar heat Jlmo1.K Btui(lbm mol-“F) kJI(kmo1.K) 4.186 8’ E+00r3
capacity cal!(g mol-“C) kJI(kmo1.K) 4.184’ E - 0013
TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, VACUUM
Temperature K “R K 519
(absolute) “K K 1.O’ E+OO
Temperature K “F “C (“F - 32)/l .8
(traditional) “C “C 1.O’ E+OO
Temperature K “F K “C 5i9 E+OO
(difference) “C K “C 1.O’ E+OO
Temperature/length K/m “F/100 ft mWm 1.822 689 E+Ol
(geothermal gradient)
Length/temperature m/K ft/‘F m/K 5.486 4’ E-01
(geothermal step)
Pressure Pa atm (760mm Hg at 0°C or MPa 1.013 25’ E-01
14.696 (Ibfiin.2) kPa 1.013 25’ E+02
bar 1,013 25’ E+OO
bar MPa 1.O’ E-01
kPa 1.O’ E+02
bar 1.0 E+OO
at (technical atm., kgf:cm*) MPa 9.806 65’ E-02
kPa 9.806 65’ E+Ol
bar 9.806 65’ E-01

TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, VACUUM
Pressure Pa Ibflin.2 (psi) MPa 6.894 757 E - 03

kPa 6.894 757 E+OO
bar 6.894 757 E - 02
in. fig (32’F) kPa 3.386 38 E+OO
in. Hg (60°F) kPa 3.376 05 E+OO
in. Hz0 (39.2”F) kPa 2.490 82 E-01
in. Hz0 (60°F) kPa 2.408 4 E-01
mm Hg (0°C) = torr kPa 1.333 224 E-01
cm Hz0 (4°C) kPa 9.806 38 E-02
Ibf/A* (psf) kPa 4.788 026 E - 02
v Hg (0°C) Pa 1.333 224 E-01
pbar Pa 1.O’ E-01
dyne/cm2 Pa 1.O’ E-01
Vacuum, draft Pa in. Hg (60°F) kPa 3.376 85 E+OO
in. Hz0 (39.2-F) kPa 2.490 82 E-01
in. Hz0 (60°F) kPa 2.488 4 E-01
mm Hg (0°C) = torr kPa 1.333 224 E-01
cm HZ0 (4°C) kPa 9.806 38 E-02
Liquid head m R m 3.048’ E-01
in. mm 2.54’ E+Ol
cm 2.54’ E+OO
Pressure drop/length Pa/m psi/ft kPa!m 2.262 059 E + 01
psi/l 00 ft kPa/m 2.262 059 E - 01 w
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, CONCENTRATION, DOSAGE
Density (gases) kg/m3 IbmW kg/m3 1.601 846 E+Ol

g/m3 1.601 846 E +04
Density (liquids) kg/m3 1bmiU.S. gal kg/m3 1.198 264 E+02
g/cm3 1.198264 E-01
Ibm/U.K. gal kg/m3 9.977 633 E + 01
kg/dm3 9.977 633 E - 02
IbmlfP kg/m3 1.601 846 E+Ol
g/cm3 1.601 846 E-02
g/cm3 kg/m3 1.o* E+03
kgidm3 1.o E+OO
“API g/cm3 141.5!(131.5+“API)
Density (solids) kg/m3 IbmW kg/m3 1.601 846 E+Ol
Specific volume ma/kg R3/lbm m31kg 6.242 796 E - 02
(gases) m31g 6.242 796 E - 05
Specific volume m%g fWlbm dm3/kg 6.242 796 E + 01
(liquids) cmYg
U.K. galilbm dm31kg 1.002 242 E+Ol
U.S. galilbm dm3/kg cm3/g 8.345 404 E+OO
Specific volume m3/mol Ug mol m3/kmol 1.O’ E + 00’3
(mole basis)
fWbm mol m3ikmol 6.242 796 E - 0213
Specific volume m31kg bb1iU.S. ton m% 1.752 535 E-01
(clay yield) bbl/U.K. ton m% 1.564 763 E-01
Yield (shale m3/kg bbliU.S. ton dm% ut 1.752 535 E+02
distillation)
bb1iU.K. ton dm% Lit 1.564 763 E+02
U.S. gal/US. ton dm311 ut 4.172 702 E+OO
U.S. ga1lU.K. ton dm3/t Lit 3.725 627 E+OO
Concentration Wb wt % Wkg 1.O’ E-02
(mass/mass) @kg 1.0’ E+Ol
w mm w/kg 1.O’ E+OO
Concentration
(mass/volume) kg/m3 lbmibbl kg/m3 gidm3 2.853 010 E+OO
g/US. gal kg/m3 2.641 720 E-01
gIU.K. gal kg/m3 9’L 2.199 692 E-01

Quantity and SI Unit Unit Preferred Allowable Gel Metric Unit
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, CONCENTRATION, DOSAGE
Concentration kg/m3 lbmilOO0 U.S. gal g/m3 mg/dmJ 1.198 264 E+02
(mass/volume) IbmilOOO U.K. gal glm3 mg/dmJ 9.977 633 E + 01
grains/US. gal gimJ mg/dm3 1.711 806 E+Ol
grains/W mg/m3 2.266352 E+O3
IbmilOOO bbl g/m3 mg/dm3 2.853010 E+OO
mg1U.S. gal g/m3 mgldm3 2.641 720 E-01
grains000 ft3 mgim3 2.266 352 E+Ol
Concentration m31mJ bbllbbl m31m3 1.O’ E+OO
(volume/volume) ftw m31m3 1.O’ E+OO
bbl/acreft m31m3 1.288 923 E-04
ma/ham 1.288 923 E+OO
vol % m3/m3 1.O’ E-02
U.K. aal/W dm3/m3 L/m3 1.m=l4R7 F+fP
U.S. aaW dm3/m3 Urn3 i .336 An8 F+n7
mL/U.S. aal dm3/m3 L/m3 2.841 720 F-n1
mL/U.K. aal dm31m3 L/m3 2.199 Is2 F-01
vol ppm cm3im3 1.O’ E+OO
dm31m3 L/m3 1.O’ E-03
J.K. gal/l000 bbl cm31m3 2.859 406 E+Ol
J.S. gal11000 bbl cm3im3 2.380 952 E+Ol
IJ.K. pti1000 bbl cmYm3 3.574 253 E+OO
Concentration mol/m3 Ibm mo1iU.S. gal kmollm3 1.198 264 E+02
(mole/volume) Ibm moliU.K. gal kmol/m3 9.977633 E+Ol
Ibm mol/fP kmol/m3 1.601 846 E+Ol
std H3(6o”F, kmol/m3 7.518 18 E-03
1 atm)/bbl
Concentration m3/mol U.S. gall1000 std W dm3ikmol Ukmol 3.166 93 E+OO
(volume/mole) (6O”Fi6O”F)
bbl/million std ft3 dm3/kmol Ukmol 1.330 11 E-01
f60”Fi60°F)
FACILITY THROUGHPUT, CAPACITY
Throughput kg/s million Ibm/yr ffa Mg/a 4.535 924 E+02

(mass basis) U.K. toniyr t/a Mgla 1.016 047 E+OO
US. toniyr t/a Mgla 9.071 847 E-01
U.K. ton/D Vd Mgid 1.016047 E+OO
t/h, Mgih 4.233 529 E-02
U.S. ton/D t/d 9.071 847 E-01
tih, Mg/h 3.779 936 E - 02
U.K tonlhr t/h Mg/h 1.016 047 E+OO
U.S. tonlhr t/h Mglh 9.071 a47 E-01
lbmlhr kg/h 4.535 924 E-01
Throughput m3/s bbl/D t/a 5.603 036 E+Ol “I
(volume basis) maid 1.589 a73 E-01
m3/h 6.624 471 E-03
W/D m3/h 1.179 869 E-03
m31d 2.831 685 E-02
bbllhr mJ/h I.589 a73 E-01
113/h m31h 2.831 685 E-02
U.K. gallhr m3/h 4.546 092 E-03
L/s 1.262 803 E-03
U.S. gallhr m31h 3.785 412 E-03
US 1.051 503 E-03
U.K. gal/min m31h 2.727 655 E-01
US 7.576 819 E-02
U.S. galimin m3/h 2.271 247 E-01
US 6.309 020 E ~ 02
THE SI METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS & SPE METRIC STANDARD

Conversion Factor”
FACILITY THROUGHPUT, CAPACITY
Throughput molis Ibm mol!hr kmolih 4.535 924 E - 01

(mole bass) kmolis 1.259 979 E-04
FLOW RATE 16,
Pipeline capacity m31m bblimile mVkm 9.879 013 E-02

Flow rate kg/s U.K. tonimin kg/s 1.693412 E+Ol
(mass basis) U.S tonimin kg/s 1.511 974 E+Ol
U.K. tonihr kg/s 2.822 353 E-01
U.S. tonihr kg/s 2.519 958 E-01
U.K. ton/D kg/s 1.175980 E-02
U.S ton/D kg/s 1.049 982 E-02
million lbmiyr kg/s 5.249 912 E+OO
U.K. ton/yr kg/s 3.221 864 E-05
US toniyr kg/s 2.876 664 E-05
lbmls kg/s 4.535 924 E-01
lbmlmin kg/s 7.559 873 E-03
Ibm/hr kg/s 1.259 979 E-04
Flow rate m% bbl/D m3id 1.589 873 E-01
(volume basis) US 1.840 131 E-03
ftVD m’ld 2.831 685 E-02
US 3.277 413 E-04
bbl/hr mJls 4.416 314 E-05
US 4.416 314 E-02
RVhr m% 7.865 791 E-06
US 7.865 791 E-03
U.K. galihr dmVs US 1.262 803 E-03
U.S. galihr dm% US 1.051 503 E-03
U.K. gal/min dmVs US 7.576 820 E-02
U.S. galimin dmVs US 6.309 020 E - 02
ftVmin dm3!s US 4.719 474 E-01
ftVS dm% US 2.831 685 E+Ol
Flow rate mol/s Ibm molis kmolis 4.535 924 E-01=
(mole basis) Ibm mol/hr kmolis 1.259 979 E - 04’5
million scWD kmolis 1.363 449 E - 02’3
Flow rate/length kgism Ibmi(s-ft) kg/(sm) 1.488 164 E+OO
(mass basis) Ibm/(hr-ft) kg/(sm) 4.133 789 E-04
Flow rate/length m2is U.K. gal!(min-ft) m% mV(sm) 2.485 833 E - 04
(volume basis) U.S. gal!(min-ft) m2is mV(sm) 2.069 888 E - 04
U.K. gali(hr-in.) m2/s mV(sm) 4.971 667 E-05
US. gali(hr-in.) mVs mV(sm) 4.139 776 E-05
U.K. gali(hr-ft) m*/s mV(sm) 4.143055 E-06
US. gali(hr-ft) m’ls m3/(sm) 3.449 814 E-06
Flow rate/area kg/sm* lbm/(s-ft’) kg/sm2 4.882 428 E+OO
(mass basis) lbmi(hr-ft2) kg/sm2 1.356 230 E-03
Flow rate/area m/s W(S4t~) mis m’(sm*) 3.048 E-01
(volume basis) Wlmin-ftz) m/s mV(sm*) 5.08’ E-03
U.K. gaV(hr-tn2) m/s mV(sm*) 1.957 349 E-03
U.S. gal!(hr-rn2) m/s m3/(smz) 1.629 833 E-03
U.K. gal!(mm-ft’) mls m’/(sm*) 8.155 621 E-04
US. gal!(mmW) mis mV(sm*) 6.790 972 E - 04
U.K. gali(hr-ft’) mls mV(sm*) 1.359 270 E-05
U.S. gal!(hr#) m/s m31(sm2) 1.131 829 E-05
Flow rate/ mYsPa bbli(D-psr) mV(d.kPa) 2.305 916 E-02
pressure drop
(productivity index)

Conversion Factor*
ENERGY, WORK, POWER
Energy, work J quad MJ 1.055 056 E+12

TJ 1.055 056 Et06
EJ 1.055 056 E+OO
MW*h 2.930 711 Et08
GW.h 2.930 711 Et05
TWh 2.930 711 Et02
therm MJ 1.055 056 E+02
kJ 1.055 056 E+05
kW.h 2.930 711 E+Ol
U.S. tonf-mile MJ 1.431 744 E+Ol
hp-hr MJ 2.684 520 E+OO
kJ 2.684 520 E+03
kW.h 7.456 999 E-01
ch-hr or CV-hr MJ 2.647 796 Et00
N 2.647 796 E+03
kW.h 7.354 99 E-01
kW-hr MJ 3.6’ E+OO
kJ 3.6’ E+03
Chu kJ 1.899 101 E+OO
kW.h 5.275 280 E-04
f3tu kJ 1.055 056 E+OO
kW.h 2.930 711 E-04
kcal kJ 4.184’ E+OO
cal kJ 4.184’ E-03
ft-lbf kJ 1.355 818 E-03
Ibf-ft kJ 1.355 818 E-03
J kJ 1.O’ E-03
Ibf-ftz/s2 kJ 4.214 011 E-05
erg J 1.O’ E-07
Impact energy J kgf-m J 9.806 650’ E + 00
Ibf-ft J 1.355818 E+OO
WorWlength Jim U.S. tonf-mileift MJlm 4.697 322 Et01
Surface energy J/m2 erg/cm2 mJlmZ 1.O’ E+OO
Specific impact J/m2 kgf.m/cm* J/cm’ 9.806 650’ E - 00
energy Ibf+t/in.* J/cm2 2.101 522 E-01
Power W quadiyr MJia 1.055 056 E+12
TJia 1.055 056 Et06
EJia 1.055 056 E+OO
erg/a TW 3.170 979 E-27
GW 3.170979 E-24
million Btu/hr MW 2.930 711 E-01
ton of kW 3.516 853 E+OO
refrigeration
ml/s kW 1.055 056 E+OO
kW kW 1 .O’ E+OO
hydraulic horse- kW 7.460 43 E-01
power - hhp
hp (electric) kW 7.46’ E-01
hp (550 ft-lbfis) kW 7.456 999 E-01
ch or CV kW 7.354 99 E-01
Btuimin kW 1.758 427 E-02
ft*lbf/s kW 1.355 818 E-03
kcalihr W 1.162222 E+OO
Btuihr W 2.930 711 E-01
Albfimin W 2.259 697 E-02
Power/area W/m2 Btuis.ft? kWlmz 1.135653 E+Ol
cal/hrcm? kWlm2 1.162222 E-02
Btuihrft? kW/m2
.- 3.154 591 E-03

ENERGY, WORK, POWER
Heat flow unit - hfu ~calls’cm2 mWlm2 4.184’ E+Ol

(geothermics)
Heat release rate, W/m3 hpift3 kWlm3 2.633 414 E+Ol
mixing power cal/(hpcm3) kW/m3 1.162 222 E+OO
Btu/(sft3) kW/m3 3.725 895 E+Ol
Btui(hrW) kWlm3 1.034 971 E-02
Heat generation cal/(s-cm3) pWlm3 4.184’ E+12
unit - hgu
(radioactive rocks)
Cooling duty WAN Btu/(bhp-hr) W/kW 3.930 148 E-01
(machinery)
Specific fuel kg/J Ibm/(hp-hr) mg/J kg/MJ 1.689 659 E-01
consumption kg/(kW-h) 6.082 774 E-01
(mass basis)
Specific fuel m3/J mJ/(kW-hr) dm31MJ mm3/J 2.777 778 E + 02
consumption dm?(kW.h) 1.0 E+03
(volume basis) U.S. gal/(hp-hr) dm3/MJ mm3/J 1.410089 E+OO
MECHANICS
Velocity (linear), m/s knot km/h 1.852 E+OO

speed mileihr km/h 1.609 344’ E + 00
m/s m/s 1.O’ E+OO
fUS m/s 3.048’ E-01
cm/s 3.048’ E+Ol
mfms 3.048’ E - 04@’
ftlmin m/s 5.08’ E-03
cm/s 5.08’ E-01
ftihr mm/s 8.466 667 E-02
cm/s 8.466 667 E - 03
ft/D mm/s 3.527 778 E - 03
m/d 3.048’ E-01
in.& mm/s 2.54’ E+Ol
cm/s 2.54 E+OO
in./min mm/s 4.233 333 E-01
cmls 4.233 333 E ~ 02
Velocity (angular) radls revlmin radls 1.047 198 E-01
rev/s rad/s 6.283 185 Et00
degree/min radls 2.908 882 E-04
Interval transit time s/m S/ft s/m KS/m 3.280 840 E + OO@
Corrosion rate m/s in./yr (ipy) mmla 2.54’ E+Ol
miliyr mmla 2.54’ E-02
Rotational frequency rev/s rev/s rev/s 1.O’ E+OO
revimin rev/s 1.666 667 E-02
revimin radls 1.047 198 E-01
Acceleration m/s* ftk* m/s2 3.048’ E-01
(linear) cm/s2 3.048’ E+Ol
gal(cm@) mls2 1.O’ E-02
Acceleration rad/s2 radls2 rad/s2 1.O’ E+OO
(rotational) rpmis lad/s2 1.047 198 E-01
Momentum kg.m/s Ibm.ftJs kg.m/s 1.382 550 E-01

MECHANICS
LI S. tonf kN 8.896 443 E+OO
kgf (kp) N 9.806650’ Et00

Ihf N 4.448 222 E+OO
N N 1.O’ E+OO
ndl mN 1.382 550 E+02
dyne mN 1.o E-02
Bending moment, N.m US. tonf-ft kN.m 2.711 636 E + OO”O’
torque kgf-m N.m 9.806 650’ E + 00”01
Ibf-ft N.m 1.355 818 E + OO”o
Ibf-in. N-m 1.129848 E - ,,,“O’
odl-ft N.m 4.214011 E- 021’0’
Bending moment/ N.m/m (Ibf-ft)/in. (N.m)/m 5.337 866 E + Ol”O1
length (kgf-m)/m (N.m)/m 9.806 650’ E + OO”O1
(Ibf-in.)/in. (N.m)/m 4.448 222 E + OO”O’
Elastic moduli Pa Ibf!in.’ GPa 6.894 757 E-06
(Young’s, Shear bulk)
Moment of inertia kqm* Ibm-ft2 kg.m2 4.214 011 E-02
Moment of section m4 in.4 cm* 4.162 314 E+Ol
Section modulus m3 cu in. cm3 1.638 706 E+Ol
cu fi cm3 1.638 706 E+04
mm3 2.831 685 E+04
m3 2.831 685 E-02
Stress Pa U.S. tonf/in.2 MPa N/mm2 1.378 951 E+Ol
kgWmm2 MPa N/mm2 9.806 650’ E + 00
US. tonf/ft2 MPa N/mm2 9.576 052 E - 02
IbWin.?(osi) MPa N/mm2 6.894 757 E-03
Ibf/ft2 (psf) kPa 4.788 026 E-02
dyne/cm2 Pa 1.O’ E-01
Yield point, Ibf/lOO ft2 Pa 4.788 026 E-01
gel strength
Ldrillina fluid)
Mass/length kg/m Ibm/ft kg/m 1.488 164 E+OO
Mass/area
kg/m2 U.S. ton/ft2 Mgim2 9.764 855 E+OO
structural loading,
bearing capacity Ibm/ft2 kg/m2 4.882 428 E+OO
(mass basis)
Coefficient of m/(m.K) In./(in.-“F) mm/(mm.K) 5.555 556 E-01
thermal expansion
TRANSPORT PROPERTIES
Diffusivity m21s fV/S mm2/s 9.290 304’ E + 04
cm2’s mm21s 1.O’ E+02
ft2/hr mm2/s 2.580 64’ E+Ol
Thermal resistance (k.m*)/W (“C-m2.hr)/kcal (K.m2)/kW 8.604 208 E +02
(“F-ft2 hr)iBtu (K.m2VkW 1.761 102 E+O2
Heat flux Wlm2 Btu/(hr-R*) kW/mz 3.154 591 E-03
Thermal W/(m.K) (Cal/s-cm2-%)/cm W/(m.K) 4.184* E+02
conductivity Btu/(hr-ft-“Fift) W/(m.K) 1.730 735 E+OO
kJ.m/(h.m2.K) 6.230 646 E+OO
kcali(hr-mz-“Cim) W/(m.K) 1.162 222 E+OO
Btu/(hr-R2-“Fiin.) W/(m.K) 1.442 279 E-01
- cal/(hr-cm’-“C/cm) W/(m.K) 1.162222 E-01

Metric Unit Multiolv Customarv
Customary SPE Other Unii dy Factor to’
TRANSPORT PROPERTIES
Heat transfer W/(m2.K) cal/(s-cm?-“C) 4.184’ E+Ol

coefficient Btu/(s-ft2-“F) 2.044 175 E +Ol
cal/(hr-cm2-“C) 1.162 222 E-02
Btu/(hr-ft2-“F) kWi(m2.K) 5.678 263 E - 03
kJ/(h.m>.K) 2.044 175 E+Ol
Btu/(hr-f&OR) kW/(m*.K) 5.678 263 E-03
kcal/(hr-m2-“C) kWi(m*.K) 1.162222 E-03
Volumetric heat W/(m3.K) Btui(s-ft3-“F) kW/(m3.K) 6.706 611 E+Ol
transfer coefficient Btu/(hr-f13-“F) kW/(m3.K) 1.862 947 E-02
Surface tension N/m dyne/cm mN/m 1.O’ E+OO
Viscosity P&S (Ibf-s)iin.2 Pas (Ns)im2 6.894 757 E + 03
(dynamic) (Ibf-s)ift2 Pas (N.s)/m’ 4.788 026 E+Ol
(kgf-s)/m* Pas (Ns)/m2 9.806 650’ E + 00
Ibm/(ft-s) Pas (Ns)/m* 1.488 164 E+OO
(dyne-@/cm2 Pas (Ns):m2 1.O’ E-01
cP Pa.s (Ns)/m* 1.O’ E-03
Ibm/(ft.hr) Pas (N+m2 4.133 789 E-04
Viscosity m21s ft% mm% 9.290 304’ E + 04
(kinematic) in.*/s mm% 6.451 6 E+02
m2/hr mm2is 2.777 778 E+O2
cm21s mm2/s 1.o E+02
ft*/hr mm2is 2.580 64’ E+Ol
cst mm% 1.O’ E+OO
Permeability m2 darcy km2 9.869 233 E -01’“’
millidarcy km2 9.869 233 E - 04’“’
10m3pm2 9.869 233 E-O,‘“,
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM
Admittance S S S 1.O’ E+OO

Capacitance F CLF )LF 1.O’ E+OO
Capacity, C A-hr kC 3.6’ E+OO
storage battery
Charge density C/m3 C/mm3 C/mm3 1.O’ E+OO
Conductance S S S 1.O’ E+OO
U (mho) S 1.O’ E+OO
Conductivity S/m S/m S/m 1.O’ E+OO
u/m S/m 1.O’ E+OO
mu/m mS/m 1.o E+OO
Current density A/m2 Almm’ A/mm2 1.O’ E+OO
Displacement C/m2 C/cm2 C/cm? 1.o E+OO
Electric charge C C C 1.O’ E+OO
Electric current A A A 1.o E+OO
Electric dipole C*m C.m C.m 1.o E+OO
moment
Electric field V/m Vim V/m 1.O’ E+OO
strength
Electric flux C C C 1.O’ E+OO
Electric polarization C/m2 C/cm2 C/cm2 1.O’ E+OO
Electric potential V V V 1.O’ E+OO
mV mV 1.O’ E+OO
Electromagnetic A.m2 A.m2 A.m2 1.O’ E+OO
moment
Electromolive force V V V 1.O’ E+OO
Flux of displacement C C C 1.O’ E+OO

ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM
Frequency HZ cycles/s HZ 1.O’ E+OO

Impedance n n n 1.O’ E+OO
Interval transit time slm @ft t&m 3.280 840 E+OO
Linear current Aim A/mm Aimm 1.O’ E+OO
densitv
Magnetic dipole Wbsm Wb.m Wbm 1.o E+OO
moment
Magnetic field A/m A/mm Aimm 1.O’ E+OO
strength oersted Aim 7.957 747 E+Ol
gamma Aim 7.957 747 E-04
Magnetic flux Wb mWb mWb 1.O’ E+OO
Magnetic flux T mT mT 1.O’ E+OO
density gauss T 1.o* E-04
Magnetic induction T mT mT 1.O’ E+OO
Magnetic moment A*mZ A-m2 A.m2 1.o* E+OO
Magnetic T mT mT 1.O’ E+OO
oolarization
Magnetic potential A A A 1.O’ E+OO
difference
Magnetic vector Wb/m Wbimm Wblmm 1
potential
Magnetization Aim A/mm A/mm 1
Modulus of S S S 1
admittance
Modulus of R n n 1
impedance
Mutual inductance H H H 1
Permeability H/m pH/m PHim 1
Permeance H H H 1
Permittivity F/m WFlm kF/m 1
Potential difference V V V 1
Quantity of C C C 1
electricitv
Reactance n cl n 1
Reluctance H-’ H-1 H-’ 1
Resistance n R R 1
Resistivity Darn @cm fkm 1
Dm Drn 1 W,
Self inductance H mH mH 1
Surface density C/m* mClm* mClmz 1
of charge
Susceptance S S S 1
Volume density C/m3 C/mm3 C/mm3 1
of charae
ACOUSTICS, LIGHT, RADIATION
Absorbed dose GY rad GY 1.o E-02

Acoustical enerav J J J 1
Acoustical intensity Wfm2 W/cm2 Wlm* 1.o E+O4
Acoustical Dower W W W 1
Sound oressure N/m* Nim2 N/m2 1
llluminance lx footcandle lx 1.076 391 E+Ol
Illumination lx footcandle lx 1.076 391 E+Ol
lrradiance Wlm* W/m2 Wlm* 1
Light exposure 1x3 footcandles 1x.s 1.076 391 E + 01
Luminance cd/m* cd/m2 cd/m2 1
Luminous efficacv ImiW ImiW ImiW 1

Quantity and SI Unit Unrt Preferred Allowable Get Metric Unit
ACOUSTICS, LIGHT, RADIATION
Luminous exitance Im/mz lmim2 lm/mZ 1

Luminous flux Im Im Im 1
Luminous intensity cd cd cd 1
Quantity of light I’m.s talbot t’m.s 1.O’ E+OO -
Radiance W/(m%r) Wl(m%r) W/(m%r) 1
Radiant energy J J J 1
Radiant flux W W W 1
Radiant intensity Wisr Wlsr W/sr 1
Radiant power W W 1
Wave length m r nm 1.O’ E-01
Capture unit mm’ lo-km 1 m-1 1.O’ Et01
10.“cm-’ 1
Radioactivity curie 3.7’ E+lO

TABLE 2.3~SOME ADDITIONAL APPLICATION STANDARDS

Capillary pressure Pa ft (fluid) m (fluid) 3.048' E-01
Compressibility of Pa-’ psi-’ Pa-’ 1.450 377 E-04
reservoir fluid kPa ’ 1.450 377 E-01
Corrosion allowance m in. mm 2.54' E+Ol
Corrosion rate mls miliyr mm/a 2.54' E-02
hw)
Differential orifice Pa in. f-l,0 kPa 2.488 4 E-01
pressure (at 60°F) cm Hz0 2.54' E+OO
Gas-oil ratio m3/m’ scfibbl “standard” 1.801 175 E -0,“‘”
m3/m3
Gas rate mYs sci/D “standard” 2.863 640 E-02"'
m31d
Geologic time S Yr Ma
Head (fluid mechanics) m fl m 3.048' E-01
cm 3.048' E+Ol
Heat exchange rate W Btu/hr kW 2.930 711 E-04
kJ/h 1.055 056 E+OO
Mobility m?Pas dicp ~m*/mPas 9.869 233 E-01
km21Pa.s 9.669233 E+02
Net pay thickness m fl m 3.048 E-01
Oil rate m3ls bbl/D m31d 1.589 873 E-01
short toniyr Mgla Va 9.071 847 E-01
Particle size m micron w 1.0’
Permeability-thickness m3 md-ft md.m pm2.rn 3.008 142 E-04
Pipe diameter (actual) m in. cm 2.54 E-c00
mm 2.54' E+Oi
Pressure buildup Pa psi kPa 6.894 757 E + OO’*’
per cycle
Productivity index m3iPes bbli(psi-D) mY(kPad) 2.305 916 E - 0212’
Pumping rate m% U.S. galimin m3/h 2.271 247 E-01
US 6.309 020 E-02
Revolutions per minute radls vm rad/s 1.047 198 E-01
radlm 6.283 185 E+OO
Recovery/unit volume m31m3 bbl/(acre-ft) m3/m3 1.286 931 E-04
(oil) mYha*m 1.288 931 E+OO
Reservoir area m2 sq mile km* 2.589 988 E+OO
acre ha 4.046856 E-01
Reservoir volume m3 acre-ft m3 1.233 482 E+03
hem 1.233 482 E-01
Specific productivity m3/Pasm bbl/(D-psi-R) mY(kPa-d.m) 7.565 341 E - 02’>’
index
Surface or interfacial N/m dyne/cm mN/m 1.O’ E+OO
tension in reservoir
caoillaries
Torque N.m Ibf-ft Nom 1.355 818 E + 0013’
Velocity (fluid flow) m/s ws m/s 3.048' E-01
Vessel diameter m
l-100 cm in. cm 2.54' E+OO
above 100 cm ft m 3.048' E-01
‘An asterisk mdlcates the cowersum lactor IS exact wng the numbers shown, all subsequent numbers are zeros
“See Notes 1 through 3 on page 58-E
TABLE 2.4-FAHRENHEIT - CELSIUS TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART
- 459.67 to - 19 -1ato53 54 to 350 360 to 1070 1990t01790 1990 to 3000
(“C) (“F) WI (“F) (“Cl (“F) (“Cl (“F)

-11, II -0P 0 -17 II --II -a ‘ 1171 160 ,110a I llll 1,100 ,7?7Q
-16, JO -‘,n --I, I, -1J I ‘ 11118 110 (98 0 161 I UP0 I.P9‘0 967 I I.110 3 290 0
-10 77 -‘*a -76bJ --I6 11 191 1 ,110 'I60 5911 I.100 l.Ol?O 9911 I I20 113ao
-7jbbJ -410 ~ -**17 --II SO lPll I 190 I,‘ a IPB D I.110 7.0100 (PIT I I10 I ,I, 0
-75, I, -470 -75 IL --I‘ 4I 10‘ ‘ ‘00 7110 60“ 1.110 1.0‘10 100“ I I‘0 I I“ a
--1‘S 56 -410 -,1bQ -11 I6 710 Q ‘IQ 110 Q 610 0 1.110 1.0660 10100 I 110 I lb! 3
-740 a0 -400 4“‘ -11 10 4 tll b 170 JOB 0 615 b l.t‘O 2.01‘0 1011 b 1.8LO I.100 0
--I,, ‘I --I90 -,I OP --II 111 771 I 410 806 Q 6711 I.150 ?.16?0 1.0711 1810 l.JU 0
-7,n 69 --In0 -71 I, -10 I‘ 0 776J “0 674 6 676, 1 I60 1.1700 1076J 1110 1‘160
-,,I I, -310 -77 16 - 9 IS 6 717 7 ‘la 6‘7 0 617 2 1 113 I.1110 1 all I 1,aoa 1‘1‘ a
-717 7) --I60 -7777 -8 IJb 711 II 00 lb0 a 6110 ,180 ?.I~60 I QIJ I I PO0 ,117 6
--211 17 -150 -7, 6J - J I9 1 I‘,1 110 6180 6‘11 LIP0 11160 1.0‘1 1 I 910 1,410 0
-7u 61 -113 -7, 1, - 6 21 7 7‘8 9 ‘80 IV6 a 611 P 1.100 2.11?0 ,041 1 LP?b , ‘81 0
-701 II --lx -70 5) - I no 711‘ ‘TO 91‘0 ,I“ 1710 I.1100 1QI4 4 I,?,0 ,106 0
-19% lb --1x -7000 --I 716 J‘QQ 100 P,? 0 660 0 I ?70 17760 ,060 0 I 9‘0 1.17‘ ‘i
-190 00 --I13 --IP“ --I 766 765 6 510 P19 a 6616 1130 7.7460 1.06, ‘ I.750 I I‘7 0
-,M ‘4 --loo --1nn9 - I 76‘ 7JI I 170 968 0 bJ1 I 1 740 ?.?blC 1,071I 1 960 1160 Q
--lin 6J -m -IS31 - 1 IQ I 776J 110 VBb 0 6JbJ 1710 ??6?0 1.0167 1110 1.116Q
--II, II -783 -27 n Q 320 77 7 I7 lbl 6 767 I 5‘0 I0040 667 f t 760 2100 a
--I69 I, -,I, I, -‘IV ‘I --I,7 I 11 6 776 II lb,‘ 76J II II0 IQ710 6816 IPJO 11180
-169 BP 477 -‘II 6 -16 J J 316 711 I‘ 1617 79, I 560 IQ‘00 69, I I lb0 I ,,*a WI I 7.WQ ,617 :
-‘b, :* -1JQ -‘I‘ a -,b 1 I 37‘ 7,P J5 1610 790 P 110 IO580 08 P 1790 7 3i‘O 1096 9 2 010 1610 C
-I61 ?7 -163 -416 0 -15 6 I 317 7 1 J6 1616 IQ‘ 1 580 1 QJb? 711‘ II00 7lJ7 Q I IO‘ ‘ 1070 1661 0
-1 j‘ ‘J -710 218 a -,\a I ‘IQ 750 JI 1736 110 0 $90 I 0% 0 710 c 1110 7,"OQ lilO0 7010 IbOb'
-,jl II -740 400 a --I“ 6 176 lid 18 1;71 ,llb 100 11170 7llb 1170 2‘080 11116 20‘0 ,.Jo‘C
--111 56 -710 --In7 a --1,P 7 ‘4 6 76 I Jl II2 7 171 1 610 I ~100 ,711 1110 2‘760 I 171 I tOI0 3.777C
-1‘0 03 -170 -,b‘ 0 --II I a ‘6‘ 76, 80 lJ60 116 J 670 1.1460 ,767 11‘0 I“‘0 ! 176 7 1060 I.?‘0?
--II“‘ -710 -1‘6 0 --I?B ? ‘9 7 777 81 illI 117 7 610 l,lbbb 112 I 1150 ?.66?0 II)?? 1070 37Iaa
-179 09 200 -128 a -17 7 16 500 IJB 87 II96 I,78 6‘0 11810 ?lJ 8 I lb0 I ‘IQ0 1 II? I 1010 l.JJ6C
--17,x -100 -,,a 0 -,,I II $1 I I6 I 81 111 ‘ I‘, I ,I0 1,101 0 7‘1 I 1.310 I‘980 1.1‘1I ?.OPQ ,.,rr0
--11J 711 -I110 -?Sl a -II I 17 II 6 *I P 0‘ 1617 746 P 660 I,7700 7‘8 9 1180 1.1160 I.l‘d, :.100 1,lIIC
-,\I 12 -IJO -77‘0 -10‘ 1, II ‘ 29‘ II 1850 11“ 670 17160 II“ IHO 1 ,,‘Q 1.15‘4 I.110 I.,,60
--ID, 67 -160 -7% 0 -10 0 I‘ 111 100 a* leda ,600 680 Ill60 760 0 1 400 1 II?0 1160 0 1.110 1.1‘1 0
-,a1 I/ -110 -718 0 - 9 4‘ Ii IV0 JO 6 81 166 6 ,656 690 I.1740 JhI 6 I ‘IO IS100 1.M ‘ 2.110 11bb 0
- PI 16 -ILO -710 0 -860 1* *a & II I 88 IPQ 4 311 I JO0 I1970 1,1J1I 1.1‘0 ,ll‘Q
- 9000 -110 -7070 --II,, 11 67 * II J IP IV7 I ,JbJ 110 1.1100 Jib 7 1‘10 ? 6060 I.176 7 I150 3.907 0
- 8“‘ -170 --II‘0 - J I8 111 6‘1 17 7 PO lS‘0 387 7 770 T.378Q I67 7 I,‘10 7 6,4 Q 1,111 I I.160 1.910 0
- ,880 -110 -1660 - 1 12 10 661 18J II 110 I,,460 76JI 1110 ? 6‘10 I.1118 1.110 I.9190
- II I, -100 -1‘10 - 6 6J 10 60 0 ,931 1‘0 I ,b‘Q 7V33 IWO ? Lb0 0 LIT1 I 1110 3.T16 0
- 70 I‘ - OS --I,90 - ‘ I, 71 *(I 198 9 1SQ \ ,670 790 P 1.110 ?.6JI0 1.10 9 ?.llO 1.91‘0
- 6, IO - 90 -1,OQ - I 16 27 Jl 6 ,“ PI 701 7 ‘0“ I60 I.‘000 no4 1 1 ‘IO 2 bPb0 I.10“ 1100 1.9v1 0
- bl 00 - II -17, 0 - 100 7, II‘ II 0 PI 7010 ,100 JJQ 1.4160 llOQ I‘(0 1,140 ,710 a I.110 4.OIOO
- 67 77 - 110 -I170 - ‘ I‘ I‘ 75 7 II 6 Pb 704 8 ‘II 6 780 1.4160 8lS ‘ ,500 11110 1,211‘ ?.??Q ‘028 0
- ,P ‘5 - II --1a,a - I 89 7, 770 ,&I PI 1066 ‘71 I JPQ I ‘;!o 811 1 1 510 1.1~00 1271 1 2110 ‘ 0410
- 1667 - JO - 9‘0 - I II 76 786 16 I 98 700 4 ,767 000 I‘,*0 8761 I I7Q ,,I‘60 117‘J 1.1‘0 ‘Ob‘P
- 7J6 7J IO* I, 7 PP 710 7 ‘II 7 610 I‘900 ),I I 1,110 ?.?I* 0 1 111 I 1.150 ‘,O#? 0
- 177 76 671 II 6 100 717 D ‘IJ a 170 I 106 a 811 * 15‘0 1.10‘ 0 I II? I I260 4.100 Q
‘I 1 110 ?I00 “I I 010 1 116 a 8‘3 I 1 II0 78770 I?‘,, ??JO ‘lllQ
‘8 D 170 71110 “8 9 1‘0 1 1‘40 I‘8 P 1 560 ?.6tQO I ?‘a T l?OQ ‘.IIb Q
I“ 110 JhbQ ‘5“ 010 II670 1.71‘1 2.790 ‘15‘0
- to 00 - ‘0 - ‘00 60 0 I‘0 7610 ‘60 0 1160 I I80 0 1.1640 I IW 4,1120

- ,'I‘I - 19 - 167 616 IS0 1070 ‘616 810 I 118 0 1265 1 2.110 ‘190 0
- 18 BP - ,R - 36‘ II I 160 17Qo ‘II I 880 I6160 111 I 1600 19110 I,??\ I 2 170 ‘7010
- 1a 14 - Ii - II 6 76, 110 IIBQ ‘lb J BP0 I b,(L) 8161 1610 29100 1 276 7 2 110 4.116 0
- II JO - 36 - I7B 677 180 ,160 ‘62 I 900 1.6170 O(ll? I.670 19480 1.11, 1 2 1‘0 4.1“ 0
- II 71 - II - II a nJ 0 IPP ,140 ‘178 910 I6JOQ BSJll Id,0 19160 l.llJ* 1,111 ‘.I*:0
- ,661 - Ii - 79 7 P, 1 100 197 a “)I 1 970 1.bR.Q IIPI 3 I 6‘0 two 1.193 I 7 1‘0 4.m 0
- 16 17 - I, - 7, 4 I BP IV 107 1 PBP 710 ‘lb0 ‘98 9 P,Q I.Jo6Q BOB9 lb!0 lQO?O 1.191 1 ?.I70 ‘,?Tl 0
- II I* - II - 7i6 1 ‘4 ‘0 IQ‘ a IQ“ 770 478 a IQ‘ 4 P‘b 1.71‘0 PO“ I 660 1.0700 1 IQ‘ 1 2.110 4.316 0
- II 00 - 31 - 11 6 ,lbQ 710 “LO 110 a PI0 1 1‘70 9100 ,610 10110 ,,I00 IV0 ‘11‘0
- 1‘ 4‘ - ,Q - 770 iI56 710 ‘6‘0 $15 6 960 I.?600 9116 I.680 ,bUQ 1.1‘1, 1.416 ‘ 10 0
- II IP - 79 - 707 171 I 710 ‘670 III I PJQ LJJ80 971 1 i 600 107‘0 1.311 I 2 500 4.117 0
- 11 11 - 111 - ,114 176 J 7bQ 1000 $76, (10 lJSbQ 976 ? ,100 I bP?O l,,Pb 9 I.SIO ‘LIZ a
- 17 7n - ,7 - lb6 1317 7JQ II80 III I PVQ 1 1140 9177 1JlQ 11100 I.‘?,J 1.600 4,1170
- II 72 - 76 - ,411 111 I 780 116 o III II 1.000 I 8170 v3rn ,770 31780 I ‘5‘ 1 2 650 ‘,M7 0
- II ‘I ~ II - I,0 1‘31 790 II‘0 ,‘I I I a,0 1.1500 9‘11 ,?,b II‘60 1.‘61 I *.?a0 4.197 6
--III, -,‘ - I, 7 I‘8 9 JO0 $77 0 ,‘8 T , 070 W8Q 9‘19 l.J‘o I l6‘0 1.110 0 1.116 4.w 6
- IQ lb - 71 - P‘ II“ 110 IPQQ I$‘ ‘ I.010 1 II6 0 PI“ 1.750 11170 I.,,16 I600 I.0116
- ,000 - 72 - 76 10 0 II I?7 a IbQ 0 170 606 Q lb00 1.0‘0 l.?Q‘Q Pbbb L?LQ IZQQQ 1.16,1 2 150 1.147 0
- 7) ‘5 - 71 - IO IO 6 II 1736 161 6 110 b?bo $65‘ I.050 1.9120 9656 1.710 17190 1.191I ?.TaQ US? 0
- 7II8P - IQ - ‘0 ,,I 1 ,‘b 64‘0 ,I\ I 1.060 1.9‘00 PII I 1,611 11160 I ,I1 1 1.910 I341 0
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Chapter 59
SPE Letter and Computer Symbols Standard
for Economics, Well Logging and Formation
Evaluation, Natural Gas Engineering, and
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering
Prepared by the Symbols Committee of the Society of Petroleum Engineers
Contents
Symbols in Alphabetical Order.. .59-Z

Quantities in Alphabetical Order .............................................. .59-18
Subscript Definitions in Alphabetical Order. ....................................... .59-52
Subscript Symbols in Alphabetical Order .59-63
Symbols in Alphabetical Order

Reserve
SPE Computer
Letter Letter Letter
Symbol Symbol Symbol Quantity Dimensions
-
English
A ARA area L2
A HWF Helmholtz function (work function) mL2/ t2
A AMP amplitude various
A AWT atomic weight m
A ARA cross section (area) L2
4 AMPC amplitude, compressional wave various
A, AMPR amplitude, relative various
4 AMPS amplitude, shear wave various
a ACT activity
a AIR air requirement various
a DEC decline factor, nominal
a DLW distance between like wells (injection or production) L
in a row
aE AIREX air requirement, unit, in laboratory experimental L3/m
run, volumes of air per unit mass of pack
aR AIRR air requirement, unit, in reservoir, volumes of
air per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
B COR correction term or correction factor
(either additive or multiplicative)
B FVF formation volume factor,
volume at reservoir conditions divided
by volume at standard conditions
Fg FVFG formation volume factor, gas
Fgb FVFGB bubblepoint formation volume factor, gas
Fgb FVFGB formation volume factor at bubblepoint
conditions, gas
FO FVFO formation volume factor, oil
F ob FVFOB bubblepoint formation volume factor, oil
F ob FVFOB formation volume factor at bubble point
conditions, oil
4 F, FVFT formation volume factor, total (two-phase)
& FW FVFW formation volume factor, water
b W WTH breadth, width, or (primarily in fracturing) L
thickness
b ICP intercept various
b RVF reciprocal formation volume factor, volume at
standard conditions divided by volume at
reservoir conditions (shrinkage factor)
b WTH width, breadth, or (primarily in fracturing) L
thickness
RVFG reciprocal gas formation volume factor
RVFGB reciprocal gas formation volume factor at
bubblepoint conditions
RVFO reciprocal oil formation volume factor
(shrinkage factor)
c ECQ capacitance q2t2/mL2
Dimensions: L=length. m=mass, q=electrical charge, t =tirne. T=temperature, and M=money.
WE LETTER AND COMPUTER SYMBOLS STANDARD 59-3
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
C G INVT capital investments, summation of all M
c CGW coefficient of gas-well backpressure curve ~3-2n t4n/m2n
C k NMBC components, number of

c c,n CNC concentration various
C u ECN conductivity (electrical logging) tq2/mL3
C K CND conductivity, other than electrical (with subscripts) various
C c, n CNC salinity various
c C HSP specific heat (always with phase or system L2/ t2T
subscripts)
C WDC water-drive constant L4t2/m
CNCCl concentration, methane (concentration of various
5 cc1
other paraffin hydrocarbons would be
indicated similarly, Cc,, Cc3, etc.)
CL cL,nL CNTL content, condensate or natural gas liquids various
CL WDCL water-drive constant, linear aquifer L4t2/m
C CNC02 concentration, oxygen (concentration various
02 co2
of other elements or compounds would be
indicated similarly, Cco2, CN2, etc.)
G ECNA conductivity, apparent tq2/mL3
p CNOFD conductivity, fracture, dimensionless
I INVI capital investment, initial M
ck INVK capital investment, subsequent, in year k M
G CNCFU fuel concentration, unit (see symbol m) various
c uk INVUK unamortized investment over year k
Cw C Wg’hg CNTWG content, wet-gas various
C k,K CMP compressibility Lt2/m
Cf kfJ Kf CMPF compressibility, formation or rock Lt2/m
5 kg* Kg CMPG compressibility, gas Lt2/m
co ko>Ko CMPO compressibility, oil Lt2/m
CPT kPr’% CMPPRD compressibility, pseudo reduced
CW k w> Kw CMPW compressibility, water Lt2/m
D DLV deliverability (gas well) L3/t
D YA DPH depth L
D CL,6 DFN diffusion coefficient L2/t
D DSC discount factor, general
DC oscc discount factor, constant-income
4 DSCSP discount factor, single-payment
[l/(l+i)k; ore-jk, j=ln(l+i)l
D SPC DSCSPC discount factor, single-payment
(constant annual rate) [e-jk(ej - 1)/j]
d DECE decline factor, effective
d D DIA diameter L
d Ld,L2 DUW distance between adjacent rows of injection and L
production wells
4 4 DIAAVP diameter, mean particle L
dh dH& OIAH diameter, hole L
a: dl,Di OlAl diameter, invaded zone (electrically equivalent) L
E we EFF efficiency
E V EMF electromotive force mL2/t2q
Reserve
SPE Computer
E u ENG energy mL*/ t*

E Y ELMY modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) n-l/L+
EA ?AFeA EFFA efficiency, area1 (used in describing results of model
studies only): area swept in a model divided by
total model reservoir area (see Ep)
ED ?lDJeD EFFO efficiency, displacement: volume of hydrocarbons
(oil or gas) displaced from individual pores or
small groups of pores divided by the volume of
hydrocarbon in the same pores just prior to
Em EFFOB efficiency, displacement, from burned portion of

in-situ combustion pattern
ED, EFFDU efficiency, displacement, from unburned portion of
El EFFI efficiency, invasion (vertical) : hydrocarbon pore
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the injection
fluid or heat front divided by the hydrocarbon pore
space enclosed in all layers behind the injected
fluid or heat front
cl Euler’s number
EP wep EFFP efficiency, pattern sweep (developed from area1
efficiency by proper weighting for variations in
net pay thickness, porosity, and hydrocarbon
saturation): hydrocarbon pore space enclosed
behind the injected fluid or heat front divided
by total hydrocarbon pore space of the reservoir
or project
ER 7)RpeR EFFR efficiency, overall reservoir recovery: volume of
hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume of
hydrocarbons in place at start of project
(ER=EpEfED=EvED)
E SP QSP EMFSP SP (measured SP) (Self Potential) mL2/ t2q
ESSP QSSP EMFSSP SSP (static SP) mL2/t2q
EV qv,ev EFFV efficiency, volumetric: product of pattern
sweep and invasion efficiencies
Em EFFVB efficiency, volumetric, for burned portion
only, in-situ combustion pattern
EC EMFC electrochemical component of the SP mL2/t2q
Ek EMFK electrokinetic component of the SP mL2/t2q
Ek ENGK kinetic energy mL2/ t2
EPSP EMFP pseudo-SP mL2/qt2
m e-’
-Ei (-x ) exponential integral, sx 7 dt, x positive
Ei (x) exponential integral, modified
EzO[J$dt+qfdt], x positive
-ca
e ENC encroachment or influx rate L3/t
UTLOZ oxygen utilization
e% ZO,
SPE LETTER AND COMPUTER SYMBOLS STANDARD 59-5
Reserve
SPE Computer
eE ‘E ENCG encroachment or influx rate, gas L3/t

e. lo ENCO encroachment or influx rate, oil L3/t
e, b ENCW encroachment or influx rate, water L%
ez exp z EXP exponential function
F OGF degrees of freedom
F FAC factor in general, including ratios various
(always with identifying subscripts)
F f FLU fluid (generalized) various
F Q FCE force, mechanical mL/ t2
F FAC ratio or factor in general (always with various
identifying subscripts)
FB FACB factor, turbulence
FR FACHR formation resistivity factor-equals
R ,,/R, (a numerical subscript
to F indicates the value R,)
Fwv Y WGTS specific weight mL2/ t2
F llF FACAFU air/fuel ratio various
F, Fd OMRS damage ratio or condition ratio (conditions
relative to formation conditions unaffected
by well operations)
F WF FACWFU water/fuel ratio various
F WD FACWO water/oil ratio, producing, instantaneous
p/J FACWOP water/oil ratio, cumulative
F FRC fraction (such as the fraction of a flow
stream consisting of a particular phase)
V FON frequency l/t
FACF friction factor
FUG fugacity rn/Lt2
FIGSH fraction of intergranular space (“porosity”)
occupied by all shales
&nfshd FIMSHD fraction of intermatrix space (“porosity”)
occupied by nonstructural dispersed shale
4Krw FIGW fraction of intergranular space (“porosity”)
occupied by water
fL r;,,ff script 1 FRCL fraction liquid
fL FL,fpscript
1 MFRTL mole fraction liquid, LI(L+ v)
fPk PRAPK profit, annual, over year k, fraction of
unamortized investment
fv f Vbt vhf FRCVB fraction of bulk (total) volume
4 FRCG fraction gas
P 4 MFRTV mole fraction gas, V/(L+ V,
i 0~ OLTS quality (usually of steam)
G F GFE free energy (Gibbs function) mLZ/ t2
G g GASTI gas in place in reservoir, total initial L3
G g GAS gas(any gas, including air) always with various
identifying subscripts
G fG GMF geometrical factor (multiplier)
(electrical logging)
G 4 ELMS shear modulus m/L?
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
GFi gF; GASFI free-gas volume, initial reservoir (=miW,;)

GASFP free gas produced, cumulative $
GFP SF,
GL gL NGLTI condensate liquids in place in reservoir, initial L3
G LP gLP NGLP condensate liquids produced, cumulative L3
Gon fGon GMFAN factor, geometrical (multiplier),
annulus (electrical logging)
G an fG,n GMFAN geometrical factor (multiplier),
G & GASE gas influx (encroachment), cumulative
Gi gi GASI gas injected, cumulative
G fc, GMFI geometrical factor (multiplier),
invaded zoned (electrical logging)
fGm GMFM geometrical factor (multiplier),
mud (electrical logging)
gP GASP gas produced, cumulative L3
f& GMFP geometrical factor (multiplier), pseudo
GPE &E GASPEX gas produced from experimental tube run
GASPUL gas recovery, ultimate 1:
Gpa gP
Gt fGt GMFT geometrical factor, (multiplier), true
(noninvaded zone) (electrical logging)
G WP h-P GASWGP wet gas produced, cumulative L3
Gx0 f Gxo GMFXO geometrical factor (multiplier),
flushed zone (electrical logging)
g GRV acceleration of gravity L/t2
g Y GRD gradient various
gG g&T GRDGT gradient, geothermal T/L
gT gh GRDT gradient, temperature T/L
g, GRVC conversion factor in Newton’s Second Law of
Motion
I HEN enthalpy (always with phase or system subscripts) mL2/ t2
4 HENS enthalpy (net) of steam or enthalpy above mL2/ t2
reservoir temperature
d,e THK bed thickness, individual L
HENS enthalpy, specific L2/ t2
hnhr HTCC heat-transfer coefficient, convective m/t3T
d.e ZHT height (other than elevation) L
HPC hyperboli,c declinF,,constaht (from equation)
q =qi/ I,?
I I
h THK thickness- (general and individual bed) L
hmc THKMC thickness, mudcake L
h THKN thickness, net pay L
h, THKT thickness, gross pay (total) L
I INC cash income, operating
I i script i,i CUR current, electric
I i script i,i CUR electric current 3:
I JTJ, HTCI heat transfer coefficient, radiation m/t3T
I X index (use subscripts as needed)
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
I i IJX injectivity index L4t/m
9 (z) script
I imaginary part of complex number z
I, i, PRX porosity index
Ibl ibl PRXPR porosity index, primary
I,2 i,2 PRXSE porosity index, secondary
bf iFf FFX free fluid index
IH iH HYX hydrogen index
JR iR RSXH hydrocarbon resistivity index R,/R ,,
4 INCA cash income, operating, after taxes M
lb INCB cash income, operating, before taxes M
FRX fracture index
:f INCK cash income, annual operating, over year k M
t IJXS injectivity index, specific L’t/m
I shGR SHXGR shaliness gamma ray index, (ylOg-Y~~)/(Y,,, --yo)
i RTEO discount rate
i INJ injection rate LJ/t
i IRCE interest rate, effective compound (usually annual)
i ki RTE rate: discount, effective profit, of return,
reinvestment, etc; use symbol iwith
suitable subscripts
h4 IRPE interest rate, effective, per period
ia INJA injection rate, air L3/t
‘K INJG injection rate, gas L3/t
4 RORI rate of return (internal, true, or discounted
cash flow) or earning power
4v INJW injection rate, water L3/t
J j POX productivity index L4t/m
Js JS PDXS productivity index, specific L3t/m
j r IRA interest rate, nominal annual
j reciprocal permeability l/L2
K ib BKM bulk modulus m/L+
K KSP coefficient in the equation of the electro- mL2/t2q
chemical component of the SP (spontaneous
electromotive force)
K M COE coefficient or multiplier various
K d DSP dispersion coefficient L2/t
K Me‘,, EQR equilibrium ratio (Jo/x>
K M COE multiplier or coefficient various
KR MR,a,C COER formation resistivity factor coefficient (FR4”)
K fItI, Mani COEANI anisotropy coefficient
KC McXec COEC electrochemical coefficient mL2/t2q
k SUSM magnetic susceptibility ml-/s2
k ;; PRM permeability, absolute (fluid flow) L2
k r,j RRC reaction rate constant L/t
kK 4 PRMG effective permeability to gas L2
kglb Kg I&? PRMGD gas/oil permeability ratio
kh h HCN thermal conductivity (always with additional mL/t3T
phase or system subscripts)
ko & PRMO effective permeability to oil L2
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
kw Krg PRMRG relative permeability to gas
kIO &I PRMRD relative permeability to oil
k KW PRMRW relative permeability to water
k’,” KW PRMW effective permeability to water L2
kw/ko Kw/& PRMWD water/oil permeability ratio
S(v) script L transform, Laplace of y, Imy(t)e -$‘dt
L s, P script 1 LTH distance, length, or length’of path L

L s, P script 1 LTH length, path length, or distance L
L nL MDLL liquid phase, moles of
L s, P script 1 LTH path length, length, or distance L
L”f Xf LTHFH fracture half-length (specify “in the L
direction or’ when using xf )
4 s,,& script 1 LENS spacing (electrical logging) L
L HLTV heat of vaporization, latent L2/ t2
In natural logarithm, base e
log common logarithm, base 10
h2 logarithm, base a
M I MAG magnetization da
M FA MBR mobility ratio, general (hdisplacing/hdisplaced)
M F, MBR mobility ratio, sharp-front approximation (AD/Ad)
M MWT molecular weight tn
M m NMBCP number of compounding periods (usually per year)
M moD SAD slope, interval transit time vs. density (absolute tL2/m
value)
M HSPV volumetric heat capacity rn/Lt2T
ML MWTAVL molecular weight of produced liquids, m
mole-weighted average
MS Mm J&u MBRSAV mobility ratio, diffuse-front approximation
[(AD+ Ad)swept/(b)unsweptl;
D signifies displacing; d signifies
displaced; mobilities are evaluated at
average saturation conditions behind and
ahead of front
MAGF magnetization, fraction
Fht MBRT mobility ratio, total, [(A,)swept/(A,)unsweptI;
“swept” and “unswept” refer to invaded
and uninvaded regions behind and ahead
of leading edge of displacement front
m MXP cementation (porosity) exponent (in an
empirical relation between FR and 4)
m FF FCM fuel consumption various
m MAS mass m
m F~olFgo MGD ratio of initial reservoir free-gas volume
to initial reservoir oil volume
m A SLP slope various
45 FFE FCMEX fuel consumption in experimental tube run m/L3
m.% FFE~ FCMEXG fuel consumption in experimental tube run m
(mass of fuel per mole of produced gas)
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
mR FFR FCMR fuel consumption in reservoir dL3

mk AMAK amortization (annual write-off of unamortized M
investment at end of year k)
N n,C NMB count rate (general) 1/t
N NEU neutron [usually with identifying subscript(s)] various
N NIJMU number, dimensionless, in general (always
with identifying subscripts)
N n OIL oil (always with identifying subscripts) various
N n OILTI oil in place in reservoir, initial L3
N n NMB pump strokes, number of, cycles per unit of time
N meND SND slope, neutron porosity vs. density (absolute value) L3/m
NCR N,, CG NGR gamma-ray count rate 1/t
NN N,,CN NEUN neutron count rate 1/t
NR NF FUOR fuel deposition rate rn/L3t
NRe REYQ Reynolds number (dimensionless number)
OllE
N,
Np nP OllP
oil influx (encroachment) cumulative
oil produced, cumulative 1:
%a nPQ OILPUL oil recovery, ultimate L3
n N NMB density (indicating “number per unit volume”) l/L3
n NGW exponent of backpressure curve, gas well
n RFX index of refraction
n NMB number (of variables, or components, or steps,
or increments, etc.)
n N NMB number (quantity)
n SXP saturation exponent
nN NMBN density (number) of neutrons l/L3
"J MOLJ moles of component j
% MOLPJ moles of component .i produced, cumulative
4 NMBM number of moles, total
0 XPO operating expense various
0, XPOU operating expense per unit produced M/L3
P CFL cash flow, undiscounted M
P NMBP phases, number of
P PRFT profit, total M
PPV CFLPV cash flow, discounted
P, PC*PC PRSCP capillary pressure $Lt2
pk PRAK profit, annual net, over year k
P P PRS pressure ZLt2
B P PRSAV average pressure m/L?
F P PRSAV pressure, average or mean m/L+
i!R pR PRSAVR pressure, reservoir average n-l/L?
PD pD PRSO pressure, dimensionless
PO pa PRSA pressure, atmospheric
Pb Ps,ps,pb PRSB pressure, bubblepoint (saturation)
Pbh P bh PRSBH pressure, bottomhole
PC PC PRSC pressure, critical
Pcf P CJ- PRSCF pressure, casing flowing
PCS PCS PRSCS pressure, casing static
Pd pd PRSD pressure, dew point
Pt? pt? PRSE pressure, external boundary
Reserve
SPE Computer
PCY, Pem PRSXT pressure, extrapolated m/L?

Pf Pf PRSF pressure, front or interface m/L?
Pi pi PRY pressure, initial m/Lt*
Piwf P IWf PRSIWF pressure, bottomhole flowing, injection well m/L?
Piws piw3 PRSIWS pressure, bottomhole static, injection well m/L?
PPC PPC PRSPC pressure, pseudocritical m/Lt*
PPC
PPC PRSPC pseudocritical pressure m/L?
b PFJr PRSPRD pressure, pseudoreduced m/L+
PI p, PRSRD pressure, reduced
PSC psc PRSSC pressure, standard conditions rn/Lt2
PSP PSP PRSSP pressure, separator m/L?
pb %
PRSTCKI pressure function, dimensionless, at
dimensionless time tD
pi/ PRSTF pressure, tubing flowing
pts PRSTS pressure, tubing static
PW PRSW pressure, bottomhole general
P wf PRSWF pressure, bottomhole flowing
PWS PRSWS pressure, bottomhole static
P ws PRSWS pressure, bottomhole, at any time after shut-in
4 CHG charge q
4*@ HRT heat flow rate mL2/ t3
QftD script 1 ENCLTQII influx function, fluid, linear aquifer,
dimensionless
Qv zv CEXV cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume
Qi 4i FLUID pore volumes of injected fluid, cumulative,
dimensionless
Qp QP,D script 1 FLUP fluids, cumulative produced (where Np and
W, are not applicable)
Qp FLUP produced fluids, cumulative (where Np L3
and W, are not applicable)
Q tll ENCTOG fluid influx function, dimensionless, at
RTE production rate or flow rate L3/t
RTEAV production rate or flow rate, average L3/t
QD RTEO production rate, dimensionless
Qll RTEA production rate at economic abandonment L3/t
%vf&vi~Qdh RTEDH volumetric flow rate downhole L3/t
RTEG production rate, gas L3/t
2D RTEGO production rate, gas, dimensionless
Qi RTEI production rate at beginning of period L3/t
RTEO production rate, oil L3/t
ED RTEOCI production rate, oil, dimensionless
QF RTEPAV production rate or flow rate at mean pressure L3/t
Q* RTES segregation rate (in gravity drainage) L3/t
Qx
q c,# RTESC surface production rate L3/t
q mlQsc RTESC volumetric flow rate, surface conditions L3/t
Q, RTEW production rate, water L3/t
Q WD RTEWll production rate, water, dimensionless
PI’ RES electrical resistivity (electrical logging) mL3/tq2
Reserve
SPE Computer
R ARR gas constant, universal (per mole) mLZ/t2T

R 4 1Cw GOR gas/oil ratio. producing
R N MRF molecular refraction i3
R RRR reaction rate m/L’
Sk )script
R real part of complex number z
Ro RESZR formation resistivity when 100% saturated mL3/tq*
with water of resistivity R,,.
Rf GORF free gas/oil ratio, producing (free-gas
volume/oil volume)
RI RESA apparent resistivity mL3/ tq2
R, RESI invaded zone resistivity mL3/tq2
R/r, RESM mud resistivity mL3/tq2
R,,,, RESMC mudcake resistivity mL3/tq2
R rrif RESMF mud-filtrate resistivity mL3/tq2
RP GORP cumulative gas/oil ratio
R, GORS solution gas/oil ratio (gas solubility in oil)
4, GORSB solution gas/oil ratio at bubblepoint conditions
R\/, RESSH shale resistivity mL3/tq2
4, GORSI solution gas/oil ratio, initial
R,,, GWRS gas solubility in water
4 REST true formation resistivity mL3/ tq2
R,, RESW water resistivity mL3/ tq2
R .\o RESXO flushed-zone resistivity (that part of the mL3/tq2
invaded zone closest to the wall of the hole,
where flushing has been maximum)
R, RESZ apparent resistivity of the conductive fluids in mL3/tq2
r RAO radius L
r RST resistance ML2/tq2
b RADII radius, dimensionless
rff RAOHL hydraulic radius
rd RADP drainage radius
r,. RADE external boundary radius
r, RADS radius of well damage or stimulation (skin)
rn RADW well radius
f-ll.o RADWA radius of wellbore, apparent or effective
(includes effects of well damage or stimulation)
S HER entropy, total mL21t2T
S SAT saturation
S ST0 storage or storage capacity various
Sl. SATL liquid saturation, combined total
S 17) STOQ dimcnaionless fractional storage capacity
ss SATG gas saturation
S,, SATGC gas saturation, critical
SW SATGR gas saturation, residual
4, SATH saturation, hydrocarbon
s,, SATHR residual hydrocarbon saturation
s,,, SATIW irreducible (interstitial or connate) water saturation
SO SAT0 oil saturation
SOP SATDG gas-cap interstitial-oil saturation
so, SATOR residual oil saturation
4, SATW water saturation
SW SATWC critical water saturation
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
Sw SATWG interstitial-water saturation in gas cap
s WI SATWI initial water saturation
SW’O SATWO interstitial-water saturation in oil band
Swr SATWR residual water saturation
s Laplace transform variable
S L DIS displacement L
S HERS entropy, specific L2/t2T
s 10 SKN skin effect various
S SDVES standard deviation of a random variable, estimated
s* VARES variance of a random variable, estimated
T PER period t
T TRM transmissivity, transmissibility various
T TEM temperature
TR TEMR reservoir temperature
Thh TEMBH bottomhole temperature
T TEMC critical temperature
T/ TEMF formation temperature
T,, TEMPRD pseudoreduced temperature
T. TEMRD reduced temperature
TX TEMSC temperature, standard conditions T
t script
t TAC interval transit time t/L
t TIM time
tl TIMRP relaxation time, proton thermal t
fll2 TIMH half life
t2 TIMAV relaxation time, free-precession decay
tD TIMD time, dimensionless
tDtn TIMMD time, dimensionless at condition m
t/v NFL neutron lifetime l/t
td TIMD time, delay t
h!V TIMDN decay time, neutron (neutron mean life) t
t
P TIMP time well was on production prior to shut-in, t
equivalent (pseudotime)
ts TIMS time for stabilization of a well t
t,,,
script
t TACSH shale interval transit time t/L
u HTCU heat transfer coefficient, over all m/t3T
u FIX flux various
u VELV flux or flow rate, per unit area L/t
(volumetric velocity)
Q VELV superficial phase velocity (flux rate of a L/t
particular fluid phase flowing in pipe;
use appropriate phase subscripts)
R, V,,R, GRRT gross revenue (“value”), total M
n,, MDLV moles of vapor phase
u VLT potential difference (electric) mL2/qt2
VDL volume L3
VLF volume fraction or ratio (as needed, use same various
subscripted symbols as for “volumes”; note
that bulk volume fraction is unity and pore
volume fractions are fJ)
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
v, Vt?, VOLM molal volume (volume per mole)

vRb VOLRB volume of reservoir rock burned
VRI< VOLRU volume of reservoir rock unburned
vb vb VOLE bulk volume
vbE vbE VOLBEX bulk volume of pack burned in experimental
tube run
Vb,, VOLBP volume at bubble point pressure
v, VOLG volume, effective pore ,“i:
V8. VOLGR volume, grain (volume of all formation solids L3
except shales)
VOLIG volume, intergranular (volume between grains; L3
consists of fluids and all shales) ( Vb- V,, 1
v/m VOLIM volume, intermatrix (consists of fluids and L3
dispersed shale) (Vb- V,, 1
Vmo V!?l, VOLMA matrix (framework) volume (volume L3
of all formation solids except
dispersed clay or shale)
Vmo V,l, VOLMA volume, matrix (framework) (volume of all
formation solids except dispersed shale)
VTIP Vpnr, vne VOLNE volume, noneffective pore <VP-V, )
5 VP VOLP pore volume ( vb- V,)
VPD v~D VOLPR pore volume, dimensionless
v, vs VOLS volume, solid(s) (volume of all formation L3
solids)
Vsh vsh VOLSH volume, shale(s) (volume of all shales: L3
structural and dispersed)
Vshd vshd VOLSHD volume, shale, dispersed
Vshs “shs VOLSHS volume, shale, structural
VU RU GRRU gross revenue (“value”) per unit produced M/L3
V KU VAC acoustic velocity L/t
V VS SPV specific volume L3/m
V v, u VEL velocity L/t
vb vb, ub VELB burning-zone advance rate (velocity of> L/t
W w WTR water (always with identifying subscripts) various
W W WTRTI water in place in reservoir, initial L3
W w,G WGT weight (gravitational) mL/t*
W W WRK work mL*/ t*
W, WP WTRE water influx (encroachment), cumulative
wi Y WTRI water injected, cumulative ;;
wp WP WTRP water produced, cumulative
W Z ARR Arrhenius reaction-rate velocity constant L3/m
W m MRT mass flow rate m/t
t ma script t Atrn, TACMA matrix interval transit time
m MRT rate, mass flow St
I;: XEL reactance ML*/tq*
z
X tensor ofx
X MFRL mole fraction of a component in liquid phase
zi vector of x
3i MENES mean value of a random variable, x, estimated
Reserve
SPE Computer
Y HOL holdup (fraction of the pipe volume filled by

a given fluid: Y, is oil hold up, y, is water
holdup, sum of all holdups at a given level
is one>
Y MFRV mole fraction of a component in vapor phase
Z ANM atomic number
Z ZEL elevation referred to datum L
Z ZEL height, or fluidhead or elevation L
referred to a datum
Z MPO impedance various
Z, MPDA impedance, acoustic m/L2t
z ZED gas compressibility factor
(deviation factor) (z =pV/nR r)
2 MFRM mole fraction of a component in mixture
Z VAL valence
4
ZEOPAV gas deviation factor (compressibility factor)
at mean pressure
Greek
CY ANG angle
a COEA attenuation coefficient l/L
a! HTD heat or thermal diffusivity L*/t
CY RED reduction ratio or reduction term
a HTD thermal or heat diffusivity L2/t
REDSH reduction ratio, SP, due to shaliness
“SPsh
BRGR bearing, relative
; HEC thermal cubic expansion coefficient l/T
Y GRY gamma ray [usually with identifying subscript(s) 1 various
Y SPG specific gravity (relative density)
Y HSPR specific heat ratio
Y STNS strain, shear
+ SRT shear rate l/t
Y&T SPGG specific gravity, gas
YO SPGO specific gravity, oil
YW SPGW specific gravity, water
A DEL difference or difference operator,
finite (Ax =x2 -x1 or x1 -x2)
DELGASE gas influx (encroachment) during an interval
DELGASI gas injected during an interval
OELGASP gas produced during an interval
OELOILE oil influx (encroachment) during an interval
DELOILP oil produced during an interval
OELWTRE water influx (encroachment) during an interval
DELWTRI water injected during an intervai
OELWTRP water produced during an interval
OELRAD radial distance (increment along radius) L
DELTIMWF drawdown time (time after well is opened to t
production) (pressure drawdown)
AL OELTIMWS buildup time; shut-in time
(time after well is shut in)
(pressure buildup, shut-in time)
Reeerve
SPE Computer
Letter Letter
Symbol Symbol Quantity Dimensions
-
DCR decrement various

ANGH deviation, hole (drift angle)
OPR displacement ratio
ANGH drift angle, hole (deviation)
SKD skin depth (logging) L
DPROB displacement ratio, oil from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
DPROU displacement ratio, oil from unburned volume,
volume per unit volume of unburned reservoir
rock
DPRWB displacement ratio, water from burned volume,
volume per unit volume of burned reservoir
rock
DIE dielectric constant q2t2/mL3
STN strain, normal and genera1
DFS hydraulic diffusivity (~/c#Jc~ or A/4c) L2/t
ANGO angle of dip
ANGDA dip, apparent angle of
ANGC contact angle
ANG angle
STNV strain, volume
LAM decay constant (l/~,,) l/t
MOB mobility (k /CL) L3t/m
WVL wave length (I/CT) L
MOBG mobility, gas L3t/m
MOB0 mobility, oil L3t/m
MOBT mobility, total, of all fluids in a particular region L3t/m
of the reservoir [e.g., (A,,+& +A,,.)]
MOBW mobility, water L3t/m
PSN Poisson’s ratio
RAZ azimuth of reference on sonde
PAMM magnetic permeability mL/q*
MEN mean value of a random variable
VIS viscosity, dynamic m/Lt
VISA viscosity, air d-t
VISG viscosity, gas m/Lt
VEGA viscosity, gas, at 1 atm m/Lt
VISO viscosity, oil m/Lt
VISPAV viscosity at mean pressure m/Lt
VISW viscosity, water m/Lt
VSK kinematic viscosity L*/t
VSK viscosity, kinematic L2jt
DEN density m/L3
RHO electrical resistivity (other than logging) mL3jtq2
DENAVL density of produced liquid, weight-weighted dL3
average
DENFU density, fuel
DENA density, apparent $1:
DENB density, bulk m/L3
DENF density, fluid m/L3
OENG density, gas m/L3
Reserve
SPE Computer
- -
Pm0 DENMA density, matrix (solids, grain) m/L3
PO DEND density, oil m/L3
fsE DENSEX density of solid particles making up m/L’
experimental pack
DENT density, true m/L3
DENW density, water m/L’
DENXD density, flushed zone m/L3
XSTMAC cross section, macroscopic l/L
SUM summation (operator)
SIG conductivity, electrical (other than logging) various
XSTMIC cross section, microscopic l/L
XNL cross section of a nucleus, microscopic L*
SFT interfacial, surface tension m/t2
XSTMIC microscopic cross section L*
sov standard deviation of a random variable
STS stress, normal and general m/L+
SFT surface tension, interfacial r-n/t*
WVN wave number (l/h) l/L
VAR variance of a random variable
STSS stress, shear m/L+
TIMC time constant t
TIMAV lifetime, average (mean life) t
TORHL hydraulic tortuosity
TDRHL tortuosity, hydraulic
TIMD decay time (mean life) (l/A)
TIMD mean life (decay time) (l/A)
TORE tortuosity, electric
DA2 dip, azimuth of
POT potential or potential function various
POR porosity (vb - vS)/ vb
POREX porosity of experimental pack
PORR porosity of reservoir or formation
PORA porosity, apparent
PORE porosity, effective (V,,/Vh)
PDRH porosity, hydrocarbon-filled, fraction or percent
of rock bulk volume occupied by hydrocarbons
PDRIG “porosity” (space), intergranular (V, - V,, )/V,
PORIM “porosity” (space), intermatrix tvb - v,,,, )/ vb
PORNE porosity, noneffective (V,,,/V,)
PORT porosity, total
STR stream function various
DSM dispersion modulus (dispersion factor)
angular frequency l/t
ot proportional to
- AV average or mean (overbar)
< LT smaller than
s LE equal to or smaller than
> GT larger than
3 GE equal to or larger than
Reserve
SPE Computer
ASYM asymptotically equal to

APPR approximately equal to or is approximated
by (usually with functions)
V DEL de1 (gradient operator)
V. divergence
V2 Laplacian operator
VX curl
erf ERF error function
erfc ERFC error function, complementary
lim LM limit
b Y ICP intercept various
E, Euler’s number
Ei(x) exponential integral, modified
kii [ s-‘$dt+ r:dt] , x positive

-co c
me-’
- Ei( -x) exponential integral, -dt, x positive
s t
x
ez exp z EXP exponential function
FAC ratio
f” F FRC fraction
g(z) imaginary part of complex number z
Laplace transform of y, imy(t)es’dt
logarithm. natural, base i

logarithm. common, base 10
logarithm, base u
A SLP slope various
NUMQ number. dimensionless
NMB number (of variables, or steps. or increments, etc.)
real part of complex number ,:
Laplace transform variable
SDVES standard deviation of a random variable.
estimated
VARES variance of a random variable. estimated
MENES mean value of a random variable. .Y. estimated
vector of I-
tensor of .r
P,T ANG angle
Euler’s constant=0.5772
difference (Ax=x* --x t or x, --x2)
difference operator, finite
MEN mean value of a random variable
f POT potential or potential function various
STR stream function various
SDV standard deviation of a random variable
VAR variance of a random variable
Quantities in Alphabetical Order
Reeerve
SPE Computer
Quantity Symbol Symbol Symbol Dimensions
Arrhenius reaction-rate velocity constant ARR L3/m

absolute permeability (fluid flow) P PAM L’
acceleration of gravity g GAV L/t2
acoustic impedance ZO MPOA m/L2t
acoustic velocity V VAC L/t
activity ACT
air/fuel ratio iF FACAFU various
air injection rate ‘0 INJA L3/t
air requirement a AIR various
air requirement, unit, in laboratory experimental aE AIREX L3/m
air requirement, unit, in reservoir, volumes of aR AIRR
air per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
air viscosity Pa VISA dLt
amortization (annual write-off of unamortized mk AMAK M
investment at end of year k)
amplitude AMP various
amplitude, compressional wave AMPC various
amplitude, relative AMPR various
amplitude, shear wave AMPS various
angle ANG
angle ANG
angle of dip ANGII
angle, contact ANGC
angular frequency FQNANG ‘It
anisotropy coefficient COEANI
annual operating cash income, over year k INCK M
annulus geometrical factor GMFAN
(multiplier or fraction)
apparent interval transit time t, script f TACA t/L
apparent conductivity ccl ECNA tq2/mL3
apparent density pa rho IJENA m/L3
apparent or effective wellbore radius (includes r,., RADWA L
effects of well damage or stimulation)
apparent porosity 40 PORA
apparent resistivity 47 RESA mL3/tq2
apparent resistivity of the conductive fluids in R, RESZ mL3/tq2
an invaded zone (due to fingering)
approximately equal to or is approximated =E APPR
by (usually with functions)
area A ARA L2
area1 efficiency (used in describingresultsof EA EFFA
model studies only); area swept in a model
divided by total model reservoir area
(see EJ
asymptotically equal to -
ASYM
Dimensions: Lzlength. m=maSs. q=de~tl~al charge. t=tlIllt?. ‘1=temperature,
and M =money.
Reserve
SPE Computer
- -
atmospheric pressure PO PRSA m/Lt2
atomic number Z ANM
atomic weight A AWT m
attenuation coefficient A4
-a COEA ’ l/L
average flow rate or production rate Q RTEAV L’/t
average or mean (overbar) AV
average pressure P PRSAV m/Lt*
average reservoir pressure P PRSAVR nl/Lt2
azimuth of dip Pd DA2
azimuth of reference on sonde M RAZ
backpressure-curve exponent, gas well NGW
backpressure curve (gas well), coefficient of CGW
backpressure curve (gas well), exponent of NGW
base a, logarithm
bearing, relative BRGR
bed thickness, individual THK L
bottomhole flowing pressure PRSWF m/Lt*
bottomhole pressure PRSBH m/Lt2
bottomhole pressure flowing PRSWF m/Lt*
bottomhole flowing pressure, injection well PRSIWF m/Lt2
bottomhole static pressure, injection well PRSIWS m/Lt2
bottomhole pressure at any time after shut-in PRSWS m/Lt*
bottomhole pressure, general PRSW m/Lt’
bottomhole pressure, static PRSWS n-l/L?
bottomhole (well) pressure in water phase PRSWW m/Lt*
bottomhole temperature TEMBH T
breadth, width, or WTH L
thickness (primarily in fracturing)
boundary pressure, external PC> PC PRSE m/L+
boundary radius, external & RAOE L
bubblepoint formation volume factor, gas $6 Fgb FVFGB
bubblepoint formation volume factor, oil Bob F,, FVFOB
bubblepoint (saturation) pressure Pb Psfs,pb PRSB m/Lt*
bubblepoint reciprocal gas formation volume bd f&J;b RVFGB
factor at bubblepoint conditions
bubblepoint pressure, volume at V b VOLBP L3
bubblepoint solution gas/oil ratio 2 Fxsb GORSB
buildup time; shut-in time At,, Arws DELTIMWS t
(time after well is shut in)
(pressure buildup, shut-in time)
bulk density pb rho Db DENB m/L3
bulk modulus K & BKM m/Lt2
bulk volume vb vb VOLB
bulk volume of pack burned in experimental VbE VbE VOLBEX ;:
tube run
bulk (total) volume, fraction of fv FRCVB
burned reservoir rock, volume of VRtl VOLRB L3
burning-zone advance rate (velocity of) Vh VELB L/t
capacitance C ECU q2t2/mL2
Reserve
SPE Computer
- -
capacity, cation exchange, per unit pore volume QV zv CEXV
capacity, cation exchange, Qv, zv, CEXUT
per unit pore volume, total
capacity, storage s S,Q ST0 various
capacity, dimensionless fractional storage SP SD STOQ
capillary pressure PC Pc.Pc PRSCP m/L?
capital investment, initial c, INVI M
capital investment, subsequent, in year k Ch INVK M
capital investments, summation of all C C, INVT M
cash flow, discounted (present value) P PI; CFLPV M
cash flow, undiscounted P CFL M
cash income, annual operating, over year k h INCK M
cash income, operating I INC M
cash income, operating, after taxes 42 INCA M
cash income, operating, before taxes Ib INCB M
casing pressure, flowing PC! PC, PRSCF m/Lt2
casing pressure, static PC, p<, RSCS m/Lt*
cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume Qv zv CEXV
cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume, Qbi 44 CEXUT
total
cementation (porosity) exponent (in an empirical m MXP
relation between FR and 4)
charge (current times time) Q CHG 9
coefficient, anisotropy K cl,,, COEANI
coefficient, attenuation COEA l/L
coefficient, convective heat transfer h* HTCC m/t3T
coefficient, diffusion D OFN L2/t
coefficient, electrochemical K COEC mL2/t2q
coefficient, formation resistivity factor KR COER
coefficiem in the equation of the electro- K KSP mL2/t2q

chemical component of the SP (spontaneous
electromotive force)
coefficient of gas-well backpressure curve C CGW ~3-21~4n/~2n
coefficient heat transfer, overall CT uT, u, HTCU m/t3T

coefficient, heat transfer, radiation I IT, 1, HTCI rn/t3T
coefficient, thermal cubic expansion b HEC l/T
coefficient or multiplier ii M COE various
combined total liquid saturation SL PL JL SATL
common logarithm, base 10 log
component j, cumulative moles produced 51 MOLPJ
component j, moles of n/ MOLJ
component, mole fraction of, in liquid phase X MFRL
component, mole fraction of, in mixture Z MFRM
component, mole fraction of, in vapor phase Y MFRV
components, number of C nc NMBC
component of the SP, electrochemical 4 @c EMFC mL2/t2q
component of the SP, electrokinetic Eh @k EMFK mL2/t2q
compressibility c ktK CMP Lt2/m
compressibility factor (gas deviation factor, Z Z ZED
z=pVlnRT)
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
compressibility factor or deviation factor ZEDPAV
for gas, at mean pressure
compressibility, formation or rock CMPF Lt2/m
compressibility, gas CMPG Lt2/m
compressibility, oil CMPO Lt2/m
compressibility, pseudoreduced CMPPRO
compressibility, water CMPW Ltz/m
compressional wave amplitude AMPC various
concentration CNC various
concentration, methane (concentration of CNCCl various
indicated similarly, Ccz, Cc, , etc.)
concentration, oxygen (concentration CNCOZ various
of other elements or compounds would be
indicated similarly, Ccoz, CNl, etc.)
concentration, unit fuel cm94 CNCFU various
(see symbol m)
condensate liquids in place in reservoir, gL NGLTI L3
initial
condensate liquids produced, cumulative NGLP L3
condensate or natural gas liquids content CNTL various
conductivity, electrical (other than logging) SIG various
conductivity (electrical logging) ECN tq2/mL3
conductivity (electrical), apparent ECNA tq2/mL3
conductivity, fracture, dimensionless CNDFQ
conductivity, other than electrical (with subscripts) c CND various
conductivity, thermal (always with additional kh HCN mL/t3T
constant, Arrhenius reaction-rate W z ARR L3/m
velocity constant
constant, decay (l/~d) A C LAM l/t
constant, dielectric E epsilon DIG q2t2/mL3
constant, Euler’s = 0.5772 Y
constant in general*
constant-income discount factor oscc
constant3 hyperb,c$ic decline, HPC
a,t
4 =a/
I I
l+h
constant: universal gas (per mole) R RRR mL2/ t2T
constant, waterdrive c WDC L4t2/m
constant, waterdrive, linear aquifer CL WDCL L4t2/m
consumption, fuel m FF FCM various
consumption of fuel in experimental tube run mE FFE FCMEX I-f-l/L3
consumption of fuel in experimental tube run ME, FFE~ FCMEXG m
(mass of fuel per mole of produced gas)
consumption of fuel in reservoir FFR FCMR m/L3
contact angle r< 9 Yc ANGC
content, condensate or natural gas liquids CL CL.4 CNTL various
content, wet-gas c, CwRJnwR CNTWG various
convective heat-transfer coefficient h hh,hT HTCC m/t3T
-
*Any sunable nonconfl~crmg symbol defined m the text
Reserve
SPE Computer
conversion factor in Newton’s Second Law of GRVC

Motion
correction term or correction factor C COR
(either additive or multiplicative)
count rate (general) NMB l/t
count rate, neutron NEUN 1/t
count rate, gamma ray NGR 1/t
critical gas saturation SATGC
critical pressure PRSC m/L+
critical temperature TEMC T
critical water saturation SATWC
cross section (area) ARA L2
cross section, macroscopic XSTMAC l/L
cross section, microscopic XSTMIC l/J-
cross section of a nucleus, microscopic s XNL L2
cubic expansion coefficient, thermal b HEC l/T
cumulative condensate liquids produced gLP NGLP
cumulative free gas produced GASFP ;i
gF,,
cumulative gas influx (encroachment) & GASE
cumulative gas injected g, GASI
cumulative gas/oil ratio FKP?FKOP GORP
cumulative gas produced 4 GASP L3
cumulative moles of component j produced NW MOLPJ
cumulative oil influx (encroachment) HP OILE L3
cumulative oil produced 5
OILP L3
cumulative produced fluids (where NP FLUP
and W, are not applicable)
cumulative water influx (encroachment) We WTRE
cumulative water injected wi WTRI
cumulative water/oil ratio FACWOP mL/t2
cumulative water produced WP WTRP L3
cumulative wet gas produced g WI, GASWGP L3
curl
current, electric ; script i,i CUR dt
damage or stimulation radius of well (skin) 4 RADS L
damage ratio or condition ratio (conditions Fd DMRS
relative to formation conditions unaffected
by well operations)
datum, elevation referred to Oh ZED L
decay constant (l/~,j) C LAM l/t
decay time (mean life) (l/x) td TIM0 t
decay time, neutron (neutron mean life) TIMON t
/I
decline constant, hyperbolic, from the equation HPC
q =q,/ l+T
I I
decline factor, effective DECE
decline factor, nominal DEC
decrement OCR various
degrees of freedom DGF
Reserve
SPE Computer
de1 (gradient operator) V DEL

delay time TIMDY t
deliverability (gas well) ; DLV L3/t
density p rho D DEN m/L3
density, apparent PN DO DENA m/L3
density, bulk Ph & DENB m/L”
density, fluid PI Dl DENF m/L3
density, flushed zone PW DAYI DENXD m/L3
density (indicating “number per unit volume”) n N NMB l/L3
density, fuel PI- D, DENFU m/L3
density, gas Pa 4 DENG m/L3
density, matrix (solids, grain) PlllU D 1,10 DENMA Ill/L3
density (number) of neutrons nf - NMBN l/L3
density of produced liquid, weight-weighted pr DL DENAVL m/L3
average
density of solidparticles making up P\L D.,E DENSEX II-l/l--’
experimental pack
density, oil PO DC, DEN0 m/L3
density, relative (specific gravity) Y s, F, SPG
density, true PI 4 DENT m/L3
density, water p,, DM DENW m/L3
depletion DE EDE
deposition rate of fuel NR NF FUDR m/L3 t
depreciation DP EDP
depth D Y.H DPH L
depth, skin (logging) s SKD L
deviation factor (compressibility factor) Z > ZED
for gas (z=pV/nRT)
deviation factor (compressibility factor) ZEDPAV
for gas, at mean pressure
deviation, hole (drift angle) 6 ANGH
dewpoint pressure PC/ PRSD m/L+
diameter d DIA L
diameter, hole 4, DIAH L
diameter, invaded zone (electrically equivalent) 4 DIAI L
diameter, mean particle d,, DIAAVP L
dielectric constant E epsilon DIC q2t2/mL3
difference or difference operator, A DEL
finite (AX =x2-x1 orxI-x2)
diffusion coefficient D DFN L2/t
diffusivity, hydraulic (k/+cp or h/$x) DFS L2/t
dimensionless fluid influx function, r)L,D Qp,D scripl I ENCLTDQ
linear aquifer
dimensionless fluid influx function QID ENCTDD
at dimensionless time rD
dimensionless fractional storage capacity s, SD STOQ
dimensionless fracture conductivity C ID Kfl
CNDFO
dimensionless gas production rate 4x0 QKD RTEGD
dimensionless number, in general N NUMD
(Example: Reynolds number, NRe)
dimensionless oil-production rate 4,JD QoD RTEDD
dimensionless pore volume VPD %D voua
Reserve
SPE Computer
dimensionless pressure PD PD PRSD

dimensionless-pressure function PID P ID fw.Taa
at dimensionless time tD
dimensionless production rate QD RTEa
dimensionless quantity proportional to x
dimensionless radius RD RAD[I
dimensionless time TD TlMa
dimensionless time at condition m 7DM TlMMa
dimensionless water production rate Q M,D RTEWQ
dip, angle of ffd ANGD
dip, apparent angle of ffda ANGDA
dip, apparent azimuth of Pdo DAZA
dip, azimuth of Pd DAZ
discount factor, constant-income oscc
discount factor, general DSC
discount factor, single-payment DSCSP
[l/(1 +i)k; or ePJk, j = ln(1 +i)l
discount factor, single-payment D SPC DSCSPC
(constant annual rate)
[e-‘” (e’- 1j/j1
discount rate RTED
discounted cash flow CFLPV
dispersion coefficient d DSP L2jt
dispersion modulus (dispersion factor) DSM
displacement L DIS L
displacement efficiency from burned portion 7)Db ?eDb EFFDB
of in-situ combustion pattern
displacement efficiency from unburned portion EFFDU
of in-situ combustion pattern
displacement efficiency: volume of hydrocarbons 7)DTeD EFFD
small groups of pores divided by the volume of 1
hydrocarbons in the same pores
just before displacement
displacement ratio DPR
displacement ratio, oil from burned volume, DPRDB
displacement ratio, oil from unburned volume, DPRDU
rock
displacement ratio, water from burned volume, 6 wb Fdwb DPRWB
rock
distance between adjacent rows of injection and LdpL2 DUW L
production wells
distance between like wells (injection or LOJ 1 DLW L
production) in a row
distance, length, or length of path s,p script I LTH L
distance, radial (increment along radius) Ar AR DELRAD L
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
divergence V
drainage radius rci Rd RADD L
drawdown time (time after well is opened to At, ATwf DELTIMWF t
production) (pressure drawdown)
drift angle, hole (deviation) 6 ANGH
earning power or rate of return (internal, ‘I ADRI
true, or discounted cash flow)
effect, skin s S,o- SKN
effective decline factor d DECE
effective or apparent wellbore radius (includes Tm’a R wa RADWA L
effects of well damage or stimulation)
effective permeability to gas kK PRMG
effective permeability to oil PRMD
t:
ko
effective permeability to water kw PRMW L’
effective porosity 4, PORE
efficiency E EFF
efficiency, area1 (used in describing results of model EA EFFA
studies only): area swept in a model divided by
total model reservoir area (see EP)
efficiency, displacement, from burned portion of EDb 7)DbjeDb EFFDB
efficiency, displacement, from unburned portion of 41, “(1DuxDu EFFDU
efficiency, displacement: volume of hydrocarbons 41 ?)DPeD EFFD
small groups of pores divided by the volume of
hydrocarbon in the same pores just before
displacement
efficiency, invasion (vertical): hydrocarbon pore E, r)l,el EFFI
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the injection
fluid or heat front divided by the hydrocarbon pore
space enclosed in all layers behind the injected
fluid or heat front
efficiency, overall reservoir recovery: volume of ER “rlR zR EFFR
hydrocarbons in place at start of project
(ER=EIJE,E,l=Eb.ED)
efficiency, pattern sweep (developed from area1 EP 77tw EFFP
efficiency by proper weighting for variations in
saturation): hydrocarbon pore space enclosed
behind the injected-fluid or heat front divided
by total hydrocarbon pore space of the reservoir
or project
efficiency, volumetric, for burned portion only, Ebb rlVbTeVb EFFVB
efficiency, volumetric: product of pattern sweep EV t)vxb, EFFV
and invasion efficiencies
elasticity, modulus of (Young’s modulus) E Y ELMY In/L+
Reserve
SPE Computer
electric current I i script i,i CUR q/t

electric impedance Z, MPDE mL2/tq2
electrical conductivity (other than logging) a SIG various
electrical resistivity (other than logging) p rho RHO mL3/ tq2
electrical resistivity (electrical logging) R RES mL3/ tq2
electrical tortuosity TORE
electrically equivalent diameter of the invaded ;, DIAI L
zone
electrochemical coefficient COEC mL2/t2q
electrochemical component of the SP EMFC mL2/t2q
electrokinetic component of the SP EMFK mL2/t2q
electromotive force EMF mL2/t2q
elevation referred to datum ZEIJ L
encroachment or influx, gas, cumulative GASE
encroachment or influx, gas during an interval OELGASE ki
encroachment or influx, oil, cumulative OILE L3
encroachment or influx, oil, during an interval OELOILE L3
encroachment or influx rate ENC L3/t
encroachment or influx rate, gas ENCG L3/t
encroachment or influx rate, oil ENCO L3/t
encroachment or influx rate, water ENCW L3/t
encroachment or influx, water, cumulative WTRE L3
encroachment or influx, water, during an interval DELWTRE L3
energy ENG mL*/ t2
enthalpy (always with phase or system subscripts) HEN mL2/ t2
enthalpy (net) of steam or enthalpy above HENS mL2/t2
reservoir temperature
enthalpy, specific h HENS L2/ t2
entropy, specific HERS L2/tLT
entropy, total : HER mL2/t2T
equal to or larger than 2 GE
equal to or smaller than G LE
equilibrium ratio (y/x) K EDR
equivalent diameter (electrical) of the 4 DIAI L
invaded zone
equivalent time well was on production before II’ TIMP
shut-in (pseudotime)
equivalent water resistivity R,,,. RWE mL”/tq!
error function er.f ERF
error function, complementary erfc ERFC
Euler number E,,
Euler’s constant = 0.5772
expansion coefficient, thermal cubic ; HEC l/T
experimental pack porosity 41. POREX
exponent of backpressure curve, gas well I1 NGW
exponent, porosity (cementation) (in an m MXP
empirical relation between FK and $)
exponent, saturation n SXP
exponential function e’ exp z EXP
Reserve
SPE Computer
exponential integral -Ei (-x )

02 c-i
s
t df,x positive
\
Ei(x)
external boundary pressure PRSE m/Lt2

external boundary radius RADE L
extrapolated pressure PRSXT m/L?
factor, compressibility ZEO
(gas deviation factor z =a VInR T)
factor, discount D DSC
factor, effective decline d OECE
factor, nominal decline a DEC
factor, conversion, in Newton’s Second Law of ‘% GRVC
Motion
factor, formation resistivity, equals R o/R,, FK FACHR
(a numerical subscript to F indicates
the value of R,,)
factor, friction f FACF
factor, geometrical (multiplier) G .fG GMF
factor, geometrical (multiplier) Go,, fcm GMFAN
factor, geometrical (multiplier) G, fG, GMFI
invaded zone (electrical logging)
factor, geometrical (multiplier) GMFP
pseudo (electrical logging)
factor, geometrical (multiplier) GMFXO
factor, geometrical (multiplier) GMFM
factor, geometrical (multiplier) G, .fG, GMFT
true (noninvaded zone> (electrical logging)
factor in general, including ratios F A&- FAC various
factor, turbulence FB FACB
flow rate, mass m MRT m/t
flow rate, heat 49@ HRT mL*/ t3
flow rate or flux, per unit area JI VELV L/t
flow rate or production rate RTE L3/t
flow rate or production rate at mean pressure RTEPAV L3/t
flow rate or production rate, average RTEAV L3/t
flowing bottomhole pressure, injection well PRSIWF m/Lt2
flowing pressure, bottomhole PRSWF m/Lt2
flowing pressure, casing PRSCF m/Lt2
flowing pressure, tubing PRSTF m/Lt2
Reserve
SPE Computer
flowing time after well is opened At,, Arw, OELTIMWF t

to production (pressure drawdown)
fluid (generalized) F FLU various
fluid interval velocity “I VACF L/t
fluid head or height or elevation referred Z ZEL L
to a datum
fluid interval transit time t,/script
t TACF t/L
fluid density P,Trho DENF m/L3
fluid influx function, dimensionless, at Q ID ENCTtlO
fluid influx function, linear aquifer, dimensionless QL,D Qf,Dscript
I ENCLTOO
fluids, cumulative produced (where NP and QP Qp,Dscript
I FLUP
W, are not applicable)
flushed-zone density pxo rho DENXO m/L3
flushed-zone resistivity (that part of the R x0 RESXO mL3/tq2
invaded zone closest to the wall of the hole,
where flushing has been maximum
flushed-zone geometrical factor fGx0 GMFXO
(fraction or multiplier)
flux u FLX various
flux or flow rate, per unit area u VELV L/t
force, mechanical F Q FCE mL/t2
force, electromotive (voltage) E V EMF mL2/t2q
formation or reservoir porosity 4R fR. ER PORR
formation or rock compressibility Cf $9 KJ CMPF Lt2jm
formation resistivity factor-equals FR FACHR
RJR, (a numerical subscript
to F indicates the value I?,)
formation resistivity factor coefficient KR MR,a,C CDEA
(FR@”)
formation resistivity, true Rt REST mL3jtq2
formation resistivity when 100% saturated Ro RESZR mL3jtq2
with water of resistivity R,
formation temperature Tf Of TEMF T
formation volume factor at bubblepoint B@’ Fgb FVFGB
conditions, gas
formation volume factor at bubblepoint Bob Fob FVFOB
conditions, oil
formation volume factor, gas Bx FVFG
formation volume factor, oil BO FVFO
formation volume factor, total (two-phase) 4 FVFT
formation volume factor, B FVF
volume at reservoir conditions divided
by volume at standard conditions
formation volume factor, water FVFW
fraction (such as the fraction of a flow stream FRC
consisting of a particular phase)
fraction gas FRCG
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
fraction liquid .fL FL,~, script1 FRCL

fraction of bulk (total) volume fv FRCVB
fraction of intergranular space (“porosity”) f$th FIGSH
fraction of intergranular space Cporosity”) f& FIGW
occupied by water
fraction of intermatrix space (“porosity”) f &hd FIMSHO
fracture conductivity, dimensionless CJD CNOFO
fracture half-length (specify “in the LJ LTHFH L
direction or’ when using 5, )
fracture index 1, FRX
free energy (Gibbs function) G GFE mL2/ t2
free fluid index IFI FFX
free gas/oil ratio, producing (free-gas RI- GORF
volume/oil volume)
free gas produced, cumulative G GASFP
free-gas volume, initial reservoir (=mNB,,) G; GASFI
free producing gas/oil ratio (free-gas volume/ RF GORF
oil volume)
frequency FON l/t
friction factor : FACF
front or interface pressure pi PRSF m/L+
fuel concentration, unit (see symbol m) G CNCFU various
fuel consumption m FCM various
fuel consumption in experimental tube run mE FCMEX m/L3
fuel consumption in experimental tube run (mass “4 FCMEXG m
of fuel per mole of produced gas)
fuel consumption in reservoir mR FCMR m/L3
fuel density PF rho OENFU m/L3
fuel deposition rate NR FUOR m/L3 t
fugacity f FUG m/L+
gamma ray count rate NGR NGR l/t
gamma ray [usually with identifying subscript(s) 1 GRY various
gas(any gas, including air) always with E GAS various
identifying subscripts
gas-cap interstitial-oil saturation S SATOG
gas-cap interstitial-water saturation SZ SATWG
gas compressibility 52 CMPG Lt*/m
gas compressibility factor z ZEO
(deviation factor) (Z=pV/nR r)
gas constant, universal (per mole) R RRR mL*/t*T
gas density P,~rho DENG m/L3
gas deviation factor (compressibility factor) zp ZEOPAV
at mean pressure
gas deviation factor (compressibility factor, Z ZEO
z =p V/nRT) (deviation factor)
gas, effective permeability to h PRMG L2
gas formation volume factor 4 FVFG
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
gas formation volume factor at bubblepoint FVFGB

conditions
gas fraction FRCG
gas in place in reservoir, total initial GASTI
gas influx (encroachment), cumulative GASE
gas influx (encroachment) during an interval DELGASE
gas influx (encroachment) rate ENCG
gas injected, cumulative GASI
gas injected during an interval OELGASI
gas injection rate INJG L3/t
gas liquids, natural, or condensate content CNTL various
gas mobility MOBG L3t/m
gas, fraction FRCG
gas mole fraction V/(L + V) MFRTV
gas/oil permeability ratio PRMGO
gas/oil ratio, cumulative GORP
gas/oil ratio, free producing (free-gas volume/ GORF
oil volume)
gas/oil ratio, producing GOR
gas/oil ratio, solution at bubblepoint conditions GORSB
gas/oil ratio, solution (gas solubility in oil) GORS
gas/oil ratio, solution, initial GORSI
gas produced, cumulative GASP
gas produced during an interval OELGASP ;;
gas produced from experimental tube run GASPEX
gas production rate RTEG L3/t
gas production rate, dimensionless RTEGO
gas reciprocal formation volume factor RVFG
gas reciprocal formation volume factor at RVFGB
gas recovery, ultimate GASPUL L3
gas, relative permeability to PRMRG
gas saturation SATG
gas saturation, critical SATGC
gas saturation, residual SATGR
gas solubility in oil (solution gas/oil ratio) GORS
gas solubility in water GWRS
gas specific gravity SPGG
gas viscosity VISG m/Lt
gas viscosity at 1 atm VISGA m/Lt
gas-well backpressure curve, coefficient of CGW L3-2nt4n/m2n
gas-well backpressure curve, exponent of NGW

gas-well deliverability OLV L3/t
gas, wet, produced, cumulative &P GASWGP L3
general and individual bed thickness d,e THK L
general dimensionless number (always with NUMB
geometrical factor (multiplier) fG GMF
Reserve
SPE Computer
geometrical factor (multiplier), G Clli fcan GMFAN

geometrical factor (multiplier), G,, fGx0 GMFXO
geometrical factor (multiplier), G fc, GMFI
invaded zoned (electrical logging)
geometrical factor (multiplier), Gt?, fcm GMFM
geometrical factor, (multiplier), true G, fc, GMFT
geometrical factor (multiplier), pseudo GP GMFP
geometrical factor (multiplier), true G, fc, GMFT
gradient Y GRD various
gradient, geothermal 4 GRDGT T/L
gradient operator
gradient, temperature gh GRDT T/L
grain (matrix, solids) density D ma OENMA dL3
gravity, acceleration of GRV L/t2
gravity, specific, relative density SPG
gravity, specific, gas SPGG
gravity, specific, oil SPGO
gravity, specific, water SPGW
gross (total) pay thickness THKT L
gross revenue (“value”) per unit produced GRRU M/L3
gross revenue (“value”), total GRRT M
half-life TIMH t
heat flow rate 4, @ HRT mL2/ t3
heat of vaporization, latent A” HLTV L2/ t2
heat or thermal diffusivity ap 77h HTD L2/t
heat, specific (always with phase or system HSP L2/t2T
subscripts)
heat transfer coefficient, convective h hh,hT HTCC m/t3T
heat transfer coefficient, overall u UT, II, HTCU m/t3T
heat transfer coefficient, radiation I ITJO HTCI m/t3T
height, or fluid head, or elevation z D.h ZEL L
referred to a datum
height (other than elevation) h d,e ZHT L
Helmholtz function (work function) A HWF mL*/ t2
holdup (fraction of the pipe volume filled by Y /” HOL
a given fluid; yO is oil holdup, yw is water
holdup, C of all holdups at a given level
is one)
hole deviation, drift angle ANGH
hole diameter dHd?i, DIAH L
hydraulic diffusivity (k /C$Cp or A/+) DFS L21t
hydraulic radius RH RAOHL L
hydraulic tortuosity TORHL
Reserve
SPE Computer
hydrocarbon-filled porosity, fraction fht ch PORH

or percent of rock bulk volume occupied by
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbon resistivity index R,/R o IR iR RSXH
hydrocarbon saturation, residual s hr phrpShr SATHR
HYX
,.
hydrogen index IH iH
hyperbolic decline&constant (from equation) h HPC
I I
q=qt/ 1,:
imaginary part of complex number z 9 (2)script

I
impedance Z MPO various
impedance, acoustic ZO MPOA m/L2t
impedance, electric ze z, r) MPOE mL2/ tq2
index (use subscripts as needed) Z i -x
index, fracture If b?IFpiF FRX
index, free fluid kf iFf FFX
index, hydrogen IH iH HYX
index, injectivity I i IJX L4t/m
index of refraction P RFX
index, porosity ;, i, PRX
index, primary porosity h Cpl PRXPR
index, productivity J j POX L4t/m
index, (hydrocarbon) resistivity IR jR RXSH
RtIR,
index, secondary porosity 92 ilp2 PRXSE
index, shaliness gamma ray shGR bhGR SHXGR
(Ylog - Ycn)/(Ystl- Yen)
index, specific injectivity 4 4 IJXS L3t/m
index, specific productivity JS JS POXS L3t/m
individual bed thickness h d.e THK L
influx (encroachment), cumulative, gas G ge GASE L3
influx (encroachment), cumulative, oil 4 4 OllE L3
influx (encroachment), cumulative, water K We WTRE L3
influx (encroachment) during an interval, gas AGe ke OELGASE
influx (encroachment) during and interval, oil OELOILE ::
AN, An,
influx (encroachment) during an interval, water Aw, A% DELWTRE L3
influx function, fluid, linear aquifer, Q LtD Qpr~script
1 ENCLTDD
dimensionless
influx function, fluid, dimensionless Q tLJ QetDscript
1 ENCTQO
(at dimensionless time to>
influx (encroachment) rate e i ENC L3/t
influx (encroachment) rate, gas eg ‘s ENCG L3/t
influx (encroachment) rate, oil e, ‘0 ENCO L3/t
influx (encroachment) rate, water e, L ENCW L3/t
initial condensate liquids in place in reservoir GL gL NGLTI L3
initial capital investment ci INVI M
initial oil in place in reservoir N OILTI L3
initial pressure Pi PRSI n-l/L+
Reserve
SPE Computer
initial reservoir free-gas volume GF, gF, GASFI L3
initial solution gas/oil ratio RX, Fm GDRSI L/t2

initial water in place in reservoir W W WTRTI L3
initial water saturation s pwr ) %, SATWI
injected gas, cumulative G; gi GASI
injected gas during an interval AG, DELGASI ;:
&
injected water, cumulative wi wi WTRI L3
injected water during an interval A Wi AWi DELWTRI L3
injection rate i INJ L3/t
injection rate, air *a INJA L3/t
injection rate, gas ‘s INJG L3/t
injection rate, water ‘w INJW L3/t
injection well bottomhole pressure, flowing P,wf Pw PRSIWF m/L+
injection well bottomhole pressure, static PM pi, PRSIWS m/Lt2
injectivity index I i IJX L4t/m
injectivity index, specific 4 s IJXS L3t/m
in-place condensate liquids in reservoir, initial GL gL NGLTI
in-place gas in reservoir, total initial G g GASTI $
in-place oil in reservoir, initial N n OILTI L3
in-place water in reservoir, initial W W WTRTI L3
instantaneous producing water/oil ratio Fwo FACWD
intercept b Y ICP various
interest rate, effective compound (usually annual) IRCE
interest rate, effective, per period iM IRPE
interest rate, nominal annual .i IRA
interface or front pressure Pf PRSF m/L+
interfacial, surface tension SFT m/t2
intergranular “porosity” (space) PDRIG
integral, exponential -Ei (-x)

- ,-I
s
t dt,x positive
x
integral, exponential, modified EioC)
r20 Il$dt +J$dtl, x positive
intergranular space (porosity), fraction f@h FIGSH

intergranular space (porosity), fraction few FIGW
occupied by water
intermatrix space (porosity), fraction f qbhd FIMSHD
intermatrix “norositv” fsnace) +im PORIM
Reserve
SPE Computer
internal energy INE mL2/ t2

interstitial-oil saturation in gas cap SATOG
interstitial-water saturation in gas cap SATWG
interstitial-water saturation in oil band SATWO
interval transit time TAC t/L
interval transit time, apparent TACA t/L
interval transit time/density slope (absolute SAD tL*/m
value)
interval transit time, fluid ifscriptt TACF t/L
interval transit time, matrix tma script
t TACMA t/L
interval transit time, shale t,hscript
t TACSH t/L
invaded-zone diameter, electrically equivalent 4 OIAI L
invaded-zone geometrical factor (multiplier) Gi GMFI
invaded-zone resistivity Ri RESI mL3/tq2
invasion (vertical) efficiency: hydrocarbon pore 4 EFFI
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the
injected-fluid or heat front divided by the
hydrocarbon pore space enclosed in all layers
behind the injected-fluid or heat front
irreducible (or interstitial or connate) S/W SATIW
water saturation
kinematic viscosity v nu VSK L*/t
kinetic energy Ek ENGK mL2/t2
Laplace transform of y, JJJ (t)P’df Z?,(v)
script
L
Laplace transform variabli s

Laplacian operator V2
larger than GT
latent heat of vaporization 2 h” HLTV L2/ t*
length, path length, or distance LV s,P script
1 LTH L
lifetime, average (mean life) i t TIMAV t
limit lim LM
linear aquifer waterdrive constant CL WOCL L4t2/m
liquid fraction .fL F,,ffscript I FRCL
liquid mole fraction L/(L + V) fL FL,fu script I MFRTL
liquid phase, mole fraction of component in X MFRL
liquid phase, moles of L nL MOLL
liquid saturation, combined total SL PL ,SL SATL
liquids, condensate, in place in reservoir, initial GL SL NGLTI
liquids, condensate, produced cumulative G SLP NGLP L3
logarithm, base a loL;
logarithm, common, base 10 1%
logarithm, natural, base e In
macroscopic cross section z S XSTMAC l/L
Reserve
SPE Computer
macroscopic cross section of a nucleus o- s XNL L2

magnetic permeability m PRMM n-L/q*
magnetic susceptibility : SUSM mL/q*
magnetization M ; MAG dst
magnetization, fraction Mf MAGF
mass m MAS
mass flow rate W m MRT
matrix interval transit time t ma script
t A&m TACMA
matrix (solids, grain) density pm0 rho D ma DENMA
matrix (framework) volume (volume Vma Vma VOLMA
of all formation solids except
dispersed clay or shale)
mean life (average lifetime) 7 i TIMAV t
mean life (decay time) (l/r) Td td TIMD t
mean or average pressure P P PRSAV m/Lt2
mean or average (overbar) - AV
mean value of a random variable MEN
mean particle diameter 2 4 DIAAVP L
mean value of a random variable, x, estimated x MENES
mechanical force F Q FCE mL/t*
methane concentration (concentration of % +I
CNCCl various
indicated similarly, Cc, , Cc, , etc.)
microscopic cross section XSTMIC L2
mixture, mole fraction of component MFRM
mobility (k/k) MOB L’t/m
mobility, gas MOBG L3t/m
mobility, oil MOB0 L’t/m
mobility ratio, general (Adisplacing/hdisplaced) F A MBR
mobility ratio, diffuse-front approximation Mm, 4, MBRSAV
[(AD +hd)swept/(hd)unswept];
D signifies displacing; d signifies displaced;
mobilities are evaluated at average saturation
conditions behind and ahead of front
mobility ratio, sharp-front approximation F, MBR
(b/Ad)
mobility ratio, total, [(A,)swept/(AI)unsweptl; FM MBRT
“swept” and “unswept” refer to invaded
and uninvaded regions behind and ahead
of leading edge of displacement front
mobility, total, of all fluids in a particular region A MOBT L3t/m
of the reservoir; e.g., (A, + A, + A,)
mobility, water MOBW L3t/m
modulus, bulk BKM m/L+
modulus, dispersion (dispersion factor) DSM
modulus, shear ES ELMS m/L+
modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) Y ELMY m/L+
molal volume (volume per mole) VIII VOLM L3
Reserve
SPE Computer
- -
mole fraction gas, V/(L+ v) 4 MFRTV

mole fraction liquid, LI(Z,+ v) FL, fp script I MFRTL
mole fraction of a component in liquid phase X MFRL
mole fraction of a component in mixture z MFRM
mole fraction of a component in vapor phase Y MFRV
molecular refraction R N MRF L3
molecular weight M MWT m
molecular weight of produced liquids, ML MWTAVL m
mole-weighted average
moles, number of n N NMBM
moles of component j nJ Ni MOLJ
moles of component j produced, cumulative % NpJ MOLPJ
moles of liquid phase L nL MOLL
moles of vapor phase V MOLV
moles, number of, total nt zt NMBMT
mole-weighted average molecular weight ML, MWTAVL m
of produced liquids
mudcake resistivity R mc pmc Trmc RESMC mL3/ tq2
mudcake thickness hmc dmc ‘ernc THKMC L
mud-filtrate resistivity R mf PmfJmf RESMF mL3/tq2
mud geometrical factor (multiplier) Gttl fGm GMFM
mud resistivity R, pmjrm RESM mL3/ tq*
multiplier (factor), geometrical G fG GMF
multiplier (factor), geometrical, G0” fGLVI GMFAN
multiplier (factor), geometrical, Gx0 fGm GMFXO
multiplier (factor), geometrical, Gi fGi GMFI
invaded zone (electrical logging)
multiplier (factor), geometrical, fGm GMFM
multiplier (factor), geometrical, GP fGp GMFP
pseudo (electrical logging)
multiplier (factor), geometrical, Gt fGt GMFT
true (electrical logging)
multiplier or coefficient K M COE various
natural gas liquids or condensate content CL cL,nL CNTL various
natural logarithm, base e In
net pay thickness hn 4& THKN L
neutron count rate NN NEUN l/t
neutrons, density (number) of nN NMBN
neutron lifetime tN TN>h NFL l/t
neutron porosity/density slope (absolute value) N mdND SND L3/m
neutron [usually with identifying subscript(s)] N NEU various
Newton’s Second Law of Motion, conversion gc GRVC
factor in
nominal decline factor a DEC
Reserve
SPE Computer
nucleus cross section, microscopic XNL L*

number, atomic z” ANM
number, dimensionless, in general (always N NUMO
with identifying subscripts)
number of pump strokes, cycles per unit of N NMBPS
time
number (of variables, or components, or steps, n NMB
or increments, etc.)
number (quantity) NMB
number of compounding periods (usually per year) L NMBCP
number of components C NMBC
number of moles, total NMBM
number, Reynolds (dimensionless number) ke REYO
oil (always with identifying subscripts) N OIL various
oil band interstitial-water saturation sWV SATWO
oil compressibility ccl CMPD Lt*/ m
oil density p. rho DEN0 m/L3
oil displaced from burned volume, volume per 6ob DPROB
unit volume of burned reservoir rock
oil displaced from unburned volume, volume per OPROU
unit volume of unburned reservoir rock
oil, effective permeability to PRMD L*
oil formation volume factor FVFO
oil formation volume factor at bubblepoint FVFOB
conditions
oil, gas solubility in GORS
(solution gas/oil ratio)
oil in place in reservoir, initial OILTI
oil influx (encroachment) cumulative OILE
oil influx (encroachment) during an interval DELOILE
oil influx (encroachment) rate ENCO L3/t
oil mobility MOBD L3t/m
oil produced, cumulative OILP
oil produced during an interval DELOILP $
oil production rate RTEO L3/t
oil production rate, dimensionless RTEOQ
oil reciprocal formation volume factor RVFO
(shrinkage factor)
oil recovery, ultimate NPQ DILPUL L3
oil, relative permeability to k PRMRO
oil saturation s: SAT0
oil saturation in gas cap, interstitial Sw SATOG
oil saturation, residual SO, SATOR
oil specific gravity Yo SPGO
oil viscosity ko VISD mm
operating cash income I INC M
operating cash income, after taxes 4 INCA M
operating cash income, before taxes I INCB M
operating expense 0 XPO various
operating expense per unit produced 0” XPOU M/L3
operator, Laplacian V2
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
overall heat transfer coefficient uT~ u, HTCU m/t3T

overall reservoir recovery efficiency: volume ?RleR EFFR
of hydrocarbons recovered divided by volume
of hydrocarbons in place at start of project
(ER = EpEsEo = E,E,)
oxygen concentration (concentration of other % CNCOZ various
elements or compounds would be indicated as
CCO, , cN2, etc.)
oxygen utilization E UTLOL
02
particle diameter, mean 4 OIAAVP L
path length, length, or distance s,! script 1 LTH L
pattern sweep efficiency (developed from area1 rlP JP EFFP
efficiency by proper weighting for varations in
saturation: hydrocarbon pore space enclosed
divided by total hydrocarbon pore space
of the reservoir or project
pay thickness, gross (total) THKT L
pay thickness, net THKN L
period PER t
permeability, absolute (fluid flow) PAM
permeability, effective, to gas PRMG ;:
permeability, effective, to oil PRMO
permeability, effective, to water PRMW 1:
permeability, magnetic PRMM ml-/q2
permeability ratio, gas/oil PRMGO
permeability ratio, water/oil PRMWO
permeability, relative, to gas PRMRG
permeability, relative, to oil PRMRO
permeability, relative, to water PRMRW
phases, number of NMBP
Poisson’s ratio vt cl- PSN
pore volume Vb- V, VP VOLP L3
pore volume, dimensionless ‘PD VOLPtl
pore volumes of injected fluid, cumulative 4i FLUID
porosity ( Vb- V, )/ Vb f> E POR
porosity, apparent PORA
porosity, effective <V,/ Vb) PORE
porosity exponent (cementation) MXP
(in an empirical relation between FR and 4)
porosity, hydrocarbon-filled, fraction or percent fht Eh PORH
of rock bulk volume occupied by hydrocarbons
porosity index PRX
porosity index, primary PRXPR
porosity index, secondary PRXSE
porosity, noneffective (VP,,/ V, ) PORNE
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
“porosity” (space), intergranular (Vb - VgrI/ Vb1 PORIG
“porosity” (space), intermatrix (Vb - V,, / Vb) PORIM
porosity of experimental pack 4E POREX
porosity of reservoir or formation 4R PORR
porosity, total 4r PORT
potential or potential function a POT various
potential difference (electric) V VLT mL*/qt*
potential energy Ep ENGP mL*/t*
pressure, bottomhole Pbh Pbh PRSBH m/L+
pressure P P PRS m/L+
pressure, atmospheric Pa P_a PRSA n-l/L+
pressure, average or mean F P- PRSAV m/L+
pressure, average, reservoir FR pR PRSAVR m/L+
pressure, bottomhole, at any time after shut-in PW P ws PRSWS m/Lt2
pressure, bottomhole flowing PWf P wf PRSWF m/Lt2
pressure, bottomhole flowing, injection well PiwJ Prwf PRSIWF m/L9
pressure, bottomhole general PW p&V PRSW n-l/L+
pressure, bottomhole static PWS P ws PRSWS m/Lt2
pressure, bottomhole (well), in water phase PWW P PRSWW m/L+
pressure, bottomhole static, injection well PiWS p”” PRSIWS m/L+
pressure, bubblepoint (saturation) pb &,ps,pb PRSB m/L+
pressure, capillary P, PCJPC PRSCP m/L?
pressure, casing flowing J+,t PCJ PRSCF m/L+
pressure, casing static P‘S PCS PRSCS m/Lt2
pressure, critical PC PC PRSC m/L+
pressure, dewpoint Pd pd PRSD m/Lt2
pressure, dimensionless PD pD PRSD
pressure, external boundary PP p, PRSE n-l/L+
pressure, extrapolated PtW PfX, PRSXT m/L+
pressure, flowing bottomhole PYf P, PRSWF m/L?
pressure, flowing casing PC/ P; PRSCF m/Lt2
pressure, flowing tubing P!f prJ PRSTF m/Lt*
pressure, front or interface PJ 5 PRSF m/Lt2
pressure function, dimensionless, at P/D PtD PRSTQD
pressure, initial Pi p, PRSI m/Lt2
pressure, pseudocritical Ppc PPC PRSPC m/L?
pressure, pseudoreduced PPl PPr PRSPRD m/Lt2
pressure, reduced P, P-’ PRSRD
pressure, reservoir average F-R pR PRSAVR n-t/L+
pressure, separator PSP PSP PRSSP m/L+
pressure, standard conditions PS‘ PSC PRSSC m/L+
pressure, static bottomhole PWS P w.s PRSWS m/L?
pressure, static casing PCS PCS PRSCS m/L+
pressure, static tubing PlS p, PRSTS m/L?
pressure, tubing flowing P!f Pff PRSTF m/L+
pressure, tubing static PIT p,s PRSTS m/Lt2
primary porosity index I $1 i,l PRXPR
produced condensate liquids, cumulative GLP gLP NGLP L3
Reserve
SPE Computer
produced fluids, cumulative (where NP QP FLIJP

and Wp are not applicable)
produced free gas, cumulative GFP GASFP
produced gas, cumulative GP GASP
produced gas during an interval AGP OELGASP
produced gas from experimental tube run GPE GASPEX
produced gas, wet, cumulative G %P GASWGP
produced-liquid density, weight-weighted FL rho DENAVL
average
produced moles of component j, cumulative MOLPJ
produced oil, cumulative OILP
produced oil during an interval DELOILP
produced water, cumulative WTRP
produced water during an interval OELWTRP
produced wet gas, cumulative GASWGP
producing gas/oil ratio GOR
producing gas/oil ratio, free GORF
(free-gas volume/oil volume)
producing water/oil ratio, instantaneous FACWO
production rate at beginning of period RTEI L3/t
production rate at economic abandonment RTEA L3/t
production rate, dimensionless RTED
production rate, gas RTEG L3/t
production rate, gas, dimensionless RTEGG
production rate, oil RTEO L3ft
production rate, oil, dimensionless RTEOQ
production rate or flow rate RTE L3/t
production rate or flow rate at mean pressure RTEPAV L3/t
production rate or flow rate, average RTEAV L3/t
production rate, water RTEW L3/t
production rate, water, dimensionless RTEWG
production time after well is opened to DELTIMWF t
production (pressure drawdown)
production time of well, equivalent, before TIMP t
shut-in (pseudotime)
productivity index POX L4t/m
profit, annual net, over year k PRAK M
profit, annual, over year k, fraction of PRAPK
unamortized investment
profit, total PRFT M
proportional to
productivity index, specific POXS L3t/m
pseudocritical temperature TEMPC T
pseudocritical pressure PRSPC m/Lt2
pseudogeometrical factor (multiplier) GMFP
pseudoreduced compressibility CMPPRD
pseudoreduced pressure PRSPRD
pseudo-SP EMFP mL*/qt*
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SPE Computer
-
pseudoreduced temperature TPr TEMPRD T
pseudotime (equivalent time well was on tp
TlMP t
production before shut-in)
pump strokes, number of cycles per unit of N n NMBPS
time
quality (usually of steam) fs QJ OLTS
radial distance (increment along radius) Ar AR OELRAD
radiation heat transfer coefficient I zT,z~ HCTI klh3T
radius r R RAD L
radius, apparent or effective, of wellbore ‘-WI R wll RADWA L
radius, dimensionless rD RD RADa
radius, external boundary re R, RAOE L
radius, hydraulic rH RH RAOHL L
radius of drainage rd Rd RAOD L
radius of wellbore, apparent or effective rwa R wa RADWA L
radius of well damage or stimulation (skin) rs RS RAOS L
radius, well rw RW RADW L
rate, air injection ‘a 1NJA L3/t
rate: discount, effective profit, of return, i 4 RTE
reinvestment, etc; use symbol iwith
suitable subscripts
rate, flow or production Q RTE L3/t
rate, gamma ray count N&G NGR l/t
rate, gas influx (encroachment) ‘8 ENCG L3/t
rate, gas injection INJG L3/t
rate, gas production RTEG L3/t
rate, gas production, dimensionless 8D RTEGa
rate, influx (encroachment) i ENC L3/t
random variable, mean value of x, estimated MENES
rate, injection INJ L3/t
rate, interest, effective compound IRCE
(usually annual)
rate, interest, effective, per period iM IRPE
rate, interest, nominal annual j r IRA
rate, mass flow W m MRT m/t
rate of flow or flux, per unit area u dJ VELV Lit
rate of heat flow Q HRT mL2/i3
rate of return (internal, true, or discounted 1, RORl
cash flow) or earning power
rate, oil influx (encroachment) ENCO L3/t
rate, oil production RTEO L3/t
rate per unit area, flow (volumetric velocity) VELV Lit
rate, oil production, dimensionless RTEOa
rate, production or flow RTE L3/t
rate, production, at mean pressure RTEPAV L3/t
rate, production, average RTEAV L3/t
rate, production, dimensionless RTEa
rate, segregation (in gravity drainage) RTES L3/t
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SPE Computer
-
rate, shear SRT 1/t

rate (velocity) of burning-zone advance VELB L/t
rate, water influx (encroachment) ENCW L3/t
rate, water injection INJW L3/t
rate, water production RTEW L3/t
rate, water production, dimensionless RTEWII
ratio, air/fuel FACAFU various
ratio, damage (“skin” conditions relative to DMRS
formation conditions unaffected by well
operations)
ratio, displacement DPR
ratio, displacement, oil from burned volume, DPROB
rock
ratio, displacement, oil from unburned volume, DPROU
rock
ratio, displacement, water from burned volume, OPRWB
ratio, equilibrium (v/x) K EllR
ratio, free producing gas/oil (free-gas RF GORF
volume/oil volume)
ratio, gas/oil, cumulative RI, GORP
ratio, gas/oil, initial solution Rsi GORSI
ratio, gas/oil permeability kg /ko PRMGO
ratio, gas/oil producing R GOR
ratio, gas/oil, solution, at bubblepoint conditions R.sb GORSB
ratio, gas/oil, solution (gas solubility in oil) RS GORS
ratio, mobility, general (Adisplaclng/Adisplaced) M MBR
ratio, mobility,diffuse-front approximation MS MBRSAV
[(AD + hd)swepJ(Ad)unsweptl;
D signifies displacing; d signifies displaced;
mobilities are evaluated at average saturation
conditions behind and ahead of front
ratio, mobility, sharp-front approximation M MBR
(AD/&~)
ratio, mobility, total [(A,jSWePt/ (A,)unsweptl; MBRT

“swept” and “unswept” refer
to invaded and uninvaded regions behind and
ahead of leading edge of a displacement front
ratio of initial reservoir free-gas volume m F~orF.o MGO
to initial reservoir oil volume
ratio or factor in general (always with F A,R,r FAC various
ratio, permeability, gas/oil PRMGO
ratio, producing gas/oil GOR
ratio, permeability, water/oil PRMWO
ratio, solution gas/oil, at bubblepoint conditions GORSB
ratio, solution gas/oil (gas solubility in oil) GORS
Reserve
SPE Computer
-
ratio, solution gas/oil, initial RN Fgsi
ratio, water/fuel F U’F FACWFU
ratio, water/oil, cumulative F WQP FACWOP
ratio, water/oil permeability kc lk, Kw 14, PRMWO
ratio, water/oil, producing, instantaneous F FACWO
reactance x”” XEL ML2/tq2
reaction rate R RRR m/L2
reaction rate constant k r,j RRC L/t
real part of complex number z X(z) script R
reciprocal formation volume factor, volume at b .fJ RVF
standard conditions divided by volume at
reservoir conditions (shrinkage factor)
reciprocal gas formation volume factor 4 RVFG
reciprocal gas formation volume factor at bc@ RVFGB
reciprocal permeability j l/L2
reciprocal oil formation volume factor bo RVFO
(shrinkage factor)
recovery efficiency, reservoir overall; volume of ER 7)R peR EFFR
hydrocarbons in place at start of project.
(ER =EpE/ED = E,ED)
recovery, ultimate gas GPa gPa GASPUL
reduced pressure P, p, PRSRO
reduced temperature 7, Qr TEMRO
reduction ratio or reduction term a! RED
reduction, SP (general) due to shaliness REDSP
refraction, molecular N MRF
refraction index CL RFX
reduction ratio, SP, due to shaliness REOSH
relative amplitude AMPR
relative atomic mass (atomic weight) AWT
relative bearing Y BRGR
relative density (specific gravity) SF, SPG
relative molecular mass (molecular weight) MWT
relative permeability to gas PRMRG
relative permeability to oil PRMRO
relative permeability to water PRMRW
relaxation time, free-precession decay TIMAV
t
relaxation time, proton thermal TIMRP t
requirement, air AIR
requirement, unit air, in laboratory experimental AIREX L3/m
run, volumes or air per unit mass of pack
requirement, unit air, in reservoir, volumes aR AIRR
of air per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
reservoir initial free-gas volume GF, gFi GASFI
L3
(=mNBoi )
reservoir or formation porosity 4JR ~RJ ER PORR
-
reservoir pressure, average FR pR PRSAVR m/L9
reservoir recovery efficiency, overall; ER 77RpeR EFFR
volume of hydrocarbons recovered divided
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SPE Computer
-
by volume of hydrocarbons in place at
start of project (& = Ep E, ED = E, ED )
reservoir rock burned, volume of VOLRB
reservoir rock unburned, volume of
VRb
vRu VOLRU
$
reservoir temperature TR TEMR T
residual gas saturation su SATGR
residual hydrocarbon saturation s hr SATHR
residual oil saturation S0, SATOR
residual water saturation S UT SATWR
resistance RST ML2/tq2
resistivity, electrical (logging) i? RES mL3/ tq*
resistivity, electrical (other than logging) P RHO mL3/tq2
resistivity, annulus R an RESAN mL3/tq2
resistivity, apparent RO RESA mL3/ tq*
resistivity, apparent, of the conductive RZ RESZ mL3/tq2
fluids in an invaded zone
(due to fingering)
resistivity factor coefficient, formation KR COER mL3/tq2
(FR4”)
resistivity factor, formation, equals FR FACHR
I? o/R,+ a numerical
subscript to F indicates the R,
resistivity flushed zone (that part of the R x0 RESXO mL3/ tq2
invaded zone closest to the wall of the
borehole, where flushing has been the
maximum)
resistivity, formation 100% saturated with Ro RESZR mL3/tq2
water of resistivity R,
resistivity, formation, true R, REST mL3/tq2
resistivity index (hydrocarbon) equals R,/R, 1, RSXH
resistivity, invaded zone R, RESI mL3/tq2
resistivity, mud R, RESM mL3/tq2
resistivity, mudcake R mc RESMC mL3/tq2
resistivity, mud-filtrate R ml RESMF mL3/ tq*
resistivity, shale R,h RESSH mL3/ tq2
resistivity, surrounding formation 4 RESS mL3/ tq2
resistivity, water RW RESW mL3/tq2
revenue, gross (“value”), per unit produced vu GRRU M/L3
revenue, gross (“value”), total V GRRT M
Reynolds number (dimensionless number) NRe REYO
rock or formation compressibility c/ CMPF Lt2/m
salinity c CNC various
saturation S SAT
saturation exponent SXP
saturation, gas SATG
saturation, gas, critical SATGC
saturation, gas, residual SATGR
saturation, interstitial-oil, in gas cap SATOG
saturation, interstitial-water, in gas cap SATWG
saturation, hydrocarbon SATH
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SPE Computer
-
saturation, residual hydrocarbon Shr SATHR

saturation, oil SO SAT0
saturation, oil, residual S SATOR
saturation or bubblepoint pressure Pi PRSB m/L+
saturation, total (combined) liquid SL SATL
saturation, water SM. SATW
saturation, water, critical S, SATWC
saturation, water, initial $7 SATWI
saturation, water (irreducible, interstitial, s,, SATIW
or connate)
saturation, water, residual S wr SATWR
secondary porosity index I 62 PRXSE
segregation rate (in gravity drainage) 4s RTES L3/t
separator pressure P PRSSP m/Lt2
shale interval transit time iz script t TACSH t/L
shale resistivity Rsh RESSH mL3/tq2
shaliness gamma ray index IshGR SHXGR
hog - ro)l (Ysh- ro)
shear modulus G ELMS m/Lt2
shear rate SRT l/t
shear wave amplitude 3;s AMPS various
shrinkage factor (reciprocal oil formation bo RVFO
volume factor)
shut-in bottomhole pressure, at any time PW PRSWS m/L+
shut-in time (time after well is shut in) At,, OELTIMWS t
(pressure buildup)
single-payment discount factor DSP OSCSP
single-payment discount factor DSPC OSCSPC
(constant annual rate)
skin depth (logging) SK0 L
skin effect SKN various
skin radius (radius of well damage or stimulation) RAOS L
slope SLP various
slope, interval transit time vs. density SAD tL2/m
(absolute value)
slope, neutron porosity vs. density N SND L3/m
(absolute value)
smaller than < LT
solid particles density of experimental rock POE rho OENSEX m/L3
solid(s) volume (volume of all formation solids) K VOLS L3
solids (matrix, grain) density pm0 r h0 OENMA m/L3
solubility, gas in oil (solution gas/oil ratio) & GORS
solubility, gas in water R SW GWRS
solution gas/oil ratio at bubblepoint conditions Rsb GORSE
solution gas/oil ratio (gas solubility in oil) R* GORS
solution gas/oil ratio, initial 4, GORSI
SP, electrochemical component of EC EMFC mL2/t2q
SP, electrokinetic component of 6 EMFK mL2/t2q
SP (measured SP) (Self Potential) ESP EMFSP mL2/t2q
SP, pseudo EPSP EMFPSP mL2/t2q
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SPE Computer
SP, static (SSP) ESSP EMFSSP mL2/ t*q

spacing (electrical logging) LS LENS L
specific entropy 3 HERS L2/t2T
specific gravity (relative density) Y SPG
specific gravity, gas Y8 SPGG
specific gravity, oil Yo SPGO
specific gravity, water Yw SPGW
specific heat capacity (always with phase or c HSP L2/t2T
system subscripts)
specific heat capacity ratio HSPR
specific injectivity index I IJXS L3t/m
specific productivity index J, PDXS L3t/m
specific volume V SPV L3/m
specific weight F WV WGTS mL2/t2
SSP (static SP) ESSP EMFSSP mL2/t2q
stabilization time of a well ts TIMS t
standard deviation of a random variable CT SDV
standard deviation of a random variable, estimated s suvEs
static bottomhole pressure, injection well Piw PRSIWS m/L?
static pressure, bottomhole, PWS PRSWS m/L?
at any time after shut-in
static pressure, casing PCS PRSCS m/L+
static pressure, tubing PfS PRSTS rn/Lt2
stimulation or damage radius of well (skin) rs RADS L
storage or storage capacity s ST0 various
strain, normal and general E epsilon STN
strain, shear Y STNS
strain, volume 8 STNU
stream function * STR various
stress, normal and general o- STS m/L+
stress, shear 7 STSS m/L+
summation (operator) z SUM
superficial phase velocity (flux rate of a IA VELV L/t
particular fluid phase flowing in pipe;
use appropriate phase subscripts)
surface production rate 9sc RTESC L3/t
surface tension, interfacial SFT m/t2
surrounding formation resistivity E RESS mL3/tq2
susceptibility, magnetic k SUSM mL/q2
temperature T TEM T
temperature, bottomhole Tbh TEMBH T
temperature, critical T, TEMC T
temperature, formation Tf TEMF T
temperature gradient gT GRDT T/L
temperature, pseudocritical TPC TEMPC T
temperature, pseudoreduced TPr TEMPRD T
temperature, reduced T, TEMRO T
temperature, reservoir TR TEMR T
temperature, standard conditions CC TEMSC T
tension, surface (interfacial) u SFT m/t2
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SPE Computer
-
z
tensor of x X
thermal conductivity (always with additional kt, HEN mL/t3T
thermal cubic expansion coefficient HEC l/T
thermal or heat diffusivity HTD L2/t
thickness (general and individual bed) THK L
thickness, gross pay (total) THKT L
thickness, mudcake hmc THKMC L
thickness, pay, gross (total) h THKT L
thickness, net pay hn THKN L
time t TIM t
time after well is opened to production At, DELTIMWF t
(pressure drawdown)
time after well is shut in (pressure buildup) At, DELTIMWS t
time constant 7 TIMC t
time, decay (mean life) (l/ A) Td TIMD t
time, delay b TIMD t
time difference At DELTIM t
(time period or interval, fixed length)
time, dimensionless tD TIMQ
time, dimensionless at condition m tDm TIMMQ
time for stabilization of a well ts TIMS t
time, interval transit tscript t TAC t/L
time, interval transit, apparent t, script t TACA t/J-
time, interval transit, fluid -If script t TACF t/L
time, interval transit, matrix i m. script t TACMA t/L
time, interval transit, shale k,, script t TACSH t/L
time, neutron decay (neutron mean life) tdN TIMDN t
time, payout (payoff, payback) iP TIMPO t
time period or interval, fixed length At DELTIM t
time well was on production before shut-in, b TIMP t
equivalent (pseudotime)
tortuosity 7 TOR
tortuosity, electric Te TORE
tortuosity, hydraulic 7H TDRHL
total (combined) liquid saturation SL SATL
total entropy s HER L2/tZT
total mobility of all fluids in a particular region At MDBT L3t/m
of the reservoir; e.g., (A, + A*+ A, )
total mobility ratio [(Ar)swepJ(Ar)unsweptl; MBRT
“swept” and “unswept” refer
to invaded and uninvaded regions behind and
ahead of leading edge of a displacement front
total (gross) pay thickness ht THKT L
total gross revenue (‘value”) V GRRT M
total initial gas in place in reservoir G GASTI L3
total moles NMBM
total porosity 3, PORT
total (two-phase) formation volume factor 4 FVFT
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SPE Computer
-
transfer coefficient, convective heat h HTCC m/t3T

transfer coefficient, heat, overall u HTCU rn/t’T
transfer coefficient, heat, radiation I HTCI m/t3T
transit time, interval k script t TAC t/J-
transit time, apparent, interval in script t TACA o-
transit time, fluid interval if script r TACF t/L
transit time, matrix interval i ma script t TACMA t/L
transit time, shale interval ksh scripr t TACSH t/L
transform, Laplace 0fyT.Y (t )P’dt $0) script L
transform, Laplace, var:able s

transmissivity, transmissibility T T TRM various
true density Pr 4 DENT m/L3
true formation resistivity 4 wf REST mL3/tq2
true geometrical factor (multiplier) G, .fGf GMFT
tubing pressure, flowing PV p,r PRSTF m/L+
tubing pressure, static PIS PI, PASTS m/Lt=
turbulence factor FB FACB
two-phase or total formation volume factor 4 4 FVFT
ultimate gas recovery 60 gPa GASPUL L3
unamortized investment over year k Gk INVUK
undiscounted cash flow P M
unburned reservoir rock, volume of VRU VRll VOLRU L3
unit air requirement in laboratory experimental aE F OE AIREX L3/m
unit air requirement in reservoir, volumes of air aR F UR AIRR
per unit bulk volume of reservoir rock
unit fuel concentration (see symbol m) G CNCFU various
universal gas constant (per mole) R RRR mL2/t2T
utilization, oxygen eo2
UTLOZ
valence Z VAL
vapor phase, mole fraction of component Y MFRV
vapor phase, moles of V MOLV
vaporization, latent heat of L” A” HLTV L2/ t=
variance of a random variable c= VAR
variance of a random variable, estimated S2 VARES
vector of x 2
velocity V VEL L/t
velocity, acoustic V VAC L/t
velocity, acoustic apparent (measured) VC2 VACA L/t
velocity, acoustic fluid Vf VACF L/t
velocity, matrix acoustic %I, VACMA L/t
velocity, shale acoustic vsh VACSH L/t
velocity (rate) of burning-zone advance vb VELB L/t
vertical (invasion) efficiency: hydrocarbon pore El EFFI
space invaded (affected, contacted) by the
injected-fluid or heat front divided by the
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SPE Computer
Quantity Symbol Symbol Symbol Dimensiona
-
hydrocarbon pore space enclosed in all layers

viscosity, air VISA m/Lt
viscosity at mean pressure VISPAV mm
viscosity, dynamic VIS m/Lt
viscosity, gas VISG mm
viscosity, gas, at 1 atm VISGA m/Lt
viscosity, kinematic VSK L2/t
viscosity, oil visa m/Lt
viscosity, water VISW
volume VOL gLt
volume at bubblepoint pressure VOLBP
volume, bulk VOLB $
volume, bulk, of pack burned in VOLBEX L3
experimental run
volume, effective pore K VOLG L3
volume fraction or ratio (as needed, use same V VLF various
subscripted symbols as for “volumes”; note
that bulk volume fraction is unity and pore
volume fractions are +I
volume, free-gas, initial reservoir GFi GASFI L3
(=mNb,; )
volume, grain (volume of all formation solids Vgr VOLGR L3
except shales)
volume, intergranular (volume between grains; VOLIG L3
consists of fluids and all shales)
<vb-v,r>
volume, intermatrix (consists of fluids and vim VOLIM L3
dispersed shale) (vb - V,,,,>
volume, matrix (framework) (volume of all Vma VOLMA
formation solids except dispersed shale)
volume, noneffective pore (VP-V, ) Vne VOLNE
volume of reservoir rock burned vRb VOLRB
volume of reservoir rock unburned vRu VOLRU
volume per mole (molal volume) VM VOLM
volume, pore (Vb-V,) VP VOLP
volume, pore, dimensionless VPD VOLPQ
volume, shale, dispersed Vshd VOLSHO
volume, shale, laminated vxhf script i VSHLAM
volume, shale, structural Vshs VOLSHS
volume, shale(s) (volume of all shales: Vsh VOLSH
structural and dispersed)
volume, solid(s) (volume of all formation VS VOLS
solids)
volume, specific V SPV L3/m
volumetric efficiency for burned portion only, EVb EFFVB
volumetric efficiency: product of pattern sweep Ev EFFV
and invasion efficiencies
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SPE Computer
- -
volumetric flow rate 4 RTE L3/t

volumetric flow rate downhole qdh RTEOH L3/t
volumetric flow rate, surface conditions 4sc RTESC L3/t
volumetric heat capacity M HSPV m/Lt2T
volumetric velocity (flow rate or flux, U VELV L/t
per unit area)
water (always with identifying subscripts) WTR various
water compressibility CMPW Lt2/m
water density DENW m/L3
water displaced from burned volume, volume DPRWB
per unit volume of burned reservoir rock
waterdrive constant WDC L4t2/m
waterdrive constant, linear aquifer WDCL L4t2/m
water, effective permeability to PRMW L2
water formation volume factor FVFW
water/fuel ratio FACWFU various
water, gas solubility in GWRS
water in place in reservoir, initial WTRTI
water influx (encroachment), cumulative WTRE LI
water influx (encroachment) during an interval DELWTRE L3
water influx (encroachment) rate ENCW $lt
water injected, cumulative WTRI
water injected during an interval DELWTRI L3
water injection rate INJW L3/t
water mobility MOBW L3t/m
water/oil permeability ratio PRMWO
water/oil ratio, cumulative FACWOP
water/oil ratio, producing, instantaneous FACWO
water produced, cumulative WTRP
water produced during an interval DELWTRP
water production rate RTEW
water production rate, dimensionless RTEWQ
water, relative permeability to PRMRW
water resistivity RESW mL3/tq2
water saturation SATW
water saturation, critical SATWC
water saturation, initial SATWI
water saturation (interstitial) in oil band SATWO
water saturation in gas cap, interstitial SATWG
water saturation, interstitial, connate, SATIW
or irreducible
water saturation, residual S NV SATWR
water specific gravity Yw SPGW
water viscosity PN’ visw m/I-t
wave length (l/cr) A WVL L
wave number (l/h) o- WVN l/L
weight (gravitational) W WGT m/Lt2
weight-weighted average density PL rho DENAVL dL3
of produced liquid
weight, atomic A AWT m
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SPE Computer
weight, molecular MWT m

well radius RV RADW L
well radius of damage or stimulation (skin) Rs RADS L
well stabilization time Ts TIMS
wellbore radius, effective or apparent (includes R wo RADWA :.
effects of well damage or stimulation
wet-gas content Cw C dhg CNTWG various
wet gas produced, cumulative G+%P g WkTP GASWGP L3
width, breadth, or thickness b W WTH L
(primarily in fracturing)
work W WRK mL2/ t2
Young’s modulus (modulus of elasticity) E ELMY m/L+
zone diameter, invaded, electrically equivalent 4 DIAI L
zone resistivity, invaded Ri RESI mL3/ tq2
Subscript Definitions in Alphabetical Order
Reserve Computer
Letter SPE Letter
Subscript Definition Subscript Subscript Subscript
abandonment a A A
acoustic A tcY A
activation log, neutron iA na NA
active, activity, or acting a A
after taxes a A
air a A A
air/fuel aF AFU
altered A
amplitude log ; a A
angle, angular, or angular coordinate 0 THE
anhydrite anh AH
anisotropic ani ANI
annulus apparent (from log readings; an AN AN
use tool description subscripts)
apparent (general) a w A
apparent wellbore (usually with wellbore radius r,) wa WA
area1 A A
atmosphere, atmospheric a A A
average or mean pressure P PAV
--
average or mean saturation s $1P SAV
band or oil band b B B
bank or bank region b B
base b r* P B
before taxes b B B
bond log, cement CB cb CB
borehole televiewer log TV tv TV
bottomhole bh w,BH BH
bottomhole, flowing (usually with pressure or time) Wf WF
bottomhole, static (usually with pressure or time) ws ws
boundary conditions, external E
breakthrough ilT xt BT
bubble b B
bubblepoint conditions, oil at (usually with ob OB
formation volume factor, Bob)
bubblepoint conditions, solution at (usually sb SB
with gas/oil ratio, Rsb)
bubblepoint (saturation) b s, bp BP
bubblepoint or saturation (usually with bp BP
volume, I/bJ
bulk (usually with volume, VL,) b B,t B
burned in experimental tube run (usually bE BEX
with volume, V&
burned or burning b B B
burned portion of in-situ combustion pattern, Db DB
displacement from (usually with efficiency,
Em)
burned portion of in-situ combustion pattern, Vb VB
volumetric of (usually with efficiency, Em)
Reserve Computer
Letter SPE Letter
Subscript Definition - Subscript Subscript Subscript
burned reservoir rock Rb RB

burned volume, oil from (usually ob OB
with displacement ratio, Sob)
burned volume, water from (usually wb WB
with displacement ratio, &+b)
calculated C talc CA
caliper log C C C
capillary (usually with capillary pressure, PC) C C CP
capture cap c
carbon dioxide (32 co2
carbon monoxide co co
casing or casinghead c cg CS
casing, flowing (usually with pressure) cf CF
casing, static (usually with pressure) CS cs
cement bond log CB cb CB
chemical C C
chlorine log CL Cl CL
clay Cl da CL
clean cn cln CN
coil C C C
compaction cP CP
compensated density log CD cd CD
compensated neutron log CN cn CN
component(s) C C
component j j J
component j produced Pj PJ
(usually with moles, nP,)
compressional wave C C C
conditions for infinite dimensions c-2 INF INF
conductive liquids in invaded zone Z Z
connate (interstitial, irreducible) i ir, 1 iota, IR
i Script i
constant C C C
contact C C C
(usually with contact angle, Bc)
contact log, microlog, minilog ML ml script 1 ML
convective C
conversion (usually with conversion factor in C C
Newton’s law of motion, g,)
core C C C
corrected COT cot7
critical C cr CR
cumulative influx (encroachment) e i E
cumulative injected i I
cumulative produced P P
cumulative produced free value FP FP
(usually with gas, GF~)
cumulative produced liquid LP LP
(usually with condensate, CL,)
damage or damaged (includes “skin” conditions) S
decay zi 0
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Letter SPE Letter
deep induction log ID id IO

deep laterolog LLD PPdscript I1 LLO
delay d 6 II
density RHO
density log, compensated CD cd CD
density log D d II
depleted region, depletion d s D
dewpoint d D
differential separation d 0
differential temperature log DT dt OT
diffusivity rl ETA
dimensionless pore value PD Pa
(usually with volume, I/pD)
dimensionless quantity D a
dimensionless quantity at condition m Dm QM
dimensionless time tD TO
dimensionless water WD wa
dip (usually with angle, LYE) d 0
diplog, dipmeter DM dm DM
directional survey DR dr OR
dirty (clayey, shaly) 4 dty OY
discounted value, present worth, or present value PV PV PV
dispersed d D D
dispersion K d K
displaced d s,D DO
displacement from burned portion of in-situ Db OB
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency,
Em)
displacement from unburned portion of in-situ Du DU
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency,
ED,)
displacing or displacement (efficiency) D DN
dolomite dol DL
downhole dh DH DH
drainage (usually with drainage radius, rd) d D
dual induction log DI di 01
dual laterolog DLL dPPscript 11 DLL
earth e E E
effective (or equivalent) e E
electric, electrical e E E
electrochemical ec C
electrode ; e E
electrokinetic k ek K
electrolog, electrical log, electrical EL el, ES EL
survey
electromagnetic pipe inspection log EP ep EP
electron el 4P script el E
empirical E EM EM
encroachment (influx). cumulative e E
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Letter SPE Letter
entry E E
epithermal neutron log f;,E NE
equivalent e4 PV EV
estimated E est ES
ethane c2 C2
experimental E EX EX
experimental value per mole of produced gas & EXG
(usually with fuel consumption, m,)
external, outer boundary conditions e 0 E
extrapolated ext XT
fast neutron log NF nf NF
fill-up f F
finger or fingering f F F
flash separation f F F
flowing bottomhole (usually with pressure or time) wf WF
flowing casing (usually with pressure) Cf CF
flowing conditions, injection well (usually with iwf IWF
pressure, P iwf>
flowing conditions, well (usually with time) wf f WF
flowing tubing (usually with pressure) tf TF
fluid f fl F
fluids in an invaded zone, conductive Z Z
flushed zone x0 x0
formation 100% saturated with 0 zero zr ZR
water (used in R. only)
formation (rock) f fm F
formation, surrounding S
fraction or fractional ; F
fracture, fractured, or fracturing f FR
free (usually with gas or gas/oil ratio quantities) F F
free fluid Ff FF
free value, cumulative produced, FP FP
(usually with gas, GF/,)
free value, initial (usually with gas, GF,) Fi FI
front, front region, or interface f F F
fuel, mass of (usually with fuel concentration, C,, ) FU
fuel (usually with fuel properties, such as pi) F” FU
gamma-gamma ray log GG gg GG
gamma ray log CR gr GR
gas g G G
gas at atmospheric conditions w GA
gas at bubblepoint conditions gb GB
gas cap, oil in (usually with saturation, S,) a OG
gas cap, water in (usually with saturation, S,,) w WG
gas, dimensionless gD Ga
gas/oil, solution (usually with gas/oil ratios) S S
gas/water, solution SW SW
(usually with gas solubility in water, I?,,)
geometrical G G
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Subscript Definition - Subscript Subscript Subscript
geothermal G T GT
grain gr GR
grain (matrix, solids) ma MA
gravity meter log GM gm GM
gross (total) T T
guard log G g G
gypsum gYP GY
half l/2 H
heat or thermal h T, 8 HT
heavy phase HP hp HP
hole h H H
horizontal H h H
hydraulic H HL
hydrocarbon h H H
hydrogen nuclei or atoms H HY
hydrocarbon, residual hr HR
hydrogen sulfide HIS H2S
imbibition I i script i I
induction log, deep investigation ID id IO
induction log 1 i I
induction log, dual Dl di Ill
induction log, medium investigation IM im IM
infinite dimensions, conditions for 00 INF
influx (encroachment), cumulative i E
initial conditions or value I
initial free value (usually with gas, G,+-,) Fi FI
initial solution (usually with gas/oil ratio, R,V,) si SI
injected, cumulative I I
injection, injected, or injecting inj I
injection well, flowing conditions (usually with iwf IWF
pressut=, phf)
injection well, static conditions (usually with iWS IWS
p-sure, pi,>
inner, interior, or internal L,i script i I
interface, front region, or front f F F
interference I i, i script i I
intergranular jg IG
intermatrix im IM
internal i,i script i I
interstitial 1,i script i I
intrinsic int I
invaded I I
invaded zone I I
invaded zone, conductive liquids in an 2
invasion (usually with invasion efficiency, 4 1 I i I
irreducible, interstitial, or connate ir, L,i script i IR
jth component j J
jth component, produced (usually with moles, np;) P.i PJ
junction J
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laminar Pscript 1 L LAM

laminated, lamination Pscript 1 L LAM
lateral (resistivity) log L P script I L
laterolog (add further tool configuration LL PP script I1 LL
subscripts as needed)
laterolog, dual DLL d@ script II DLL
lifetime log, neutron, TDT NL nk?script 1 NL
light phase LP Fp script I LP
limestone is 1st LS
limiting value lim LM
linear, lineal L P script 1 L
liquid or liquid phase L I script I L
liquids, conductive, invaded zone 2
liquid produced, cumulative (usually with LP LP
condensate, GLp)
location subscripts, usage is secondary to that for 1, 2, 3, etc.
representing times or time periods
loI? log 1% L
lower P script I L L
magnetism log, nuclear NM nm NM
mass of fuel (usually with fuel concentration, m FU
cm )
matrix (solids, grain) ma MA
matrix [solids except (nonstructural) ma MA
clay or shale]
maximum max MX
mean or average pressure F PAV
mean or average saturation s St P SAV
medium investigation induction log IM im IM
methane Cl Cl
microlaterolog MLL m@ script II MLL
microlog, minilog, contact log ML mP script 1 ML
microseismogram log, signature log, variable VD vd VD
density log
minimum min MN
mixture M z,m M
mobility A M LAM
molal (usually with volume, V$,,) M M
Mth period or interval M m M
mud m M
mudcake mc MC
mud filtrate mJ MF
net N
neutron lb n N
neutron activation log NA na NA
neutron lifetime log, TDT NL nP script I NL
neutron log, compensated CN Ctl CN
neutron log N n N
neutron log, epithermal NE ne NE
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neutron log, fast NF nf NF

neutron log, sidewall SN sn SN
neutron log, thermal NT nt NT
nitrogen N2 N2
noneffective ne NE
nonwetting nw NW NW
normal N
normal (resistivity) log k n N
(add numerical spacing to subscript to N; e.g., N16)
normalized (fractional or relative) n r,R N
nth year, period, income, payment, or unit N N
nuclear magnetism log hl nm NM
numerical subscripts (intended primarily 1,2,3, etc.
to represent times or time periods;
available secondarily as location
subscripts or for other purposes)
observed OB OB
oil at bubblepoint conditions (usually with formation ob OB
volume factor, Bob)
oil, dimensionless OD 00
oil (except when used with resistivity) 0 N 0
oil from burned volume (usually with displacement ob 08
ratio, 6,,/,1
oil from unburned volume (usually with displacement 011 ou
ratio, 6,,,,1
oil in gas cap (usually with saturation, S,,,) og OG
outer (external) boundary conditions e 0 E
oxygen 02 02
particle (usually with diameter, dp) P P
particular period, element, or interval k K K
pattern (usually with pattern efficiency, EP) P P
payout, payoff, or payback P PO PO
permeability k K
phase or phases P P
pipe inspection log, electromagnetic EP ep EP
pore (usually with volume, I$) P P P
pore value, dimensionless (usuallywith volume, I',?,, 1 PD PQ
porosity 4 PHI
porosity data 4 P
pressure, mean or average P PAV
primary 1 one pm PR
produced P P P
produced componentj (usually with moles, n,,i) pj PJ
produced, cumulative P P
produced free value, cumulative 41 FP
(usually with gas, G,,, )
produced in experiment PE PEX
produced liquid, cumulative LP LP
(usually with condensate, Cl.,,)
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produced water/oil (cumulative) WOP WOP

(usually with cumulative water/oil ratio, F,,)
production period (usually with time, tp) P P P
profit - unamortized investment Pk PK
proximity log P P P
pseudo P P
pseudocritical PC PC
pseudodimensionless PD PO
pseudoreduced pr PRO
pseudo-SP PSP PSP
radius, radial, or radial distance r H R
rate R
rate of return R R
ratio z
recovery (usually with recovery efficiency, ER) R R
reduced r RO
reference r bPP R
relative R R
reservoir k r R
reservoir rock, burned Rb RB
reservoir rock, unburned Ru RU
residual r R R
residual hydrocarbon hr HR
resistivity R R
resistivity log R R
Reynolds (used with Reynolds number Re
only, NKJ
rock (formation) f fm F
sand sd sa SO
sandstone ss sst ss
saturation, mean or average s SJP SAV
saturation or bubblepoint b s, bp BP
saturation or bubblepoint (usually with bp BP
volume, Vbp)
scattered, scattering SC SC
secondary 2 s,set SE
segregation (usually with segregation s S ru S
rate, 4%)
separator conditions SP SP
shale sh sha SH
shallow laterolog LLS QPsscript I1 LLS
shear S i- S
shear wave S
sidewall i iW SW
sidewall neutron log SN sn SN
signature log, microseismogram log, VD vd VD
variable density log
silt sl sit SL
single payment SP SP
59-60 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDf3OOK
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skin (stimulation or damage) s S s

slip or slippage u S
slurry (“mixture”) z 2, m M
solid(s) (all formation solids) S CT S
solids in experiment SE SEX
solids (matrix, grain) ma MA
solution at bubblepoint conditions (usually with sb SB
gas/oil ratio, Rsb)
solution in water (usually with gas solubility SW SW
in water, I?,,)
solution, initial (usually with gas/oil si SI
ratio, R,i)
solution (usually with gas/oil ratios) S
sonde, tool T
sonic velocity log SV SV sv
SP SP SP SP
spacing
specific (usually with J and I) S
SSP SSP SSP
stabilization (usually with time) s S S
standard conditions SC o- SC
static bottomhole (usually with pressure or time) WS ws
static casing (usually with pressure) cs cs
static conditions, injection well (usually with pressure) iWS IWS
static or shut-in conditions (usually with time) WS S ws
static tubing (usually with pressure) ts TS
static well conditions (usually with time) WS S ws
steam or steam zone S S
stimulation (includes “skin” conditions) S S S
stock-tank conditions st ST
storage or storage capacity s 4 o- S
strain E e EPS
structural st S ST
surface S o- S
surrounding formation S S
swept or swept region S S ru S
system s u S
TDT log, neutron lifetime log NL nl script 1 NL
televiewer log, borehole TV tv TV
temperature T h,e T
temperature log T t,h T
temperature log, differential DT dt OT
thermal (heat) h T, e HT
thermal decay time (TDT) log NL ne script I NL
thermal neutron log NT nt NT
time, dimensionless tD TO
times or time periods 1,2,3, etc.
tool-description subscripts: see individual entries
such as “amplitude log,” “neutron log,” etc.
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tool, sonde T T
total initial in place in reservoir ti TI
total (gross) t T
total, total system t T
transmissibility T T
treatment or treating t T
true (opposed to apparent) (electrical logging) t T
tubing flowing (usually with pressure) tf TF
tubing or tubinghead a! T
tubing, static (usually with pressure) ts TS
turbulence (used with F only, FB 1 B B
ultimate ul a UL
unamortized U u U
unburned U
unburned portion of in-situ combustion pattern LU ou
displacement from (usually with efficiency, EDU)
unburned reservoir rock RU RU
unburned volume, oil from (usually with ou ou
displacement ratio, 6,, )
unit u U
unswept or unswept region u U
upper u U
vaporization, vapor, or vapor phase V V
variable density log, microseismogram log, VD vd vo
signature log
velocity V V
velocity, sonic or acoustic log iv SV sv
vertical V v V
volumetric of burned portion of in-situ combustion Vb VB
pattern (usually with efficiency, EVb)
volume or volumetric V V V
water W W W
water, dimensionless WD WCI
water from burned volume (usually with displacement wb WB
ratio, aWb)
water/fuel wF WFU
water in gas cap (usually with saturation, S,,) w WG
water/oil (usually with instantaneous producing wo wo
water/oil ratio, F,,)
water/oil, produced (cumulative) WOP
(usually with cumulative water/oil ratio, F,,,)
water, solution in (usually with gas solubility SW SW
in water, R,,.)
water-saturated formation, 100 % 0 zero zr ZR
weight W W W
well conditions W W
well, flowing conditions (usually with time) wf f WF
well, injection, flowing conditions iwf IWF
(usually with pressure, piwzf)
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well, injection, static conditions iws IWS

(usually with pressure, piws)
well, static conditions (usually with time) WS s ws
wellbore, apparent (usually with wellbore wa WA
radius, rwO1
wellhead wh th WH
wet gas (usually with composition or content, wg WG
Gg )
wet gas produced wgp WGP
wetting W W W
Young’s modulus, refers to Y Y
zero hydrocarbon saturation 0 zero zr ZR
zone, conductive fluids in an invaded z Z
zone, flushed x0 X0
zone, invaded i I I
Subscript Symbols in Alphabetical Order
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Letter SPE Letter
Subscript Subscript Subscript Subscript Definition
Greek and Numerical
e EPS strain
ETA diffusivity
THE angle, angular, or angular coordinate
LAM mobility
RHO density
PHI porosity
P porosity data, derived from
tool-description subscripts: see individual entries
such as “amplitude log,” “neutron log,” etc.
0 zero u ZR formation 100% saturated with water (used in R. only)
1 p,pri PR primary
1,2,3,etc. location subscripts, usage is secondary to that for
representing times or time periods
1,2,3,etc. numerical subscripts (intended primarily to represent
times or time periods; available secondarily as
location subscripts or for other purposes)
1,2,3,etc. times or time periods
l/2 H half
2 s,set SE secondary
m INF conditions for infinite dimensions
English
A a A amplitude log
A A area1
a A A abandonment
a A, a A acoustic
a A active, activity, or acting
a A after taxes
a A A air
a A altered
a ap A apparent (general)
a A A atmosphere, atmospheric
at; AFU air/fuel
an AN AN annulus apparent (from log readings:
use tool description subscripts)
anh AH anhydrite
ani ANI anisropic
B B turbulence (used with F only, FB)
BT bt BT breakthrough
b B B band or oil band
b B bank or bank region
b 6P B base
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b B B before taxes
b B bubble
b s, bp B bubblepoint (saturation)
b B,t B bulk (usually with volume, V,)
b B B burned or burning
bE BEX burned in experimental tube run (usually
with volume, V,,)
bh w,BH BH bottomhole
bp BP bubblepoint or saturation (usually with
volume, VbP)
c talc CA calculated
c C C caliper log
c C C coil
C C component(s)
C C convective
Cl Cl methane
c2 c2 ethane
CB cb CB bond log, cement
CD cd CO compensated density log
CL cl CL chlorine log
CN cn CN compensated neutron log
co CO carbon monoxide
co2 co2 carbon dioxide
C C CP capillary (usually with capillary presssure, P,)
c cg cs casing or casinghead
c C chemical
c C C compressional wave
c C C constant
C C C contact (usually with contact angle, 0,)
C C conversion (usually with conversion factor in
Newton’s law of Motion, gC)
c C core
C cr Ll critical
c ec C electrochemical
CUP e capture
cb CB CB cement bond log
Cf CF casing, flowing (usually with pressure)
Cl cla CL clay
Cfl cln CN clean
car COR corrected
CP CP compaction
CS cs casing, static (usually with pressure)
D d 0 density log
D a dimensionless quantity
D s, u DN displacing or displacement (efficiency)
DI di 01 dual induction log
DLL dfi’script 11 DLL dual laterolog
DM dm DM diplog, dipmeter
DR dr OR directional survey
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DT dt DT differential temperature log

Db DB displacement from burned portion of in-situ
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency, EDb)
Dm QM dimensionless quantity at condition m
DU DIJ displacement from unburned portion of in-situ
combustion pattern (usually with efficiency, ED,)
d D decay
d cl delay
d 0 depleted region, depletion
d D dewpoint
d 0 differential separation
d 0 dip (usually with angle, ad)
d D D dispersed
d 0 0 displaced
d 0 drainage (usually with drainage radius, Ye)
dh DH DH downhole
dol DL dolomite
4 dtv DY dirty (clayey, shaly)
E E electrode
E iM EM empirical
E est ES estimated
E EX EX experimental
Es EXG experimental value per mole of produced gas
(usually with fuel consumption, m& )
EL el, ES EL electrolog, electrical log, electrical survey
EP ep EP electromagnetic pipe inspection log
C ec C electrochemical
e 0 E boundary conditions, external
e E cumulative influx (encroachment)
e !E E earth
e E effective (or equivalent)
e E E electric, electrical
e E E entry
e 0 E external or outer boundary conditions
el &script el E electron
eq EV EV equivalent
ext XT extrapolated
F F fill-up
F F free (usually with gas or gas/oil ratio quantities)
F FU fuel (usually with fuel properties, such as nF)
FP FP cumulative produced free value (usually with gas, GFP)
Ff FF free fluid
Fi FI free value, initial (usually with gas, GFi)
F F finger or fingering
; F flash separation
f ; F fluid
fm F formation (rock)
; F fraction or fractional
f F FR fracture, fractured, or fracturing
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f F front, front region, or interface

f F rock (formation)
G G geometrical
G T GT geothermal
G g G guard log
GG gg GG gamma-gamma ray log
GM gm GM gravity meter log
GR gr GA gamma ray log
g G G gas
@ GQ gas, dimensionless
m GA gas at atmospheric conditions
gb GB gas at bubblepoint conditions
gr GR grain
UP GY gypsum
H h H horizontal
H HL hydraulic
H HY hydrogen nuclei or atoms
H2S H2S hydrogen sulfide
HP b HP heavy phase
h T,8 HT heat or thermal
h H H hole
h H H hydrocarbon
h T, Q HT thermal (heat)
hr HR hydrocarbon, residual
I i script i I imbibition
I I induction log
I i, i script i I interference
I i 1 invasion (usually with invasion efficiency, E,)
ID id ID induction log, deep investigation
IM im IM induction log, medium investigation
i I cumulative injected
i I initial conditions or value
i inj I injection, injected, or injecting
i b,i script i I inner, interior, or internal
i I I invaded
i I I invaded zone
i ir, b,,i script i IR irreducible, interstitial, or connate
ig IG intergranular
im IM intermatrix
int I intrinsic
iwf IWF injection well, flowing conditions (usually with
pressure, pjWf1
iws IWS injection well, static conditions (usually with
pressure, P& )
ws s ws well, static conditions (usually with time)
j J jth component
j J junction
K d K dispersion
k ek K electrokinetic
k K K particular period, element, or interval
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Subscript Subscript Subscript - Subscript Definition
k K permeability
P script 1 L LAM laminar
P script 1 L LAM laminated, lamination
L ! script I L lateral (resistivity log)
L 0 script 1 L linear, lineal
L 0 script 1 L liquid or liquid phase
p script I L L lower
LP
LP cumulative produced liquid
(usually with condensate, GLP)
LL @script N LL laterolog (add further tool configuration subscripts
as needed)
LLD ppd script N LLO deep laterolog
LLS 1ps script I1 LLS shallow laterolog
LOG log L log
LP Pp script 1 LP light phase
LP LP liquid produced, cumulative (usually with
condensate, GLp)
lim LM limiting value
IS 1st LS limestone
M m M Mth period or interval
M z, m M mixture
M M molal (usually with volume, V,>
M mud
E z,m M slurry (“mixture”)
ML m P script 1 ML contact log, microlog, minilog
MLL mPPscript N MLL microlaterolog
m FU mass of fuel (usually with fuel concentration, C,,,)
m M mud
ma MA grain (matrix, solids)
ma MA matrix [solids except (nonstructural) clay or shale]
max MX maximum
me MC mudcake
mf MF mud filtrate
min MN minimum
N n N neutron
N n N neutron log
N n N normal (resistivity) log
(add numerical spacing to subscript N; e.g., N16)
N2 N2 nitrogen
NA na NA neutron activation log
NE ne NE neutron log, epithermal
NF nf NF neutron log, fast
NL n! script 1 NL neutron lifetime log, TDT
NM nm NM nuclear magnetism log
NT nt NT neutron log, thermal
n N net
n N normal
n r,R N normalized (fractional or relative)
n N N nth year, period, income, payment, or unit
ne NE noneffective
nw NW NW nonwetting
4 02 oxygen
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OB LIB observed
0 N 0 oil (except when used with resistivity)
ob OB oil at bubblepoint conditions (usually with formation
volume factor, Bob)
ob OB oil from burned volume (usually with displacement
ratio, & )
OD OD oil, dimensionless
W OG oil in gas cap (usually with saturation, S,,)
011 ou oil from unburned volume (usually with displacement
ratio, 6,, 1
P P phase or phases
P P P proximity log
NL nP script 1 NL neutron lifetime log, TDT
PV PV PV discounted value, present worth, or present value
Pk PK profit-unamortized investment
P particle (usually with diameter, dp)
; P pattern (usually with pattern efficiency, EP)
P PO PO payout, payoff, or payback
P P P pore (usually with volume, VP)
P PAV pressure, mean or average
P P P produced
P P produced, cumulative
P P P production period (usually with time, tp)
P P pseudo
PD PQ pore value, dimensionless (usually with volume, VPD)
PD PQ pseudodimensionless
PE PEX produced in experiment
PSP PSP pseudo-SP
PC PC pseudocritical
Pj PJ produced componentj (usually with moles, npj)
pr PRD pseudoreduced
R rate
R ratio
R R recovery (usually with recovery efficiency, ER 1
R r R reservoir
R R resistivity
R rl P R resistivity log
Rb RB reservoir rock, burned
RM RU reservoir rock, unburned
Re Reynolds (used with Reynolds number only, NRe)
R R radius, radial, or radial distance
R R rate of return
RD reduced
b, P R reference
R R relative
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r R residual
s SAY saturation, mean or average
S SW sidewall
S S storage or storage capacity
s SAV average or mean saturation
SN SN neutron log, sidewall
SP SP SP
SSP SSP SSP
sv sv sv sonic, velocity or acoustic log
SWN swn SWN sidewall neutron log
s d S damage or damaged (includes “skin” conditions)
s S formation, surrounding
s S gas/oil ratio, solution
s S segregation (usually with segregation rate, qs)
S s shear
S S shear wave
S S skin (stimulation or damage)
S S slip or slippage
S S solid (usually with volume or density)
S S solution (usually with gas/oil ratios)
S spacing
S S specific (usually with J and Z)
S S S stabilization (usually with time)
S S S steam or steam zone
s S S stimulation (includes “skin” conditions)
S u S surface
S S surrounding formation
s s, 0 s swept or swept region
s u S system
SE SEX solids in experiment
sb SB solution at bubblepoint conditions (usually with
gas/oil ratio, Rsb)
SC SC scattered, scattering
SC o- SC standard conditions
sd sa SD sand
sh sha SH shale
si SI solution, initial (usually with gas/oil ratio, R,;)
Sl sit SL silt
SP SP separator conditions
SP SP single payment
ss sst ss sandstone
st ST stock-tank conditions
St S ST structural
SW SW solution in water (usually with gas solubility
in water, R,,)
&VP GY gypsum
T h, 0 T temperature
T t,h T temperature log
T t T tool, sonde
T t transmissibility
TV tv TV televiewer log, borehole
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Subscript Subscript - Subscript Subscript Definition
t T T gross (total)
t T T total, total system
t 7 T treatment or treating
t tr T true (electrical logging) (opposed to apparent)
f t&T T tubing or tubinghead
tD TO time, dimensionless
tf TF tubing flowing (usually with pressure)
ti TI totalinitial in place in reservoir
ts TS tubing, static (usually with pressure)
U u u unamortized
U U unburned
U u U unit
u Ii U unswept or unswept region
U u U upper
ul a UL ultimate
V V V vertical
V V V volume or volumetric
VD vd VD microseismogram log, signature log,
variabledensity log
Vb VB volumetric or burned portion of in-situ combustion
pattern (usually with efficiency, EVb)
V V V vaporization, vapor, or vapor phase
V V V velocity
V W W water
W W W weight
W W well conditions
W W W wetting
WD WQ water, dimensionless
WF WFU water/fuel
wa WA wellbore, apparent (usually with wellbore radius, rwa)
wb WB water from burned volume (usually with displacement
ratio, ENah )
wf WF bottomhole, flowing (usually with pressure or time)
Wf f WF well, flowing conditions (usually with time)
w&T WG water in gas cap (usually with saturation, S,,,)
wg WG wet gas (usuallywith composition or content, C,, )
WP WGP wet gas produced
Wh th WH wellhead
wo wo water/oil (usually with instantaneous producing
water/oil ratio, F,,)
WOP WOP water/oil, produced (cumulative)
(usually with cumulative water/oil ratio, F,$,,)
ws ws static bottomhole (usually with pressure or time)
ws ws well, static, or shut-in conditions (usually with time)
X0 X0 flushed zone
Y Y Young’s modulus, refers to
Z 2 conductive liquids in invaded zone
Z zone, conductive invaded
Author Index
A API Bull. 5C4, 2-74 API Spec. IlN, 16-16
API Bull. I lL3, 9-3, 9-4, 9-14 API Spec. 128, vi
Abbott, W.A.. v, 4-11 API Circ. PS-1360, 2-46, 2-74 API Spec. 12D, 11-2, 11-14
Abernathy, B.F., 4431, 44-51 API Circ. PS-1398, 2-74 API Spec. 12F, 11-I, II-14
Abou El-Now, F., 25-24 API Code 25, 17-l API Spec. 125, 12-44
Abou-Kassem, J.H., 48-11, 48-19 API Code 27, 26-10. 26-11, 26-33 API Spec. 12K. 19-34
Abou-Sayed, A..%, 55-10, 55-11 API Committee on Standardization of Steel API Spec. l2L, 19-34
Abram, A., 54-12 Tanks for 011 Storage, 11-3 API Spec. 14A. 3-34, 3-40
Ache, P.S., 44-29, 44-50 API Committee on Standardization of API Spec. 14D, 3-34, 3-39, 3-40
ACS Industries Inc., vi, 12-43 Valves and Wellhead Equipment, 3-3 API Standardtzation Conference, 2-46,
Addington, D.V., 48-20 API Fundamental Research on Occurrence 2-60, 2-63, 2-74
Adenev. W.E.. 25-22 and Recovery of Petroleum, 39-27 API Standing Subcommittee on
Aepelbaum. V.A., 25-22 API Manual 14BM, 6-21, 6-72 Secondary Recovery Methods. 39-28
Afanas’eva, N.L., 25-25 API Manual of Petroleum Measurement API Std. 5B, 2-57
Afoeju, B.1. ~ 46-45 Standards, ix. 16-16. 17-l. 17-3. 17-S. API Std. 12B. 11-3. 1 l-14
Agarwal. R.G., Y-10 19-6, 19-34. 32-16 API Std. 510. 12-43
Aguilera, A., 51-45, 51-52 API Manual on Disposal of Refinery API Std. 620. 11-7. 11-14
Aguilera, R.. 29-9 Wastes, vii, 15-19, 15-24. 15-34 API Std. 650. 11-2, 11-7, 11-9. II-14
Ahmed, U., 55-10 API Petroleum Safety Data 2210, 1l-9 API Std. 1101, ix, 16-6. 16-16, 17-4,
Aho. G.E., 47-26 API Pub. 2563 and 2564, 58-8 17-7, 32-16
Ahrens. G.. xii. 51-51 API RP 2A, 18-25, 18-27 API Std. 1104, 12.44, 19-34
Ainley, B.R., 55-10 API RP 2K, 18-17. 1X-52 API Std. 2000, vi, 11-6, II-14
Air Products and Chemical Inc., 39-28 API RP 2P. 18.16, 18-52 API Std. 2500, 17-I
Ajitsaria, N.K., 20-9, 20-18 API RP 20, 18-17, 18-52 API Std. 2531 & 2533, 17-4
Akbar, A.M., 48-20 API RP 5C1, 3-l. 3-40 API Std. 2534, 17-4, 17-7
Akstinat, M.H., xi, 47-25 API RP 5C2, Y API Std. 2543, 17-5, 17-S
Alaska Oil & Gas Conservation API RP 5C3, v API Std. 2545, 17-3, 17-8
Commission, viii API RP 6F. 3-38, 3-40 API Std. 2550 to 2556, 17-3
Alberta Energy Resources Conservation API RP 7C-IIF, 10.19. lo-37 API Technical Data Book, 21-3, 21-20
Board. 48-18 API RP IOE, 15-10, 15-34 API Vocational Training Series, v. 5-57
Alcauska, J.B., 25-21 API RP IIAR, 8-10 American Sot. of Mechanical Engineers,
Alder. S.B.. viii. 25-23 API RP llBR, vi, 9-14 (ASME) 46-45, 58-2, 58-7, 58-8
Alexander. J.D.,‘46-13, 46-43 API RP IIER, 10-12, lo-37 ASME Code for Boilers and Pressure
Aluer. R.P.. 49-41, 49-42, 51-50, 51-51 API RP IlG, vi, 10-7, 10-12, 10-13, lo-37 Vessels, vi, 12-38 to 12-41, 12-43
AlyHussainy. R., 35-10, 35-21 API RP IIL. vi, 8-10. 9-2, 9-3, 9-14, 10-7, ASME B31, 15-11, 15-33
Aliev, S.N., 12-43 IO-37 American Sot. for Testing and Materials,
Allen. D-R., 46-45 API RP IlR. 7-17 (ASTM) l-80,24-3,24-5,24-22,58-2.58-7
Allen. F.H.. 23-13, 39-13, 39-28 API RP 11s. 7-17 ASTM A 123, II-14
Allen, L.S.. 50-38 API RP IlU. v ASTM D 1250, 17-5. 17-6
Almond, S.W., 55-10 API RP 12L, 19-7 ASTM D 1298, 17-5
Al-Saadoon, F.T. 37-21, 37-27 API RP l2RI. II-14 ASTM D 2887. 21-l. 21-20
Althouse, W.H., 4-1 I API RP 148, 3-40 ASTM D 4051,.17-5
American Assn. of Petroleum Geologists API RP l4C. 3-40, 12-43, 18-46, 18-52, ASTM E 380-82, 58-8. 58-14
(AAPG), 24-22, 29-9, 40-2, 40-37 19-28, 19-34 ASTM Standards on Petroleum Products
American Bureau of Shipping. 18-21, 18-52 API RP 14E, vit, 12-43, 15-7, 15-33, 19-34 and Lubricants, vii
American Gas Assn. (AGA), vi, 13-8. API RP l4F, 3-34, 340, 18-44, 18-46, 18-52 ASTM Steam Tables, x
13-59. 33-13. 33-23, 40-38 API RP 14H. 3-40 Amero. R.C., 25-27
American Gear Manufacturer’s Assn. API RP 36. 32-3, 32-16 Amirijafari. B., 25-26
(AGMA), IO-12 API RP 38. 4444, 44-51 Amyx, J.W., 24-23, 26-l
American Hot Dip Galvanizers Assn.. vi. API RP 39M. 55-6 Anders, E.L. Jr., 43-19
II-14 API RP 44. 39-5. 39-27 Anderson, A.E., 49-41
American Inst. of Mining, Metallurgical and API RP 45, 19-34, 24-5, 24-22, 44-51 Anderson, B.W., 54-13
Petroleum Engineers (AlME), 12-43 API RP 49, 18-20, 18-52 Anderson, D.F., 47-25
American Meter Co., vi, 13-41. 13-59 API RP 53. 18-12. 18-20. 18-52 Anderson, G.. 52-31
American Nail. Metric Council (ANMC). API RP 66. 6-72 Anderson, G.L., 16-16
58-2, 58-8 API RP 5008, vi, 10.37. 18.46, 18-52 Anderson, M.A., 26-33
American Nail. Standards Inst. (ANSI), API RP 520, 11-7 Anderson, R.A., 51-52
58-2, 58-8, 58-22 API Spec. 5A, v. 2-74, 3-2. 3-14, 3-40 Anderson, T.. 5144, 51-52
ANSI 816.5, 15-l 1, 15-34 API Spec. 5B, v, 2-64, 2-74 Andresen, K.H., 44-51
ANSI B26.5, vii API Spec. 5AC. 2-74 Angier, J.D., 6-72
ANSI 831.1, 15-11, 15-34 API Spec. 5AQ, 2-74 Angino, E.E., 24-19. 24-23
ANSI B31.8, 15.11. 15-34 API Spec. SAX, 2-74 Anthony, R.G., 25-26, 25-27
ANSI B48.1, 58-8 API Spec. 5L. v, 2-74. 3-2, 3-40, 15-10, 15-34 Antoine, C.. 20-13. 20-17, 20-18
ANSI/API 2530, vi, 13-3, 13-59 API Spec. 5LE. 15.10, 15-33 Aoyagi, K., 25-12, 25-23
ANSIiASME 831.3 & 31.4. 15-11, 15-34 API Spec. 5LP, 15-10. 15-33 Apache Santa Fe Intl. Corp., vii
ANSI/ASME SPPE-1 & lb, 3-34, 3-39. API Spec. SLR. 15-10, 15-34 Archer, D.L.. 28-11, 28.15, 47.20, 47-26
340 API Spec. 5LX, 15-12 Archie, G.E., 26-28 . 26-29. 26-31, 49-4,
ANSI/IEEE Std. 260, 58-8 API Spec. 6A, v. 3-l. 3-5, 3-18, 3-36. 49-5. 49-4 1
American Petroleum Inst. (API), 24-3. 39-27. 3-38. 3-40, 15-13, 15-34 Ardittv, P.C., xii, 51-51
40-2, 40.37, 40-38. 41-37, 58-2, 58-7 API Spec. 78-l IC. 10-17. IO-37 Arnold, D.M.. xi. 50-32. 50-38
API Bull. D-14. 40-37. 40-38 API Spec. I IAX. v, 8-2. 8-6. 8-10 Arnold, K.E., 15-l. 19-I. 19-33
API Bull. 2N. 18-52 API Spec. IlB. vi. 9-l. 9-14 Arnold. M.D.. 48-20
API Bull. 5C2. 2-46.2-60. 2-74. 3-l. 3-40 API Spec. IIC. vi. 9-14 Arnold, R.B.. 4-l I
API Bull. 5C3. 2-74 API Spec. I IE. IO-I. 10-4. 10-5. 10-7. lo-37 Aron. J.. 51-51. 55-10
2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Aronofsky, J.S., 44-19, 44-20. 44-29. Baumgartner, S.A., 55-l I Birdwell Div. of Seismograph Service
4434, 4449, 4450 Bavly. D., 48-18 Corp., xii. 51-52
Arps, J.J., 30-9. 30-15, 30-16, 37-14, Baxendall, P.B., 34-37, 34-55 Birdwell Technical Pamplet, xii
37-15. 37-27, 40-1, 40-19. 40-32, Bayless, C.R., 16-16 Bissey, L.T., 25-26
40-37, 40-38. 41-l. 41-5. 41-23, 41-37, Beach, F.W., 16-16 Black, C., 25-25. 25-26
4450, 44-5 I Beal, C., 22-14 to 22-16, 22-22, 46-45 Black, C.J.J., 28-16
Arrow Specialty Co., vi Bear, J., 28-15 Black, H.N., 54-12
Arthur. M.G., 39-26. 39-28 Beardon. P.L., 38-20 Black, W., 19-34
Aruna. M., 36-10 Be&y, J.W., 44-51 Blackwell, R.J.. 28-2, 28-4, 28-15, 45-14
Aseltine, R.J., 46-44 Bebout, D.G., 29-9 Blair, C.M., 19-34
Ashby, W.H. Jr., 24-14, 24-23 Becher, P., 19-34 Blair, E.A., 43-16
Ashford, F.E., ix, 28-I I. 28-15 Beck, R.L., ix, 34-46, 34-55 Blair, P.M., 4429, 44.50, 48.14, 48-20
Asymyan, K.D., 25-26 Becker, H.G., 25-22 Blanton. J.R., 45-15
Atkinson, A., 51-44, 51-52 Beebe. W.B., 29-9 Blaskovich, F.T., 48-5, 48-18
Atkinson, H., 44-40, 4451 Be&r, H.S., 24-22 Bleaklev, W.B., 4-1, 6-34, 6-72, 45-15.46-44
Atkinson, M.H.. 16-16 Beeson. C.M., 26-33 Blevins; T.R., 46-44
Attra. H.D., 43-4, 43-16, 43-19 Beestecher, E., 24-22 Bloomquist, C W , 48. I8
Au, A.D.K., 48-19 Beggs, H.D., 5-57, 7-9, 7-17, 22-1, 22-7 to Boatright, B.B., 39-26, 39-28
Ausburn, B.E., 29-1, 51-52 22-12, 22-15, 22-16, 22-22, 34-55, Bobek, J.E., 44-49
Ausburn. J.R., xii, 51-51 46-7. 46-43. 46-45 Boberg, T.C., 46-9,46- 11,46- I3,4643,48-19
Auvenshine. W.L., 39-16, 39-28 Behie, A., 48-20 Bobrowski, F.P., 37-27. 40-38
Azarnoosh, A., 25-25 Beider, S.Y ., 25-26 Bockmeulen, H., 24-22
Aziz. K., vii, 20-5, 20-9, 20-15, 20-18,45-14, Beirute. R., 55-l 1 Bodine, J.A., 18-I
48-l I, 48-16 to 48-19, 54-14, 55-l I Belknap, W.B., 50-38 Bodvarsson, G.S., 48-20
Bell, C.A., 6-34. 6-72 Bogdanov, M.I., 25-25
B Bell, C.R., vii Bogdanov, V.S., 28-1 I, 28-15
Bell, W.E., 4451 Bohr, C., 25-21
Babson. E.C., 34-55. 40-9. 40-38 Bellotti, P., 52-31 Boley, D.W., 44-50
Bagley, J.W. Jr., 36-10 Benedict, M., 20-7, 20-18 Boling, D.R., II-1
Bailey. N.J.L., 24-22 Benham, A.L., 34-5.5, 46-16, 46-45 Bondareva, M.M., 25-27
Baiton, N., 45-15 Ben-Naim, A.. 25-21, 25-24 Bone, M.P., 36-10
Baker. J.R., 54-14 Benner, F.C., 44-2, 44-49 Boone, D.M., 6-72
Baker, 0.. viii, 22-17. 22-22 Bennett, C.O., 55-11 Borden, G. Jr., 22-22
Baker Oil Tool Div., v, 4-I I Bennett, E.N., 39-16. 39-28 Borger, H.D.. 24-22
Baker Performance Chemicals Inc., vii Bennett. E.O., 39-26, 39-28 Boston, J.F., 25-24
Baldwin, J.. 50-38 Bennett, K.E.. 47-25 Botset, H.G., 28-2, 44-49
B8lint. A.M., 28-15 Bennion, D.W., 48-18 Bouma, H., 29-9
Ballard, D., 25-23 Benson, B.B., 25-22 Bourrel, M., 47-25
Baltosser, R.W., xii, 51-52 Berg, R.A., 36-10 Bowen, J.F., 55-12
Bansal. P.P.. 48-20 Berg, R.R., 36-10 Bowler, J., xii, 51-51
Bansback, P.L., 19-33 Berger, W.R., 24-22 Bowman, R.W., 46-44, 46-45. 47-24
Banthia, B.S., 51-6, 51-50 Bergman, J.C., ix, 30-16 Boyd, W.L., x. 41-31, 41-37
Barakat, Y., 47-25 Bergstrom, J.M., 54-14 Boyd, W.S., 25-21
Barb. C.F.. 24-22 Berkshire, D.C., 54-13 Boyle, W.G., 3-1, 3-40
Barber, A.H. Jr., 36-10 Bernard, G.G.. 45-14. 47-25 Bozeman, J.F., 39-28
Barbrow. L.E., I-l, 1-68 Bernard, H.A., 36-3, 36-10 Brace, W.F., 5143, 51-52
Bardgette, J.J., 18-52 Bernard, W.J , 44-51 Bradbury, E.J., 25-24
Bardon, C., 28-11, 28-15 Berry, D.W., 48-10. 48-19 Bradley, H.B., iii, 24-12, 39-1, 44-20.
Barduhn, A-J., 25-26. 25-27 Berry, F.A.F.. 24-23 44.50, 58-2
Barfield, E.C.. 4417, 4449 Berry, I.E., 51-6, 51-50 Bradstreet. E.B., 25-21
Barham, R.H., 38-20 Berry, J.F.. 28-16 Bragg, J.R., 47-25
Barker, C.. 24-22 Berry, P., 36-10 Brainerd, H.A., 16-16
Barlyaev, E.V.. 25-25 Berry, V.J. Jr.. 37-23, 37-25, 37-27, 40-38, Brandt, H., 51-6. 51-50
Barnes, D.F., 51-51 43-4, 43-16, 43-19, 46-43 Brannan, G.. 45-15
Barnes, K.B., 44-51 Berryman. I.E., 39-15. 39-28 Braun, E.M., 28-2, 284. 28-15
Barnes, V.E., 24-22 Bertiger, W.I., 48-19 Braun, P.H., x, 44-49, 45-13
Barrett, M.L. Jr.. 16-16 Bertozzi, W., 50-38 Braunstein. J.. 29-9
Barrett, R.. 12-43 Bertuzzi, A.F.. 34-1, 34-55 Breeding, C.W., 41-37
Barron, A.N., 54-12 Bertuzzi. W.. xi Breitenbach, E.A.. 48-l4,48-16,48-18.48-20
Barry, A.F., 12-43 Beson, J., 3-I Brewer, S.W., 4645
Barstow, W.F., 39-28 Bessler, D.U., 19-33, 19-34 Brian Watt Assocs., vii
Bartell. F.E., 442, 4449 Best, D.L., xi. 4941 Brigham, W.E., 45-15, 4645
Bartholome. E., 25-2 I Biggs, W.P., 49-42 Bright, J., 24-22
Bartlesville Energy Technology Center, vii Bijl, A., 25-21 Brill, J.P., 34-37, 34-55
Bartlett, E.P., 25-22 Bilhartz, H.L., 4451 Brill, T.P., 46-7, 46-43
Barton, J.R., 25-21 Billett, F.. 25-2 I Brinkley, T.W., 37-27, 39-20. 39-23, 39-28
Barton, W.C. Jr.. 43-16 Billings. G.K., 24-23 Brinkman, F.H., 40-38
Bass. D.M. Jr., 24-23, 26-1 Billingsley. R.H.. 46-44 Briscoe. C.F., 25-21
Basset. J., 25-22 Billitzer. .I., 25-24 Bristol Co., The, vi
Bassiouni. Z.. 28-12, 28-16 Bily, C., 25-18. 25-24 Britt, H.I.. 25-24
Bateman, R.M.. xi, 53-1, 53-26 Binckley, C.W., 33-1, 33-23, 34-27, 34-29, Britton, M.W., 46-45
Bates, G.O., 39-28 34-55 Broddus, E.C.. 54-12
Bates, R.L., 29-9 Binder, G.G. Jr.. 45-14. 46-43 Broding, R.A., xii, 51-50, 51-52
Battmo, R., 25-23 Bingham, M.G.. 52-24, 52-31 Brons, F., 35.16, 35-21, 40-38, 41-37
Batycky, J.P.. 28-12, 28-15 Biot. M.A.. 51-8. 51-11, 51-36, 51-47, Brooks, F.A.. 56-9
Baucum. A.W., 40-16. 40-38 51-49. 51-51 Brooks, R.H.. 28-12, 28-15. 46-31, 46-34,
Baugh, E.G., 45-15 Birch, F., 51-50 46-45
Baumgaertner, M.. 25.16, 25.17, 25.23 Bird, R.B , 47-24 Brooks, W.B., 25-26
AUTHOR INDEX 3
Broussard, W.F., 12-43 Campbell. J.M.. VI, 12-43, 12-44. 13-l. Clark. C.R., 6-72
Brown. A.A.. 51-49 13-59. 14-6. 14-22, 25-23. 25-26. Clark. G.A., 46-44
Brown, A.R., 36-10 41-37. 58-2. 58-21 Clark, G.J., 54-12
Brown. F.B., 6-1, 6-36, 6-66, 6.69, 6-12 Camobell. R.A.. 58-2 Clark. J.A.. 55-l I. 55-12
Brown, G.A., 53-26 Campbell, W.P.; 24-22 Clark, J.B. Jr., 57-l
Brown. G.G.. vii. ix, x, 20-5. 20-18, Canadian Petroleum Assn. (CPA), 58-2. 58-8 Clark, J.D., 58-2
3455. 40-38. 45-13 CanOcean Resources Ltd., vii Clark. K.M.. 6-34. 6-72
Brown, H.D., 51-52 Capell. R.G., 25-27 Clark, N.J., 45-13, 45-14
Brown. H.W., 26-24, 26-25, 26-33 Caraway, W.H., 26-33 Clark, P.E.. 55-l I
Brown. J.N., 44-51 Cardwell, W.T. Jr., 39-28, 40-38 Clark, S.P., 51-30, 51-52
Brown, K., 6-28, 6-34, 6-37, 6-38, 6-72 Carlile, R.E., 58-2 Clausius, R.. 20-12, 20-16, 20-17
Brown, K.E.. 7-17, 34-37, 34-55 Carll, J.F., 44-1, 44-49 Claussen, W.F., 25-21
Brown. R.B., 36-11 Carlson, F.M., 28-12, 28-15 Clavier, C., 49-41
Brown, R.J.S., 51-8, 51-51 Carmichael, L.T., 25-27 Clayton, J-M.. 4451
Brownlow, 47-26 Carmichael, R.S., 51-30. 51-52 Clayton, R.N.. 24-23
Brownscombe. E.R., 25-23, 30-16, 38-9, Carothers, W.W., 24-22 Cleary, M.B , 55-11
38-20 Carpenter, C.W., 44-50. 44-52 Clementz, D.M.. 52-30
Bruce, W.A., 26-33 Carpenter, P.G.. ix, 34-37, 34-55 Clifton, R.J., 55-l I
Bruist, E.H., 56-9 Carr. A.H., 48-19 Clinedinst, W.O., 2-1, 2-60, 2-74
Brunsmann. J.J.. 15-34 Carr, N.L., 20-9, 20-10. 20-15, 20-16, Clinkenbeard. P., 39-25, 39-28
Bryan, G.M., 25-24 20-18, 39-4, 39-13, 39-27 Closman, P.J., 38-20
Buchanan, R.D., 39-28 Carraway, P.M., 46-45 Cloud, J.E., 55-l I
Bucklev. S.E.. 24-22. 28-3. 28-6, 28-7. Carroll, H.B., 55-12 Coan, C.R.. 25-21
28.-15, 39.15, 39-28, 40-13, 40-16 to Carson, D.B., 25-5, 25-23, 25-28 Coates. G.R.. xi. 49-41, 51-52
40-18, 40-38, 43-3, 43-4, 43-16, 43-19, Carter, R.D., 38-2, 38-3, 38-20, 55-10 Coats, K.H., 39-22. 39-28, 43-17, 45-14,
447, 4410, 44-11, 44-26, 44-29, Casale, C., 25-21 46-11, 46-12. 46-43, 46-45. 48-l.
44-49, 47-2, 47-24, 48-1, 48-18 Case, C.H., 43-16 48-16, 48-18 to 4X-20
Buckwald, R.W. Jr., 46-45 Case, C.R., 50-38 Coberly, C.J., 6-l. 6-66. 6-69. 6-72
Buehner. L.O.. 6-72 Case, R.C., 16-16 Cobb, T.R., 44-50
Bull, A.D.. 46-45 Casst. F.J., 46-45 Cobb, W.M.. 31-7. 48-18. 52-31
Bunge, A.L., 47-21, 41-26 Cassingham, R.W., 43-17, 45-15 Coffin, C.R., 24-22
Bunting, E.N., 26-4 to 26-6, 26-33 Cato, R.W., 46-44 Coker, F.B., 51-52
Burcik, E.J., viii, 39-2, 39-27 Caudle, B.H., 43-10. 43-19. 4417, Colegrove, G.T., 48-19
Bureer. J.G.. 46-43 44-19, 44-20, 44-29, 44-34, 44-37, Coleman. C.F., 25-26
Burke. B.C., 18-52 44-49 to 44-51, 45-14, 46-17, Coleman, H.J., 21-20
Burke, R.E.. 46-45 46-45. 47-24 Coleman, J.M., 29-9
Burkill, G.C.C., 54-12 Cayias, J.L., 47-25 Coll, R.. 25-25
Burkleca, L.F., 54-13 CBI Industries Inc., vi Collie, B., 19-34
Burnett, E.S., 20-4, 20-18 C-E Natco, vi, vii Collins, A.G., viii, 24-1, 24-22
Burns, G.E., 18-l Chaddock, R.E.. 25-25 Collins, F.A., 38-9, 38-20
Burrell, G.R., 16-l Chambers, A., 26-33 Collins. F.R.. 51-50
Burrows, D.B., 20-15, 20-18, 39-27 Chan, A.F.. 47-24 Collins, R.E., 44-50
Bursell, C.G., 46-44 Chart, S.A., 41-37 Colpoys, P.J., 55-12
Burt, R.A. Jr., 45-15 Chantey, D.G., 17-l Combaz, A., 50-38
Burton, M.B., 4418, 44-20, 44-21, 4449 Charm. SK., 51-52 Combs, G.D.. 43-16
Busch, D.A., 29-9 Chappelear, J.E.. 48-20 Concus, P.. 48-20
Bush, D.C., 50-38 Charles, G.J., 55-10 Conley, F.R., 47-26
Bush, J., 47-26 Chase, C.A., 48-18 Conlon, D.R., 30-16
Buthod, P., 21-t Chastain, J.. IO-37 Connally, C.A. Jr., 6-72, 7-12, 7-17, 22-14
Buxton, T.S.. 46-44 Chatas, A.T., 38-20 to 22-16, 22-22, 39-4, 39-27, 46-45
Byk, S.S., 25-23, 25-28 Chatelain. J.C., 54-12 Connell. J.G., 49-42
Byth, NJ., 54-14 Cheek, R.E., 44-20, 44-49 Connolly, J.F.. 25-26
Chemineer-Kenics, vii Conway, M.W., 54.14, 55-l I
C Chen. C.-C., 25-18, 25-24 Cook, A.B., 37-23, 37-27, 39-12, 39-28.40-38
Chen, W:H., 46-43, 48-18 Cook, G.W., 48-20
Cady, G.H.. 25-3. 25-21 Chenault, R.L.. 8-l Cook, H.L., 5-57
Cady, G.V., 46-43, 4645 Cheng, C.H.. xi. xii, 51-50, 51-51 Cook, R-E., 43.17. 48-19
Cairns, R.J., 19-34 Chepkasov, V.M.. 12-43 Cooke, C.E. Jr., 31-7, 4451. 47-20. 47-26,
Calahan, D.A., 48-20 Cherskii, N.V., 25-24 55-l 1
Calder. J.A.. 25-27 Chew, J.. 6-72, 7-12, 7-17, 22-14 to 22-16, Cooper, F.E.. 1243
Calhoun, J.C. Jr., ix. 32-16, 39-28, 40-38, 22-22, 39-4, 39-21. 46-45 Cooper, H.E. Jr., 44-49
4429, 4450, 45-14 Chierci, G.L., 28-12, 28-15. 34-55 Cooper, R.J., 44-51
California Dept. of Natural Resources, 29-9 Chilingar, G.V., 46-45 Copeland, C.T., 54-12, 56-9
California Research Corp., vii, viii Chilton, C.H., vii. 20-18, 25-15 Coppel. C.P., 19-34, 54-12
Cahngeart, G., 20-13, 20-17, 20-18 Chou. J.C.S.. 24-13. 24-14. 24-23 Cordell, J.C., 37-25, 37-27
Callahan, M.J., 55-l I, 55-12 Christ, F.C., 6-34. 6-38, 6-72 Core Laboratories Inc., viii, x, 26-5. 26-33
Callanan, J.E., 25-27 Christensen, D.M., 51-50. 51-51 Corey, A.T., 28-8, 28-12. 28-15.46-34, 4645
Callaway, F.H., 38-20, 44-51 Christian, L.D., 45-15 Cornelissen, J., 15-34
Callawav. R.E.. 54-14 Christie. M.A.. 4X-19 Cornell, D.. 26-28, 26-33, 34-9, 34-10 to
Calver, j.c, xi Chu, C.. 46-1, 46-13 to 46.19, 46-21, 34-22, 34-24, 34-55
Camacho, C.A., 3440, 34-55 46-43 to 4646 Correia, R.J., 24-23
Cameo Inc., v Church, D.C., 54-12 Corteville, J., 48-19
Cameron, R.C., 54-13 Cinco-Ley, H., 55-l 1 Cosgrove, J.J., 44-29, 44-5 1
Camilleri, D., 47-25 Ciucci, G.M., 34-55 Cotter, W.H.. 43-16
Campbell. A.W., 45-15 Clampitt. R.L., 47-24 Cotton, W.J. Jr.. 53-26
Campbell, F.L., 4942, 52-31 Clapeyron, B.P.E., 20-11 to 20-13, 20-16. Coulter, A.W. Jr., 54-1, 54-12 to 54-14,
Campbell, J.B., 45-15 20-17 55-1, 56-l
Campbell, J.L.P., 50-I Claridge, E.L.. 45.14, 47-24 Coulter, G.R.. 54-12
Counihan T. M , 46-44 DeFord. R.K.. 24-22 Dut’fy. J.R.. 25-21

Courand. G., 36-10 DeGolyer, E.L., 41-7. 41-37 Duggan, J.O., 34-46, 34-55
Cox. E.R., 20-12. 20-13 20-17, 20-18 deHaan, M.J., 46-45 Dukler, A.E.. 34-55
Cozzolino. J.M., 41-37 Deibert. A.D., 46-44 Dumanoir, J.L., xi, 49-41
Craft. B.C., x. 37-27. 39-27, 43-16, 43-17. DeKlss. A.V., 25-21 Dumitrescu. D.T., 34-38. 34-55
43-19, 44-6. 44-16, 4417, 44-49, 48-18 deKlerk, F., 55-11 Dumort. J.M., 37-27
Craig, F.F. Jr., 43-16. 43-17. 43-19. 44-9, DeLoos. T.W.. 25-25 Dunham, C.L.. 16-16
44-l I, 44-19. 4420,44-27 to 44-32.44-34, Delshad, M.. 28-11. 28-15 Dunlap, H.F., 49-41
4449 to 44-S 1145.13,46-43,4644.47-24 Demaison, C.J.. 52-30 Dunlap, P.M., 54-13
Craigie, L.J., 55-10 DeMott, D.N., 54-13 Dunn, K.J.. 51-49
Crane Co., 15-33 Dempsey, J.R.. 48-19 Dunning, H.N., 39-16, 39-28. 45-51
Crawford, D.L.. 54-12 Denekas, M.O.. 44-49 Duns, H. Jr., 34-36. 34-37, 34-40, 34-55
Crawford, J.G.. 24-22 Denoo, S.A., 51-52 Dupal, L., xii, 51-51
Crawford, P.B.. 35-21, 44-18, 44-20. Deppe. J.C., 44-29, 4433, 44-34, 44-50 DuPont Co.. 14-9
44-21, 44-25. 4449, 4450, 46-46 Derr, R.B., 25-27 Dyes, A.B., 30-17, 35-15, 35-21. 43-8.
Crawley, A.B., 55. I 1 Desbrandes, R., 50-38 43-19, 44-20, 44-25, 44-49, 44-50.
Craze,R.C., 36-1, 40-16, 40-17, 40-38 DesBrisay, C.L., 45-15 45-14, 47-24
Crenshaw, P.L., 54-12, 54-14 DeSitter, L.U.. 24-20, 24-23 Dykstra, H., 40-18, 40-19. 40-38, 44-7 to
Crichlow. H.G., 48-17 DeVerter, P.L., 16-16 44-9, 4426. 44-29, 4430, 44-32.
Crichton, J.A., 40-38 devries, D.A.. 22-22 4449, 45-14, 47-17, 47-24
Cracker, F.. 6-34. 6-72 DeVries, W., 54-13 Dysart, G.R., 55-12
Croft, H.O.. 26-33 Dew, J.N., 46-43
Cronquist, C. I x, 37-22, 37-23, 37-27 deWitte, A.J., 26-30, 26-31, 26-33, 49-41 E
Crookston. H.B.. 48-18 DeWitte, L.. 49-41
Crookston. R.B., 46-12, 46-43 Deysarkar, A.K., 54.13, 55-12 Eakins, J.L., 39.16. 39-28
Crosby, C.C., 4451 deZabala, E.F., 47-26, 48-19 Earlougher, R.C. Jr., x, 30-17, 32-16.
Cross, J.H.. 51-50 Dharmawardhana, P.B., viii. 25-9, 25-11, 35-19. 35-21, 36-10, 44-29 to 44.31,
Crowe, C.W., 54-4, 54-12. 54-14 25-23, 25-27 445 I. 46-6. 46-43. 46-44
Crowell, D.C., 28-10, 28-15 Dia.Log Co.. The. xiii Eaton, B.A., 51-39, 51-52
Crowell, R.F., 55-12 Dias-Couto. L.E.. 37-21. 37-27 Eaton, J.R., 6-72
Crazier, T.E., 25-21 Dick, J.W.L.. 25.18, 25-24 Ebert. C.K., 37-25, 31-27
Grump, J.S., 39-28, 45-13 Dickey, P.A., 24-21. 24-22, 44-49. 4451 Eckles, W.W., 39-28
Culberson, O.L.. 25-17, 25-21, 25-24 Diepen, G.A.M., 25-24. 25-25, 25-27 Eddy, H.D., 53-26
Culham, W.E., 46-43, 48-18 Dietz, D.N., 35-6, 35-21, 46-43, 47-24 Edmondson, T.A.. 44-5 I
Cullender. M.H., 5-37, S-38, 5-57, 33-4, diFranco. R.. 48-20 Edmundson, H., xi, SO-32, 50-38
33-6, 33-10, 33-15, 33-23. 34-24. Dill. W.R., 54-13 Edwards, A.T.W.. 25-22
34-25, 34-27, 34-29, 34-55 Dingman, R.J.. 24-23 Edwards, C.A.M., xii, 51-52
Culver, R.B.. 50-38 Dixon, P.C.. 12-43, 39-26, 39-28 Eganhouse, R.P., 25-27
Cunningham, R.G.. 6-36, 6-38, 6-72 Dixon, T.N.. 48-18 Eggleston, W.S., 41-37
Curtis. s.. IO-14 Dobkins, T.A., 55-l 1 Ehrlich, R., 44-51. 46-43, 47-26
Cuthbert, J.F.. 53-26 Doble. P.A.C.. 16-16 Eichenberg, R., v
Cutler. R.A., 55-l 1 Dodds, W.S., 25-21 Eichmeier, J.R., 4-l I
Cutler. W.W. Jr.. 40-29, 40-38 Dode, M., 25-22 Eikerts. J.V., 55-l 1
Cyca. L.C., 45-15 Dodson. C.R., viii, 22-22, 25-17, 25-21, Eilers, H., IS-34
37-21. 39-2. 39-27, 41-38 Eilerts, C.K., x. 39-2, 39-4, 39-S. 39-27
D Doh, C.A., 51-50, 51-51 Einarsen, C.A., 30-17
Doherty, W.T., lo-37 Elbel, J.L., 55-12
Dahm, C.G.. ix, 36-11 Dolan, J.P., 30-13, 30-17 Elfrink, E.B., 37-27, 40-38
Dake, L.P., 32-16, 35-21, 37-3, 37-27 Doll, H.G.. 49-l. 49-41 El-Hattab, M.I., 44-51
Dalati, R.N., 32-1 Dollarhide, F.E., 54-14, 55-l 1 El-Khatib, N.A.F., 37-27
Dalton, R.L., 4451, 48-20 Domenico, S.N., xii, 51-52 Elkins, L.E., 55-l I
Daly. A.R.. 52-30 Dominquez, J.G., 47-24 Ellenberger, A.R., 44-51
Daneshy. A.A.. 55-l I Donaldson, A.B., 4645 Elliott Co. Bull. P-l I, 14-9
Daniel, E.F.. 55-12 Donaldson, E.C., 47-26 Elliott, F.B. Jr., 10-l
Daniel Industries Inc.. vii Donaruma. L.C.. x, 47-24 Elliott, L.S., 56-9
Danniel, A., 25-24, 25-26 Donohoe, C.W., 39-1, 39-28 Ellis, A.J., 25-21
Dardaganian, S.G., 43-16, 43-19 Donohue, D.A.T., 43-17, 45-14 Ellis, D.V., xi, 50-I. 50-38
DaShanzer, W.A., 569 Dorsey. N.E., 24-13, 24-23 Ellis Engineering Inc., vi, 12-43
Daugherty, R.L., 15-33 Doscher. T.M.. 46-9, 46-43 Ellis, G.O., 12-27, 12-43
Davidson. C.D.. 45-15 Dotson. B.J.. iii. 26-33 Ellison, W.F.. 15-l
Davidson, D.W., 25-4, 25-9, 25-23, 25-27 Dotson, C.R., 24-13, 24-23, 41-5, 41-7 Elworthy, R.T., 24-22
Davidson. J.F., 34-55 Dotterweich. F.H., S-57, 12-43 Ely, J., 54-13
Davidson, R.D., 39-28 Douglas, E., 25-22 Emanuel, A.S., 48-19, 48-20
Davies. E.E., 12-43 Douglas, J. Jr., 44-29, 44.31, 4450, 44-51, Emery, L.W.. 44-51
Davis, D.H., 26-33 48-14, 48-16, 48-18, 48-20 EnDean, H.J., 16-16
Davis, D-S., 20-13, 20-17, 20-18 Dow Chemical Co., viii, 25-24 Energy Resources and Conservation Board.
Davis, G.J., ix. 34-55 Dowdle, W.L., 31-7, 52-31 27-9, 34-55, 35-21
Davis, H.T , 47-25 Dowell Schlumberger, xiii Engineering Specialties Inc., vii
Davis, J.B., 24-22 Downie, J., 45-14 Engle, D.D., IS-52
Davis, J.E., 25-21. 25-24 Drake, E.. 18-l Enick, R.M., 40.38, 47.24
Davis, J.J., 54-13 Draper, A.L., 45-14 Enns, T., 25-21
Davis, R.E., 41-37 Dresser-Atlas, xii. xiii, 49-41, 50-38, 51-52 Enright, R.J., 4451
Day, J.H. Jr., 10-l Dresser Industries, v. vi Erbar, J.H., 14-22, 25-16, 25-24
De. G.S., 51-49 Driscoll. V.J., 36-10. 48-6, 48-18 Erickson, D.D., 25-9, 25-23, 43-19
Dean. M.R.. 25-25 Droschak, D.M.. 51-50 Erickson, J.W.. 6-72
Dean, P.C., 44-49 Dubrevil. L.R.. 4451 Erickson, R-A., 43-10. 44-49. 45.14, 47-24
Deaton, W.M., viii, 25-2, 25-5, 25-10. Duda, J.L., 47-24 Ersoy, D., 4-l I
25-14. 25-20. 25-23 Duerksen. J.H., 46-45. 48-18 Espanol, J.H.. 34-37. 34-55
AUTHOR INDEX 5
Essley, P.L. Jr.. 40-38 Foster, K.W., 16-16 Geffen, T.M., 39-15, 39-28. 43-17, 43-19.
Eubank. P.T.. 25-21 Foster. V.. 41-37 44-29, 44-50, 45-13, 46-13. 46-14,
Eucken, A., 25-21 Fowler. E.D., 3-40 46-43
European Continental Shelf Gutde, 27-9 Fowler, F.C., 34-4, 34-55 General Conference of Weights and
Evans, H.J., 13-59 Fowler, P.T.. 52-22, 52-31 Measures (CGPM), 58-4, 58-10, 58-18
Evans, J.G., 46-43 Fox, C.J.J.. 25-22 Gentry, R.W., 41-37
Evans, L.B., 25-24 Fox, K.B., 54-12 Geophysics, 51-50
Evans. R.D.. xi, 50-38 Fox, R.L., 46-45 George. C.J., 36-10
Everett, J.P., 45-14 Frailing, W .G.. 40-38 George, R.A., 4451
Everhart, A.H.. 51-52 Franck, E.U., 25-21, 25-22. 25-24 Geotimes, 25-24
Evinger. H.H., 32-4, 32-16, 34-31, 34.55, Franklin, P., l-l, I-68 Gernet, J.M., 45-15
37-19, 37-27 Franks, J.E., 55-10 Gester, G.C.. 25-26
Ewmg. B.C., 54-14 Fraser, H.J., viii, 26-33 Geyer, R.L.. xti, 51-51
Ewing, J.. 25-24 Frauenthal, J.C., 48-11. 48-20 Ghassemi, F., 46-9, 46-43
Ewing, R.E., 48-19 French, W.S., 36-11 Ghauri, W.K., 44-51
Ewing, W.M., 51-50 Frick, T.C., iii, 46-45 Giacca, D., 52-3 I
EXLOG. xiii Fried, A.N., 45-14, 47-25 Gibbs, G.B., 25-26
Exploration Logging Inc., xii, 52-30. 52-3 I Friedman, R.L., 25-18, 25-24 Gibbs, J.W., 25-I. 25-20
Fritsch, D.R.. 16-16 Gibbs, S.G., IO-37
F Friz, H., 25-21 Gidley, J.L., 54-11, 54-12. 56-9
Frnka, W.A., 46-44 Gilbert, W.E.. 34-45, 34-46, 34.55
Fagin, K.M., 41-5, 41-37 Froelich. B., 51-52 Gilchrist, W.A. Jr., 50-38
Fagin, R.G., 48-14, 48-18 Froltch, P-K., 25-21 Gillespie, P.C., 25-15, 25-21
Falabella. B.J., 25-23 From, K.T., 45-15 Gilliland, H.E., 47-26
Fan, S.K., 47-24 Froning, H-R., 25-27, 47-25 Gillund, G.N., 45-15
Fancher. G.H. Jr.. 34-55 Frost. E., 50-38 Gilman, J.R., 48-5, 4X-18
Farhi, L.E.. 25-22 Frost, E.M., viti, 25-2, 25-5, 25-10, 25.14, Giussani, A , 25-27
Farkas. E.J., 25-26 25-20, 25-23 Giustt, L.E., 4643
Farouq Ah, SM., x, 46-7, 46-13, 46-14, Frost. J.B.. 54-13 Gjaidbaek, J-C., 25-21, 25-25
46-43. 46-46 Fuhner, H., 25-26 Gladfelter, R.E., 38-20
Farshad. F.F., 35-13. 35-21, 40-38 Fulcher. R.A.. 28-12, 28-16 Glaister, R.P., 24-22
Fash. R.H., 24-22 Fuller, K.L., 48-18 Glasser, S.R., 45-15
Fassihi. M.R.. 46-37, 46-45 Fulton, K.. 36-10 Glew. D.N.. 25-23
Fast, C.R., 55-2, 55-10 Funkhouser. H.J., 24-22 Glinsmann, G.R., 47-25
Fatt. I.. 26-7. 26-33, 28-10. 28-15. 51-50 Fussell, D.D.. 48-18. 48-19 Clover, C.J., 47-25
Faulkner. B.L., 45-14 Fussell. L.T.. 48-18 Goetz, J.F., xii, 51-20, 51-51
Fay. C.H., 44-20, 44-49 Gogarty, W.B.. 45-13. 47-25, 48-18
Fayers, F.J., 48-18 G Golan, M., 37-21, 37-27
Feillolay, A., 25-21 Gelding, B.H., 21-10. 21-11. 21-13, 21-15,
Fekete. L.A.. 12-43 Gaddy, V.L., 25-15, 25-17, 25-22, 25-23 21-16, 21-20
Felsenthal. M., 44-29. 44-50 Gadelle, C.P., 46-45 Golding, R.M., 25-21
Feldman, W., 6-72 Gainar, I., 25-22 Goldman, R., 51-50
Fenix & Scisson Inc., vi, I I-13 Galbraith, M., 36. I I Goldsmith. R.G.. 52-31
Fenninger, W.D.. 25-2 I Gale. R.P., 25-26 Goldup, A., 25-26
Ferrero, E.P.. 21-20 Gall, J.W., 47-24 Golub, G.H.. 48-20
Ferrier. J.J., 4645 Galley, J.E., 29-9 Golynets, Y. F., 25-24
Fertl. W.H.. 50-38, 51-52, 55-l 1 Galloway, J.R., 46-44 Gomaa, E.E., 4617,46-18.46-45.48.6,48-I8
Fetkovich. M.J., 34-l, 34-3 I. 34-33, 34-55, Galloway, T.J.. viii, 25-2, 25-20, 29-9 Gondouin, M., 49-40
38-8, 38-20 Garb, F.A., 40-l. 40-37. 41-l. 41-5, 41-37 Gooch, F.W. Jr., 45-14
Fettke, C.R.. 24-i. 24-21 Garder, A.O. Jr., 37-2 I, 37-27. 48-14, Goodman, J.B., 25-22
Fillipone, W.R., 51-52 48-18 Goodman, M.A.. IS-52
Finch. E.M., 44-51 Gardner, D.C., 55-l I Goodwill, D., 22-22
Firoazabadi, A., 48-19 Gardner, F.H., 25-22 Goodwill. W.P.. 51-52
Fischer, F., 25-2 I Gardner, G.H.F.. xi, xti, 26-28, 26-33, Gordon, W.C., 24-2, 24-22
Fischer Governor Co.. vi 36-11. 45-14, 45-15, 51-7, 51-47. Gosline. J.E., 6-36, 6-37. 6-72, 22-22,
Fischer, K.F., 56-l 51.50, 51-52 34-55
Fischer, M.J.. 4425, 44-50 Gardner, J.S.. xi, xii, 49-41, 50-38, 51-35, Gottfried. B.S. 48-18
Fisher Controls Co., vi 5 l-52 Goudouin, M., 49-4 I
Fiske. L.E., 41-2. 41-37 Gardner, L.W.R., xi, 51-50 Gould, T.L., 3440, 34-55, 34-56
Fiskm. J.M.. viii. 23-13 Garms, K.M., 43-l Govier, G.W., 40-38, 55.11
Fitzgerald. P.E.. 54-l. 55-l. 56-l Garon, A.M., 46-43 Goyal. A., 47-26
Flaim. C.. 50-38 Garrison A D , 24-2. 24-22 Grabowski. J.W., 46.12, 46-43
Fleming, P.D. III, 48-18 Garthwaite. D.L.. 43-16 Graciaa, A.. 47-25
Fletcher, C.R., xii. 51-51 Gartner. J., 51-45, 51-52 Graebner. R.J., ix, 36.10, 36-l I
Flid. R.M., 25-24 Gas Processors Suppliers Assn. (GPSA) vi, Graham, D.E.. 19-34
Flippen. F.F.. 54-12 vii. viii. 12-43. 13-59. 14-17, 14-22, Graham, J.W.. 54-13. 55-12
Flock, D.L., 44-20, 44-50 20-18, 23-11. 23-13. 39-12, 39-27 Granberry, R.J.. 50-38
Fluor Subsea Services. vii Gash, B.H.. 47-24 Grant, A.A., 6-72
Fogler. H.S., 54-13 Gaskell, M.H.. 45-14 Grant, B.R.. 46-43
Fomina. V.I.. 25-23. 25-28 Gaskell. T.F., 12-43 Graton, L.C., viii, 26-33
Fong, D.K.. 48-18 Gassmann. F.. 51-8. 51-11. 51-36, 51-49, Graue. D.J., 23- 13.445 I. 47-26.48-6. 48- I8
Forts, L.. 51-52 51-51 Graves. R.M., 26-9. 26-33
Fontaine, E.T.. 19-34 Gates, C.F., 46-15 to 46-17. 46-19. 46-44. Gravia. C.K.. 12-43
Ford, G., l-69 46-45 Gray. K.E.. 30-17
Ford, W.G.F.. 54-13 Gates. G.L.. 26-33. 44-51 Greaser, G.R., 46-44
Forsyth, P.A.. 48-20 Gatlm. C.. 45-13 Grew. G., 25-2 I
Forcer. H.P. Jr., 48-19 Gearhart. 49-41 Green. E.B.. 54-13
Fwtcr. J.H.. 3-l Gecrtsma, J.. 26-7.26-33. 51-E. 51-51. 55-l I Greenberger, M.H.. 40.38.4429.4432,4451
Greenkorn, R A. / 36-10 Harouaka, A., 44-51 Hewitt, C.H., 36.10, 46-44

Greenwalt. W.A., 41-37 Harpole, K.J., 48-10, 48-19 Hewlett-Packard, 22-17, 22-22
Gregory, A.R.. xi, xii. 26-33, 51-8, 51-36. Harrington, L.J., 55-l I Hiatt, W.N.. 44-29, 44-51
51-50. 51-51 Harris, C.D., 48-18 Hickman, B.M., 44-50, 46-45
Grever, J., 25-21 Harris, D.G., 36-10 Hicks, A.L.. 38-3, 38-20
Griffcth, B.L., 45-14 Harris, F.N., 54-13 Hicks, W.G., 51-6, 51-19, 51-50, 51-51
Griffin, F D., 10-l Harris, L.E., 54-13 Higgins, R-V., x, 40.38, 4428 to 44.30,
Griffith, J.D.. 45-15, 48-19 Harris, L.W.. 55-l I 44-32, 44-50, 45-17
Griffith, P.. ix, 34-37 to 34-39, 34.55 Harris, M.H.. xii, 51-35, 51-47, 51-52 Highland Pump Co. Inc., Y
Griffith, T.D., 47-24 Harris, O.E., 54-13 Hilchie, D.W., 50-38, 51-52
Grigoriou. G.C.. 25-28 Harris, P.C., 55-11 Hildebrand, M.A.. 25-28
Griialva, V.E., 51-52 Harris, W.E., 24-22 Hildebrand, S.M., 16-17
C&m. R.E., 41-26 Harrisberger, W.H., 54-12 Hill, D.G., 54-13
Griswold, .I.. 25-27 Harrison, N.H., 39-28 Hill, G.A., 30-17
Griswold. W.T., 24-1, 24-21 Hatting, P., 25-24 Hill, H.G.. 41-37
Grocneveld, H., 4451, 58-2 Hartley, K.B., xii, 51-34, 51-52 Hill, H.J., 26-30, 26-31, 26-33, 47-26, 49-41
Groschuff. E., 25-27 Hartman, J.A., 36-10 Hill, K.E., 41-37
Grosmangin, M., 51-52 Hartsock, J.H., 4450 Hill, R., 51-51
Grossling, B.F., 41-37 Harvey. A.H.. 48-20 Hill, R.W., 16-16
Grosso, D.S., 53-26 Harvey, M.T., 45-15 Hillestad, J.G., 48-20
Grove, M.L., 39-28 Harvey, R.P., 53-26 Hilterman, F.J., 36-l I
Grovenhurg. W.W., 16-17 Harwell, J.H., xi, 47-25 Hiltz, R.G., 43-17
Gruy, H.J., 40-38, 41-5. 41-37 Hasiba, H.H., 47-26 Hmds, R.F., 37-23, 37-21, 40-38, 45-l
Guhbins. K.E., 25-21 Hassan, M., 50-38 Hiraoka, H., 25-24
Guckert, L.G., 44-21, 44-50 Hassler, G.L., 28-2, 28-3, 28-5 to 28-7, Hirasaki, G.J., 47-5,47-9, 47-24.47-25.48-20
Guerrero, E.T., x, 12.43, 37.15, 37.27, 28-15 Hitchon, B., 24-22, 24-23
44-29 to 443 1, 44-5 1 Hatch, M.J., x, 47-24 Hobson, G.D., 40-38
Guimard, A., ix. 30-16 Hauber. W.C.. 44-29. 44-50 Hock, R.L., 39-28
Gum, J.A., 54-14 Haughn, J.E., 25-25 Hockaday, D., 4451
Gulati. MS.. 56-9 Havlena, D.. 37-2, 37-3, 37-6, 31-7, 37-27. Hocott, C.R., 24-22, 39-28
Guler, N., 55-11 38-12, 38-20 Hodgson, H., 53-26
Guppy, K.H.. 55-11 Hawes, R.I., 48-18 Hoenmans, P.J., 44-51
Gurley. D.G., 56-9 Hawkins, M.F. Jr., x, 23-1, 24-14, 24-23, Hoffman, A.E., 39-12, 39-28
Gustavson. F.G., 48-20 37-27, 39-27, 40-38, 43-16, 43.17, Hoffman, S.J., 46-45
Gusto, B.V., vii 43-19, 44-6, 44-16, 4417, 4449, 48-18 Hake, S.H., 24-22
Guthrie, R.K., 40-38, 44-29, 44-32, 44-51 Hawthorne, H.R., 49-41 Holbren, J.H., 44-51
Guyed, H., xii, 4941. 51-50 Hayduk, W., 25-22 Holbrook, S.T., 47-25
Hazebroek, P.. 35-16. 35-21, 4435, 44-51 Holden, W.R., 25-21
H Heald, K.C., 31-7 Holden, W.W., 39-28
Healy, R.N., xi, 47-13, 47-25 Holder, G.D., 25-18, 25-24, 25-28
Haafkens, R., 54-13. 55-l I Hearn. C.L., 46-44, 47-24, 48-8, 48-10, Holditch, S.A., 55-12
Haas, N.C., 25-22 48-19 Hollingsworth. F.H., 54-12
Habermann, B., 4420. 4450, 45-14 Heaviside, J.. 28-12, 28-16 Holloway, C.C., 48-19
Hachmuth, K-H., 25-25 Hebard, G.G., 16-16 Hollrah, V.M., 45-14
Hadley, K., 51-11, 51-51 Hegner. J.S., 54-13 Holm, L.W., 45-l. 45-13. 45-14, 45-15,
Haehnel, 0.. 25-21 He&a. A.A., 28-12, 28-16 47-9, 47-25
Hafemann. D.R., 25-25, 25-27 Heinemann. Z.E.. 48-19 Holman, G.B., 54-13
Hagedorn. A.R., 34-37, 34-55 Heins, C., 25-23 Holmes, B.G., 46-19. 46-45
Hagernan, P.S., 30-16 Helander, D.P., 51-43, 51-52 Holmes, C.S., 34-55
Hagenar. D.S.. ix Helfferich, F., 47-25 Holmgren, C.R., 44-49
Hagoort. J., 28-l 1, 28-15, 47-24 Heller. J.P., 44-50 Holste, J.C., 25-21
Halbouty, M.T., 29-9 Hellums. L.J., 48-19 Holt, O.R.. 53-26
Hail. A.H., 16-17 Hempkins, W.B., xi, 51-51 Homma, T., 25-22
Hall, A.L., 46-44 Henderson, J.H., 46-19. 48-6, 48-18 Hon. M.S., 20-7, 20-18
Hall, B.E., 54-13 Hendrick, J.O. Jr., 56-Y Honarpour, M., 28-16
Hall, C.D. Jr., 55-11 Hendrickson, A.R.. 54-I. 54-12 to 54-14 Hood, J.T., 10-l
Hall, H.N., 26-7 to 26-9, 26-33, 45-13 Hendrickson, G.E., 44-28, 4429, 44-50 Hopkins, E.A., 52-30
Hall, K.R., 20-8, 20-9, 20-18. 25-21, Hendrix, J.R.. 8-l Hopkinson, E.C., 50-38
33-18, 33-23 Henley, D.H., 4449 Horn, A.B., 25-21
Hamilton Bras. 011 Co., vii Henry, J.R., 34-46. 34-55 Home, A.L., 45-15
Hammerlindl, D.J.. 4-l 1. 26-8, 26-33 Henshaw, T.L., 6-72 Homer, D.R., 30-9, 30-10, 30-17, 35-15,
Hammerschmidt, E.G., 25-23 Henson, W.L., 38-20 35-16, 35-19, 35-21
Hancock, G.L. Jr., 40-38 Hepp, V.R., 53-26 Hoskold, H.D., 41-16, 41-18, 41-20 to
Hand. J.H.. 25-24, 25-28 Herald, F.A., ix, 29-9 41-22, 41-37
Handy, L.L., 37-27 Herbeck, E.F., 45-15, 48-18 Hoss, R.L., 43-17
Hanna. M.A.. 29-9 Hermanson, D.E., 9-1 Hossin, A., 50-38
Hannah. R.R.. 55-l I Herrera, A.J. ( 46-44 Hottman, C.E., 51-39, 51-52. 52-30
Hansen, D.N.. vii Herrera. J.Q., 48-6, 48-18 Houghton, G., 25-22
Hansen, P.W., 45-15 Herring, E.A., xii, 51-52 Houston Geological Society. ix. 29.9
Hanson, J.M., 55-l 1 Herron. E.H. Jr., 48-18 Howard, D.S. Jr., 38-20
Hanson, M.E.. 55-11 Herron. M.M., 50-38 Howard, G.C., 55-2. 55-10
Hanzlik. E.J.. 48-6. 48-18 Herschel, W.H., 22-22 Howard, J.V.. 46-45
Harbert. L.W.. 28-12, 28-16 Hertzberg, G., 25-21 Howe, L.S., 25-23
Harder. A.H.. 25-21 Hertzberg, R.H.. 4645 Howell, J.C., 46-42
Harder. M.L.. 32-3. 32-16 Hertzog, R.C.. xi, 50-38 Howell, J.V., 24-21
Hardy, G.W. III. 57-12 Herzfeld. J.R., 41-37 Howell, R.G.. 36-10
Hardy, 1-H.. 45-15 Hestenes. M R., 48-20 Hoyer, W.A., 50-38
Hardy. W.C., 46-44, 46-45 Heuer. G.J.. 44-50 Hoyt, W.V., ix, 29-l
AUTHOR INDEX
Hsiao, L., 44-5 1 Jacuzzi. R., 6-34, 6-72 Kazemi. H.. 48-5. 48-18. 4X-19
Hsu, C.C., 25-21 Jageler, A.H., 51-51 Keeney, B.R., 54-13
Hsu, W., 47-25 Janzen, H.B., 44.19, 4420, 4434, 4449 Keese, J.A.. 46-45
Huang, W.. 46-43 Jaragua S.A. Industrias Mechanicas, vi Kehn, D.M.. 45-14
Hubbard. M.G.. 34-55 Jardetzkv. W.S.. 51-50 K&man. S.. 25-22
Hubbard; R.A.,‘41-37 Jardine,‘D.. 36.5. 36-10 Keller, G.V., 49-42
Hubbert. M.K.. 26-33, 29-9, 5144, 51-52 Jea, N.C.. 48-20 Kelley, H.S.. 16-16
Hubby, L.M., 16-16 Jeffries-Harris, M.J., 44-51 Kelley, L., 6-72
Hudock. K., 54-13 Jenkins, R.A. Jr., 54-14 Kelly, J.L., 51-50
Hughes, D.S., 51-50 Jenkins, R.E., 27-1, 50-38 Kelly, P., 43-17
Huh, C., 47.13, 47-25 Jenks, L.H., 45-15 Kelm, C.H., 45-15
Hung, J.H., 25-21 Jennings, A.R., 54-13 Kelton, F.C., 26-7, 26-33
Hunt, E.R.. xii, 51-52 Jennings, H.Y. Jr., 47-19. 47-20, 41-26 Kemp, C.E., 38.20, 4450
Hunt, J.M., 23-13 Jennings. R.R., 47-24 Kempton, E.A., 6-72
Huntington, R.L.. 25-27, 40-38 Jensen, C.M., 23-13 Kendall, H.A., 45-14
Hurd, C.O., vii Jensen, J., 24-22 Kennedy, G.C. 25-22
Hurdle, J.M., 43-17, 45-15 Jessen, F.W., 24-22 Kennedy, H.T., viii, 26-21, 26-33, 39.13,
Hurford, G.T., 45-15 Jhaveri, I.. 25-28 39-28
Hurst, R.E., 55-10, 55-l 1 Jines, W.R., 48-18 Kennedy, S.L., 43-17
Hurst. W.. 30-10. 30-14. 30-17. 35-l Joffe, J., 20-7, 20-18. 48-18 Kern, L.R.. 43-4. 43-16. 43-19. 55-2. 55-10
35-21, 38-l. 38-E. 38-20, 39-20, 39-28, Johansen, R.T., 4451 Kersch, K.M., 30-17
40-37, 4417, 44-20, 44-29, 44-49, 45-15 John, V.T.. 25-28 Kershaw, D.S., 48-20
Hutchinson, C.A. Jr., x. 30-17, 35-15, Johnson. C.E. Jr., 40-19, 40-38, 44-9, Kerver, J.K., 4942
35-21. 44-25, 44-50, 45-13, 45-14 4432, 4449, 44-51, 45-14, 47-24, Kesler, M.G., 20-13, 20-17, 20-18
Hutchinson, T.S., 38-20 47-26. 48-18 Kestin, J., 24-16, 24-23
Hutton, J.M., 25-28 Johnson. C.R.. 36-10 Khalifa, H.E., 24-23
Huygen, H.H.A., 46-43 Johnson, D.H., xi, 51-50 Khan, S.A., x, 47-25
Huzarevich. I.E., 43-17 Johnson, E.F., 45-14 Kharaka, Y.K., 24-23
Hvizdos. L.J.. 46-45 Johnson, G.A., 48-6. 48-18 Khitarov, N.I.. 25-22
Hwang, M.K., 48-18 Johnson, H.M., 49-42 Khoury, F., 25-20
Hvdraulic Inst.. 6-50, 6-72 Johnson, J.P., 36-10, 44-29, 4450 Khristianovitch, S.A., 55-2, 55-10
Hydrocarbon Research Inc., vii Johnson, L.A., Jr., 46-3, 46-43, 4645 Khurana, A.K., 48-20
Johnson, O.C., 45-14 Kieschnick, W.F. Jr., 45-14
I Johnson, R.K., 51-39, 51-52, 52-30 Killian, J.W.. 4425, 4450
Johnson, W.M., Jr., 53-26 Killough, J.E., 48-19. 48-20
Illiyan, IS., 53-26 Johnston, N., 26-33 Kilmer, J.W., 39-28
Imai, S., 25-25 Jones, A., 55-10 Kim, J.J., 25-24
Independent Petroleum Assn. of America Jones, K.E., 40-38 Kimball, C.V., 51-51
(IPAA), 41-37 Jones. L.G.. 56-9 Kimbler, O.K., 44-2 I, 44-49
Inga. R.F., 25-25 Jones, R.G., viii, 26-33 Kimmel, J.D., 32-l
Ingersoll, A.C., 15-33 Jones. S.B.. xi, 51-50 Kimmell, G.O., vi, 12-43
Ineram. J.D.. 51-51 Jones, S.C.. 28-15 Kincheloe, R.L., 54-13
Inks, C.G., 4451 Jones, T.J., 19-34 King, A.D. Jr., 25-21
Inst. Francais du P&role, 28-7, 28-15 Jordan, C.A., 44-37, 44-51 King, G.E., 54-12, 54-13, 55-l 1
Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Jordan, D., 25-26 King, M.S., xi, 51-S. 51-9, 51-50 to 51-52
(IEEE): Jordan, J.K.. 44-51 King, R.E.. 29-9
IEEE Std. 117, IO-37 Jorden, J.R., 49-42, 52-24, 52-31 King, W.R., v, 5-12
IEEE Std. 260, 58-8 Joris, G.G., 25-25 Kinra, R.K.. 18-52
IEEE Std. 268, 58-8 Jorque, M.A.. 445 1 Kirby, I.E. Jr., 43-16
Interscience Encyclopedia Inc., vii Josendal, V.A.. 45-14 Kircher, C.E. Jr., 21.10, 21-20, 22-22
Interstate Oil Compact Commission, 33-13, Joseph, C., 46-45 Kirk, R.S., 46-44
33-23, 39-27 Jossi, J.A., 20-18 Kirkpatrick. C.V., v, 5-l. 5-37
Intl. Bureau of Weights and Measures J. Cdn. Pet. Tech., 46-45 Kithas, B.A., xii, 51-52
(BIPM), 58-10 Judson, L.V.. l-l. l-68 Klaus, E.E., 47-24
Intl. Organization for Standardization Jung, K.D., 4644 Klausutis. N.A.. 25-25
(ISO), 12-43, 58-3, 58-11, 58-12 Justen, J.J., 4451, 45-14 Kleppinger, K.B., 16-17
IS0 31/O, 58-8 Justus, J.B., 43-16 Klinkenberg, L.J., viii, 26-18. 26-33. 28-13
IS0 1000, 58-8 Justus. W.W., 6-63. 6-72 Kloepter, C.V., 45-15
IS0 R370. 58-8 Kloth, T.L., 4645
IS0 2955, 58-8 K Klots, C.E., 25-22
KWIC Index of Intl. Stds., vi Klotz, J.A., 56-9
Intl. Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 58-7 Kamp, A.W., 53-26 Klovan. I.E., 24-23
Intl. Union of Pure and Applied Physics, 58-7 Kandarpa, V., 4451 Knapp, H., 25-18, 25-24
IPAA, 41-37 Kane, A.V., 45-15 Knezek, R.B., 43-16
Irick, J.T., 18-52 Kansas State Corp. Commission, 39-27 Knopoff, L.. 51-46, 51-52
Isenhower, W.M., IS-52 Kasamovskti, J.S., 25-17, 25-24 Knox, J.A., 54-12. 54-13
Ivey, D., 5149 Kasch, J.E., 25-27 Kobayashi, R., viii, 20.15, 20.18. 25-l to
Iyoho, A.W., 46-13, 46-14, 46-43 Kasic, M.J. Jr., 48-20 25-3. 25-5, 25-10, 25-l 1, 25-15, 25-17.
Izabakarov. M. 25-21 Katz, D.L., vii, 12-43, 20-5, 20-9, 20-10, 25-18, 25-20, 25-21, 25-23, 25-24,
20-18, 22-4, 22-17, 22-21, 22-22, 25-2. 25-28, 39-21
J 25-3, 25-5, 25-10, 25-l 1, 25-16 to Kobe, Inc., v, 26-6
25-18. 25-20, 25-21, 25-23, 25-24, Kobe, K.A., 25-22, 25-24
Jacks, H.H., 48-19 25-28, 26-28, 26-33, 34-55, 34-56, Koch, H.A. Jr., x, 43-19, 45.13, 45-14
Jackson, J.A., 29-9 39-1, 39-27, 40-15, 40-38, 45-14, Koch, R.L., 4643, 46-45
Jacobs, W.L., 47-25 48-18. 48-19 Koeller, R.C., 40-38
Jacoby, R.H. 20-8, 20-18, 25-27, 37-23 to Kavvadas, M., 55-l 1 Koepf, E.H.. 27-l
37-25, 37-27, 40.38, 43-4, 43-16, Kay. W.B., 20-5, 20-10 Koerperich, E.A., 51-24, 51-25. 51-51
43-17, 43-19, 45-14, 48-19 Kazaryan, T.S., 25-25, 25-26 Kokesh, F.P., 51-51. 51-25, 51-51
a PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Kokesh. F.P.. 51-51. 51-52 Laulhere. B.M., 25-2 I Lovell, F.P.. 25-25
Kolodzie, P.A.. 44-51, 47-26 Laumbach. D.D.. 46-43 Low, J.W., 52-9. 52-30
Konen, C.E., 53-26 Law. J., 39-28 Lowe, R.M., 38-20
Koppers Co. Inc., 1 l-14 Lawrence. L.L., 1244 Lay. M.E.. 49-41
Kornfeld. J.A.. 44-5 1 Laws, W.R., xii, 51-52 Lubinski, A., 4-l 1
Korringa, J., 51-8, 51-51 Lawson, J.B., 47-9, 47-25, 47-26 Lubojacky, R.W., 36-10
Kortekaas, T.F.M., 28-12, 28-15 Lawson, I.D.. 34-37. 34-55 Lucas, M.. 25-21
Koshelev. V.S.. 25-28 Lea, J.F., 5-52, 5-57 Lufkin Industries Inc., vi
Kotcher, J.S.. 36. I I Leach, R.O., 44-40, 44-51, 47-26 Lumpkin, W.B.. 43-17
Krase. N.W., 25-22 Leas, W.J., 44-50 Lund, K., 54-13
Krause, D.J., 25-22 Lease, W.O.. 28-7, 28-12, 28-15 Luque, R.F., 54-13
Krautkrimer, H., xi, 51~50 LeBlanc. R.J., 36-3, 36-10 Lybarger, J.H., 54-13
Krautkramer, J., xi, 51-50 LeBreton, J.G., 25-26 Lynch, E.J., xii, 44-29, 4450, 51-51
Krebill, F.K.. 43-16 Ledbetter, R.L., 3820
Krebs, H.J.. 44-51 Ledlow, L.B., 54-13 M
Kreft, A., SO-38 Lee, B.D., 4417, 4449
Krejci-Graf, K.. 24-22 Lee, B.I.. 20-13, 20-17. 20-18 Maas, 0.. 25-22
Kresheck, G.C., 25-26 Lee. J.. 35-12. 35-21 MacDonald, R.C., 48-14, 48-20
Krichevskii, I.R., 25-17, 25-22, 25-24 Lee. M.H., 54-13 Mace, C., x, 4644
Krishnan. C.V.. 25-18. 25-24 Lee, S.T.. 46-31. 4645 MacLean. M.A.. 46-44
Krueger, R.F.. 56-9 Lee, W.J., 55-12 MacNaughton. L.W., 41-37
Krueger, W.C. Jr., 36-10 Lefebvre du Prey, E.J., 28-10. 28-15 Macon, R.S., 45-15
Krug, J.A., 26-9, 26-33 Letkowitz, H.C., 40-38 Macrygeorgos. C.A., 40-38
Kruk, K.F., 54-12, 5414 Leggett, B., 54-13 Maddox, R.N., 14-l. 14-22
Krumbein, W.C., viii, 26-7, 26-33 Leibrock. R.M.. 43-17 Maerker, J.M.. 47-6, 47-24
Krutter, H., 4421. 44-50 Leighton. A.J., x, 44-28 to 44-30, 44-32, Maharijh, D.M., 25-27
Krynine, P.D., 29-9 44-50. 45-14 Maher, l.c., 52-9, 52-30
Kuba, D.W., 48-20 Leland, T.W. Jr., 25-24 Maini. B.B., 28.12, 28-15
Kufus. H.B.. 4429. 4450 Lemanczvk. R.. 55-12 Majani, P., 51-52
Kuhn, C.S., 46-43 Lents, M.R., x, 39-19, 39-20, 39-23, 39-28 Makogon, Y.F., 25-18, 25-23, 25-24
Kunerth, W., 25-22 Lentz, H., 25-24. 25-25 Malesinska. B.. 25-22
Kunkel, G.C., 36-10 Leonardon, E.G., 31-7, 51-50 Malik, V.K., 25-22
Kuntz, E.. 57-12 Lerner. B.J., 12-43 Malinin, SD., 25-22, 25-24
Kunz, K., 4941 Lescarboura, J.A.. 55-12 Maly, G.P., 56-9
Kunze, K.R., 54-13. 54-14 Lesem, L.B., 39-25, 39-28 Mantillas, G., 54-13
Kurovskaya, N.A., 25-24 Lester, G.W.. 44-35, 44-51 Mandl, G.. 46-8, 46-9, 46-15, 46-43
Kuster, G.T., 51-34. 51-52 Letkeman, J.P., 48-20 Maney, E.. 47-26
Kvenvolden. K.A.. 25-18, 25-24 LeVelle, J.A.. 16-16 Mann, L.D., 48-6, 48-18
Kwan, T.V., 48-20 Leverett, M.C., 26-24, 26-33, 28-2. 28-3, Manning, R.K., xi, 47-6, 47-24
Kwong. J.N.S., 20-7, 20-8, 20-18, 23-12. 28-6. 28-7. 28-15. 40-13. 40-17. 40-18. Mansurov, RI.. 19-34
23-13, 39-28 40-38, 43-3, 43-4, 43-16, 43-19; 444, Mapes, G.J., 1243
Kyte, J.R., 44-49, 48-10, 48-19 44-7. 44-9 to 44-l 1. 44-26. 44-29. Markham, A.E.. 25-22
4449, 47-2, 47-24, 48-1, 48-18 Markhasin, IL., 28-11, 28-15
L Levesque, J.M., 48-20 Marrs, D.G., 45-15
Levine, J.S.. 37-21, 37-22, 37-27 Marshall, D.L., x, 39-20, 39-21, 39-28
Labrid, J., 54-13 Levorsen, A.1.. 29-9 Marshall, D.R., viit, 25-2, 25-5, 25-20,
Lacey, J.W., 45-14 Lewin and Assocs. Inc., 46-4, 46-13, 25-24
Lacey, W.N., x, 21-10, 21-20, 22-22, 46- 14, 46-43 Marshall, P.W., 18-52
23-13, 25-20, 39-2, 39-21, 45-14 Lewis, C.R., 52-31 Martin, F.D., x, 47-22, 47-24, 47-26
Lachance, D.P., 26-9, 26-33 Lewis, J.O., 40-15, 40-38, 44-49 Martin, J.C., 35-2. 35-21, 43-16, 44-50
Lackland, S.D., 45-15 Lewis, P.E., 55-I I Martin, J.J., 20-8, 20-18, 39-28, 48-18
Lagers, G.H.C., vii Lewis, W.B., 44-4, 44-49 Martin, J.W., 7-17
Lahring, R.I., 44-51 Lewis, W.K.. 22-22 Martin, M., 49-1, 49-41
Lajtai, I., 25-2 I Lewis, W.M., 37-27 Martin, R.C., 54-12
Lake, L.W., xi, 28-15, 47-1, 47-24 to Li, C.C., 25-25 Martin, W.A.. 40-38
47-26, 54-14 Liabastre, A.A., 25-26 Martin, W.L., 4643, 46-45
Lam, KY., 55-11 Lien, C., 48-19 Martinelli, R.C., 34-37, 34-55
Lamborn, R.E., 24-22 Lin. C., ix, 28-12, 28-15 Martinez, S.J., 54-l. 55-1, 56-l
Lamont, N., 49-41 Lindbad, E.N., 39-27, 45-15 Marx, J.W., 46-7 to 46-9. 46-43
Lampe, H.W., 48-20 Lindsey, W.C., 18-52 Marzetta, T.L., 51-51
Land, C.S., 28-12, 28-15, 44-49 Lipson, L.B , 49-42 Maslennikova. V.Y., 25-22, 25-23, 25-26
Landrum, B.L., 44-25, 44-50 Lisbon, T.N., 3446, 34-55 Matheny, S.L. Jr., 16-16
Lane, A.C., 24-2. 24-22 Little, L.A , IO-I Mathews, J-D., 48-18
Lane, L.C., 45-15 Little, T.P., 46-44 Mathews, M.A., 51-52
Langenheim, R.N., 46-7 to 46-9. 46-43 Lockhart, R.W., 34-37, 34-55 Matous, J., 25-22
Langston, E.P.. 4436, 4451 Loa Analyst, The, xiii Mattax. C.C.. 44-49. 48-19. 48-20
Langton, J.R., 43-17 Logan. J.i., 4- 11 Matthews, C.S., 35-16, 35-21. 40.38,
Lannung, A., 25-2 I Logan, J.M.. 55-12 4425, 44-50. 44-51
Lantz, R.B., 46-9, 46-1 I, 46-43, 48-10, Lo&. R.E., 43-17 Matthews, T.A., vii, 20-9, 20-10, 20-18
48-19 Loncaric, I.G., 44-20, 44-37, 44-50 Matthies, E.P., 36-10
Larson. R.G., 47-25 Lone Star Steel. 2-46, 2-74 Mauerer, O., 25-18, 25-24
Larson. S., 25-23 Longeron, D.G.. 28-l I, 28-15 Maurette, C., 51-50
Larson. T.A., 41-1 Longstaff, W .J.. 48 19 Mayer, C.. 49-42
Lasater, J.A., 7-9. 7-17, 22-5 to 22-10, Loomis. A.G., 28-10, 28-15 Mayer, E.H., iii, 22-22. 47-26
22-22 Loprest, F.J., 25-22 Mayhill, T.D., 54-12
Las&r, R.H., 15-l Lorenz, P.B.. 47-26 Mayland, B.J., x, 46-37. 46-45
Lasater, R.M., 54-13 Lotter. Y.G.. 25-26 Mayorga, G., 25-24
Last, G.J., 43-17 Loveless, G.W.. 51-52 Mazzullo. S.J.. 29-9
AUTHOR INDEX 9
McAdams, W-H.. 46-43 Meww. E.S.. 26-24 Muecke. T.W.. 54-14. 56-2. 56-9
McAuliffe, C.D.. 24-23, 25-21. 47-20. 47-26 Metcalfe. R.S.. 20-I. 23-9. 23-13. 45-10. Mueller, T.D.. 38-20. 43-17
McBain. J.W.. 25-25 45. I4 Mulac. A.J.. 46-45
McBean. W.N. 1 46-44 Meter, D.M.. 47-4. 47-24 Miiller. G.. 51-51
McBride. J.R., 54-13 Meyers. D.C.. 16-16 Miiller. H.G.. 25-5. 25-23
McCaffery. F.G., 28-11. 28-15 Michaelis, A.M., 54-12 Mullins. L.D., 37-27. 40-38
McCann. C.. 51-52 Mtchels, A., 25-21 Mungan, N.. x, 44-51, 48-19. 54-12
McCann, D.M.. 51-52 Mid~Continent Dist. Study Commission, Munjal. P.K., 25-22
McCarter. E.D.. 48-18 24-22 Munn. M.J.. 24-1, 24-21
McCarty, D.G.. 44-17. 44-49 Mid-Continent Oil and Gas Assn., 41-37 Murphy, G.B.. 21-20. 39-27
McCarty, E.L., 25-2 I Mtkesha, F.J.. 16-16 Murray, C.N.. 25-22
McCarty. G.M.. 44-17, 44-49 Milburn, J.D.. 26-30. 26-31, 26-33 Murray, J.. 51-51. 55-10
McCaskill, N.. 45-15 Miles, L.H.. 56-9 Murzin. V.I.. 25-25
McCay. R.C., 25-22 Miller, B., 25-27 Muskat, M., 6-37, 6-39. 6-72, 28-2. 28-5.
McClaflin. G.G.. 6-72. 19-34 Miller, B.D., 54-12. 54-14 28-15, 30-9. 30-I I. 30-16, 30-17. 32-4,
McClellan, J.H., xii. 51-51 Miller. C.C., 30-9. 30-12, 30.17, 35.15. 32-16. 34-3 I. 34-55. 37-7, 37.10.
McClendon, R.. 52-54. 52-31 35-2 I 37-13. 37-14. 37-19. 37-27. 39-19.
McCormick. G.W.. viii Miller, F.G., 43-17 39.20, 39-27. 39-28, 40-9. 40.10.
McCord, D.R.. 43-16 Miller. M.A., 28-12, 2X-16 40-18. 40-38, 43-17. 43-19, 44-13,
McCracken. T.A.. 48-11. 48-19 Miller, M.G.. x. 39.19, 39.20, 39-23, 4414, 44.16, 44.17. 44-20. 44-21.
McCray. A.W.. 41-37 39-28 44-26. 44-29, 44-33, 44-49. 4450,
McCrossan, R.G., 24-22 Miller. S.L., 25.25, 2527 45.14, 45.15, 48.17, 48-18
McCulloch. R.C.. 43-17 Mtllican, M.L., 49-42 Myhill, N.A., 46-9. 46-15. 46-43
McCune. C.C., 44-37. 4451. 54-13 Millikan, C.V., 30-l. 30-16, 31-l Myung, J.I.. xii, 51-43, 51-51. 51-52
McCurdy, R.C.. 26-33 Mills, F. van A.. 24-l. 24-22
McDaniel, R.R.. 55-I I, 55-12 Mime. J.H., 24-23 N
McDonald, A.E., 48-20 Milton, H.W. Jr., 47-25
McDonald, G.H.F., 51-46, 51-52 Minear, J.W.. xii, 51.34. 51-51, 51-52 Naar, J., 28-15
McDonald, J.A.. 36-l I Minnich. B.H.. 25-22 Nabor, G.W., 38-20. 44-25, 44-50
McDow. G.. 54-13 Minor, H.E., 24-22 Nagata, I.. 25-5, 25-23
McElwee, P.G.. 58-S Minor, S.S., 54-12 Naw, B.. 25-2 I. 25-22
McEvoy Co., v Minssieux, L.. xi. 41-26 Nario Chemical Co. CTS-V3. 19-34
McFarlane, R.C.. 43-17 Mintz. F.. 41-37 Namiot. A.Y., 25-21. 25-26. 25-27
McGarry. M.W. Jr., 40-37. 41-38 Misk. A.. xii, 51-22, 51-51 Nath. A.K.. 51-52
McGhee. E.. 16-16, 19-34 Mitchell, R.W., 4451 Nations, L.F., xii. 51-35, 51-51
McGinty, J.E., 54-14 Modine. A.D.. 48-20 Natl. Aeronautical and Space Admin, (NASA):
McGrain, P., 24-22 Modular Production Equipment Inc., vii NASA SP-7012. 58-8
McGraw. J.H.. 43-17 Mohanty. K.K.. 28-12. 28-15, 28-16. 47-25 Natl. Assn. of Corrosion Engmeers
McGuire, W.J., 54-9, 55-10 Moilliet, J.L., 19-34 (NACE). 12-43, 19-34,
McKelvey. J.G.. 24-23 Molokowu, F.W., 36-10 NACE Std. MR-01-75, 3-36. 3-37.
McKetta. J.J.. 25-l. 25-16. 25-17, 25-21. Monroe, R.R., 22-22 3-40. 9-14
25-23. 25-24. 25-25. 25-26, 25-27 Montadert. L., 36-10 NACE Std. RP-01-75, I I-14
McKinley, D.C., 16-16 Moody, L.F., ix, 34-38, 34-52. 34-55 NACE Std. RP-03-72, I l-14
McKinney. O.B.. 24-22 Moore, C.H., 29-9 NACE Std. RP-05-75. I I-14. 19-34
McKay. V., 25-5, 25-23 Moore, E.W., 54-14 NACE Std. TM-01-73, 44-51
McLaughlin. W.A.. 54-13 Moore, G.T., 29-9 NACE Std. TPC-5, 19-34
McLean, A.M.. 25-22 Moore, J.C.. 25-21 Natl. Bureau of Standards (See U.S. Natl.
McLeod, H.D. Jr., 25-23 Moore, J.L., 45-l Bureau of Standards)
McLeod, H.O., 54-13, 54-14 Moore, J.W., 25-27 Natl. Electrical Code (NEC), 3-34, 3-40,
McLeod, H.O. Jr., 55-12 Moore, T.V., 32-3, 32-16, 34-37 10-26, 18-44, 1846, 18-52
McMahon, J.J., 37-27, 38-9, 38-l I. 38-20 Moore, W.D., 38-20 Nat]. Electrical Manufacturers Assn.
McMahon, W.F., 6-34. 6-72 Moorwood, R.A.S., 25-23 (NEMA). vi, IO-17 through 10-20,
McMenamin. M.A.. 25-18. 25-24 Moran, 1.. 49-41 10-24, 10-25, 10-27. IO-37
McNeal, R.P., 52-9, 52-30 Moranville, M.B., 48-18 Natl. Fire Protection Assn. Bull. 496.
McNeil, J.S., x, 46-14, 46-19, 46-43 to Morel-Seytoux. H.J.. 4429, 44-51, 47-24 1846, 18-52
46-45 Moreland. E.E., 33-23 Natl. Oilwell. v
McNellis, J.M., 24-19, 24-23 Morgan, C.O., 24-19. 24-23 Natl. Petroleum Council, 1S-52
Meabon. H.P., 47-25 Morgan. J.T.. 46-44 Natl. Production Systems, 6-72
Mead. H.N., 7-17 Morkill, D.B., 41-16, 41-19, 41-22, 41-37 Natural Gas Assn. of America (NGAA).
Meads, R., 28-16 Morris, C.F., xii, 51-51 39-12, 39-27
Mechem, O.E., 26-33 Morris, F.C.. 26-33 Natural Gas Supply Mens Assn.
Mechtly. E.A., 58-8, 58-14 Morris, J.K., 12-43 (NGSMA), vi
Meckei, L D., 36-10 Morris. R.L., 49-42 Navone, R., 25-21
Meenta, W.F.. 24-22 Morrisey. N.S., 41-37 Neal, E.A., 55-12
Megyesy, E.F., vi. 12-43 Morrison, J.B., 4451 Needham, R.B., 47-24
Mehta, B.R.. 25-28 Morrison. T.J., 25-21 Negri, G.. 25-21
Meijerink, J.A., 48-14, 48-20 Morse, R.A.. 43-17. 4429. 44-49, 45-13 Neilsen, R.F., 35-l
Melcher, A.F., 26-3 Mortada, M., 38-1, 38-20, 44-25, 44-50 Neilson. I.D.R., 44-20, 44-50
Meldau. R.F., 46-45, 46-46, 48-6, 48- I8 Mosburg, L.G. Jr., 57-12 Neinast, G.S.. 46-42
Melnyk, J.D., 54-13 Moscrip, R. III, 43-16 Nelson, C.C., 6-34, 6-72
Melrose. J.C., 24-16, 44-51 Moseley. N.F.. 4-10. 4-11 Nelson, D.E.. 4451
Meltzer, B.D., 43-17, 45-15 Moses, P.L., 39-l. 39-16, 39-28 Nelson. E.F.. 21-20. 39-27
Mennie. J.H., 25-22 Moshfeghian, M., 25-16, 25-18. 25-24 Nelson, R.C.. 23-13. 47-20, 47-25. 47-26.
Mennon. V.B., 19-34 Moss. J.T., x, 4420. 44-50 4643, 46-44 48-18
Menten. P.D., 25-27 Moughamian. J.M.. 48-6, 48-18 Nelson, T.W., 46-14, 46-19. 46-45
Menzie, D.E., 44-20, 4449 Mounce, W.D., 49-41, 51-50 Nelson, W.L.. vii, 21-9, 21-20, 22-22
Merrill, L.S., 48-19 Mower, L.N., 5-57 Nemeth, L.K., 39-13, 39-28
Maser, P.H., 34-55 Mrosovsky, I.. 40-38. 48-17. 48-20 Neuman, C.H.. 46-9, 46-43
Neustadter, E.L., 19-34 O’Sullivan, T.D., 25-21 Peterson. R.L., 45-15

Newburg, A.H., 16-16 Otis Engineering Corp., v Petrie, H., 6-l. 6-34. 6-72
Newendorp, P.D., 41-37 Otsuka, E.. 25-24 Petrie, T.A., 41-37
Newman, G.H.. 26-8, 26-33 Otto. F.D.. 25-23. 25-28 Petroleum de Venezuela S.A.. 27-9
Newman, S.A., 25-18, 25-24 Ovchinnikov, A.A.. 12-43 Petroleum Publishing Co.. 18-52
New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission, Overbeek, J.Th.G., x, 47-25 Petrov, A.N., 19-34, 25-25
39-27 Overton, H.L., 49-42 Petrunia, J.P., 25-28
Nezdoiminoga, N.A., 25-22 Owen, J.D., 26-33 Peveraro, R., 53-26
Ng, H.J., 25-5, 25-9, 25-l I, 25-20, 25-23, Owen, L.B., 55-l 1 Pickett, G.R., 51-50
25-24, 25-28 Owen, W.W., 28-11, 28-15 Pierce, H.R., 30-8, 30-16
Nghiem, LX., 48-18 Owens, W.W., 45-13, 47-20, 47-26 Pierre, M.L., 54-12
Nichols, D.T., 21-20 Pierson, N.O., 54-14
Nichols, E.A., 31-7 P Pierson, R.G., 48-18, 48-19
Nicholson, R.W., 4451 Pinson. J., 4450
Nicklin, D.J.. 34-39, 34-55 Paasch, R.D., 41-37 Piper, A.M., 24-19, 24-23
Niebrugge, T.W., 6-72 Pabley, A.S., 54-14 Pirie, G., 50-38
Nielsoi.-R.F., 25-26 Pacific Energy Assn., 13-59 Piros, J.J.. 16-16
Niemann, H., 25-25 Packard, H.C., 16-16 Pirson, S.J., ix, 29-9, 39-28, 40-17. 40-38.
Nierode. D.E.. 54-12. 54-14 Padmanabhan. L., 48-19 43-16, 43-17, 4449, 4942
Nikolaeb, N.A’., 12-4; Paillet, F., 51.13, 51-51 Pittman, D., 51-52
Ninth Oil Recovery Conference, 39-28 Paine, P., 41-37 Pittman, G.M., 46-44
Nisle, R.G., ix, 34-28, 34-55 Palmer, F.S., 45-15 Pittman, R.W., 34-55
Noad, D.F., 24-22 Palmer, I.D.. 55-12 Pitzer, K.S., 20-13, 24-15, 24-23, 25-24
Noaker, L.J., 25-5, 25-23 Palmour. H.H., 6-72 Plasek, R.E., xi, 50-38
Nobles, M.A., 4419, 4420, 44-34, 44-49 Pankov, A.G., 25-25 Platt, C.R., 37-27
Nolan, T.J. III, 54-14 Panteleev, V.G., ix, 28-15 Platteeuw, J.C., 25-2, 25-5, 25-6. 25-10,
Nolen, J.S., 48-20 Panvelker, S.B., 40-38, 47-24 25-20, 25-23
Nolte, K.G., 55-12 Paragon Engineering Services Inc., vii Plenty Metro1 Ltd., vi, 12-43
Nordgren, R.P., 55-12 Paratella, A.A., 25-22 Plisga, G.J., 30-1, 31-l
Norman, L.R., 54-14 Pardue, G.H., 51-52 Plummer, F.B., 24-22
Northern, T.P., 16-16 Parent, C.F., 44-51 Poettmann, F.H.. ix, x, 25-25, 34-1, 34-4,
Northrup. D.A., 55-l 1 Parker, P.D.M., 25-22 34-9, 34-28, 34-37, 34-46, 34-55.
Norton.‘A.E., 22-22 Parks. A.S., 12-43 34-56, 39-28, 46-13, 46-14. 46-16.
Nosov, E.F., 25-25 Parks, T.W., xii, 51-51 46-37. 46-44, 46-45
November, M.H., 13-59 Parmley, J.L., 55-12 Polglase, M.F., 25-21
Novotny, E.J., 5414 Parrish, D.R., 46-40, 46-43, 46-44 Pollak, A., 12-43
Nowak, T.J., 44-35, 44-51 Parrish, W.R., 25-2,25-5.25-S, 25.20,25-27 Pollard, P., 54-14
Nur, A.M., 51-51 Parsons, R.L., 39-28, 40-18, 40-19, 40-38, Pollard, T.A., 39-l. 40-38, 58-2
Nute, A.J., 45-15 44-7 to 449, 4426, 4429, 44-30, Pollitzer, F., 25-22
Nutting, P.G., 26-3, 26-33, 44-40, 4451 44-32, 4449, 45-14. 45-15 Pollock, C.B., 46-44, 55-10
Parsons, R. W. ) 46-44 Pontious, S.B., 45-15
0 Pasternack, E.S., 51-52 Pontius, P.E., l-71
Pate], C., 45-15 Pope, G.A., xi, 23-13, 47-5. 47-24 to
O’Brien, L.J., 45-15 Patnode, H.W.. 49-41 47-26, 48- 18
O’Brien, M.P., 6-36, 6-37, 6-72 Patterson, D.R., 16-1, 16-16 Pope, S.H., 16-16
O’Connor, J.J., 25-25 Patton, C.C., 24-22, 445 1 Porta-Test Systems Ltd., vi. 12-43
OCS Order No, 5, U.S. Dept. of the Patton, E.C. Jr., 39-28, 43-9, 43-17, 43-19 Postgate, J.R., 24-22
Interior, 3-34, 3-40 Patton, J.T., 47-8, 47-25, 48-19 Poston, S.W., 36-1, 36-10, 46-37, 46-45
Odeh, AS., 28-15, 32-16. 33-23, 37-2, Patton, L.D., v, 4-1, 4-11 Pottier, J.. 45-15
37-3, 37-6, 37-7, 37-19, 37-27, 38-12, Paul, G.W., 47-25, 47-26 Poupon, A., 49-4 1
38.20, 48-2, 48-18, 56-9 Pauley, P.O., 54-12 Powers, W.J., 7-l
O’Dell, P.M., 48-18, 48-19 Paulsell. B.L., 44-20, 44-50 Pozzi, A.L., 45-14
Offeringa, J., 45-14 Pavlova, S.P., 25-26 Prats, M., 37-20 to 37-22, 44-20, 44-25,
Offshore Services and Technology, 12-43 Pavnter. D.D.. 36-10 44-28 to 44-32, 44-34, 4449, 4450,
Oglesby, K.D., 46-44 Paiton, E.. 29-9 46-43, 46-45, 46-46
Oil and Gas I., vii, x, 16-16, 16-17, 19-34, Peaceman, D.W., 4451, 45-14, 48-16 to Prausnitz, J.M., 20-18, 23-13, 25-2, 25-5,
21-21, 40.38, 46-3, 46-43 to 46-45 48-20 25-8. 25.14, 25-20, 25-21
Oilfield Publications Ltd., viii Pearson, A.J., 52-1, 53-l Pray. H.A., 25-22
Oilwell Div. of U.S. Steel Corp., v Peerless Manufacturing Co., vi, 12-43 Prehn, W.L. Jr., 26-33
Oilwell Research, 26-6 Peery, J.H., 48-18 Prentice-Hall Inc., 57-12
Olds, R.H., 21-10, 21-11, 21-20, 23-13, Peni, D.Y., ix, 20-7, 20-8, 20-18, 23-13, Press, F., 51-50
25-2, 25-l I, 25-20 25-8, 25-16, 25-17, 25-23, 39-28, 48-18 Price, H.S., 43-17, 45-14, 48-16, 48-20
Oleinikova, A.L., 25-25 Penick, D.P., 12-43 Price, P., 24-22
Oliver, D.W., 50-38 Pennbaker, P.E.. 53-26 Prince, L.C., 24-23
Oliver, F.L.. 29-l Penny, G.S., 55-12 Prokop, C.L., 49-42
Oliver, L.R., x, 39-20. 39-21, 39-28 Perkins, T.K., 44-49, 45-14, 4643 Province of Manitoba, 24-22
O’Meara, D.J. Jr., 28-7, 28-12, 28-15 Perkins, T.K. Jr., x, 55-2. 55-10 Province of Saskatchewan, 24-22
Omnes, G., 51-52 Perry, C.W.. 25-25, 46-45 Pruess, K., 48-l 1, 48-20
O’Neil, R.K., 7-17 Perry Equipment Co., vi1 Pryor, J.A., 4645
Organick, E.I., 21-10, 21-11, 21-13, 21-15, Perry, J.H., 20-18, 22-22 Pryor, W.A., 36-10, 46-42
21-16, 21-20, 39-4, 39-27 Perry. R.H., vii, 25-15 Puerto, M.C., 47-25
Orkiszewski, J., 7-12, 7-17, 34-37 to 3440, Pet. Engr., 16-16 Pujol, L., 46-13, 46-43
34-55 Pet. Equipment. 16-16 Pursley, S.A., 46-43
Orr, F.M. Jr., 23.l,23-13,45-14,48-9,48-19 Peters, B.A., 1243 Purvis. S.B.. 54-12
Osborn, F.E. III, 54-12 Peterson, A.V., 39-16, 39-28 Pusch, W.H., 46-45
Osif, T.L.. 24-13, 24-23 Peterson, M.E.. 46-44 Pushkar, P., 24-22
Osoba, IS., 28-15 Peterson, R.A., 51-52 Pye, D.S., 56-9
Ostroff, A.G., 24-22, 4451 Peterson, R.E., 25-22 Pyndus, G.T., 45-14
AUTHOR INDEX 11
Q Rintoul, B., 18-52 Sage. B.H.. viii. x, 21-10, 21-11. 21-20.

Ripmeester, J.A., 25-27 -23-13, 25-20, 25-27, 45-14
Quadir, J.A., 55-l I Ritchie, P.D., 25-22 Sage, W.H., 22-22, 39-2. 39-27
Quirein. J.A., SO-38 Ritterbusch, W.H. Jr., 9-l Sagramora, G., 25-22
Quisenberry. J.L., 54-12 Rittenhouse, G., 24-22 Sahuquet, B.C., 46-43, 46-45
Roberts, G.I., 54-14 Saito,.S., viii, 25-2, 25-5, 25-20, 25-23,
R Roberts, G. W., 46-45 25-24
Roberts, L.D., 54-13, 54-14 Salter, S.J., 28-12, 28-15. 28-16, 47-25
Rachford, H.H. Jr., 38.20, 4451, 45-14, Roberts, 0.L. 25-23 Salthiel, W.M., 54-14
48-16, 48-18, 48-20 Roberts, S.J., 48-20 Samaniego-V., F., 55-11
Rachinskii, MA, 25-21 Roberts, T.G., 37-14, 37-15, 37-27, 40-38, Sams, H., ix, 29-9
Radar, D., 51-51, 53-26 44-29. 44-50 Sanchez, M., 25-24, 25-25
Radke, C.J., 47-21, 47-26 Robinson, D.B., viii, 20-7, 20-8, 20-18, Sandberg, C.R., 40-38
Raghavan, R., 34-9, 34-55, 55-11 23-13. 25-5, 25-8, 25-9, 25-11, 25-16, Sander. W.. 25-22
Rahme, H.D., 44-29, 4450 25-17, 25-20, 25-23, 25-24, 25-28, Sandiford, B.B., 44-39, 44-51
Railroad Commission of Texas, ix, 34-55 39-28, 40-38, 48-17 Sandier, 8, 25-18. 25-24
Raimondi, P., 47-26 Robinson, F.M., 51-51 Sandmeyer. D.J., 4-I 1
Rambow. H.. 4451 Robinson, G.E., 48-19 Sanyal, SK., 51-52
Rail. C., 24-22 Robinson, J.. 12-43 Saref, D.N.. 28-10, 2X-15
Ramagost, B.P., 35-13, 35-21, 40-38 Robinson, J.D., 51-47, 51-52 Sarem, A.M., 28-10, 28-15
Ramakrishnan, T.S., 47.26 Robinson, J.R., 22-15, 22-16, 22-22, 46-31, Sargent, E.C., 24-22
Ramesh, A.B., 48-19 46-45 Sargent Oil Well Equipment Co., vi
Ramey, H.J. Jr.. 4-11, 28-12, 28-16, 30-17. Robinson, R.L. Jr., 20-8, 20-18 Sarmiento, R., 51-50
33-23, 34-9, 34-55, 35-10, 35-21, 36-8, Roddy, J.W., 25-26 Sass, L.C., 24-22
36-10. 43-16, 4420. 44-29, 44-34, Rodgers, J.K., 39-15, 39-28 Satman, A., 46-14, 46-45
4450, 46-S, 46-6. 46-8, 46-15 to 46-17, Roe, R.P., 23-13, 39-13, 39-15, 39-28 Satter, A., 46-6, 46-43
46-19, 46-43 to 46-45, 55-I I Roebuck, IF. Jr., 43-l Sattler, A.R., 55-l 1
Ransom, R.C., xii, 51-51 Roger, P.S.Z., 24-15, 24-23 Saucier, R.J.. 56-6, 56-9
Rapoport, L.A., 44-29, 4450, 4452 Rogers, G.S., 24-22 Saunders, C.D., 55-12
Rathbone, M.J., 54-13 Rogers, H.D., 24-21 Sauve, E.R., 18-l
Rathmell, J.J., 44-49 Rogers, J.H., 47-24 Savel’eva, NJ., 25-22
Rau. R., xi Rogers, R.E., SS- 12 Savins, J.G., 47-24
Rawlins. EL., ix, 30-8, 30-16, 33-3, 33-5. Rogers, W.B., 24-21 Sawabini, C.T., 46-37, 46-45
33-13, 33-23, 34-45, 34-55 Roland, C.H.. vii, 20-18 Saye, H.A., 16-17
Raymer. L.L.. xi, xii, 49-42, 50-38, 51-33, Rollins, J.T., 55-10 Scala, C., 49-41
51-34, 51-52 Rolshausen, F.W., 24-22 Scarborough, R.M., 4645
Raynal, J.C., 53-26 Romero-Juarez, A., 3 l-7 Scauzillo, F.R., viii, 12-44, 25-24
Rayne, J.R., 45-14 Romocki, J.M.E., 54-14 Schaaf, D., 24-22
Reader, P.J., 43-17 Ronk Electrical Industries Inc., vi Schatz, J., 55-10
Reading, H.G., 36-10 Roof, W.E., II-1 Schauer, P.E., 44-29, 44-51
Reamer, H.H., viii, 23-13, 25-24, 25-26, Ros, N.C.J., 34-36, 34-37, 34-40, 34-46, Schechter, R.S., 47-24, 47-25, 54-12, 54-14
25.27, 25-28 34-55, 34-56 Scheffer, F.E.C., 25-24, 25-27
Records, J.R., 25-10, 25-12, 25-23 Rosbaco, J.A.. 37-21, 37-27 Scheidegger, 28-5, 28-7, 28-15
Redlich, O., 20-7, 20-8, 20-18, 23-12, Rose, SC., 52-31 Schellhardt, M.A., ix, 33-23
23-13. 39-28 Rose, W., ix, 28-1, 28-3, 28-5, 28-15 Schenk, L., 46-45
Reed, C.D.. 25-26 Rosenbaum, J.H., 51-47, 51-51 Scheraga, H.A., 25-25
Reed, G.A., 16-16 Rosenbaum, M.J.F., 4451 Scherubel, G.A., 544, 54-12
Reed. R.L., xi. 47-13, 47-25 Rosenberg, R.J., 55-12 Scheuerman, R.F., 56-9
Reeds, C.B., 18-I Rosene, R.B., 54-13, 55-12 Schilling, J.R., I243
Reese, C.P., 16-16 Rosepiler, M.H., 55-12 Schilthuis, R-1.. 22-22, 24-2. 24-22, 34-37,
Regier, 8. 39-28 Rosman, A., 45-14, 48-19 37-S, 37-27, 38-8, 38-20, 40-37
Reheis, G.M., 43-17 Ross, J S., 24-22 Schlumberger, xii, xiii, 50-38, 51-51. 51-52
Rehkopf. B.L., 46-44 Ross, W.M., 54-14 Schlumberger Ltd., 53-26
Rehm, B.. 52-24, 52-31 Roszelle, W.O., 28-15 Schlumberger Offshore Services, xiii
Reid, L.S., 25-21, 25-27 Rouher, 0.8, 25-27 Schlumberger Well Services, xi, 49-4 I,
Reid, R.C., 20-18, 23-13 Rowan, G.. 54-14 49-42, 53-26
Reid, T.B., 47-24 Rowe, A.M. Jr., 24-13, 24-14, 24-23 Schlumberger Well Surveying Corp., 49-41
Reid. W., 33-1, 33-23 Royle, R.A., 54-14 Schmalz. J.P., 44-29, 44-50
Reineck, H.E., 36-10 Rubin, L.C., 20-7, 20-18 Schneider, F.N., 28-11, 28-15
Reistle, C.E., 24-19, 24-23 Ruble, D.B.. 44-36, 44-51 Schneider, H.. 25-25
Renon, H., 25-18, 25-24 Rushing, M.D., 45-14 Schneider, R.D., 44-51
Republic Bank of Dallas, x Russel, W.L., 29-9 Schnitz. L.B., 43-16
Resen. L., 16-17 Russell, D.G., 35-21 Schoewe, W.H., 24-22
Reudelhuber, F.O., 37-23, 37-27, 40-38 Russell, G.B.. 25-21 Scholander, P. F.. 25-2 1
Reuss, A.. 51-51 Russell, G.F., 25-27 Scholle, P.A., 29-9. 36-10
Reynolds, A.C.. 55-l 1 Russell, J.T., 25-28 Schoonovers. L.G.. 53-26
Reynolds, F.S., 41-7, 41-37 Russell, T.F., 48-19 Schrider, L.A., 44-29, 44-50
Reznik, A.A., 40-19, 40-38, 47-24 Russell, W.L., 26-3, 26-4, 26-33 Schrteter, F.E., 54-12
Rhodes, A.E., 3-40 Rust, C.F., 26-33 Schroeder, W., 25-2 1
Rice. J.D.. 38-20 Rust, W.M. Jr., 49-41 Schroeter, J.P., 25-28
Rice. P.A.. 25-26 Ryabtsev, N.1.1 25.25. 25-26 Schueler, S.. 33-23
Rich, J.L.. 24-2. 24-22 Ryan, J.C., 54-12 Schuetze. H., 25-24
Richards, L.A., 28-2, 28-6. 28-15 Rzasa, M.J.. 22-22, 34-55, 39-1, 39-27, 45-14 Schultz, H.E., 7-17
Richards. W.L., 25-27 Schultz. W.P., 42-l. 45-14
Richardson, E.A., 54-13 S Schulze, R.P., xi. 49-41
Ridings, R.L., 37-13, 37-21. 37-27, 48-20 Schweickent. C.E.. 25-22
Rigby, M., 25-14, 25-21 Sackash, M.L., 7-17 Sclocchi. G.. 34-55
Riley, J.P., 25-22 Saddington, A.W., 25-22 Scott, A.C., 53-26
Scott, J.O., 16-17 Singh. I B., 36-10 Stahl, C.D.. 4417. 44-49
Scott, V.B.. 16-17 Singhai, A.K., 46-43 Stahl. R.F., 40-38
Scovill, W.E., 16-16 Skelton. N., 54-13 Stalkup, F.I. Jr., 23.13, 45-14
Striven. L.E. 47-25 Skiba. F.F., 45-14 Stamm, H.E. III, 43-16
Sears. F.W., xi, 51-50 Skinner, W. Jr., 25-12, 25-23 Standing, M.B., vii, viii, 6-21, 6-38, 6-39,
Seelv. D.H. Jr., 25-10. 25-12, 25-22. 25-23 Skirvin, R.T., 29-l 6-72, 7-9. 7-12, 7-17. 20-5, 20-9,
Se&an, B.. 51-51, 51-52 Sklar, I.. 46-44 20-18, 21-9, 21-16, 21-18 to 21.20,
Seaesman, F., 49-l. 49-41, 50-15. 50-38 Skripka, V.G., 25-21, 25-26 22-l. 22-5, 22-6, 22-8 to 22-l 1, 22-13,
Sejnfeld, J.H., 48-19 Slattery. J.C., ix. 28-12. 28-15 22-14, 22-21, 22-22, 23-13, 24-13,
Selleck, F.T., 25-27 Sleinikova, A.L., 25-25 24-23, 25-17, 25-21, 34-34, 34-35,
Selley, R.C., 36-10 Slider, H.C.. 4430, 44-32, 44-50 34-55, 37-19 to 37-21. 37-27, 39-2.
Sells, R.L., 50-38 Sloan, E.D., viii. 25-l. 25-2, 25-4, 25-9, 39-11 to 39-13, 39-15, 39-19, 39-27,
Selly, R.C.. 36-10 25-10, 25-20, 25-23, 25-27 39-28, 40-38, 45-15
Seright, R.S., 47-24 Sloan, J.P., 39-1, 39-27 Starling, K.E.. 20-7, 20-18
Serra. 0.. 50-38 Sloat, B., 44-51, 47-26 Staron. Ph., xii, 51-51
Sessions, R.E., 45-15 Slobod, R.L., x, 26-25, 26-33, 43-19, 44-17, State of Kansas, 33-13. 33-23
Settari. A., 45-14, 48-16, 48-17, 48-20. 44-19. 44-20. 44-49. 45-13. 45-14 Steanson, R.E., 55-l
55-12 Slonneger, J.C., 10.18, IO-37 Steel, G., 36-10
Shah. P.C., 48-19 Sloss. L.L., viii, 26-7. 26-33 Steffensen, R.J., 31-7, 37-1, 45-15
Shane. L.E., xii, 51-50 Smart, E.E.. 6-72 Stegemeier, G. L., 46-9, 46-13, 46-15,
Shank, G.D., 48-18 Smart, G.T., 48-19 46-43, 47-25
Shari@, A., 25-16, 25-24 Smeaton, R.W., vi Stein, N.. 51-52, 56-9
Shatto. H.L., 16-17 Smith, A.E.. 30-9. 30-16 Steinle, P., 40-16, 40-38
Shaughnessy, C.M., 54-13, 54-14 Smith, C.F.. 5414 Stelzer, R.B., x, 39-20 to 39-22, 39-28
Shaw, J.K., 44-51 Smith, F.W., 46-43 Stenmark, D.G., 47-25
Shaw, M.S., 54-12 Smith, G.L., 40-l Stephenson, E.A., 41-37
Shaw, S.F.. 34-55 Smith, H.D. Jr., xi, 50-38 Stephenson, R.E., 48-18
Shearin. H.M., 42-1, 45-14 Smith, H.V., 12-1, 19-I Stevens, A.B.. viii, 26-4 to 26-6
Sheffield, M., 48-18 Smith, M.B., 55-12 Stewart, C.H. Jr., 48-14, 48-18
Sheffield, R., IS-52 Smith, N.A.. 25-21 Stewart, F.M., 38-20. 43-16
Shehabi, J.A.N., 43-17 Smith, N.O., 25-21, 25-22 Stewart, M., 19-33
Sheil. A.G.. 6-72 Smith, O.E.. 48-19 Stewart, P.B.. 25-22
Sheldon, J.W., 4814, 48-18 Smith, R.C.. 31-7 Stiefel, E., 48-20
Sheldon, W.C., 39-28, 45-15 Smith, R.H.. 40-15. 40-38 Stiel, L.I., vii, 20-18
Shell Development Co.. vii Smith, R.L., 21-11. 21-20 Stiff, H.A. Jr., 24-19, 24-23
Shell Oil Co., 36-10 Smith, R.S., 12-43 Stiles, L.H., 36-7, 36-10
Shelton, J.L., 45-14, 45-15, 48-19 Smith, R.V., 5-37, 5-38, 5-57, 33-l. 33.15, Stiles, W.E., 36-6, 36-10, 40-18. 40-19,
Shen, J., 44-51 33-18, 33-23, 34-24 to 34-27. 34-29, 40-20, 40-38, 43-7, 43.19, 44-7 to 44-9,
Sherwood, T.K., 20-18, 23-13 34-46. 34-55, 34-56. 46-44 44-26, 4428 to 44-32, 44-39. 44-49,
Shiba, F.F., 45-10 Smith, R.W., x 44.51, 45-14
Shipley, R.G.. 46-45, 48-18 Smith, S.S., Y, 5-57, 25-27 Stock, L.G., 47-26
Shirer. J.A., 4451 Smits, L.J.M., 49-41 Stockwell, A , 19-34
Shirley, H.T.. 39-28 Sneider, R.M., 36-6, 36-10 Stokes, D.D., 46-43. 46-44
Shirley, O.J., 52-24, 52-3 1 Snell, L.E., 25-23 Stall, R.D., 25.18, 25-24
Shut. K.S.. 5-57 Snyder, L.J.. 48-18 Stone, H.L.. ix, 28-8. 28-15, 37-21. 37-27.
Shoor. SK., 25-21 Snyder, R.W.. 43-16, 44-29, 44-50 45-13. 48-14, 48-16, 48-18, 48-20
Shore, R.A., 46-44, 46-45 Soave, G., 20-7, 20-8. 20-18, 23-13, 48-18 Stormont, D.H., 16-17
Showalter, E., IO-14 Sot. of Automotive Engineers Inc., IO-12 Stosur, J.J., 46-45
Showalter, W.E., 46-13, 46-16, 46-17, Sot. of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), 12-42. Stout, W., 24-22
4643, 46-44 23-13, 35-21, 39-27, 40-2. 40-37, Stovall, S.L., 46-43
Shreir, L.L.. 19-34 41-37. 45-14. 46-44. 46-45 Strange, L.K., 46-20. 46-45
Shreve. D.R.. 43-4, 43-16, 43-19 Board of Directors, 58-l Strawn, J., 55-10
Shtof. 1.K.. 19-34 Metrication Subcommittee, 58-22 Strebel. E., 25-22
Shumaker. E.G., 55-12 Metric Standard, 17-7 Strickland, R.F., 43-17
Shupe, R.D.. 47-24 Symbols Committee, 59. I Strickler, W.R., 44-50
Shutler. N.D.. 48-18 Sot. of Professional Well Logging Analysts Stright, D.H. Jr., 48-18
Sibbit, A.. 49-42 (SPWLA), 52-3 Strong, E.R. Jr., 25-27
Sibbitt. W.L., 25-22 Soldate, A.M., 25-25 Stubbs, B.A., 54-12
Srfferman. T.R.. 52-30, 55-12. 6-72 Sollami. B.J., 25-21 Stutz, R.M., 16-16
Sigmund. P.M.. 28-11. 28-15 Somasundaran. M.C., 47-26 Stutzman, L.F., 25-21, 43-16
Sikora. V.J., 38-l. 38-20 Somerton. W.H., 46-37. 46-45, 47-26 Suau. J., 51-45, 51-52
Stkora. V.J., 37-l. 37-14, 37-23, 37-27, Song, K.Y.. viii, 25-l. 25-10, 25-15. 25-23 Suciu. S.N., 25-22
54-9. 54-10 Spalding, J.S.. 51-51 Suder, F.E., 44-29, 44-50, 45-14
Silberberg. I.H., 44-50. 46-45, 54-12 Spangler. M.B.. 26-33 Suti, A.H., 28-12, 28-15
Silcox. W.H.. 18-1, 18-52 Sparlin, D.D., 56-9 Sukkar, Y.K.. 34-9, 34-10 to 34-22. 34-24,
Silva. M.K.. 45-14, 48-19 Spearing, D., 36-10 34-55
Simandoux. P.. 48-19 Spence. K., 48-19 Sultanov, R.G., 25-21. 25-26
Simard, G.L.. 49-41 Spencer, C.F., viii. 25-23 Suman, G.O. Jr., 56-9
Simmons. G., 51-30, 51-43, 51-51. 51-52 Spencer. G.B.. 37-27. 39-28. 40-38 Summers, G.C., 51-50
Simmons, J., 44-50 Spillette, A.G.. 48-14, 48-20 Sunwall, M.T., 24-22
Simon. R.. 45-14. 48-19 Spisak. C.D., 6.34. 6-72 Surface, R.A., 46-44
Simpson. L.B.. 25-25 Spivak. A.. 43-17 Sustek, A.J., 46-44
Sims. W.P.. 40-38 Squire, K.A , 54-13 Suter, H.H.. 24-22
Simulation Sciences Inc.. vi, 12-33. 12-43 Squires. F., 44-40. 44-5 1 Swan Wooster Engineering Ltd., vii
Sinaiskii. E.G.. 12-44 Squires, L., 22-22 Swanson, B L.. 54-14
Sinanoglu, 0.. 25-5, 25-23 Staadt, H.E.. 54-l Swearingen. J.W.. 44-17. 44-49
Sinclair. A.R.. 55-12 Staal, J.J., 51.47. 51-52 Swendenborg. E.A., 24-22
Singh. D.. x. 37-15. 37-27 Staggs. H.M., 48-18 Swerdloff, W., viii. 22-17, 22-22
AUTHOR INDEX 13
Swetnam. J.C.. 7-17 Tosch. W.D.. 45-13 Vanpce. M.. 25-23

Sydansk. R.D.. 47-26 Towler, B.F., 4X-20 Van Poollen. H.K.. 48-18. 48-20. 51-45.
Symbols Committee of SPE. 59-l Tracy. G.W.. 30-17. 37-7 to 37-10, 37-21. 51-52. 55-12
Szasz, S.E., 46-43 37-27. 38-2. 38-3, 38-20, 43-17 van Wineen. N.. 43-16
Tramer. R.R.. 22-22 van Wjik: W.R., 22-22
Trantham, J.C., 46-43 Varga. R.S.. 48-16. 48-20
Traverse, E.F., 46-44 Var;,en. J.P.. 36-6, 36-10
Taber. J.J.. 23-1, 44-5 I, 47-22, 47-26 Travis, R.H., 16-17 Vasquez, M.. 7-9, 7-17. 22-7 to 22.12.
Taggart, MS. Jr., 24-22 Trebin. F.A.. 25-23 22-16, 22-22
Takahashi. S., 25-23 Tretolite Div.-Petrolite Corp., 19-34 Vatalaro, F.J., 7-17
Takenouchl. S., 25-22 Trico Industries, v Vdovina, N.A., 25-22
Tan, T.B.S., 48-20 Trimble. A.E., 46-18, 46-45 Veatch. R.W., 55-12
Tanguy, D.R., 49-41 Trimble. R.H., 48-20 Verbeek, C.M.J., 55.12
Tannahill. C.A.. IX-52 Tripp. H.A.. 9-14 Verma, V.K., 25-18, 25-24. 25-28
Tamer. J.. x. 37-7. 37.10. 37.27, 40.9, Trofimuk, A.A., 25-18, 25-24 Vernado, S.G., 53-26
40-10. 40-38 Troatel, E.G., 46-35 Verrien, J.P., 36-6, 36-10
Taylor. D.M., 16-17 Trube, A.S. 20-11. 20-16, 20.18, 22.11, Vestal, C.R.. 48-18
Taylor, H.S.. 25-25 22-12. 22-22 Vetter, O.J., 44-5 1
Taylor, M.O.. 37-10, 37-13, 37-14, 37.27, Trushenskl. S.P.. 47-25 Vilcu, R., 25-22
40-38 TRW Energy Product Group, Reba Pump Villard. P., 25-2, 25-20
Taylor, T.J.. xi), 51-52 Div., v Villarreal. J.F., 25-26
Tek. M.R.. 34-50, 34-55, 34-56 Tsang, L.. 51-51 Vine, J.D., 24-23
Templeton. C.C., 54-4, 54-12 Tsarev. V.P., 25-24 Vink, D.J., 21-16, 21.20. 22-22
Terry, L.F., 41-37 Tsaturyanta. A.B.. 25-21 Vinsome, P.K.W.. 48-19, 48-20
Terry. W.M.. 45-14 Taaur. K.. 47-24 Vispatch. 19-34
Terwilliger. P.L.. 40-38. 46-45 Tsiklis. D.S., 25-22, 25-23, 25-26 Vivian, T.A., 54-14
Teubner. W.G., 45-15 Turner, J.. 54-13 Vizilog Inc., xiii
Teufel. L.W.. 55-12 Turner. R.G., 34-46. 34-55 Vogel, C.B., 51-50
Texas Railroad Commission. 36-10. 39-27 Tyler. J.C.. 48-18 Vogel, J.V., 7-9, 7-17, 34-3 I. 34-32.
Thakur, G.C.. 48-6. 48-18 34-34, 34-35, 34-55. 37-19. 37-21,
Tham. M.J., 45-15 U 37-27, 46-9. 46-43
Thiercelin. M.. 55-12 Voigt, W., 51-51
Thqssen. H.A.C.. 22-22 Udell, K.S.. 46-45 Volek. C.W.. 46.8.46.9,46-15.46-43. 46-45
Thodos. G., vii, 20-9, 20-10, 20-15. 20-16, Underwood, P.J., 54-13 Vondy. D.. 12-31, 12-43
20-18. 43-16 Underwr&cra’ LaboratorIes Inc., IO-27 van Rosenberg, D.V.. 45-14
Thomas, C.P.. 48.18 University of Texas, I l-14, 12-43, 19-34 van Stackelbcrg. M.. viii, 25.5. 25.23
Thomas. D.H., xii. 51-17, 51-51 University ot Tulsa, 24-22 Vortec Inc., 12-43
Thomas, E.C.. 49-41 Unruh, C.H., 25-5, 25-23
Thomas. C.B., 30-10, 30-17 U.S. Bureau of Mines IUSBM). l-80. W
Thomas. G.R.. 24-22 13-45, 19.34. 24.21, 24-23, 30-8, 30-16
Thomas. G.W., 48-14. 48-17, 48-20 U.S. Bureau of Standards, 14-9 Wachter, A., 25-27
Thomas. J.E., 48-6. 4X-18 USCG Regulation 30CFR, 18.52 Wade, R.P.. 54-14
Thomas, L.K.. 34.1,43-17.48.5.48-18.48-19 USCG Regulation 33CFR. IS-52 Wade, W.H., 47-25
Thornab. R., 34-55 USCG Regulation 46CFR, 18.44. 18.52 Wagner, O.R., 44-40, 44-5 1. 46-2 I, 46-45,
Thomas. R.D., 47-26 U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 25-15 47-26
Thomas, R.L., 54-4, 54-12, 54-13, 55.12 U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE). x, 40.38. Wagner, R.J., 44-29. 44-50
Thompson, D.D.. xi. 51-50 46-21, 46-45. 48-18 Wahl, H.A., 55-12
Thmmon. E.S.. 25-25 U.S. Dept. of Interior. 12-43, 18-52, 57.11, Wahl, J.S.. xi. 50-38
Thomson, I.. 6-72 57-12 Wahl, W.L., 37-27, 40-38
Thornhill-Craver. 5-8 U.S. Fdter, Fluid System Corp., vii Walker, C.J.. 39-28
Thrash, J.C., 45-15 U.S. GeologIcal Survey (USGS), 3-39 Walker, R.D. 25-21
Thrasher. W-B.. 12-43 U.S. Natl. Bureau of Standards (NBS), Walker, T., xii, 51-44. 51-52
Threikeld. C.B.. 47-24 I-68, l-69, I-71. I-80, 58-9 Walkley, J.. 25-27
Throop. W H., xi. 49-41 NBS LC 1071, 58-8 Wallace, W.E.. 24.22
Thurnau. D.H.. 48.14, 48.18, 48-20 NBS Special Pub. 330. 58-8 Wallis, G.B.. vii, 34-37 to 34-39. 34-55
Thury. G., 25-21 U.S. Securities and Exchange Comm., 40-38 Wallis. J.R., 48-20
Tickell, F.G.. 24-19. 24-23. 26-2, 26.33 U.S. Steel Corp., Bull USS, v Walsh, J.B.. 51-43. 51-52
Tldman. J.. xi U.S. Weather Bureau, IX Walsh, M.P.. 54-14
Tiffin. D.L.. 45-14 Walstrom. J.E.. 53-26
Till. M.V.. 54-13 V Walters, I.D., 44-51
T~mmerman. E.H., 37-27. 38-9. 38-l I. Walton. D.L.. 38-l
3X-20, 40-37, 44-28. 445 I Valleroy. V.V., 46-44 Wang, H.. 5 l-30, 5 I-52
Timur. A.. xi. xii. 51-l. 51-4. 51-50, 51-51 van Cleeff. A., 25-23. 25-24. 25-27 Ward, D., IO-37
Tinker. C.N., 36-10 Van der Knapp. W.. 26-8. 26-33.51-50.51-51 Warembourg. P.A., 54.12. 54.14
Tinker. GE.. 47-24 van der Poel. C.. 44-25. 44-50. 45-19 Warner. B.J.. 12-44
Tinnemcyer. A.C., 54-13 van der Waala. J D.. 20-17. 20-18. 23-12, Warner, H.R. Jr.. 45-15
Tinhley, J.M.. 55-12 25-2, 25-5. 25-6. 25-10, 25-20. 25-23 Warpinski, N.R., 55-12
Tittle. R.M., 45-15 Van Der Worst. H.A.. 48-20 Warren. F.H., 16-17
Tixler. M.P.. 26-29, 26-33, 49-l. 49-41. Vanderzee, C.E.. 25-22 Warren. J .E.. 44-29. 44-5 I, 45. II. 49-4 1
49-42. 51-50 to 51-52 VanDljlk. W.J.D.. 32-13 Washburn. E.W., 26-J to 26-6. 26-33
Todd, M.. 16-17 van Dijk, C.. 46-44 Wasicek. J.J.. 16-17
Todd. M.R.. 48-11. 48-18. 48-19 van Domaelaar, H.R.. 47-25 Wason, C.B.. 36-10
Todheide. K.. 25.21. 25-22. 25-24 van Everdmgen. A.F., 30.14, 30.15. 32-5. Wassan, D.T , 19-34. 47-26
Tokstiz. M.N.. xi. xii. 51-35. 51-50 to 32-16, 3.5-l. 35-21, 37-5. 37-27. 38-1, Wasserman. M.L.. 4X-19
5 I-52 38-9. 3X- 1I. 38-20. 39-28, 40.37, 40-38 Wasson. J.A., 44-29. 44-50
Torcaao. M.A.. 40-38 Van-Guy, N , 48-19 Waters, A.B.. 55-12
Tarp. S.B.. 4X-IY VanMeter. O.E.. viii. 26-33 Watkins. D.R.. 54-14
Torrey, P. D., 24-I. 24-3 I. 24-22, 4439.4452 Van Oratranil, C.E.. 31-7 Watkins. J.W.. 24-l. 24-22
Weaver. E.G., 16-17 Wieland, D.R., 54-12 to 54-14 Wright, J., 24-22
Weaver, R.H., 56-9 Wiggins, W.R., 22-22 Wright, J.W., 53-26
Webb, G.B., 20-7, 20-18 Wijen, A.J.M., 25-25 Wrightman, L.S., 16-17
Weber, A.G., 38-20 Wilcock, R.J., 25-23 Wroblewski, S., 25-22
Weber, K.J., 36-6, 36-7, 36-10 Wilcox, W.I., 25-5, 25-23 Wu. B.-J., 25-23
Webster’s New International Dictionary, Wilde, H.D. Jr., 34-37 Wycoff, R.D., 30-11, 30-15. 30-17, 44-14,
58-20 Wiley, C.B., 54-14 44-16, 4417, 44-19 to 44-21, 44-49
Weeks, L.G., 29-9 Wiley, R., xii, 51-52 Wygal, R.J. Jr., 46-43
Wegner, R.E., 44-50 Wilf, J., 25-21 Wyllie, M.R.J., xi, xii, 24-23, 26-20,
Wehe, A.H., 25-l. 25-21, 25-25 Wilhelm, O., 29-9 26-28, 26-30. 26-31, 26-33, 28-l. 28-8,
Weidner, C.R., ix, 34-55 Wilkes, J.O., 34-55 28-10, 28-15, 40-38, 49-41, 49-42,
Weidner, R.T., vii, 50-38 Willard, R.O., 56-9 51-6, 51-29, 51-47, 51-50
Weijdema, J., 46-43 Willhite, G.P., 46-6, 46-43, 47-24 Wyrick, J., 11-13
Weiler. B.E.. 25-9. 25-23 Williams, B.B., 56-9
Weinaug, C.F., 20-1, 40-38, 48-14, 48-20 Williams, D., 55-11 Y
Weinbrandt, R.M., xi, 46-37, 46-45, 51-51 Williams, D.M., xii, 51-47, 51-52
Weinstein, H.G., 48-16, 48-18, 48-20 Williams, H.L., 18-1 Yaacobi, M., 25-21, 25-24
Weiss, R.F., 25-22 Williams, R.E., 44-51, 47-26 Yamamoto, S., 25-21
Welch, L.W. Jr., 43-4, 43-16, 43-19 Williams, R.L., 48-6, 48-18 Yanosik, J.L., 48-11, 48-19
Welchon, J.K., 34-1, 34-55 Willis, D.G., 51-44, 51-52 Yarborough, L., 20-7 to 20-9, 20-18, 23-9,
Welex Inc., 49-41 Willis, M.E., 51-51 23-13, 33-18, 33-23, 45.14, 48-19
Welge, H.J., 26-24, 26-33, 40-14, 40-17, Willits, K.L., vii, 18-52 Yashida, F., 25-24
40-38, 43-4. 43-16, 43-19, 44-7, 44-11, Willman, B.T., 46-4, 46-12, 46-43 Yasunishi, A., 25-24
44-32, 44-49, 45-14, 48-18 Willmore, C.B., 25-27 Yeh, S.-Y., 25-22
Weller, W.T., 37-19. 31-22, 37-27 Wilson, D.L., 18-l Yellig, W.F., 45-14
Wellington, S.L., 47-24 Wilson, G.M., 25-15, 25-18, 25-21, 25-24 Yen, T.F., 50-38
Wells, L.E., xi, 51-30, 51-52 Wilson, J.F., 45-14 Yoelin, S.D., 46-45
Wen, W.-Y., 25-21 Wilson, J.M., 54-14 Yokoyama, Y., 28-11, 28-15
Wendorff, C.L., 55-12 Wilson, K., 39-16, 39-28 Youmans, A.H., 50-38
Wenzel. H., 25-16, 25-23 Wilson, P., 6-72 Young, A., 29-9
West, R.C.C., 46-11, 46-43 Wilson, P.M., 6-28, 6-34, 6-72 Young, D.M., 48.16, 48-20
West, T.J., 47-24 Wilson, W.W.. x. 41-31. 41-37 Young, E.C., 14-1
Westaway, M.T., 25-26 Winkler, H.W., v, 5-1, 5-57 Young, L.C., 48-18
Westawav. P.. 50-38 Winkler, L.W., 25-21, 25-23 Young, P.J., 54-14
Wetlaufe;, D.B., 25-26 Winsauer, W.O., 26-29, 26-33, 49-4, 49-41 Youngren, G.K., 46-12, 46-43, 48-18
Wharton, J.B. Jr., 40-37 Winsor, P.A., 47-l 1, 47-12, 47-25 Yuster, S.T., 28-15, 39-16, 39-28, 44-29,
Wharton, R.P., 49-41 Winter, W.K.. 48-18 44-50
Wheeler, D., 4451 Witherspoon, P.A., 38-20
Wheeler, J.A., 48-18, 55-12 Witte, M.D., 44-29, 44-34, 44-50
Wheeler, M. F., 48- 19 Wittick, T.R., 51-52
Whinery, K.F., 12-44 Wong, J.Y ., 48-20 Zaba, J., lo-37
Whitaker, A.H., 52-l Wang, T.C.T.. 54-12 Zana, E.T., 23-13, 45-14, 48-6, 48-19
Whitaker, S., 28-16 Woo, P.T., 46-45, 48-16, 48-19, 48-20 Zanker, K.J., 19-34
White, D.E., 24-1, 24-22 Wood, J.W., 41-37 Zapata, V.J., 47-24
White, J.E., 51-13, 51-50, 51-51 Wood, M.D., 55-12 Zarrella, W .M . 24-22
White, J.L., 55-12 Wood, P.M., 12-43 Zawisza, A., 25-22
White, P.D., 4644 Woodard, R.G., 57-12 Zeilo, GA, 36-6, 36-10
White, P.E., 4450 Wooddy, L.D. Jr., 26-33, 38-20, 43-16 Zel’evskii, Y.D., 25-22
White, V.C., 24-22 Woodland, A.W., 29-9 Zemanek, J., 51-52
Whiting, R.L., 24-23 Woodroof, R.A. Jr., 54-14 Zemansky, M.W., xi, 51-50
Whitsitt, N.F., 55-12 Woods, E.G., 36-10, 48-18, 48-20 Zerbe, C., 25-21
Whitson, C.H., 39-11, 39-27, 48-19 Woods, R.W., 37-27, 40-13, 40-38 Zerpa, C., 25-25
Whittingham, K.P., 19-34 Woodward, P.J., 21-20 Zhavoronkov, N.M., 25-22
Whittington, H.M. Jr., 45-15 Wooley, G.R., 31-7 Zheltov, Y.P., 55-2, 55-10
Wharton, L.P., 45-14 Work, L.T., 12-43 Zinc Institute, vi, 1 l-14
Wichert, E., vii, 20-5, 20-9, 20-15, 20-18 Worley, S.M., 12-44 Zlomke, D., 47-26
Wichmann, P.A., xii, 51-52, 53-26 Wright, F.F., 44-51 Zublin, J.A., 6-34, 6-72
Wiebe. R., 25-15, 25-17, 25-22, 25-23 Wright, H.T. Jr., 26-33 Zudkevitch, D., 20-7, 20-18, 48-18
Subject Index
A Acid-in-oil emulsion, 54-8 Acoustic telemetry, 53-l

Acid inhibitor, 54-10 Acoustic transit (travel) time, 5 l-16 to
Abandonment pressure, 39-8, 39-10, 39-11. Acid number, 47-19, 47-23 51-33, 51-35, 51-39, 5140, 5145,
39-14, 39-16, 39-23. 40-8, 40-10, Acid penetration of matrix. 54-10 51-47, 53-l
40-16, 40-24, 40-33, 40-34 Acid reaction rates, factors affecting, Acoustic velocities, 3445, 3446, 51-29,
Abandonment time, 41-21 to 41-23, 41-27 acid concentration, 54-5 51-31, 5143
ABC transaction, 41-8, 57-7 area/volume ratio, 54-5 Acoustic velocity log, 5 l-5
Abrasion-resistant coatings, 1l-6 flow velocity, 54-5 Acoustic wave propagation in rock,
Abrasive jet cleaning, 56-1 formation composition, 54-6 acoustic properties, 514, 51-5, 5143
Abrasive well fluids, 6-34 pressure and temperature, 54-4, 54-5 borehole modeling, 5 l-25
Absolute open flow, 33-6 to 33-10. 34-33. Acid solubility, 5416 fluid composition, 51-7, 51-8
34-35 Acid solubility tests, 54-9 introduction to, 514
Absolute ownership. Acid-soluble &ales, 54-6, 56-2 porosity, 5 l-5
control, 57-2 Acid solvent, 56-2 rock composition, 51-5
definition, 57-1 Acid strength, 54-2 stress, 51-6, 51-7
theory, 57-l Acid-swellable synthetic polymers, 54-10 studies, 51-34
Absolute permeability, effect of temperature Acid-thickening additives, 54-8 summary of, 51-11
on. 46-37, 46-38 Acid treatment design, temperature. 5 1-7
Absolute pipe roughness, 15-4, 34-2, 34-24, fracture acidizing-carbonate formations, texture, 51-S to 51-11
34-27 54-11 understanding of, 5 148
Absolute viscosity, definition, 22-13 matrix acidizing-carbonate formations, Acoustic wave propagation logging, 5 l-27
Absolute zero, definition, 20-l 54-10, 54-l 1 Acoustic wave propagation methods,
Absorbed dose, unit and definition, 58-10, matrix acidizing-sandstone formations, in fluid-filled borehole. 51-12
58-23, 58-36 54-11 introduction to, 51-l 1
Absorption, 26-11, 39-27 Acids used in acidizing!. 54-l to 54-4 reflection, 51-2
Absorptive interactions, 50-9 Acidizing, transmission, 5 l-2
Abstract of API manual, 17-3 to 17-S acid reaction rates, 54-4 to 54-6 Acoustic wave propagation properties, 5 1- 1
Abstracts examination, 57-9 additives, 54-6 to 54-8 Acoustic wave train analysis, 27-l
Acceleration head, 6-50, 6-5 1 critical wells, 54-l 1, 54-12 Acoustic waveform, 51-12, 51-14, 51-18,
Accelerometer, 534 general principles, 54-l to 54-4 51-24. 51-26, 51-27, 5140 to 5143,
Accessory equipment for liquid hydrocarbon general references, 54-12 to 54-14 51-45, 5147, 5148
metering systems, 17-4 introduction, 54-l Acoustic waves,
Accounting method of valuation, 41-16, laboratory testing, 54-9 characteristics. 51-3
41-17, 41-19, 41-22 to 41-24 references, 54-12 compressional, 5 l-2
Accumulator, 18-13 to 18-15, 18-50, IS-51 solutions, 54-3 information contained in, 5 I- 18
Accuracy and rounding of numbers, 58-5, summary, 54- 12 shear, 51-2
58-6 techniques, 54-8, 54-9 transit time of, 51-29, 51-30
Accuracy, of bubblepoint pressure treatment design, 54-9 to 54-l 1 Acoustical survey, 540, 49-l
correlations, 22-8, 22-9 well treatment, 6-3, 354. 56-3 Acoustical well sounder, 30-7
of Organick-Golding correlation, 21-15 Acme thread profiles, 2-1, 2-38 Acoustics, units and conversions, 58-36
vs. precision, 58-S. 58-9 Acoustic array logging, 51-25 Acquisition and acquisition costs, 4 l-13,
Acentric factor, 20-13 Acoustic array sonde, 51-27, 51-28 41-15
Acetic acid (HAc), as sequestering agent, Acoustic backup system, 18-15, IS-16 Acre-feet diagram, 404
54-7 Acoustic beacons, 18-2 1 Acrylamide polymer, 44-39
in acidizing, 54-3, 54-8, 54-10 Acoustic energy, 51-I. 51-11, 51-20. 51-24, Activated aluminas, 14-21
Acetylene water system, 25-24 5141 Activation energy, 46-12
Acid, Acoustic impedance, 5146, 5147 Activation gamma ray, 50-3
concentration, effect on limestone Acoustic intensity, 51-3 Activity coefficient of water, 25-3
dissolved, 54-2 Acoustic log correlation, 51-30 Activity coefficient plot, 254
emulsions, 54-8 Acoustic log vs. core analysis porosity, Activity of radionuclide, unit and definition,
major types for acidizing, 54-l 51-32 58-10, 58-23
primary requirements for acidizing, 54-l Acoustic logging, Actuator ratio, 3-27
solubility test, 54- 11 acoustic wave propagation in rocks, 514 Actuator specifications, 3-27
solution of limestone in, 54-2 to 51-l 1 Ad valorem taxes, 39-27, 41-1, 414, 41-7,
strength, estimated in field, 54-3 acoustic wave propagation methods, 51-l 1 41-9, 41-12
treatment design, 54-9 to 54- 11 to 51-14 Adapter, 3-9, 3-39
Acid additives, applications, 51-28 Adapter flange, 3-8, 3-9, 3-13
alcohols, 54-8 conclusions, 5147, 5148 Adaptive implicit formulation, 48- 14
corrosion inhibitors, 54-6 elasticity, 51-l to 514 Adiabatic horsepower, 3442, 34-44, 3445
gelling and fluid-loss agents, 54-8 introduction, 5 l-l Adjustable choke, 5-54, 14-3
iron-control agents, 54-7, 54-8 methods of recording acoustic data, 51-14 Adjustment factors, critical flow prover,
liquefied gases, 54-8 to 51-28 33-13 to 33-15
retarded acids, 54-8 nomenclature, 5 148 Administration and supervision costs, 41-12
sequestering agents. 54-7 references, 51-50 to 51-52 Administrator of an estate, definition, 57-3
silicate-control agent, 54-7 theory of elastic wave propagation in Adsorption approach, statistical mechanics
surfactants, 54-6, 54-7 rocks, 5149, 51-50 for, 25-5
thickeners, 54-8 Acoustic logs, 41-8, 51-30 lo 51-33, 51-37. Adsorption cycle, 14-10
Acid concentration. effect on acid reaction 51-38 Adsorption dehydration unit, 14-20
rate, 54-5 Acoustic positioning beacons, 18- 10 Adsorption ion exchange, 48-5
Acid fracturing, 54-8, 54-9 Acoustic properties of rock, 514, 51-5 Adsorption rate of an emulsion, 19-5
Acid gases removal. 14-21, 14-22 Acoustic signal transmission system, 18-3 Adsorption reaction, Darcy’s law, 26-l I
Advanced Ocean Drilling Program, 18-15 Allowable working pressures for piping, API gravity. correction of observed value,
Advantages. of batch-type meters, 32-10, 15-l I 17-5. 17-6
32-l I Allowables, API gravity of crude petroleum, 17-5
of gas lift. 5-l. 5-2 discovery. 32-2, 32-3, 32-15 API gravity of fluid columns. 6-22. 6-23.
of positive-displacement meters. 32. I I, history of. 41-9 6-26
32-12 production rate. 32-l. 43-2, 43-10 API gravity of light hydrocarbons, 17-5
of Sl units. 58-9 Texas rule, 32-l API gravity of liquid petroleum products,
Adverse moblllty ratio waterfloods, 48-1 I yardstick schedule, 32-3 17-5
Adverse possession, 57-2 Allowance factor. 39.24 API gravity scale hydrometer test method,
Aeolian dune sandstones, 36-4 All-welded screens, 56-7, 56-8 17-l
Aerobic bacteria, 24-16, 24-17 Alpha emitter, SO-6 API horsepower rating curves. IO-17
After breakthrough performance, 44-20 to Alpha radiation, 50-2 API independently screwed wellhead
44-25 Alternative minimum tax, 41-14, 41-15 equipment, 3-39
Afterflow, 30-9, 30-10, 31-6 Alternative subsea control systems, 18-49, API joint committee. proved reserve
Agglomerator. 12-12 18-50 definition. 40-2
Agitation. in crude oil emulsions. 19-6 to Alternating-direction iterative methods API magnetic tape standard. 49-37
19-9. 19-12, 19-13, 19-27 (ADI), 48-16 API maximum working pressure ratings,
in foaming oils, 12-7 Aluminum, 12-41, 24-9, 50-3, 50-4. 50-8, casinghead and tubing-head flanges. 3-4
in removing nonsolution gas, 12-13 50-18. 50-23. 50.34, 50-35 flanged-end connection, 3-4
in separation of water from oil, 12-27 Aluminum bolted tanks. II-9 valves, 3-l 1
Agitation of stored product, evaporation Aluminum pellets, 55-S wellhead assembly, 3-3
loss. I I-12 Alundum, 26-6 wellhead equipment, 3-3
Air-balanced pumping units, IO-1 to 10.3, Amagat’r law, 20.4 API Midwest Research Inst., IO-7
IO-X, IO-9 Amerada gauge temperature element, 3 I 1 API modified Goodman diagram, 94.
Air buoyancy, effect of, I-70. I-71 Amerada pressure gauges, 30-I. 30-2, 30-4, 9-5, 9-8, 9-9
effect on mass, l-70 32-6 API oil-water separator, 15-25
Air-buoyancy risers. 18-15 American Assn. of Petroleum Geologists API pin thread, 9-12
Air circuit breaker, IO-28 (AAPG). 40-2 API piping pressure rating. 15-14
Air compressors, 46-20 American Gear Manufacturers’ Assn., API preferred metric tutus. 17-7
Air counterbalance diagram, 10-3 10-12, IO-13 API pump barrel tolerance, 8-5
Air flotation process, 15-27 American Natl. Standard Inst. (ANSI), API pump designation. 8-2
Air injection, fireflood. 46-28, 46-29, piping pressure ratings, 15-14 API recommended practice for design
46-3 I, 46-32 American Petroleum Inst. (API), calculations for sucker rod pumping
Air injection rate, tireflood, 46-19. 46-28. API analysis of oilfield waters, 24-5, systems, 8-10, 9-2. 9-3
46-33 4443 API Research Project 25, 3 I-1
Air motor engine starters. IO-19 API barrel, 58-23 API rod grades, 9-5. 9-X
Air/oil ratio. 46-17. 46-19, 46-28 to 46-30 API casing and tubing threads, 6-2 API safety and pollution prevention
Air Products-Greenwich, 46-3 I API casing hangers. 3-39 equipment (SPPE), 3-39
A)r requirements, firefloods, 46-13. 46.16, API circumferential displacement values, API scale, relative density, l-80
46-19 9-9 API separators, 15-23. 15-24
An-steam injection, 46-23 API commtttee. gamma ray calibration API spec. for bolted productton tanks,
Air/steam ratio. 46-23 standards. 50-20 11-l
Air/water ratio, 46-33 API committee, standardization of steel API spec. for pumping units, IO-4
Airy phase. 51-12, 51-13 tanks for oil storage, I l-3 API spec. for reinforced plastic sucker
Alabama. 24-20, 4436 API committee, statistical study of rods. 9-t I
Alarm-signal loops, 16-9 recovery efficiency, 44-32 API spec. for shop-welded tanks for
Alaska, 18-3, 18-38, 1X-41, 18-42, 24.20, API esttmation of oil and gas reserves, storage of production liquids. I l-l
24-21, 27-9, 27-19, 51-8, 57-11 40-12 API spec. for sucker rods, 9-l
Alberta, characteristics of produced waters, API flanged or clamped wellhead equipment, API spec. for wellhead and Christmas-tree
table, 24-8, 24-12 adapters. 3-9 equipment. 3-36
ptlot proJect, 44-40 backpressure valves. 3-8 API std. for hydraulic pumps, 6-21
Redwater D-3 reef reservoirs, 40-2, 40.20 bottomhole test adapter, 3-13 API study on well spacing. 40-16
reservoirs, water-oil displacements, 48-6 casing hangers. 3-5, 3-6 API Subcommittee on Recovery
sedimentary strata in, 24-19 casinghead and tubing-head flanges, 3-4 Efficiency, 40-12, 40-17
Alcohols, in acidizing, 54-8 Christmas-tree fittings, 3-13 API subsurface pump bores, 8-l
in hydrate Inhibiting, 14-6
clamp-type connectors, 3-5 API subsurface pump classification. 8-3,
in phase environment shifts, 47-13
crossover flange. 3-9 8-4
in removing water blocks, 56-2
flange data, 3-18 to 3-25, 3-27 API subsurface pumps and fitttngs, 8-2,
Algae, 4442. 4444
intermediate casmg hangers, 3-8 83, 8-6
Algorithms, for applicability in jet pump
intermediate casing heads, 3-6 to 3-8 API sucker rod pins, 9-10
performance, 6-46, 6-47
joint gaskets, 3-28 to 3-32 API sucker rod pumping system design
for computing dipmeter plots, 53-16
lowermost casing heads, 3-2 to 3-5 book, 9-4
for computing relative permeability, 28-14
multiple-completion equipment, 3-13 to API task force on performance properties,
for screening of micellaripolymer
3-18 2-54
flooding, 48-6
Alkaline flooding 48-5, 48-7 physical properties, 3-2 to 34 API test method, 55-5
Alkaline processes, 47-l thread limitations, 3. I API threading data, 2-64 to 2-72
Alkaline water breakthrough, 4440 tubing hangers. 3-8, 3-9 API torque rating, IO-5
Alkalinity, 44-44 tubing-head adapter flange, 3-9 to 3-l I API unit of radioactivity, 50-15, 50-20,
Alkanolamine condensates, 19-10 tubing heads, 3-8 50-24
Allowable depletion, 41-13. 41-14 valves, 3-11 to 3-15 API valve rods, 8-2
Allowable gas velocity, 12.22 wellhead assembly, 3-2 American Sac. of Mechanical Engineers
Allowable loading, 9-4 working and test pressure terminology, (ASME),
Allowable stress, 94, 9-8, 9-13, 12-38, 3-1, 3-2 ASME code for unfired pressure vessels,
12-41 working pressure ratings, 3-2 12-38
Allowable working pressure, maximum, API flanges, 3-39 ASME qualification as SPPE certificate
12-40 API gravity, 58-24 holder, 3-39
SUBJECT INDEX I7
American Sot. for Testing Materials Antoine equation, 20-13. 20-17 Arctic Marine Hydrocarbon Production
(ASTM). Appalachian area. 24. I. 24-6. 24-7 project, I X-3
ASTM, API scale approved, l-80 Appalachian oil fields, 44-44 Arctic mobile drilling structure. 18-42
ASTM. Committee D-19 standardizes Apparent convergence pressure, 39-l 1 Arctic Ocean, 18.38, 18-43
methods of analyzing oilfield waters. Apparent formation resistivity factor, 26-30. Arctic oil fields, 18-43
24-S 26-3 I Arctic Pilot Project, 18-3
ASTM distillation method. 26-22 Apparent formation thickness, 53-15, 53-16 Arctic pipelines, 18-43
ASTM RVP technique, 14-13 Apparent limestone porosity. 50-21. 50-28. Arctic polar pack, 18-39
ASTM std. viscosity/temperature charts, 50-30 Area equivalents, table, 1-73
19-x Apparent liquid density, definition, 22-20 Area ratio, jet pump, 6-36 to 6-43. 646
ASTM viscosity charts, 6-67 of natural gases, 22-4 Area units, SI metric system, 58-22. 58-23
ASTM wood-back or corrosion-resistant Apparent mole weight. 20-14 Area/volume ratio, effect on acid reaction
metal cup case, 17-l Apparent molecular weight of gas mixtures, rate, 54-5
American Standards Assn.. valves. 3-l I 20-4 Area1 coverage, 44-39
American wire gauge. 7-S Apparent viscosity, 47-S. 55-5 Area1 coverage factor, 44-7, 448
Amine gas desulfurizer, 14-21 Apparent water-filled porosity, 49-34 Areal cusping. 48-10
Ammeter chart record, 7-6 Application and selection, of gas scrubbers, Areal pattern efficiency. 44-S. 44-12 to
Ammeter spikes, 7- 14 12-35. 12-38 44-2s
Ammonia, 14-8, 14-9 of separators, 12-35 Area1 sweep, 46-14, 46-21. 46-30. 46-31
Ammonium fluoride. 54-4 Application of acousttc logging, Area1 sweep efficiency. 39-15. 39-t , .*,
7
Amoco, 16-13. 46-14, 46-15, 4618, 46-30, cased-hole evaluation, 51-42, 5 143 39-18, 39-22. 39-23, 43-3, 43-7 to 4 3 9,
46-33. 47-22 cement bond quality. 5140 44-2, 44-28. 46-24. 47-2
Amortization, 41-5, 41-7, 41-16 to 41-18, fracture evaluation, 51-45 to 51-47 Area1 sweep efficiency.
41.20, 41-21, 41-23, 41-24 geopressure detection. Sl-39, 51-40 at breakthrough, 44-20, 44-25
Amount of substance, 58-7. 588, 58-23, hydrocarbon content. 51-35 to 51-38 by analog investigations. 4417
58-27 introductron to, 5 l-28 by mathematical analysis, 44-13 to 44.-1 7
Amphoterics. 47-7 lithology, 51-35 by numerical models, 4417
Amplitude attenuation, 51-14 mechamcal properties, 51-43 to 51-45 directional permeability effects, 44-25
Amplitude log, 51-45 to 51-48 permeability. 51-47 methods of determining, 44-13 to 44-2 15
Amplitude/time recording. 5 I I8 porosity, 5 l-29 to 51-35 mobility ratio effects, 44-17 to 44-24
Anaerobic digestion, 25-18 seismic and geologrcal interpretation, reservoir dip effect, 44-25
Analog computer, 9-2 51-28. 51-29 reservoir fractures effect. 4425, 44-26
Analog methods for areal sweep efficiency, Application of metric system, Areas of circles by eighths, table, l-28,
44-17 general, 5X-3 l-29
Analog model, 39-22, 4418 style and usage, 58-3 Areas of circles by hundredths. table, l-26.
Analogies, single-phase value to multiphase units and names to be avoided, 58-5 l-27
equivalent, 35-2 usage for Gelected quantrties, 58-3 to 58-5 Areas of circles, sq ft. table, I-30
Analogy technique for reserve estimation. Applications, of BHP. 30-8 to 30-15 Argentina, 51-33. 58-20
40-l of caliper logs. 53-17 Arithmetic average temperature. 34-8
Analysis methods, for oilfield waters. 24-S of dipmeter and directional data, 53-10 to Arkansas, 21-4, 21-7, 24-8, 24-21. 27-2,
for water drive reservoirs, 38-4 to 38-9 53-16 27-3, 46-3, 46.15, 46-24 to 46-26
Analysis, of a reservoir. 42-3 of ESP system, 7-1, 7-2 Arkose sediments, 29-7. 29-8
of condensate liqurd and gas. 21-8 of fiberglass sucker rods, 9-12 Aromatic solvents, 56-2
Analytic models for pump performance, of floating production facilities, 18-34, Arrhenius equation, 46-12
7-12 18-35 Arrhenius reaction rate, 48-5
Analytical-appraisal method for fair market of gas Itft. 5-l Arrow mot. 53-10. 53-l I
value, 41-2 of range of jet pumps, 6-46, 6-47 Arsenic, in emulsion-treating chemicals.
Analyzing crude oil emulsions, 19-6 of stzing of jet pump, 6-41, 642 19-10
Anchor line tension, IX-IO of sucker rods, steel, 9-2 Arsenic inhibitors, 54- 1
Angle-averaging method of calculating of wellhead equtpment. 3-36 to 3-39 Articulated loading tower. 18-30
directional surveys, 53-5 Appraisal equations, or1 and gas reserves. Articulated tower, 18-34, 18-35
Angles of incidence, Sl- I2 41-17, 41-18 Artificial ignition devices, 46-20
Angles, Sl units for. 58-5 Appraisal value: methods for computation, Artificial islands, 18-40
Angular velocities. conversion of, table, Artificial lift, 5-l. 5-28, 6-l. 6-6, 6-7.
Intermediate interest rate, 41-8
I-76 6-60, 6-69. 1844. 39-16. 40-4
safe interest rate, 41-3. 41-5, 41-6
Anhydrite, 50-34, 50-35, 51-31 Artificial lift system, 36-2
speculative interest rate. 41-6 to 41-8
Aniline point, 21-3 to 21-5. 21-9 Artificial lifting, 30-S. 30-14. 30-15
Approach factor, 13-2, 13-3
Anion exchange capacity (AEC), 52-21 Artificial lifting equipment. 41-3
Approximate methods for water drive
Anionic repulsion, 47-3 Artificial radiation, 50-6
behavior. 38-8. 38-9
Anionics, 47-7. 47-8, 47-21 Asbestos-cement pipe, 15-7, 15-10
Appurtenances, II-6
Anions, 24-9, 24-12, 24-17. 44-45 Asphalt quality. 2 l-7
Aquathermal pressuring, 52-22
Anions conversions, 49-4 Asphalt Ridge field. Utah, 46-16, 46-30,
Aqueous phase relative permeability, 47-9
Anisotropy of strata. 49-S 46-31. 46-33, 46-34
Annual deferment factors, 41-27, 41-30 Aqueous/volatile gas systems. 25-3
Asphalt seals, 29-S
Annuity. tables, Aquifer conductivity. 38-9
Asphaltene buildup, 46-22
amount of, l-63 Aqutfer geometry, 38-1, 38-4. 38-5, 38-8
Asphaltenes. 19-10, 19-30
amountmg to a given sum (sinking fund), Aquifer material balance, 38-8
Asphaltic-based oils, 19-5
l-65 Aquifer permeability. 38-9 Asphaltic crudes, 6-67
present worth of an, l-66 Arabian Gulf. 18-2 Asphaltic oils, 24-18
provided for by a given capital, 1-66 Aramid fiber, 6-50 Asphalts, 39-l
Annular preventers, 18-I I, 18-12, 18-15 Archie equation, 26-3 I, 49-5 Assignments hy landowner, 57-6
Annular temperature, 53-2, 534 Arctic, Assignments by lessee, 57-7
Annular velocities, 52- I8 drscovery, commercial, 18-3 Associated/dissolved gas, 40-3
Annulus, effect on induction log, 49-17 environmental conditions, IS-38 to 18-40 Associated gas, 40-3
Antelope field, Texas, 16-12 production structures, 1840 to 18-42 Asymmetrical anticlines, 29-2
Anticlinal folds, 29-2 special considerations, 18-43 Athabasca tar sand, 46-34
Antisludge agents. 54-7 transportation systems, 18-42, 18-43 Atlantic Refining Co., 38-4
Atomic C/O density ratio, 50-2, 50-35 Avogadro’s principle, 5- 1 I Basic orifice factors, 33-13
Atomic densities, 50-35 Axial-flow pump, 6-1, 15-15 Basic orifice flow factor. 13-3 to 13-11
Atomic H/C ratio, 46-16 Axial-flow turbine meter, 1348 Basic sediments and water (BS&W), 16-2,
Atomic number, 50-2, 50-3. 50-7 Axial load(s) or loading, 2-2. 2-20 to 2-28, 16-7, 16-13, 17-2, 19-1, 19-6, 19-10,
Attenuation, 51-3, 51-4. 51-11. 51-12, 2-34, 2-35, 18-6. 18-17, 18-22, 18-24 19-15, 19-31, 32-6, 32-7, 32-10
51-38, 51-47 Axial stress, 2-3, 2-34, 2-35. 246. 2-55, BS&W monitor, 12-16
Attenuation curve, 49-34, 49-35 2-56, 9-9 Batch treatment method, 19-l I
Attenuation factor, 49-33, 49-34 Axial stress on casing, 2-20 to 2-28, 2-32, Batch-type meters, 32-6. 32-9 to 32-11
Attenuation rate, 49-32 2-35 Bathymetry. 18-16, 18-39
Attic oil, 43-l. 43-2 Azimuth, Battrum No. 1 field, Saskatchewan, 464
Austin chalk, 36-l of hole, 53-1, 53-2, 53-7, 53-10, 53-17 Baum& scale, relative density, l-80
Australia, 12-39, 27-9, 27-19 of hole deviation, 53-10 Bauxite, sintered particles, 55-8
Austria, 12-39 of reference electrode, 53-10 Bay Marchand field, Louisiana, 44-37,
Authority for expenditure (AFE), 15-31 Azimuth angle, 53-5, 53-6, 53-8 44-38
Automated water jets, 19-29 Azimuth frequency diagrams, 53-12 Beal’s correlation for dead-oil viscosity.
Automatic backwash, 16-14 22-14
Automatic casing hanger, 3-6 B Beam-balanced pumping units, 10-I to IO-3
Automatic control, installations, 16-10 Beam-type pumping unit, 10-16, IO-23
of dry-desiccant-type gas dehydrators, Bachaquero field, Venezuela, 24-13 Bean, 34-45
16-15 Backflow, 44-35 Bearings in turbine meters, 1348
of injection-pumping rate, 16-15 Backflow method, 56-5 Bed detection and definition of well logs.
of water-supply wells, 16-15 Backpressure controller, 13-51. 13-58 49-25 to 49-36
valves, 164, 16-11, 16-12, 16-15 Backpressure curve, 34-3. 34-31 to 34-34, Bed thickness, effect on acoustic velocity
Automatic controller, 13-50 34-46 logging device, 51-16
Automatic controls, Backpressure equations, 33-5. 34-30 to Beggs and Brill correlation, 46-7
for rod-pumped wells, 16-l I 34-35 Beggs and Robinson correlation, 22-15,
of gas-lift well, 16-l I Backpressure regulation, 13-54 22-16
Automatic custody transfer (ACT), 12-3, Backpressure test data, 39-23 Behavior index. 55-5
16-2, 16-5, 16-6, 16-13 Backpressure testing, 33-3 to 33-6, 33-10, Bell Creek MP flood, Montana, 47-16
Automatic cycling of desiccant beds, 16-15 33-20 Bellamy field, Missouri, 46-3
Automatic lease process control, 16-14 Backpressure valve mandrel. 3-9 Bellevue field, Louisiana, 46-4, 46-15.
Automatic positive choke. 13-57 Backpressure valves, 3-8, 3-9, 11-10, 13-56 46-18, 46-19, 46-34
Automatic production-control equipment, Backsurging method, 56-5 Bellows-assembly load rate, 5-16, 5-17,
16-2 to 164 Backup control systems offshore, 18- 15 5-37
Automatic production programmers. 16-3 Backwash cycle, 16-14 Bellows BHP element, 30-l. 30-6, 30-7
Automatic quantitative liquid measurement, Backwashing, 39-26, 44-43, 4447 Bellows-charge pressure, 5-16, 5-17, 5-33
16-5 Bacteria, 18-30. 44-46 Bellows-charged dome pressure, 5-3. 5-6,
Automatic safety shut-in system, 18-47, Bacteria control equipment, 24-2 5-7, 5-18, 5-19, 546, 549
IS-48 Bactericide, 44-41 to 44-44 Bellows-charged gas lift valves, 5-6, S-12.
Automatic sampler. 16-7 Baffle plates. 19-12, 19-13 5-16, 5-17, S-20, 5-21, 5-23, 5-37,
Automatic tank battery, 32-14 Baffling, 12-7. 12-13 S-39, 542
Automatic water-treating plant, 16-14 Bahama Islands, 29-8 Bellows guide tube, 5-12
Automatic well manifolds, 16-l 1, 16-12 Balance line valve, 3-27 Bellows meter, 13-36. 13-37
Automatic well testing, 16-12 Balanced tangential method of calculating Bellows PD meter, 32-12
Automatic wellhead controls, 16-10 directional surveys, 53-5. 53-6 Bellows protection. 5-16
Automatic wellhead safety controls, 16-10 Balanced-type gas lift valves, 5-39 Bellows-type chari recorder, 16-6
Automatic well-testing system, 16-12 Ball bearings. 13-48 Bending failure, 18-39
Automatically controlled valves and Ball joint angle, 18-17 Bending load fracture strength of casing,
accessories, 16-2. 16-3 Ball sealers, 55-9 2-61
Automation of lease equipment, Ball valve seat, 5-14, 5-15 Bending moment, Sl unit for, 58-5, 58-34
BS&W monitor, 16-7 Ballasting systems, 18-7 Bending stress, 18-13, 18-17
control installations, 16-10 to 16-12 Ballooning effect of tubing string, 4-9, 4-10 Benedict-Webb-Rubin EOS, 20-7
gas measurement, 16-6, 16-7 Baltic Sea, 24-19 Benzene, 244, 24-18
general references, 16-16 Bat&line-Owen field, Texas, 40-33 Berea cores, 47-8
introduction, 16-1, 16-2 Barge-launched jacket, 18-25 Berea sandstone, 28-8, 28-9, 28-11, 51-6,
netail computer, 16-7, 16-8 Barge-mounted deck, IS-23 51-8
production control equipment. 16-2 to Barges, measurement and calibration, 17-3 Bering Sea, 1842
16-4 Barium, 24-9, 44-44, 4445, SO-16 to 50-18 Berl saddles, 12-10
production safety controls, 16-4, 16-5 Barn. definition, 50-6 Bernoulli’s theorem, 15-l. 15-2
quantitative measurements, 16-S. 16-6 Barrier bar, 36-4 Beryllium, SO-6
references, 16-16 Barrier-island sandstones, 364 Bessel factor, l-61
sampler, 16-7 Bartlesville Energy Technology Center Beta radiation, 50-2
supervisory control and data transfer (BETC), 21-9 to 21-11 Bid shopping, 15-31
(SCADA) systems, 16-S to 16-10 Bartlesville sand, 44- 1, 444 Bimetallic corrosion. 3-36
temperature measurement, 16-7 Base conditions for natural gas fluids, 17-7 Binary liquid/vapor system, 23-3
well testing, 16-12 IO 16-16 Base of crude oil, 21-1, 21-3 Binary uhase diagrams. 23-2 to 23-6
Autotransformer converter, 10-35, IO-36 Base pressure, 32-14 Bino&l coefti&nts, table, l-37
Average annual ROR method, 41-17, 41-19, Base units, SI metric system, l-69, 58-3, Binomial distribution, SO-5
41-21, 41-23, 41-24 58-9, 58-10, 58-21. B&ides, 47-5, 47-10
Average book method of valuation, 41-22 Basic data required, solution-gas-drive Biofouling, IS-51
Average deferment factor, 41-25, 41-29, reservoirs, Biogenesis, 25-18
41-31 OIP, 37-3 Bioherm reefs, 36-5, 36-6
Average GOR, 32-15 pseudorelative permeability, 374, 37-5 Bioherms, 294, 29-8
Average reservoir pressure, 30-S. 30-9 PVT. 37-3 Biological degradation, 47-5
Average reservoir pressure, determination, relative permeability, 37-3 Biological surveys, IS-5
35-16 saturations, initial fluid, 37-3 Biopolymers, 47-4
Avogadro’s number, 50-6, 50-35 Basic energy equation, 34-2, 34-9 Biostrome reefs, 36-5, 36-6
SUBJECT INDEX 19
Biostromes, 29-4, 29-8 Borehole-compensated sonic travel time, Breakthrough of water, 40-18, 40-19, 44-4.
Biot theory, 51-8 5 1-22 44-7, 44-9, 44-11, 44-12, 44-14, 44-15,
Birdwell, 51-18, 51-27 Borehole-compensated transit time, 51-21 44-34
Bi-rotor PD meter, 32-l 1, 32-12 Borehole configuration, 53-16, 53-17 Breakthrough sweep efficiency, 44-15,
Bit guide, 3-6 to 3-8 Borehole corrections, IL, 49- 18 44-16, 44-25
Bittern, 24-20 Borehole, fluid-filled, acoustic wave Breast mooring system, 18-2
Bitumen, 19-30, 46-31 propagation in, 51-12 to 51-14 Breathing losses in tanks. I l-12, 1 J-13
Black iron sulfide scale, 9-8 Borehole geometry, 51-19, 51-28 Breccia, 29-8
Black-oil material balance, 37-25, 37-26 Borehole geometry log, 53-17 Bridge plugs, 55-9
Black-oil model, 484 to 48-7, 48-9, 48-14 Borehole geophysical devices, 58-25 Bridging in flow channels, 54-l 1
Black-oil reservoirs, 48-2, 48-8 Borehole measurement of transit times, Brightness of emulsions, 19-5
Black-oil rings, 39-5, 39-22 5 1-26 Brine displacement of product method of
Black-oil simulator, 36-10, 45-13 Borehole reflection method, 51-46 solution mining, 11-13, 11-14
Black oils, 37-22, 37-23, 37-25, 37-26, Borehole size effects, 51-19 Brine/oil ratios, 47-14
39-17, 39-26, 40-13 Borehole televiewer, 51-27 to 51-29, 5141, Brine salinity, 47-3 to 47-5, 47-10, 47-l 1,
Black Sea, 24-19 51-46, 53-17 47-13, 47-21
Blank runs, 26-21 Borehole televiewer log, 51-46 to 51-48 Brinnell hardness. 2-2, 2-37, 9-5
Blanking tool, 6-48 Boron, 24-4, 24-5, 24-12, 50-6, 50-l 1, British Commonwealth countries, l-69
Bleed-type sensors, 3-34 50-12, 50-14, 50-32, 50-36 British imperial gallon, l-69, l-70
Blender iar. 52-9. 52-10 Borosilicate glass, 244 British system of weights and measures,
Blenders”, 55-9 Boscan field, Venezuela, 6-24, lo-18 l-69, l-70
Blind and test flanges, 3-25 Bottle tests, 19-10, 19-15 Bromide, 19-10, 24-9, 24-12, 24-18, 24-20
Blind-shear ram, 18-l 1, IS-20 Bottom discharge application, ESP, 7-2, 7-3 Bromine, 24-5, 24-20, 24-21
Blind zone on lateral curves, 49-13, 49-14 Bottom gas lift valve, selecting, 5-26 Brownscombe-Collins method of water-drive
Block-and-bleed-type sensors, 3-34 Bottom intake application, ESP, 7-2, 7-3 predictions, 38-9
Block diagram, 15-30, 51-28 Bottom-seating holddown, 8-3 Bubble flow, 34-36 to 34-39
Blocking agent, 56-l Bottom-seating stationary-barrel rod pumps, Bubble Reynolds number, 34-38, 34-39
Blocking fluids, 56-2 8-8 Bubble rise coefficient, 34-38, 34-39
Bloomer field, Kansas, 16-12 Bottom-unloading gas lift valve, 5-51 Bubble rise velocity, 34-38, 34-39
Blotter model, 39-2 1, 44 17 Bottomhole assembly (BHA), 6-3 to 6-6, Bubble size range of foams, 47-8
Blowdowns, 1l-6 6-3 1, 6-39 Bubblepoint c&e, 20-2
Blowout, 18-l 1, 56-3 Bottomhole bumper spring, 5-52, 5-53 Bubblepoint equation, constants for, 22-8
Blowout preventer (BOP), 3-2, 3-6, 3-9, Bottomhole collar lock, 5-52 Bubblepoint liquid, definition, 22-21
3-38, 3-39, 7-13, 18-4, 18-6, 18-9, Bottomhole GOR, 37-23, 37-24 Bubblepoint of a system, definition, 22-20
18-11 to 18-21, 18-34 Bottomhole pressure (BHP): Bubblepoint of crude, 6-21
Blowout preventers, gas wells, 34-3 to 34-27 Bubblepoint pressure, 6-39, 22-1, 22-5 to
annular, 18-11, 18-12 gas-condensate wells, 34-27, 34-28 22-9, 22-11, 22-12, 22-21, 23-3, 23-11,
hydraulic connectors, 18-12 gas injection wells, 34-28 to 34-30 24-12, 24-14, 24-15, 34-31, 34-33,
kill and choke (K&C) valves, 18-12 liquid injection wells, 34-28 34-34, 35-2, 37-1, 37-3, 37-5, 37-6,
ram. 18-11 Bottomhole pressure buildup analysis, 40-27 37-8 to 37-10, 37-15, 37-22, 39-6, 40-6,
unitized stack, 18-12 Bottomhole pressure calculations, 40-7, 40-10 to 40-13, 40-19, 44-5
Blowout preventer stack, 18-11 to 18-19, by Cullender-Smith method, 34-25, 34-26 Bubblepoint pressure correlations,
18-31, 18-34 by Sukkar-Cornell method, 34-9 to 34-24 accuracy, 22-8
Bluff body, 16-6 flowing gas wells, 34-23, 34-24 empirical, 21-9, 21-10
Boberg and Lantz method, 46-9 gas-condensate wells, 34-27 Lasater, 22-5 to 22-7
Boberg and West correlation, 46-l 1 static gas well, 34-8, 34-9 Standing, 22-5
Bodcau field, Louisiana, 46-21 Bottomhole pressure gauge, 3 I- 1 Vasquez and Beggs, 22-7, 22-8
Boiling point, Bottomhole pressure instruments, 30-l to Bubblepoint pressure factor, 22-7
cubic average, 21-12, 21-15 30-6, 30-15 Bubblepoint viscosity, 22-16
definition of types of, 21-11, 21-12 Bottomhole pressure, steamflood, 46-17 Buckley-Leverett calculations, 48- 1
mean average, 21-11, 21-15 Bottomhole pressures, 30-I to 30-15 Buckley-Leverett equation, 28-3
molal average, 21-6, 21-11, 21-13 to Bottomhole test adapter. 3- 13 Buckley-Leverett frontal-drive method,
21-15, 21-17 Bottomhole valve temperature, 5-46 40-13
molar distribution of SCN groups, 39-l 1 Bottom-water, 24-2 Buckling,
of hydrocarbons, 19-7 Bottomwater drive, 40-15, 41-10, 48-4 of ice, 18-39
of six refrigerants, 14-10 Bounded reservoirs, shape factors, 35-5 of pipe, 18-37
volumetric average, 21-11, 21-12 Bounding additive, 46- 19 of tubing string, 4-9, 4-10
vs. K-value, 39-12 Bourdon tube, 13-38, 13-56, 16-4, 16-7. Buildup curve, 30-9 to 30-13, 30-15
Boise sandstone, 51-8. 51-9 30-1, 30-2, 304, 30-6, 30-7, 31-1 Buildup test, 354, 35-14 to 35-16, 35-19
Boll-weevil casing hanger, 3-6 Box and pin entrance threads, extreme-line Bulk density, 50-l to 50-4. 50-7, 50-8,
Boll-weevil tubing hanger, 3-9 casing joint, 2-64, 2-69, 2-70 50-17, 50-26 to 50-28, 50-30, 50-33,
Bolted-steel tanks, 11-l to 11-3. 11-6, 11-9, Box and pin subcoupling, 9-4 51-14, 51-37
11-11 Boyle’s law, 20-1, 20-2, 26-6, 26-7, 27-1, Bulk modulus, 6-55, 51-1, 51-2, 51-4,
Bonding conditions, cement, 51-40 to 5 l-42 30-B 51-14, 51-43, 51-44, 51-49
Bonus, oil and gas lease, 57-4, 57-7 Boyle’s-law-type porosimeter, 26-4, 26-6 Bulk pore compressibilities, 51-43
Booster application, ESP, 7-2, 7-3 Bradford field, Pennsylvania, 24-I) 24-2, Bulk volume (BV), 26-l to 26-7, 26-22.
Booster pump, 15-17, 44-47 44-1, 44-4, 47-22 27-1, 37-11
Borehole acoustic measurements, 51-28, Brake horsepower, 10-9, 10-17, IO-19 Bumper subs, 18-13, 18-14, 18-18
51-29, 51-44. 51-45, 51-47, 51-48 Brazil, 12-2, 12-21, 46-3, 46-4, 58-20 Bundle of capillary tubes model, 28-12
Borehole-compensated (BHC) acoustic log, Brea field, California, 46-16, 46-18, 46-24, Buoyancy effect, 2-2, 13-51, 18-2, 18-15 to
51-1.5 46-25 18-17, 18-24, 18-25, 18-29, 18-37,
Borehole-compensated device, 50-15 Brea-Olinda field, California, 46-15, 47-22 18-49, 24-2
Borehole-compensated sonde, 5 l- 15 Breakdown pressures, 44-3, 4446, 56-l Buoyancy, effect on water-drive recovery,
Borehole-compensated sonic log, 49-15, Breakthrough of free gas, 40-10 40-20
51-16, 51-17, 51-24, 51-26, 51-30, Breakthrough of gas, 40-14 Buoyancy method of gravity measurements,
51-32, 51-37 Breakthrough of inert gas, 39-17 52-19, 52-20
Borehole-compensated sonic tool, 49-32 Breakthrough of polymer, 44-40 Burbank unit, Oklahoma, 44-4 I
Bureau of Land Management, 57-12 of tank cars. 17-3 end effect, 28-7
Buried bar with shale drape. 53-12. 53-13 of tanks, liquid method, 17-3 forces, 22-16, 22-17. 40-14
Burners for emulsion-treating equtpment, of upright cylindrical tanks. 17-3 gradient, 40-17, 4410
19-28 standards, 50-20. 50-29 laboratory measurements. 26-24 to 26-27
Butane as IC engine fuel, IO-16 California. 6-5, 6-24, 6-59, 17-2. 18-l to relative permeability calculation based on.
Butterfly charts, 49-28 18-3, 19-2, 19-5, 21-2, 21-4, 21-7, 28-8
Butterfly diagram, 24-19 24-7, 24-8, 24-20, 26-19, 26-23, 26-30, saturation data, 26-26
Butterfly valve, 13-58 27-4, 27-5, 29-2, 29-8. 34-41, 34-45, standards. 58-38
Buttress-thread casing and coupling, 2-l. 40-15, 40-22, 40-23, 41-5, 44-37, tests. 44-4
2-5, 2-7. 2-9. 2-11. 2-13, 2-15, 2-17, 44-39, 4440, 46-3, 46-4. 46-14 to water saturation from, 26-22, 26-25,
2-19. 2-29 to 2-31. 2-57 to 2-61, 2-63, 46-16. 46-18. 46-19, 46-22 to 46-25, 27-8, 446
2-64 46-35. 47-22. 58-20 Capillary tube concepts, 47-5
Buttress thread profile, 2-38 California condensate systems, 2 l-12 Capillary tubes. bundle of, 26-10, 26-20
Bypass valve. 13-59 California otl systems, 22-5 Capillary tubes for flow network, 26.19,
Californium. 50-35 26-20
C Calingeart and Davis equation, 20-13. 20-17 Capital expenditure. 57-l I
Caliper curve and surveys, 49-1, 49-34, Capital gains. definition, 57. I 1
Cabimas field, Venezuela, 24-13 49-35, 49-38, 49-39 Capital to drill a well, 57-8
Cable junction box. 7-13 Caliper log, 51-16. 51-19, 51-23, 51-24, Capture cross section, 50-l I, 50-22
Cable-tool cores, 26-20, 26-2 1 51-26, 51-33. 51-38, 51-45, 51-46 Capture gamma rays, 50-3, 50-4. 50-22
Cable tray, 1846 Caliper logs. Carbon dioxide (CO,). 3-35 to 3-37, 4-4,
Cabled transmission system, 17-4 borehole configuratton. 53-16. 53-17 4-5, 6-4, 6-62, 8-9, 9-5, 9-8, 9-9.
Cablmg systems for SCADA, 16-9 for casing and tubing inspection, 53-17, 10-16, 12-3, 12-X. 14-3. 14-13, 14-17.
Caddo Lake field, Louisiana. 18-l 53-18 14-20 to 14-22, 15-29. 19-29, 19-31.
Cadiz. 58.20 interpretation and application, 53-17 20-5, 20-6. 22-5, 22-17, 23-7, 23-12,
Cadmium. 50-15 introduction, 53-l. 53-16 23-13, 24-4, 24-5. 24-16, 24-17. 26-18.
Caisson-retained production island, 18-40 methods of recording. 53-16 28-10, 37-24, 39-2, 39-5, 39-6, 39-14.
Caisson tutus, 18-41 types. 53-16 to 53-18 39-16, 40-22, 42-2. 43-2. 44-42, 44-43,
CAL wzllsite analysis. 49-37 Calorific value, 58-28 45-1, 45-4 to 45-6. 45-9. 46-12, 46-22.
Calcimeter, 52-9, 52-21 Caltex, 46-4 46-28, 48-5 to 48-11, 52-4 to 52-7, 52-Y
Calcite. 19-5, 5L-5. 51-6 Calvin field. Illinois. 40-33 to 52-11. 52.13, 52-16
Calcium acetate, 54-3 Canada, l-70. 12-10, 12-39, 18-2, 18-3, CO, analyzer, 19-28
Calcium aluminate cement, 46. I9 18.38. 18.30, 19-2. 24-6, 24-8, 24-l I, CO, content, 25-5, 25-8. 25-13 to 25.15.
Calcium carbide leg tests, 52-l I 24-19. 24-20, 21-9. 27-20, 33-5, 44-40, 25-20
Calcium carbonate. 194.. 24-2, 4444, 46-3. 46-4. 46.18, 46.21, 51-1, 52-12, COJcrude oil systems. 23.10
44-45 58-22 COJdecane system, 23-9
Calcium chloride, 8-9, 54-2 Canadian Arctic Islands, 18-3 CO, floods. 19-28
Calctum citrate precipitation, 54-7 Canadian Beaufon Sea, 18-3 CO2 in acidizing, 54-8 to 54-10
Calcium fluorides, 54-4, 56-5 Cap rock, 20-6. 29-7 CO, injection, 48-2, 48-7, 48-8
Calcium formate, 54-3 Capacitance kilovars. IO-35 CO,/methane/decane system, 23-13
Calcium magnesium carbonate, 54-2 Capacitance of a process, 13-50 COhrouane system. 23-9
Calcium scale. 4444 Capacitance probes, 16-2, 16-7, 16-8, CO$k,k,, system, 23-9
Calcium sulfate, 44-44, 44-45 16-12, 19-31 CO, density required for miscible
Calculated bottomhole pressure. 30-7, 30-S Capacities of orifice well testers. 13-38 to displacemen;, 45-6
Calculation methods. directional surveys, 13-44 CO, miscible process, 45-5, 45.6
53-5 to 53-7 Capacities ot separators. 12-21 to 12-25 COJwater system, 25-3, 25-14. 25-15
Calculation of relative permeabihty, Capacities of spherical separators, 12-30 to Carbon/oxygen ratio: see C/O ratio
automated centrifuge technique, 28-7 12-32 Carbon steel pipe, I l-2, 15.10, 15-12
lnstitut Fran& du Petrole method, 28-7 Capacitive reactance, IO-34 Carbon steel, properties of materials. 12.41
Calculation procedure, Jacoby and Berry Capacitive transducer, 30-5, 30-6 Carbon-to-hydrogen ratto, 21-3, 2 1-5
method. 37-23 to 37-26 Capacitor converter. IO-35 Carbonate banks or shoals. 36-5. 36.6
Calculation sequence and supplemental Capacitors, 10-25, IO-32 to IO-35 Carbonate reservoirs.
equations. jet pump. Capacity curves for separators, 12-27 to bioherm reefs, 36-5
power-fluid flow through nozzle, 6-42 12-32 biostrome reefs, 36-5
programming considerations. 6-46 Capacity distribution, 45-10. 45-12 nearshelf deposits. 36-6
pump performance and return flw, 6-42. Capacity-dtstribution curve. 44-8 shelf carbonates, 36-6
6-43. 646 Capacity equivalents, table, l-73 steamflood. 46-27
sizing considerations. 6-46 Capacity, of a process, 13-5 1 types. 29-8
worksheets, 6-44, 6-45 t;f API bolted steel tanks, I l-3 Carbonate rocks, laboratory measurement of
Calculations for sizing prime movers, IO-17 of API shop-welded tanks. I l-5 porosity. 26-6, 26-7
to IO-19 of eqmpment , 58-25, 58-30, 58-31 Carbonic acid. 9-8
Calculations for sucker rods. O-2 to 9-4 venting requirement, I l-7 Carbonylsulfide (COS), 14-22
Calculattons: see also example problems Capactty. standard of. I-71 Carboxymethylhydroxyethyl cellulose
Calculator programs, Capillary desaturetion curve (CDC), 47-9, (CMHEC), 47-3
for HP-4 I C. 22-17 47-10 Carnot cycle. 14-10
Calibrate tails, 49. I8 Capillary discontinmty, 28-3 Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows method for natural
Calibration, of barges. 17-3 Captllary forces, 37-l I, 44-31, 46.13. 47-9 gas viscosny, 20-9, 20-10. 20-15. 20-16
of bellows meter. 13-36 Capillary imbibition, 48-4 Carried interest, 41-1, 41-2. 57-10
of bottomhole gauges, 30-2, 30-3. 30-5 Capillary number, 47-9, 47-17 Carrter fluid, 56-8
of capacity standard, l-7 I Capillary pressure. as threshold pressure. Carthage field. Texas, 39-3
of conventional acoustic logs, 5 l-17 2X-6 Cartography, 58-5
of dipmeter tool, 53-8 averaging of data, 26-25 to 26-27 Cartridge filters, 15-20, 44-47
of gas measurement equipment, 13-l converting to reservoir conditions, 26-25 Carved-out production payment, 4 I- 1
of horizontal tanks. 17-3 curves. 26-24. 26-26. 28-5 Case cup thermometer, 17-I
of induction lop. 49-18 definition, 26-23, 26-27. 28.3 Case histories of gravity drainage,
of spheres and spheroids. 17-3 effect on unit dtsplacement efficiency, Lakeview pool, 40- 15
of standard of mass. I-70 43-6 Oklahoma Cny Wtlcox reservoir, 40-15
SUBJECT INDEX
Case histories. thermal recovery. hanger, S-5. 3-6. S-X. 3-l I, 3-37, 33-39 Cavern storage application. ESP, 7-l. 7-2
Fireflood projects, hanger bowl. 3-2, 3-6. 3-8 Cavmgs. 33-2 1
Asphalt Ridge, 46-30. 46-31. 46-33. hanger-seal assembly, 18-20 Cavitation, 6-32 to 6-36, 6-41 to 6-43,
46-34 injection-gas pressure. 5-54 6-45, 6-46, 6-50. 6-60
combination reverse/forward internal pressure leak resistance. 2-5, 2-7, Cavitation area, 6-37
combustion, 46-30, 46-31. 46-33. 2-Y. 2-l I, 2-13. 2-15. 2-17, 2-19. 2-57 Cavitation correction, 6-38
46-34 to 2-59, 2-64 Cavity pumps. 19-5
deepest. 46-28 to 46-30 internal pressure resistance, 2-5. 2-7, 2-9, Cellophane diaphragm, 26-24
Forest Hill, 46-3 I, 46-34 2-11, 2-13, 2-15. 2-17. 2-19 Cellulose derivative thickener, 55-5. 55-6
Gioriana, 46-29 10 46-32 joint strength, 2-2. 2-5, 2-7, 2-9, 2-l I, Celsius scale. 58-5, 58-39
largest, 46-28, 46-29 2-13, 2-15. 2-17. 2-19, 2-60. 2-61 Celsius temperature, umt and definitmn.
oxygen-enriched air, 46-3 I, 46-34 leak. 31-5. 31-6 58-7, 5X-10
Sloss. 46-30. 46-33 long thread, 2-S. 2-7. 2-9. 2-11, 2-13, Cement bond, 35-4, 56-4
Suplacu de Barcau. 46-15. 46-28, 46-29 2-15, 2-17. 2-19, Z-31. 2-58. 2-64 Cement bond logging, 51-40
thinnest producing reservoir. 46-29 to minimum-ID calipers, 53-18, 53-19 Cement bond quality;
46-3 1 multiplication factor, 2-29, 2-31 bond to casing and to high velocity
West Heidelberg, 46-28 to 46-30 non-API steel grade. 2-5, 2-7, 2-9. 2-11, formation. 5 l-40. 51-4 I
wet combustion, tertiary recovery, 2-13, 2-15. 2-17, 2-19 bonding conditions summary. 5 l-42
46-30. 46-33 non-API weight and grades. 2-4. 2-6, 2-8. free pipe. 5 I-40
Steamflood projects, 2-10 good bond to casing and formation, 51-40
Brea, 46-24. 46-25 performance properties, 2-4 to 2-19 partial bonding, 5 I-41
carbonate reservoir, 46-27 to 46-29 plain-end liner. 2-32 Cement evaluation log. 5 l-42
distillation drive. 46-24. 46-2.5 potential profile. 53-20 Cement Evaluation Tool. 5 I-4 I
fracture-assisted. 46-26 to 46-28 profile calipers, 53-18. 53-19 Cement lining for steel pipe, IS-IO
gas-cap reservoir. 46-24 to 46-26 range lengths, 2-3 Cement sheath, 51-40. 51-41
Kern Rover, 46-23, 46-24 round-thread. 2-l. 2-5. 2-7, 2-9, 2-l I, Cement slurry, 56-4
Lacq Sup&ieur, 46-27 to 46-29 2-13, 2-1.5. 2-17. 2-19. 2-28, 2-30, Cementation, 26-2. 40-8. 40- 1 I, 5% I
largest. 46-23. 46-24 2-57, 2-58. 2-61, 2-64 Cementation factor, 26-29
Slocum, 46-26. 46-27 round-thread height dimensions, 2-66 Central America, 25 18. 58-20
Smackover, 46-24 to 46-26 safety factors, 2-l to 2-3. 2-34, 2-35 Central battery systems, 6-60, 6-62. 32-7
Street Ranch. 46-26 to 46-28 short-thread. 2-5, 2-7, 2-9, 2-11. 2-13, Centralized control room, 18-46
watersand reservoir, 46-26. 46-27 2-15, 2-17. 2-19, 2-29, 2-57, 2-64 Centrifugal compressor. 14-8
Cased-hole completions, 56-9 single-weight string suspended in rotary Centrifugal compressor efficiencies, 14-9
Cased-hole evaluation, 5 l-42. 5 1-43 mud. 2-37 Centrifugal force, 6-63. 12-7. 12-8. 12.10,
Cased-hole logging. 50-I sizes. F, values for. 34-25 12-13, 12-14, 12-19. 12-20. 13-45.
Cash contributions to drilling well. 57-9 special ,joint?. 2- 1 14-3. 19-6, 19-15
Cash flow, multiwell template effect on. stress in, 2-36 Centrifugal gas scrubbers, 12-20, 12-21
IS-32 stretch in. 2-35 to 2-37 Cenlrifugal (elbow) meters. 13-45, 13-49
Cash-flow prqjection preparation. 41-3. 41-4 tensile strength, 2-2 Centrifugal pump. 6-l. 6-34. 6-49, 6-S I,
Casing anchor. 8-9 threads, 3-2 6-62. 7-2. 7-3. 15-15, 15.17. 19-S.
Casing and tubing inspection by caliper tolerance. 2-28. 2-29 44-42. 4447
logs. 53-17. 53-18 travel time, Sl-41 Centrifugal separator. 12-20
Casing and tubing leaks, 33-21, 33-22 weight. 2-28, 2-29 Centrifuge extraction method. 26-22
Casing, with helical glrakes, IX-21 Centrifuge method for determining water
API liners. 2-1, 2-2 yield strength, 2-2 and sediment in ml, 17-1, 17-5
API types, 2-l Casing head\. 3-2 to 3-6. 3-8. 3-l I. 3-13, Centrifuge method of capillary pressure
axial stress on, 2-20 to 2-28, 2-32, 2-35 3-37, 3-39 measurement, 26-24. 26-25
centralizers, location of, 53-17 Casing inspection logs, Centrifuge technique for determining
collapse, 53-18. 56-3 caliper logs for, 53-17 relative permeability. 28-7. 28. Il. 28-12
collapse pressure. 2-l IO 2-3, 2-20 to electrical potential logs. 53-19 Centrifuges, 15-20, 19-6, 26-22
2-28. 2-32. 2-34. 2-35. 2-46. 2-55. electromagnetic devices. 53-19, 53-20 Cenlripetal flow, 12-20
2-56, 18-20 introduction. 53-l. 53-17 Cerveza platform. 18-2. 18-23
collapse pressure under axial-tension Casing/tubing annulus, 3-8 Chain drives, lo-12
stress, 2-55 Casinghead bowl. 3-5 to 3-7 Chain rule for derivatives. 37. I3
collapse resistance. 2-l to 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, Casinghead flange, 3-5, 3-6, 3-8 Chaining, 19-13
2-10, 2-12, 2-14. 2-16. 2-18. 2-32. Casinghead gas, definition. 40-3. 57-5 Chamber installations. gas lift. 5-19, 5-50 to
2-46. 2-55. 2-56 Cast-iron pipe. 15-10 5-52
collapse resistance under axial load, 2-20 Cat Canyon field, California, 46-34 Chamber length equation, 5-51, 5-52
to 2-28, 2-34, 2-35 Catalyst poisoning. 56-2 Chamber operating gas lift valves. 5-51
collar-locator log, 53-26 Catalyst selection, guidelines, 15-30 Channel cut and fll. S3-12. 53-13
combination strings. 2-2 to 2-4 Catalysts, 24-5 Channeling, m acidizing, 54-8, 54-10
design of strings. 2-1, 2-2 Catalytic combustion detector (CCD), 52-3 in cement bonding, 51-41
dimensions, 2-28. 2-29, 2-57 to 2-59. to 52-5, 52-l I in emulsion treater, 19-23
2-63. 2-64. 2-66 Catalytic converters. 15-16 in glass wool packing, 19-14
elongation, 2-2 Catalytic ignition systems. 46-20 of injection water, 44-3
equations for calculating performance Catenary mooring configuration, 18-10, Channels. permeability of, 26-15. 26-16
properties, 2-46. 2-54 to 2-56 18-16 Chanslor-Western Oil and Development
extreme-line, 2-l. 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 2-10. Cathodic protection, 3-36. I l-6, 15-10, Co., 46-15, 46-19
2-12. 2-14. 2-16. 2-18. 2-29 to 2-31. 18-29, 1X-33. 18-34. 53-19, 53-20 Chapel Hill field, Texas, 39-3, 39-20 to
2-62 to 2-64. 2-67, 2-68 Canon exchange, 24-20, 47-20. 47-21 39-22
extreme-line joint, 2-5. 2-7. 2-9, 2-l 1. Cation exchange capacity (CEC), 50-15. Characteristics of well fluids. 12-3, 12-21
2-13. 2-15, 2-17. 2-19. 2-60. 2-63. 2-67 52-2 I Characterization factor, 21-3 to 21-l I.
to 2-72 Cationics. 47-7 21.13, 21.14. 21.21. 39-l 1
flow (annular) installation design, 5-37, Cations. 24-9. 24-19, 4445 Characterization of the reservoir.
5-38 Cations conversions. 49-4 engineering, 36-6 to 36-8
gross linear footage from net footage. Caustic Roodmg. 19-28. 44-40, 48-5, 48-7 geology, 36-3 to 56-6
2-29, 2-31 Caustic soda. 14-22 geophysics, 36-8, 36-9
Charge pump, 6-62 Chromatograph/thermaI conductivity Closure, 29-3, 29-8

Charged particle accelerators, SO-6 detector, 52-6 Closure stress, 55-8
Charles’ law, 20-1, 20-Z Chromatography, 39-6 CLUSTER log analysis, 49-37
Charpy impact values, 18-21 Chromic acid, 11-6 CO&O ratio in produced gas. 46-16
Charpy tests, 12-41 Chromium, 9-5 Coal caving, 52-19
Charpy V-notch impact requirements, 3-38 Circuit breakers, 10-28, lo-30 Coal tar coating, I l-5
Chart Rcor- I, 49-21 Circular conduits, fluid flow in, 26-10 Coal tar epoxy internal coatings, 6-62
Chart Rcor-2, 49-21, 49-24 Circular drainage area, 35-6 Coal-tar-epoxy system, 15- 10
Chart Rcor-4, 49-18 Circular flotation chamber, 15-27 Coalescence, 12-8, 12-10. 12-11, 12-19,
Charts used in BHP gauges, 30-2 Circumferences of circles by eighths, table, 12-35, 15-22, 15-23, 19-1, 19-3 to 19-7,
Chase water, 47-2, 47-11 l-28, 1-29 19-9, 19-12 to 19-15, 19-17, 19-19.
Chatter condition, 5-16 Circumferences of circles by hundredths, 19-21, 19-23, 19-25, 19-26, 19-28
Cheater bars, 9-10 table, l-24, 1-25 Coalescing material, 19-14
Checklist, deck and subsea BOP testing, Circumferential bond image, 51-42 Coalescing packs, 12-10
18-12 Circumferential displacement, 9-9, 9-10 Coalescing-type mist extractor, 12-8, 12-l 1
Chelating agents, 44-45 Cities Service, 46-14, 46-15, 46-18, 46-20, Coanda effect, 12-20
Chemical absorption, 48-2 46-2 1 Coastal interdeltaic environment, 36-3
Chemical alteration of formation, 51-20 Citric acid as sequestering agent, 44-45, Coatings, corrosion prevention, 18.29.
Chemical analyses, interpretation of, 24-18 54-7 18-33, 18-34
Chemical analyses of produced waters, 24-2 Clamp-type connectors, 3-2, 3-5 Coatings for bolted tanks, 11-l
Chemical analysis, 21-1, 21-2 Clamp-type permeameter, 26-18 Coatings, protective, 3-36
Chemical and mechanical properties of Clamp-type riser coupling, 18-15 Code authorities for various countries,
plastic sucker rods, 9-l 1 Clapeyron equation, 20-12, 20-13 12-39
Chemical corrosion inhibitor, 8-9 Clarification of water produced with Code vectorization, 48-17
Chemical degradation, 47-5, 47-22, 48-2 emulsions, 19-28 Codes and regulatory authorities, 18-44
Chemical demulsifiers, 19-9 to 19-12, 19-32 Classification of oil and gas separators by, Coefficient, of adsorption, 51-4
Chemical destabilization, 19-7, 19-8 application, 12-17 to 12-19 of compressional wave attenuation, 5 1-4
Chemical diffusion. 28-13 configuration. 12-16 of expansion, 26-20
Chemical distributor for flowlines, 19-11 function, 12-16 of isothermal compressibility, 20-l 1,
Chemical flood model, 48-4, 48-5, 48-7 operating pressure, 12-16, 12-17 20-16
Chemical flooding, principle used to accomplish primary of shear wave attenuation, 5 l-4
chemical agent numerical dispersion, separation, 12-19, 12-20 of thermal expansion, 58-34
48-10 Classifications, Coefficients, for choke nipple, 34-45
high-pH processes, 47-18 to 47-22 of hazardous areas, 10.36, lo-37 interaction, 28-3
improved (enhanced) recovery, 40-4, 48-2 of insulation for motors, lo-26 transport, 28-1, 28-3
introduction, 47-1 of material balance equation, 40-7 COFCAW pilot or process. 46-2. 46-14,
low-IFT processes, 47-9 to 47-18 of NEMA, for control enclosures, lo-27 46-33
mobility control processes, 47-1 to 47-9 of production packers, 4-1 Cogeneration of steam and electricity, 46-19
production, 46-3 of reservoir rocks, 29-6 to 29-8 Cognac platform, 18-2, 18-23
ieferences, 47-24 to 47-26 of surfactants. 47-7 Coherence, definition and usage SI metric,
summary, 47-22, 47-23 Clastic porosity, 29-8 58-8, 58-9, 58-22
Chemical jnhibitors, 3-35, 6-55, 44-42 Clastic reservoirs, 36-3, 36-4 Co-injection of gas and steam, 46-22, 46-23
Chemical injection valves, 3-35 Clastic rocks, 29-7 Coke, 19-29, 46-12, 46-21
Chemical kinetics, 46-12, 46-13, 46-37 Clastic sedimentary deposits, 29-4 Cold drawn steel, 9-2
Chemical potential, 25-6, 25-9 Clastic sediments, 36-3 Cold electric grid, 19-25
Chemical potential sink, 47-1.5 Clathrates, 14-2 Cold environment, 18-21
Chemical properties of oilfield waters, 24-5 Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 20-12, 20-16, Cold Lake field, Alberta, Canada, 46-4.
Chemical reaction kinetics, 46-1 I, 46-12 20-17, 46-13 46-34
Chemical reservoirs, 29-6, 29-8 Clay control, 56-5, 56-6 Cold oil productivity, 46-10, 46-l 1
Chemical scavengers, 15-29 Clay hydration, 51-19 Cold-separation unii, 12-1
Chemical stain kit, 52-9 Clay minerals, 44-2, 50-37 Collapse equation factors, 2-54 to 2-56
Chemical stoichiometry, 46-12 Clay stabilization, 56-3 Collabse pressure equations, 2-46
Chemicals in oil and gas separation, 12-7. Clay types, identification and quantification, Collapse pressure, of casing, 2-l to 2-3,
12-13 50-2 2-20 to 2-28, 2-32, 2-34, 2-35, 2-46,
Clay yield, 58-29 2-55, 2-56
Chevron, 46-14, 46-15, 46-18, 47-22
Clean-sand points, 50-34 of line pipe, 2-48, 2-49
Chevron Oil Field Research Co., 5149
Cleaning vessels, 12-42, 19-28, 19-29 of tubing, 2-39, 2-41, 2-43, 246
Chevron packing, 18-15
Cleanup, remedial, Collapse pressure under axial load, 2-32
Chew and Connally method, 22-14, 22-15
abrasive jet cleaning, 56-l Collapse pressure under axial-tension stress,
Chile, 58-20
large-volume injection treatments, 56-2 2-55
Chiller, 14-8 to 14-10
mud removal, 56-l Collapse resistance, of casing, 2-1 to 2-4,
China, People’s Republic of, 12-39
paraffin removal, 56-2 2-6, 2-8, 2-10, 2-12, 2-14, 2-16, 2-18,
Chloride stress cracking, 3-35, 3-36 reperforation, 56- 1 2-32, 2-46, 2-55, 2-56
Chloride test, 27-l scale deposits, 56-2 of line pipe, 248
Chlorides, 24-9, 24-18, 44-44 steam injection, 56-2 of tubing, 2-39, 241, 243, 246
Chlorine, 44-43, 46-20, 50-3, 50-4. 50-11. water blocks and emulsions, 56-2 Collapse resistance under axial load, casing,
50-12, 50-18, 50-21, 50-34 Clearance volume, definition of. 6-21 2-20 to 2-28, 2-34, 2-35
Choke capacity chart, 5-8 Climatological data, 31-2, 31-3 Collapse safety factor, 2-l to 2-3, 2-32,
Choke-control operation, 5-41 to 5-44 Closed aas lift installation, 5-2, 5-3 2-34, 2-35, 2-39, 2-45, 2-46
Choke nipple, 13-56 Closed linear system, 38-9 Collar locator, 53-26
Choke performance curve, 34-46, 34-50 Closed-loop control, 16-2 Colombia, 21-2, 46-3, 58-20
Christmas-tree assembly, 3-8 to 3-l 1, 3-13, Closed power-fluid system, 6-4, 6-5, 6-25 Color of emulsions, 19-5, 19-6
3-17, 3-39 to 6-28, 6-30, 6-55. 6-59, 6-60, 6-63 Colorado, 24-8, 24-l 1, 24-20, 40-23
Christmas-tree tittings, 3-13 Closed radial system, 38-9 Colorado School of Mines, 25-9, 25- 11
Christmas trees, offshore, 18-3, 18-28, Closed regeneration system, 14-l 1, 14-12 Column-stabilized drilling vessel, 18-2
18-31, 18-32, 18-34, 18-37, 18-38 Closed, rotative, gas-lift system, 5-l to 5-3, Combination casing strings, safety factors,
Chromatogram interpretation, 52-16 5-11, 5-24. 5-38 collapse, 2-2, 2-3, 2-34
SUBJECT INDEX 23
internal yield, 2-32, 2-34 Illinois basin. 24-7, 24-9 Compressive strength of cement, 5140,
joint strength, 2-32, 2-34 midcontinent area, 24-8 to 24-10 51-42
pipe-body yield strength, 2-32, 2-34 Rocky Mountain area, 24-8. 24-1 I Compressor, field booster, 13-57
Combination drive reservoirs, 43-16, 45-8 U.S. Gulf Coast, 24-7, 24-8 Compressor fuel consumption, 39-24
Combination recovery procedures, 39-24 Venezuela, 24-9, 24-13 Compressor-oil carry-over, 39-24
Combination reverse/forward combustion, Composition of produced stream, GC Compressor suction pressure, 13-58
46-30, 46-31, 46-33, 46-34 system, 39-14 Compton scattering, 50-6 to 50-8, 50-12 to
Combination thermal and epithermal neutron Composition ranges, GC systems, 39-2 50-14, 50-16
device, 50-37 Compositional analysis, 17-7 Compton tail, 50-13, 50-14
Combination traps, 29-5 Compositional-balance equation, 43-6 Compulsory unit operations. 57-8
Combination valve operators, 16-3 Compositional material balance, 39-8 Comsand log analysis, 49-37
Combustible-gas detectors, 1847 Compositional model, 43-2, 484, 48-6, Concentration, definitions of, 48-5
Combustion efficiency, 19-28 48-7, 48-9, 48-14 Concentration, units and conversions, 58-29,
Combustion, in-situ, Compositional simulator, 36-10, 45-10, 58-30
dry forward, 46-1, 46-2 45-13 Conceptual studies, 15-30
production by, 46-4 Compound interest, 41-25 Concrete dust, 1 l-5
reverse, 46-2 Compound interest factor, 41-17 Concrete (gravity) structures, IS-l, 18-2,
wet, 462, 46-3 Compound interest, table, l-62, l-63 18-23, 18-25
Combustion of coke, 46-12 Compound units, Sl metric system, 58-12 to Condensable vapors, 12-3, 12-8
Combustion tubes, 46-13, 46-15, 46-19 58-14 Condensate content, 39-23
Comlith log analysis, 49-37 Compressed air, 3-3 1 Condensate (distillate) liquids, 22-20, 39-23
Common fractions of an in. to mm, table, Compressed vapor recovery unit, 11-13 Condensate-liquids recovery, 39-6
1-72 Compressibility factor, Condensate properties and correlations,
Common logarithms, table, 1-38 to 1-41 of ethylene, 17-7 21-8, 21-10 to 21-16
Common subsurface point, 53- I5 of gas. 20-4, 20-7, 20-8, 20-10, 20-l 1, Condensate well fluids, 20-7, 34-4
Common surface point, 53-15, 53-16 20-14, 34-28, 40-22 Condensates, 11-12. 12-3. 12-32. 14-1.
Communication adapter, 16-8 to 16-10 of injected dry gas, 39-24 14-3, 14-5 to 14-8, 14-11, 14-14, 18-28,
Communication facilities for SCADA, 16-9, of natural gas, 5-4. 20-5, 20-6, 40-21 39-10, 39-11. 40-3. 57-5
16-10 of nitrogen, 39-16 Condensing-gas drive. 45-l to 45-4, 45-l 1.
Compaction, 55-I of pure compounds, 20-5 45-12
Compaction correction factor, 5 l-33 Compressibility factor charts, 20-5, 20-6, Conductance ratio, 44-34
Compaction disequilibrium, 52-21, 52-22 40-2 1 Conduction, 46-25
Compaction, effect on porosity, 26-7 Compressibility of CO*, 45-5 Conductive cloth model, 44-20
Compaction of porous rocks, 26-7 to 26-10 Compressibility of formation. 40-7 Conductive solids, effect on electrical
Comparison of fluid saturation measurement Compressibility of formation water, 24-12, properties of rock, 26-30, 26-31
methods. 24-15 Conductivity, 44-33 to 44-35
averaging capillary-pressure data, 26-25 to Compressibility of gas. 51-37 Conductivity log, 51-38
26-27 Compressibility of hydrocarbon liquids, Conductivity units, 49-1
converting laboratory data, 26-25 22-3, 22-5 Conductor casing, 18-18, 18-19
introduction, 26-24, 26-25 Compressibility of natural gas mixtures, Conductor strings, 3-3
water saturation from capillary-pressure 17-7 Cone-bottom tanks, I l-2, 1l-3
data. 26-25 Compressibility of oil, 40-7 Configurations of separators. 12-16, 12-22,
Comparison of predicted vs. actual reservoir Compressibility of pore fluid, 51-30. 51-31, 12-31, 12-35
performance, 37-25, 37-26 51-37 - Confining pressure, 5 l-7
Comparison of project execution formats, Compressibility of porous rocks, 26-7 to Conformance efficiency, 39-9, 43-3, 43-5 to
15-32 26-10 43-7, 43-9, 44-9, 44-32, 45-6, 45-7,
Comparison of separators, 12-21 Compressibility of reservoir fluid, 58-38 45-10, 45-13
Comparison of Tamer’s and Tracy’s Compressibility tests, 51-44 Conformance factor, 39-18
method, 37-10 Compressibility, total, 35-2 Conformity of flood, 44-46
Compatibility of coatings, 11-4 Compression, 39-27 Congo, 46-3
Compatibility tests, 19-10 Compression loading, 9-13 Conjugate gradient, 48-17
Compensated density device, 50-17 Compression packer, 4-2 to 4-4, 4-8 Connate water: see also interstitial water
Compensated Formation Density (FDP), Compression plant, 39- 17, 39-24 Connate water, 24-2. 24-16, 24-18, 24-19
49-23, 49-24, 49-36, 49-38 Compression ratio, 6-10, 6-21, 8-9, 8-10, Connection gas indicating underbalance,
Compensated formation density log, 46-21 10-15. 18-14, 39-24 52-17, 52-18
Compensated Neutron Log (CNLTM),49-36. Compression refrigeration system, 14-9 Conoco Inc., 46-15, 46-26
49-38, SO-29 Compression stress in pipe, 2-35 Conservation, 43-l
Complementary error function, 46-8 Compression stroke, lo-14 Conservation commission, 30-8
Complementary metal-oxide silicon Compression system. 1 l-13 Conservation commission completion, 41-8
(CMOS), 16-9 Compression-type seal, 3-6 Conservation equations, steam injection model,
Completion costs, 41-9 Compressional energy, 34-28, 34-29, 39-40 energy balance, 46-12
Completion factor, 40-27 Compressional forces, 29-2, 29-3 mass balance of coke, 46-12
Completion flow efficiency, 37-21 Compressional transit time curves, 5 l-29 mass balance of H,O. 46-12
Completion intervals in firefloods and Compressional-wave attenuations, 51-2, mass balance of hydrocarbons, 46-12
steamfloods, 46-17 51-6 mass balance of inert gases, 46-12
Completion string inspection, 53-17 Compressional-wave transit time, 51-19, mass balance of oxygen, 46-12
Completion/workover system controls, 51-24 to 51-27, 51-29 to 51-31, 51-35 to Conservation laws, 39. I6
1B-48 51-37, 51-39, 51-43 Conservation of mass, 34- 1
Complex propagation factor, 49-33 Compressional-wave velocities. 5 l-l. 5 1-2, Consistency index, 55-5
Complexing agent, 56-3 5’1-4 to 51-9. 51-12, 51-15, 51-20, Consolidated rocks, porosity of, 5 l-29 to 5 I-3 1
Component parts of a pumping unit, 10-4, 51-24. 51-25. 51-30. 51-34, 51-35. Constant-composition expansion, 39-7
IO-5 51-37, 51-38. 5143 Constant-enthalpy expansion, 14-l. 14-2
Composite reservoir, 35-7 Compressional-wave velocity log, 51-28 Constant-enthalpy expansion system, 14-3 to
Composition of oiltield waters, Compressional waves, 51-2, 51-3, 51-12 to 14-8
Appalachian area, 24-6, 24-7 51-15, 51-25, 51-27, 51-28, 51-30, Constant-flow control valve. 6-5 I, 6-54, 6-56
California, 24-7, 24-8 51-35, 51-46 Constant percentage decline, 40-28 to
Canada, 24-8, 24-12 Compressive load, 18-22 40-32, 41-9, 41-10, 41-12, 41-17
Constant-percentage-decline deferment Control-head compression packer, 4-2, 4-3, Conversion, tables of,
factor, 41-24, 41-27, 41-28 4-9 angular velocity, l-76
Constant-pressure controller, 6-5 1, 6-54 Control-head tension packer, 4-2, 4-9 areas, 1-74
Constant-pressure cycling, 39-23, 39-24 Control lines in subsea completions, 18-33, capacities, l-74
Constant-rate case for DCF-ROR, 41-18, IS-34 density, 1-79
41-22, 41-23 Control manifolds, 6-54 energy, l-78
Constant-rate deferment factor, 4 l-24, Control of field compressors, 13-57 heat, l-78
41-25, 41-27 to 41-29 Control of subsea production facilities, IS-48 heat flow, l-79
Constant-rate income, 41-18, 41-21 Control system, 3-31, 3-33, 3-34 lengths, I-7 1
Constant-rate production, 41-5, 41-I 1, 41-12 Control systems offshore, linear velocity, l-76
Constant ratio of net profit. 41-20 alternate approaches, 18-49, IX-50 masses, 1-75
Constant surface closing, gas-lift valve. 5-44 control fluids, 18-49 power, 1-78
Constant-terminal-pressure case, 38-I to 38-3 direct hydraulic control. 18-50 pressures, l-76
Constant-terminal-rate case. 38-l. 38-2 discrete-piloted hydraulic. 18-51 relative densities, l-80
Constant valve surface closing pressure, drilling, 18-15. 18-16 thermal conductance, l-79
5-46, 5-47 introduction, 18-43 to 18-48 thermal conductivity, l-79
Constant-volume gas reservoirs, 40-34 multiplexed electrohydraulic, 18-52 volumes, 1-74
Constraint equations, 48-4 operational considerations, 1849 work, I-78
Construction codes for separators, redundancy, 18-48. It-49 Conveyances, tax consequences related to,
ASME code for unfired pressure vessels, reliability/mamtainability, 18-48 41-15, 41-16
12-38 safety systems, 18-47 Convolutions, 5-16
ASME design equations for separators, sequential-piloted hydraulic, 18-51, 18-52 Cook Inlet, Alaska, 18-3
12-38 subsea productton facilities, IS-48 Cooling, creates hydrates, 14-3
materials of construction for separators, umbdtcals, 1849 cycles, 14-11
12-38 Control-valve travel, 13-55 gas to condense hydrocarbon vapor, 14-5
Construction design factor, 15-I I, 15-13 Controlled~solubility particulate solids, 54-10 in condensate removal, 14-1, 14-2
Construction materials for separator, 12-38, Controller types, 16-3 to 16-5 in gas-to-gas heat exchangers, 14-I 1
12-39. 12-41 Controllinginjection-pumping rate, 16-14 load, 14-10
Constructton of meters, 13-37 Controls nomenclature, 13-49, 13-50 with refrigerants, 14-Y
Construction types for underground storage, Convection. 46-4, 46-12. 46-25 Copper electrodes, 39-21
1l-13 Convection heat-transfer coefficient, 46-5 Coquinas, 29-4, 29-8
Contact angle, 28-10 Conventional acoustic logging. C/O ratio, 50-l to 50-4, 50-9. 50-22,
Contact log, 443 calibration. 51-17, 51-18 50-24, 50-35, 50-36
Contact resistivity devices, 26-3 1 curves recorded, 5 I - 16 Core analysis and core analysis data, 24. I,
Containers for samples, 24-4 cycle skipping and triggermg on the 26-l, 26-7, 26-22. 26-23. 36-3, 37-3.
Containment of fracture, 55-5 noise, 51-16. 51-17 39-18, 40-l. 40-3. 40-5, 40.12. 40.16,
Contaminants of water, IS-30 log presentation, 51-16 40-19. 40-25, 41-8. 424. 446, 46-21,
Continental sediments, 36-3 tool characteristics, 51-15, 51-16 50-26, 50-35 to 50.37, 51.31, 51-32, 52-26
Continental shelf, 29-7, 53-12, 53-14 tool span. 51-16 Core analysis, average values,
Continental slope and abyssal environments, Conventional acoustic loas, 51-19, 51-20, gravity, 27-5, 27-7, 27-l 1. 27-13, 27-15.
53-12, 53-14 51-22 to 51-25, 51-35 27-17. 27-19
Continuity of reservoir rock, 44-3 Conventional coring procedures, 27-9 interstitial water saturation. 27-3. 27-5,
Continuity principles. 37-2 Conventional crank-balanced pumping units, 27-7, 27-11, 27-13, 27-15, 27-17.
Continuous compounding, 41-26, 41-28, 10-l to 10-4. 10-8. IO-9 27-19, 27-20
41-30, 41-35 Conventional gas-lift equipment, 5-2 oil saturation, 27-3, 27-5.27-7. 27-9, 27-1 I,
Continuous dipmeter surveys, 53-3 Conventional lay barges. 1837, 1838. 18-43 27-13, 27.15, 27-17. 27.19, 27-20
Continuous-flow gas lift, Conventional (black-orI) material balance, permeability. 27-3 to 27-6. 27-8. 27-10 to
bottom valve, selecting, 5-26 37-25. 37-26 27-17, 27-19, 27-20
casing (annular) flow in&llation design, 5-37 Conventional mooring system. 18-4 permeability, 27-3 to 27-6, 27-8. 27-10 to
depth of top valve, 5-24, 5-25 Conventional mud logging. 52-1, 52-16 27-17, 27-19, 27-20
design procedures, 34-40 to 34-45 Conventional resistivity devices, 49-12, 49-25 porosity, 27-3. 27-5. 27-7, 27-8, 27-l 1,
flowing pressure gradient curves, 5-25, Conventional resistivity logs. application, 49-14 27-13, 27-15, 27-17. 27-19, 27-20
5-26 Conventional steel pipe. 18-36, 18-37 total water saturation, 27-5, 27-7. 27-I 1.
flowing temperature at depth. 5-26 Conventional tubing mandrel, 5-12 27-13, 27-15. 27-17
installGion design. 5-22, 5-26 to 5-35 Conventional wireline cores. 27-9 water saturation, reservoir. 27-20
introduction, 5-2 I, 5-22 Conventionally mined caverns, 1 l-13 Core analysis of different formations,
multiphase-flow correlations, 5-25, 5-26 Convergence pressure, 23-l 1 data from non-U.S. areas. 27-S
operations, 5-24, 541
Conversion factors. for density units, data from U.S. areas, 27-9
ortfice-check valve for the operating gas- table, l-79 liquid saturations, 27-8
lift valve, 5-23, 5-24
for permeabtlity. 26-14, 58-35 percussion sidewall core data, 27-9
production pressure (flurd)-operated
Conversion factors, Sl uniti, permeability, 27-l
valves. 5-35 to 5-37
for vara, 58-20 porosity, 27-l
safety factors in simplified installation,
general, 58-14. 58-22 Core-barrel sample, 56-7
5-22, 5-23
memory joggers, 58-21 Core barrels, rubber-sleeve, 56-3, 56-6
slope of static load fluid traverse. 5-25
notation, 58-14 Core-sample resistivity cell, 26-28
us& gas energy fully, 5-I
Continuous-flow installations, 5-21 to 5-26, organization. 58-14 CORIBAND log analysis, 49-37
5-30. 5-31, s-34, 5-35, 5-37, 5-43 tables of, 58-15 to 58-21 Coring data, 4 l-8
Contraction of pipe, lateral, 2-35 Conversion of temperature-tolerance Coring program,
Control agent, gas regulation. 13-50 requirements, 58-7 core analyses, 46-2 I
Control circuit logic, 3-27 Conversion of units in Darcy’s law, during and after project. 46-20
Control curves, gas regulation, 13-52, 13-53 gases ar base pressure and average log analyses. 46-2 I
Control Data Corp. 1 48 I7 tlowmg temperature. 26-13, 26-14 microscopic studies. 46-2 1
Control enclosures for motors. 10-26. IO-27 linear-flow liquids. 26-13 mineral analyses of cores, 46-2 1
Control fluids, subsea control systems, 18-49 permeabtlity conversion factors. 26-14, 26-15 photographic and visual examination. 46-2 1
Control for odtield motors, IO-27 to lo-29 radial-flow liquids. 26-13 tracers, 46-2 I
Control fuses for oilfield motors, IO-29 Conversion rules. 585 to 587 Corner well producing cuts, 4424, 44-25
SUBJECT INDEX 25
Correction, oil formation volume factor, 22-10 to 22-13 Corrosion rates, 4441, 4442, 58-38
of observed API gravity to API gravity at oil systems, 22-l to 22-21 Corrosive fluids in separator, 12-40
60°F. 17-5, 17-6 oil viscosity, 22-13 to 22-16 Corrosive well fluids, 4-4. 4-5
of observed density to density at 15OC, 17-6 Organick and Gelding. 21-I 1 to 21-15 Corrugated plate interceptor (CPI), 15-24 to
of observed relative density to relative Orkiszewski, 34-37 to 34-40 15-26
density at 60/60°F, 17-5, 17-6 permeability with tube wave data, 51-48 Cost accounting system, 19-32
of volume to 15°C against API gravity at petrophysical, 28-13 Cost and profit margin relationship, 36-2
60”F, 17-6 Poettmann and Carpenter, 34-37 Cost/benefit analysis, 52-30
of volume to 15°C against density at porosity compressibility with depth, 26-8 Cost comparison, production packers, 4-6
WC, 17-6 predicts cavitation damage, 6-36 Cost-depletion allowance. 41-5, 41-13, 41-14
of volume to 60°F against relative density productivtty index-permeability, 32-4 Cost justification, 52-29, 52-30
at 60/60”F, 17-5, 17-6 recovery factor from statistical data, 40-16 Cost of emulsion treating, 19-33
of volume to 15°C against thermal relatmg fuel content to API gravity, 46-16 Cost of engine equipment. 10-16, lo-17
expansion coefficients at 15”C, 17-6 resistivity index vs. saturation, 26-3 Cost-plus format, 15-32
of volume to 60°F against thermal Sage and Old. 21-1 I Cosurfactants, 47-5, 47-11. 47-13
expansion coefficients at 6O”F, 17-6 sand-by-sand, 36-7 Cotton Valley Bodcaw reservoir, Texas,
Correction factor, Showalter. 46-16 39-19, 39-23
for dead-end oil IFT, 22-17 sour water stripper, 25-17, 25-18 Cottonwood Creek field. Wyoming, 24-18
for gas flow, 33-2 Standing, 22-5. 22-8 to 22-1 I, 22-13, 22-14 Coulter counter. 4445
for gas mixtures, 20-6 Thodos, 20.11. 20-16 Counterbalance, 10-I to 10-3, 10-6, 10-7, IO-9
Correlation index, 21-9, 21-I 1 total formation volume, 21-15 to 21-20 Counterflow imbibition, 28-13
Correlation length, dipmeter, 53-10, 53-l 1 transit time/pressure, 5 I-40 Counterweight, 9-2
Correlation(s). Trube. 20-I I, 20-16 Counting rate, gamma ray. 50-15, 50-16,
accuracv of, 22-89, 22-9 undersaturated systems, oil viscositv. 22-16 50- 19, 50.20, 50-28
acot& log. 5 I-30 Van der Knapp,. 26-8 Coupling failures, 9-9
Baker and Swerdloff, 22-17 vapor/liquid equilibrium, GC systems. Couplings and subcouplings. sucker rods,
Beal, 22-14 to 22-16 39-1 I t0 39.i3 9-3, 94
Beggs and Brill. 46-7 Vasquez and Beggs, 22-7 to 22-13 Coverage, 40-18, 44-9
Beggs and Robinson, 22-15. 22-16 velocity/porosity. 5 l-34 Cox chart, 20-12, 20-13. 20-17
between AOR and WAR, 46-19 vertical multiphase flowing gradient, 6-43, Cracked-gas/water system, 25-26
between diaphragm and dynamic capillary 6-45 Cracking, 46-3
pressure methods, 26-25 viscosity of gas. 20-9 Crank-balanced units, 104, IO-6
between interstitnrl water and log of water-saturated rock conductivity vs. Cray-IS computer, 48-17
permeability, 26-23 water conductivity, 26-30 Creep compaction, 28-l 3
between maximum friction pressure and waterflood recovery, 44-8. 4432 Crestal-gas injection, 40-14. 43-3
maximum total flow rate, 6-19 Correlative right. 57-2 Cricondenbar, 39-3
between oil recovery and pore volume Correlogram, dipmeter, 53-10 Cricondentherm, 23-6. 39-3. 45-2. 45-4
burned, 46- 17 Corrosion, attacks, 9-l Crnerion of reservoir performance, 32-15
Boberg and West, 46-11 by iron sulfide deposits. 1I-IO Critical breakthrough pressure, 44-36
bubblepoint pressure, 21-9. 21-10, 22-5 to cathodic protection, 19-3 1 Critical constants of hydrocarbons, 20.2, 20.3
22-9 caused by microbiological growth, 44-44 Crrtical constants of solvent gases, 45-5
carbon/oxygen, 50-l to 50-4, 50-9, 50-22, cell. 9-2 Critical-flow conditions. 13-53, 34-45 to 34-49
50-24. 50-35, 50-36 control procedures, 39-26 Critical-flow prover, 13-37. 13-45, 33-6.
Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows, 20-9, 20-10. electrochemical, 3-36 33-7, 33-13
20-15. 20-16 in casing, tubing and cement jobs, 39-24 Critical gas mixture, 45-4
chart, 40-22 in dry desiccant dehydration, 14-21 Critical gas saturation, 28-9, 34-3 I, 37-1,
Chew and Connolly. 22-14 to 22-16, 394 in ethanolamine sweetening units, 14-22 37-3, 374, 48-13
Cullender and Smith. 5-37 in oil and gas separators. 12-3. 12-B. 12-40 Critical hydrate formation loci, 25-3
dead-oil viscosity. 22-14 in pipe. 14-17 Critical locus, 23-3. 23-4. 45-3
dewpoint pressure, 21-10 to 21-15 in power oil plunger pumps. 6-33 Critical micelle concentration (CMC),
Dykstra-Parsons, 44-9 in reverse flow systems, 6-5 47-10, 47-l I, 47-15
empirical, of electrical properties, 26-29 in subsurface sucker-rod pumps, 8-9 Critical point, 14-2, 20-2. 23-l. 23-2, 25-1,
to 26-3 I in surface system and injection wells, 44-43 39-2, 39-3, 39-15
empirical. ultimate recovery, 40-13 in water-injection systems, 24-2 Critical pressure, 20-2, 20-3, 20.5,40-21,443
equilibrium ratios, 39-15 increased with CO, increase, 44-42 Critical ratio for flow prover, 13-37
flow temperature gradient, 5-26, 5-27 minimized by internal coatings, 19-31 Critical saturation, 49-30
llutd flow. 44-20, 44-21 minimized by use of plastics, 44-47 Critical state, detimtion, 22-20
for approximating true vapor pressure, 14-13 on tank bottoms, 1 l-2 Critical temperature. 20-2, 20-3. 20-5.
for liquid and gas properties, 647 oxygen exclusion, 19-30 22-20, 39-1, 39-4. 40-21, 45-5
formation resistivity factor, 26-29 pits, 9-5, 9-8 to 9-10 Critical thickness, 49-13
formatton volume, 21-15 to 21-20 problems. 6-55. 46-22 Critical volume, 20-3
gamma ray log. well-to-well. 50-2 products, 6-48. 6-59 Critical wells m acidizing, 54-l I, 54-12
gas-plus-liquid FVF, empirical, 6-38 products carryover, 39-24 Critique of unsteady-state k, methods, 28-7
Gates and Ramey. 46-15 protection, 1l-l. II-3 Cross imbtbitton, 48- I3
geological, 51-29, 51-30 resistant alloys, 3-36 Cross plot of photoelectric factor vs.
Hall, 26-8, 26-9 spectal metallurgy, 19-31 density, 50-33
Hammerlindl’s, 26-8 Corrosion of wellhead equipment, 3-35 Cross rails, motor mounts, IO-19
K-value, 39-12 electrochemical. 3-36 Cross section of interactton. 50-6
Lasater, 22-5 to 22-7, 22-9, 22-10 external, 3-36 Cross sections. 41-X
multiphase flow, 5-22, 5-25. 5-26. 5-38, internal, 3-36 Cross yoke, IO-2
5-40, 34-37 to 3440 material selection, 3-36 Cross-yoke bearing, 10-3. IO-4
Muskat’s. 39-20 oxygen, 3-36 Crossbedding. 44-3
of capillary pressure data, 26-26 weight loss, 3-36 flow, 44-29
of solubility ratios with IFT, 47-14 wellhead aspects, 3-35, 3-36 Crossflow, 39-19, 39-20, 447, 448, 48-10
of steam stimulation results, 46-11 Corrosion inhibitors. 3-36, 6-5, 6-55, 9-I. Crossflow devices, 15-25, 15-26
of water saturation wtth permeability, 26-27 9-5. 9-8, 9-10, 9-13, 19-30, 19-32, Crosshead, IO-14
of well logs, 49-25. 49-26 4445. 4446, 53-18. 54-6 Crosslinked aqueous fluid. 55-6
Crosslinked gels, 55-5, 55-7, 55-8 Cuttings sample geological log, 52-l Decimal equivalents, table, 167
Crossover flange, 3-7 10 3-9 Cyberdip log analysis, 49-37 Decimal relation in SI metric system, 58-9,
Crossover seat, 5-16, 5-37 Cyberlook, pass one log, 49-37, 49-38 58-22
Crossover tool, 56-8 pass two log, 43-39 Decimals of an in. to mm, table, 1-72
CRT screen display of fracturing data, 55-9 Cycle efficiency of refrigerants. 14-10 Deck drainage, skim pile sizing, 15-26
Crude-oil analysis, 2 l-7 to 21-9 Cycle frequency, maximum, 5-40 Decline-curve analysis, 40-27
Crude Oil Analysis System (COASYS), 21-9 Cycle skipping, 51-16, 51-17, 51-24, 51-45 Decline tables for constant-percentage
Crude oil, API gravity loss vs. temperature, Cycles of steam stimulation, 46-9 decline, 40-28 to 40-32
19-9 Cyclic load, Decline-trend analyses, 40-l
Crude oil as semidiesel fuel, IO-16 derating factor, lO- 18 Decreasing-injection-gas-pressure installation
Crude oil, definition, 12-3, 40-3 of oilwell pumping unit, lo-25 design method, 5-22
Crude oil, differences between natural gas, 362 Cyclic load factor, lo-25 Deep dual laterolog (LLD), 49-19, 49-20
Crude-oil disposal, 18-29, 18-30 Cyclic steam injection, 46-21 Deep marine sediments, 36-3
Crude-oil emulsions, Cyclic steam stimulation, 46-22, 48-46 Deep Sea Drilling Project, 25-18
description of treatment equipment. 19-16 Cycling operations, 39-4, 39-6, 39-15 to Deep-seated domes, 29-5, 29-6
to 19-28 39-24, 39-27 Deepwater drilling, 18-10, 18-20, 18-21
economics of treating, 19-32 Cycling operations prediction with model Deerfield field, Missouri, 46-14
general references, 19-33, 19-34 studies, 39-20 to 39-22 De-ethanizer, 14-8
introduction, 19-I Cycling performance, CC reservoir, Deferment-factor (weighted-average) charts,
methods used in treating, 19-6 to 19-15 areal sweep efficiency, 39-17 41-23
operational considerations for treating displacement efficiency, 39-18 Deferment factors, 41-5 to 41-8. 41-20,
equipment, 19-28 to 19-32 effectiveness, 39-17 41-21, 41-24 to 41-35
sampling and analyzing, 19-6 invasion efficiency, 39-17, 39-18 Definitions, for valuation of oil and gas
theories of, 19-l to 19-6 pattern (h&S-weighted) efficiency, 39-17 reserves, 40-3, 40-4
treating equipment and systems, 19-15. 19-16 permeability distribution, 39-18 to 39-20 of fluid properties, 22-l
Crude oil, measuring, sampling, and testing, reservoir efficiency, 39- 17 of gas/oil ratio terms, 32-14
17-l to 17-8 Cycling to improve recovery, 40-4 of petroleum reserves, 40-2, 40-3
Crude-oil properties, 21-1 to 21-10 Cyclohexanelwater system, 25-26 of pump parts, 8-2
base, 21-1, 21-3 Cyclone separator (desander), 660 to 6-63, of water-drive oil reservoir terms, 38-1
evaluation, 21-1, 21-2, 214 12-20, 15-19 Defoaming plates, 12-6
Crude-oil reservoirs, 39-l. 39-2 Cyclonic flow, 12-19 Deformations of acoustic waves, 5 l-2
Crude oil, viscosity/temperature Cyclopropaneiwater system, 25-25, 25-27 Degasser boot, 19-22
relationships, 19-7, 19-8 Cylindrical shell equations, 12-38 Degassing, 19-18
Crude oil, volume loss vs. temperature, 19-9 Cylindrical tanks, 11-2 Degassing efficiency, 52-2
Crude-oil/water emulsion, 19-6 Degassing elements, 12-22
Crude oils, temperature corrections for, D Degradation of an oil accumulation, 24-17
17-5. 17-6 Degrees and minutes expressed in radians,
Crude price, gross, 41-9 Daily production rate, continuous-flow gas table, l-42
Crude stabilization, 40-13 lift, 5-54 Degrees of freedom, 25-1, 25-2
Crude viscosity, effect of solution gas, 6-68 Daily production rates, prediction of, 5-40 Dehydration by adsorption. 14-20, 14-2 1
Crystalline porosity, 29-8 Dalton’s law, 20-4, 23-11 Dehydration efficiency, 14- 19
Crystallization temperatures, 25-19 Damage, Dehydration, storage tank used for. 19-18
Cuba, 58-20 by fluid jet, 8-7 Dehydration units, 14-17. 14-19
Cube roots of certain fractions, table, l-18 ratio, 30-13 Dehydration with organic liquid desiccants,
Cube roots of whole numbers, table, l-7, Damaged casing, 51-29 14-17 to 14-20
1-14 to 1-18 Damkiihler number, 47-21 Dehydrator, 14-10, 14-13, 14-18
Cubes of numbers, table, l-7 to I-10 Darcy head loss. 15-l Dehydrator pots, 13-53
Cubic average boiling point, 21-12, 21-15 Darcy’s law or equation, 26-10, 26-11, Delaware-Childers field, Oklahoma, 463
Cubic packing of spheres, 26-1. 26-2 26-13, 26-15, 26-16, 26-18, 26-19, Delaware effect, 49-11, 49-22
Cullender and Smith correlation, 5-37 28-1, 28-2, 32-4, 35-10, 37-11, 39.20, Delay rentals, 41-1, 41-13, 57-4, 57-5, 57-7
Cullender and Smith method of determining 43-3, 44-9. 44-13, 44-17. 45-13, 48-2, Deliverability of gas-lift well, 5-40
BHP in gas wells, 34-24 to 34-26 48-3, 56-4
Deliverability of gas to compressor plant, 13-58
Cumulative-gas/cumulative-oil curve, 40-32 Data acquisition system, 52-25, 52-27, 52-28 Deliverability of gas wells, 34-3, 34-9
Cumulative logarithmic diagram (S-plot), Data gathering and handling, 42-3
Deliverability plot approach, 35-12
56-6, 56-7 Data of varying precision, 58-6. 58-7
Deliverability testing, 35-10
Cumulative oil production vs. GOR, 37-25 Data required to estimate recovery from
Delta-bar sediments, 36-3
Cup-type plunger, 8-6 injection operations, 42-2
Delta-delta transformer, 10-30, 10-3 1
Current bedding, 53-12, 53-13 Data requirements for engineering analysis
Delta-wye transformer, IO-30
Current status of thermal recovery, of gas-injection operations, 43-17
Deltaic bar deposits, 36-4
geographical distribution of projects, 46-3 Data requirements for GC cycling study,
Deltaic channel deposits, 36-4
major projects, 46-3 39-22, 39-23
potential for incremental recovery, 46-3 Data transmission schematic for MWD, 53-2 Deltaic environment, 36-3
production mechanisms, 46-4 Date designation SI metric system, 58-22 Demand-pressure regulator, 3-33
reservoirs amenable to, 46-3 Dead basins, 52-22 Demethanizer, 14-8
U.S. oil production by EOR, 46-3 Dead-end oil IFT, 22-17 Demulsifiers, 17-2, 19-9 to 19-13. 56-5
Curve shapes, 49-12, 49-13 Dead-oil viscosity, 22-14, 22-15, 40-12 Dendritic fingers. 45-7
Custody transfer, 13-48 Dead oils, 45-5 Density, apparent liquid, definition of, 22-20
Customary units (English), 17-7, 58-2 1, Dead Sea, 24-19 Density comparison method, 52-20
58-26 to 58-38 Dead space of separator, 12-26, 12-30 Density, definition of, l-80
Cutoffs on engine installations, lo-19 Dead time of a process, 13-50 Density difference (gravity separation).
Cut-out rams, 7-12 Dead-weight gauge, 33-6 12-8, 12-9, 12-19
Cut test, 52-10, 52-14, 52-16 Dead-weight regulator, 13-54 Density equivalents, table, 1-79
Cuttings evaluation, 52-19 Dead-weight tester, 5-53, 13-37, 30-2 Density gradient method, 52-20
Cuttings gas, 52-17 Dean-Stark extraction, 46-21 Density in SI metric system, 58-24, 58-29
Cuttings gas analyzer, 52-1 I Debris or solids in well, ESP, 7-16, 7-17 Density log, 44-3, 49-25, 49-26, 49-34,
Cuttings, representative sample, 52-8, 52-9, Decay constant, exponential. 50-22 49-38, 50-24, 51-14, 51-19, 51-31,
52-11 Decay times. 50-22 51-33, 51-43
SUBJECT INDEX
Density meters, installing and proving, 17-7 Design standards of electric motors, 10-19, Diesel index, 21-7
Density/neutron crossplot, 51-36 IO-20 Diethanolamine (DEA), 14-21, 14-22
Density of crude petroleum, 17-5 Destabilization of emulsions. 19-6, 19-7 Diethylene glycol (DEG), 14-7, 14-18,
Density of formation water, 24-14 Desulfurization unit, 14-21, 14-22 14-19, 25-19, 25-20
Density of gaseous hydrocarbons, 20-3 Det norske Veritas, 1844 Differential compaction, 29-3 to 29-6
Density of light hydrocarbons, 17-5 Detail engineering, 15-31 Differential gas liberation, definition, 22-20
Density of liquid petroleum products, 17-5 Detection efficiency, 50-12 to 50-14 Differential gas separation, 37-l
Density of N&l solutions, 24-14 Detection of nonhydrocarbon gases, 52-5 to Differential head loss, 13-3
Density of natural gas, 20-14, 20-15 52-7 Differential liberation, 40-6
Density porosity, 50-31, 50-33 Detector resolution, 50-14 Differential-opening pressure valve. 5-13,
Density/pressure relationship, 26-12 Deterministic analysis, 18-27, 18-28 5-14, 5-43
Density, pseudoliquid, 22-2 to 224 Detrital, 29-6, 29-8 Differential-pressure control valve, 6-63
Denton field, New Mexico, 6-24 Detrital environment, 56-2 Differential-pressure gradients, 34-42
Deoxygenating control equipment, 24-2 Detrital porosity, 29-8 Differential-pressure taps, 13-3, 13-8
Dept. of Commerce, l-69 Detrital reservoirs, 29-7, 29-8 Differential-pressure transducers, 16-6, 46-21
Dept. of Energy (DOE), 40-2, 46-16, Deuterium ion, SO-6 Differential process, definition, 22-20
46-30, 46-31, 46-33, 46-34 Development costs, Differential separation (vaporization), 12-32,
Dept. of the Treasury, 41-15 tangible and intangible, 41-l 1 37-3, 45-8
Dept. of Transportation, 15-13 well spacing, 4 I - 11 Diffuser, 6-32, 6-35, 6-36, 7-3
Departure curves, 49-7, 49-27 Development drilling, 36-2, 36-3, 36-6, 40-l Diffusion baffle, 19-24
Depletion, 41-13, 41-16, 41-17, 47-21 to Development, historical, thermal recovery, Diffusion length, 50-I 1, 50-20, 50-21
47-24, 57-11 46-3 Diffusion theory, 50-17
Depletion allowance, 41-13 to 41-15 Development of waterflooding, 44-l Diffusivity. 38-9, 58-34
Depletion-drive calculation, 43-13, 43-14, Development plan for oil and gas reservoirs, Diffusivity equation, 35-1, 35-2, 35.10,
43-16 characterization of the reservoir, 36-3 to 36-9 36-8, 38-l
Depletion-drive performance, 37-16 to 37-18 introduction, 36-1, 36-2 Digit, definition, 58-9
Debletion-drive process, 42-5 oil and gas differences, 36-2, 36-3 D&&l age, 49-36 to 49-39
Depletion-drive recoveries, 37-24 prediction of performance, 36-9, 36-10 Digital computer program, 14-16
Depletion equation, 37-10 references. 36-10, 36-11 DigitaJ computer systems, 16-10
Depletion mechanism, 40-8, 40-10, 40-12, Development wells, 41-I 1 Digital computers, 40-10. 40-13
‘40-13, 40-15 Developments in wellbore heat losses, 46-7 Digital signal-processing technology, 5148
Depletion performance, volatile oil Deviation angle, 53-7 Digital sonic logs comparison, 5143
reservoirs, 37-22, 37-23 Deviation, definition, 58-9 Diglycolamine (DGA), 14-2 1, 14-22
Depletion-recovery factors, 40-10, 40-11 Deviation factor, 39-7, 39-8, 39-10, 39-14, Dikes, 11-l 1
Depletion technique, 39-23 Dilution caused by weighted-average
dry gas reservoir, example problem, 36-3 Deviation of hole, 53-2, 53-3, 53-10, 53-17 Permeability profile, 39-19
gas reservoirs, 36-2, 36-3 Deviation survey computations, 53-7 Dilution plane, 23-10
oil reservoirs, 36-2 Deviation surveys, 49-1, 53-1, 53-7 to 53-9 Dimensionless pressure values, 38-4
Depletion-type gas wells, 41-10 Dewatering of gas wells, 6-34, 39-15, 39-16 Dimensionless pressures for aquifer systems,
Depletion-type reservoir, 29-8, 40-8 to Dewpoint boundary, 39-3 384 to 38-6, 38-12 to 38-19
40-12, 40-16, 40-32, 40-33 Dewpoint chart, 25-11 Dimensionless water-influx values, 384
Depositional environment, 36-3 to 36-7 Dewpoint curve, 14-l. 20-2 Dimensions,
Depreciation, 41-11, 41-13, 41-21, 41-22, Dewpoint cycling, above or below, 48-7 definition, 58-9
57-l 1 Dewpoint depression. 12-20, 14-17, 14-18, of buttress-thread casing and coupling,
Depression of metnstable dewpoint, 25-12, 14-20 2-29, 2-59, 2-64
25-14 Dewpoint of a system, definition, 22-20 of casing long thread, 2-58
Depth micrometer, 5-16 Dewpoint pressure, 22-20, 22-21, 23-3, of casing round-thread height, 2-66
Depth of top gas-lift valve, 5-24 23-12, 39-5, 39-7 to 39-11, 39-13, of casing short thread, 2-57
Depthoaraph, 30-7 39-14, 39-16, 39-18, 39-23 of chemical, electrical, and physical
Debating factors of motor, 10-24, 10-25, 10-31 Dewpoint pressure correlations, 21-10 to 21-15 quantities, 59-2 to 59-51
Derivation of an orifice equation, 13-2, 13-3 Dewpoint reservoirs, 23-7 of external-upset tubing coupling, 243,2-66
Derivative response, 13-50, 13-52, 13-53 Dewpoint temperature, 14-l of extra-strong threaded line pipe, 2-50
Derived units, SI metric system, l-69, l-71, Dewpoint water content chart, 25-12 of extreme-line casing threading and
58-2. 584, 58-10, 58-11, 58-21 Dextran, 47-3 machining, 2-63
Derrick barges, 18-26 Diagenesis, 24-2, 24-20, 52-21 of integral-joint tubing thread, 2-65
Desalting crude oil, 19-26, 19-27 Diagenetic alteration, 50-37 of integral-joint tubing upset, 2-45
Description needed for oilfield water Diagenetic history, 36-3 of line-pipe lengths, 247
sample, 24-5 Diagenetic water, definition, 24-18 of line-pipe thread, 247, 2-58, 2-62, 2-65
Design engineering, 15-3 1 Dia-Log caliper tools, 53-18 of line-pipe thread height, 2-62
Design features, Diamond cores, 27-9 of nonupset tubing coupling. 242, 2-66
common to steamfloods and tirefloods, 46-17 Diaphragm BHP element, 30-6, 30-7 of plain-end line pipe, 2-50 to 2-53
pertaining to tirefloods only, 46-18, 46-19 Diaphragm control valve, 16-4, 16-11 of round-thread casing coupling, 2-28, 2-58
pertaining to steamfloods only, 46-18 Diaphragm gas-engine starters, lo-19 of round-thread tubing coupling, 2-58
Design methods, intermittent gas lift, 542 Diaphragm motor oil-control valves, 12-6, 12-7 of threaded line pipe, 247, 2-58
Design of casing strings, Diaphragm motor valve, 1349, 13-53 of tubing round-thread height, 2-66
oil, water, and mud-weight factors, 2-1 Diaphragm operators, 16-3 Din azimuth, 53-7. 53-9. 53-10
safety factor, 2-l to 2-3, 2-34, 2-35 Diaphragm pressure, 13-54, 13-56 Dib vectors, 53-10, 53-12
single-weight and -grade casing string, Diaphragm pump, 15-15 Dipmeter, 49-25. 49-36, 49-37
2-1, 2-2 Diaphragm-&weight-loaded valve, 13-55 DiPmeter logging,
Design of gas-lift installation, 5-32 to 5-35 Diatomaceous earth filters, 15-20, 15-22,4447 application of dipmeter and directional
Design of hydraulic fracturing treatment, Diatomic gases, 13-37 data, 53-10 to 53-16
55-9, 55-10 Dielectric constants, 16-7 calibration, 53-8
Design operating gas-lift valve depth, 5-54 Dielectric measurements, 5 l-19 computed dipmeter log, 53-9, 53-10
Design properties for piping, 15-l 1 Dielectric permittivity, 49-32 device, 53-6
Design safety factors for casing, 2-l to 2-3, Dielectric strength, 7-3 interpretation rules, 53-12
2-32, 2-34, 2-35 Diesel engines, 6-1. 10-15, 10-16, 1845 introduction, 53-1, 53-7
Design slip of motor, IO-24 Diesel fuel, IO-15 oil-based muds, 53-8, 53-9
principles of TVD, TST, and TVT plots, Dissolved gas(es). 22-l. 22-20, 24-17, 40-3. PIE ratto. 6-27
53-15. 53-16 44-43 pressure recorders, 6-48
survey computattons. 53-9 Dissolved-gas drive, 22-20. 442, 44-4 pressures and force balance in. 6-16 to 6-19
tools available, 53-8 Dissolved-gas effect on oil viscosity, 22-14. reciprocating, 6-5 I, 6-55
Dtpmeter patterns, 53-10, 53-12 to 53-15 22-15 reverse-flow systems. 6-5
Dipmeter surveys. 49-I Dissolved-gas removal, 15-28, 15-29 TFL installations. 6-6
Direct-acting spring-loaded regulator, 13-55 Dissolved-gas systems, 2 l-18 types of installations, 6-2 to 6-4
Direct-acting weight regulator, 13-55 Dissolved-gas units, 15-27 with wireline-retrievable safety valve, 6-49
Direct costs (expenses), 41-11 to 41-14 Dissolved salt, 24-7, 24-8 Downhole sensor. 53-4
Dnect-current (DC) motor, IO-21 Dissolved solids, 19-1, 24-3, 24-15, 24-16, Downhole sensor sub, 53. I
Direct-fired heater, 19-2 I 24-18 to 24-20, 44-45 Downhole steam generators, 46-4, 46-19
Direct hydraulic subsea control, IS-50 Dissolved-solids removal, 15-29 Downhole temperature profiles, 46-21
Direct lifting costs, 41-3 Distillates, I l-12, 12-32, 57-5 Downkickmg, 6-31
Direct line drive, 44 13 to 4416,4422,4433 Distillation method, for water in crude oil, 17.5 Downstream taps. 13-30 to 13-34, 13-37
Direct phase determination, 51-25 Distillation, removing water from crude oil Downtime analysis, 18-7, 18-8
Direction of dip, 53-7 emulsions, 19-15 Downtime gas. 52-17
Dtrection of hole drift, 53-10 Distributary channel sediments, 36-3 Drag-body flowmeter, 32. I3
Directional drtlling, 18-30 Distributary channels, 36-4, 36.6 Drain cylinders, 12-12
Directional permeability effect. 44-25 Distributing piping specs., 15-12 Drainage area. 35-l, 35-5, 35-6, 35-13,
Directional permeability test, 27-1 Distribution of fluids in permeable 35-16 to 35-18, 36-8, 55-4, 56-l
Directional surveys, formations Invaded by mud filtrate, 49-5 Drainage-area shape, 37-2 1
available tools, 53-3, 53-4 to 49-7 Drainage channels for tanks. 1 I-I I
computation of results, 53-4 to 53-7 Distribution system. 12-10, 12-l I Drainage channels. mist extractor, 12-l 1, 12-12
introduction. 53-l Distribution transformers. types of, 10.30, Dramage curve, 28-5, 28.9. 28-l I, 2X-12
legal requirements, 53-4 IO-31 Drainage relative-permeability data. 28. I4
MWD-data listing, 53-6 Divalent cations. 47-13. 47-15, 47-21 Drainage shapes. 35-4, 35-5. 35-16
Directional well survey, 41-8 Divalentihydroxide compounds, 47-20 Drainage tests. 26-24
Directional wells, 53-l Diverging vortex separator, 12-14, 12-20 Drawdown effects 39-25
Disadvantages, Diverless subsea tree and running tools, 18-32 Drawdown pressure. 30-10 to 30-13
of batch-type meters, 32-10. 32-11 Diverting agents, 54-S. 54-10, 56-2, 56-3, 56-5 Drawdown tests. 35-3, 35-4. 35-14, 35-15,
of positive-displacement meters. 32-11, 32-12 Division-order interest, 4 l-2 44-4 I
Discharge coefficient, 13-8 Dixon plates, 12-25 Dresser Atlas, 49-2. 49-36, 49-37. 51-18
Discharge (return) gradient, 6-26, 6-29 Dog-and-groove riser coupling, 18-15 Drift, 13-50
Discharge piping, 15-17 Dogleg, 7-1, 7-9, 10-3. 10-6, 53-6 Drift diameter, 3-12 to 3-14
Discharge pressure, 39-24 Dolomite, Drill-time log, 52-l
Discounted cash flow (DCF) method, 41-3, acid reaction rate. pressure effect, 54-4 Drilling clause, 57-4. 57-5
41-17 to 41-22 clays and silts in, 54-7 Drilling contractor, I8- 16
Discounted future net cash income, 41-5 effect of corrosion inhibitor on acid Drilling data analysis. 52-28
Discounted present worth, 44-5 reaction rate. 54-6 Drilling efficiency, 52-28
Discovery allowable, 32-2, 32-3, 32-15 laboratory tests for acidizing, 54-9 Drilling engineer. 18-4
Discrete-piloted hydraulic control, subsea, silica in crystal structure of, 54-4 Drilling engineering services, 52-2, 52-27,
18-50 to 18-52 treated with HCL, 54-2 52-28
Discrete remote control, subsea, 18-50, 18-5 I Doiomitization, 24-18. 24-20. 26-2 Drilling-equipment considerations offshore,
Dispersed-gas drive, 37-I Dosage, units and conversions, 58-30 backup control systems, 18-15, IS-16
Dispersed-gas injection, 43-2, 43-8 to Dose eqmvalent, unit and definition, 58-10 BOP. 18-11, 18-12
43.15. 43-17 Double-acting downhole unit, 6-9, 6-20 control systems, 18.15
Dispersed-gas units, 15-27, 15-28 Double-acting pump, 6-8, 6-9, 6-16, 6-18 extended water-depth capability. 18-16
Dispersion. 15-22. 19-1, 45-6, 45-7 Double-deck shaker, 52-8 flex joints, 18-12, 18-13
Dispersion curves. 51-13. 51-14 Double-flanged head, 3-8 K&C systems, 18-15
Dispersion of clay particles, 56-5 Double-port diaphragm motor valve, 13-57 marine riser. 18-14, 18-15
Displacement calculation procedures, Double-ported valves, 13-55, 13-58 motion compensator, 1X-13. 18-14
Dykstra-Parsons. 448, 449 Double-studded adapter, 3-9 reentry systems, 18-14
frontal advance, 44-9 to 44-l I Double-studded crossover flange, 3-9 riser tensioner. 18-13
Stiles. 447. 448 Double-valve arrangements, 8-7 slip joints. 18-13
Double-welded butt joints. 12-40
Welge, 44-11. 44-12 Drilling fluid, offshore, 18-12 to 18.14,
Doughnut tubmg hanger. 3-39
Displacement efficiency, 39-9, 39- 15, 18-18, 18-41
Douleb oil held, Tunisia, 24-18
39-17. 39.18, 39-22, 39-23, 40.34, Drilling funds, 57-l 1
Dow Chemtcal Co., 54-l
43-3, 43-5. 43-6, 43-9, 4439. 45-6 to Drilling, high-current, 18-21. 1X-22
Downcomer pipes, 1 l-13
45.10, 47-1. 41-2, 47-17 Drilling models, 52.24 to 52.26
Downcomer/spreader, 19-19
Displacement equations, 43-4 to 43-6, 43-8 Drilling motion compensator, 18-14
Downdip gas flow, 43-I I
to 43-10 Drilling mud, acoustic velocity in, 51-31
Downflow filters, 15-20
Displacement fronts for different mobility Drilling offshore,
Downhole assembly, MWD, 53-2
ratios. 45-7 mooring and riser analyses, 18-16, 18-17
Downhole dtgitizer, 5 l-27
Displacement mechanisms, 36-10, 47-19, 47-20 Downhole jet pump accessories, operating manual and emergency
Displacement meter systems, 17-4 dummy pumps, 6-48 procedures, 18-16
Displacement of downhole pumps, 6-21, pressure recorders, 6-48 planning and preparations, 18-3 to 18-5
6-24 safety valves, 6-48, 6-49 rig selection, 18-5 to 18-16
Displacement process, 28-6, 28-7 screens and filters. 6-48 Drilling operations, 18-28, 18-29. 18-31,
Displacement-type controller, 13-5 I. 13-53 standing valves, 6-48 18-32. 18-39. 18-40
Displacement-type liquid-level controls, 13-53 swab cups (noses), 6-47. 6-48 Drilling optimization. 52-29, 52-30
Displacement volumes, 4423, 4424, 4428 Downhole pumps, Drilling porosity, 52-26
Displacement volumes injected, 43-3, 43-7. closed power-fluid systems, 64, 6-5 Drilling riser, 18-16. 18-18, IX-34
43-8 displacement of, 6-21, 6-24. 6-25 Drilling vessels: see specific type
Disposal water. 24-5 handling of formation-fluid volumes, 6-67 Drilling wells, estimation of BHT, 31-6
Dissociation of water, 47- I8 installation. 6-2 Drillships, 18-3, 18-4. 18-7, 18.14. 18-15,
Dissolved acid gases, 4447 jet free completions, 6-34 18-20
SUBJECT INDEX 29
Drillstem test or testing, 6-34. 18-20. E Elastic wave velocities. 51-7

18-34, 24-3, 27-8, 30-S. 30-l 1, 30-13, Elastictty.
30-15. 41-8, 42-4. 48-8, 49-31 E-core transformer, 30-6 characteristics of acoustic waves, 5 l-2, 5 l-3
Drillstem tests, openhole, 53-17 Early-time region (ETR). 35-3, 35-4, 35-6, introduction, 51-1, 51-2
Drillstring motion compensators, 18-13 35-8. 35mI5 Elastomeric hoses, 18-49
Drip pots, 13-37, 13-53 Earth resistivities, 49-l Elastomeric jomts, 18-13
Drip-proof motor, IO-26 East Coalinga field, California, 46-18 Electric charge, unit and definition. 58-l I
Drips, 39-26 East Texas area, 27-2. 27-3 58-23
Drive mechanism, effects on recovery, 36-3 East Texas field, 29-5. 29-6.40-2. 40.34,41-5 Electric conductance, umt and definition,
Drop method, surface-tension measurement, East Venezuela field, 46-16 58-l I, 58-23, 58-35
24-16 Eccentric orifices, 13-45. 1348 Electric dipole moment, 49-32
Droplet size distribution. 15-23 Eccentricity. 6-69, 6-72 Electric generating systems, IO-2 I
Drowned gas wells, 39-16 Echometer, 30-7, 32-6 Electric inductance, unit and definition.
Dry chambers for subsea completions, 18-31 Economic analyses, 39-10, 39-15, 44-32 58-l I, 58-23
Dry-desiccant dehydration, 14-20, 14-21 Economic balance. 19-15 Electric-log analysis, 26-22, 26-25
Dry-desiccant dehydrators, 13-56. 14-10, 16-15 Economic considerations of stage separation, Electric-motor valve operators. 16-3
Dry forward combustion, 46-l to 46-3, 12-33 Electric motors for oilwell pumping,
46-14. 46-18, 46-19 Economic evaluation, 24-21, 44-7, 45-10 design standards. 10-19, IO-20
Drv eas. 10.16. 39-l. 39-16. 39-18 to Economic justification of automation, 16-2 direct current (DC), IO-21
-3;.20. 39-23, 39-24 Economic limit, 40-12. 40-19, 40-20, generating systems, IO-2 1
Dry-gas breakthrough, 39. I7 to 39-20, 39-22 40-27. 40-32, 41-10. 41-11 horsepower ratings of. IO-20
Dry-gas front, 39-17, 39-18, 39-21 to 39-23 Economic-limit rate. 40-25, 40-27 multiple-horsepower rated, IO-20
Dry-gas injection, 39-16. 39-21 1 39-25, Economics. Impact of offshore leasing, 57-12 multiple-size rated. IO-2 1
.3%26 - Economics, letter and computer symbols, performance factors of, IO-23
Dry-gas reservoir, 35.3, 36-3. 39-l. 40-24, 59-2 to 59-51 selecting size of, lo-21
40-25 Economics of CC reservoir operations, 39-26 single-phase type. IO-2 I
Dry-gas/wet-gas cycling operation, 39-23 Economics of injection operations, 42-6 ultrahigh-slip, lo-22
Dry-gas/wet-gas interfaces, 39-2 1, 39-22 Economics of treating crude-oil emulsions, voltage frequency of, 10-21. IO-23
Dry reverse combustion, 46-2 19.32, 19-33 Electric porosimeter, 26-4
Dry vs. wet combustion, 46-18. 46-19 Eddy currents. 13-2. 13-36, 13-48, 19-12, Electric potential difference. unit and
Dual-detector compensated-neutron device, 53-20, 53-22, 53-26 definition, 58-l I
50-20 Edge water, 24-2 Electric power supply, ESP, 7-9 to 7-12
Dual-detector thermal device, 50-30, 50-32 Edgewater drive, 40. I5 Electric pressure control, 12-39
Dual-element fuses, lo-28 Edgewater encroachment, 28-4 Electric resistance, umt and definition.
Dual-fuel engines, IO-16 EDTA, sequestering agent. 547 58-l I, 58-23, 58-36
Dual induction-laterolog 8 (DIL), 49-15 to Effective annual interest rate, 41-25, 41-26 Electric-solenoid valves, 16-3
49-20. 49-28 - Effective decline rates, 40-27. 41-27 Electric-starter motors. lo-19
Dual induction-laterolog log, 46-2 1 Effective formation permeability, 55-4 Electric submersible pumps (ESP).
Dual intermittent gas-lift installations, 540, Effective gas permeability, 39-25 application, 7-l. 7-2
545 Effective grain volume, 26-4, 26-6 general references, 7-17
Dual laterolog, 49-l I, 49-20. 49-23, 49-24, Effective hydrocarbon porosity, 40-25 handling. installation, and operation, 7-12
49-28 Effective interest rate, 41-17. 41-20, 41-21, to 7-14
Dual laterologigamma ray tools, 49-20 41-26, 41-27 installation, 7-l. 7-2
Dual-parallel-string installations, 3-l 1, 3-13 Effective isopermeability map, 39-22 performance curves, 6-35
Dual-tube separator, 12-9, 12-10. 12-16. 12-18 Effective mobility ratto, 47-18 references, 7- I7
Dual-vessel system, 6-63 Effective molecular weight, 22-7 selection data and methods, 7-9 to 7-12
Dual-water model, 49-38 Effective permeability. 26-15, 28-l to 284, system, 7-1. 7-2
28-6, 28-8, 28-13, 39-17, 4432, 44-33, system components. 7-3 to 7-9
Dual wells or zones, 6-7, 6-8
46-2 I troubleshooting, 7-14 to 7-17
Dual-wing well manifold, 16-l I, 16-12
Effective porosity, 26-2 to 26-6, 28-2, 40-5, Electric submersibles, 18-44
Dummy pumps, 6-48
55-4 Electrical capacitance in electronic interface
Dummy valve, 3-35 Effective salmity. 47-13 controllers, 19-3 1
Dump cycles, 19-30 Effective shear rate. 47-5 Electrtcal capacitance, unit and definition,
Dump valves, 18-50, 19-20, 19-22. 19-23 Effective stress, 51-30, 51-31, 51-35, 51-43 58-10, 58-23, 58-35
Dun and Ros method, 34-37, 3440 Effectiveness of cycling. 39-17 Electrtcal conductiwty in electromc interface
Duplex pumps, 15-14 Efficiency factor in orifice equation, 13-3 controllers, 19-31
Dura Rod, 9-13 Efficiency of cycling, 39-17 Electrrcal conducttvity of flmd-saturated rocks,
Duri field, Indonesia. 46-4 Efficiency of ESP system, 7-l fundamental concepts, 26-28, 26-29
Dykstra-Parsons calculation. 44-8. 44-9 Efficiency of gas lift, 30-14, 30-15 introduction. 26-27. 26-28
DykstraParsons coefficient, 47-17 Efficiency of motor, IO-25 resistivity measurement of rocks, 26-29
Dykstra-Parsons method, 40-19, 44-7, 44-9 Effictency of permeability variation, 448 Electrical conductiwty, units and
Dynamic amplification factor, 18-26, 18-27 Effictency of separation, 12-21 conversions, 58-35
Dynamic-capillary-pressure method, 26-24, Effluent fluids quality, 12-16 Electrical distribution system,
26-25 Effluent oil from separator, 12-15 grounding of, 10-31, lo-32
Dynamic elastic constants, 51-4 Effluent water from’separator, 12-15 open delta transformer, 10-30, IO-3 1
El Dorado field, Kansas, 46-14 phase converters, types of, 10.35, IO-36
Dynamic lag, 13-51
Elastic collapse-pressure equatton. 2-55 power factor and use of capacitors, IO-33
Dynamic miscibility. 45-l. 45-2, 45-4.
Elasttc limit, 51-I. 51-2 to IO-35
45-5, 48-5
Elastic limit of material, 2-46 primary system and voltage, IO-29
Dynamic positioning, 18-2, 18-10, 18-14,
Elastic moduli, 51-I to 51-3. 51-12, 51-30, secondary system, 10-29. IO-30
18.20, 18-21
51-31, 51-43. 51-44, 58-34 transformers, lo-30
Dynamic stresses, 18-17 Elasttc parameters. relationships among, 51-2 voltage drop in, lo-32
Dynamic viscosity, 24-16, 58-35 Elastic properties. 51-44 Electrical logging,
Dynamite, 56-l Elastic scattermg, 50-9, 50-10 electromagnetic propagation tool, 49-32 to
Dynamometer card analysis, 10-5, IO-6 Elastic transition zone, 2-55 49-36
Dynamometer cards, 10-6 Elastic wave propagation, 51-6, 51-8, focused-electrode logs, 49-18 to 49-22
Dynamometer test, 40-27 51-12. 51-14, 51-29. 51-49 fundamentals. 49-l to 49-7
general references, 49-41, 49-42 Electropneumatic operators, 16-3 Endurance limit, 9-l I
induction logging, 49-14 to 49-18 Electrostatic coalescing, 19-13 Energy balance, 13-I. 34-36, 46-12
microresistivity devices, 49-22 to 49-25 Electrostatic coalescing treaters, 19-25, 19-26 Energy-balance equation, 34-I) 34-2. 34-9
nomenclature, 49-39 to 49-41 Electrostatic emulsion treaters, 19-2, 19-10, Energy, definition, 22-2 1
references. 49-41 19-13. 19-25 to 19-27, 19-31 Energy equivalents, table, 1-77
resistivity logging devices, 49-l 1 to 49-14 Elemental models, 46-1 I to 46-13 Energy loss, 13-2, 13-3
SP log, 49-l& 49-l 1 Elevated separator. 12-17 to 12-19 Energy relationships for flowing fluid. 34-1,
the digital age, 49-36 to 49-39 Elf Aquitaine, 46-27, 51-25 34-2
typical log. 49-3 Elk Basin field, Wyommg, 26-23, 39-16 Energy, SI unit for. 58-5. 58-l 1, 58-23,
uses and interpretation of well logs, 49-25 Ellipsoidal head equations, 12-38 58-24, 58-32
to 49-32 Elongation, Engine displacement, 6-30
Electrical one-line diagram, IS-45 of API body and bonnet members, 3-2, 3-3 Engine efficiency, 6-3 1
Electrical parameters used in characterizing of API casing and liner casing, 2-2 Engine selection,
porous media, 26-31 of API tubing, 2-37 calculations for, IO-17 to lo-19
Electrical potential logs, 53-17. 53-19 of line pipe, 246 equipment life and cost, 10-16, IO-17
Electrical properties of reservoir rocks, of sucker-rod types, 9-5 fuel availability, lo- 16
empirical correlations, Embayments, 29-7 horsepower, IO-17
conductive-solids effect, 26-30, 26-31 Embedment, 55-S installation, lo-19
introduction, 26-29 Emergency disconnect conditions, 18-21 safety controls, lo-17
parameters used in characterizing, 26-31, Emergency power, 1845 Engineering, analysis, 42-3
2632 Emergency procedures offshore, 18-16 appraisal method, 41-2. 41-3
resistivity of partially water-saturated Emergency shutdown system (ESD), 3-33, computer simulation methods, 36-7
rocks, 26-31 3-34, 18-47, 18-48 in developing oil and gas reservoirs, 36. I,
Electrical resistivity measurement of rocks, Emergency venting of storage tanks, 11-7 to 36-6 to 36-8
26-29 1 l-9 interference testirg, 36-7, 36-8
Electrical survey (ES), 49-l 1, 49-19 Empirical correlation factor, 27-8 material-balancp studies, 36-7
Electrical systems offshore, Empirical equations, ice movement rate and net-pay/net-connected-pay ratio, 36-7
code and regulatory authorities, 1844 shape, 18-39 England, 18-25
distribution system, 18-4.5, IS-46 Emulsification of oil, IO-13 Enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 23-l. 23-7.
equipment enclosures, 1846 Emulsified water, 19-3 24-16, 25-1, 25-14, 46-3, 47-1, 47-2,
hazardous areas, 1846 Emulsifying agent, 19-2 to 19-5, 19-9, 19-14 47-6, 47-7, 47-18, 47-22, 48-2, 48-4,
introduction, 18-43, 1844 Emulsion breakers, 19-10, 46-22 48-6, 48-8
layout of facilities, 18-44 Emulsion-breaking agents, 56-2 Enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) projects, 19-28
platform loads, IS-44 Emulsion conditions, ESP chart, 7-16 Enhanced-recovery methods, 404
primary electric power, 18-44, 1845 Emulsion, definition of, 19-l Enhanced-recovery operation, 5 l-42
secondary/back-up power, 18-45 Emulsion, effect on oil viscosity, 6-27 Enos Creek field. Wyoming, 24-18
wiring methods, 18-46 Emulsion flood, 47-2 1 Enriched-gas drive, 45-2, 45-3, 45-5
Electrically controlled valves, 16-3 Emulsion formation, 47-19 Environment, 11-4, 13-1
Electrically equivalent diameter of invasion, Emulsion plugging, 6-56 Environmental conditions (forces), 1 l-6,
49-6 Emulsion treater, I l-12, 12-3, 124, 12-13 18-1, 18-3, 18-4, 18-7 to 18-10, 18.17,
Electricity, units and conversions, 58-35, Emulsion-treating equipment, 19-15, 19-16, 18-21, 18-25, 18-31, 18-36, 18-44, 1847
58-36 19-21. 19-27 to 19-32 Environmental conditions,
Electrochemical corrosion, 3-36 Emulsion treating, overall system ice characteristics, 18-38, 18-39
Electrochemical potential, 49-8 to 49-10 performance, 19-33 ice loading, 18-39
Electrode array, 53-7 Emulsion-treating system, 19-6, 19-7, 19-9, permafrost, 18-39
Electrofiltration potential, 49-10 19-11, 19-13, 19-15, 19-16, 19-30, 19-32 waves, 18-39
Electrohydraulic control system, 18-l 1 Emulsion viscosity, 6-67 Environmental corrections,
Electrohydraulic subsea controls, 18-49 Emulsions, gas effect, 50-30, 50-31
Electrohydraulic systems, 3-31 as mixed-base fracturing fluids, 55-5, 55-7 matrix effect, 50-28 to 50-30
Electrokinetic effects, 28-1 chances of forming, 8-6 shale effect, 50-31 to 50-33
Electrolvtic conduction. 26-28 decreases injection cycles/day, 5-40 Environmental criteria, 18-26
ElectroGtic corrosion, ‘12-40 effect of silicate control agents, 54-7 Environmental factor, 1 l-8
Electrolytic model, 39-20, 39-21, 44-17, effect of surfactants, 54-7 Environmental impact, 24-9
44-18, 4420, 44-21 gas lift can intensify, 5-2 Environmental load predictions, 18-22
Electromagnetic e-mode telemetry, 53-l in lirefloods and steamfloods, 46-2 1, 46-22
Environmental regulations, 44-41
Electromagnetic force (EMF), 53-16 prevents application of gradient curves,
Environments, wellhead equipment, 3-36 to
Electromagnetic inspection devices, 53-17, 5-25
3-39
53-19 - . Emulsions, methods used in treating.
Epigenetic interstitial water, definition, 24-18
Electromagnetic propagation log, 49- 1, 49-2 agitation, 19-12, 19-13
EPILOG log analysis, 49-37
Electromagnetic propagation tool (EPT)‘“, centrifugation, l9- I5
Epipressure contours, 44-15, 44-16
49-32 to 49-36 chemical demulsitier, 19-9 to 19-12
Epithermal counting rate, 50-20, 50-29
Electromagnetic radiation, 50-3 distillation, 19-15
Electromagnetic thickness log, 53-21 electrostatic coalescing, 19- I3 Epithermal detector, 50-19, 50-20, 50-2 1
Electromagnetic thickness tools, 53-19 to fibrous packing, 19-14 Epithermal diffusion coefficient, 50- 19
53-2 1, 53-23 filtering, 19-14 Epithermal matrix effect, 50-30
Electra-mechanical timers, 164 gravity settling. 19-14, 19-15 Epithermal neutron flux, 50-15, 50-20
Electromotive force, 58-11, 58-23, 58-35 heating, 19-7 to 19-9 Epithermal neutrons. 50-S. 50-9. 50-14,
Electron density, 50-16, 50-17 water washing, 19-13 50-17, 50-19, 50-30
Electron-density index, 50-7, 50-26 to 50-28 Emulsions theories: See Theories of emulsions Epithermal porosity device, 50-28, 50-32
Electron microscopy, 27-1 Enclosed motor, totally. lo-26 Epoxy resin coating, 11-6
Electronic-casing caliper log, 53-19 Enclosures for motors; 10-26, IO-27 Epoxy thermoset resin, 9-12
Electronic chart scanners, 30-2 End effects, 28-3, 28-5. 28-7 Equal-payment-series present-worth factor,
Electronic computers, 40-9 End-to-end flowline valves, 3-12 to 3-14 41-25
Electronic (solid-state) controller, 16-4 Endicott development, 18-3 Equalizer for tank battery, I l-9
Electronic interface controllers, 19-31 Endogenetic subsurface water, definition, 24-19 Equalizing valves, 3-29
Electronic model, 39-20 Endpoint displacement data, 28-8 Equation factors for collapse pressure
Electronic timers, 5-55 Endpoint mobility ratio, 47-l equations, 2-54 to 2-56
SUBJECT INDEX 31
Equation, general for critical-flow prover, density, 1-79 Exhaust-gas turbocharger, 15-16
13-45 energy, 1-11 Exhaust power fluid, 6-25
Equations for computing subsurface length, l-7 1 Exogenehc subsurface water, definition, 24-19
pressures, 33-15 mass, 1-75 Exothermic reaction, 31-6
Equations for jet pumps, 6-36, 6-37 power. 1-78 Exotic metals for pipe, 15-l 1
Equations for oil and gas separator, pressure, 1-77 Expander, 14-8
gas capacity, 12-23 velocity, 1-76 Expansion-drive gas reservoirs, 40-26
sizing for &IS capacity, 12-23 to 12-25 volum& l-73 Expansion factor, 13-2, 13-8, 13-26 to 13-34
Equations for valuation methods, 41-18.41-19 work, 1-77 Expansion separator or vessel, 12-1
Equations for water-drive reservoirs, 38-I to Erection of pumping units, 10-7, 10-12 Expansivity, 24- I5
38-4 Erosion, pump cavitation damage, 6-36 Experimental procedure,
Equations in Sl metric system, 58-13 Error anaiysis, 50-28 - steady-state k, methods, 28-3 to 28-7
Equations of state (EOS), 14-16, 20-4, 20-6 Errors in basic data, 38-7, 38-8 unsteady-state k, methods, 28-7
to 20-8, 23-10, 23-12, 23-13, 25-8, Erythorbic acid, reducing agent, 54-7 Exploration geologists, 18-3
25-16, 39-16, 48-4, 48-5, 48-9 Escalation clauses, 41-3, 41-9 Exploration hazards, 46-22
Equilibrium behavior, GC systems, 39-2 to Esso. 46-4, 46-14 Exploratory well, 4 I-I 1
39-4 Estimating reserves. 40-l Explosion proof, 3-34
Equilibrium constants, 14-16, 23-l I, 37-23 Ethanelwater system, 25-17, 25-18, 25-24, Explosion-proof motors, 10-27, 1@36, IS-46
Equilibrium data sources, 25-l to 25-4 25-27 Exponent of backpressure curve, 33-5 to
Equilibrium dewpoint, 14-18 Ethanolamine, 14-21 33-13
Equilibrium dewpoint locus, 25-1, 25-2 Ethylene density, 17-6 Exponential-integral solution, 35-3, 35-4
Equilibrium dewpoint water content, 25-2 Ethylene glycol (EG), 14-7, 14-18, 14-19 Exponentials, table, l-55
Equilibrium flash calculations, 12-33, 12-34, Ethylene glycol, hydrate inhibition, 25-19, Extended flanged outlets, 3-3
14-16 25-20 Extended flanges, 3-8
Equilibrium flash separation, 14-16 Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether, 54-7, 56-5 Extended water-depth capability, 18-16
Equilibrium gas. 39-7, 39-8, 39-14 Ethylene/water system, 25-24, 25-27 Extension nipple, 8-1, 8-4
E&libriumg&saturation,40-11,40-12,43-11 Ethylenediaminet&raacetic acid (EDTA), 56-2 Extensive properties. definition, 22-21
Equilibrium phase diagrams, 23-1, 45-2 European countries, concrete gravity External boundary conditions, definitions, 38-I
Equilibrium ratios, 21-11, 21-16, 23-1 I, structures, 18-23 External coatings, Il.6
25-5, 39-6, 39-9, 39-11 to 39-13, 39-15 Evaluation of fracturing prospects, 5 l-45 External corrosion, 3-36, 18-33
Equilibrium vaporization constants, 46-12, Evaporation method of capillary-pressure External gas-injection pressure maintenance,
46-37, 46-39 measurement, 26-24 43-16
Equilibrium vaporization ratios. 37-23 Evaporation, preventing, 11-12, 11-13 External-upset tubing, 2-38 to 245,2-64. 2-66
Equilibrium water dewpoint, 14-18 Evaporites. 49-25 Externally adjustable secondary seal, 3-6
Equipment coordination, surface/downhole, 4-1 Evinper-Muskat equation, 34-3 I Extra-strong threaded line pipe, Z-46, 2-50
Equipment enclosures offshore, 18-46 Example problems: Extracting-liquid drive, 45-5, 45-6
Equipment for control of oiltield motors, casing, tubing, and line pipe.
. . 2-36. 2-37. Extraction method for determining sediment
handoff-auto switch, lo-27 2-55, 2-56 - in oil, 17-5
line disconnect switch, lo-27 cmde-oil properties and condensate properties Extraction methods for determining water
local remote switch, lo-27 and correlations, 21-15 to 21-20 saturation, 26-22
motor starter contactor, IO-28 electric submersible pumps, 7-17 Extraction of minerals, 24-20
programmer, 10-27, IO-28 estimation of oil and’gas’reserves, 40-8, Extraneous materials in well fluids. 12-3
sequence-restart timer, IO-27 40-9, 40-12 to 40-14, 40-16, 40-17, Extreme-line casing, 2-1, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8,
Equipment selection, reciprocating pumps, 628 40-3 1 2-10, 2-12, 2-14, 2-16, 2-18, 2-29 to
Equipment used in emulsion treating, gas-condensate reservoirs, 39-10, 39-11, 2-31, 2-62 to 2-64, 2-67, 2-68
clarification of water produced, 19-28 39-23, 39-24 Extreme-line casing joint, 2-5, 2-7, 2-9,
desalting crude oil. 19-26, 19-27 gas lift, 5-4 to 5-8, 5-10 to 5-12, 5-15, 2-11, 2-13, 2-15, 2-17, 2-19, 2-60,
electrostatic coalescing treaters, 19-25, 5-20, 5-25, 5-26, 5-29 to 5-37. 546. 2-63, 2-67 to 2-72
19-26 5-47, S-49, 5-50, 5-52 Extruded-plastic system, 15-10
EOR projects, 19-28 gas measurement and regulation, 13-8 Exxon Co. U.S.A., 16-13, 47-22
free-water knockouts, 19-17, 19-18 gas properties and correlations, 20-13 to Exxon Corp., 20-S
horizontal treaters, 19-23 to 19-25 20-17
reverse emulsions, 19-27 hydraulic pumping, 6-20, 6-21, 6-24, F
settling tanks, 19-18 to 19-22 6-29. 6-30, 6-44 to 6-46
storage tanks, 19- 18 miscible displacement. 45-10 to 45-13
“F” Pairs log analysis
vertical treaters, 19-22, 19-23 mud logging, 52-29
Facies, 29-5, 29-8
Equivalent circular pipe, 34-27 phase behavior of water/hydrocarbon
Facilities,
Equivalent conductivity, 49-34 systems, 25-13. 25-14
for fireflood, 46-20
Equivalent formation-water resistivity, 49-l 1 properties of reservoir rocks, 26-3, 26-5,
for steamflood, 46-19, 46-20
Equivalent hydraulic gradient. 26-l 1 26-6, 26-14, 26-15, 26-17, 26-26, 26-27
Facility throughput, 58-25, 58-30, 58-31
Equivalent length of &es and fittings, 15-4 pumping units and prime movers for
Equivalent limestone porosity, 50-28, 50-30 pumping unit, IO-8 to 10-11, 10-18, Factor analysis, 24-20
Equivalent linear permeability. 26-18 io-14. io-21 to 10-24, IO-31 Factor, gas-pressure-at-depth, 5-5, 5-6
Equivalent liquid permeability, 26-18, 27-1, solution-gas-drive oil reservoirs, 37-24, Factors affecting oil viscosity, 22-14
27-8 37-25 Factors affecting permeability
Equivalent methane in air (EMA), 52-3 to subsurface sucker-rod pumps, 8-5 measurements,
52-5 sucker rods, 9-4 gas slippage. 26-18
Equivalent molecular weights. modified water-drive oil reservoirs, 38-5 to 38-7 overburden pressure, 26-19
weight average. 21-12 to 21-15 well-performance equations. 35-7 to 35-9, reactive fluids, 26-18, 26-19
Equivalent mud density (EMD), 52-25 35-13. 35-14, 35-19, 35-20 Factors contributing to vapor and gravity
Equivalent proton masses (EPM). 24- 19 wellbore hydraulics. 34-8, 34-9, 34-23 to losses in tanks,
Equivalent slowing-down length, 50-29 34-26. 34-30, 34-32 to 34-35, 34-41 to agitation, 1l- 12
Equivalent water conductivity. 49-39 3445 breathing, 11-12
Equivalent wellbore radius, 35-4 Excelsior packs, 19-23, 19-31, 19-32 filling, 11-12
Equivalents, tables, Excess-flow valves, 3-29 storage size, 1 l-12
areas, 1-73 Excitation, BHP gauges, 30-5, 30-6 surface area, 11-12
capacity, 1-73 Executor, definition. 57-3 tank pressures, 11-12
37 PI:1 IN,1 I:lIM I:N(;INI:I.HINf, IIASl,l!r,~,K
temperature. I I- I2 l,lVC V‘IIYL. milnlll~ltl, 11 17

vapor prewlre, I I I2 l,~xctl choke, 5 S4
Factors for test-preshurc cquationh. 2-63 Fixed drilling platlorrn\, l&2, IX-24
Factors in design of injection opcratlons. 42-2 pencratlon and inlcclion. 4h-IY Fixed-pad Kingsbury Ihrwt bcarmg, 7-3
Factor> in evaluation oI permeability l’rom water trcatnacnt. 40-20 Fixed platli)rm drilling, ?-3X, 3.3Y
other parameter.\. 26-19. 26-20 Field-fil~crcd hampIe. 24-4 Fixed pump mstallation. 6-2. h-3
Factory-baked coatmgh. I I-I Field flltcring cqulpmcnt, 24-4 Fixed-roof tanks. I l-2
Fail-safe hydraulic actuatow 18-3 Field instrumentation l’or SCADA. 16-9 Flagging the bottom valve, gas IlIt, 5-44
Fail-safe valves. 3. IX Field operations ol’fshorc. Flame arrcstcrs, I l-6, I I-X to I l-10. 19-2X
Failure diagram. 9-4 drillstem testing, IX-20 Flame ionization detector (FID). 52-4. 52-5.
Failure5 of sucker rods, 9-8. 9-9. 9- I3 introduction. 18-17 52. IO, 52. I I
Faw market value. 40-I locatwn, establishing. I& I8 Flammable gases, IO-36
Fair-market-value determination, 41-2. 4 l-3. plug and abandonment, IS-20 Flammable liquids, IO-36
41-S. 41-S running BOP, IS-18 to IS-20 Flange data, 3-16 to 3-25, 3-27
Fanning friction factor, 34-24 running ZO-in. casing. IX-18 Flange taps, 13-3 to 13-8, 13-14 to 13.19,
Fanning‘s equation. 26-10 running 30.in. casing. IS-18 13-26, 13-27. 13-30, 13-31, 13-33, 13-34
Farmouts. 57-9. 57-10 spudding the well, IS-18 Flank waterflood, 4% I3
Fathometer. 18-5 Fieid performance, 48-6. 48-7 Flare boom, IS-20
Fatigue analysis, IX-27 Field-performance data. 37-7 Flash calculations for separators, 12-33.
Fatigue cracks or cracking. 9-l. IS-16 Field &lot tests, 48-13 12-36, 12-37
Fatigue damage, 18-27 Field pilots, 46-I I Flash calculations. multlcomponent. 40. I3
Fatigue failure. 9-9. IS-21 Field projects. thermal recovery, Flash chamber. trap or vessel, 12-l
Fatigue life. 9-l I dry vs. wet combustion, 46-18, 46-19 Flash distillation system. 19-15, 19. I6
Fatty amine compounds. 44-45 reservw performance, 46-14 to 46-17 Flash gas liberation. definition, 22-20
Fault traps. 29-3 screening guides, 46-13 Flash gas separation. 37-l
Feasibility analysis, 39. I7 Field response, MP ilooding, 47-16 Flash liberation process. 32-7
FED DDL wellsite analysis. 49-37 Field results, Flash point, I l-7 to I l-9
Federal excise taxes. 41-l. 41-3, 41-4, chemical flooding, 47-21, 47-22 Flash process, definition. 22-20
41-9. 41-12 foam injection, 47-9 Flash separation (vaporization), 12-32. 21-4,
Federal income taxeb. 41-5. 41-6. 41-S. 41-12 high-pH processes, 47-21. 47-22 37-3. 45-8
Federal Power Commission (FPC) approval polymer floods, 47-6 Flat-bottom tanks, I l-2
certificates. 4 l-9 Field sampling. CC reservoir, 39-5 Flat-plate orifice, 13-2
Federal Register, 57-12 Field separation conditions, optimum, 39-5 Flat-sided tanks (non-API), 1 l-2
Federal taxes. 41-5. 41-7, 41-12 to 41-16, Field titration kit, 54-3 Flex joints. 18-12. 18-13. 18-19, 18-25
44-5 Field-welded tanks, 11-2. 1 l-9 Flexible pipe. 18-36, 18-37
Fee ownership, Filing losses, storage tanks, I I-I 1 to 1 l-13 Flexural failure, 18-39
control, 57-2 Fill-up, 44-9. 44-34, 44-39. 4441, 44-46 Float-actuated pilot-operated valve. 13.53
definition, 57-l Film thickness of coatings, II-4 Float-and-sink (density) method, 52-20
Fee simple interest, 41-I Filter/separator. 12-l. 12-2 Float cages, 13-54
Fence diagram, 45-8, 45-9 Filter-type mist extractor, 12-l I Float-operated controller, 13-54
Ferric hydroxide, 56-3 Filtering, 12-8, 12-11. 19-7, 19-14, 19-28 Float-operated controls, 12-18
Ferrous sulfide precipitation, 54-7 Filters, 15-20, 15-21 Float-operated mechanical oil valves. 13-53
6FF28 IES tool. 49-15 Filtration, 15-20 Float-operated pilot, 12-5, 12-39
6FF40 IES logs and tool, 49-15.49-17, 49-18 Finger in gas displacement, 43-7 Float-operated trap, 13-58
Fiber-reinforced plastic pipe, 15-10 Fingering of miscible slug, 45-6 Float traps. 13-53. 13-54
Fiberglass casing and tubing, 4446 Finite-closed aquifer, 38-5, 38-6, 38-8, Floating barges, IS-34
Fiberglass filaments, 12-12 38-13. 38-18 Floating drilling operation or system. 18-3,
Fiberglass-lined steel tanks, 19-31 Finite-closed boundary, 38-1 18-11, 18-14, IS-16
Fiberglass-reinforced polyesters (FRP’s), 11-9 Finite-difference equations, 48-l, 48-2, 48-13 Floating drilling rigs or vessels, 18-2, 18-6.
Fiberglass/steel rod string, 9-12 Finite-difference method, 43-13 to 43-15 18-10, 18-13, 18-17. 18-20, 18-31, 18-34
Fiberglass sucker rods, Finite-difference simulator, 45-10 Floating drilling, subsea systems. IS-19
application, 9-12, 9-13 Finite-element simulator, 45-10 Floating platforms. 3-38
body. 9-12 Finite linear aquifers, 38-2 Floating drilling vessels, 3-39
care, handling. and storage, 9-13, 9-14 Finite-outcropping aquifer, 38-5, 38-8, Floating production facilities (FPF).
chemical and mechanical properties, 9-l I 38-10, 38-11. 38-14 to 38-19 applications, 18-34, IS-35
end-fitting grades, 9-12 Finite-outcropping boundary, definition, 38-l disposal of oil, gas, and water, 18-36
expected life, 9- I3 Fire detectors and detection systems, 18-47 semisubmersibles vs. tankers, 18.35, 18-36
failures, 9-13 Fire hazard. IS-46 under Coast Guard jurisdiction, 18-44
general dimensions, 9-l 1 Fire tests for valves, 3-38 Floating-roof tanks, 11-2. I l-6
introduction, 9-10 Fire tubes. 19-28 Floatless level controller, 13-53
manufacture of. 9-12 Fireflood, 46-1, 46-3. 46-4, 46-13 to 46-28 Floatless level controls, 13-54
physical dimensions, 9-l 1 Fireflood pots, 46-13 Flocculation, 19-9, 19-10, 19-28. 44-46
rod-body-to-steel connector-joint design, 9-12 Firewall, 11-9, 11-11 Flood coverage, 39-18, 44-18
stress-range diagram, 9- 13 First-contact miscible flooding, 45-1, 45-2, Flood efficiency. 39-18, 44-46
Fibrous filters. 39-26 45-5 Flood fronts, 4416
Fibrous packing, 19-14 First law of thermodynamics, 34-I Flood pot tests, 40-16. 40-17
Fibrous-type nust extractors, 12-12 First-stage separator gas, 39-6, 39-10 Florida, 24-20. 24-21, 29-7, 29-8, 44-36
Field behavior vs. predicted performance, Fishing characteristics of packers, 4-6 Flotation, 15-20, 19-28
waterfloodmg, 44-31 Fissility, 52-20 Flow-after-flow, 33-4
Field capillary number, 47-17 Fitting factor, 38-7 Flow channels, 26-10. 55-l
Field compressors, control of, 13-57 Five-point difference scheme. 48- 1I Flow coefficient, 34-3 I
Field development, 36-1, 46-l 1 Five-spot pattern, 43-2, 43-8, 44-1, 448, Flow computer. 5-53
Field development plan offshore, I S-25, IS-26 4413 to 44-20, 44-22. 4423, 4425, Flow conductivity. 28-2
Field engineers, 39-l 44-26 to 4429, 4433. 44-34, 44-37, Flow-control devices, safety shut-in systems.
Field examples, deviation survey, 53-7, 53-8 44-38. 4440, 45-7, 46-13, 46-17, control systems, 3-31. 3-33. 3-34
Field facilities. 46.18, 46-23. 46-25. 46-26, 46-28. introduction. 3- I8
tireflood. 46-30. 47-10 production platform, 3- I9
SUBJECT INDEX 33
regulations, 3-34 Fluid-controlled valves, 16-3. 16-4 Focused electrical-resistivity devices, 26-31
sensors, 3-34 Fluid controls, 6-51 Focused-electrode devices, 49-l I. 49-18
subsurface safety valves, 3-26, 3-27, Fluid data, ESP, 7-9 Focused-electrode logs, 49-18 to 49-22
3-29, 3-31 Fluid distributions. 442 to 44-4, 44-l 1 Folded structure, 53-12
surface safety valves. 3-21 Fluid-electric-controlled valves, 16-3 Force balance equations, 5-13
with hydra&c and pneumatic valves, 3-20 Fluid-flow effects on waterflooding. 44-29 Force balance m downhole pumps, 6-16 to 6- 19
Flow-control valve, 16-l 1 Fluid-flow model, 4420, 4421 Force of gravity, 58-3
Flow-direction change to remove oil from Fluid/fluid interstitial configurations. 28-3 Force summing devices, 30-1, 30-2, 30-6
gas, 12-9 Fluid friction in hydraulic pumps, 6-19, 6-20 Force, unit and definition, 58- 1I, 58-23,
Flow m annulus. 41-42 Fluid friction in sandstone reservoirs, 56-2 58-24, 58-34
Flow in tubing. gas, 34-9 to 34-27 Fluid friction in tubular and annular flow Forced-circulation heating. 19-22
Flow-measurement pulsed-data transmission passages, 6-26 Forced-draft burners, 19-28
systems, 174 Fluid-friction losses, 6-5, 6-25, 6-47, 6-49 Forchheimer equation, 35. I I
Flow nozzle flowmeter, 32-13 to 6-5 I, 6-67. 6-69 Fordoche field, Louisiana, 39-16
Flow provers. 32-14 Fluid-gradient calculations, 6-26 Forecast of future rate of production,
Flow rate, eqmvalent total, 35-2 Fluid identification. 50-2, 50-3 constant percentage decline, 41-9, 41-10
Flow rate. units and conversions, 58-31 Fluid incompressibility, 51-49 declining production, 41-9
Flow regimes. 34-36 to 34-38, 34-40 Fluid-inventory equations, 43-9 harmonic decline, 41-10
Flow-strmg sizes, table, 34-23 Fluid jet, 8-7 hyperbolic decline, 41-10
Flow-string weights, table. 34-23 Fluid level in well, 30-7, 30-8, 30-15 part constant rate-part declining
Flow surges, 12-20 Fluid-loss additives, 55-4 production, 41-10, 41-11
Flow systems of combinations of beds, Fluid-loss agents, 54-8 produced product prices, 41-I 1
26.14, 26-15 Fluid-loss characteristics of fracturing proration of market curtailment. 41-I I
Flow systems of simple geometry, fluids, 55-2, 55-7, 55-8 Foreign objects in flow string, 33-20, 33-22
horizontal flow. 26. I I, 26-12 Fluid-loss-controlled fluids, 55-4 Forest Hill field, Texas, 46-3 1, 46-34
radial flow, 26-13 Fluid mapper, 44-20 Formation.
vertical flow, 26-12. 26-13 Fluid mobility. 39-20. 44-7, 51-47, 52-14 analysis, in sand control, 56-3
Flow-temperature gradient correlation, 5-26, Fluid pound, 10-5, IO-6 damage, 56-4, 56-8
5-21 Fluid power, 6-15 properties, in sand control, 56-2
Flow-test data on a well, 30-l I 10 30-13 Fluid pressure differences, 56-2 sampling, in sand control. 56-3
Flow through chokes. 34-45. 3446 Fluid pressure regulator, 13-54 Formation alteration, effect on log
Flow through pores of various sizes. 54-10 Fluid properties, measurements, 51-20 to 5 l-23
Flow velocities for pumps, 15-17 data, 37-16 Formation balance gradient, 52-25, 52.26
Flow velocity change to remove oil from gas and liquid FVF, 6-67 to 6-69 Formation compaction, 26-8
gas, 12-9 gravity, 6-67 Formation composition, effect on acid
Flow velocity. effect on acid reaction rate, 54-5 introduction. 6-66 reaction rate, 54-6
Flowing BHP. gas, calculation of, 34-9 to oil systems. 22-l Formation compressibility, 40-34
34-27 viscosity, 6-67 Formation compressibihty vs. depth, 26-7
Flowmg gas column, 34-9 Fluid pumpoff chart, ESP, 7-15 Formation conductivity. 54-8, 54-9
Flowing gas wells, 34-23, 34-29 Fluid sample analysis, 41-8 Formation damage, 4-9. 30-8, 35-4, 39-25,
Flowing-pressure-at-depth traverse. 5-23, 5-26 Fluid saturation configurations. 28-2 51-21, 54-8 to 54-10
Flowing pressure gradient, 5-l. 5-32, 5-43. Fluid saturation distributions. 28-2, 46-2 Formation density log. 52-20
44-33 Fluid saturations, Formation drillability exponent, 52-24
Flowing pressure gradient curves, 5-25, comparison of methods of measurement, Formation evaluation, 5 l-l, 5148
S-26, 5-30, 5-43 26-24 to 26-27 Formation evaluation letter and computer
Flowing pressure surveys, 5-43 determination from rock samples. 26-2 I, symbols, 59-2 to 59-51
Flowing pressure traverses, 5-21, 5-23 26-22 Formation evaluation services, 52-2 to 52-l 1
Flowing production pressure at depth, 5-45 interstitial water, 26-22 to 26-24 Formation factor,
Flowing production pressure. gas-lifl valve. laboratory measurement of capillary dependence on porosity and lithology, 49-4
5-17 to 5-19, 5-21, 5-23, S-24, 5-26 to pressure, 26-24 evaluation, 49-14, 49-26, 49-30
5-28, 5-30 to 5-33. 5-35. 5-36. 5-41 to of cores, factors affectmg, 26-20, 26-21 Formation fluid pressure, 51-39
543, 545, 546, 5-48 of reservoir for waterflooding, 46-3, 46-4 Formation fracturing,
Flowing production transfer pressure, 5-33, Fluid viscosrty, 6-27 fluid-loss-controlled fluids, 55-4
5-34, 5-36 Fluids in motion, formations fractured, 55-2
Flowing temperature adjustment factor. 33-15 energy relatlonships, 34-1, 34-2 fracture area, 55-2, 55-3
Flowing temperature factor, 13-3. 13-13 irreversibility losses, 34-2, 34-3 fracture planes, 55-2
Flowing wellhead backpressure, 5-54 Flume pope. 19-21 fracturing equipment. 55-9
Flowing wellhead production pressure, 5-53 Fluoboric acid system, 54-4, 54-l 1 fracturing materials. 55-5 to 55-8
Flowlme backpressure, 6-25 Fluorescence X-ray, 50-7 fracturing techniques, 55-8, 55-9
Flowline breaks. I6- 11 Fluoride, 19-10, 56-I general references, 55-10 to 55-12
Flowlme choke. 5-53, 5-54 Fluoride mtensitier, 54-4 hydraulic fracturmg theory, 55-l. 55-2
Flowline headers, 3-21 Fluosilicates, 54-4, 56-4 introduction, 55-l
Flowlme pressure, 6-25, 6-43 Flushing agent, lo- 13 multiple-zone fracturing, 55-9
Flowline-pressure term, 6-28 Flushing efficiency. 39-18 operations. 8-8
Flowline sampling. 24-3, 24-4 Flux-gate magnetometer, 5 l-28 references. 55-10
Flowline temperature, 52-22 lo 52-24 Flux leakage. 53-20 to 53-23, 53-26 reservoir-controlled fluids, 55-2, 55-4
Flowlines m subsea completions, 18-33. Flywheel, 10-15. IO-19 , stimulation results, 55-4. 55-5
18.34, 18-36 to 18.38 Foam, 18-47. 19-23. 32-7. 45-8 treatment planning, 55-9. 55-10
Flowmeters, 32-6. 32-10, 32-13 Foam flooding, 47. I, 47-6 to 47-9 viscosity-controlled tluids, 55-4
Flue gas, 45-1, 45-4, 45-6, 46-21 Foam quality. 55-6 Formation of an emulsion, 19-2. 19.3
Fluid channel gradient, 3 l-5 Foam separator, 12-18 Formation permeability. 50-2
Fluid coefficient, 55-2 to 55-4 Foam stability. 47-7 Formation pore pressure, 52-17
Fluid columns, specific gravities and unit Foaming agents. 39-16. 55-6 Formation pressure gradient, 5 l-39
pressure of, 6-22, 6-23 Foaming in desulfurizer. 14-22 Formation resistivity factor, 26-28 to 26-31,
Fluid composition. 51-7. 51-8 Foaming oil, 12-3. 12-6, 12-7, 12-13, 49-4
Fluid conductivity. 26-10. 26-28 12.17. 12-19 to 12.22, 12.32, 12-35 Formation shear-wave velocity, 51.25
Fluid-content investigation, 49-26, 49-27 Foams as fracturing fluids, 55-6. 55-7, 55-9 Formation tests. 40-3
Formation transit time, 51-19, 51-20 Fractured porosity, 29-8 Friction pressure-drop curves, 6-26, 6-70,6-7 1
Formation volume, Fractures, ‘perme&ility of, 26- I6 Friction relationships,
of gas plus liquid phases, 21-19 Fracturing: See Formation fracturing annular sections-flow between tubing and
of well production at reservoir conditions, Fracturing, 26-2. 40-23, 40-24. 51-44, 56-l casing, 6-69 to 6-72
21-20 Fracturing efficiency, 55-9 circular sections-tubing, 6-69
total. gas-condensate system, 21-16, 21-18 Fracturing equipment, 55-9 pressure drop in tubing annular flow,
total by Standing’s correlation, 21-19 Fracturing fluids, comparative efficiency, 55-9 6-70, 6-71
Formation volume correlations, 21-15 to 21-20 early treatments with, 55-l Friction wheel engine starters, IO-19
Formation volume factor (FVF) of gas, effective volume of, 55-2 Frictional horsepower, 10-18, lo-19
6-67, 20-11, 20-16. 22-13, 22-20. foams, 55-6. 55-7 Frictional press&e drop or loss, 6-1, 6-18
37-16, 39-14, 39-23, 40-5, 40-7, 40-9, gelled-oil, 55-7 to 6-20, 6-25, 6-35, 46-7
40-22 to 40-24 heavy oil-in-water emulsions, 55-7 Fritted glass, 26-6, 26-24
FVF of gas plus liquid phase, 6-47 high-viscosity, 55-8 Front displacement models,
FVF of oil, 6-67. 22-l. 22-10 to 22-13, leakoff, 55-4 Mandl-Volek’s refinement of Marx-
22-20, 37-16, 40-6, 40-8, 40-9, 40-l 1, mixed-base, 55-7 Langenheim method, 46-8
40-16 oil-base, 55-5 Marx-Langenheim method, 46-7, 46-8
FVF of water, 24-15, 24-16 oil-in-water dispersion, 55-7 Ramey’s generalization of Marx-
FVF, total (two-phase), 6-47, 6-68, 22-l. rate of leakoff controlled by viscosity, 55-4 Langenheim method, 46-8
22-13, 22-14; 22-20 viscosity of, 55-2 Frontal-advance applications, 43-16
FVF’s vs. pressure, 37-16 viscous emulsion, 55-8 Frontal-advance calculation, 43-12, 44-9 to
Formation water, definition, 24-18 volume of, 55-3 44-11
Formation water density, 24-14 water-base, 55-5 to 55-7 Frontal-advance equation, 40- 14, 40- 17,
Formation water resistivity, 24-14, 24.16,494 Fracturing materials, 40-18, 4410
Formation water sample, 24-3 fluids, 55-5 to 55-8 Frontal-advance performance, 43-12
Formation water viscosity. 24-16, 24-17 propping agents, 55-8 Frontal advance theory, 44-7
Formations fractured, 55-2 selection, 55-9 Frontal-drive method, for oil reservoir with
Formazin polymer, 44-44 Fracturing pressure, 54-10, 54-l 1, 56-5 gas-cap drive, 40-13, 40-14
Formazin turbidity units (FTU), 44-44 Fracturing pressure gradients, 55-2 for oil reservoir with water drive, 40-17,
Formic acid (HCOOH) in acidizing, 54-3, Fracturing techniques, 55-8, 55-9 40-18
54-8, 54-10 France, l-68, 12-39, 46-3, 46-27 to 46-29 Frost heaving, 18-41
Forms of meter, 13-2 Frangible-roof tanks, I l-2 Frost point, 25-5
Formulation sequential. 48-14 Frax log analysis, 49-37 Fry pool, Texas, 44-1
FORTRAN IV, 17-6, 17-7 Free condensate, 14-5 Fuel availability for engines, lo-16
FORTRAN card deck, 17-5 Free gas, 6-2, 6-38, 6-39, 6-47, 6-50, 6-57, Fuel consumption, 10-17, 58-33
FORTRAN source code listing, 9-3 6-62, 8-10. 12-3, 22-1, 22-9, 37-1, Fuel content as performance indicator,
Fossil water. 24-2 37-2, 37-5, 40-5, 40-8, 40-13, 40-22 to tirefloods, 46-16
Foster field, Texas. 44-30 40-24, 40-33, 44-4 Fuel-gas scrubbers, 19-28
Foundations for pump and prime mover, 15-18 Free-gas cap, 40-6 to 40-8, 40-10 Fugacity coefficient, 25- 11
Foundations of pumping units, IO-7 Free-gas production, 37-2 Fugacity of hydrate, 25-l 1
Four-arm caliper, 53- I7 Free-gas production rate, 37-11 Full-bore flowline valves, 3-12 to 3-14
Four-arm dipmeter tools, 53-8, 53-10 Free-gas saturation, 37-22, 40-19, 44-4, Full-capacitv relief valves, 12-40
Four-cycle engine, IO-14 to 10-16, IO-19 44-5 Full-dime&r core analysis, 27-1, 27-8
Four-stage separation, 12-34 Free pump cycle, 6-3, 6-6 Full-diameter core method, 26-17
Four-way engine valves, 6-9 Free pump installations, 6-3, 6-4 Full diesels, lo-15
Fourier heat equation, 26-16 Free-standing risers, 18-15 Full-interest wells, 57-9
F, values for various annuli, 33-17 Free-stretch factor of casing, 2-35 Full-line injection-gas pressure, 5-53
F, values for various flow strings, 33-16 Free water. 14-3, 14-5, 14-6, 14-17, 14-20, Full-load rating of motor, 10-26, 10-28,
Fractional analyses, 39-2 19-9, 19-17, 19-24. 19-25 IO-30 -
Fractional-flow curve, 40-14, 43-10, 43-l I, Free water knockout (FWKO), 12-3, 12-4, Full-load slip, lo-24
44-12 12-13, 15-21, 18-28, 19-9, 19-17 to Fullerton-Clearfolk unit, California. 36-7
Fractional-flow equation, 40-17, 43-3, 43-5, 19-19, 19-22, 19-32 Fully implicit formulation. 48-14
43-10, 44-4, 44-9, ‘M-10 Freezing point, 14-2, 14-6. 14-10, 14-19, Fungi, 44-43, 44-44
Fractional flow of gas. 40-14, 43-6, 43-8 21-19, 25-19 Funicular distribution, 26-24
Fractional horsepower motors, 18-46 Freezing problem, 13-53 Fuses for motors, lo-28
Fractional oil recovery, 44-9 French design, concrete structures, 18-23 Fusible plugs for fire detection, 18-47
Fractional water cut, 44-8 French Nat]. Assembly, l-68 Future inflow performance, 34-34, 34-35
Fractionation, 39-27 Freon 12. 14-9 Future net cash income, 41-5, 41-6
Fractionation equipment, 39-5 Frequency of wave, 51-14 Future performance calculations, 43-10 to 43-16
Fracture acid&g: 54-9, 54-l 1 Frequent; response. 30-5, 30-6 Future performance, water-drive reservoirs,
Fracture area, 55-2, 55-3 Frequency, unit and definition, 58-11. pressure gradient between new and
Fracture-assisted steamflood, 46-26 J8-23; 58-36 original front positions, 38-13, 38-14
Fracture conductivity, 54-8, 54-9. 55-4, Fresh core techniques, 44-5 reservoir above bubblepoint pressure, 38-14
55-8. 55-9 Fresh mud, 49-20, 49-25, 49-27 reservoir below bubblepoint pressure,
Fracture conductivity ratio, 55-4 Fresh water, 44-41, 44-42 38-14 to 38-16
Fracture evaluation, 5145 to 51-47 Freshwater buffer, MP flooding, 47-10 reservoir simulation models, 38-16
Fracture flow capacity, 55-8 Freshwater recharge, 24-20
Fracture-fluid efficiency, 55-4 Friction coefficient, 9-9 G
Fracture geometry, 55-5, 55-9 Friction factor, 15-l to 15-3. 15-5 to 15-7,
Fracture gradient, 55-2 15-10, 34-2, 34-3, 34-24, 34-38, 34-39, Galling, 6-50
Fracture of pipe, 2-60 39-25 Galvanic anodes, 19-3 1
Fracture penetration, 55-4, 55-9 Friction in downhole pumps, 6-21 Galvanic corrosion, 3-36
Fracture planes. 55-2 Friction loss, 13-2 Galvanized coating, 1l-6
Fracture porosity. 44-2 Friction loss curves, 55-6, 55-7 Galvanized wire armor, 18-49
Fracture pressures, 44-3, 44-46, 5 1-44 Friction loss gradient, 34-36, 34-38 to Gamma-gamma density devices, 50-7, 50-15
Fracture strength of casing, 2-61 34-40 to 50-17, 50-26 to 50-28, 50-37
Fractured-matrix imbibition. 48-9 Friction losses, 46-29 Gamma probability function, 39-l 1
Fractured matrix model. 48-5 Friction pressure, 55-5, 55-6 Gamma radiation, 50-3
SUBJECT INDEX 3.5
Gamma ray absorption, 50-2, 50-13 Gas deliverability approach, 35-12 methods of evaluating areal sweep
Gamma ray attenuation, 50-2, 504 Gas-depletion drive, 29-7 efficiency, 43-7, 43-8
Gamma ray curve and log, 364, 46-27, Gas de&ion factor, definition, 22-20 methods of evaluating conformance
49-15, 49-19, 49-20, 49-25, 49-38, Gas-discharge counters, 50-12 efficiency. 43-6, 43-7
49-39, 50-15, 50-24 to 50-27, 51-16, Gas discharge radiation detector, 50-12 methods of evaluating displacement
51-17, 51-19, 51-23, 51-26, 51-27, Gas displacement, 43-3 to 43-6, 43-8, 43-16 efficiency, 43-3 to 43-6
51-33, 51-38, 5145, 53-2, 534, 53-26 Gas disposal, 18-30 nomenclature, 43- 18
Gamma ray detection, 50-14, 50-23 Gas distribution system, 12-38 optimal time to initiate, 43-3
Gamma ray devices, 50-15, 50-16 Gas drive, 46-3, 46-5 references, 43-16, 43-17, 43-19
Gamma ray emission spectra, 50-15, 50-17 Gas effect, on acoustic log, 51-37 types of gas-injection operations, 43-2,43-3
Gamma ray energy, 50-7, 50-13, SO-15 on velocity ratio, 51-38 Gas interference, 6-21, 6-22, 6-24
Gamma ray flux, geometry for, 50-16 Gas effect on neutron porosity, 50-30, Gas law constants, 20-2
Gamma ray index, 50-24 50-31 Gas liberation, 37-3
Gamma ray interactions, 50-6 to 50-8, Gas eliminators, 15-14 Gas lift, charts, 643
50-12, 50-14 Gas evolution, 37-22, 37-23 continuous flow, 5-21 to 5-38, 3440 to 3445
Gamma ray measurements, 50-24 to 50-26 Gas expansion, 37-6 design procedures, 3440. 34-41
Gamma ray spectroscopy, 50-2, 50-3, Gas expansion factor, 39-l 1, 40-7 designing installations, 34-28
50-12, 50-13, 50-22, 50-24, 50-35 Gas-expansion method of determining gas fundamentals as applied to, 5-3 to 5-12
Garden Banks platform, 18-2 porosity, 26-6 intermittent flow, 5-38 to 5-53
Gas analysis, 52-17, 52-18 Gas-expansion porosimeter, 26-6 introduction, 5-l to 5-3
Gas analysis system, 52-3 Gas exsolution, 52-14 nomenclature, 5-55
Gas anchors, 8-9, S-10 Gas extraction methods. 52-2 operations, description of. 5-I
Gas and oil differences, 36-2 Gas filter, 12-1, 12-2 performance, 34-44
Gas backpressure valve, 124, 12-5, 12-9 Gas-tired crude oil heating unit, 19-28 references, 5-57
Gas boot, 6-33, 6-57 to 6-59, 19-13, 19-18, Gas flaring, 18-30 unloading procedures and proper
19-21 Gas flotation units, 15-27 adjustment of injection gas, 5-53 to 5-55
Gas break-out, 16-14 Gas-flow computers, 16-6, 16-12 valve mechanics, 5-12 to 5-21
Gas breakthrough, 43-3, 43-5, 43-8, 43-9 Gas flow, Weymouth formula, chart, 15-8, valves, 6-2, 6-6, 18-28, 18-34
Gas cap, 37-2, 37-3, 37-5 to 37-8, 37-13 to 15-9 well control, 16-11
37-17, 39-5, 40-5 Gas formation volume factor (FVF), 6-67, wells, energy losses, 34-37
Gas-cap drive, 36-2, 37-1,40-g, 40-13, 40-14 20-l 1, 20-16, 22-13, 22-20, 37-16, wells, tubing profile caliper, 53-17
Gas-cap-drive reservoirs, 43-9, 42-5 39-14, 39-23, 40-5, 40-7, 40-9, 40-22 to Gas-lifting methods, 44-42
Gas-cap encroachment, 36-2 40-24 Gas/liquid/hydrate equilibrium, 25-5
Gas-cap expansion, 43-12, 43-15, 43-16 Gas-free hydraulic loop, 18-34 Gas/liquid ratio (GLR), 5-23, 5-25, 5-26,
Gas-cap gas expansion. 37-5 Gas-free viscosity, 22-14. 22-15 5-34, 5-36, 5-38, 543, 6-27, 6-29,
Gas-cap gas production, 37-5 Gas fuel consumption, 39-24 6-30, 6-35, 641, 642, 644, 12-21,
Gas cap in vessel, 6-62 Gas fundamentals as applied to gas lift, 12-22, 39-2 to 39-6, 39-10
Gas-cap injection, 43-3 gas pressure at depth, 5-3 to 5-6 Gas/liquid relative permeability data, 39-7
Gas cap/oil production, 37-10 gas volume stored in conduit, 5-11, 5-12 Gas lock, 7-4, 7-6, 7-10, 7-15, 7-16
Gas-cap reservoir, 46-24 to 46-26 introduction. 5-3 Gas lock breakers, 6-21
Gas capacity chart, 5-8 temperature effect on confined bellows- Gas lock chart, ESP, 7-15
Gas capacity of separators, 12-23 to 12-25, charged dome pressure, 5-6 to 5-8 Gas locking, 6-10, 6-21, 8-9
12-27 to 12-29, 12-31, 12-32 volumetric gas throughput of a choke or Gas measurement, automatic. of lease
Gas chromatography, 27-1, 52-5 gas lift valve port, 5-8 to 5-10 equipment, 16-6, 16-7
Gas compressibility, 36-2 Gas/gas interface, 39-21 flow nipple and pitot tube for, 33-2
Gas compressibility factor, 5-8, 5-l 1, Gas-gathering facilities, 5-53 general references, 13-59
12-22, 12-23, 12-25, 12-26, 12-29, Gas-gathering system, 12-10, 12-11, 12-33 instruments, 33-13
12-30, 20-4, 20-7, 20-8, 20-10, 20-11, Gas gravities of natural gases, table, 25-6 introduction, 13-l
20-14, 22-13, 4645 Gas-gravity/condensate-gas ratio, 34-28 metering systems, 13-37
Gas/condensate ratio, 39-5 Gas gravity, definition, 22-20 orifice constants, 13-3 to 13-35
Gas-condensate recovery, 39-13 Gas handling, approximation for, 6-38, 6-39 physical setup of system for, 13-36, 13-37
Gas-condensate reservoirs, Gas-hydrate equilibrium locus, 25-2 references, 13-59
economics of operation, 39-26, 39-27 Gas hydrate region, oil and gas reservoirs velocity meters, 13-l to 13-3
formation and fluid data for, 39- 11 that exist in, 25-18, 25-19 Gas mobility, 37-3, 39-25, 43-7
general operating problems, 39-24 to Gas in effluent oil, 12-15, 12-16 Gas motor engine starters, IO-19
39-26 Gas/oil contact, 26-25, 404, 40-14, 40-15.
Gas in place,
introduction, 39-1 41-9, 46-26
by material balance, 40-6, 40-7
nomenclature, 39-27 Gas/oil flow through chokes, 34-47 to 3449
by volumetric method, 40-5, 40-6
operation by pressure depletion, 39-10 to Gas/oil interface, 1847, 50-36
in reservoir containing nonassociated gas
39-15 Gas/oil interfacial tension (IFT), 22-16, 22-17
and interstitial water but no residual oil,
operation by pressure maintenance or Gas/oil ratio (GOR). 5-25, 5-26, 6-24,
cycling, 39-15 to 39-24 40-23
6-25, 6-29, 6-30, 6-38, 6-39, 6-44,
properties and behavior, 39-l to 394 Gas injection, 42-5, 43-16
6-47, 12-35, 22-20, 34-41 to 3443,
references, 39-27, 39-28 Gas injection, BHP calculation, 34-28 to
3447 to 3449, 38-16, 39-1, 39-2,
sample collection and evaluation, 39-6 to 34-30
40-33, 41-8, 44-39, 58-38
39-10 Gas injection data, 39-23
Gas/oil relative permeability, 28-9
well tests and sampling, 394 to 39-6 Gas-injection operations, 43-2, 43-3, 43-7, Gas/oil relative permeability ratio, 37-1,
Gas condensate systems. 20-4. 21-16 to 43-9, 43-17 37-2, 39-13
21-20, 22-l - Gas-injection performation, 43-5, 43-16 Gas/oil separator, 22-20
Gas-condensate wells, 3-36, 3-37, 334. Gas injection pressure maintenance in oil Gas override, 48-12
34-37, 34-28, 34-36 reservoirs, Gas passage charts, 5-8 to 5-10
Gas condensates, 20- 11, 40- 13, 40-24 calculation of performance. 43-8 to 43-10 Gas payment, definition. 41-l
Gas coning, 32-3, 37-2, 37-13, 48-6 efficiencies of oil recovery by gas Gas permeability, 39-13, 39-25, 47-9
Gas cushion, 19-17, 19-18 displacement, 43-3 Gas-plus-liquid FVF, 6-38
Gas cutting, 1847 example calculations of future Gas pressure at depth,
Gas cycling, 34-28, 45-13, 45-14 performance, 43-10 to 43-16 charts, 5-3, 5-6
Gas cyclone, 12-20 introduction, 43-I. 43-2 factors for approximating, 5-5, 5-6, 5-l I
injectton curves. 5-S Gas sales contract, 12-33, 14-l Gelled-oil fracturing fluid, 55-7
static injection calculations, 5-3 to 5-6 Gas sales Ime. 3-19 Gelled water in acidizing. 54-12
Gas-pressure-at-depth factor, 5-5, 5-6, 5-49 Gas-saturated crude oil. 22-15 Gelling agents, 54-8
Gas pressure function. 37-8 to 37-10 Gas scrubbers, 12-l. 12-10. 12-I 1, 12-20 to Gels as fracturing fluids, 55-5, 55-6
Gas pressuremaintenance performance. 43-8 12-22, 12-35. 12-38. 1828 General Conference on Weights and
to 43- 10 Gas separator to remedy gas locking. 7-16 Measures. l-69
Gas price. gross, 41-9 Gas shows. total, 52-13 to 52-16, 52-18 General crude. 46-16. 46-18. 46-21
Gas processing plants. 40-3 Gas sizing of separator. 12-30 General flow equations, 13-I
Gas Processors Assn. (CPA), 20-8, 25-9 Gas slippage. effect on permeability General overhead (GO), 41-14
Gas Processors Suppliers Assn. (GPSA), 20-S measurements. 26-18, 26-19 General Petroleum Co.. 46-14 to 46-15
Gas-producing intervals, location of, 31-4, Gas-slippage effects, study required, 28-13 General principles of acidizing,
31-6 Gas solubility. 40-9 acetic and formic acids, 54-3
Gas properties and correlations, Gas solubility in oil, 22-21 hydrochloric acid, 54-l to 54-3
Amagat’s law, 20-4 Gas stripping, 15-29 hydrofluoric acid, 54-3. 544
Calingeart and Davis equation, 20-13 Gas sweeteners. 12-35 General references: See also References.
coeffictent of isothermal compressibility. Gas throughput performance, 5-22 acidizing, 54-12 to 54-14
20-11 Gas-to-gas heat exchanger, 14-5 to 14-8, automation of lease equipment. 16.16. 16.17
Cox chart, 20-12, 20-13 14.il. 14-14, 14-15, 14-20 crude oil emulsions, 19-33. 19-34
critical temperature and pressure, 20-2. Gas-transmission-line pressure, 14- 15 electric submersible pumps, 7.17
20-3 Gas transmission lines, 12-38 electrical logging, 49-4 1, 49-42
Dalton’s law, 20-4 Gas transmission piping specs., 15-12 estimation of oil and gas reserves, 40.38
equations of state, 20-6, 20-7 Gas trap, 52-2 formation fracturing, 55-10 to 55-12
example problems, 20-13 to 20-17 Gas-treating systems, 14-17 IO 14-22 gas-injection pressure maintenance in oil
formation volume factor, 20. I 1 Gas turbine meters, 16-6 reservoirs, 43-16, 43-17
ideal gas, 20-l. 20-2 Gas turbines. 15-16, 15-17, 46-19 gas measurement and regulation, 13.59
Lee-Kessler equation, 20- 13 Gas-vent string, 6-4 hydrate/volatile-gas systems, 2527. 25-28
mole fraction and apparent MW of gas Gas venting passage, 6-2. 6-5 miscible displacement, 45-15
mixtures. 20-4 Gas viscosity. 40-9, 44-6 mud logging, 52-30
molecular weight, 20-I. 20-3 Gas volume stored. in casing annulus. oil and gas leases, 57-12
natural gasoline content of gas, 20-10, within a conduit. 5-l I. 5-12, petroleum reservoir traps. 29-9
20-11 Gas/water contact, 39-2 I phase behavior of water/hydrocarbon
principles of corresponding states, 20-4 Gas/water flow. 34-27 systems, 25-24 to 25-28
real gases. 20-4 IO 20-6 Gas/water interface. 39-21. 39-22 relative permeability. 28-16
references. 20-18 Gas well inflow equation, 33-5 to 33-7 reservoir simulation, 48-20
van der Waals’ equation, 20-7 to 20-9 Gas well performance, sucker rods. 9-14
specific gravity (relative density), 20-4 deterioration causes. 33-20 to 33-22 temperature in welis. 31-7
specific gravity of gas mixtures, 20-4 gas properties, effect of, 35-10 thermal recovery. 46-45. 4646
vapor pressure, 20-3, 20-l I . 20- I2 Infinite-acting gas reservoir, 35-l 1. 35-12 valuation of oil and gas reserves, 41-37
viscosity, 20-9 long-term forecast, 35-12 water-drive oil reservoirs. 38-20
viscosity correlations, 20-9, 20-10 non-Darcy flow. 35-10. 35-l I water-injection pressure maintenance and
Gas properties, effect on gas well pseudosteady-state solutions. 35-12 waterflood processes. 44-52
performance. 35-10 Gas wells. water/volatile-gas systems. 25-24 to 25-27
Gas property ownershtp, 41-1, 41-2 Bow through tubing-casing annulus, 34-27 wellhead equipment and flow-control
Gas-purchase contracts, 41-3, 41-9 flowing BHP calculation, 34-9 to 34-27 devices, 3-40
Gas quality from scrubbers, 12-15 not suitable for TFL servtce, IS-34 Generator voltage, IO-2 I
Gas recoveries by natural water drive or gas openflow, 33-l to 33-23 Geochemical analysis, 52. I, 52-2
Injection, 39-16 static BHP calculation, 34-3 to 34-9 Geochemical model, 24-20
Gas regulation, Gasoline as four-cycle engine fuel, lo-15 Geochemical parameters. 50-37
definitions, 1349. 13-50 Gasoline content, 39-1, 39-5 Geochemical water analyses, 24-5
field compressors, control of, 13-57 to Gasoline-driven engine starters, IO-19 Geochemistry. 50-36, 50-37
13-59 Gasoline-plant recovery effictency, 45- 12 to Geochronology, 58-25
high-pressure service, 13-55, 13-56 45-15 Geodetic surveys, l-69
liquid-level control, 13-53, 13-54 Gasoline plants, 11-13, 40-13, 41-3, 57-5 GEODIP log analysis. 49-37
lowpressure service, 13-55 Gasoline/water system, 25-27 Geographical distribution of thermal
principles of control. I349 Gassmann-Blot theory, 5 l-36 recovery projects, 46-3
process characteristics, 13-50 to 13-53 Gassmann’s theory, 51-8 Geological analysis, 52-2, 52-7 to 52-9, 52-28
references, 13-59 Gassy conditions. ESP chart. 7-16 GeologIcal correlation, 5 l-29, 5 I-30
regulators. types of, 13-54 to 13-57 Gassy fluid, 6-21 Geological interpretation. 51-28. 51-29
Gas regulator, IO-19 Gassy wells, 6-28. 6-34 Geological map, 40-4
Gas relative permeability, 28-8 to 28-12, Gate valves, 3-l 1 to 3-13, 3-21 Geologists, 57-8
40-25, 40-26 Gathering systems, I I-13. 40-l Geology, in oil and gas reservoirs
Gas relative permeability vs. total wetting- Gauge cocks. 12-42 development,
thud saturation, 28-8 Gauge glasses, 12-42 carbonate reservoirs, 36-5, 36-6
Gas reserves: See also Reserves Gauge location factor, 13-8. 13-35 elastic reservoirs, 36-3, 36-4
Gas reservoir, Gauge tables, correcting for incrustation, 17-3 paleo-environments, interpretanon of, 36-3
development plan for, 36-l to 36-l 1 Gauging petroleum and petroleum products, shale stringers. extent of, 36-6
infinite acting, 35-l 1, 35-12 17-3 Geology in sand control. 56-2
Gas reservoirs, depletion technique, 36-2, 36-3 Gaussian elimination. 48-16 Geometric-mean air permeabilities. 4437
free gas in, 40-5 Gear pump, 19-5 Geometric progression, 6-39
in gas hydrate region. 25-18, 25-19 Gear reducer, IO-2 to 10-6, 10.12, lo-13 Geometric series. 40-30
nonassociated, material balance recovery Gear reduction units, 6-50 Geometric spread of energy, 5 l-3
estimates. 40-33, 40-34 Gearhart, 49-2. 49-36. 49-37 Geometric spreading, 51-12. 51-13
nonassociated, volumetric recovery Geiger-Mtiller tube. 50-16 Geometrical factor, 49. I6 to 49. I8 1 49-22
estimates, 40-2 1 to 40-26 Gel or gelatin model, 39.21, 4417. 44-18. Geometrical spreading factor. 5 1~I3
with water drive, 40-7, 40-26 4420, 4421 Geometrical spreading loss. 49-34
without water drive, 40-24, 40-25, 40-33 Gel slugs. 54-10 Geophysics, in characterizmg reservoirs,
Gas richness indicator, 524 Gel strength. 58-34 3b-8. 36-Y
SUBJECT INDEX 37
Geopressure detection, 5 l-39 Graphic plots. for selection of storage tanks, 1 I-l
Geopressure evaluation, 52.2, 52-16 to 52-26 Introduction, 24-18 for use of SI units, 17-7
Geopressure gradient, 52-25 Reistle diagram, 24-19 for wire-rope, spudding offshore wells. 18-18
Geopressure transition zone, 52-24 Stiff diagram. 24-19 susbsea system, 18-19
Geopreasured shales, 52-22 Tickell diagram, 24-19 to BOP testing procedures, 18-12
Geopressured zone, 52-22 to 52-24 Graphic relationships for SI units, 58-23 to surveys to be performed and analyzed
Geoiechnical analysis, 18-41 Graphical correlations, 22-5, 22-7. 22-8 for offshore drilling permit, 18-5
Geothermal gradient, Grabhite. 12-41 Guides for using metric units. 58-8
assumed to estimate BHT, 31-6 Graphite impregnated cloth model, 39-2 I Guides to acid fracture treatment design, 54-l I
basis for pressure-at-depth curves, 5-5 G&e-tlow’pack, 46-19 Gulf BHP gauge, 30-l
definition of, 52-22 Gravel-pack completions, 47-6 Gulf coast. 18-2. 24-7, 24-8, 29-3, 33-21.
in sedimentary basins, 31-2 Gravel-pack failure, 56-6 41-5, 47-3. 51-38, 51-39
in southwest U.S.. 31-3 Gravel-pack permeabdlty improvement, 56-6 Gulf of Mexico, 18-2, 18-3, 18-7, 18-24.
increased, 5-23 Gravel packing, 56-3. 56-5 to 56-9 19-5, 19-15, 25-18. 29-7. 51-34, 57-l 1.
linear, 46-5 Gravel quality. 56-6. 56-7 57-12
temperature protile, 4-6 Gravel selection. 56-6. 56-7 Gulf of Thailand. 36-9
Geothermal temperature. 5-26 Gravel sizes available. 56-6 Gulf Oil Corp.. 16-12, 46-15, 46-16, 46-18,
Geothermal temperature gradient, 5-6 Gravimetric determination of BV, 26-3 46-28 to 46-30
Geothermics, 58-33 Gravimetric system, 58-3 Gunbarrel tank, 19-20 to 19-22
Germanium (Ge) detector, 50-14. 50-23 Gravitational forces. 26-12. 26-24, 29-3 Gunbarrels. 19-7, 19-18, 19-32
Germany. 12-39. 46-3 Gravitational units. 58-5 Guyed towers, 18-2, 18-3, 18-24. 18-25
Getting ;he well drilled, 57-8 Gravity conservation with storage tanks, Guyline system, 18-24, 18-25
Gettv Oil Co.. 46-4, 46-14, 46-15, 46-18, II-12 to II-14 Gypsum (gyp), 56-I. 56-2
46-20, 46-23. 46-24 Gravity drainage, 28-l I, 29-7, 37-1, 37-2, Gyroscopes for dxectional surveys, 53-3
Gibbs theory, 47-8, 47-l I 37-5, 37-7, 37-17. 40-14, 40-15, 40-29, Gyroscopic orientation, 53-7
Gilbert’s equation. 34-45. 34-46 41-l 1. 43-l to 43-3. 43-5 to 43-7,
Gippsland basin. Australia, 27-19 43-16, 44-36, 44-39. 47-8, 484. 48-12 H
Clash wool. 19-14 Gravity dump piprng, 6-62
Glauconite. 46-21 Gravity faults, 29-3 h-mode telemetry, 53-I
Glen Hummel field. Texas, 46-15, 46-18 Gravity forces, 37-l I. 44-31 Habendum clause, 57-4
Glenpool field. Oklahoma, 54-l Gravity losses, preventing, 1 l-12. I l-13 Halite, 24-20
GLOBAL log analysis. 49-37 Gravity platform construction, 18-23, 18-24 Hall-Yarborough equation, 20-8
Gloriana field, Texas. 46-15, 46-29 to 46-32 Gravity segregation, 12-3, 37-2, 37-4, 40-8, Hammer lugs, 3-39
Glossary of terms, reserves estimation. 43-5, 43-7. 43-16. 45-7, 45-8, 48-8 Hand-held calculator, 20-7, 20-9, 20-13,
crude oil, 40-3 Gravity separation, 6-56 to 6-59, 12-8, 40.30
improved recovery, 40-4 12-19, 12-21, 12-23, 15-21, 19-6, 19-7, Hand-off-auto switch, IO-27
natural gas, 40-3 19-13 Handling ESP equipment, 7-12
natural gas liquids, 40-3 Gravity separation devices, 15-23 Hard-wired logic, 16-1, 16-8
possible reserves, 40-4 Gravity settling, 15-18, 19-14, 19-15, 19-28 Hardness. 4444, 47-5, 47-10, 47-l I. 47-13
probable reserves, 40-4 Gravity stabilization, 45-8 Harmonic decline. 40-29, 40-3 I, 40-32,
reservoir, 40-3 Gravity structures. 18-2, 18-3, 18-23, 41-l 1, 41-12
Glossary of terms, petroleum reservoir 18-4 I, 18-42 Harmonic-decline deferment factor, 41-29.
traps, 29-8, 29-9 Gravity systems ID piping design, 15-14, 15. I5 41-31, 41-35
Glossary of terms. reservoir engineering Graywacke sediments, 29-7 Harmonic voltages, 10-30. IO-32
phase behavior, 22-20, 22-21 Great Britain. l-70 Harrisburg field, Nebraska, 44-40, 47-22
Glucan. 47-3 Great Lakes. 18-l Hassler method, 28-3, 28-5 to 28-7
Gluconic acid, 44-45 Great Salt Lake, 24-19 Hastalloym . 7-3
Glycol absorbers. 13-54. 14-18 Grid network, 44-17 Havlena and Odeh‘a method for OIP. 37-3.
Glycol-condensate separator, 14-7 Grid orientation effects, 48-10 to 48-13 38-12
Glycol dehydrators, 12-35. 14-18 Grid spacmga. 48-8 Hazardous area classification, 10-36, IO-37
Glycol foaming, 14-20 Gridblocks, 37-2. 48-2 to 48-8, 48-10 to Hazardous areas, electrIcal syslems
Glycol injection LTS system. 14-6 to 14-8, 48-12. 48-14. 48-15, 48-17 offshore, 18-46
14.14. 14-15 Gridded multiphase reservoir simulators. Hazen-Williams equation, 15-2
Glycol rcboiler, 14-6. 14-7. 14-15 37-11. 37-13, 37-14 HCI: See Hydrochloric acid
Glycol/water mixture, 39-5 Gridded reservoir models. 37-2, 37-5 Head, definition, 34-2
Glycols, 12-35. 13-36, 14-6 IO 14-E. 14-15, Gridded simularor equations, 37-l I, 37-22 Head loss due to friction, 15-l
14-18 to 14-20 Gridded SLmulator studies. 37-2 Head meters, 13-2
Government authorities or agencies, 12-39, Groningen gas field. Netherlands, 51-47 Heading, in separators, 12-22. 12-31, 12-35
18-44 Grooved pin-end plunger, 8-4 Heading conditions, 5-22. 5-24. 5-25, 6-60
Governmental regulations. 3-34 Grounding of electrical system, 10-31, IO-32 Heading of wells. 34-46, 34-50
Governors. IO-14 Guar as thickening agent, 55-5 to 55-7 Heads of well fluids, 12-1, 12-32
Graben. 29-3, 29-8 Guard-electrode device, 49-20 Heal of fracture. 55-2
Gradlent curves. 5-25. 5-36. 5-37 Guarding of pumping units. IO- I2 Healing, 47-8
Gradienr flmd tlow, 31-4 Guatemala. 25. I8 Heat capacity.
Gradlent gas flow, 31-4 Guide posts, 18-19, 18-32 of rock. 46-7
Gradient of power tluid, 6-25. 6-26, 6-29. Guide, to number of digits to retain, 58-6 of steam. 46-5
6-43. 6-44 to style for metric usage. 58-l 1 of water. 46-2
Gradient of return Huid. 6-43 Guidebase, ocean floor, 18-18. IS-19 Sl units. 58-28
Gradient of well servicing fluid, 4-7 Guidecones, 18-14 volumetric. 46-7. 46-10
Grain density, 50-28, 50-33 Guided wave, 51-13 Heat conduction, 46-4. 46-12. 48-5
Grain density test. 27-l Guideline tensioning systems, 18-l I, 18-13 Heat conductiun. transient. 46-6
Grain roundness factor. 55-8 Guidelineless drilling systems, 3-39 Heat content. of petroleum fractions. 2 l-6
Grain-bize distribution, 56-3, 56-7 Guidelineless re-entry systems, 18-14 of natural gas. 14-17
Grain size of proppants. 55-X Guidelines, Heat exchange rate. 58-38
Grain size test. 27-l for marine cargo Inspection, 17-8 Heat exchangers, I I-12. 1 I-13, 12-13, 14-5
Grain volume: See Sand grain volume for offshore structure selection. 18-25 to 14-8. 14-11. 14-14, 14-18. 14-21.
Granting clause. 57-3. 57-4 for running down BOP stack. 18-16 14-22. 19-8. 19-21, 19-23, 19-28
Heat flow, conversion of units, table, 1-79 Historical performance of reservoir, 36-10 Huntington Beach field, California, 19-5,
Heat flow distortion, 52-22 Historical review of offshore operations, 46-22, 46-23
Heat flow rate, 58-23 18-1 to 18-3 Husky Oil Co., 46-22, 46-23
Heat in oil and gas separation, 12-7, 12-13 History matching, 48-9, 48-13 Hutton platform, 18-24
Heat injection rate, 46-8 History of reservoir simulation, 48-1 Hydrate depression, 25-19
Heat losses, factor in pattern selection, Holddown, 8-2, 8-3 Hydrate dissociation model, 25-9
46- 17 Hole azimuth, 53-1, 53-2, 53-7, 53-8, Hydrate dissociation predictions, 2.5-5 to 25-9
higher steam rate required in steamfloods, 53-10, 53-17 Hydrate dissociation pressure, 25-6
48- 18 Hole casing programs, 1841 Hydrate formation, 12-3, 14-1, 14-2, 144
surface lines, 46-4 Hole deviation, 52-13, 53-2, 534, 53-10, to 14-7, 14-17
wellbore, 46-5. 46-19 53-17 Hydrate formation, condition of methanol
with thermal stresses, 46-19 Hole deviation, angle of, 53-3 propane mixture, 25-20
Heat of reaction, 46-12 Hole direction, 534 conditions, effect of GOR, 25-19
Heat of vaporization, 14-21 Hole enlargement, effect on acoustic conditions for paraffin hydrocarbons, 25-4
Heat transfer. 9-1. 14-1, 14-3, 14-20, 28-13 velocity logging tools response, 51-15 on expansion of gas, 25-l 1
Heat tra,.sfer coefficient, 58-35 Hole rugosity. X-19 pressure, procedure for determining, 25-8,
Heat treating, 9-1, 9-2 Homestead statutes, 57-3 25-9
Heated gunbarrel emulsion treater, 19-22 Homogeneous system, definition, 22-21 temperature, 12-40
Heat treater, 15-21, 16-3 to 16-5, 16-12 Hondo platform, 18-2, 18-23 Hydrate inhibition, 25-19, 25-20
Heating capacity, 19-29 Honduras, 58-20 Hydrate inhibitors, 14-3, 14-5 to 14-8, 14-17
Heating efficiency, 19-28 Hooke’s law, 51-1, 51-2 Hydrate problem, 13-53
Heating in treating emulsions, 19-7, 19-11 Horizontal emulsion treater, 19-21, 19-23, Hydrate stability conditions, 254 to 25-9
Heating value, gross, of natural gas 19-25, 19-26 Hydrate temperature, 14-2, 14-3, 14-5 to
mixtures, 11-7 Horizontal flow system, 26-11, 26-12 14-7, 14-17
Heats of combustion, 52-3 Horizontal force vs. displacement curve, 18-10 Hydrate/volatile-gas systems, 25-3
Heavy oil-in-water emulsion-type fracturing Horizontal fractures, 44-26, 44-28, 55-2 Hydrated iron oxide, 14-22
fluid, 55-7 Horizontal FWKO, 19-18 Hydrates, 5-12, 5-24, 14-2, 14-3, 14-5,
Heavy viscous oil, 12-17 Horizontal gas flow, 43-10, 43-11 14-6, 33-20, 33-21, 39-24, 39-25
Heidelberg field, Mississippi, 46-15, 46-18 Horizontal permeability, 39-17 to 39-19 Hydration of cementation material, 26-18
Helical spring BHP element, 30-l Horizontal pressure vessel sizing, 15-24 Hydraulic actuators, 3-2 1, 18-28
Helium, 14-17, 50-14, 52-5, 52-6, 52-10, Horizontal scrubber, 12-38 Hydraulic BOP control system, 18-21
52-13 Horizontal separator, 12-1, 12-6, 12-7, Hydraulic connectors, 18-12. 18-18. 18-34
Hemispherical head equations, 12-38 12-10, 12-16 to 12-18, 12-20 to 12-31, Hidraulic control circuit, 3-33
Hempel distillation, 21-3 12-35, 12-40, 16-15, 18-28 Hydraulic control system, 18-l 1, 18-15
Hencky-van Mises theory of yielding, 2-55 Horizontal separator sizing, 12-30 Hydraulic currents,-24-2
Henry’s law constants, 25-17 Horizontal stresses, 55-l Hydraulic forces, 4446
Hercules wellhead, 7-7 Horizontal three-phase separator, 19-17 Hydraulic fracturing theory, 55-1, 55-2
Heterogeneity effects on waterflooding, Horizontal three-phase oil/gas/water Hydraulic head, 26-10, 26-12
44-29 separator. 12-4 Hydraulic horsepower, 6-45, 10-17, lo-18
Heterogeneous system, definition, 22-21 Horizbntal vessels, 13-53 Hydraulic installations, system pressures and
Hewitt field, Oklahoma, 44-35, 44-36 Homer plot, 30-9, 35-15, 35-16, 35-19 losses,
Hewlett Packard BHP gauge, 30-4, 30-7 Homer-type analysis of static BHT, 3 l-6 in calculation of fluid gradients, 6-26
HF: See Hydrofluoric acid Horsehead, 10-2 to 10-4, lo-12 in closed power-fluid system, 6-26
Hibernia development, 18-3 Horsepower at prime mover, lo-18 in fluid friction in tubular and annular
Higgins-Leighton method, 44-28, 44-30, Horseuower, definition, 6-14, 58-24 flow passages, 6-26, 6-27
44-31 Horsepower of engines, lo-17 to 10-19, in open power-fluid system, 6-25
High-capacity operation of separator, 12-42 10-32, 10-33, lo-35 Hydraulic power transmission, 6- 1, 6- 15
High-frequency phase analysis, 27-1 Horsepower of pumping unit, 9-11 Hydraulic pressure, 55-I
High injection-gas cycle frequency, 5-5 1 Horsepower-rated motors, lo-21 Hydraulic-pumped-well control, 16-11
High-liquid-level control, 12-39 Horsepower rating of motors, 10-17, 10-19, Hydraulic pumping,
High-pH chemistry in chemical flooding, 10-20 downhole pumps, 6-2 to 6-7
47-18. 47-19 Horsepower requirements, 34-41, 34-42, fluid properties, 6-66 to 6-69
High-pH field tests, 47-21 to 47-23 3444, 34-45 frictional relationships, 6-69 to 6-72
High-pH processes, Horsepower vs. injection pressure, 34-44 introduction, 6-1, 6-2
consumption, 47-22 Horst, 29-3, 29-8 jet pumps, 6-34 to 649
displacement mechanisms, 47-19, 47-20 Hoskold method, 41-16,41-18,41-20 to 41-22 principles of operation-reciprocating
high-pH chemistry, 47-18, 47-19 Hot-dip process, 1 l-l, 11-6 pumps, 6-8 to 6-33
rock/‘fluid interaciions, 47-20, 47-21 “Hot” dolomites, 50-16 references, 6-72
High porosity presentation, 49-40 Hot electric grid, 19-25 surface equipment, 6-49 to 6-63
High-pressure gas engine starters, IO-19 Hot oil prodiction, 46-9, 46-10 Hydraulic ivcompressibility method, 26-8
High-pressure gas injection, 45-4, 45-l 1, Hot oil productivity, 46-11 Hydraulic radius, 34-27, 34-39
45-12 - Hot oil treatments, 46-21, 56-2 Hydraulic-set packer, 4-3, 4-5, 4-6
High-pressure gas wells, 33-4 Hot-rolled steel, 9-l Hydraulic subsea controls, 1849
High-pressure models, 46-13 Hot spots, 7-1 Hydraulic surface safety valves, 3-20, 3-21
High-pressure seals, 3-36 Hot water, cooling of, 46-6 Hydraulic transformer, 6-19
High-pressure service regulators, 13-55 Hot-water iniection, 46-I Hvdraulic transformer orocess. 6- 16
High-bressure steamfloo&, 25-4 Hot-water stimulation, 48-2 Hidraulic transmission’system, 18-3
High-resolution spectroscopy, 50-4, 50-35, Hot waterflood. 46-4, 46-5, 46-13, 46-23, Hydraulic turbine, 6-1
-50-37 -- 46-24 Hidrocarbon analyses, crude oil and gas
High-slip motors, 9-3 Hot-wire detector, 52-3 condensates, 39-2
High-speed engines, lo-14 to lo-19 Huff’n’puff method, 46-1. 47-10, 56-2 formation evaluation service, 52-2 to
High-voltage megger, 7-13 Hugoton field, Texas, 33-1, 33-7, 33-9, 52-7, 52-13
High yield strength pipe, 15-12 33-22, 34-46 of produced well stream, 39-7
Hirask-Lawson theory, 47-9 Humble formula (relation), 26-29, 26-31, of separator products and calculated well
Histogram of acid numbers, 47- 19 494, 49-32 stream, 39-7
Historical background of relative Humble gauge temperature element, 31-1 used in pressure depletion predictions,
permeability, 28-2 Humble pressure gauge, 30-l 39-10, 39-11
SUBJECT 1NDEX 39
Hydrocarbon chromatogram, 52-16 Hydrogen sulfide (H,S), 3-36, 3-37, 4-4, Imbibition effect, 40-20
Hydrocarbon content of samples, 52-9, 52-10 4-5. 6-4, 6-54, 7-11, 7-14. 8-9, 9-1, lmbibition of water, 40-20
Hydrocarbon content from logs, 5 l-35 to 5 1-38 9-5, 9-8, 11-6, 12-3, 12-8, 14-3, 14-13, Imbibition without relative permeability
Hvdrocarbon gas viscositv. 15-6 14-17. 14-20 to 14-22. 15-28. 15-29. data, 28-4
H;drocarbon/cquid conddnsation, 39-13 18-20. 18-47, 20-5, 20-6, 22-5, 24-5, Immiscibility of methane gas and oil, 45-2
Hvdrocarbon liquid recovery, 37-22, 37-23 24-17, 39-5, 39-6, 40-22, 44-36. 44-42 to Immiscible disulacement. 42-2
Hidrocarbon liquid recove; calculations, 4444, 45-5, 52-4 to 52-7, 52-13, 547 Immiscible d&lacement fluid, 40-4
14-16 Hydrogen sulfide content, 25-5, 25-8, Immiscible fluids. 28-2. 28-12. 28-13
Hydrocarbon liquid recovery system, 14-8 25-13, 25-20 Immiscible gas drive, 45-4
Hydrocarbon liquid saturations, 39- 10 Hydrogen sulfide fumes, lo-13 Immiscible gas injection, 43-1, 43-2
Hydrocarbon mixtures, 39-2, 394, 39-12 Hydrogen sulfide gas detectors, IS-47 Immiscible liquids, 19-1, 19-2, 19-14
Hydrocarbon pore space, 39-8, 39-9, 39-l 1, Hydrogen sulfide/water system, 25-27 Immiscible processes, 39-18
39-18 Hydrolysis of methyl formate, 54-4 Impact energy, 58-32
Hydrocarbon recovery systems, lease- Hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM), 47-3 Impact kinetic energy, 13-l
operated, to 47-6 Impact loading or loads, 3-1, 18-5
gas treating for removal of water vapor, Hydrometer, l-80, 54-3 Impact pressure, 13-45 to 13-48, 33-l to 33-4
CO, and H,S, 14-17 to 14-22 Hvdrometer test method, 17-5 Impact requirement, wellhead equipment, 3-38
lOW-temperature separation (LTS), 14-l to Hidrophile, 47-7 Impedances, IO-30
14-17 Hydrophobe/hydrophile balance, 19-10 Impingement, 12-S to 12-11, 12-13, 12-19
references, 14-22 Hidrobhobic surface, 47-8 Implicit-pressure/explicit-saturation
Hydrocarbon recovery unit, 14-10, 14-11 Hydropneumatic tensioning units, 18-13, formulation (IMPES), 48-14, 48-15
Hydrocarbon reservoir, definition, 39-l 18-14 Implied covenant, 57-6
Hvdrccarbon-rich phase at three-phase Hydrostatic equilibrium, 26-l 1 Impressed-current system, 11-6
critical conditi&, 25-5 _ Hydrostatic gradient, 58-25 Improved recovery reserves, 40-3, 40-34
Hydrocarbon saturation, 49-27, 50-2 Hydrostatic head, 6-25, 6-28, 6-51, 55-7, Impurities in well fluids. 12-3
Hidrocarbon stabilization, 14-13 to 14-17 55-8 In-transit deck-load capability. 18-8
Hydrocarbon/water phase diagrams, 25-l to Hydrostatic pressure, 3-29, 3-31, 18-17, Inaccessible pore volume (IPV), 47-5
25-4 29-1, 51-39, 5144 Inbreathing (vacuum relien of storage tanks.
Hydrocarbon/water systems, 25-3, 25-27 Hydrostatic PV compressibility technique, 11-6, 11-7
Hydrocarbon Well Log Standards 26-8, 26-9 Incident flux, 50-5 to 50-7
Committee, 52-30 Hydrostatic test pressure, 2-62, 3-1,3-2, 3-13 Incident gamma ray, 50-7, 50-12. 50-13
Hydrocarbons in place, ownership of, 57-1 Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), 47-3 Inclination angle, 53-5, 53-6
Hydrocarbons presence detection, 50-1, 50-3 Hydroxyfluoboric acid, 54-4 Inclinometer, 53-8
Hydrocarbons, removing from solids, 15-30 Hydroxyl reactions, 47-21 Inclinometer section, 53-7
Hydrocarbons, treating from water, 15-2 1 Hydroxypropyl guar as thickening agent, InconelO, 7-3, 15-21
Hydrochloric acid (HCL), 55-5, 55-6 Incremental gas production, 37-10
acidizing treatments, 54-1, 54-2 Hyperbolic cosines, table, l-59 Incremental oil production, 37-9, 37-17
as synthetic polymer gel, 55-5 Hyperbolic decline, 40-28, 40-29. 40-31, Incremental oil recovery (IOR), 47-6, 47-2 1
channeling and wormhole effect, 54-8 40-32, 41-10, 41-11, 41-29 to 47-23
combined with HF. dissolving action. 54-9 Hyperbolic-decline deferment factor, 41-29 Incremental recovery, potential for, 46-3
density at 6O”F, 54-2 ‘to 41-31 Incrustation, 17-3
dissolution of concentrated, 54-3 Hyperbolic sines. table, l-58 Independent oil company, 57-8
dissolving limestone, 54-2 Hyperbolic tangents, table, l-60 Independent screwed wellhead, 3-39
in acidizing, 54-l to 54-3 HypercleanTM technique, 46-2 1 Indian Petroleum Corp., 18-1
in matrix acid stimulation, 56-5 Hysteresis, 28-2, 28-3. 28-6, 28-10, 28-13, Indiana, 24-7
inhibited, as mud-dissolving acid, 56-l 30-3, 30-6, 30-7, 33-6 Indirect beater, 14-3, 14-5, 14-6
inhibitors used with, 54-1, 54-6 Indirect-fired heaters, 19-2 1
matrix treatment of carbonates, 54-10 I Indonesia, 12-39, 46-3, 46-4
organic inhibitors in, 54-6 Induced-gamma-ray spectroscopy, 50-4,
reaction rate, effect of, I-wire, 7-5 50-34, 50-35, 50-37
acid concentration, 54-5 Ice characteristics, 18-38 Induced hydraulic fractures, 54-l 1
area/volume ratio, 54-5 Ice-class rigs, 18-2 1 Induced porosity, 26- 1, 26-2
flow velocity, 54-5 Ice impact, 1843 Induced radiation, 50-6
formation composition, 54-6 Ice islands, 18-39 Induction conductivity curve, 49-15
pressure, 54-4 Ice loading, 18-39 Induction device, deep-reading (ID), 49-15,
retardation of, 54-8 Ice management. 18-43 49-17, 49-20
rubber lining protection from, 11-6 Ice point, 25-l to 25-3, 25-5 Induction device, medium-reading (IM).
temperature, 54-4, 54-5 Icebergs, 18-39 49-15, 49-17, 49-18
to acidize pH, 24-4 Icebreaker assistance vessels. 1843 Induction-electrical log (IEL), 49-27. 49-29
to clean tubing, 56-3 Ideal equilibrium ratios, 23-l 1 to 49-3 1
to dissolve corrosion products, 39-26 Ideal gas, 20-l to 20-3, 26-12 Induction-electrical surveys (IES), 49-11,
to remove scale, 56-2 Ideal-gas law, 13-8, 20-2, 204, 20-6, 20-7, 49-15
used in combination with HF, 54-3,54-9 39-8, 40-21, 47-13 Induction log (IL), 49-l, 49-2, 49-5, 49-6,
Hydrocyclone, 6-62 Ideal productivity index (PI), 32-3 49-14 to 49-18, 49-25 to 49-27, 49-29,
Hydrocyclone operation, 15-19, 15-30 Ideal solution principles. density from, 22-2, 49-30
Hydrodynamic forces, 18-17, IS-25 22-5 Induction log resistivity, 51-17, 51-26,
Hydroelectric valve operators, 16-3 Idealized pore models, 26-28 51-37, 51-38, 5146
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) in acidizing, 54-3, IFP-ICPP, 46-4, 46-15. 46-18, 46-28, 46-29 Induction motors, lo-19 to 10-21, lo-23 to
54-4, 54-9, 54-l 1 Igneous rock, 29-3, 29-8 10-25, 10-30, 10-32, lo-36
Hvdrofluoriclhvdrochloric acid (HF/HCl) Ignition devices, 46-20 Induction motor poles vs. synchronous
mixNreS in-acidizing, 54-11 Illinois, 40-16, 40-32, 40-33. 44-41, 44-42, speeds, lo-23
Hydrogen, l-80, 26-18, 50-1, 50-3, 50-4, 46-3, 46-4, 46-15 Induction spherically focused log (ISF), 49-15,
50-9, 50-13, 50-17, 50-18, 50-20, Illinois basin, 24-6, 24-7, 24-9, 4444 49-16, 49-19. 49-20. 49-34, 49-36
50-26, 50-31, 50-34, 51-31 Illite, 46-21,50-21,50-32,50-34,50-37,52-21 Inductive couplers, 18-52
Hydrogen density, 50-32 Illuminance, unit and definition, 58-l 1, Inelastic gamma-ray spectroscopy, 50-35
Hydrogen embrittlement, 3-36 58-23, 58-36 Inelastic neutron reactions, 50-13
Hydrogen flame detector, 52-4 Imbibition curves, 26-24, 28-5, 28-9 to 28-12 Inelastic scattering, 50-9, 50-23
Inelastic spectrometry. 50-22 Injection wells. Integral \,aluCs, tabulated. 34-5 to 34-7,
Inert-gas injection. 39-16 gas. 34-28 to 34-30 34-10 to 34-22
Inertial effects, 35-10 liquid. 34-28 Intensified acid, 54-3, 54-S
Inerttal forces, 35-l I lnlectivity. 44-29. 44-33 to 44-35. 44-43. Intensity/time recording. 51-18
Industrial multitube boilers, 46-19 46-22 Intensive properties. 22-2 I. 39-2
Inferential meters, 16-5 Injectwy, effect of damage on, 54-8, 54-9 Interaction coefficient. 28-3
Infiltration by permeation, 24-18 Injectivity index. 4434, 44-35 Interest,
Infinite-acting pressure solution, 35-3, 35-4. lnjectivityiproductiwty ratio, 46-17 carried, 57-10
35-7. 35-12. 35-14 Injectivity profile. of water-injection well, landowner’s, 57-1. 57-2
Infinite aquifer. 38-3, 38-6. 38-9 31-4 mineral, 57-6
Infinite boundary, definition, 38-l Injectivity testing. 39-25. 39-26, 44-46 net profits. 57-10
Infinite linear aquifers, 38-2, 38-8 Inner-valve assembly. 13-49 royalty, 57-5 to 57-8
Infinite radial aquifer, 38-3. 38-5 to 3X-8 Inorganic constituents. working. 57-5. 57-7, 57-9, 57-10
Inflation factor. 41-15 anions, 24-9, 24-12 Interest tables, 4 l-25 to 4 I-34
Inflow performance relationship (IPR), 6-4, cations. 24-9 Interface level controller. 19-23
6-25, 6-41 to 6-43, 6-46, 6-47. 34-30 to Inorganic solids. 19-5 Interfacial buildup, 19-30
34-35, 34-46. 34-50. 37-17 to 37-21 Input safety valves (ISV’s), 3-35 Interfacial sludge, 19-32
Inflow well performance, 5-22 Insert pump. 8-l Interfacial tension (IFT)
Influence-function curves, 38-3 In-situ analyses, IX-26 deadend oil, 22-17
Infrared (IR) absorbance, 12-16 In-situ combustion, 19-28, 48-2. 48-5 to defimtlon. 22-l. 24-16
Infrared absorption detector, 52-5 to 52-7 48-7 effects on relative permeability. 28-10,
Infrared absorption method, 46-21 In-situ combustion models, 46-12 28-l 1
Infrared detectors, 3-34 In-situ combustion processes. gas/oil. 45-4. 45-6
Infrared fire sensors. 18-47 chemical reactions. 46-37 liquid/gas, 22-16
Inglewood field, California, 46-14 dry forward combustion, 46-1, 46-2 of acid solutions, 54-6
Initial fluid saturations, 37-3 production by, 46-4 of condensate and water, 34-50
Initial gas saturation, 446, 4438 reverse combustion, 46-2 oil/water, 47. I, 47-9. 48-5
Initial hydrate formation conditions, 25-l. 25-2, wet combustion, 46-2, 46-3 reduced by surface-active agents, 44-39
25-5, 25-6. 25-l I. 25-12. 25-15, 25-19 In-situ “static” analysis, 18-27 results in spherlcal form of water
Initial hydrate formation, estimating, 25-5 Insoluble reaction products, 54-1 droplets. 19-I
Initial oil saturation. 44-4 Inspection of tubing and casing by caliper units and conversion factors, 58.38
Initial saturation conditions. 43-5 logs. 53-17. 53-18 Interfacial tension reducer. 56-5
Initial saturations. effect of, 44-6 Installation design calculations, gas lift, 5-29 Interfacial tension reduction. 44.40, 48-2
Initial water distribution. 44-l I, 44-37 to s-32 Interference, 44-33
Injection application, ESP, 7-2 Installation design considerations. gas lift, Interference effects, 38-1, 38-3
Injection, BHP calculation, 34-28 to 34-30 5-22 Interference tests and testing, 30-S. 36-7,
InjectIon fluids, 42-2, 42-5 Installation design. contmuous flow gas lift, 36-8, 42-4
Injection-gas breakthrough, 5-52 calculation of test rack-set opening Intergranular porosity. 26-1, 26-3, 5 I-3 I
Injection gas cycle, 5-12, 5-43, 5-48, 5-52 pressure, 5-29. 5-33 Intermediate domes, 29-5. 29-6
Injection-gas-cycle frequency, 5-55 determmation of valve depths, 5-28, 5-29, Intermediate packers, 4-11
Injection-gas cycles per day, 5-40 to 5-42, 5-32. 5-33 Intermittent controller. 16-4
s-54. 5-55 example calculations. 5-29 to 5-35 Intermittent flow, skim pde. 15-26
Injection gas-line pressure, 5-48, 5-54. 5-55 selection of port size. 5-28 Intermittent gas lift.
Injection-gas/oil ratio (GOR), 3441 to 3443 Installation design, intermittent gas lift, comparison of time cycle to choke control
Injection-gas opening pressure, 5-18 to calculation of test rack-set opening of injection gas, 5-41. 5-42
S-20, 5-26, S-28, S-29, S-33, 5-39. pressure, 5-46. 5-49 cycle of operation, 5-38
5-40, 5-51 determination of valve depths, 5-45, 5-46, daily production rates, 5-40
Injection-gas operating pressure, 5-48, 5-53 5-48, 5-49 disadvantages of, 5-38, 5-39
Injection-gas pressure, 5-20, 5-2 I, S-24, example calculations, 5-46. 5-47, 5-49, gas-lift valves, 5-42, 5-43
5-26, 5-28. 5-31. 5-32, 5-35. 5-37. 5-39 5-50, 5-52 heads or slugs in, 12-32, 12-35
lift chamber application. 5-50 to 5-52 injection gas requirement. 5-40, 5-41
to 5-41, 5-44, S-46, 5-48 to 5-54
percent tubing load, 5-48 installation design methods, 5-39, S-42.
Injection-gas-pressure-at-depth Curves, 5-5
selection of port size. 544 5-44 to 5-50
Injection-gas-pressure-at-depth traverse, S-36 introduction, 5-38
Injection-gas rate, proper adjustment, 5-53 Installation design methods, gas lift, 5-22
Installationimamtenance system controls, 1848 lift chamber application and installation
to 5-55 design, 5-50 to 5-52
Installation of ESP equipment, 7-12 to 7-14
Injection-gas requirement for intermittent operation, 5-1, 5-3, 5-l 1, 5-13, 5-19.
Installation of prime mover, IO-19
lift, S-40 to 5-42 5-37 to 5-53
Installation of pumping units, 10-7, IO-12
Injection-gas throughput. maximum, 536,543 percent tubing load installation designs, 548
Installation of safety devices, 12-40
Injection-gas volume per cycle, S-S 1 plunger applications, 5-52
Institut Franqais du P&role method, 28-7
Injection-gas volumetric rate, 5-3, 5-54 pressure-gradient spacing factors. 5-43, 5-44
Instrument-adjustment factor, 13-52
Injection-gas volumetric throughput, 5-37, 540 surface closing pressure of valves, 5-44
Instrumentation for liquid hydrocarbon
Injection-gas volumetric throughput profiles, types of installations. 5-39, 5-40
metering systems, 17-4
5-20 unloading Injection-gas pressure. effect of
Instrumentation systems offshore, 18-43 to
Injection operations. 42-1 to 42-6 installation design methods, 5-39
1a-47
Injection pressure effect on horsepower, valve port size, 5-44
Insulating additive. 46-19
3442 Intermittent pressure-gradient spacmg factor,
Insulation classification, IO-26 5-42, S-43
InJeCtiOn-preSSUre-Operated gas lift Valve, lnsulatlon for oilwell pumping motors,
5-13, 5-14, 5-16 to 5-24, 5-27, 5-32. Intermittent spacing factor, 5-45
classification of. IO-26 Intermittent spacing factor gradient, 5-44,
5-33, S-36, 5-40, 5-54 winding materials for, IO-26 s-45, s-47
Injection profile, foam, 47-9 Insulation materials, winding of, to-26 Intermittent spacing factor traverse, 5-46, 5-47
Injection profiles, 4-6 to 4-8 Intangible drilling costs, 57-I 1 Internal coatings, 11-4. II-5
Injection-pumping rate, controlling, 16-14 Intangibles and intangible cost, 41-l I. Internal-combustion-engine driven
Injection quill, 19-I 1 41-13, 41-14, 41-15 generators, 18-45
Injection treatments, large-volume, 56-2 Integral flange, 3-16, 3-22, 3-24 Internal-combustion engmes.
Injection water, 24-5 Integral joint tubmg, 2-38 to 2-45, 2-64, diesel, 10.15, IO-16
Injection well plugging, 39-26 2-65 four-stroke cycle, IO-15
SUBJECT INDEX 41
in inert gas injection, 39-16 lnterstltlal water content, 39-17, 39-18, Jackson candle units (JCU). 44-44
installation, IO-19 39-21 to 39-23. 40-12 Jackup rig, 3-38
multiplex pumps analogous, 6-49 Interstltlal water saturation. 26-26. 28-4, Jackups, 1X-2 to IX-6
oil engine, 10-15. IO-16 28-14, 37-3, 37-4, 37-15, 37-17, 39-10, Japan. 12-39
selection of, IO-16 to IO-19 40-5 lo 40-10, 40-12. 40-15. 40-16, Jay/Little Escambla Creek field. 44-36, 44-37
two-stroke cycle. 10-14. IO-15 40.19. 40.24. 42-4, 43-5, 44-4, 446, Jefferson limestone. Kentucky, 54. I
Internal corrosion, 3-36 449, 4436 Jet pump, 6-l. 6-2. 6-4, 6-7
Internal energy. 13-I Interstitial water saturations, application range, 6-46, 6-47
Internal floating roofs, I l-2, 1 l-6 capillary pressure, 26-23. 26-24 application sizing, 6-41. 6-42
Internal flushing efficiency, 39-18 oil-based mud. 26-22, 26-23 approximation for handling gas, 6-38, 6-39
Internal gas drive. 37-1, 40-E Interval transit (travel) time, 51-15, 51-17. calculation sequence and supplemental
Internal gas-driven reservoir, 32-15, 32-16 51-19, 51-23. 51-24, 51-27, 51-43, equations, 6-42
Internal injection, 43-2 58-25, 58-33, 58-36 cavitation in, 6-35, 6-36
Internal pressure leak resistance, of casing, Interzonal hydrostatic head, 7-2 downhole pump accessories, 6-47 to 6-49
2-5. 2-7, 2-9, 2-l I, 2-13, 2-15. 2-17, Intrawell continuity, 36-l. 36-6, 36-7 hydraulic, 6-6
2-19. 2-57. 2-58, 2-64 Invaded-zone correction, 49-22 installation. 6-43
Internal pressure, of casing, 2-1, 2-61 Invariant point, 47-12 mathematical presentation, 6-36 to 6-38
of pipe, 2-59 Invasion effects on IL. 49-17 nomenclature. 6-35
of line pipe, 2-56, 2-63 Invasion efficiency, 39-15, 39-17, 39-18, nozzle and throat annulus area, 6-4 I
Internal pressure resistance of. 39-22, 39-23. 40-34, 47-l nozzle and throat size. 6-39, 6-41
casing, 2-5, 2-7, 2-9, 2-11, 2-13, 2-15, Inverse emulsion, 19-l performance characteristics. 6-34 to 6-37
2-17, 2-19 Inverse lever rule. 23-3. 23-8 production unit performance. 6-42
line pipe. 2-56 Inverse simulation, 48-9 ratios and throat annulus areas, 6-40
tubing, 2-46 Inverted bucket traps, 13-53 reverse-flow casing type, 6-5
Internal rate of return (ROR) method, 41-17 Inverted nine-spot well patlern. 45-10, single seal, 635
Internal Revenue Code, 41-14. 41-15 46.17, 46.18, 46-28 subsurface. 6-32, 6-47
Internal Revenue Service, 41-2 Investors method, 41-17 worksheet and summary of equations,
Internal spiral element, 12-19 Involute element, 12-19 6-44, 6-45
Internal water weir, 12-35 Iodide. 19-10, 24-9 Jetting wells. 32-15
Internal yield pressure of pipe and Iodine, 24-5. 24-20, 24-21 Jobo field, 46-4
couplings, 2-5, 2-7, 2-9, 2-l 1, 2-13, Ion diffusion, 24-19 Johnson pressure gauge, 30-2
2-15, 2-17, 2-19, 2-32, 2-56, 2-57, Ion exchange, 24-19, 24-20 Johnston-MaccoiSchlumberger BHP gauges,
2-63, 3-l Ion-exchange conduction, 49-4 30-4
Internal yield pressure safety factor, 2-2, Ion-exchange reactions, 52-21 Joint efficxncy. 12.38. 12-40
2-32, 2-34, 2-35, 2-45, 2-46 Ion-exchange resins. 15-29 Joint-interest owner, 4 l-2
Internally coated pipe, 39-26 Ionization, 50-3 Joint-operating agreements, 57-9
Internally plastic-lined tubing, 44-46 Ionized-gas counter, 50-12 Joint strength of.
International atomic weight table, 20-l Iran, 29-6 casing, 2-2. 2-5, 2-7. 2-9. 2-l I, 2-13,
Intl. Bureau of Weight and Measures, l-69 lron bacteria, 44-43 2-15, 2-17, 2-19. 2-60. 2-61
to l-71 Iron chelating agents, 56-l line pipe, 2-48, 2-61 to 2-64
Intl. Commission on Radiological Iron-control agents, 54-7, 54-8 tubing, 2-39. 2-41, 2-43, 2-61
Protection, 58-10 Iron sponge sweetening. 14-22 Joint strength safety factor, 2-2. 2-32, 2-34,
International foot, l-69 Iron sultide, 14-22, 19-4, 19-9, 44-44 2-35, 2-45, 2-46
Intl. Metric Convention. l-68, 1-69 Iron sulfide deposits, 1 l-10 Jostling decrement. 5 l-47
Intl. prototype kilogram, l-69, I-70 Irreducible saturation, 28-5, 28-8 Joule-Thomson effect, 12-17, 14-2
Intl. Standards Organization (ISO). IO-12 Irreducible water saturation, 44-6, 44-l I, Jug heater, 19-21
Intl. system of units, guidelines for use, 17-7 44-12, 46-34. 46-37, 46-38, 47-9 Jumpout load of casing. 2-61
Interpretation. lrreversibihty losses, 34-2 Junction box, ESP, 7-7. 7-8
chart for Rocky Mountain method, 49-3 I, Isobaric contour maps, 39-23 Jurassic, 36-2
49-32 Isobutaneiwater system, 25-25, 25-27 Juvenile water. 24-2
chart for R,,IR, and shaly sand method, Isochronal backpressure test, 34-31
49-28 lsochronal test data, 39-25 K
IEL method, 49-30, 49-31 Isochronal testing, 33-4 to 33-6, 33-10 to
of caliper logs, 53-17 33-13 K&C systems, 18-15
of casing inspection log, 53-23 to 53-26 Isoelectric point, 54-7
K-MonelO , 4-4. 4-5, 7-3. 7-6
of chemical analyses, 24-18, 24-19 Isolation packer, 4-2, 4-3
K-value correlation, 39-12
of EPT log, 49-34 to 49-36 Isometric of fractures, 51-28, 51-29
K-values. 23-10. 23-l I. 25-5, 39.12, 48-4,
of rmcrolog, 49-23 Isopachous maps. 39-2 I, 40-5, 41-8, 46-30,
48-5
of paleo-environments, 36-3 46-31
Kalman filtering, 50-S
of pipe analysis log, 53-13 to 53-26 Isopentaneiwater system, 25-26
Kalrez@, 4-5
of rules of dipmeter, 53-10, 53-12 Isoporosity map, 39-22
Kansas, 16-12, 16-13. 19-3. 21.2, 24.8,
of well logs, 49-25 to 49-36 Isoporosity maps, 44-3
quantitative, of hydrocarbon saturation, Isopotential lines, 4415 to 4417 24-9. 27-8, 27-10 to 27-13, 33-1, 39-25.
49-21 Isopropyl alcohol in acidizing, 54-E 40.23, 44-42, 46-4, 46-14
stratigraphic, 53-13, 53-14 Isothalic thermoset resin, 9-12 Kansas Corp. Commission, 33-15
Interpretation of nuclear logs, Isothermal coefficient of compressibility, 55-4 Kaolinite, 46-2 I, SO-2 I, 50.32, 50.34.
gamma ray measurements, SO-24 to SO-26 Isothermal compositional model, 48-5 50-37
introduction, 50-23, 50-24 Isothermal model, 48-4 Karma” vortex trail, 13-49
lithology determination, 50-33 to 50-35 lsovol map, 39-17 Kay’s rule, 20-5
porosity determination, 50-26 to 50-33 Italy. 12-39 Kentucky, 24-6, 24-7. 41-l 1, 46-16, 54-l
saturation determination, 50-35 to 50-37 Iterative method or solution. 37-8, 37-9, Kern River field, California, 46-4, 46-14,
Interstate Oil Compact Commission, 33-15 37-11. 48-l. 48-13 46-15, 46-18, 46-20, 46-23. 46-24,
Interstitial clay, effect on formation 46-34, 46-39
resistivity factors, 26-30 J Kerogen, 52-16
Interstitial water, 24-2, 24-3, 24-16, 24-18. Kerosene, 19-4
26-30, 27-8, 40-8, 40-10, 40-13, 40-16, J function, definition, 26-25, 26-26 Kerosene/water system, 25-27
40- 19. 40-23 J-lay first-end connection, 18-38 Kettleman Hills field, California. 6-24, 29-2
Kick-off injection-gas pressure, 5-24. 5-25, Laboratory testing of formation rock for problems, 57-10
5-28, 5-33 acidizing, 54-9 purchases, 57-8
Kickover tool, 5-2 Labyrinth path design, 7-4 tank battery installation, 1I-10
Kihara potential, 25-5, 25-8, 25-9 Labyrinth path protector, 74, 7-5, 7-11 Lease-operated hydrocarbon-recovery
Kill and choke (K&C) valves, 18-12 Lacq Superieur field, France. 46-27 to systems,
Kill fluid, S-24, IS-33 46-29 gas treating for removal of water vapor,
Killed steel, 12-41 LACT systems or units, 11-13, 15-14, 174 -CO,, andH,S, 14-17 to 14-22 .
Kilogram, definition of, I-69 Lactic acid as sequestering agent, 54-7 low-temperature separation (LTS), 14-1 to
Kilogram of the Archives, 1-69 Lag, 13-50 14-17 -
Kilovoltamp reactive (WAR), 10-31, lo-33 Lag stroke, 52-8 references, 14-22
to IO-35 Lag time, 52-8, 52-14, 52-18, 52-22 Leasehold costs, capitalized, 41-13
Kilovoltamps (WA) rating of transformers, Lagoonal clays, 364 Leases, oil and gas, 57-1 to 57-12
IO-30 to 10-35 Lagoven, 46- 14 Least-squares fit, 38-10
Kinematic viscosity, 6-67, 669, 19-8, Lagunillas field, Venezuela, 24-13, 464 Lee-Kesler equation, 20-13, 20-17
22-13, 24-16, 58-35 Lake Maracaibo field, Venezuela, 18-l Legal requirements, directional surveys,
Kinetic energy, 6-34, 13-1, 1345, 20-1, Lakeview pool, California, 40-15 53-4
20-2, 34-9, 34-29, 34-36, 50-3, 50-8, Laminar-flow regime, 28-13 Lena platform, 18-24
SO-13 Laminar-flow region, 34-3 Length equivalents, table, 1-71
Kinetic mixer, 19-l 1, 19-12 Landman, 57-8 Length, standard of, l-70
Klinkenberg corrections, 27-1 Landowner’s interest, 57-1, 57-2 Lenticular deposits, 49-25
Knife-edge blade electrodes, 53-8, 53-9 Landowner’s royalty, 41-1 Lessor, in the oil and gas lease, 57-3
Knitted-wire-mesh coalescing pack, 12-10, Langmuir constants, 25-9 LETC field site, Utah, 4633
12-11 Laplacian interblock flow terms, 48-15 Letter subscripts, SPE std., 59-52 to 59-70
Knitted-wire-mesh fibrous packs, 12-12 LaSalle anticline, 24-7 Letter symbols for mathematical equations,
Knitted-wire-mesh mist extractor, 12-7, Lasater correlation, 22-5 to 22-7, 22-9, 58-3
12-8, 12-10 22-10 Letter symbols in alphabetical order, SPE
Knocking, 6-33, 6-50 Laser liquid particle spectrometer, 12-15, std., 59-2 to 59-17
Knockout drum, trap or vessel, 12-1, 12-4 12-16 Leutert pressure gauge, 30-2
Kobe porosimeter, 26-4, 26-6 Last-chance hydraulic stab system, 18-15, Level controllers and gauges, 19-31
Kozeny equation. 26-20 18-16 Lever-operated dump valves. 19-22
Krypton-85, 46-21 Last-stroke method, hydraulic pumping, Lever rule, 23-5
Krypton-86, l-69, l-70 6-28 Lever-type valve, 12-6, 12-18
Kuparuk field, Alaska, 18-3 Latched packers, 4-3 Leverage, 41-8
Kuster pressure gauges, 30-2 Late-time region (LTR), 35-3, 35-6 to 35-8, Life of engine equipment, 10-16, lo-17
Kyrock field, Kentucky, 46-!6 35-11, 35-12 Lift equipment, effectiveness of, 40-27,
Latent heat, factor in refrigeration cooling 41-9
L load, 14-10 value of BHP measurements, 30-14
Latent heat from sensible heat, 19-15 Lifting potential concept, 34-50
La Concepcidn field, Venezuela, 24-13 Latent heat of steam. 46-5 Lifting surface flowmeter, 32-13
La Paz field, Venezuela, 24-13 Latent heat of vaporization, 46-2 Light, units and conversions. 58-36
Laboratoty coreflood, 47-17, 47-21 Lateral device, 49-12, 49-19, 49-31 Lightning arresters, 10-28 to IO-32
Laboratory curves, Lateral loading or loads, 18-S. 18-6 Lignites, 49-25
for lateral sonde, 49-13 Lateral-sweep factor, 40-16, 40-17 Liguera platform, 18-2
for normal sonde, 49-12 Lateral wave loading or loads, 18-23, 18-26 Limestone sonde, 49-14, 49-26, 49-27
Laboratory depletion recovery, 39-14 Laterals in hard formations, 49-13 Limit switches, 16-3, 16-13
Laboratory-derived data, 39-10, 39-l 1 LaterologTM (LL). 49-1, 49-5, 49-6, 49.11, Limitations of gas lift, 5-1, 5-2
Laboratory displacement tests, 4440 49-18, 49-21, 49-23, 49-25, 49-27 Limited character sets, 58-l 1
Laboratory experimentation, Laterolog 3 (LL3), 49-18 to 49-22 Limited Entry@ technique, 55-9
elemental models, 46-12, 46-13 Laterolog 7 (LL7), 49-18 to 49-22 Limiting tie line, 45-3 to 45-5
fuel content, tirefloods, 46-16 Laterolog 8 (LLS), 49-15, 49-17. 49-20, Line disconnect switch, lo-27
of AOR and WAR, 46-17 49-27 Line drive pattern, 44-1, 44-20, 44-25,
partially scaled models, 46-13 Layout drawings, 15-30 46-17, 46-18
use of water in firefloods, 46-18, 46-19 Layout of electrical offshore facilities, 1844 Line pioe,
Laboratory layout for performing routine Leaching, 24-20, 26-2 and- coupling, schematic, 2-54
core analysis, 26-22 Lead acetate, 52-6 axial stress, 2-48. 2-49
Laboratory-measured relative-permeability Leak resistance, casing joints, 2-l collapse pressure, 2-48, 249
data, 374 Leak resistance limit, 2-59 collapse pressure under axial-tension
Laboratory measurement of capillary Leakage, stress, 2-55
pressure, fluid, 6-21 collapse resistance, 248
centrifuge method, 26-Z fluid-seal plunger, 6-33 collapse resistance under axial load, 248,
dynamic method, 26-24 in downhole unit, 6-55 249
evaporation method, 26-24 in pump plungers, 84, 8-5 dimensions, 2-47, 2-50 to 2-53
mercury-injection method, 2624 of field gas-condensate samples, 39-5 elongation, 246
porous-diaphragm method, 26-24 of pump, 6-24 equations for calculating performance.
Laboratory measurement of porosity, of tubing pressure, 6-3 246, 2-54 to 2-56
bulk volume, 26-3 pressure-relief valve, 6-33 hydrostatic test pressure, 2-62, 2-63
carbonate rocks, 26-6, 26-7 Leakoff of fluids, 54-8, 55-2, 554, 55-8 internal-pressure leak resistance, 2-57 to
pore volume, 26-5, 26-6 Leaky modes of acoustic waveforms, 51-12, 2-59
precision of measurement, 26-6 51-13 internal-pressure resistance, 2-56
sand-grain volume, 26-3 to 26-5 Leap-frog formulations, 48-14 internal yield pressure, 2-56
Laboratory measurement of transit times, Lease, and assignment provisions, 41-9 joint strength, 248
5 l-26 automatic custody transfer (LACT), 16-1, plain-end, 2-50 to 2-53
Laboratorv pressure-depletion studv. 39-13 16-7, 16-12, 16-13 safety factors, 2-32
Laboratory PVT analysis, 39-13 . bonus, 41-1, 41-13 tensile strength, 246
Laboratorv PVT data. 37-3 broker, 57-8 test pressure, 247, 2-50 to 2-53, 2-62
L.aborato~ restored-state floods, 444 facilities, 4 l-9 thread dimensions, 2-58, 2-65
Laboratory solubility tester, 54-10 location data, 41-8 thread form, 2-62
SUBJECT INDEX 43
thread height dimensions, 2-62 Liquid saturations, 27-8 Long-term forecast, gas-well performance,
threaded or threads, 2-47, 2-48, 3-2 Liquid seal in separator, 12-5 35-13
tolerance on lengths, 247 Liquid slug process, 45-l Long-thread casing, 2-5, 2-7, 2-9, 2-l 1,
weight, 247, 2-50 Liquid slugs, 5-1, 5-11, 5-19, 5-38 to 544, 2-13, 2-15, 2-17, 2-19, 2-31, 2-58, 2-64
yield strength, 246 5-51, 5-52, 5-54 Longitudinal capillary imbibition, 28-12
Line scale, 12-2 Liquid-storage facilities, 12-33 Longitudinal dispersion, 45-6
Line sink, 39-20 Liquid surges, 12-2, 12-20 Longitudinal waves, 51-2
Line source, 39-20 Liquid turbine meters, 1348 Looped networks in gathering and
Line-source solution. 35-4 Liquid/vapor equilibrium, 23-1, 23-5 distribution systems, 15-14
Line tension, maximum, 18-10 Liter, definition of, l-69 Lorenz coefficient, 44-36
Linear-absorption coefficient, 50-7 Lithium, 24-9, 24-20, 24-21, 50-6, 50-14 Los Angeles, 46-24
Linear aquifers, 38-2, 38-4, 38-18 Lithological log, 52-14, 52-19 Loss-free propagation time. 49-32 to 49-34
Linear diffraction analysis, 18-39 Lithology determination, Loss-ratio method, 40-32
Linear dimensions, conversion of, 58-7 direct measurement, 50-37 Louisiana, 18-1, 18-2, 214, 24-7, 24-8,
units applied to, 58-5 induced-gamma-ray spectrometry, 50-34, 24-20, 26-7, 26-23, 27-6 to 27-8, 29-3,
Linear-flow system, 26-13 to 26-15 50-35 32-1, 36-4, 37-25, 39-16, 40-23, 41-1,
Linear frontal advance, 38-13 introduction, 50-2 44-37, 46-3, 46-4, 46-15, 46-18, 46-19,
Linear gels, 55-5, 55-6 neutron/density combination, 50-33 49-29, 574, 57-10, 57-l 1
Linear geometry, definition, 38-l photoelectric factor, 50-33, 50-34 Louisiana Dept. of Conservation, 32- 1
Linear parabolic difference equations, 48-15 Lithology, effect on formation factor, 49-4 Louisiana gulf coast, 27-6 to 27-8, 44-37,
Linear partial differential equation, 35-1, effect on water-injection efficiency, 44-2 51-22, 51-23
35-10 estimation from logs, 51-35 Louvered baffles, 19-23
Linear variable differential transformer, parameters, 50-18 Low-alloy steel, 12-41
51-5 Lithostatic pressure, 26-8 Low-interfacial-tension (IFT) processes,
Linear velocities, conversion of, table, 1-76 Lloydminster field, Canada, 46-34 lowering ROS, 47-9, 47-10
Lined pipe, 39-26 Lloyds of London, 18-44 MP flooding, 47-10 to 47-18
Liners in steel pipe, 15-10 Load analyses, offshore facilities, 1844 Low-liquid-level control, 12-39
Lipophiles, 47-7, 47-11, 47-19 Load capacity, ultrahigh-slip motor, lo-22 Low-pressure service regulators, 13-55
Liquefaction, 12-3 Load fluid gradient, 5-25, 5-28, 5-33, 545, Low-pressure waterflooding, 42-2
Liquefied gases in acidizing, 54-8 546 Low-temperature fractional distillation, 39-6
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPC), as Load fluid production rate, 5-53 Low-temperature operation of separator,
injection fluid, 42-2, 45-1 to 45-3, 45-6 to Load fluid traverse, 5-25 12-40
45-9, 45-12, 45-13 Load production pressure, 549 Low-temperature separation (LTS),
Liquefied petroleum products, density of, Loading or load up of wells, 32-15, 34-46, temperature, 14-17
17-5 34-50. 39-16 with hydrate inhibitor, 14-6 to 14-8
Liquid block or blocking, 39-26, 46-1, 46-3 Loan payout calculation factors, 4 l-32 to without hydrate inhibitor, 14-3 to 14-6
Liquid (oil) capacity of separators, 12-28, 41-35 Low-temperature separation (LTS) systems,
12-29, 12-31 Loan payout, calculation of, 41-31 to 41-36 compression refrigeration, 14-9, 14-10
Liquid carryover, from compressor, 39-26 Local control loops, 1847 constant-enthalpy expansion, 14-3 to 14-8
in mist extractor, 12-40 Local remote switch, lo-27 cooling, 14-1, 14-2
in separator, 12-42 Location surveys offshore, 18-5 hydrate formation, 14-2, 14-3
Liquid contents of GC systems, 39-4 Lock screws, 3-3, 3-5, 3-6, 3-8, 3-9 hydrocarbon stabilization, 14-13 to 14-17
Liquid desiccants, 14-17 Lockout cap, 3-27 mechanical refrigeration, 14-8, 14-9
Liquid-discharge control valves, 12-42 Log analyses, company computer centers, retrograde condensation, 14-l
Liquid-distribution coefficient, 34-39. 34-40 49-37 selective absorption, 14-10 to 14-13
Liquid entrainment, 34-36 in coring program, thermal recovery, 46-21 theoretical considerations, 14-1 to 14-3
Liquid fallback, 5-40, 5-43, 5-44, 5-48, Log-linear grid, 49- 15 turbine expansion, 14-8
5-52 Log mean temperature, 34-8, 34-9 Low-temperature separation (LTS) unit,
Liquid/gas ratio, 12-35, 39-2, 39-5 Log-normal permeability distribution, 44-8 12-1, 13-57, 18-46
Liquid holdup, 34-36, 34-37, 34-46 Log presentation, acoustic logging, 51-16 Low-temperature separator, 12-17. 14-5
Liquid hydrocarbon, 12-33, 12-35 Log (electric) presentation and scales, Low-temperature stabilization, 14-7
Liquid-hydrocarbon content, 12-15 49-15, 49-16, 49-22, 49-23 Low-tension ignition, lo-17
Liquid-hydrocarbon recovery, 11-13 Log-probability graph paper, 40-18 Lower explosive limit (LEL), 1847
Liquid injection, BHP calculation, 34-28 Logarithmic decrement, 514, 51-47 Lower marine riser package (LMRP),
Liquid knockout, 12-l Logarithmic energy decrement, average, 18-12, 18-15, 18-17, 18-19
Liquid-level control, 3-19, 13-51, 13-53, Lubricating oils, temperature correction for,
50- 10, 50-l I, 50-22
13-54 17-6
Logarithmic probability diagram, 56-6, 56-7
Liquid-level controller. 12-2, 12-5 to 12-7, Lubrication of pumping units, lo-12
Logarithmic sensitivity scale, 49-27
12-9, 12-18, 12-35, 12-39, 14-3, 14-14, Lubricator, 648, 6-54, 6-57
Logarithms of equivalents, l-73, l-75, 1-77
14.18, 19-17 to 19-20, 19-31, 32-7 Luminous flux, unit and definition. 58-11,
Logging engineer, 52-30
Liquid-level controls, 16-4, 16-5 58-23, 58-37
Logging geologist, 52-9, 52-18, 52-30
Liquid/liquid equilibria, 23-l Lump-sum deferment factors, 41-20, 41.21,
Logging-system schematic, MWD, 53-2,
Liquid loading in wells, 34-46, 34-50 41-24, 41-25
53-3 Lump-sum payment, 41-25
Liquid measurement, 16-S
Logging umt systems, 52-25, 52-26
Liquid mist, 12-8 to 12-12, 12-20, 12-22 Lynes BHP gauges, 30-4
Liquid natural gas (LNG), 17-4, 17-7 Logistics considerations offshore, 18-4, 18-5
Liquid petroleum, calculation of quantities Long Beach crude oil, 47-20 M
measured by turbine or displacement Long, gross, or shipper’s ton, l-70
meters, 17-7 Long-range planning, 42-1 Machining details, extreme-line casing joint,
Liquid petroleum (LP) gas, 10-15, 10-16, Long-spaced acoustic logging, 2-64, 2-67, 2-68
17-4 borehole-size effects, 5 I-19, 51-20 Macrodevices, 49-7, 49-14
Liquid-phase distribution, 39-25 formation-alteration effect, 51-20, 5 l-21 Macroresistivity curves, 49-26
Liquid-phase shrinkage, 39-4 introduction to, 51-19 Macroscopic anisotropy, 49-5
Liquid production per cycle, 5-52 summary of. 51-23, 51-24 Macroscopic convective dispersion, 45-6
Liquid recovery, maximum, 5-51, 12-32 tool, 51-21 to 51-23, 51-47 Macroscopic cross section, 50-10, 50-21,
Liquid recovery per cycle, 5-40 Long-spaced acoustic logs. 51-22 50-23, 50-36
Liquid-saturation data, 27-8 Long Spacing SonicTM tool, 51-21 Macroscopic fluid velocity, 35-10
Macroscopic photoelectric cross sectton. Marine water. 24-19, 24-20 Matrix treatment with acid, 56-5
50-17. 50-33. so-34 Mark II crank-balanced pumping units, 10-t Maximum efficient rate (MER), 32-2, 41-9
Macroscoptc thermal absorption cross to 10-4, 10-6, 10-E. IO-9 Maximum-indicating pressure gauge, 30-4
section, 50-10 to 50-12, 50-21, 50-30, Market capacity. 32-l Maximum present worth, 42-2
50-33 Market value. 41-3, 41-5, 41-6 Maximum producible oil index, 49-28
Magnelog. 53-19 Market-value yardstick, 41-5 Maximum theoretical valve spread, 542
Magnesium, 24-5, 24-6, 24-8 to 24-13, Marx-Langenheim method, 46-7 to 46-9 Maximum transfer pressure, 5-32
24-18. 24-20. 24-21, 4444, 4445. Mass-absorption coefficient, 50-8 Maxwell’s equation, 49-33
47-13 Mass-balance equations, 48-3 May Libby field, Lomsiana, 46-15
Magnesium chloride, 8-9, 19-29, 54-l Mass balance of hydrocarbons, 46-11 Mean average boiling point, 21-l 1, 21-12.
Magnetic collar locator, S3- 18 Mass balance of oxygen, 46-12 21-15
Magnetic compass for hole deviation, 53-3, Mass balance of water. 46-11 Mean free path. 50-10. SO-22
53-4 Mass-conservatton equation, 48-3. 48-S Mean hydrauhc radius, 26-31
Magnetic flux, 53-21 to 53-23 Mass equivalents, table, l-75 Means field. Texas, 36-5, 36-7
Magnetic flux density, unit and deftnmon. Mass flowmeter, 32-13 Measured phase compositions, 23-12
58-l I, 58-23. 58-36 Mass flow ratio, 6-36 to 6-38, 6-45 Measurement,
Magnettc flux, untt and definition, 58-l I, Mass or force as weight quantity, 58-3, of barges, 17-3
58-23. 58-36 58-S of horizontal tanks, 17-3
Magnetic induction, unit and detinitton. Mass, special terms and quantities of liquid hydrocarbons by displacement
SE- I I, SE-36 involving, 58-7, SE-8 meter systems, 17-4
Magnetic permeability, 49-33. 53-23 Mass spectrometry, 27-l of petroleum by weight, 17-7, 17-8
Magnetic relative permeability, 53-20 Mass, standard of. I-70 of petroleum liquid hydrocarbons by
Magnetic sensor, 13-48 Mass, unit and definition, 58-3, 58-5, positive-displacement meter, 17-4, 17-5
Magnetic tape recordings. 49-36, 49-37 58-23. 58-27 of spheres and spherotds. 17-3
Magnetic trip capability of circuit breakers, Mass vs. weight, I-70 of tank cats, 17-3
IO-28 Massachusetts Inst. of Technoloav, 51-49 of upright cylindrical tanks, 17-3
Magnetic valve operators, 16-3 Material balance, 14-16, 38-4, 38-S Measurement control charts 17-7
Magnetism, units and conversions, 58-36 Material-balance calculations, 22-13, 28-t I, Measurement methodologies of relative
Magnetometer. 18-S 35-16, 37-13. 40-1, 40-13, 40-24, 42-3, permeability, -
Magnetos. IO- I7 43.12, 43-16. 48-l. 48-14 calculation methods, 28-7
Magnolia Petroleum Co.. 46-14, 46-16 Material-balance equation, 35-8, 37-2, 37-5 capillary-pressure and endpoint-
Main Reservoir field, Louisiana. 37-25 to 37-7, 37.10. 37-13 to 37.17, 38-4, displacement method, 28-8
Maintenance and operation of tank batteries, 38-8. 38-9, 38-12 to 38-14, 40-6, 40-7, critique of methods, 28-7
II-IO. II-11 40-9, 40.10, 40.12, 40-33, 40.44, 43-4, stationary-fluids methods. 28-8
Maintenance cost, emulsion treating, 19-33 43-6. 43-X. 43-12, 43-13 stead-,-state methods. 28-3 to 28-7
Major thermal recovery projects, 46-3. 46-4 Material-balance method, for average unsteady-state methods, 28-7
Makeup gas, 39-23, 39-24, 4441 reservoir pressure, 3.5-3 Measurement tickets, 17-7
Mandl-Volek model, 46-15 for nonassociated gas reservoirs, 40-33 Measurement-while-drilling (MWD),
Mandl-Volek refinement of Marx- for oil in place, 40-2, 40-6 to 40-E data listing for, 53-6
Langenheim method, 46-8, 46-9 Material-balance studies, 36-7 data-transmission schematic. 53-2
Mandrel and boll-weevil tubing hangers, Materials of construction for separators, directional vs. multishot directional, 53-S
3-16 12-38, 12-39 downhole assembly, 53-2
Mandrel hanger, 3-39 Materials of construction for storage tanks, log, 53-2, 53-4
Manganese, 3-3. 24-4, 24-S. 24-9, 4444, 1 l-9 logging system, 53-3
50-12, 50-18, SO-35 Mathematical analysis of areal pattern measuring systems, 53-l
Manifolds, high-pressure. 55-9 efficiency, 44-13 to 4417 rotary-drilling log, 53-4
Mamfolds in subsea completions, 18-32 Mathematical analysis. water-drive oil services, 52-1, 52-28
Mamtoba, Canada, 24-8 reservoirs, 38-i to 3X-17 Measuring crude oil. 17-I to 17-8
Manometer factor. 13-8. 13-35 Mathematical modeling, 28-7, 28-10 Measuring natural-gas fluids, 17-7
Manual adjustable positive choke, 13-57 Mathematical models.9.3, 36-10. 39-17, Measuring quality of separated fluids,
Manual casing hanger, 3-6 39-18, 48-l 12-15, 12-16
Manual emergency shut-down valve, 3-19 Mathematical reservoir simulatton, 39-24, Measuring temperature of petroleum and
Manufacture. of fiberglass sucker rods. 9- 12 45-10 petroleum products, 17-5 to 17-7
of steel sucker rods. 9-l. 9-2 Mathematical reservoir simulators, 39-22 Mechanical damage, 5 I-20
Manufacturer’s field representative, 7-13 Mathematical-simulation models, 38-16 Mechanical data, electric submersible pump
Manufacturers’ pumps, Mathematical simulators. 39-17, 45-13 (ESP), 7-9
multiplex-plunger type, 6-52 to 6-55 Mathematical iables, 1-2 to 1-67 Mechanical degradation. 47-S
nozzle and throat stzes. 6-39 Matrix acid stimulation, 56-5 Mechanical energy, 22-21, 51-2, 51-3
nozzle vs. throat annulus area, 6-41 Matrix acidizing. Mechanical-energy gradients, 28-13. 28-14
throat annulus areas and area ratios. 6-40 A/V ratio high. 54-5 Mechanical fail&, -39-25
types of. 6-10 to 6-17 carbonate formations, 54-10, 54-l 1 Mechanical flow sheets, IS-31
Manufacturers’ rated capacities for definition of. 54-8 Mechanical lock holddown, 8-8
separators, 12-32 overflush. 54-t 1 Mechanical losses in hydraulic pumps, 6-19.
Manways, 1l-6. 12-42 sandstone formattons. 54-l 1 6-20, 6-21
Marathon Oil Co.. 46-15 with surfactants. 54-6 Mechanical power. 6- I5
Maraven. 46-4. 46-15 Matrtx blocks. 48-5 Mechanical pressure control, 12-39
Marginal well tests, 12-17 Matrix compactron. 26-7 Mechanical properties.
Maricopa field, Califorma. 6-24 Matrix correctton chart. SO-29 elasttc module, 5 I-43
Marine bulk carriers. metering systems for Matrix, definition, 26-2 fracturing. 51-44
loading and unloading. 17-4 Matrix density. 50-l. 50-27, 50-28 sand control, 5 145
Marine cargo inspection, guidelines for, Matrix effect on neutron porosny, 50-28 to Mechanical recording BHP gauges, 30-2
17-E 50-30 Mechanical refrigeration. I I-13
Marine environment. 56-2 Matrix identification chart, 50-19 Mechanical-refrigeration systems, 14-8 to
Marine measurement, 17-E Matrix permeability, 26-15. 27-18 14-10
Marine pipelines, 18-43 Matrix porosity, 26-7. 44-2 Mechamcal trmers, 164
Marme risers. 18-14 to 18-16. 18-19 Matrix steam injection. 46-27, 4628 Mechanical wave propagation. 5 l-2
Marine terminals. 18-43 Matrix transit time. 51-30, 51-35 Mechamcally operated valve. 13-53
SUBJECT INDEX 45
Mechanically set packer, 4-3, 4-4, 4-6 Methyl alcohol, in acidizing, 54-8 Midway Sunset field, California, 4614,
Mechanics, units and conversions, 58-33, in in-situ formation of hydrofluoric acid, 46-15, 46-18, 46-19
58-34 54-4 Midwest Research Inst., 8-10
Mediterranean Sea, 24-19 Methyl orange end point, 54-3 Midyear compound-interest factor, 4 1 17
Medium-slip motors. 9-3 Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), 14-21, Midyear lump-sum deferment factor, 41-6 to
Melcher-Nutting grain-volume method, 26-3 14-22 41-8, 41-27 to 41-29
Melting curve, 23.l( 23-2 Metric Conversion Act of 1975, l-69 Miga field, Venezuela. 46-15, 46-18
Membrane-filterability tests, 4443 Metric standard for orifice equations and Migration length, 50-12, 50-20, 50-21,
Membrane filtration, 24-18 to 24-20 constants, 13-3 50-29, 50-30, 50-32
Memory jogger, metric units, 58-21 Metric system, Migration of clay particles, 56-5
Mene Grande field, 24-13 definition. origin, and development, l-68, Migration of oil and gas, 24-l
Mene Grande Oil Co.. 46-16 l-69 Migration of oil, 24-17
Mene Grande tar sand, Venezuela, 46-3 Intl. Bureau of Weights and Measures, of water, 24-18
Mercaptans, 14-17 I-69 Mile Six Pool, Peru, 40-14
Mercury. 26-3, 26-4, 26-24. 39-8 present status in U.S., l-69 Mill scale, I l-5
Merc&njection method of capillary- units and standards of, 1-69 Mill varnish, 51-41, 56-3
pressure measurement, 26-24, 26-25 Metric ton, l-70 Miller-Dyes-Hutchinson (MDH) plot, 35-15,
Mercury manometers, 13-3, 13-36 Mexico, 12-39, 21-2. 58-20 35-17 to 35-20
Mercury method of calculating directional Micellar floods, 19-28, 48-5. 48-7 MilliporerM filter test, 44-45
surveys. 53-6 Micellar fluids, 28-l 1 Mineral,
Mercury porosimeter, 26-22 Micellarlpolymer (MP) flooding, 47- 1, 47-9 analyses of cores, 46-2 1
Mercury-pump method, 52-19 to 47-22, 48-6 deeds, 57-6
Mercury-pump porosimeter, 26-6 formulation, 47-13, 47-15 dissolution, 47-20
Mercury test site, Nevada, 53-5 phase behavior, 47-l 1, 47-13, 47-20 interests, 41-1, 41-15, 57-6
Mercury-type meters, 13-8, 13-35 to 13-37 slug, 47-10, 47-15 to 47-17 owner, 57-1, 57-6
Mercury valve switch, 16-3 surfactants, 47-7, 47-17 severance, 57-2
Metal-on-metal seal ring, 18-18 Micelles, 47-10, 47-1 1 Mineral Management Service, 3-34
Metal spray coupling, 9-9 Microannulus, 51-41 Mineralogy, 56-3
Metal-to-metal plungers, 8-4 Microbiological growth, 44-44 Minerals, in water, 4444, 44-45
Metallic storage tanks, 1 l-9 Microcaliper curve. 49-1, 49-l I, 49-22, in a lease or a conveyance, definition,
Metamorphosed rock, 29-3, 29-8 49-25, 49-26, 49-29, 49-31 57-2
Metastable dewpoint locus, 25-1, 25-2 Microcaliper log, 53-16 recovery from brines, 24-20, 24-21
Metastable equilibrium, 14-4 Microcomputers, 16-1, 16-6, 16-8 Miner’s rule, 18-27
Metastable-equilibrium locus, 25-2 Microdevices, 49-7, 49-14 Minicomputer, 5 l-4
Metastable liquid water, 25-10 Microemulsion, 28-1 I, 45-l Minifrac job, 55-9
Meteoric water, 24-2 Microemulsion flooding, 47-10 Minimum hydrodynamic potential, 29-3.
Meter, definition, 1-69 Microemulsion phase, 47-l 1 to 47-14 29-B
Meter factor or multipliers, 32-10, 32-12, Microfiche, 17-5 Minimum miscibility pressure (MMP), 45-6.
32-13 Microfilm, 17-S 45-8, 45-9
Meter loops, 6-54 Microinverse, 49-23 Minimum pump intake pressure, 7-10
Meter model. 474 Microlaterolog (MLL), 49-22, 49-24 to Minor isostatic adjustment, 29-7, 29-8
Meter proving, 16-6. 16-14, 17-4 49-26. 49-28 Miscibility, definition, 45. I, 45-6
Meter-tank-type LACT system, 16-12, Microlog (ML), 26-31, 443, 49-22 to development, 45-4, 45-5
16-13 49-29, 49.31. 49-32 maintaining, 45-7
Meter tube, 5-53 Microlog shaly-sand method. 49-28 of methane gas and propane liquid, 45-2
Metering and metering assemblies, 17-4, Micrometer screw, 26-3, 26-4 of propane liquid and oil, 45-2
17-5 Micronormal. 49-23 of refrigerants with water. 14-10
Metermg separator, 12-17 to 12-19, 32-13, Microprocessor-based instrument system, pressure, 22- 17
32. I4 18-47 providing to improve recovery, 39-15
Metering systems, Microprocessors, 16-l Miscible displacement,
critical flow provers, 13-37. 13-45
Microresistivtty. 51-19 engineering examples, 45-10 to 45-13
orifice well tester. 13-37
Microresistivity devices, 49-1, 49-22 to engineering study, 45-8 to 45-10
pitot tube, 13-2, 13-45
49-25, 49-26 factors affecting displacement efficiency,
velocity, other meters using, 13-45,
Microresistivity survey, 49-11 45-6 to 45-8
13-48. 13-49
Metering trim. 13-53 Microscopic anisotropy, 49-5 fluids, 40-4
Meters using velocity, Microscopic convective dispersion, 45-6 general references, 45-15
centrifugal (elbow) meters, 13-45 Microscopic cross section, 50-6 introduction, 45-1
eccentric orifices, 13-45 Microscopic displacement of fluids, 39- I8 methods. 44-19
rotameter, 13-45 Microscopic efficiency, 40-34 nomenclature, 45-13
segmental orifices, 13-45 Microscopic pore volumes, 39-17 numerical dispersion effect in, 48-10
sonic meters, 13-48 Microscopic studies, 46-2 1 processes, 23-7
turbine meters, 1345 Microscopic sweep efficiency, 47-2 references, 40-13 to 40-15
vortex shedding meter. 13-48 Microseismogram, 5 l-24, 51-35, 51-45, theoretical aspects, 45-l to 45-6
Methaneibutaneldecane system, 23-5 51-46 Miscible-drive projects, 42-5
Methane/butane system, 23-6 Micro-Seismogram LogTM. 51-18 Miscible flood, 39-23, 48-2, 48-10
Methaneidecane system. 23-6 MJCROSFL (MSFL), 49-20, 49-22, 49-24, Miscible-fluid displacement. 43-7
Methane hydrates, 25 10 49-25 Miscible-phase displacement, 39-16
Methane/propane hydrates, 25-10
Microswitch valve switch, 16-3 Miscible processes, 39-18
Methane/propane system, 25-9
Mid-American trench, 25-18 Miscible slug process, 42-2. 45-l to 45-3,
Methane/propane/water system, 25-10
Mid-Continent, 21-4, 21-6, 24-8 to 24-10, 45-6 to 45-9, 45-12, 45-13
Methane-rich gas, 25-13
Methane/water system. 25-l. 25-2. 25-17. 29-3. 40-19, 41-5, 44-4 Mississippi, 24-20, 24-21, 26-19, 40-23,
25-18 Middle East, 27-9, 27-20. 52-22 46-3, 46-4, 46-15. 46-18, 46-28 to
Methanol, as hydrate inhibitor. 25-19. 25-20 Middle-time region (MTR). 35-3, 35-4, 46-30, 54. I
for freezing and corrosion protection, 35-6. 35-8, 35-10 to 35-12, 35-14. Mississippi River, 36-4
3-3.5 35-15 Missour), 24-B, 46-3, 46-14
Method of least squares. 26-3 1. 40-6 Midway field, California, 29-2 Mist eliminators, 12-12, 39-26
Mist extractors. 12-l to 12-5, 12-7 to 12-9, Lasater, 22-5 to 22-7, 22-9, 22-10 Mooring analysis, 18-9, 18-16, 18-17,
12-11, 12-12. 12-1.5, 12-19, 12-21. Mandl-Volek. 46-15 18-21
12-23 to 12-26, 12-31, 12-40, 19-22. mathematical, 9-3, 36-10, 39-17, 39-18, Mooring systems, 18-4, 18-8 to 18.10,
19-24, 19-25, 39-26 48-1, 48-16, 48-17 18-16, 18-18, 18-21, 18-24
Mist flow, 34-27, 34-36, 34-37, 3440 mathematical simulation, 38-16 Morkill method, 41-16. 41-19, 41-22
Mix-based fracturing fluids, 55-7, 55-8 meter, 47-4 Mother Hubbard clause, 57-6
Mixed-lithology rocks, 51-35 numerical, 44-17. 44-20, 46-l 1, 46-20 Motion characteristics, drilling vessels, 18-7
Mixing efficiency, 19-27 numerical simulation, 40-2 Motion compensators, 18-2
mm to decimals of an in., table, l-72 partially scaled, 46-l 1 to 46-13 Motion-response curves, 18-l
Mobil Corp., 46-4, 46-15, 46-18 perforation prediction, 37-19 Motor control centers (MCC’s), 18-44,
Mobile analyzer, 24-4 physical, 46-1 1 to 46-13 1846
Mobility, 58-38 porous reservoir, 44-17 Motor, control for, IO-27 to lo-29
Mobility-buffer drives, 47-l positive seal double-bag, 7-l 1 cyclic load factor of, lo-25
Mobility buffer, MP flooding, 47-10, 47-17 potentiometric, 39-21, 39-22, 4417, derating factors for. IO-25
Mobility-buffer salinity, 47-15 44-19, 44-34 direct current. IO-21
Mobility-control processes, power law, 47-4, 55-5 drip-proof, 10-26, 18-46
effect of low mobility on oil recovery, process, 28-3 efficiency of, IO-25
47-1, 47-2 randomized network, 28-12 electric, for oilwell pumping, lo-19 to
foam floodine, 47-6 to 47-9 reservoir simulation, 38-16, 40-34, 43-2, 10-37
polymer flooding, 47-2 to 47-6 43-17, 48-1 to 48-6 enclosures for, lo-26
Mobility improvement, 44-39, 44-40 resistance network, 44-20 explosion-proof, 10-27, 18-46
Mobility of hisplacing fluid, 44-17 rock flow, 44-20 fr&tional horsepower, 18-46
Mobility of foams, 47-8, 47-9 sand, for fluid flow, 26-l 1 to 26-13 fuses for, IO-28
Mobility ratio, 39-15, 39-18, 39-21, 40-18, scaled physical, 45-10 horsepower ratings of, IO-20
40-19, 43-7, 43-8, 44-4, 44-8 to 44-10, scaled porous, 44-17, 44-34 induction, lo-19 to 10-21, IO-23 to lo-25
4415, 44-17 to 4425, 4427, 44-29, shalv sand, 51-34 insulation for, IO-26
4433 to 44-40, 45-4, 45-7, 45-9, 45-l 1, simple two-mineral, 50-33 multiple-horsepower rated, lo-20
47-1, 47-2, 47-20 simulation, 44-31, 44-32, 48-7 to 48-9 multiple-size rated, IO-21
Mobility-ratio effects, 44-17 to 44-24, steam chest, 46-9 oiltield, control for and protection of,
44-34, 4436 steam injection, 46-l I, 46-12 lo-27 to lo-29
Mobility. total, 35-2 streamtube, 45-10 performance factors of, IO-23 to IO-26
Model assumptions, 48-9 tandem labyrinth path, 7-11 power factor of, IO-25
Model basin,’ 18-7 tank-type, 37-2, 37-4, 37-5, 37-l 1, 37-14, power triangle for, lo-33
Mode1 formulation, 48-14 to 48-16 37-17 rated voltage, 10-2 1
Model grid selection, 48-7 theoretical, 5 l-8 selecting size of, lo-21
Model input data, 48-6 thermal, 48-4 to 48-7, 48-14 service factor of. 10-25. lo-26
Model, radial flow, 35-6 thermal numerical, 46-12 single-phase, 10-2 I
Model(s). vacuum, 46. I3 slip of, 10-23, IO-24
analog, 39-22, 44 18 Modems, 16-10 speed variations of, 10-24, IO-25
analytical for pump performance, 7-12 Modified black-oil simulator, 45-10 splash-prmf, IO-26
analytical for steam injection, 46-7 to Modified Griffith and Wallis method, 34-37 starter contactor for, lo-28
46-l 1 Modified Stiles permeability-block method, temperature rise of, lo-26
assumptions, 48-9 40-20 torque of, IO-25
black oil, 48-4 to 48-7, 48-9, 48-14 Modified turnkey format, 15-32 totally enclosed, 10-26, 18-46
blotter, 44 17 Modulus of elasticity, 9-3, 9-l 1, 9-12 ultra-slip, IO-24
bundle of capillary tubes, 28-12 Moisture-resistant coatings. I l-6 voltage frequency of, IO-2 I, IO-23
chemical flood, 48-4, 48-5, 48-7 Molal average boiling point. 21-6, 21-11, winding temperature sensors, lo-29
composItional, 43-2, 48-4, 48-6, 48-7, 21-13 to 21-15 Motor flat cable, ESP, 7-5
48-9, 48m14 Mole, definition, 22-21 Motor horsepower, IO-36
computer, 39-4, 44-38 Mole fraction gas mixtures, 20-4 Motor load transducers, 46-2 I
conductive cloth, 44-20
Mole, unit and definition, 58-25 Motor rated voltage, IO-21
dispersed clay, 5 1-34
Molecular diffusion, 45-6 Motor torque, IO-24
drilling, 52-24 10 52-26
Molecular sieves, 14-21 Motor valve diaphragm pressure, 13-54
dual-water, 49-38
electrolytic, 39-20, 39-21, 4417, 4418, Molecular weight, 20-1, 20-3, 204, 20-9, Motor winding temperature sensor, lo-29
44-20, 44-2 1 20-10 Motor windings. lo-26
electronic. 39-20 Molecular weight, effect on water content in Mount Poso field, California, 46-4, 46-15,
elemental, 46-11 to 46-13 vapor phase, 25-16 46-18
fluid flow, 44-20. 44-21 Molybdenum, 9-5 Movable oil, 46-8
fluid mapper, 4420 Moment of inertia, 58-34 Mud acid, 56-5
fractured matrix, 48-5 Monatonic gases, 13-37 Mud acid preflush, 54-4
framewood structural. 5 l-34 Monel@ , 3-36, 7-5, 15-21, 30-4 Mud acid system, 54-4, 54-l 1
frontal displacement, 46-7 to 46-9 Monel bellows, 5-16. 5-17 Mud contamination, 56-l. 56-3
future interpretation, 50-36 Monitor log, 53-8. 53-l 1 Mud damage, 35-4
gel or gelatin, 39-2, 44-17, 44-18, 44-20, Monitoring programs, thermal recovery, Mud-dispersing agents. 56-l
44-2 1 46-20, 46-2 I Mud log, 49-23
geochemical, 24-20 Monoethanolamine (MEA), 14-2 1, 14-22 Mud-log data, 52-26
grain boundary structural, 51-34 Monotube separator, 12-16, 12-21, 12-22 Mud-log format, 52-l I to 52-16
graphical, 22-5, 22-7, 22-8
Monovalent cation. 47-15 Mud-log services, 52-1, 52-2
graphite-impregnated cloth. 39-2 1
Monovalent/divalent ratios, 47-13 Mud logger, 52-30
aridded reservoir, 37-2. 37-5. 37-l I
Montana, 24-8. 24-l 1. 24-20, 40-23 Mud logging, 52-l to 52-30
high-pressure. 46-13
hydrate dissociation, 25-9 Montmorillonite, 442, 47-2 1, 52-2 I, 52-22 Mud logging contractor services, 52-28
idealized pore, 26-28 Moody diagram, 15-2, 15-3. 15-7 Mud removal, 56-l
in-situ combustion, 46-12 Moody friction factor, 34-24, 34-38 Mud-removal acid, 54-3, 54-4, 54-l I
isothermal, 48-4 Moonpool, 18-2, 18-23, 18-42 Mud transit time, 51-20, 51-23
Kuster-Toksdz. 5 1-34 Moored buoy, 18-30 Mud weight, 30-15
laminated. 5 1-34 Moored positioning, 18.2, 18.9 Mud-weight factors, 2-1 I 2-3, 2-33, 2-38
SUBJECT INDEX 47
Multicomponent Rash method, 37-23 to N Neuquen basin, Argentina, 51-33

37-26 Neutron absorption. 50-2
Multicylinder diesel engines, lo-17 n-Butane/water system, 25-26 Neutron cross section, total, 50-9
Multicylinder gas engine. 6-l nDecane/water system, 25-26 Neutron/density combination, 50-30, 50-31,
Multicylinder pump, 4447 n-Hexaneiwater system, 25-26 50-33
Multifingered caliper logs, 53- I7 n-Pentane/water system, 25-26 Neutron-density crossplot, 50-30, 50-33
Multilayer prediction method, 44-31 Naphtha, 26-22 Neutron detectors. 50-14. 50-I 5
Multiphase displacement experiments. 28-3 Naphtha/water system, 25-26 Neutron energy, 50-8 to 50-10, 50-23
Multiphase flow, Buckley-Leverett Naphthenic base. 19-27 Neutron/gamma-ray tool, 49- 19
description of, 28-6 Napierian logarithms, l-56, 1-57 Neutron interactions, 50-E to 50-12
continuous-flow gas-lift design, 3440 to Natl. Assn. of Corrosion Engineers Neutron log, 44-3. 49-26. 49-34. 49-38,
34-45, 34-50 (NACE), 4-4 51-31, 51-33
correlations, 5-22, 5-25, 5-26, 5-38, 5-40, Natl. Bureau of Standards (NBS), 1-68 to Neutron porosity, 50-24. 50-31, 51-20,
34-37, 37-40 l-71, 17-4 51-33
gas plus liquid, hydraulic pumping, 6-27 Natl. Conference of Weights and Measures, Neutron-porosity devices, 50-17 to 50-21.
immiscible fluids, no gravity forces, 28-2 17-7, 17-8 50-28 to 50-33
in heterogeneous porous media, 48-1, Natl. Electric Code (NEC), IO-26 Neutron-slowing-down properties, 50-2,
48-2 Natl. Electrical Code, 18-46 50-4, 50-l I
introduction, 34-35, 34-36 Natl. Electrical Manufacturers Assn. Nevada, 24-2 I, 53-6
modeling of, 28-12 (NEMA), classification for control New England, 29-7
pseudosteady-state behavior. 35-6 enclosures, 7-5, 7-6, IO-27 New Hampshire, 51-45
theoretical considerations, 34-36, 34-37 D-electric motors, 10-17, lo-18 New Mexico, 6-24, 21-4. 24-8, 24.20,
well-performance equation, 35-2 rated motors. IO-24 27-16, 27-17, 36-8, 39-25, 40-23, 44-40
Multiphase flowing gradient calculations, specifications for motors, IO-20 New Mexico Conservation Commission.
6-72 Natl. Science Foundation. IX-15 33-15
Multiphase flowing pressure-gradient Natural cosecants, table, l-48, l-49 New York, 24-l, 44.1
curves, 5-2 1 Natural cosines, table, l-44, l-45, l-50 to Newton-Raphson iteration procedure, 23-l I,
Multiphase inflow performance relationship I-54 48-14, 48-15
(IPR) equation, 34-32 Natural cotangents, table, l-46, l-47, l-50 Newtonian fluid, 22-13
Multiphase pressure-drop correlations, 34-37 to l-54 NEXUS log analysis, 49-37
Multipiece structure, 18-23 Natural gamma ray activity, 50-2, 50-15 Ni-Resist, 7-3
Multiple-bore mandrel tubing hanger, 3-14, Natural-gas container, 36-2 Ni-Span C@ , 30-3
3-16 Natural-gas. definition, 12-3, 40-3 Nickel, 9-5
Multiple-bore riser, 18-35 Natural-gas engineering letter and computer Nigeria, 50-26
Multiple-completion equipment, 3-13 symbols. 59-2 to 59-51 Nigerian reservoirs, offshore, 48-6
Multiple completions, 56-5 Natural-gas engines, 15-16 Nikurodse friction-factor equation. 34-24
Multiple-contact miscibility, 39-16, 45-1, Natural-gas fluids measurement, 17-7 Nine-point difference scheme, 48-l I
45-5, 45-6. 48-5, 48-10 Natural-gas fuel. lo-15 Nine-spot grids. 48- 11 1 48-12
Multiple-cylinder engines, IO-15 Natural-aas liquids (NGL). 40-3. 40-4 Nine-spot pattern or network, 43-2, 44-13,
Multiple-horsepower-rated motors, lo-20 Natural-gas m;xtures. 17-7 44-14, 44-21, 44-23 to 44-25, 4434,
Multiple-motor installation, IO-36 Natural Gas Policy Act, 43-2 46-17, 46-25, 46-28
Multiple-parallel tubing strings, 3-14 Natural-gas/water-system, 25-3 Nipple-up operations, 3-6
Multiple-regression equation, 2-60 Natural gases. compositions and gas Niralloy. 7-3
Multiple-seal pumps, 6-39 gravities. 25-6 Nitric acid (HNO,). 24-4
Multiple-segment tubing hanger, 3-16 Natural gasoline, 40-3 NitrileO , 4-5
Multiple-size-rated motors, lo-21 Natural gasoline content of gas, 20-10, Nitrogen (NJ I-70, 5-6, 5-7, 12-3, 14.13,
Multiple-stage separation, 12-16, 12-32, 20-11 14-17, 16-3, 20-5, 22-5, 22-17, 23-7,
12-33 Natural gasoline plants, 4 I- I 1 25-14, 26-18, 37-24, 39-2, 39-6, 39-14,
Natural gums in acidizing, 54-8 39-16, 40-22, 43-2, 45-1, 45-4, 45-6,
Multiple thrusters, 18-10
Natural logarithms, table. I-56, 1-57 45-12, 48-5, 48-6, 48-9, 52-6, 55-6,
Multiple tubing strings, 3-8
Natural secants, table, l-48, 149 55-9, 56-5
Multiple-zone fracturing, 55-9
Natural sines, table, l-44, l-45, l-50 to Nitrogen-charged dome pressure, 5-7
Multtples of 0.4343, table, l-60 l-54 Nitrogen-charged gas-lift valves, 5-16, 5-17.
Multiples of 2.3026, table, l-60 Natural tangents, table. l-46, l-47, l-50 to 5-26
Multiplex BOP control system, 18-21 1-54 Nitrogen in acidizing. 54-8
Multiplex pumps, 6-28, 6-49 to 6-55. 6-57 Natural water drive, 39-15 to 39-17, 39-26, Nitrogen/water system, 25-3
to 6-59, 6-62 442 Nitroglycerin, 24-1, 56 I
Multiplex transmission systems, 18-3 Nearshore carbonate deposits, 36-6 Nitrox solution, 46-22
Multiplexed electrohydraulic control, Nebraska, 24-8, 24-20, 40-23, 44-40, Nominal decline rate, 40-27 to 40-29
subsea, 18-52 46-14, 46-15, 46-18, 46-21, 46-30, Nominal interest rate, 41-25 to 41-35
Multiplication factor, 4633, 47-22 Nominal rate-of-return (ROR), 41-18
for casing joint length, 2-29. 2-3 1 Nederlandse Oil Co., 46-14 Nominal value. definition. 58-9
for tubing joint length. 2-45 Negative gas show, 52-14 Nomograph, 22-5, 22-6. 22-10, 22-13
Multipoint backpressure test, 34-31 Negotiated turnkey format, 15-32 Non-API, pumps, 8-9
Multipoint gas injection, 5-32, 5-36 Neopentane/water system, 25-26 steel-grade casing, 2-5, 2-7, 2-9, 2. I I,
Multipoint testing, 334 to 33-13, 33-22 Neothene, 52-20 2-13, 2-15. 2-17, 2-19
Nephelometer, 4444 weights and grades of casing, 2-4. 2-6,
Multipool aquifers, 38-16
Nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). 4444 2-8, 2-10, 2-12. 2-14. 2-16, 2-18
Multishot survey, 53-3
Net cash flow, 41-3, 41-5 to 41-8 Non-Darcy flow, 34-31, 34-32. 34-34,
Multistage centrifugal pumps, 6-l
Net-oil computers, 16-2, 16-7, 16-8, 16-12 35-10, 35-11
Multistage emulsion, 19-2. 19-3 Net-pay/net-connected-pay ratio, 36-7 Non-Darcy flow factor, 33-5
Multiwell templates, 18-32 Net positive suction head (NPSH), 15-17 Non-Newtonian effects, polymers, 47-4
Multiyear ice, 18-39 Net-profit/initial-investment ratio, 41-22 Non-Newtonian rheology, 28-13
Muskat material balance, 37-13 Net-profit/unreturned-investment-balance Non-S1 metric units, 58-10, 58-21
Muskat method, 37-10 to 37-13, 37-21 ratio, 41-22 Non-upset tubing, 2-38 to 2-44, 2-64, 2-66
Muskat’s correlations, 39-20 Net-profits interest, 41-1, 41-2, 57-10 Non-US. areas, core analysis data from,
Muskat’s method, 40-9 Netherlands, 12-39, 46-3, 46.14, 51-47 27-9
Nonassociated dry gas reservoir. 40-24 Nuclear physics for logging applications, Offshore operations,
Nonassociated gas. 40-3. 40-23, 40-33, fundamentals of gamma ray interactions, arctic. 18-38 to 1843
40-34 50-6 to SO-8 drilling, 18-3 to IS-17
Noncircular drainage area, 32-S fundamentals of neutron interactions, SO-8 electrical, instrumentation, and control
Noncollinear flow, 28-12 to 50-12 systems, 18-43 to 18-52
Nonequilibrium gas displacement, 43-16 nuclear radiation, SO-3 to SO-6 field, 18.17 to 18-20
Nonideal effects, micellaripolymer (MP) nuclear radiation detectors, SO-12 to 50-15 historical review, 18-l to 18-3
flooding, 47-13 Nuclear radiation, introduction. 18-I
Noninjection gas requirements in cycling, in wireline logging, 50-l production, 18-27 to 18-38
39-23 introduction, 50-2 to 50-5 references, 18-52
Noninteractive scattering theory, 51-8. 51-9 nuclear reactions. 50-6 special considerations. 18-20 to 18-22
Nonionics, 47-7, 47-8 particle reactions, 50-S. 50-6 structures, 1822 to 18-27
Nonlinear partial differential equation, 35-2 Nuclear-radiation detectors, Offshore pipelines.
Nonmetallic storage tanks, I l-9 gamma ray, 50-12 to 50-14 expensive element, 18-29
Nonmetric units, 58-S neutron, 50-14, SO-15 flowlines for subsea wells, IS-36 to 18-38
Nonownership theory, 57-l Nuclear-radiation logging devices, larger lines, 18-38
Nonsymmetrical aquifers, 38-3 gamma-gamma density, 50-16, SO-17 Offshore platforms, rigs, or structures, 5-2,
Nonsymmetrical geometry, definition, 38-l gamma ray, 50-15, SO-16 6-55, 6-59, 6-63. 7-l. 7-2. 12.16,
Nonwetting immiscible fluids, 28-3, 28-5, inelastic and capture gamma ray 12-18, 12-20, 12-21, 12-35. 12-39, 18-l
28-6 spectrometry, 50-22, 50-23 to 18-7, 18-22 to 18.25. 18-28 to 18-30.
Nonwettine phase. 26-24, 40-26, 47-9 neutron porosity, 50-17 to 50-21 18-40 to 18-42, 18-44
Normal ammeter chart, electric submersible pulsed-neutron logging, 50-21. 50-22 Offshore production operations,
pump (ESP), 7-14, 7-16 Nuclear reactions, 50-6 floating production facilities, 18-34 to
Normal boiling point, 20-I I Nuclear spectrometry. 49. I 1836
Normal brass standards, I-71 Nucleonic densitometer, 12-16 introduction. IS-27
Normal compaction trend line, 51-39 Number groupings, Sl metric system, 58-12 pipelines, 18-36 to 18-38
Normal device, 49-12, 49-19, 49-20 Numerical dispersion, 48-10 to 48-12 platform production, 18-28 to 18-30
Normal fault with drag, 53-12 Numerical models, 44-17. 44-20 subsea completions, IS-30 to 18-34
Normal faults, 29-3, 29-8 Numerical simulation, in-situ combustion Offshore, special considerations,
Normal-flow installations, 6-6 models, 46-12 cold environment, 18-2 I
Normal startup chart, electric submersible models. 40-2 deepwater drilling. 18-20, IS-2 I
pump (ESP), 7-14 of chemical flood performance, 48-6 high-current drilling, 18-2 I, 18-22
Normal venting capacity of tanks, 1 l-7 of thermal recovery processes, 46-l I, Offshore structure classification,
Normalized total gas. 52-18 46-12 concrete gravity, IS-23
Normals in hard formations. 49-13 steam injection models, 46-l I. 46-12 gravity platform construction, 18-23,
North America, 24-6, 29-3 Numertcal simulators, 3D and 3-phase, 18-24
North Anderson Ranch field, New Mexico, 46-7, 46-I 1 template/jacket, 18-22
36-8 Nutating disk positive displacement (PD) template/jacket construction, 18-22. 18-23
North Atlantic, 18-38 meter. 32-11, 32-12 Offshore Technology Conference, 18-38
North Burbank unit, Oklahoma, 47-6 NuTriTM, 46-22 Oficina field, Venezuela, 24-13
North Dakota, 24-20, 57-10 Ohio, 24-6, 24-7, 26-23, 43-l
North Louisiana area, 27-4, 27-5 0 Ohmtc potential drop. 49-13
North Sea, 18-2, 18-3, 18-18, 18-23 to Ohm’s law, 26-16, 26-29. 39-20, 4417.
18-26, 18-36, 18-41. 1844. 27-9, Obigbo field, Nigeria, 36-7, 36-8 49-14
27.20, 36-2, 44-37, 44-46, 50.24, Obsidian, 19-S Oil and gas differences,
50-25, 51-39, 51-40. 52-16, 52-26 Obstruction in tubing, 33-21 best depletion techniques, 36-2, 36-3
North Slope, 18-3 Occurrence, origin, and evolution of oilfield sales method, 36-2
North Tisdale field. Wyoming, 46-15 waters, Oil and Gas Inst., 41-7
Northward-Estes field, Texas. 47-22 introduction, 24-19, 24-20 Oil and gas leases, 57-I to 57-12
Northwest Atkinson field, Texas, 29-4 membrane filtration, 24-20 Oil and gas separators,
Norway, 12-39, 18-25, 21-9 quantities of produced water, 24-20 accessories, 12-39, 12-40
Norwegian fields, 18-23 shale compaction, 24-20 capacity curves, 12-27 to 12-32
Nozzle flow gradient, 6-37 Ocean enuineers. 18-3 centrifugal gas scrubbers, 12.20, 12-21
Nozzle of jet-pump, 6-32, 6-34 to 6-39, Ocean sahwater, 44-42 centrifugal separators, 12-20, 12-21
6-411 6-42, 6-46, 6-62, 6-63 Oceanographer, 18.4, 18-26 classification, 12-16 to 12-20
Nozzle loss coefficient, 6-37 Octane number, 21-4, 21-7 comparison of horizontal, spherical, and
Nozzle size, jet pumps, 6-35 to 6-39, 6-43, Off-lap deoosition, 29-8 vertical types, 12-2 I
6-44 Offset: 41:11, 41-15 computer sizing, 12-25 to 12-27
Nozzle/throat-area ratio, jet pumps, 6-35 Offset-drilling rule, 57-2 construction codes, 12-38. 12-39, 12-41
Nuclear counting rates. SO-5 Offset of controller, 13-52 controls, 12-39, 1240
Nuclear log, 53-26 Offshore bars, 36-3 estimated quality of separated fluids.
Nuclear logging techmques, Offshore field operations. 12-13 to 12-16
interpretation of nuclear logs, 50-23 to drillstem testing, IS-20 estimating sizes and capacities, 12-21 to
50-37 establishing location, 18-18 12-25
introduction, 50-l to 50-3 introduction, 18-17 general references, 12-43
nomenclature, 50-37. 50-38 plug and abandonment, 18-20 illustrations of, 12-2 I
running introduction, 12-l to 12-3
nuclear physics for logging applications,
20-m. casing, 18-18 measuring quality of separated fluids,
50-3 to so-15
30-m. casing, 18-l 8 12-15, 12-16
nuclear radiation logging devices, 50-15
BOP, 18-18 to 18-20 methods used to remove gas from oil,
to SO-23
spudding well, IS-18 12-13
references, 50-38 Offshore installations, 6-5 to 6-7, I l-6 methods used to remove oil from gas,
Nuclear magnetic logging (NML), 52-26 Offshore leasing, 12-8 to 12-l 1
Nuclear magnetic relaxation analysis, 27-l economic impact, 57-12 mist extractors for, 12-11. 12-12
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 28-10, jurisdiction, 57-l I nomenclature, 1242, 1243
50-2 procedure, 57-11 operation and maintenance considerations.
Nuclear measurements, 50-24 producing history. 57-l I 12-40
SUBJECT INDEX 49
practical consideratton in sizing, 12-32 Oil recovery. temporary. 18-2

primary functions of, 12-3, 12-4 by chemical flooding. 47-13. 47-16, underground storage, 1l-13. 1I-14
references, 12-43 47-17. 47-19. 47-20 vapor control, 11-12, II-13
safety features. 12-39, 1240 by gas displacement, 43-3 vapor losses, 11-11, II-12
secondary functions of, 124, 12-5 by solution-gas drive. 37-2, 37-5, 37-6, vapor-recovery system, 11.12. 11-13
selection and application of separators and 37-10, 37-11, 37-13 to 37-1s. 37-17, venting atmospheric and low-pressure
scrubbers, 12-35 to 12-38 37-19, 37-21, 40-18. 40-20, 444 storage tanks. I1 -6 to 1l-9
special problems in. 12-6 to 12-8 by water injection, predtcting, Oil surge chamber. 19-23, 19-24
stabilization of separated liquid areal sweep and pattern efficiency. Oil system correlations,
hydrocarbons, 12-33. 12-35 44- I2 to 44-25 bubblepoint pressure, 22-5 to 22-9
stage separation of oil and gas, 12-32 to dtsplacement calculation procedures, density determination, 22-2 to 22-5
12-35 44-7 to 44-12 empirical, 22-7
summary, 12-l reservoir fractures, effect of, 4425, FVF, 22-10 to 22-13
valves, 12-39, 1240 44-26 gas/oil IFT. 22-16. 22-17
well fluids and their characteristtcs, 12-3 waterflood performance method general references, 22-22
Oil bank, 44-l 1, 4433 selection, 44-3 1, 44-32 glossary, 22-20, 22-21
Oil-base (based) muds, 26-21 to 26-23. waterflood performance prediction graphical, 22-5, 22-7. 22-8
40.19, 444. 53-8, 53-9 methods, 44-26 to 44-3 1 introduction, 22- 1
Oil-based fluids, 18-49, 18-52 by waterflood. 445. 44-S pseudoliquid density. 22-2
O&based fracturing fluids, 55-5 effect of low mobility, 47-1, 47-2 references, 22.21, 22-22
Oil-bucket construction. 12-35 efficiency. 4430, 4432, 47-16 oil FVF, 22-10 to 22-13
Oil carrying agent, 56-2 estimation, 48-l solution GOR for saturated oils, 22-9.
Oil changing in pumping units, lo-13 process, 48-3. 48-4. 48-12 22-10
Oil collectors. 19-20 thermal, 46-14, 46-15 total FVF’s, 22-13
Oil coning, 48-9 vs. volume of fuel burned, 46-15 viscosity, 22-13 to 22-16
Oil cut, 47-18 Oil relative permeability, 28-6, 28-8 to Oil viscosities, 22-1, 22-13 to 22-16, 37.12,
Oil density, definition, 22-1 28-13, 44-12, 46-37, 46-38 37-16, 40-9, 40-17, 40-32, 46-31.
Oil-density determination from ideal-solution Oil-removal efficiency, 15-28 46-34, 46-35
principles, Oil reserves: see reserves Oil-viscosity correlations,
composition known, 22-2 to 22-4 Oil reservoir, development plan for, 36-I IO factors affecting, 22-14
composition unknown, 224, 22-5 36-l I introduction, 22-13
Oil-discharge control valve, 12-5, 12-6, Oil reservoir volume factor, 37-10 saturated systems, 22-14 to 22-16
12-9, 12-39 Oil reservoir with gas cap, 40-7 undersaturated systems, 22-16
Oil-displacement efficiencies, 4439 Oil reservoirs, depletion technique, 36-2 Oil/water capillary pressure, 26-29
Oil-displacement rate, 46-8 Oil reservoirs in gas-hydrate region, 25-18, Oil/water contact (OWC). 41-9, 44-39
Oil engines, IO-15 25-19 Oil/water interface. 12-39. 18-47. 19-4,
Oil equivalent volumes, 41-13 Oil reservoirs under gravity drainage, 19-5, 19-9, 19-11, 19-18 10 19-20,
Oil-external microemulsion. 47-12. 47-15 case histories after pressure depletion, 19-22, 19-23, 19-30, 19-31. 40-15
Oil foam. 12-6 40-15 Oil/water interfacial tension. 4440, 47-9
Oil formation volume factor (FVF) 6-67, occurrence of, 40-14, 40-15 Oil/water mobility ratio, 48-5
22-1, 22-10 to 22-13, 22-20, 37-16, Oil reservoirs with gas-cap drive, 40-13, Oil/water relative-permeability curve, 47-18
40-6, 40-8, 40-9, 40. I 1, 40-16 40-14 Oil/water separator. 24-3
Oil FVF, constants for, 22-l 1 Oil reservoirs with water drive, Oil/water system, 25-27. 25-28, 39-20
Oil FVF correlations, average recovery factor, 40-16. 40-17 Oil/water viscosity ratio, 40-19, 44-6. 44-9
saturated systems, 22-10 buoyancy and inhibition effect, 40-20 Oil-weight factors, 2-l. 2-33. 2-38
Standing. 22-10 general discussion, 40-15. 40-16 Oil wells,
undersaturated systems, 22-l I to 22-13 permeability distribution effect, 40-18 to computing inflow rates, 34-32
Vasquez and Beggs, 22-10, 22-11 40-20 future inflow performance, 34-34, 34-35
Oil/gas/water separator, 12-4, 12-5, 12-21 recovery-efficiency factor. 40. I6 inflow performance, 34-30 to 34-33
Oil gravity, unit recovery computed by frontal-drive single- and two-phase 1PR equation.
effect on air requirements, 4616, 46-17 method, 40-17, 40-18 34-33, 34-34
effect on fuel cc&nt, 46-16, 46-17 unit-recovery equation, 40-16 Oil-wet, 19-9, 44-6
test, 27-l Oil retention time, separator, 12-3, 12-15, Oilfield brines, 24-5
Oil in effluent gas. 12-15, 12-16 12-25 to 12-30 Oiltield motors,
Oil in effluent water, 12-15, 12-16 Oil saturation, 26-22, 37-9. 37-10
equipment for control of, 10-27, lo-28
Oil-in-place (OIP), 37-2 to 374, 37-6, 40-5 Oil Show AnalyzerTM (OSA), 52-10, 52-l 1
protection equipment for, 10-28, IO-29
IO 40-8 Oil shrinkage, 37-l. 37-6, 37-22, 37-23,
Oilfield steam generators, 46-19
Oil-in-water dispersion-type fracturing fluid. 40-S
Oilfield waters,
55-7 Oil sizing of separator. 12-30
analysis methods, 24-5
Oil-in-water emulsions, 6-27, 19-l to 19-3, Oil-soluble coating. 9-10
chemical properties, 24-5 to 24-13
19-11, 19-27, 24-2, 55-7 Oil-soluble paint, 9-2
composition, 24-6
Oil isoperms. 28-7 Oil-soluble resins, 54-8
Oil specific gravity, 6-67 definition, 24-18
Oil isothermal compressibility,
Ttube method, 22-11, 22-12 Oil stainmg. 52-9. 52-10 evolution, 24-19. 24-20
Vasquez and Beggs method. 22-12, 22-13 Oil/steam ratio, 46-9, 46-15. 46-23 occurrence, 24- 19, 24-20
Oil mist, 12-19. 44-4 Oil storage, origin, 24-19, 24-20
Oil mobility, 43-7 appurtenances, I l-6 pH, 24-16
Oil mobilization, 28-12, 484 capacity, 18-30, 18-36 physical properties, 24-12 to 24-l 8
Oil payments, 41-1, 445 general references, 1ll14 sample description, 24-5
Oil power fluid, 6-27, 6-29, 6-44, 6-47, gravity conservation, 11-12, II-13 Oilwell performance,
6-55, 6-56, 6-60. 6-61. 6-63 gravity structure, 18-41 infinite-acting pressure solution, 35-3,
Oil pressure function, 37-8 to 37-10 materials of construction, I l-9 35-4
Oil production above bubble point, 37-6 production equipment. 1l-9 to 1 l-l I production rate variation (superposition),
Oil production, time required for, 37-21 references, 1 I - 14 35-8, 35-9
Oil property changes, steamfloods, 46-15 tank corrosion protection, I I-4 to II-6 pseudosteady-state behavior, 35-6 to 35-8
Oil property ownership, 41-l. 41-2 tank types, 11-l to 11-4 skin effect. 35-4
Oil-rate-vs.-time plot, calculation of, 47-17 tanks, 11-6, 11-7, 18-43 superposition, example problem, 35-9
so PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
transient and pseudosteady state, example gauge cocks and glasses. 12-42 Reynolds-number factor. 13-8
problem, 35-7, 35-8 high-capacity operation, 12-42 specific-gravity factor, 13-3
well pressure performance-closed insulation of safety devices, 12-40 supercompressibility factor, 13-8
reservoir. 35-2, 35-3 low temperatures, 12-40 temperature-base factor, 13-3
wellbore storage effect, 35-4 to 35-6 mist extractors. 12-40 thermal-expansion factor. 13-S
Oilwell production-meter installation. 32-13 paraffin, 12-42 Orifice equations, 13-3
Oilwell Research porosimeter, 26-6 periodic inspection. 12-40 Orifice location, 13-36
Oklahoma, 6-24, 16-13, 21-2, 21-4, 21-10, pressure gauges, 12-42 Orifice meter, 5-53, 13-8, 13-36, 13-45,
24-8. 24-10. 24-21, 27-8, 27-9 to 27-12. pressure shock loads, 1242 1348, 16-6, 16-S. 33-6, 33-13
33-1, 33-7. 33-9, 33-12, 40-15, 40-23, safety heads (rupture disks), 12-40 Orifice metering of natural gas, 17-7
441, 444, 4436, 4441, 44-44, 46-3, throttling discharge of liquid, 12-40 Orifice-plate flowmeter. 32-l 3
46-14, 46-16, 47-6, 57-10 Operation factor, 12-22 Orifice plates, 14-2. 17-7
Oklahoma City field, 6-24, 40-2 Operation of ESP equipment, 7-12 Orifice well tester, 13-37 to 13-44, 32-6.
Oklahoma City Wilcox reservoir, 4s 15 Operational considerations for emulsion 32-14
Oleic phase, 47-l I, 47. I5 treating equipment, Original oil in place (OOIP). 38-9 to 38-13
Olympic pool. Oklahoma, 44-41 burners and fire tubes, 19-28
Orkiszewski correlation, 34-37 to 34-40
On-lap deposition. 29-8 cleaning vessels, 19-28, 19-29
Orogenic movements, 29-7
Oolicast, 29-9 corrosion, 19-30. 19-31
Orthogonal-wave equation migrations, 36-8
Oolicastic porosity, 29-8. 29-9 excelsior packs, changing of, 19-31,
Onhomin technique, 48-17
Oolith. 29-9 19-32
Oscillating piston PD meter, 32-l I
Oolitic porosity, 26-l interfacIal buildup, 19-30
level controllers and gauges, 19-3 I Oscilloscope, 51-3, 51-12
Open-cycle selective hydrocarbon adsorption
Osmotic effects, 24-19
system, 14-12 removing sand and other settled solids,
Open delta transformer, 10-30, IO-31 19-29, 19-30 Ossum field, Louisiana. 26-7
safety features for electrostatic treaters, Otto cycle, IO-15
Open-flow capacity, 30-10, 33-3
Open flow of gas wells. 33-l to 33-23 19-3 I Outbreathing (pressure relief) of storage
Open-flow potential, 33-5 to 33-S. 33-10, water-in-oil detectors (BS&W monitors), tanks, 11-6, 11-7
33-11 19-3 I Outer continental shelf (OCS). 3-34, 57-l I,
Open-flow testing of gas wells, 13-45 Operational considerations, subsea control 57-12
Open-flow tests, 33-3, 41-9 systems, 18-49 Oval gear positive displacement (PD) meter,
Open gas-lift installation, 5-2, 5-3 Operational problems and remedies, 32-l I
Open-loop control, 16-2 problems common to steam and Overall displacement efficiency, 39-18
Open power-fluid system, 6-17, 6-18, 6-25 tirefloods, Overall economic analysis, 39-27
to 6-28. 6-30, 6-57 to 6-59, 6-63 emulsions, 46-21, 46-22 Overall efficiency of miscible displacement,
Open regeneration system, 14-l 1, 14-12 sanding, 46-2 1 45-7
Openhole completions, 47-6, 56-8, 56-9 well productivity, 46-21 Overall efficiency of pumping system, lo-25
Openhole logging, 50-I problems plaguing ftrefloods only, Overall heat-transfer coefficient. 46-4 to
Operating agreements, 41-9 corrosion, 46-22 46-7
Operating costs, emulsion treating, 19-33 exploration hazards, 46-22 Overall instantaneous cycling efficiency,
Operating downtime offshore, 18-8 poor injectivity, 46-22 39-18
Operating equipment, BHP gauges, 30-3, problems plaguing steamfloods only, Overall oil recovery, 46-14
30-4 steam placement, 46-22 Overall particle-removal efficiency, 15-27
Operating expenses, steam splitting, 46-22 Overall recovery efficiency, 43-3, 45-8
ad valorem taxes, 41-12 Operational well modes, 4-6 to 4-8 Overall recovery factor, 40-23
average cost per barrel, 41-l 1, 41-12 Optical emission spectrographic analysis, Overall reservoir recovery efficiency, 40-34
breakeven, 40-32 56-3 Overbalance condition, 52-l 8
check list item for evaluation, 41-9 Optimal conditions, generating for Overburden heat loss, 48-5
cost per well-month, 41-l 1 micellar/polymer (MP) flood. 47.14, Overburden pressure. 26-9. 26-19, 5 l-4 to
direct, 41-l 1 47-15 51-7, 51-25, 51-44, 51.47, 52-26. 55-8,
direct lifting, 41-l 1 Optimal economic recovery, 42-l. 42-2 56-2, 56-3
field or district, 41-12 Optimal time to waterflood, 44-5 Overburden stress, 28-4, 28-13, 514,
range of, 41-12 Optimization, of injection operations, 42.1,
51-30, 5143
recompletion, 41- 12 42-3
Overflow connections for tank, 1 l-9
stimulation, 41-12 Optimization studies, 48-7
Overflush agent, 56-5
trucking charges, 4 I 12 Optimum efficiency of fracturing, 55-9
Overflush in acidizing. 54. I 1
Operating gas-lift valve, 5-39 to 5-42, 5-44, Optimum pressure on separator, 124
Overhead, 41-12, 41-13
5-51 to 5-53, 5-55 Orcutt Hill field. California, 47-22
Overhead allocation, 41-9
Operating injection-gas pressure, 5-23, 5-26 Organic constituents of oiltield water,
Overhead costs, 36-2
to 5-28, 5-30, 5-32, 5-35. 5-36, 5-38, 24-17, 24-18
Organic inhibitors, 54-6 Overload shutdown conditions, ESP chart.
5-39, 5-44. 5-48, 5-49, 5-53, 5-54
Operating interest, 41-2, 41-13 Organic liquid desiccants. 14-17 to 14-20 7-16, 7-17
Operating limits, Organic phosphates, 44-45 Overloading separators with liquid. 12-10
drilling vessels, table, 18-E Organic solvents, 56-2 Overpressure, of storage tanks. I l-4
riser, table, 18-18 Orgamck and Golding correlation, 21-I 1 to Overpressured formations, 35- 1
Operating manuals, offshore. 18-16 21-15 Overpressured gas reservoir, 40-34
Operating pressures, of separators, 12-16 Orgamsms, 44-43 Overpressuring of separator, 13-58
of wellhead equipment, 3-l Orientation curves, 53-9 Overriding royalty interest, definition. 41-l
Operating problems, gas condensate (GC) Orifice check valve, 5-10, 5-22 to 5-24, to 41-3
reservoir, 5-26, 5-28, 5-31. 5-35, 5-36 Overtemperature lockout circuit, IO-29
number of wells required, 39-26 Orifice coefficient for provers, 13-45 Overtensioning of pipe, 18-37
well injectivity, 39-25. 39-26 Orifice constants. Overtorquing, 9-9
well productivity and testing, 39-24, basic ordice factor, 13-3 Overtravel of fiberglass rods, 9-l I, 9-12
39-25 expansion factor, 13-8 Overturned anticlines. 29-2
Operation and maintenance considerations flowing-temperature factor, 13-3 Ownership maps, 41-8
for separators. gauge-location factor. 13-8 Ownership of hydrocarbons in place, 57- 1
cleaning of vessels, 12-42 manometer factor, 13-8 Oxidation potential, 24-16
corrosive fluids, 1240 pressure-base factor, 13-3 Oxyalkylated phenols, 19-10
SUBJECT INDEX 51
Oxygen (O,), 6-55, 9-8, 14-3, 14-17, Partial cement bonding, 51-41, 51-42 Performance coefficient, of backpressure
14-20, i4-22, 15-28, 15-29, 19-30, Partial differential equations, 48-2 equation, 33-5 to 33-10, 33-12
19-31, 24-4. 24-5, 24-16, 24.17, 24.20, Partial penetration, 35-4 of refrigerants, 14-l I
39-16, 44-42, 4443, 44-47, 46-12, Pantal pressure maintenance, 42-3, 43-9 to Performance curves,
46.22, 46-34, 48-5, 50-1, 50-13, 50-18, 43-17 abandonment contour vs. cumulative oil,
50-35 Partial pressure of gas, 20-4 40-34
Oxveen analvzer. 19-28 Partial water drive, 39-24 cumulative gas vs. cumulative oil, 40-32,
Ox$gen corrosion, 3-36 Partial water-drive reservoir, 40-6 40-33
Onvaen-enriched air fireflood, 46-31, 46-34 Partially scaled models, improved recovery reserves, 40-34
Oxygen injection, 42-6 high-pressure, 46. I3 material balance method for nonassociated
Oxygen scavengers, 15-29, 47-5, 47-10 physical types. 46-11, 46-12 gas reservoirs, 40-33, 40-34
Oxygen utilization efficiency, 46-15, 46-2 I vacuum, 46-13 of jet pump, 6-35, 6-36, 6-38, 641 to
Particle reactions, 50-5, 50-6 6-43, 646, 6-47
P Particle-size distribution, 26-2, 4445 of tubing and choke, 34-5
Partition, 57-2 oil percentage in total fluid vs. cumulative
p-x diagrams for mixtures of CO,, 23-10 Past performance analysis, gas pressure oil, 40-32
P-wave critical angle, 51-12 maintenance, 43-9 water/oil contact (WOC), 40-34
P-wave modulus for drv rock. 51-49 Pattern effects on waterflooding, 4429 Performance evaluation of rigs, 18-7, 18-8
P-wave modulus for rock frame, 51-49
Pattern efficiency, 44-15, 44-18, 45-6, 45-8 Performance factors for mot&s.
P-wave velocity, 51-l I, 51-37
to 45-10 cyclic load, lo-25
P-waves, 51-2to 51-5, 51-11, 51-36, 5147
Pattern (h@weighted) efficiency, 39-15, efftciency, IO-25
Pack gravel, 56-4
39-17, 39-18, 39-20 to 39-23, 39-26 power, IO-25
Packer mechanics, 44
Pattern floods, 46-l service, 10-25, IO-26
Packer operations, modes of, 4-1
Packer seats, location of, 53-17 Pattern injection, 43-2 slip, 10-23, lo-24
Packer selection, considerations for, Pattern selection, thermal recovery, 46-17 speed variation, 10-24, IO-25
corrosive well fluids, 4-4 Pattern types in firefloods and steamfloods, temperature rise, IO-26
fishing characteristics, 4-6 46-18 torque, IO-25
packer mechanics, 44 Payout, 41-3, 41-35, 41-36 Performance indicators,
purchase price, 4-6 Payout schedule, 41-31 common to both steamfloods and
retrievability, 4-5 Peace River field, 46-34 firefloods,
sealing elements, 4-5 Peak crank torque, 9-2, 9-3 changes in oil property, 46-15
surface/downhole equipment coordination, Peak polished-rod load, 9-2 oil recovery, 46-14, 46-15
4-4 Peak torque, IO-26 sweet efftciencv , 46- 14
through-tubing operations, 4-6 Pendular rings, 26-24 p&a&g to firefloods only,
Packer utiltzation, 4-1 to 4-3, 4-6 Penetration of acid, 54-8 air/oil ratio (AOR), 46-17
permanent packers, 4-3 Peng-Robinson equation, 20-8, 23-13 air requirements. 46-16
retrievable packers, 4-2, 4-3 Penn State arrangement, 28-5 fuel content, 46-16
success, 4-6 Pennsylvania, 18-l. 21-2, 24-1, 24-2, 24-6, pertaining to steamfloods only,
Packing of uniform spheres, 26-l 24-l. 44-1, 444, 47-22 steam/oil ratio (SOR), 46-15
Packoff element. 3-6 Pennsylvania Oil Producers, 17-1 Performance of solution-gas-drive
Painter field. Wyoming, 39- 16 Penultimate layer, 364 reservoirs, 37-1, 37-2
Pair production, 50-6 to 50-8, 50-13, 50-14, Percent factor, assigned spacing Performance predictions,
56-16 design line, 5-33 models, 37-19
Paleo-environments, interpretation of, 36-3, Percent-load design method, 5-42 of micellar-polymer flooding, 47-17
36-7 Percent-load intermittent-gas-lift of oil and gas reservoirs, 36-9, 36-10
Paleontologists, 57-8 installation designs, 544 of solution-gas drive, 37-14 to 39-18
Paloma field, California, 26-30 Percent-load production pressure, 548 of volatile oil reservoir, 37-22 to 37-26
Paluxy gas-condensate reservoir, Texas, Percent-tubing-load installation design, 548 Performance uroiiles, 5-20, 5-2 I
39-20, 39-2 I Percentage depletion, 57. I I Performance properties,
Pan AmericaniCasper Oil Co., 46-14, 46-18 Percentage-depletion allowance, 41-5, of casing, 2-l, 2-4 to 2-19. 2-32
Panama Canal, 18-7 41-13, 41-14 of pipe,-2-46, 2-54 to 2-56
Panhandle equation, 15-7 Percentage factor, gas lift, 5-32 of tubing, 2-38 to 2-43
Panhandle field, Texas. 44-30
Percentage-time controller, I64 Performance technique for reserve
Paper-tape-type H,S detector, 52-7
Percentage timer. LO-28 estimation, 40-I
Parachor, definition, 22-16
Percussion-sampling techniques, 27-9 Performance-time predictions, 43-9, 43-10
Parachors,
Percussion sidewall core data, 27-9 Performax plate pack, l9- 13
for hvdrocarbons. 22-18
Perforated-interval completion, 5-5 I Periodic inspection of separators, 12-40
for pure substances, 22-17
Perforating gun, 53-26 Periodic production tests, 12-17
Paraffin, 5-25, 5-52, 5-53, 6-31 to 6-33.
7.13. 11-13. 12-3. 12-7, 12-8. 12-10. Perforating operations, 5 I40 Peripheral flood, 44-2, 44-13, 44-17. 44-36
12-li. 12-40, 12-42, 19-4, 19-5. 19-9, Perforating pipe. 56-l Permafrost, 18-38, 1X-39, 18-41 to 18-43
19-10, 19.30. 26-3. 32-l I, 44-4 Perforation ball sealers, 54-10 Permafrost cement, 18-4 1
Paraffin hvdrocarbons. 20-13. 39-2 Perforation cleaning methods, Permafrost problem, 3-27
Paraffin inhibitors, 56-2 backflow, 56-5 Permanent packers, 4-l to 4-6, 4-8
Paraffin problem, 3-27 backsurging. 56-5 Permeability-block method, 40-19. 40-20.
Paraffin removal. 56- 1. 56-2 HCI preflush, 56-5 40-24, 40-26
Paraffin scrapers, 18-33 matrix acid stimulatton, 56-5 Permeability, calculations, 26-16
Paraffintc hydrocarbon series, 20-5 matrix treatment with acid, 56-5 changes, effect on radial flow, 54-9
Paraffinic o&. 6-67. 24-18 overflush, 56-5 consideration in waterflooding, 442
Paraguay, 58-20 perforation washing, 56-5 conversion of units in Darcy’s law, 26-13
Parallel-bore valves. 3-15 underbalance, 56-5- to 26-15
Parallel-plate interceptor (PPD. 15-24, 15-25 Perforation, sand control, 564, 56-5 correlation with tube-wave data, 51-48
Paris Academy of Science, l-68 Perforation tunnels. 56-l. 564, 56-5, 56-8 damage. 30-13, 30-14
Paris Valley field, California. 46-22, 46-23 Perforation washing. 56-5 definition of, 27-l. 28-l. 55-1
Paroscientitic digiquartz. 30-7 Perforations. locating. 53-26 distribution. 26-26, 36-3, 36-7, 39-16,
Parrish and Prausnitz development, 25-5 to Performance calculations, reciprocating 39-18 to 39-20, 40-12, 40-18 to 40-20,
25-9 pumps, 6-28 to 6-30 40-24. 40-25, 44-8. 44-15, 45-11. 45-12
Partial buildup curve. 30-9 Performance characteristics, jet pumps, 6-34 distribution factor. 40-16. 40-17
effective, 26-15, 28-l to 28-4, 28-6, 28-8. Petrophysical correlations. 28-12 pH, 24-16
28-13, 39-17, 44-32, 44-33, 46-21 Petrophysical descriptors, 50-2, 50-3 redox potential (Eh), 24-16, 24-17
factors affecting measurement, 26-18, Petrophysical measurements, 52-2, 52-26, resistivity, 24-16
26-19 52-27 surface (interfacial) tension, 24-16
factors in evaluation of, 26-19, 26-20 Petrophysical properties, 28-8, 47-20 viscosity, 24-16
tlow systems of simple geometry, 26-t 1 Petrophysical work, 48-8, 48-9 Phystcal properties of wellhead equipment,
to 26-13 pH, 244, 24-5, 24.16, 24.17, 4444 3-2, 3-3
from pressure-buildup curve, 30-12 pH control, 4440, 4442 Phystcal setup of metering system,
in acoustic logging, 51-47 Phase analysis, high-frequency, 27-l orifice location, 13-36
interstitial-water relationships, 26-23 Phase behavior, and interfacial tension, recorder, 13-36
introductory theory, 26-10, 26-11 47-14, 47-15 size of orifice and metering run, 13-36
limits of formations, 55-2 definition. 22-2 I, 23-I straightening vanes. 13-36
measurement of, 26-17, 26-18 of COJC,IC,, mixture, 23-9 Physico-chemical changes, 46-12, 46-13
net thickness product, 39-21 of gas/condensate system, 39-2 to 39-4, Piercement domes, 29-5. 29-7
of channels and fractures, 26-15, 26-16 39-12, 39-13 Piezoelectric element, 5 l-3
of matrix, 55-9 of pure component, 23-2 Piezoelectric transducer, 30-5, 30-6
of uack, 55-8 of surfactantlbrineioil system, 47-11 to Pig launcher, 15-14
of propping agents, 55-2, 55-8 47- 13 Pig trap, 15-14, 15-16
of reservoir rocks, 30-I 1, 39-13. 44-3 of water/hydrocarbon systems, 25-l to Pigging, 18-29
physical analogies to Darcy’s law, 26-16 25-28 Pile hammers, 18-23
pinchout, 4439 Phase-boundary curves, 45-3, 45-4 Pile jacking, 18-41
prediction, 50-2 Phase compositions, calculation of, 23-10 to Piled structures, 18-42, 1843
profile, 314, 364, 39-19, 44-3, 45-10. 23-13 Pilings, 3-3
51-47 Phase converters, types of, IO-35 Pilot floods, 4437 to 44-39
ratio, 37-14, 37-15 Phase diagrams, by measuring liquid Pilot-gas-control manifold, 16-15. 16-16
reduction, 47-3 to 47-5, 55-8 volumes at several temperatures, 39-7 Pilot-loaded regulators, 13-55
reduction factor. 35-5 of Eilert’s fluids, 39-3 Pilot-loaded valves, 13-55
relative, 28-1 to 28-3, 28-6, 28-8 to of gas condensate fluids, 394 Pilot LPG flood, 45-14
28-14, 28-16, 30-11, 39-13, 44-2, 44-4. of reservoir-fluid systems, 23-6, 23-7 Pilot-operated control valve. 13-53
44-5, 44-9, 55-X of single component, 23-1, 23-2 Pilot-operated diaphragm motor valve,
SPE preferred unit, 58-24, 58-25 of surfactant/brine/oil system, 47.11, 13-55
stratification, 39-18, 39-20 47-12 Pilot-operated dump valves, 16-5
transforms, 50-37 ternary, 23-5, 23-6 Pilot-operated gas-lift valve, 5- 13, 5-43,
unit in SI metric system, 58-24. 58-35, types of, 23-2 to 23-10 5-44, 5-51
58-36 Phase equilibrium, 12-2 1 Pilot-operated relief valve, I l-8, 12.40
variation, 39-19, 39-20, 39-23, 39-26. Phase equilibrium calculations, 20-10 Pilot operation, 45-10, 42-6
40-18, 40-19, 443, 448 to 4410, Phase lag, 53-20 Pilot plug, 13-54
4436, 45-7 Phase loss relay, lo-28 Pilot project, 40-3
viscosity ratio, 47-8 Phase rotation, 7- I3 Pilot relay, 13-50
Perm-plug method of permeability Phase rule, 23-2, 23-8, 25-t Pilot valve, 3-34
measurement. 26-17 Phase shift angle. 53-20 Pilot valve diaphragm failure, 11-S
Permeameter, 26-17, 26-18 Phenolic-resin gravel packing, 46-21 Piloted union-type rise coupling, 18-15
Permian Basin. 49. I 1 Philippine Islands, 58-20 Pin-and-socket connectors, 18-52
Persian Gulf, 4437 Phillips Petroleum Co., 16-13, 45-15, Pinchouts, 29-8
Personal computer, 39-l I, 39-12 46-24, 46-26 Pinnacle reefs, 36-5
Personal property, definition, 57-l Phosphoric acid. 11-6 Pipe analysis log (PAL), 53-20, 53-24,
Personnel protectton at wellsite, lo-31 Photoelectric absorption, 50-4, 50-7, 50-12 53-25. -
Peru, 40-14. 58-20 to 50-14, 50-17 Pipe analysis tool, 53-23
Peters factor, l-61 Photoelectric absorption factor, 50-7, 50-17, Pipe body safety factor, 2-2, 2-32. 2-34,
Petrographic analysis. 56-3 50-24, 50-33, 50-34 2-35
Petroleum engineering servtces, 52-2, 52-16 Photoelectric effect. 50-6 to 50-S Pipe-body yield strength, 2-2, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8,
to 52-27 Photographic history of injection-fluid 2-10, 2-12, 2-14, 2-16, 2-18, 2-32, 2-56
Petroleum engineers, 22-1, 22-14 fronts, 44-18 Pipe coils, 19-21
Petroleum Engineers Club of Dallas, 41-5 Photographs and visual examination of Pipe diameters,
Petroleum liquid, acoustic velocity in, 51-3 I cores. 46-2 I choosing in gas lutes, 15-7
Petroleum measurement subsidiary, 17-6 Photometry. I-69 choosing in liquid lines, 15-2
Petroleum reserves-definmons and Photomicrographs, 19-2 to 19-5 Pipe dope as formation contaminant, 56-3,
nomenclature, Photomultiplier. 50-12 to 50-14 564
possible, 40-2 Physical analogies to Darcy’s law, 26-16, Pipe-laying reels, 18-37
probable, 40-2 26-17 Pipe rams, 18-11, 18-15, 18-20
proved, 40-2. 40-3 Physical dimension of fiberglass sucker Pipe storage, 11-2, I l-4
proved developed, 40-3 rods, 9-l I Pipe taps, 13-3, 13-8 to 13-11, 13-20 to
proved undeveloped, 40-3 Physical models, 46-1 I to 46-13 13-25, 13-28, 13-29, 13-32
Petroleum reservoir engineering, 42-l Physical parameters and nuclear radiation, Pipe-wall thickness, 15. I 1
Petroleum reservoir engineering letter and 50-2, JO-3 Pipeline, gas, 36-2
computer symbols, 59-2 to 59-51 Physical-properties data of liquid Pipeline metering systems, 17-4
Petroleum reservoir traps, 29-l to 29-9 hydrocarbons, 17-5 Pipeline run statements, 41-9
Petroleum sulfonates, 47-7 Physical properties of foams, 47-8, 47-9 Pipeline trunk lines, 16-2
Petrophysical and physical parameters, Physical properties of oil, 21-3 to 21-8 Pipeline valve, 1 I-l I
relationship to nuclear logging, Physical properties of oil systems, 22-l Pipeline valve switches, 16-3
clay types, 50-2 Physical properties of produced waters, Piper diagram, 24-19
fluid identification, 50-2 compressibility, 24-12 to 24-14 Piping,
hydrocarbon saturation, 50-2 density, 24-14, 24-15 design considerations, 15-13
lithology, 50-2 dissolved gas, 24-17 drawings, 15-31
permeability. 50-2 formation volume factor (FVF), 24-15, on offshore platforms, 15-l 1
porosity. 50-1, 50-2 24-16 pressure breaks, 15-13
presence of hydrocarbons, 50. I organic constituents, 24-17, 24-18 pressure rating classes, 15-13
SUBJECT INDEX 53
pressure/temperature ratings, 15-13 Pneumatic actuators, 3-2 I, 3-27, 18-28 Pore-size distribuhon, 26-19, 26-24. 4427.
system design, IS-1 to 15-14 Pneumatic control valves. 16-3 47-5. 47-10, 51-30, 54-6
system materials, 15-7 to 15-l 1 Pneumatic controls, 13-49 Pore structure of rock, 26-10
Pisolith. 29-9 Pneumatic/hydraulic relay, 3-33 Pore-throat-blocking effect, 47-9
Plsolitic limestone, 29-8 Pneumatic pilots, 13-56 Pore throats, 47-21
Piston-and-valve assembly, 6-5 I Pneumatic/pneumatic relay, 3-33 Pore volume (PV), 26-l to 26-7. 26-22
F’lston BHP element, 30-I Pneumatic pressure control, 12-39 Pore-volume compressibility, 26-7 to 26-10,
Piston effect of tubing string, 4-9, 4-10 Pneumatic surface safety valve, 3-20, 3-21 47-37, 47-38
Piston gauge, 33-6 Poettmann and Carpenter correlation, 34-37 Pore volume, laboratory measurement, 26-5
Piston-like displacement, 447, 44-9 Poettmann’s method, 34-9 to 26-7
Piston pneumatic/hydraulic pump ratio, 3 -33 Point bars, 36-6 Porosimeter, 26-4 to 26-6
Piston/stem area ratio, 3-21 Poiseuille’s equation, 26-10, 26-15. 26.19, Porosity,
Piston-type actuators. 3-2 1 26-20 apparent water filled, 49-34
Pitcher niaule. 18-14. 18-15 Poisonous-gas sensors, 18-47 balance check, 49-30
Pitman siie members, 10-3, 10-4, IO-12 Poisson distribution, 50-5 by density log, 49-26, 49-34, 49-36,
Pitot tube. 13-2. 13-37, 13-45 to 13-48, Poisson’s ratio, 51-2, 51-4, 51-13, 51-37, 49-38
32-13, 32-14, 33-l to 33-4 51-43, 5144, 51-50 by electromagnetic-propagation tool,
Plain-end, liner casing, 2-32 Polar packs, 18-39 49-36
line pipe, 2-46, 2-G to 2-53 Polar blots, 53-12 by neutron log, 49-26, 49-34, 49-36.
Plait point, 23-5, 23-8 to 23-10, 47-l 1 to Polished-joint tubing hanger, 3-9 49-38
47-13 Polished rod, 8-10, 9-1, 10-1, 10-2, 10-5, by sonic log. 49-26, 49-27
Planar view. directional data presentation, 10-7 compaction and compressibility of porous
53-6 Polished-rod coupling, 9-4 rock, 26-7 to 26-10
Planning and preparations offshore, 18-3 to Polished-rod horsepower, 9-2, 9-3, IO-18 compressibility, 26-8
18-5 Polished-rod velocities and acceleration, definition of, 27-l
Plant costs, 39-l 1o-7 distribution, carbnate reservoirs, 36-6
Plant products, 39-9 to 39-l 1, 39-23 Polished-sealbore packer. 4-3, 4-8. 4-9 effect on formation factor. 49-4
Plastic blanket, 9-14 Polyacrylamide (P’AM), 47-3 estimating, 51-5, 51-33
Plastic-coated sand grains, 55-8 Polyacrylamide polymer, 44-39, 44-40 evaluation from acoustic log. 5 l-30
Plastic-collapse pressure equation, 2-54, Polyamine derivatives, 19-10 factor to consider in waterflooding, 44-2,
2-55 Polyemulsions, 55-8 44-3
Plastic lining for steel pipe, 15-10 Pol;ethylene. 1 l-9, 24-4, 24-5 index, 49-38
Plastic-packed secondary seal, 3-6 Polyethylene bedding jacket, 18-49 introduction, 26-1, 26-2
Plastic-packed-type seal, 3-9 Polyethylene line pipe, 15-10 investigation, 49-26
Plastic pipe, 15-10 Polyethyleneoxide (PEO), 47-3 laboratory measurement of, 26-3 to 26-7
Plasticity, 52-20 Polyglycol esters, 19-10 logs, 49-11, 51-29, 51-31, 51-32
Plate coalescers, 15-23 to 15-26 Polymer-driven flood, 47-2 1 measurement comparisons, 26-6
Plate-count method, 44-44 Polymer-flood statistics, 47-6 methods of determining, 26-4, 26-5
Plate heat exchanger, 19-23 Polymer flooding, 19-28, 47-l to 47-6, of consolidated rocks, 51-29 to 51-32
Plate-type heating elements, 19-21 47-10, 47-18. 47-22, 48-7 of poorly consohdated rocks, 51-33,
Platform deck layout for process facilities, Polymer gels. 55-5 51-34
18-30 Polymer properties, of secondary porosity. 51-31. 51-33
Platform jacket, 18-28, 18-34 biological degradation, 47-5 of shaly sand, 51-34, S 1-35
Platform loads. 18-44 chemical degradation, 47-5 profile, 36-4
Platform production. mechanical degradation, 47-5, 47-6 Rocky Mountain method, 49-31, 49-32
crude oil disposal, 18-29, 18-30 non-Newtonian effects, 47-4, 47-5 velocity relationship, 5 l-5
gas disposal, 18-30 permeability reduction, 47-5 Porosity determination,
process equipment, 18-28 polymer retention, 47-5 bulk-density measurement, 50-l. 50-2
water disposal, 18-30 viscosity relations, 47-4, 47-5 gamma-gamma density devices, 50-26 to
well completion, 18-28 Polymer retention, 47-5 50-28
well servicing, 18-28, 18-29 Polymer-solution viscosity, 47-4 neutron-porosity devices, 50-28 to 50-33
well workovers, 18-28, 18-29 Polymerisurfactant incompatibility, 47-13 Porous-diaphragm method of capillary-
Platform rigs, 36-2 Polymer types, 47-3 pressure measurement, 26-24, 26-2.5
Platform vibration, 12-23 Polymer waterflooding, 48-5 Porous diaphragm or membrane, 26-24
Platform well bay, 18-29 Polymerized oils, 19-10 Porous reservoir models, 44-17
Platinum-iridium standard, l-70 Polyphosphates, 44-15 Port configurations, gas-lift valve, 5-15
Plot of buildup with afterflow, 30-10 Polypropylene, I l-9. 12-12 Port size, selection for gas-lift valves, 5-28
Plot of water FVF vs. pressure, 24-15 Polysaccharides, 47-3 Port-to-bellows area ratio, 5-15
Plow steel, 304 Polyvinyl alcohol (PA), 47-3 Portable well testers, 32-6 to 32-8
Plug and abandonment of well, 18-20 Polyvinyl chloride, 1 l-9 Portland cement, 46- 19
Plug valves, 3-l 1 to 3-14 Polvvinvl chloride (PVC) &tic, 18-46 Portugal, 58-20
Plugback operations, 33-2 1 Pony rids, 9-l. 9-3, 9-11’ Position-sensing valve switch, 16-3
Plugging, 5-16, 5-23, 5-53, 14-2, 19-15, Pooling clause, 57-5, 57-6 Positive-death indicator, 56-5
19-30, 24-2, 39-25, 39-26, 44-36, 44-42 Poorly consolidated rocks, 51-33, 51-34 Positive-displacement meter, 12-6, 12-18.
to 44-45, 56-6 Pop-off safety release valve, 5-53 12-19, 16-2, 16-5 to 16-7, 16.12. 17-4
Plugging agents, 29-5, 39-26 POP-Off valve, 13-59 to 17-6, 32-6 to 32-8, 32-10 to 32-12
Plugging materials, 54-10 Porcelain diaphragm, 26-24 Positive-displacement meter, measurement of
Plunger application for intermittent gas lift, Pore aspect ratio, 51-9, 51-12 petroleum liquid hydrocarbons by, 17-4
5-52, 5-53 Pore compressibility, 26-7 Positive-displacement-meter prover tanks,
Plunger-arrival detector, 5-52 Pore configuration, 26-2 tables, 17-6
Plunger clearances, 8-6 Pore-fluid compressibility, 5 l-4 Positive-displacement-meter-type LACT
Plunger/engine (P/E) area ratio, 6-l 1 to Pore-fluid pressure, 28-4, 51-4, 51-5, 51-7, system, 16-13
6-13. 6-15, 6-16, 6-18, 6-27, 6-28, 6-30 51-8, 51-25. 51-30, 51-39, 51-44 Positive-displacement pumps. 6- 1, 6-34,
Plunger lift, 5-38 Pore geometry, 28-2, 54-6 6-49 to 6-51, 6-62, 13-54, 15-14, 15-17,
Plunger overtravel, IO-25 Pore liquid saturation, 27-9 28-4, 44-47
Plunger pumps, 6-50, 6-52 to 6-55, 8-5 Pore pressure, 52-18, 52-21, 52-22, 52-24 Positive-seal double-bag model, 7-11
Plunger stroke, 9-2 to 52-27 Positive-seal protector. 7-4, 7-5
Positive-volume dump meters, 16-13 PREOS. 25-R. 25-9, Z-16 Pressure-gradient traverse, 5-25
Positive-volume meters, 16-2, 16-5, 16-7 Preparation of well for testing, 33-6 Pressure-hydrometer test method, 17-J
Possible reserves, definition, 404 Present value or present worth, 41-3 to Pressure hysteresis, 48-10
Posted barges, 18-2 41-8, 41-12, 41-16, 41-17, 41-23. Pressure-loaded balanced diaphragm valve,
Potassium, 24-5, 24-9. 24-18. 24-20. 50-2 41-25, 41-27, 41-29, 42-6 13-56
to 50-4, 50-16, 50-18, 50-24 to 50-27, Present-worth factor, 41-25 Pressure log, 52-1, 52-26
50-34, 50-35 Present worth of an annuity, table, l-66 Pressure maintenance. 23-1, 40.4, 40.14.
Potassium chloride for control of clay Pressure and force m static plunger and 43-11 to 43-16, 48-2, 48-4
swelling, 46-20 cylinder assembly. 6-18 Pressure-maintenance operations, 18-44,
Potential distribution, 39-20 Pressure, average drainage-region, 35-19, 34-28, 43-l to 43-3. 43-8
Potential energy, 6-1, 6-34, 13-1, 13-2, 35-20 Pressure maintenance or cycling of GC
34-28, 34-29, 34-36 Pressure-balanced valves, 13-55 reservoirs.
Potential function, 26-l I Pressure-base factor, 13-3, 13-12 choosing between, 39-26
Potential gradient, 26-I I, 39-2 1 Pressure behavior, constant rate in closed combination recovery procedures, 39-24
Potential of a process, 13-50 reservoir, 35-2, 35-3 reservoir cycling, gas injection, 39-16 to
Potential tests, 12-17, 41-19 Pressure bombs, 304 39-24
Potential tests of oil wells, 32-l to 32-16 Pressure-buildup analysis, 39-18, 39-19 water drive and water inJection, 39-15,
Potentiometric model, 39.21, 39-22, 44.17, Pressure-buildup behavior, 30-14 39-16
4419, 4434 Pressure-buildup data, 6-48 Pressure-multiplier pump, 55-9
Potentiometric model studies, 39-20, 39-21 Pressure-buildup tests, 42-3, 424, 48-8 Pressure-operated gas-lift valve, 5-24
Potentiometric transducer, 30-5, 30-6 Pressure changes in wellbore, calculations Pressure, optimum of separator, 12-4
Poth “A” sand, 46-29 to 46-32 including, 46-6 Pressure/permeability data, 44-3
Pothead, 7-5 Pressure-composition phase diagram, 23-2, Pressure prlot, 13-56
Pounding, 6-33, 6-34 23-3, 23-6, 23-8, 23-9 Pressure/production history, 37-3, 37-6
Pour point, 21-7, 21-9, 21-10, 46-27, Pressure control for high-pressure well, Pressure profiles, 4-6, 35-4
46-3 1, 46-33 13-56 Pressure pulses, 53-l
Power cable, ESP, 7-5, 7-6 Pressure controls, separators, 12-39 Pressure radius, 4433
Power control manifold module, 6-54, 6-56 Pressure conversions. 58-7, 58-28. 58.29 Pressure range, GC reservoirs, 39-2
Power, definition of, 6-14 Pressure correction for gas viscosities, 20-9 Pressure rating classes of fittings, 15-13
Power-distribution system, offshore, 18-45 Pressure decline, rapid, 37-1, 37-2 Pressure ratings for steel pipe, 15-l 1
Power equivalents, table, 1-78 Pressure dependence, Pressure ratio, 6-36, 6-37, 6-45
Power-factor correction, lo-35 of compressional- and shear-wave Pressure recorders, 6-48
Power factor of motor, 10-25, IO-33 to attenuation, 51-6 Pressure-recording charts, two-pen, 5-18,
IO-35 of compressional- and shear-wave 5-23, 5-39, 5-41
Power fluctuations, ESP, 7-14 velocities, 51-5 Pressure-reducing regulator, 5-13. 12-39
Power fluid, 6-l to 6-5, 6-9, 6-10, 6-20, of porosity, 5 l-6 Pressure-reducing valve, 13-55
6-21, 6-24 to 6-30, 6-34, 6-37, 6-38, Pressure depletion, 26-21, 39-7 to 39.16, Pressure reduction in gas analysis, 52-17
6-41, 6-42, 648, 6-51, 6-60, 6-62 39-23, 39-24, 39-26, 44-l Pressure-reduction regulation, 13.54
Power-fluid discharge-pressure friction, 6-27 Pressure-depletion behavior, 39-4 Pressure regulators, 13-54
Power-fluid flow thyough nozzle, 6-42 Pressure-depletion operation of GC Pressure relationships used to estimate
Power-fluid friction, 6-30 reservoir, producing BHP, 6-28
Power-fluid friction pressure, 6-27 hydrocarbon/liquid-condensation effect, Pressure relief of storage tanks, 1l-7
Power-fluid gradient, 6-25, 6-26, 6-29, 6-30 39-13 Pressure-relief valve, 6-5 1, 1 l-8, 1 l-9,
Power-fluid pressure, 6-7, 6-9, 6-16 to prediction with laboratory-derived data 12-39, 19-28
6-18, 6-25, 6-27, 6-28, 641 to 6-43 and hydrocarbon analysis, 39-10, 39-l 1 Pressure ridges, 18-39
Power-fluid systems, 6-54 to 6-57 prediction with vapor/liquid equilibrium Pressure-sensing instrument (PSI), 7-7, 7-8
Power-fluid tubing friction pressure, 6-42 calculation and correlation, 39-l 1 to Pressure shock loads, 12-42
Power-fluid tubing string, 6-2, 6-3 39-13 Pressure, SI unit for, 58-5, 58.11, 58-23 to
Power-law coefficient, 47-4, 47-9 pressure drawdown at wells, effect on 58-25, 58-28, 58-29
Power-law model, 47-4, 55-5 productivity and recovery, 39-13 Pressure storage of products, 1 I - I2
Power method for parameter determination, relative merits of measured vs. calculated Pressure, surface closing, gas-lift valves,
48-16 behavior, 39-13, 39-15 5-44 to 5-46
Power-oil emulsion, 6-31 Pressure-depth diagram, 5-21 Pressure surveys, 5-2
Power-oil plunger pumps, 6-33 Pressure distribution, 35-6, 4417, 44-30 Pressure switches, 16-4
Power-oil tank and accessories, Pressure drawdown, 6-48, 34-31, 34-34,
Pressure/temperature diagram, 14-2
closed system, 6-59 35-6, 37-2, 37-19 to 37-21, 48-10
Pressure/temperature phase diagram, 23-6
open system, 6-57 to 6-59 Pressure drop, across sand-tilled
Pressure/temperature rating of steel, 3-38
Power stroke. IO-14 perforations, 564
Pressure-transducer technology, 30-6 to 30-E
Power supplies, uninterruptable (UPS’s), in flowing gas column, 34-9
Pressure transducers, 46-21
1845 in gas lines, 15-5, 15-7
Pressure-transient behavior, 354
Power triangle of motor, lo-33 to IO-35 in liquid lines, 15-2, 15-3
Pressure-transient tests, 5-3
Power, unit and detinmon, 58-11, 58-23, in tubing, 6-70, 6-71
58-24, 58-32 Pressure, effect on acid-reaction rate, 544, Pressure transition zone, 52-2 I
Powers of numbers, three-halves table, 54-5 Pressure traverses, 34-36, 34-41 to 34-44,
l-19, l-20 effect on gas-saturated crude oils, 22-16 41-41 to 41-44
Powers of numbers, two-thirds table, I-20 effect on tubing string. 4-9 Pressure/vacuum relieving system, 11-13
Powers of SI units, 58-12 Pressure equivalents, table, l-77 Pressure/vacuum valves, 1 l-8, 11-9
Pozzolan, 46-19 Pressure evaluation, 52-26 to 52-28 Pressure/volume (PV), compressibility,
Precision of gas meter, 13-l Pressure filters, 4447 51-49
Precision vs. accuracy, 58-8, 58-9 Pressure for hydrate formation, 25-8 diagram for pure components, 20-2
Predicted reservoir performance. 42-5. 42-6 Pressure, force and flow in dynamic plunger equilibrium cell, 204
Pre-exponential factor, 46-12 and cylinder assembly, 6-18 method for waterflood water
Preferred metric unit, 58-21, 58-26 to 58-38 Pressure function, 34-35, 37-8 requirements, 44-41
Preflush, Pressure gauges, 1242 relation, 20-2, 20-6, 39-7
hydrochloric acid, 56-5 Pressure gradient, 2-39, 34-29, 38-13, Pressure-volume-temperature (PVT),
micellar/polymer flooding, 47-10, 47-15 39-21, 44-3, 44-6, 44-15 analysis, 22-1, 22-5, 22-10, 22-13, 40-21
systems, 56-3 Pressure-gradient curves, 34-36 cell, 39-13
SUBJECT INDEX 55
data, 7-9, 37-3, 37-22, 40-6 Process characteristics, 13-50 to 13-53 Production-pressure-operated gas-lift valve.
properties, 44-37, 48-2, 48-13 Process control computer. 16-10 5-13, 5-16, 5-17. 5-21. 5-32, 5-33. 5-35
Pressure waves, 51-2 Process equipment and facilities offshore, to 5-37, 540, 5-54
Pressures and forces in reciprocating 18-28. 18-30, 18-32, 18-42 Production profile, 40-l
pumps. 6-10, 6-14 to 6-16 Process flow for expansion process. 14-8 Production-rate allowables. 32-1, 43-2,
Pressures and losses. Process flow sheets, 15-31 43-10
in closed power-fluid installation, 6-26 Process model, 28-3 Production-rate and time calculations,
in open power-fluid installation, 6-25 Process selection, 15-30 to 15-32 solution-gas-drive.
Pressures, forces and flows m hydraulic Processing plant, 11-13 introduction, 37-17
transformer, 6- 19 Procurement, an engineering effort, 15-31 rates based on IPR, 37-19 to 37-21
Pressures in downhole pumps. 6-16 to 6-19 Pro-Dip log and wellsite analysis, 49-37 rates based on PI, 37-19
Pressurized ball joints. 18-12, 18-13 Produced-fluid gradient, 6-25, 6-26, 6-29, time required for oil production, 37-21.
Preventton of emulsions, 19-5 6-44 37-22
Primary cementing, 56-4 Produced-product prices. 41. I I Production rate of gas wells, 33-20
Primary depletion, 37. I, 42-2 Produced water, 12-3. 24-5 Production rate variation (superposition),
Primary drainage, 28-12 Producer BHP, steamfloods, 46-17 35-8, 35-9
Prtmary electric power, 1X-44, I X-45 Producibdity of well, 39-5, 39-6 Production response from high-pH flood,
Prrmary electrical system, IO-29 Producing efticrency, 30-15 47-22
Primary functions of 011 and gas separators, Producing gas/oil ratio (GOR), 6-27, 37-l Production safety controls, 16-4
removal of gas from oil, 12-3 to 37-3, 37-5, 37-7. 37-9 to 37-14, Production separator, 12-17
removal of oil from gas, 12-3 37-22. 37-23, 37-26, 39-2 Production string, 3-39
separation of water from oil, 12-3, 12-4 Producing properties. check list of data Production structures offshore,
Primary oil recovery, 24-3, 40-33 required for oil and gas, 41-8, 41-9 artificial islands, 18-40, 18-41
Primary performance, injection operations, Producing wells, gravity type, 18-41, 18-42
42-3. 42-4 gas, 34-3 to 34-27 piled, 18-42
Primary-performance predictions, volatile oil gas-condensate, 34-27, 34-28 Production taxes, 41-l. 41-3, 41-4, 41-12
reservoirs, 37-23 gas/water flow, 34-27 Production tests, 18-34
Primary porosity, 26-l, 29-3. 36-6 Product thread form, extreme-line casing Production-transfer-pressure traverse, 5-36
Primary production. 41-12 joint, 2-64, 2-71. 2-72 Productive stringer. 36-7
Primary recovery. 42-l. 45-9 Production casing string, 3-S Productivity, decline or loss, 39-25
Primary-recovery methods and operations. Production data, ESP. 7-9 Productivity, effect of damage on, 54-8,
44-1. 44-2, 445, 44-36 Production decline, 41-9 to 41-l 1 54-9
Primary separation m separator, 12-19, Production decline curves, constant- Productivity, from drawdown tests. 4442
12-20 percentage, 40-28 to 40-32 Productivity index (PI), 5-38, 5.39, 5.45,
Primary separator gas, 39-6, 39-9. 39-10. decline tables for constant-percentage 641, 6-46, 30-10 to 30-13, 30-15, 32-2
39. I4 decline, 40-30 to 40-32 to 32-6, 34-30 to 34-36, 35-6. 35-10.
Primary stratigraphic traps, 29-4, 29-5 economic limit. 40-27 37-19 to 37-21, 40-27, 42-4. 46.10.
Primary term. habendum clause, 57-4. 57-5 general principles, 40-26, 40-27 58-14, 58-38
Primary waves. 5 l-2 harmonic, 40-29, 4 L 10 Productivity index for different GOR’s, 32-5
Prime movers for pumping units, hyperbolic, 40-28 Productivity-index/permeability correlation,
electric motors, IO-19 to IO-37 loss-ratio method. 40-32 32-4
internal-combustion engines, IO-14 to nominal and effective decline, 40-27 Productivity ratio, 30-13. 30-14
IO-19 relatronship between effective and nominal Productivity test, 24. I, 39-25
Principal amounting to a given sum, table, decline. 40-29 Products of crude oils, temperature
l-64. l-65 reserves and decline relationship, 40-32 correction for, 17-5, 17-6
Principle of additive volume, 20-l I straightening curves, 40-3 I Profile calipers, 53-17. 53-18
Principle of corresponding states, 20-4, to evaluate pilot flood performance, 44-39 Profile of a gravity system, 15-15
20-5. 20-9. 20-13 types of, 40-28. 40-29 Profiles, injection-gas volumetric
Principle of flux-leakage tool, 53-22, 53-23 types of plots. 40-3 1 throughput. 5-20
Principle of operation. reciprocating pumps. Production discharge friction pressure, 6-27 Profit margin. 41-6
6-8 to 6-32 Production equipment, Profit margin and cost relatronship, 36-2
Principle of superposttion, 38-l to 38-3 tank battery, I l-9 to 1 l-l I Profit-to-investment ratio, 41-7
Principles of regulation control. tank grades, I l-l 1 Profitability, 39-17
derivative response, 13-52. 13-53 Production fluid gradient, 5-40 Programmable calculators, 6-34, 6-38, 6-4 I,
nomenclature of process controls, 13-49, Production history. 41-9 6-46, 20-7, 20-9
13-50 Production loans, 44-5 Programmable controllers, 16-4, 18-47
Productton logging, 53-17
process characteristics, 13-50 Programmable logic controllers, 19-29
Production mechanisms, 46-4
proportional control, 13-5 I, 13-52 Programmer for oilfield motors, lo-27
Production packers,
reset, 13-52 Project control, 15-32, 15-33
classification and objectives, 4-l
Principles of TVD. TST, and TVT plots. Project definition, 15-30
combination tubing/packer systems, 4-l I
53-15, 53-16 Project design, thermal recovery.
considerations for packer selection, 4-4 to
Prism diagram, 47-12, 47-13 features common to both steamfloods and
4-6
Probabrhty theory, 26-28 firefloods,
in production packing, 56-8, 56-9
Probable error. factors for computing, table, referencea, 4-I 1 completion intervals, 46. I7
l-61 tubmg/packer forces on intermediate pattern selection, 46-17
Probable reserves, 40-4 packers. 4-I 1 producer BHP, 46-17
Problem examples: see Example problems tubing/packer systems, 4-6 to 4-9 features pertaining to firefloods only.
Problems. tubing response characteristics, 4-8 to air injection rate, 46-19
common to steamfloods and firefloods, 4-l 1 dry vs. wet gas combustion, 46-18
46-2 I. 46-22 tubing-to-packer connections. 4-1 WAR, 46-19
plaguing tirefloods only, 46-22 utilzation and constraints, 4-I to 4-3 features pertaining to steamfloods only,
plaguing steamfloods only, 46-22 Production payments. 41-1, 41-2, 41-t. steam injection rate. 46-18
Problems, special in or1 and gas separators, 41-9. 41-15. 57-7 steam quality, 46- 18
corrosion, 12-S Production-pressure effect. 5-18, 5-30 Project execution format. 15-31, 15-32
paraffin, 12-7. 12-8 Production-pressure factors, 5-14, 5- I7 to Project inspection and expediting, 15-31
sand. silt, mud, salt. etc. 12-8 5-22. 5-24. 5-26. 5-27. 5-32. 5-33, Project management, 15-30 to 15-32
separating foaming crude oil, 12-6, 12-7 S-35, S-39, S-40. 5-42. 5-44, 5-48, 5-54 Projected oil recovery. 42-2. 42-3
Prolog wellsite analysis, 49-37 Protectmn equipment for oilfield motors. Pulsed-data transmission systems, 17-4
Pronunciation of metrjc terms, 58-13 air circuit breaker, lo-28 Pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance analyzer,
Propagarion time, 49-32, 49-34 control fuses, IO-29 52-26
Propane as IC engine fuel, IO-16 lightning arresters, IO-28 Pulsed-neutron logging. 50-36
Propane as refrigerant, 14-9 motor fuses, IO-28 Pulsed-neutron logging devices, 50-2 1,
Propane compressibiliiy table, 17-7 motor-winding temperature sensors, 10-29 50-22
Propane critical pressure, 25-3 over-temperature lockout circuit, 10.29 hltrusion process, 9- 12
Propane/water system. 25-2. 25-3. 25-17, phase loss relay. 10-28, IO-29 Pump discharge pressure, 6-17, 6-25 to
25-25. 25-21 pumping-unit vibratmn switch, lo-29 6-21, 6-28, 6-41 to 6-43, 6-47, 6.49,
Properties and behavior of gas condensate thermal-overload relay, lo-29 6-5 1
tluids, under-voltage relay, lo-28 Pump displacement, 6-I 1 10 6-13, 6-15,
composition ranges, 39-2 Protective coatings, 9-10 6-16. 6-21, 6-24. 6-29, 6-30, 6-52 to
gas/liquid ratios, 39-4 Proved developed reserves, definitmn, 40-3 6-55, 8-5. 8-9, 9-2
introduction, 39-l Proved reserves definitmns, 40-2 Pump drivers, 15-15, 15-16
liquid contents, 39-4 Proved undeveloped reserves, definition, pump efficiency, 6-24. 6-3 1, 6-37, 6-38,
phase and equilibrium behavior, 39-2 to 40-3 6-49, 46-2 1
39-4 Proving systems, 17-4 Pump-efficiency equations, 6-68
pressure and temperarure ranges. 39-2 Proximity log (PL), 49-22 to 49-25, 49-27 Pump-end volumetric efficiency, 6-2 I, 6-22
properties of separated phases, 39-4 Prudhoe Bay field. Alaska. 18-3, 18-39, Pump intake, 7-4, 7-5
viscosities, 39-4 18-41, 48-17 Pump-out method of solution mming, I l-13,
Properties of construction materials for Pseudo-Rayleigh waves. 51-12 to 51-14. II-14
pressure vessels, 12-41 51-25. 51-27 Pump performance curve, 7-10, 7-l 1
Properties of crude oils and gas Pseudobinary diagram, 23-9 Pump piping and installation, 15.17
condensates, 39-2 Pseudocomponenta, 47-I 1 Pump-protector motor unit, 7-2
Properties of produced waters, Pseudocritical calculations, Pump selection, 8-2 to 8-4
analysis methods for oilfield water, 24-5 from gas analysis, 40-21 Pump-selection table. 7-10
chemical properties of oilfield waters, from specific gravity, 40-22 Pump speed, maximum rated, 6-I I to 6.13.
24-5 to 24-13 Pseudocritical constants, corrected, 20-5 6-15, 6-16, 6-21
morgamc constituents, 24-9, 24-12 Pseudocritical density, 20-10, 20-15 Pump submergence. 6-25. 6-26
interpretation of chemical analyses, 24-18, Pseudocritical pressure, 20-5. 20-7, 20-10, Pump suction gradient, 6-42, 6-44
24-19 20-16. 22-12, 40-21, 40-22 Pump-suction (intake) pressure, 6-4, 6-17.
introduction and history, 24-I to 24-3 Pseudocritical properties, 22-2 I, 34-4 6-25, 6-26, 6-38, 6-43. 6-47
nomenclature, 24-20 PseudocrItical properties of C, + , 20. IO Pump terminology, 8-2. 8-6 to 8-9
occurrence. origin. and evolution of Pseudocritical temperature, 20-S, 20-7, Pumpdown pressure recorders, 6-34
oilfield waters, 24-19. 24-20 20-10. 2I)-16. 22-12, 40-20, 40-21 Pumped-off well, definition of, 10-27
physical properties of oilfield waters. Pbeudocrltical-temperature gradient factor. Pumping equipment for fracturing, 55-9
24-12 to 24-18 20-7 Pumping speed factor. IO-6
recovery of minerals from brmes. 24-20. Pseudocriticals. for heptanes and heavier, Pumping speed, maximum practical. 9-4,
24-2 1 21-17 9-5
references, 24-21, 24-22 of gases and condensate well fluids, 21-19 Pumping-unit bearings, IO-5
sampling, 24-3 to 24-5 Pseudogeometrical factors, 49-22, 49-25 Pumping-unit design calculations, IO-8 to
Properties of separated phases, CC streams, Pseudoliquid density, 22.2 to 22.4 10-l I
39-4 Pseudophase theory, 47-13 Pumping-unit geometry, 9-2. IO-2
Properties of ternary diagrams, 23-4 Pseudoreduced compressibility, 20-I 1, Pumping-unit loading, IO-5
Proportional action of controller, 13-52 20-12, 22-12, 22-13 Pumping units, 10-I to IO-13
Proportional control, 13-49, 13-51 to 13-53, Pseudoreduced pressure, 20.5. 20-9, 20-l 1, Pumpoff, 7-6. 7-10, 7-16
13-56 20-12. 22-13, 22-21. 40-21 Pumpoff controls, lo-27
Proportional counter, 50- 14 Pseudoreduced properties, 22-21, 34-5 to Pumpstroke counter, 52-I I
Proportional pilot for pneumatic service, 34-7, 34-10 to 34-22. 34-24 Pure Oil Co., 54. I
13-56 Pseudoreduced temperature, 20.5. 20.9, Purging offshore distribution system, IS-46
Proportional/reset controller, 13-52 20-11. 20-12, 22-13, 40-21 Pycnometer, 26-3
Proportionality constant for rock, 26. II Pseudorelative-permeability curves, 37-4, Pycnometer method, 52-19
Proppant, 48-8 to 48-10, 48-12 Pyo&type thermocouple, 16-7
density, 55-8 Pseudorelative-permeability data, 37-4, 37.5 Pyramidal rule, 40-5
grain roundness factor. 55-8 Pseudostatic SP. 49-9, 49-10. 49-28 Pyrenees Mts., 46-27
grain size, 55-8 Pseudosteady state, 35-2, 35-3, 35-7, 35-8, Pyroanalyzers, 52-28
Pyrolysis. 52-l
grain-size distribution. 55-8 35-10. 35-12 to 35-14. 35-16
grain strength, 55-8 Pseudosteady-state aquifer productivity
permeability. 55-8 index. 38-8 Q
placement, 55-8 Pseudosteady-state behawor. 35-6 to 35.8,
Quadruple point. 25-15
quality, 55-8 35. I5
Quality control. 12-38
transport. 55-7, 55-9 Pseudosteady-state flow. 5.25. 32.3 to 32-6,
Quality factor. 5 l-4
Proppant-transport properties, 55-5 33-5 to 33-7, 34-30, 34-31, 37-19,
Quality of foams, 47-8
Propping agent, 37-2 I
Quality of separated fluids. 12-13, 12-15
amounts used. 55-l Pseudoternary diagram, 45-2. 45-3, 45-5
Quality power oil, 6.55
definition of, 55-2 Public Law 93-380, Aug. 21, 1974, 1-69
Quantities (chemical, electrical, and
grain size of, 55-8 Public Law 94-168. Dec. 23, 1975, 1-69 physical) in alphabetical order, 59.18 to
grain strength of, 55-8 Puffer, 52-6 59-5 I
permeability, 55-4 Pull bar. 7-12 Quantity, definition. 58-9
placement of, 55-8 Pull curves. casing-hanger. 3-6, 3-7 Quartzose sediments. 29-7
Propylene. 14-9 Pull-m procedure, IS-37 Quaternary compounds. 44-45
Propylene compreasdxlity table, 17-7 Pull sheet, 53-17 Quaternary diagrams. 24-19
Propylene/water system. 25-25 Pull tube, 8-4 Quench water. 46-2 I, 46-22
Propyneiwater system, 25-25 Pulling and running sucker rods, 9-10 Quick-cycle units, 14-10, 14.13
Proration, 41-3, 41-10, 41-11 Pullout strength of line-pipe joint, 2-62 Quintaplex pump, 55-9
Proration records, 13-3 Pulsation dampers, 6-50. 6-51, 6-61. 15-17 Quintiplex positive-displacement pump, 6-I.
Protected~slope production island, 1X-40 Pulse testing or testa, 36-7. 36-8, 48-8 6-49. 6-5 1
SUBJECT INDEX 57
R equihbrium, 21-1 I, 21-16. 23-11, 25-5, Real gases. 20-4

39-6, 39-9. 39-1 I to 39-13, 39-15 Real property, definition. 57-l
Rabbiting, 56-3 equilibrium vaporization, 37-23 Receipt and delivery tickets, 17-7
Radial aquifers, 38-2 to 38-4, 38-8 to 38-19 gas-gravity/condensate-gas, 34-28 Receiver of sonic meter, 13-49
Radial differential temperature log, 31-7 gas/oil, 5-25, 5-26. 6-24, 6-25, 6-29, Reciprocal gas formation volume factor,
Radial-flow equation, 30-12 6-30, 6-38, 6-39, 6-44. 6-47, 12-35, 40-22, 40-23, 40-33, 40-34
Radial-flow pumps, 15-15 22.20, 3441 to 34-43, 34-47 to 34-44, Reciprocal mobility ratio, 44-19. 4422,
Radial-flow system, 26-13 to 26-15 38-16, 39-l, 39-2. 40-33, 41-8, 4439, 44-23
Radial frontal advance, 38-13 58-38 Reciprocal of numbers. table, I-21 to 1-23
Radial geometry, definition, 38-l injectivity/productivity, 46-17 Reciprocated induction curve, 49-15
Radial gridded simulator, 37-21 liquid/gas, 12-35, 39-2, 39-5 Reciprocating oilwell pumps, 8-l
Radial pseudogeometrical factors, 49-20 methods. 49-28 Reciprocating piston positive-displacement
Radians expressed in degrees, table, 1-43 net-pay/net-connected-pay, 36-17 meter, 32-l I
Radiation, 46-4 net-profit/initial-investment, 41-22 Reciprocating pump,
Radiation detector. 50-14 net-profit/unreturned-investment balance, displacement of downhole pumps, 6-2 1,
Radiation heat-transfer coefficient, 46-5 41-22 6-24
Radiation log. 49-25 of differential pressure to absolute equipment selection and performance
Radiation, units and conversions, 58-37 pressure, 13-8 calculations, 6-28
Radio frequency, 19-3 I of epithermal counting rates, 50-20, SO-29 fluid friction and mechanical losses in
Radio-frequency preheater, 9-12 of gas-cap/oil-zone volume, 37-5, 37-6, hydraulic pumps. 6-19 to 6-21
Radio triangulation systems, 18. I8 37.13, 37-14 for waterfloods, 15.14. 15.15, 15.17,
Radioactive capture, 50-9 of net profit. constant, 41-20 15-18
Radioactive decay, 50-4, 50-6, 50-21 of nozzle area to throat area, 6-34 gas/liquid ratio in vented systems, 6-27
Radioactive isotopes, 50. I5 of orifice to pipe diameter, 13-36 in closed power-fluid systems. 6-4
Radioactive rocks. 58-33 of pump displacement to engine in reverse-flow systems, 6-5
Radioactive tracers. 284, 46-2 I displacement, 6-18 manufacturer speciticatlons, 6-l 1 to 6-13,
Radioactivity logging and logs, 41-8, 5142 oil/steam, 46-9. 46-15, 46-23 6-15, 6-16
Radioactivity surveys, 49-l permeability. 37-14, 37-15 multiphase flow and pump discharge
Radiograph, of areal sweepout efficiency. permeability/viscosity, 47-8 pressure, 6-27
44-18 piston/engine (P/E), 6-l I to 6-13, 6-15, pressure and force balance in downhole
of welded pipe, 1241 6-16. 6-18. 6-27, 6-28, 6-30 pumps, 6-16 to 6-19
Radioisotopes, 46-2 I piston pneumatic/hydraulic pump, 3-33 pressure and forces in, 6-10, 6-14 to 6-16
Radionuclide. 58-10 pore aspect. 51-9. 51-12 pressure relationships used to estimate
Radium. 50-4. 50-6, 50-15 pressure. 6-36. 6-37. 6-45 producing BHP, 6-28
Radius of circumscribed circle, equation, producing gas/oil, 6-27, 37-l to 37-3, principle of operation, 6-8 to 6-10
I-36 37-5, 37-l. 37-9 to 37-14, 37-22, 37-23, subsurface troubleshooting guide, 6-3 I
Radius of curvature method of calculating 37-26, 39-2 system pressures and losses in hydraulic
directional surveys, 53-5 productivity, 30-13, 30-14 installations, 6-24 to 6-27
Radius of inscribed circle. equation. l-36 profit-to-investment, 41-7 turbulence in, 19-5
Ram preventera. 18-l I, 18-12, 18-15 sand. 36-4 worksheets and summary of equations,
Ramey’s equation for wellbore heat solubilizatlon, 47-13, 47-14, 47-20 6-29, 6-30
transmission, 46-5. 46-6 stage compression, 39-24 Recoil electron ejection, 50-12
Ramey’s generalization of Marx- stage pressure, 12-33 Recombined separator samples, 39-5
Langenheim method, 46-8 steam/oil. 46-8, 46-14, 46-15, 46-23, Recommended practices before unloading,
Random flood pattern or network, 44-13, 46-24. 46-27 5-53
44-14. 44-17 steam/tar. 46-27, 46-28 Recompletion costs. 41-9, 4 I 12
Randomized network model, 28-12 sulfur/oxide. 52-7 Recompletions. 41-9, 44-7
Range lengths. API casing and liner casing, surface~gas~gravity/weKtluid~gravity, Recorder for metering system, 13-36. 13-37
2-3 21-17 Recording acoustic data. methods of.
API tubing, 2-37 tube amplitude, 51-47, 5148 acoustic-array logging, 5 l-25 to 5 I-27
line pipe, 2-47 velocity. 51-38 amplitude/time recording, 51-18
Rangeability of gas meter, 13-I. 13-45, viscosity, 43-5, 43-6, 45-7, 45-l I
conventional acoustic logging, 5 I I5 to
13-48 viscosity vs. pseudoreduced temperature,
51-18
Rangely field. Colorado, 23-9. 23-10. 20-9
intensity/time recordmg. 51. I8
26-23, 48-6 viscous/gravity forces. 44-25
introduction, 5 I I4
volumetric, 55-6
Raoult’s law. 23-l 1 long-spaced acoustic logging, 5 I- I9 to
water/oil, 19-17, 24-20, 28-5, 34-41,
Rarefactions, 51-2 51-24
40-18 to 40.20, 447, 44-9. 441 I.
Rasching rings, 12-10 reflection, 51-27. 51-28
44-3 I, 44-32. 44-39. 46-33
Rate/cumulative curve or relationship, shear-wave logging, 5 l-24, 5 1-25
water/oil mobility. 43-7. 448, 47-6
40-25. 40-27 to 40.29, 40.31, 40-32 Recording ammeter, 7-14
water/oil viscosity, 40-18, 44-10
Rate-dependent skin factor, 35-10 Recording caliper logs, 53-16
Reaction kinetics, 48-2
Rate of frontal advance, 39-17 Recoverable gas reserves, 40-24, 40-27
Reaction-rate equation. 46-12
Rate-of-penetration (ROP). 52-l I, 52-13. Recoverable gasoline content. 20-I I
Reaction rate of acids, factors affecting,
52-18. 52-24. 52-25. 52-27 to 52-29 Recoverable hydrocarbon reserves, 4 l-3
acid concentration. 54-5
Rate-of-penetration log. 52-1 area/volume ratio, 54-5 Recoverable hydrocarbons, 39-26
Rate of return (ROR), 41-6 to 41-8. 41-16 corrosion inhibitors. 54-6 Recoverable oil, 40-27, 44-32, 4437. 44-38
to 41-24, 442 flow velocity, 54-5 Recovery by miscible displacement, 45-9.
Rate/pressure curves. 44-36 formation composition, 54-6 45. IO
Rate/time curve or relationshlp, 40-27 to pressure, 54-4 Recovery by pressure maintenance, 39-9
40.29, 40.31, 40.32, 41-10 temperature. 54-4. 54-5 Recovery efficiency, 39-l I, 39-15. 42-5.
Ratio(s). Reactive tluids. effect on permeability 43-2, 43-6, 43-9. 44-3. 45-B. 45.12.
air/water, 46-33 measurements. 26-18. 26-19 45-13, 46-14, 46-27. 47-16, 47-17
compression, 6-10, 6-21, 8-9, 8-10. Reactive power rating of transformers Recovery-efficiency factor, 40-16. 40-17
10-15, 18-14, 39-24 (kVAR). 10-31, lo-33 to IO-35 Recovery estimates. 40. I
conductance, 4434 Real-gas law, 20-4. 20-I I Recovery factor, 40-l. 40-I 1. 40-19. 40-20.
damage. 30-13 Real-gas pseudopressure, 35-10 40-23, 40-25 to 40-27
Recovery factor, average from correlation reservoir simulation, 48-17 to 48-20 introduction, 28-1, 28-2
of statistical data, 40-16, 40-17 solution-gas-drive oil reservoirs, 37-27 measurement methodologies, 28-3 to 28-9
Recovery factor vs. reserv~lr pressure, subsurface sucker-rod pumps, S-10 nomenclature, 28-14
37-14, 37-15 sucker rods. 9-14 of reservoir rock, 44-4, 44-5
Recovery from gas reservoirs with water surface facilities for waterflooding and ramifications needing attention, 28.12,
drive, 40-26, 40-27 saltwater disposal, 15-33, 15-34 28-13
Recovery of LPG products, 45-12 temperature in wells, 31-7 recent literature, 28-9, 28-10
Rectangular tanks, 1 l-2 thermal recovery, 46-43 to 46-45 references, 28-15, 28-16
Rectilinear flow of compressible fluids, typical core analysis of different Relative-permeability characteristics, 37-2,
26-11 formations, 27-9 37-19, 44-27
Red Sea, 24-19 valuation of od and gas reserves, 41-37 Relative-permeability curves, 28-6, 28-8 to
RedalertTM motor controller, 7-6, 7-16 water-drive oil reservoirs, 38-20 28-13, 34-31, 39-13, 44-6, 46-13,
Redlich and Kwong equation, 20-7, 20-8, water-Injection pressure maintenance and 46-34, 46-37
23-12, 23-13 waterflood processes, 44-49 to 4452 Relative-permeability data, 37-3, 37-4,
Redox potential (Eh), 24-4, 24-5, 24-9, well-performance equations, 35-21 37-10, 39-9, 40-13, 43-11, 46-12
24-16, 24-17 wellbore hydraulics, 34-55, 34-56 Relative-permeability-ratio data, 37-23
Reduced properties, definition, 22-2 1 wellhead equipment and flow-control Relative-permeability ratios, 40-8 to 40.12,
Reduced-state relationships, 22-2 1 devices, 3-40 40-14, 43-5 to 43-7. 43-12
Reduced vapor pressure, 20-13 Reflected conical wave, 51-12 Relative pipe roughness, 15-2. 15-3, 15-7
Reducing agents, 54-7, 56-3 Reflection method, acoustic-wave- Relative-roughness factor, 34-2, 34-3,
Reduction factor or ratio, 6-50, 49-9 propagation logging. 51-I I, 51-27. 34-38, 34-40
Redundancy, subsea production facilities, 51-28 Relaxation pressure, 40-34
1848 Reflection peak, 49-13 Relays for motors, IO-28
Redwater D-3 pool, Alberta, Canada, 40-20 Refrigerants, comparison of common types, Reliability/maintainability, subsea production
Redwater field, Alberta, Canada, 40-Z 14-9 facilities, 18-48
Reel barges, 18-37, 1X-38 Refrigerants, properties of six types. 14-10 Reliability of gas meter, 13-l
Re-entry systems, 18-14 Refrigerated storage, 1 l-12 Reliability of sensors. 3-3 1
References (see also General References), Refrigeration process, 14-9 Remedial operations, 4-9, 33-22
acidizmg, 54-12 Regeneration cycle, 14-10 Remedial work, 41-8
acoustic well logging, 51-50 to 5 l-52 Regeneration gas, 14-l 1 to 14-14, 14-20, Remedial workover operations, 39-24
automation of lease equipment. 16-16 14-21 Remote, closed-loop controls, 18-46
bottomhole pressures, 30.16. 30-17 Regeneration-rate controller, 16-15 Remote control of subsea equipment, 18-48
casing, tubing, and line pipe, 2-74 Regeneration system, 14-6, 14-7, 14-l 1, Remote-control valves, 18-3
chemical floodmg, 47-24 to 47-26 14-12 Remote-controlled SSV system. 3-34
crude-oil properties and condensate Regression equations, 46- 15 to 46-17 Remote terminal umt (RTU), 16-4, 16-6,
properties and correlations, 2 i-20 Regular polygons, table, 1-36 16-8 to 16-l 1
development planning for oil wells, Regulator types, 13-54 to 13-57 Removal of acid gases, 14-21, 14-22
36.10, 36-l 1 Regulatory agencies, 16-1, 16-2, 18-12, Removal of CO,, 14.17, 14.21, 14-22
electric submersible pumps, 7-17 19-28. 32-1, 32-2, 32-15. 33-5, 40-1, Removal of gas from oil, 12-3
electrical logging, 49-41 40-3, 40-4. 41-3. 43-2 Removal of gas from oil in separators,
estimation of oil and gas reservoirs, Regulatory agency form, 32-2 methods used,
40.37. 40-38 Regulatory codes. 18-44 agitation, 12.13
formation fracturmg. 55-10 Reid vapor pressure (RVP), 12-33, 14-13. baffling, 12-13
gas-condensate reservoirs, 39-27. 39-28 17-3, 21.1Y centrifugal force, 12-13
gas-injection pressure maintenance in oil Reiatel diagram, 24-19 chemicals, 12-13
reservoirs, 43-19 Relationship, heat, 12-13
gas lift, 5-57 between bending and curvature radius of settling, 12-13
gas measurement and regulation, 13-59 casing, 2-61 Removal of HZS, 14.17, 14.21, 14-22
gas properties and correlations, 20-18 between total and external load of casing, Removal of oil from gas, 12-3
hydraulic pumping, 6-72 2-6 1 Removal of oil from gas in separators,
lease-operated hydrocarbon-recovery Relative atomic mass, 58-24 methods used,
systems, 14-22 Relative bearing, dipmeter. 53-10 centrifugal force, 12-9, 12-10
measuring, sampling and testing crude oil. Relative density, correction of observed coalescence, 12-10, 12-l I
17-8 value, 17-5, 17-6 density difference (gravity separation),
mixable displacement, 45. I3 to 4% 15 definition of, l-80, 58-24 12-8
mud logging, 52-30 hydrometer test method, 17-5 filtering, 12-l 1
nuclear logging techniques, 50-38 of C,+ fraction. 20-10 flow-direction change, 12-9
offshore operations, 18-52 of crude petroleum, 17-5 flow-velocity change, 12-9
oil and gas separators. 12-43 of liquid petroleum products, 17-5 impingement, 12-9
oil storage, 1 I- 14 of natural gas, 20- I3 Removal of water vapor, 14-17 to 14-21
oil-system correlations, 22-21, 22-22 Relative dielectric permittivity. 49-32 Repeatability of BHP gauges, 30-4. 30-6
open flow of oil wells, 33-23 Relative molecular mass, 58-24 Repeatability of meters, 13-48
other well logs. 53-26 Relative oil volume, definition, 22-21 Reperforation, 56-l
petroleum reservoir traps. 29-9 Relative permeability, Representative-element simulation, 48-7
phase behavior of water-hydrocarbon calculating cumulative gas production, Reproducibility, 13-50
systems. 25-20 to 25-24 31-10 Reserve SPE letter symbols, 59-2 to 59-51
phase diagrams, 23-13 conclusions, 28-13, 28-14 Reserve SPE subscripts. 59-52 to 59-70
potential tests of 011 wells, 32-16 critique of recent work. 28-10 to 28-12 Reserved production payment, 4 I - 1
production packers, 4-l I curves, 28-6, 28-8 to 28-13 Reserves.
properties of produced water, 24-21 to definition. 2X-l and decline relationship, 40-32
24-23 effect of GOR or WOR changes, 30-l I cost of developing. 42-1, 42-2
propertles of reservoir rocks, 26-33 factor in waterflooding, 44-2 possible, 36-l. 40-4
pumping units and prime movers for framework ideas, 28-2, 28-3 probable, 36-1, 40-4
pumpmg units. IO-37 general references, 28-16 proved, 36-l. 40-2. 40-3
relative permeability, 28-15. 28-16 historxal background, 28-2 proved developed, 40-3
remedial cleanup and other stimulation in determining mobdity in a layer, 44-9 proved undeveloped, 40-3
treatments. 56-9 in two-phase fluid flow, 55-8 ultimate depletion of. 42-2
SUBJECT INDEX 59
Reserves, oil and gas, Indicators pertaming to firefloods. 46-16 Resistance thermal detector (RTD), 16-7
definition and nomenclature, 40-2, 40-3 prediction of. 36-9, 36-10 Resistivity.
estimating, 40-1, 40-2, 40-12 Reservoir performance data, 37-7 annulus region, 49-6, 49-7
general references, 40-38 Reservoir productivity guide, 52-16 apparent, 49-7
glossary of terms, 40-3, 40-4 Reservoir-rock characteristics, 36-l. 36-2. devices, requirements for and types. 49-7
nomenclature, 40-35 to 40-37 42-4, 42-S formation factor. 49-4
nonassociated-gas reservoirs. 40-2 1 to Reservoir-rock heterogeneity, 28-l 1 formation, relation to saturation. 49-5
40-26 Reservoir-rock properties, formation waters. 49-4, 49-26
oil- or gas-in-place computation, 40-5 to continuity of, factor in waterflooding, in permeable formations invaded by mud
40-S 44-2. 44-3 filtrate. 49-5 to 49-7
oil reservoirs under gravity drainage, electrical conductivtty of fluid-saturated index. 49-5. 49-26
40-14. 40-15 rocks, 26-27 to 26-29 invaded zone 49-6. 49-7
oil reservoirs with gas-cap drove, 40-13. empirical correlatton of electrical logging devices, 49-l 1 to 49-14
40- 14 properties. 26-29 to 26-32 mud, 49-4
oil reservoirs with water drive, 40-15 to fluid saturations, 26-20 to 26-27 mud-filtrate, 49-4
40-2 I nomenclature, 26-32 mudcake, 49-4
performance curves, 40-32 permeabihty, 26-10 to 26-20 ranges of. 49-5
production-decline curves, 40-26 to 40-32 porosity, 26-l to 26-10 scales, 49-2 1
references, 40-37, 40-38 references, 26-33 true, determination of. 49-27
reservoir-volume computation, 40-4, 40-5 Reservoir simulation, as extension of uncontaminated zone, 49-27
saturated depletton-type oil reservoirs, material-balance technique, 36-7 units, 49-2
40-8 to 40-12 general references, 48-20 versus NaCl concentration, 49-3
undersaturated oil reservoirs without water htstory of, 48-1. 48-2 water,
drive. 40-12 introduction, 48-1 dependence on salinity and temperature.
volatile 011 reservoirs, 40-13 mathematical models for, 43-17 49-3
Reservoir above bubblepoint pressure. 38-13 models, 38.16, 40-34, 43-2, 43-17, 48-l relation to formation resistivity, 49-5
Reservoir anisotropy, 36-8 to 48-9 Resistivity index, 26-28, 26-29, 26-3 I, 44-6
Reservoir below bubblepoint pressure, 38-13 nomenclature, 48-17 Resistivity log, 51-33
Reservoir continuity, 36-6 to 36-8 purpose of. 48-6, 48-7 Resistivity of a material, definition, 26-28
Reservoir-controlled fluids, 55-2, 55-4 references, 48- 17 to 48-20 Resistivity of formation water, 24-14. 24-16
Reservoir coverage. 39. I8 studies of gas-condensate reservoirs, Resistivity of partially water-saturated rocks,
Reservoir cycling efticlency, 39-17, 39-18, 39-22 26-3 I, 26-32
39-22, 39-23 technology, 48-13 to 48-17 Resolution of BHP gauge, 30-2, 30-4, 30-6,
Reservoir cycling, gas injection, validity of results, 48-9 to 48-13 30-7
calculation of cycling performance, 39-17 Reservoir-simulation models, 38-16, 40-34, Response time, subsea valves, 18-49 to
to 39-20 43-2, 43-17, 48-1 to 48-9 18-51
dry-gas injection, 39-16 Reservoir simulators, 28-14, 36-7, 36-10, Responses of normals and laterals in hard
inet--gas injection, 39-16. 39-17 46-11 formations, 49-13
noninjection-gas requirements, 39-23, Reservoir traps, 29-1 to 29-9 Restored pressure measurement, 5 l-31
39-24 Reservoir volume, computation of, 40-4, Restored-state capillary-pressure method,
prediction of operations with mathematical 40-5 26-24, 26-25, 284, 28-10
reservoir simulator, 39-22, 39-23 Reservoir-volume estimation, 38-9, 38-11 Restored-state technique, 44-5, 44-6
prediction of operations with model Reservoir with watersand, 46-26 Restoring forces, 18-9. 18-10, 18-16
studies. 39-20 to 39-22 Reservoirs amenable to thermal recovery, Retarded acids, 54-8. 54-1 I
ultimate recovery, 39-23 46-3. 46-4 Retention time for coalescence, 19-9, 19-15.
Reservoir cycling operations, efficiency Reset. 13-50, 13-52, 13-53 19-18, 19-22, 19-23
terms, 39-l 8 Residual free-gas saturation, 40-8 Retort method, 26-2 I
Reservoir, definition, 40-3 Residual gas saturation, 36-3, 40-16, 44-25, Retorting, 27-8
Reservoir deliverability, 5-23 49-26 Retrievability, of packers, 4-4, 4-5
Reservoir depth, 442, 443 Residual hydrocarbon saturation. 446 Retrievable gas-lift valve, 5-2, 5-34
Reservoir description, uncertain data, 48-12 Residual liquids, defimtion, 27-8 Retrievable packers,
Reservoir-dip effect, 4425 Residual oil after waterflooding, all latched, 4-3
Reservoir discontinuities, 36-4, 36-5 effect of initial saturations, 44-6 control-head compression, 4-2
Reservoir engineer, 22-10, 26-7, 36-10, fresh-core techniques, 44-5 control-head tension. 4-2
influence of wettability. 44-6, 44-7 hydraulic set, 4-3
39-3, 39-24, 44-7, 4.431
interpretation of conventional core- isolation, 4-2
Reservoir-fluid characteristics, 36-1, 36-2,
analysis data, 445 mechanically set, 4-3
424, 42-5
relative-permeability curves, 446 removal of, 4-5, 4-6
Reservoir-fluid compositions, 37-24
restored-state technique, 44-5. 446 solid-head compression, 4-2
Reservoir-fluid properties, 43-10
Residual oil, definition. 22-21 solid-head tension, 4-2
Reservoir-fluid recovery. 39-23
Residual oil saturation (ROS), 28-5, 28-8, weight-set tension type. 4-4
Reservoir-fluid samples, 424
28-11, 373, 40-16, 40-17, 40-19, 42-2, Retrievable-valve mandrel. 5-2, 5-22
Reservoir-fluid systems, phase diagrams, 42-4, 442, 44-4 to 44-6, 449, 4411, Retrograde-condensate gas. 43-1
23-6, 23-7 4432, 4446, 46-21, 46-37, 47-1, 47-9, Retrograde condensation, 14-l. 23-4, 39-3,
Reservoir-fracture effect, 4425. 4426 47-10, 47-17, 49-26, 49-27, 49-36 39-8, 39-9, 39-16, 48-7
Reservoir geometry, 44-2 Residual-resistance factor, 35-5 Retrograde dewpoint pressure, 21-12
Reservoir-geometry factor, 38-13 Residual-viscosity function. 20-9 Retrograde liquid, 39-7 to 39-10, 39-14,
Reservoir heterogeneities, 28-l 1, 30-14 Residual wellbore storage, 35-19 39-16
Reservoir identification from mud log, Residue gas. 10-16, 39-16 Retrograde vaporization, 234
52-15 Resilient-type seal, 3-9 Return-flow equations. jet pump, 6-46
Reservoir interference, 38-3, 38-4 Resin-coated gravel packing. 56-3 Return-flow fluid gradient, 6-42
Reservoir limit tests, 32-5 Resin derivatives, 19-10 Return on investment, 36-1
Reservoir performance, calculating under Resistance factor, 47-5 Return water saltwater, 44-42, 44-43
steam stimulation, 46-9 Resistance function, 38-4 Revenue-interest fraction (RI). 41-2
indicator pertaining to steamfloods, 46-15 Resistance-network model, 44-20 Revenue interests, 41-3. 414. 41-9
indicators common to both steamfloods Resistance networks, 4434 Reverse ballooning of tubing strings. 4-10
and firefloods, 46-14, 46-15 Resistance of a process, 13-50 Reverse-circulating gravel pack. 568
6(l PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Reverse combustion, 46-2, 46-3, 46-14. Rock quality dcstgnatton (RQD), 51-43. s
46-3 1 51-44
Reverse emulsions. 19-l. 19-2, 19-28 Rock tortuostty. 26-28 S. El Mene field, Veneaula. 24-13
Reverse fault. 29-3 Rock wettability alteration, 44-39, 4440 Splat (cumulative logarithmic diagram).
Reverse flow, Rocking a well, 5-54 56-6
check valve, 5-12, 5-23. 537 Rockwell C scale. 9-t S-wave critical angle, 5 I-12
free-pump cycle, 6-6 Rockwell hardness, 2-2. 2-37 S-wave velocity. 51-l 1. 51-37
installation, 6-6, 6-8 Rocky Mountain area, 24-8. 27-14, 27-15, S-wave velocity ratio vs. porosity, 51-9
jet-pump casmp type, 6-5 28-11, 28-18, 41-1, 47-3 S-waves, 51-2, 51-3. 51-5. 51.11, 51.36.
systems. 6-5 to 6-7 Rocky Mountain method, 49-27, 49-3 I. 51-44, 51-47
tubtng arrangement. 6-7 49-32 Saccharoidal. 29-8, 29-9
Reversionary interest, definition. 4 I 1 Rod-and-plunger system, 6-10, 6-16 Sacrificial anodes. 1 l-6
Reynolds number. 6-36, 6-56. 6-57, 15-l to Rod and pump data, 9-6, 9-7 SAE 20 lubricating oil, 25-4
15-3, 15-5, 15-24, 17-7, 19-2, 34-2, Rod grades, Y-5 Safe nominal interest rate. 41-21. 41-22.
34-3. 34-27. 34-38, 34-39 Rod-pumped-well control, 16-I 1 41-24
Reynolds-number factor, 13-8, 13-14 to Rod pumps. 8-l to 8-4, 8-8 Safety and pollution preventton equipment
13-25 Rod stress, 9-2 (SPPE) certificate holder, 3-39
Rheological properties, 55-5. 55-6. 55-8 Rod string design, 9-5 Safety controls of engines. IO-17
Rheology, 1829, IS-36 Rollover fault closures, 29-3 Safety factor of Goodman diagram, 9-9
Rhombohedral packing of spheres, 26. I. Romania. 46-3, 46-4, 46-15, 46-18, 46-28, Safety factor of motor temperature, IO-26
26-2 . - 46-29 Safety factors for casing strings,
Rhumba shaker, 52-8 Rose equation. 28-3 collapse strength, 2-l to 2-3, 2-32, 2-34.
Rice University, 25-20 Rosin, 44-45 2-35
Rig-selection considerations offshore, Rotameter. 13-45, 13-48 internal yteld pressure, 2-l. 2-2, 2-32.
criteria, IS-4 Rotary converter. IO-36 2-34. 2-35
drilling equipment, IS-10 to IS-16 Rotary cores. 26-20, 26-21 joint strength, 2-l. 2-2, 2-32, 2-34. 2-35
mooring system (stationkeeping), 18-8 to Rotary floatmg drilling vessel, 18-2 pipe-body yield strength, 2-l. 2-2. 2-34,
18-10 Rotary gas meter. 16-6 2-35
motion characteristics, 18-7 Rotary gas separator. 7-5, 7-6 Safety factors, gas lift, 5-3, 5-24, 5-27
performance evaluation, 18-7, 18-E Rotary inducer-centrifuge, ‘7-5 Safety factors in continuous-flow gas-lift
types of rigs, 18-5 to 18-7 Rotary pumps, 15-15 installation design. 5-22
Rig types for offshore operations, IS-6 to Rotary-vane positive-displacement meter, Safety factors, manufacturers’, 3-l
18-S 32-l 1 Safety features for 011 and gas separators.
Right to transfer, Roughness factors for new pipe, 15-2, 15-3 12-39
by landowner, 57-6 Round-thread casing and coupling, 2-l. 2-5, Safety head. 12-39, 12-40
by lessee, 57-7 2-7, 2-9, 2-11, 2-13. 2-15. 2-17. 2-19, Safety relief valves, 12-40
Ring-joint gasket, 3-28 to 3-32 2-28, 2-30. 2-57. 2-58. 2-61, 2-64 Safety shut-in system. 3- 19
Ring-type plunger, 8-6 Round-thread tubing form, 2-64 Safety shut-in valves. 16-3, 16-4. 16-I 1
Rim-type
_ . tester. 5-16, 5-17 Rounding rules. 58-5 to 58-7 Safety shutdown system. 13-58, 18-43.
Riser analysis, Royalties. definitton, 41-I 1844
ball-joint angle. 18-17 Royalty. Safety systems offshore. 18-47, 18-48
mtroduction, 18-16, 18-17 acres, 57-7 Safety valves, 6-48, 6-49, 18-28. 18-34
pipe collapse. 18-17 clause. 57-5. 57-10 Sage and Olds correlation. 2 l-l 1
pipe stress, 18-17 deeds, 51-6, 57-7 Salem unit. Illtno~s. 4441
sheave friction, I E-17 gas. 57-10 Sales contracts. 40-l
tensioner-line angle, 18-17 interest, 57-5 to 57-8 Sales gas, 14-6 to 14-8, 14-12. 14-14
top angle, 18-17 oil, 57-5 Sales-gas line, 14-5, 14-11. 14-15, 14-18.
top tension. 18-17 overriding, 57-5, 57-7 to 57-10 14120, 14-21
Riser angle, 18-13 Royalty interests. definition, 41-l to 41-3 Sales-gas pressure, 14-3
Riser pipe, 3-38. 3-39 Rubber lining coating, II-6 Sales-gas volumes, 39-10
Riser-pipe collapse, IE- 17 Rubble pile, IS-39 Sales method of oil and gas, 36-2
Riser-pipe stress, 18-17 “Rubm,” computer subordinate routine, Salient gradient floods. 47-15
Riser tensioner, 18-11, 18-13 to 18-15 17-6 Salinitv:
Riser-tensioner systems, 18-17 Rugosity . 5 l-33 definition. 47-2
Riser-top angle, 18-17 Rule of capture, 57-1, 57-2 effect on IFT, 47-20
Riser-top tensions, 18-4, 18-16 to 18-18 Rules for writing metric auantities. 58-l 1 from reuresentative oilfield brines. 47-3
Rules of thumb,- ’ general,* 47- 14
Risk factor. 41-3
for critical-flow-pressure ratio. 13-37 of brine. 19-26, 47-3 to 47-5. 47-10,
RMS efficiency of motor, IO-25
for liquid recove-ty, LTS system, 14-5 47-11, 47-13, 47-21
Robinson field, Illinois, 46-15
for regulators. 13-55 of ice, 18-39
Robots, 3-36
for sizing transformers, IO-3 1 of injection water, 44-2. 47-22
Rock bulk compressibility. 26-7
for sucker-rod length and cycle strokes. of oilfield waters, 24-13. 24-20
Rock compaction, 26-7
9-3 Salt-bath heater. 14-14. 14-15
Rock composition, 51-5
of performance htstory required, 37-3 Salt content, 19-26, 24-14
Rock compressibility, 26-7, 26-9, 37-2, of water-handling equipment, 44-46 Salt deposition in flow string, 33-20, 33-21
37-3. 37-6, 37-10 of when gas-condensate system exists, Salt domes, 24-7
Rock Creek field, Texas, 41-4 39-2 Salt intrusions, 29-5
Rock-Eva1 11” (RE), 52-10, 52-l 1 Run tickets, 17-7 Salt plugs, 29-5 to 29-7
Rock flow model, 4420 Running, and pulling sucker rods, 9-10 Saltwater disposal projects, 24-3
Rock/fluid interactions, 47-20, 47-21 BOP, 1818 to 18-20 Saltwater sources, 44-41 to 4443
Rock-frame compressibility, 51-4 20.in. casing. 1S- 18 Salty muds, 49-20. 49-25. 49-27
Rock-frame incompressibility, 5 l-49 30.in. casing, IS-18 Salvage value. 41-3. 41-11. 41-13
Rock-grain compressrbility, 5 14 Rupture disk, 12-39. 12-40 Sample collection and evaluatton. gas-
Rock matrix, 51-39, 51-49 Ruska universal uermeameter. 26-17 condensate reservoirs,
Rock-matrix compressibility. 26-7 Russell grain-volume method, 26-3, 26-4 dewpoint and P/V relations, 39-7
Rock-matrix density, 50-26 RJR, method for water saturation, 49-28 recombination of separator samples, 39-6
Rock mechanics, 55-1 Rylon@. 4-5 simulated pressure depletion. 39-7 to
Rock properties, 39-1, 43-7 Ryton, 7-3 39-10
SUBJECT INDEX 61
Sample containers. 24-4 Satelhte navigation (SAT NAV) systems, Seawater, 24-17. 24-18, 24-20. 24-2 I
Sample. Control and Alarm Network 18-18 Seawater-injection projects. 4437
(SCAN), 46-20 Satter’s equation. 46-6 Second-stage separator gas, 39-9. 39.10.
Sample description tabulation. 24-5 Saturated depletion-type oil reservoirs. 40-8 39-14
Sample lag time. 52-8 to 40-12 Secondary/backup power. 18-45
Sample logs. 41-8 Saturated liquid. definitmn, 22-21 Secondary drainage, 28-12
Sample procedure, oilfield waters, Saturated-oil viscosity. 22-15 Secondary electrical systems, 10-29. 10-30.
containers. 24-4. 24-5 Saturated steam, 46-5. 46-6, 46-40 lo-32
field-filtered sample, 24-4 Saturated systems. oil formation volume Secondary functions of oil and gas
for determining unstable properties or factor for. 22. IO. 22. I1 separators.
species. 24-4 Saturated systems, oil-viscosity correlations. maintain liquid seal, 12-S
for sample containing dissolved gas. 24-3 Beal’s for dead oil, 22-14 maintain optimum pressure, 12-4
for sampling at wellhead, 24-3, 24-4 Beggs and Robmson. 22-15. 22-16 Secondary imbibition. 28-12
for stable-isotope analysis, 24-4 Chew and Connally, 22-14, 22-15 Secondary porosity, 26-l. 29-3. 36-6,
for tabulation of sample description, 24-5 Saturated water content of natural gas, 51-31. 51-33
sampling at flowline. 24-3 25-I I to 25-15 Secondary recovery, 16-2. 18-44. 24.2,
Sampling crude oil, 17-l to 17-8 Saturation change with frontal advance, 24-3, 29-7, 40-4, 41-9. 43-l. 44-45,
Sampling crude-oil emulsions, 19-6 38-15 45-9
Sampling natural-gas fluids, 17-7 Saturation CUNCS, 23. I, 23-2 Secondary-recovery methods, 44 I to 44-3
Sampling of petroleum and petroleum Saturation exponent, 26-31 Secondary-seal assembly, 3-6 to 3-8
products. 17-5 Saturation gradient. 28-3 Secondary separation in separator, 12. I9
Sampling of produced waters, Saturation measurements, 28-4 to 28-7 Secondary skin-effect correction, 49.16,
drillstem test, 24-3 Saturation method of determining porosity, 49-17
procedure for, 24-3 to 24-5 26-6 Secondary stratigraphic traps, 29-5
Sampling of water, 44-43 Saturation pressure, 14-10, 21-11, 21-13 to Secondary voltage, lo-29
Samson post, 10-3, 10-4 21-15, 22-1, 22-5, 22-21 Section gauge log, 49-25
San Ardo field, California, 46-4, 46-15, Saturation vapor pressure. 17-7 Securities and Exchange Commission
46-18 Saudi Arabia, 12-39 (SEC), 40-1, 40-2, 41-3
San Joaquin Valley, California, 46-23 Saunders-type valve bdies, 16-3 Sediment in crude oil by centrifuge method.
San Miguel-4 tar sand, Texas, 46-26 Saybolt seconds furol (SSF). 22-13, 22-14 17-5
Sand bridging, gas Ii?, 5-38 Saybolt seconds universal (SSU), 22-13 Sediment in crude oils by extraction
Sand-by-sand correlation. 36-7 Scale or scaling, 5-25. 5-53, 6-48, 6-55, method, 17-5
Sand consolidation treatments. 56-3 to 56-5 9-2, 11-13. 19-1, 19-2, 19-26. 19-29, Sediment in fuel oils by extraction method,
Sand control. 19-32. 56-l 17-5
an acoustic log use, 51-45, 51-46 Scale deposits, 44-43, 56-2 Sedimentary features. dipmeter patterns in,
clay control, 56-5, 56-6 Scale trap. 13-59 53-13
consequences of sand production, 56-3 Scaled physical models. 45-10 Sedimentary rock porosity, 26-7
formation analysis. 56-3 Scaled porous models. 44-17, 44-34 Sedimentation flume capacity, 15.18. 15-19
formation properties. 56-2 Scales. resistivity, 49-21 Seeligson field, Texas. 39-3
formation sampling, 56-3 Scaling laws. 46-13 Segmental orifices. 13-45, 13-48
geology of sand formation, 56-2 Scanning electron micrographs (SEM), 51-8 Segments of circles, table, i-31, l-32
gravel packing, 56-8. 56-9 to 51-l 1 Segments of spheres, table, l-33
gravel selection, 56-6, 56-7 Scanning electron microscope. 46-21 Segregation, complete, 37-14, 37-15
methods of, 56-3 Scannmg-electron-mlcroscope analysis, 56-3 Segregation. in gas-injection performance
properties of sand formation. 56-2 Scattered neutron, 50-9. 50-10 predictions, 43-16
screen selection. 56-6. 56-7 Schilthuis equation, 37-5 Seismic analyses, 18-27
well preparation, 56-3 to 56-5 Schlumberger. 49-2, 49-36, 49-37, 51-18, Seismic compressional surveys, 5 l-28
why sand is produced, 56-2, 56-3 51-21, 51-24, 51-25, 51-41 Seismic exploration, 5 I-IO
Sand counts, 49-22, 49-25 Schlumberger Borehole Compensated Sonic Seismic interpretation, 51-28, 51-29
Sand filters, 15-20. 15-21, 16-14 log, 51-24 Seismic mapping, 18-18
Sand formation propertles and geology, 56-2 Schlumberger Ltd., 53-19 Seismic studies, 18-5
Sand-grain volume (GV). 26-3 to 26-5, 26-7 Schlumberger neutron porosity (SNP), 50-29 Seismic velocities, 58-25
Sand-grain volume, laboratory measurement, Scholem Alechem field, Oklahoma, 6-24 Seismograph Service Corp., 5 I-l
26-3 to 26-5 Schoonebeek field, Netherlands, 46-3, 46-14 Seismologists, 57-8
Sand-jetting and drain systems. 19-20 Scintillation detector, 50- 12, 50-13
Seisviewer@, 5 l-27
Sand line, 49-10 Scoring, 6-50
Selecting appropriate PIE ratlo. 6-28
Sand model, Screen-factor devices, 47-5
Selecting motor size, IO-2 1
for radial flow, 26-13 Screen selection, 56-7, 56-8
Selecting mud-logging service, 52-28 to
for rectilinear flow, 26-11 Screen specifications and sizes, 56-9
52-30
for vertical flow, 26-12 Screening guides and parameters, 47- 1,
Selecting pumps and drivers, 15-14 to 15-18
Sand pans, 19-29, 19-30 47-22
Selection,
Sand pressure filters, 4447 Screening guides. thermal recovery, 46-13,
Sand production, consequences of, 56-3 46-14 of backpressure valves, 3-8
Sand removal, 19-29 Screening thermal prospects, 46-12 to 46-14 of casing hangers, 3-6
Sandblasting, 46-2 I Screenout, 56-8 of gas-lift installation and equipment, 5-3
Sandface plugging, 39-25 Screens and filters, jet pumps, 6-48 of gas-lift port size, 5-28
Sandface pressure, 34-28 Scrubbers, 6-33, 12-1, 12-2. 12-10, 12.13, of independently screwed wellhead
Sandia Laboratories, 30-7 13-58, 39-26 equipment, 3-39
Sanding. 46-2 I Scurry field, Texas, 29-4 of intermediate casing heads, 3-7
Sandpacks, 26-l 1, 26-12 Sea ice. 18-38, 18-39 of lowermost casing heads. 3-2 to 3-5
Sandstone acidizing, 54-4 Seafloor manifold, 18-33, 18-35 of materials for wellhead service, 3-36.
Sansinena field, California, 6-24 Seal Beach field, California, 6-24 3-37
Santa Barbara Channel, California. 18-1, Sealing bores, 6-3. 6-4 of multiple-completion tubing hangers,
18-2 Sealing element of packers, 4-5 3-16, 3-17
Santa Fe Springs field, California. 29-2 Search angle, dipmeter, 53-10, 53-11 of storage-tank location, 1 I-1 1
SARABAND log analysis, 49-37 Seating nipple, 5-3 of subshrface safety valves, 3-27, 3-29,
Saskatchewan, Canada, 24-8. 24-12. 51-32 Seatmg shoe, 6-3 3-3 1
of surface closing pressure, gas-lift Seven-point, hexagonal-gridblock scheme, Shoestring sands, 29-4, 29-9
valves, 5-44 48-11 Shop-welded tanks, 11-1, 11-5, 11-9
of surface safety valves, 3-27 Seven-spot pattern, 43-2, 4413, 4414, Shoreline sandstone, 36-4
of tubing hangers, 3-9 4416, 4417, 44-21, 44-23, 44-34, Short or net ton, l-70
of waterflood plants, 44-45 46-17, 46-18, 46-26 Short-cycle units, 14-10, 14-13. 14-17
Selection and application of gas scrubbers, Severance of minerals, 57-2 Short-duration cycling, electric submersible
12-35 Severance tax, 39-27, 41-9, 41-12, 41-15 pump (ESP), 7-15
Selection and applicatton of separators, Shaker screen, 52-8, 52-19 Short lateral, 49-l 1
horizontal, 12-35 Shale baseline, 49-10 Short normal, 49-11, 49-14, 49-26, 49-27,
spherical, 12-35 Shale bulk density, 52-19 49-29 to 49-3 1
vertical, 12-35 Shale compaction. 24-20 Short-normal resistivity. 53-2, 53-4
Selection data and methods, electric Shale-data log, 52-20 Short-normal resistivitv log. 51-26. 51-46
submersible pumps (ESP), 7-9 to 7-12 Shale distillation, yield, 58-29 Short-spaced acoustic logs: 5 1-24
Selective adsorption systems, 14-10 to Shale effect on neutron porosity, 50-31 to Short-thread casmg, 2-5, 2-7, 2-9, 2-l 1,
14-13, 14-15, 14-17 50-33 2-13, 2-15, 2-17, 2-19. 2-29, 2-57, 2-64
Self-contained pressure gauges, 30-l to 30-3 Shale effects on compressional and shear Shoulder-bed corrections, 49-l I, 49-21
Self-contained thermometers, 31-1, 31-2 velocities, 51-34 Shrinkage,
Self-generating mud acid (SGMA), 54-4 Shale factor, 52-21, 52-22 by liquid recovery, 39-23
Self-operated controller, 13-50 Shale index, 49-38, 49-39 definition, 22-21
Semblance, 51-25 Shale intercalations, 36-6 factors, 22-20, 44-3
Semiconductor sensor element, 52-7 Shale-outs, 442, 4439 of liquid, 32-10, 32-15, 33-14
Semidiesels, 10-15, lo-16 Shale point, 50-24, 50-34 of oils, 19-7, 37-1, 37-6. 37-22, 37-23.
Semilog straight-line solution, 354, 35-8, Shale/sand ratio, 36-4 43-l
35-16 Shale stringers, extent of, 36-6 test, 39-6
Semipermanent packers, 4-1, 4-3, 4-6 Shale transit time, 51-39 Shrouded configuration application, electric
Semiquartzitic sandstone, 26-6 Shallow dual laterolog (LLS), 49-19 submersible pump (ESP), 7-1 to 7-3
Semisteadv state. 37-2 1, 37-22 Shallow-hazard surveys, 18-5 Shuttle ball, 13-48
Semisubmersible rig, 3-38, 18-2 to 18-7, Shallow laterolog (LLS), 49-20 Shuttle tankers, 18-36
18-13, 18-21, 18-25, 18-34 to 18-36 Shallow MICROSFL (MSFL), 49-20, SL
Sensible heat, 14-5, 14-10, 14-21 49-22, 49-28 angle unit, 58-5
Sensitivity analysis, 39-17 Shaly (dirty) formations, 494 base quantities and units, 58-3, 58-9.
Sensitivity of t&erial-balance results, 37-13 Shaly sand, 26-31, 50-34, 51-34, 51-35 58-10, 58-21, 58-23
to 37-17 Shannon Pool field. Wyoming, 46-14 bending moment, 58-5, 58-34
Sensitivity of regulators, 13-54, 13-5.5 Shaoe factor. 6-57. 26-18. 35-4. 35-5. 35-7. derived units. 58-2. 58-4. 58-10. 58-11.
Sensitivity of variable, 13-50 35-12, 35-16, 37-19, 37-20 58-2 1, 58-23
Sensitivity studies, 37-16 to 37-18, 48-14 Shape functions. 32-5 energy unit, 58-5, 58-11, 58-23, 58-24.
Sensitivity to shock, BHP gauges, 30-5, Sharing arrangements, 41-15 58-32
30-7 Sharp-edged orifice plates, 13-36, 13-37, international system of units, 58-2 to
Sensitivity to vibration, BHP gauges, 30-5 i3-45 58-20
to 30-7 Sharp-edged valve seat, 5-14, 5-15, 5-20, metric system of units, 17-7, 58-l to
Sensor coils, 53-22, 53-23 5-35, 5-40 58-20
Sensor sub. 53-2 Shear bulk modulus, 58-34 non-S1 metric units. 58-10
Sensors, 3-18, 3-19, 3-31, 3-33, 3-34 Shear-history method, for friction losses in prefixes, 58-4. 58-12, 58-13 to 58-20
Separated fluids, estimated quality of, fluids, 55-5, 55-6 pressure unit, 58-5, 58-l 1, 58-23 to
crude oils, 12-13 Shear modulus. 51-1, 51-4, 51-37, 51-43, 58-25, 58-28, 58-29
gas. 12-15 51-44. 51-49 stress unit, 58-5, 58-11, 58-23, 58-34
gas from scrubber, 12-15 Shear rams, 18-15 supplemental units, 58-2, 58-3
measuring, 12-15, 12-16 Shear rate, in fluids, 55-5 temperature units, 58-5, 58-23, 58-24,
water, 12-15 Shear rate, in oilfield emulsions, 19-6 58-28
Separating foaming crude oil, 12-6, 12-7 Shear-rate/viscosity relations, 474 time units, 58-5, 58-22, 58-23, 58-27
Separation of water from oil, 12-3, 124 Shear-thinning fluid, 47-4. 47-9 torque units, 58-5. 58-34, 58-38
Separator, design, 12-21 to 12-32, 23-1 Shear-wave amplitude, 5 1-46 unit prefixes, 58-3
Separator high-level float control, 16-9 Shear-wave attenuations, 51-2, 51-6 unit symbols, 58-3, 58-4, 58-15 to 58-20,
Separator pressure, 12-16, 12-17. 12-22, Shear-wave logging, 51-24 58-22
12-23, 12-25 to 12-34, 12-36 to 12-39, Shear-wave transit (travel) times, 5 1-5, units, 58-9 to 58-11, 58-26 to 58-38
51-15, 51-24, 51-25 to 51-27, 51-30, volume units, 58-5, 58-23
39-9
51-31, 51-35. 51-43 Side-pocket mandrel, 3-35. 5-2, 5-53
Separator temperature, 12-17, 12-22, 12-23,
Shear-wave velocities, 51-2, 514 to 51-9, Side-scan sonar, 18-5
12-25, 12-26, 12-28 to 12-30, 12-36,
51-12 to 51-14, 51-24, 51-25, 51-28, Side-static method of gas metering, 13-37
12-37, 12-40, 12-41
51-30, 51-34, 51-35, 51-37, 51-38, Side-well producing cuts, 4424, 4425
Separators: see oil and gas separators
51-43 Sidewall cores, 26-20, 26-21
Sequence-restart timer, 10-27
Shear waves, 51-2, 51-3, 51-12 to 51-14, Sidewall epithermal neutron device, 50-20
Sequential-piloted hydraulic control, subsea,
51-24, 51-25, 51-27, 51-30, 51-35, Sidewall neutron logs, 51-33
18-5 I, 18-52 5144 Sidewall neutron porosity, 51-19
Sequestering agents, 4445, 54-7, 54-9 Shearing stress, 22-l. 22-13 Sidewall-pad tool, 49-22
Service company nomenclature (table), 49-2 Sheave friction, 18-17 Sidewall vs. conventional core analysis,
Service facilities, 39-24 Shedding, 13-48 comparative data, 27-8
Service factor, of motor, 10-25, 10-26 Shelf carbonates, 36-6 Sidum steam-injection pilot, Arkansas,
Service factor, of steel sucker rods, 94, 9-5 Shell breccia, 29-8, 29-9 46-26
Settled solids removal, 19-29 Shell nroun. 46-13 Sieve analysis, 56-3, 56-6, 56-7
Settling, in breaking foaming oil, 12-7 Shell oil Co., 16-12, 46-4, 46.15, 46-16, Siggins field, Illinois, 47-9
in water treating, 44-46 46-18, 46-24, 46-25 Signal Oil Co., 46-22, 46-23
to remove gas from oil in separators, Shipper’s ton, l-70 Significant digits, 58-6, 58-9
12-13 Ships and ship-shaped vessels, 18-5, 18-7, Silica, 19-5, 24-4
Settling space, in emulsion treating, 19-8 18-13, 18-21, 18-34, 18-36 Silica flour, 46-19
Settling tanks, 6-59, 19-18 to 19-21 Shock load, IO-28 Silica gel beads, 14-21
Settling time, 11-13, 12-3, 19-9, 19-15 Shock mobility ratio, 47-1 Silicate-control agents, 54-7
SUBJECT INDEX 63
Silicon-controlled rectifiers @CR’s), 18-45 Site survey offshore, 18-5 Slugging, 12-23, 12-35, 12-38, 39-26
Silicone, as surface tension reducer, 12-13 Six-pole induction motor, lo-23 Slugs of well fluids, 12-l. 12-20, 12-32
Silicone-controlled rectifier relays, 7-6 Six-spot pattern, 46-17 Smackover field, Arkansas, 46-15, 46-24 to
Silver. 50-12 Sizes, 46-26
Silverdale field, Alberta, Canada, 46-18, of casing hanger, 3-6 “Smart” end devices. 16-2
46-2 1 of casing head, 3-7 Smectite-rich clay, 52-21
Simple harmonic motion, 51-2, 51-3 of meter and meter run, 13-36 Smoke point, 21-7, 21-9
Simple interest, 41-25 of separator, estimating, 12-21 to 12-2.5 Snap action, control mode, 13-49, 13-51 to
Simpson’s rule, 34-24, 34-26. 40-4, 40-5 of tubing hanger, 3-9 13-53, 13-56
Simulated pressure depletion, 39-7 to 39-10 of tubing heads, 3-8 Snell’s law, 51-3, 51-12
Simulation and simulator studies, 37-2 I, Sizing and capacities of separators, Sniffer, 52-6
37-22. 40-l capacities of spherical separators, 12-30, Soaking, in steam stimulation, 46-9
Simulation models, consideration in 12-31 Soap-type gels, 55-5
applications, capacity curves for vertical and horizontal Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong
fluid- and rock-description data, 48-8, separators, 12-27 to 12-29 equation, 20-8, 23-13
48-9 computer sizing of separators, 12-25 to Sot. of Automotive Engineers (SAE), lo-12
history matching, 48-9 12-27 Sot. of Petroleum Engineers (SPE),
model grid selection, 48-7. 48-8 equation for gas capacity, 12-23 joint committee member on reserve
of complex reservoir, 443 1, 4432 equation for sizing, 12-23 to 12-25 definitions, 40-2
type selection. 48-7 gas velocity, maximum, 12-22 SPE letter and computer symbols std., 59-2
Simulation steps, 36-10 horizontal separator sizing, 12-30 to 59-70
Simulation technology, 48-13 to 48-17 vertical separator sizing, 12-29 SPE metric unit standards, 58-21 to 58-39
Simultaneous formulatmns, 48-14 Sizing, curves, 13-53 SPE papers on relative permeability, 28-12
Sinclair, 47-22 equations for plate coalescers, 15-24 SPE-preferred metric unit. 58-21, 58-24 to
Singapore, 12-39 instructions, ultrahigh-slip motor, lo-22 58-38
Smgle-actmg downhole unit. 6-10, 6-20 of waterflood plants, 44-45 SPE Reprint Series, 44-36
Singleacting pump, 6-8 to 6-10, 6-18 to oil and gas separators, 12-25 to 12-27, Sot. of Professional Well Log Analysts
6-20 12-32 (SPWLA), 52-30
Single- and two-phase inflow-performance- pumping units, IO-7 Soda ash, 14-22
relationship (IPR) equation, 34-33, 34-34 Skewness, definition, 26-2 Sodium aluminate sand-consolidation
Single-carbon-number (SCN) groups, 39-1 I Skim piles, 15-23, 15-26, 15-27, 15-30 technique, 46-2 1
Single-component phase diagrams, 23-1, Skim tanks and vessels, 15-23, 19-28 Sodium chloride (NaCI), as water
23-2 Skimming, 19-23 contaminant, 24-16
Single-contact miscibility, 48-5 to 48-7 Skin-effect correction, IL, 49-17 Sodium chloride conversion chart, 49-3
Single-control line valve, 3-27, 3-29 Skin effects, 30-10, 30.14, 32-5, 354, Sodium dodecyl sulfate, 47-7
Single-cylinder engines, IO-15 35-7, 35-l 1. 35-14, 35.15,.35-19, Sodium hydroxtde, 4440, 4442, 47-18,
Single-elenlent fuses, IO-28 40.27, 49-16 54-3
Single-element simulation, 48-7 Skin factor. 33-11, 37-20 Sodium iodtde (Nal), detector, 50-12 to
Single-element unbalanced gas-lift valve. Skirt piles, 18-3, 18.22, 18-23 50-16, 50-23, 50-35
5-12 to 5-15 Sleeve bearings, 13-48 Soft-packed plungers, 8-6
Single-horsepower rating, lo-25 Slide-rail motor mounts. lo-19 Soft-start capability. 7-9
Single-pattern simulation studies, 48-8 Sliding-sleeve valve, 3-35 Solid-desiccant dehydratton umt, 14-20,
Smgle-payment present-worth factor, 41-25 Slim-hole coupling, 9-5 14-22
Single-phase flow, 28-2, 34-2, 34-3, 34-31, Slim-hole-coupling derating factor, 9-5, 9-8 Solid-head compresston packer, 4-2, 4-8
34-33, 34-36. 34-38, 3445 Slim-tube displacement tests, 39- 16 Solid-head tension packer, 4-2, 4-8
Single-phase fluid, constant compressibility, Slim-tube displacements, 48-9 Solid hydrates, 25-1, 25-3, 25-19
35-3 Slip joints, 18-13, 18-20 Solid-propellant gas generators, 18-16
Single-phase motors, IO-2 1 Slip of motor, 10-23, lo-24 Solid-state detector, gamma rays, 50-12,
Single-phase transformer, 7-6, 7-7, 10-30, Slip-on socket connection, 3-3 50-14, 50-23, 50-35
19-25 Slip-type tubing hanger, 3-39 Solid-state electrical detector. 52-7
Single-phase turbulent flow, 34-37 Slip velocity, 34-27, 34-38 Solid-state electronic components, 16-9
Single-piece jacket, 18-23 Slip-weld casing hanger, 3-6
Single-point mooring @PM). 18-2. 18-34 Solid-state electronics, 16-1
Slipform methods, of gravity platform Solid-state switchboards, 7-6
Single-ported valves. 13-55, 13-57 construction, 18-23
Single satellite wells, 18-31, 18-32 Solids in brine, 14-4
Slippage effect on energy losses, gas-lift
Single-real pumps, 6-39 Solids wetting, 19-9, 19-10
wells, 34-37
Single-seated valve. 13-55 Soluble-sulfide analyzer, 52-7
Slippage-loss equation, 8-5
Single-shot surveys, 53-3 Solubility, definition, 45-1
Slippage, past pump plunger, 8-4 to 8-6
Single-stage desalting, 19-26 of bentonite in mud-removal acid, 54-4
Slocum field, Texas, 46-15, 46-18, 46-26,
Smgle-tubing-string completions, 3-13 of CO, in water, 25-15
46-27
Single-welded butt joints, 12-40 of methane in water, 25-16
Slope of backpressure curve, 33-5
Single-well coning studies. 48-14 of natural gas in water, 25-17
Slope of buildup curve, 30-10, 30-12
Single-well depletion reservoir, 35-1 of propane in water, 25-17
Single-well power umt, 6-60, 6-61 Sloping-sided structure, 18-42
Sloss field MP pilot, Nebraska, 47-18 of silica in mud-removal acid, 54-4
Single-well systems. 6-60 to 6-63 of water in refrigerants, 14-10
Single-wing well manifold, 16-l I, 16-12 Sloss field. Nebraska, 46-14, 46-15, 46-18,
46-2 I, 46-30, 46-33 of water in various hydrocarbons, 25-16
Singleton field, Nebraska, 4440, 47-22
Slow-speed engines, IO-14 to lo-19 Solubilization parameter or ratio, 47-13,
Sinking fund. 41-16, 41-21. 41-22
Slowing-down length. 50-l 1, 50-19 to 47.14, 47-20
Sinking fund, table, l-65
50-2 I. 50-29 to 50-32 Solutes concentration in aqueous phase,
Sinusoidal alternating-current field. 19-13
Slowness time coherence, 51-25 25-16
Siphon breaker, 6-62
Siphon strings, 33-21 Sludge, 19-11, 19-12, 19-32 Solution cavtties, 26-6
Site conditions and considerations offshore, Sludge tank, 4447 Solution gas, definition, 12-3
expected environment, 18-4 Sludgmg of oil, IO-13 in oil reservoirs, 40-6, 40-13
introduction, 18-3 Slug flow, 34-36 to 34-40 increases as temperature decreases, 22-10
logisbcs. 18-4. 18-5 Slug-mtst transitton flow, 34-36, 34-37, release of, 22-2 1
seismic and other location studies. 18-5 34-40 Solution-gas drive, definition, 22-20, 40-8
water depth, 18-4 Slug-stze retention ratio, 47-17 Solution-gas-drive process. 42-5
Solution-gas-drive reservoirs, Spacing factor, mtermutent pressure Spherically focused log (SFL), 49-15,
basic data required, 37-3 to 37-5 gradient, 5-42, 5-43 49.18. 49.20, 49-27
calculation of reservoir pressure, 35-8 Spacing-load design, 5-48 Spiking, 5 l-24
comparison of Tarner’s and Tracy’s Spacing pressure differential, 5-29 Spindletop dome. Texas, 18. I, 24-7
methods. 37-10 Spain, 58-20 Splash-proof motor, lo-26
definitions, 37-l Sparker, 18-5 Splash zone, 3-36
insights from simulator studies, 37-22 Spatial gradient, 48-10 Split detector, 53-18, 53-19
introduction, 37-l Spatial truncation error, 48-7, 48-9 to 48-12 Spontaneous ignition 46-2, 46-19. 46-20
material-balance calculations using Muskat Special alloy rods, 9-8 Spontaneous potential (SP). 49. I
and Taylor’s method, 37-10 to 37-13 Special-service structures, 18-25 baseline shift, 49-10
material-balance calculations using Tracy’s Specific conductivity. 39-20 current path, 49-8
method. 37-7 to 37-10 Specific entropy. 58-28 curve, 46-26, 49-l I, 49.15, 49.19. 49-25.
material-balance equation, 37-5, 37-6 Specific fuel consumption, 58-33 49-38, 49-39, 51-16. 51-17, 51-22 to
material-balance equation as a straight Specific gravities of fluid columns, 6-22, 51-24, 51-32, 51-46
line. 37-6. 37-7 6-23 deflections, factors influencing shape and
models. types used, 37-2 Specific gravity (relative density), 204, amplitude, 49-9
nomenclature. 37-26, 37-27 20-10 effect of interstitial shales, 49-8
nonideal behavior of, 35-3 Specific-gravity factor, 13-3, 33-14 effect of invasion. 49-8, 49-10
performances. 37-l) 37-2 Specific gravity, increase with pressure, geometric effect. 49-9
production rate and time calculations, saltwater, 24-15 in hard formations, 49-10
37-17 to 37-21 of gas mixtures, 20-4 in soft formations, 49-10
references, 37-27 of natural-gas mixtures, 17-7 influence of mud resistivrty and hole
sensitivity of material-balance results, of salt soluuons, 24-14 diameter, 49-9
37-13 to 37-17 vs. temperature for crude oils, 19-8 origin, 49-7
single empirical IPR equation for, 34-3 I Specrfic heat capacity, 58-28 phenomena in highly resistive formations,
tank-type material balance. basic Specific heat ratio. 13-8. 13-13, 14-10, 49-10
assumptions of, 37-2, 37-3 39-24 pseudostatic, 49-9, 49-10, 49-28 to 49-30
volatile-oil-reservoir performance Specific heats, of mid-continent liquid oils, R, determination from, 49-8
predictions, 37-22 to 37-26 21-6 static. 49-9 to 49. I I, 49-28 to 49-30
Solution-gas production rate, 37-l I Specdic-isopermeability map, 39-22 Spool adapter flange, 3-9
Solution GOR, definition, 22-l. 22-21, Specnic permeability, 28-l. 28-2, 28-13, Spraberry tield, Texas, 40-2
37-14 to 37-18, 37-21, 37-22, 40-6, 43-3. 43-5 Spray zone, 3-36
40-8, 40-9, 40-13, 46-34, 46-36 Specific productwity index (PI), 30-l I, Spread-mooring patterns or system, 18-9
Solution GOR for saturated oils, 32-4, 58-38 Spreader or spreader plate, 6-58, 19-13.
Lasater correlation, 22-9 Specific volume, gascondensate system, 19-18 to 19-20, 19-23 to 19-25, 19-29
Standing correlation, 22-9 21-16, 21-17 Spreader bar, 7-12
Vasquez and Beggs correlation. 22-9 of oil. 224. 22-5 Spring compression regulator, 13-54
Solution-mined caverns, 11-13 of total fluids, 46-7 Spring-loaded gas-lift valves. 5-17, 5-19 to
Solution porosity, 29-8 units and conversions, 58-29 5-2 11 5-42
Solutron techniques for math models. 48-16, vs. molality. 24-15 Spring-loaded regulator, 13-54, 13-55,
48-17 Specification of reservoir rock and fluid 13-57
Solvent breakthrough, 45-7 description data. 48-8 Spring-loaded valves. 6-49. 6-50. 13-55 to
Solvent extraction, 12-16 Specifications of coatings, Il.4 13-57
Solvent extraction and distillation, 27-8 Specifications of diesel fuel, IO-16 Spring-return fail-safe actuators. 18-15
Solvent-extraction effect. 46-4, 46-5 Spectral fatigue analysis, 18-27, 18-28 Spudding the well, 18-18
Solvent override. 48- I2 Spectral gamma ray device, 50-15, 50-16, spurt loss, 55-4
Solvent slug, 45-2 50-24 Square roots of certain fractions, table, l-13
Sondes, 49-l Spectral gamma ray log, 50-25 Square roots of numbers, table, l-2. l-1 I to
Sonic fluid-level tests, 40-27 Spectrographic technique, qualitative I-13
Sonic level control. 16-5 emission, 24-5 Squares of numbers, table, I-I to l-6
Sonic log and logging, 44-3, 49-15, 49-16, Spectroscopic gamma ray detection, 50-12 Squeeze cement job, 56-4
49-25 to 49-27. 52-20, 52-27, 58-25 Spectroscopic-quality gamma ray detectors, Squeeze cementing, 5 I-40
Sonic meters, 13-49. 13-50 SO-IS Squeeze gravel packing, 56-8
Sonolog, 32-6 Speculative interest rate. 41-17, 41-21, Squirrel-cage rotor. 7-3
41-24
Sonoloy. 30-7 Stability analyses, 48-l
Speculative nominal interest rate, 41-22
Sour corrosion, 3-36. 4-4 Stability of BHP gauges, 30-5 to 30-7
Speculative nominal rate of return, 41-18,
Sour crude. I I-IO Stabilization of separated fluids, 12-2 I,
41-22, 41-24
Sour-crude tanks, I l-6 12-33, 12-35
Speculative rate of return, 41-21
Sour gas. 5-2, 10-16, 14-7. 14-21, 18-47 Stabilization period of wells. 32. I5
Speed factor, ultrahigh-slip motor, IO-22
Sour-water strrpper correlations, 25-17, Stabilization process and unit, 12-33. 12-35.
Speed reducer, IO-5
25-18 12-42, 14-14, 14-15, 39-27
Speed/torque curves. IO-24
Sour-water systems, 25-16 Speed variation of engines. 10-14, 10-17, Stabilized PI, 34-30 to 34-35
Source of hydrocarbon prospects, 57-8 IO-22 Stabilizer, 14-5, 14-7, 14-8, 14-l I, 14.14,
Source rock, definition. 24-19 Speed variation of motor, IO-24 14-15, 14-17, 54-9. 55-6
South America. 18-7 Spending time of acids, 54-4. 54-5, 54-8, Stable emulsions, 19-2, 19-4 to 19-6
South Belridge tirellood. California. 46-14, 54-11 Stable isotopes, sample for analysis, 26-4
to 46.16. 46-18 Spent acid, 54-3 to 54-7. 54-9, 54-l I Stage-compression ratio. 39-24
South Oklahoma field, 46-15, 46-16 Sperry Sun BHP gauge, 304 Stage-pressure ratio. 12-33
South Pass 27 field. Louisiana, 36-4 Spheres and spheroids. measurement and Stage separation. 12-32 to 12-35. 14-14,
South Sunshine field. Wyoming. 24-18 calibration. 17-3 14-15
Southeast Texas field, 47-22 Spherical-cell model. 25-8 Stage separator, 12-1, 12-17, 12-19
S.P. PacksTM. 19-12, 19-19 Spherical separator. 12-I. 12-16 to 12-18, Staggered line drive. 4413 to 44-16, 44-22.
Space, Sl units for, 58-26, 58-27 12-21. 12-30 to 12-32 44-34. 4436
Spacer fluids, 56-4 Spherical-shell equations. 12-38 Stainless steel. 30-4. 56-7
Spacing, defhution, 49-12 Spherical three-phase oil/gas/water Stainless-steel filaments. 12-12
Spacing-factor gradient, 5-45 separator. 12-5 Stainless-steel pipe, 15-l I
SUBJECT INDEX
Standard conditions. definition, 22-21. Steady-state relative-permeability apparatus. Stock-tank oil in place per acre-ft. 40-6,
58.24, 5X-25 28-4 40-8
Standard deviation, 50-5 Steady-xtate relative-permeability methods, Stokes’ law, 6-56. 6-57. 12-22. 15-18.
Standard distribution of residuals. table, experimental procedure. 28-3, 28-4 15-21. 15.26. 19.14, 19-15
I-61 saturation measurements. 28-4 to 28-7 Stoneley waves. 51-12 to 51-14, 51-2.5.
Standard lateral, 49. I 1 Steam-breakthrough times. 48-12 51-27. 51-47
Standard of weights and measures. Steam-cheat models. 46-9 Stopcock controller, 16-4
definitmn of. l-68 Steam displacement. 46-l. 46-23, 46-24 Slobcocked wells. 32-15
Standards for mud logging, 52-30 Steam distillation. 46-4. 46-5, 46-15 Storage capacity offshore, 18-7
Standing and Katz charts, 20-9 Steam-distillatmn drive. 46-24 Storage faciliti&. 6-60
Standing correlations. 22-5. 22-8 to 22-l I, Steam flooding or floods, 19-28. 48-2. 48-5 Storage of sucker rods. 9-10, 9-13, 9-14
22.13. 22-14 to 48-8. 48-10. 48-l I. 48-13. 48-17 Storage pressure of products, I I-12
Standing valve. 5-50 to 5-53. 6-3. 6-31. Steam generation and injection, 46-19 Storage size, evaporation losses. I I 12
6-32. 6-48. 6-49. 6-51. 19-28 Steam-generation water. 24-5 Storage-tank types,
Standing valve puller. 8-2. 8-4 Steam generators. 46. L9. 46-20 bolted-steel, I l-l, I l-3
Standing’s equations, 37-21 Steam injection. 42-6, 56-2 cone-bottom, I l-2
Star diagram. 24. I9 Steam-injection model. 46-l I. 46-12 field-welded. I l-2
Starter contactor for motors. 10-2X Steam-InJection rate. steamfloods. 46-18 fixed-roof. I l-2
Starters for engines. IO-19 Steam/oil ratio (SOR), 46-S. 46-14, 46-15. flat-sided (non-API), I l-2
Startup of a prqject, 15-3 I 46-23. 46-24, 46-27 floatmg. I l-2
Startup spike. electric submersible pump Steam placement. 46-22 pipe. I l-2. I l-4
(ESP), 7- 14 Steam propertles (table), 46-40 welded-steel. I l-l
Startup-spikes chart. ESP. 7- I5 Steam quality, 46-5, 46-7. 46-13. 46-18, Storm chokes. 13-57
Static-body test pressure, 3-I 46-22 Straight-hne extrapolation, 40-3 I, 40-32
Static BHP. calculation of. 34-3 to 34-9 Steam recovery. mechanisms contributing Straight-line relationship, 39-25
Static drainage-area pressure. 30-9 to, 46-5 Straightening vanes, 12-22. 12-25. 13-36
Static elastic constants, 51-4 Steam splitting. 46-22 Strain-gauge transducers, 30-5. 30-7
Static electricity. I I- 13 Steam stimulation, 46-l. 46-3, 46-4. 46-22 Strain-sensitive resistor, 30-7
Static error, 13-50 Steam-stimulation operations, Strand Ime, 29-4. 29-5. 29-9
Static-fluid level. 5-25. 5-28, 5-37. 5-45. coinjection of gas and steam, 46-22 Stratification. 36-5, 42-3. 45-7 to 45-10,
5-46. 5-48 Huntington Beach. 46-22 45.12. 45-13
Static fluids. 34-3 ParIs Valley. 46-22. 46-23 Stratification ratio, 39-19
Static-force balance equations. S-17 to 5-19. Steam/tar ratio. 46-27, 46-28 Stratified reservoirs. 44-7. 44-29
5-23 Steam/water equilibrium. 46-12 Stratigraphy. 44-2
Static geothermal surface temperature, 5-23 Steamdrive, 46. I Stratigraphy from dipmeter patterns, 53. IO.
Stattc InJectton-gas pressure. 5-37 Steamtlood, 46-l to 46-4. 46-12 to 46-28 53-12, 53-14
Static inJection-gas pressure at depth. 5-3 to Steamflood front in nine-spot pattern, 48. I2 Stratigraphic traps, 29-3 to 29-S. 29-8. 44-2
5-6 Steamflood pmjects. 46-23 to 46-28 Streamlines. 44-15. 44-16
Static-load fluid gradient. 5-23. 5-25. 5-33, Steamflooding operations. 25-l Streamtube models, 45-10
5-48 Steaming. 6-48 Street Ranch field, Texas, 46-26 to 46-2X
Static-load fluid gradient traverse. 5-45. Steel gravity oil-storage structure. 18-2 Stress analyses. 18.25. 18-27
5-46, 5-49 Steel gravity structure. 18-2 Stress-concentration effect, 9-8
Static-load fluid traverse, 5-25. 5-28. 5-29. Steel island. I8- I Stress-concentration factor. 9-5
5-33. 5-45 Steel jackets, 18-2. 18-26 Stress conversions. 58-7
Static prehaure. downstream taps. 13-30 to Steel-laminated elastomers. 18-13 Stress, in acoustic-wave propagation in
13-x Steel sucker rods. rocks, 51-6. 51-7
Static pressure from partial buildup, 30-9, allowable loading, 9-4 Stress, in suspended casing strings, 2-36
30-10 application. 9-2 Stress-range diagram. 9-I I. 9- I3
Static pressure. mean of up-and down care and handling. 9-10 Stress ranges recommended for riser pipe,
stream taps. 13-33. 13-34 coupling connections, 9-2 18-17

failures. 9-8. 9-9 Stress relaxation, 2% I3
Static pressure. upstream taps, 13-26 to
manufacture 01; 9-I Stress, Sl unit for, 58-5. 58-l I. 58-23,
13-29
predictive calculations, 9-2 to 9-4 58-34
Static self potential (SP),
rod grades, 9-5, 9-8 Stress/strain diagram. 5 l-2
definition. 49-9
rod storage, 9-10 Stretch factor, IO-6
determination of. 49-10, 49-28
running and pulling, 9-10 Stretch, in casing, 2-35 to 2-37
determination of R,,., 49-10. 49-l I
service factor, 9-S in tubing. 2-46
Static stress. 18-17
unloading and loading, 9-10 Strike of a formation, 53-7
Static-type gas separator. 7-4, 7-5
Steel template, 18-2 Strike-slip faults. 29-3, 29-9
Static voltage level. IO-29
Steelman field, Saskatchewan, Canada, Stripper hanger, 3-39
Station-keeping systems. 18-2. 18-S to
51-32 Stripper rubber, 3-9
18.11. 18-16, 18-21. 18-24, 18-43
Stern travel, 5-15, 5-19. 5-28 Stripper wells. 8-6
Stationary-barrel rod pump, 8-3. 8-4. 8-8,
Step length, dipmeter. 53-10. 53-l I Strongly impliclt procedure (SIP), 48-16
&IO
Step profile transit time, 51-20 Strontium, 24-9. 24-18. 4444. 44-45
Stationary-fluid methods. 28-8
Stepdown transformer. IO-2 I Structural bearings. 10-4. 10-5, IO-12
Stationary metering installation, 32-13
Stereographic plots, 53-12 Structural casing, 18-18. IX-19
Statistical mechanical theory. 25-2 Stevens porowneter. 26-4 to 26-6 Structural closure, 29-l. 29-5, 29-6
StatistIcal mechanics for adsorption Stiff diagmm, 24-19 Structural con1ours, 39-22
approach, 25-5 Stiffness analysis. IS-26 to 18-25 Structural-design process. offshore,
Steady-state analog techmques. 39-2 I Stiles calculation, 44-7. 44-S environmental criteria
Steady-state conductivity. 4433 Stile5 method. 40-19. 40-20. 44-7 fatigue analysis. 18-2; l*-25
Steady-state electrical model, 39-20 Stimulation coFts. 41-12 field-development plan. 18-25. 18-26
Steady-state flow. 32-4, 32-5. 43-3, 43-4 Stimulation ratio. 55-4 in-situ analysw. IX-26
Steady-state in,jectivity, 44-33, 44-34 Stimulation results. fracturing. 55-4. 55-5 transportation and launch. 18-26. 18-27
Steady-state methods of relative-permeability Stock-tank gas. 39-9. 39-14 Structural drawings. 15-31
measurement. 28-3 to 2X-7. 28-14 Stock-tank measurement. 32-6. 32-7 Structural engineer. 18-Z
Steady-state radial flow. 34-31 Stock-tank oil. definition. 22-21 Structural-frame analysis. I X-22
Structural maps, 41-8 Subsurface safetv valves (SSSV’s). 3-26. Surface environment, 36-2
Structural nose, 29-3, 29-4 3-27, 3-31, j-33, 3-34. 6-48 Surface equipment, hydraulic pumping,
Structural pinchouts. 44-39 Subsurface saltwater, 44-42 control manifolds, 6.54
Structural traps. 29-l to 29-3 Subsurface shut-m pressure, calculation, fluid controls, 6-51
Structure *a,, 44-38 33-19 lubricators, 6-54
Structure map, West Heidelberg field, Subsurface sucker-rod pumps, 8-l to S-10 power-fluid systems, 6-54 to 6-57
46-28. 46-30 Subsurface waters, 24-3. 24-19 power-oil tank and accessories, 6-57 to
Structure. principal factor in gravitational Successive overrelation (SOR), 48-16 6-59
segregation, 442 Sucker-rod fxlure, lo-29 pumps, 6-49 to 6-54
Structure selection offshore. Sucker-rod life, IO-17 single-well systems, 6-60 to 6-63
concrete gravity, IS-25 Sucker Rod Pumping Research Inc., 8.10 Surface extractmn efticiency, 52-18
guyed towers, 18-25 Sucker-rod pumps, 6-8, 8-1, 8-10 Surface facilities, design and operating
template/jackets. IS-25 Sucker-rod string. 8-8, 8-10, 10-1, 10-5, program for, 39-23
tension-leg platform, 18-25 IO-6 for closed power-fluid system, 6-59
Structures, offshore. Sucker rods. for open power-fluid system, 6-58
background and philosophy, 18-22 allowable stress and range of stress, 9-8 for saltwater disposal and waterflooding,
classification of, 18-22 to 18-24 chemical and mechanical properties, 9-4 15-l to 15-33
dcaign process of, 18-25 to IS-27 chemistries of. 9-5 formulating policy for. 40-l
guyed towers, 18-24 couplings and subcouplings, 9-3, 9-4 Surface-flowline hackpressure, 5-54
selection of, 18-25 fiberglass, 9-10 to 9-14 Surface-gas gravity td well-fluid gravity
special services. 18.25 general dimension. 9-2. 9-3 ratio, 21-17
r&ion-leg platform. 18-24. I X-25 introduction, 9-I Surface geothermal temperature, 5-48
Strudel scour, 18-43 joint circumferential displacement values, Surface injection-gas pressure, 5-44
Studded adapter flange, 3-9 9-10 Surface kick-off injection-gas pressure,
Studded flanged outlets. 3-3 mcchamcal properties, 9-5 5-46, 5-48
Studded flanges, 3-8 pin failures, 9-9 Surface-line heat losses, 46-4
Stymie condition, 5-54 rcfcrences. 9-14 Surface opening pressures, gas-lift valve,
Sub-bottom profiler. 18-5 rod and pump data, 9-6, 9-7 5-39
Subleases, 41-15. 57-7 steel. 9-l to 9-10 Surface preparation for coatings. I l-5
Subhmation curves. 23-l. 23-2 storage, 9. IO Surface production equipment, 12-2
Submarine cables, 18-44. 18-45 tolerances, 9-3 Surface production facilities, 36-2
Submarines. 3.38 Suction gradlent, 6-29 Surface bumping unit, 9-1, 9-3, 9-13
Submerged Lands Act of 1953. 57-l I Suction pipmg. 15-17 Surface pumps. 6-49 to 6-51
Submerged zone, 3-36 Sukkar and Cornell’s method, 34.9 to 34-24 Surface-recording BHP gauges, 30.4. 30.5
Submersible electric motor, 7-l. 7-3. 7-4 Sukkar-Cornell integral f[lr BHP calculation, Surface safety valves (SSV’s), 3-19 to 3.21,
Submersible electrically driven pumps, 34-10 to 34-22 3-27, 3-31, 3-33. 3-34. 3-39. 18-47.
I l-14 Sulfate-reducmg bacteria (SRB), 44-41, 18-48
Submersible pumps, 7-l to 7-17. 44-42 44-43, 4444 Surface seismic shear surveys, 5 I-28
Submersible rig. 18-2. 18-S. 18-6 Sulfide stress crackmg, 3-35, 3-36 Surface separation equipment, 40-24
Subordinate phase. 446 Sulfonates, 19-10, 47-16 Surface steam generators, 46-4, 46-19
Subscript symbols in alphabetical order, Sulfur, 3-3. 10-16. 19-28, 24-16, 46-22 Surface tension, 19-14, 22-16, 22-17,
59-63 to 59-70 Sulfur dioxide. 14-17. 14-22 22-19, 22-21, 24-16. 47-8, 54-6 to 54-8,
Subsea applications, Sulfur “il. I l-6 58-35. 58-38
fixed platform drilling. 3-38 Sulfur/oxide ran”, 52-7 Surface transfer pumps, 19-28
floating drilling vessels, 3-39 Sulfuric acid, 1 l-6 Surface unloading flowing wellhead
SPPEiOCS equipment, 3-39 Summation-of-tluids method, “orositv. 27-1 temperature, 5-46. 5-48
Subsea completion system. IS-3 Sun Oil Co.. 46-15, 46-18. 46-29 to*46-32 Surfactant absorption on metal oxide
Subsea drilling system. IS-IO Supercompressibility factor, 13-8, 22-20, surface. 47-15
Subsea hydraulic power unit, 18-52 ~33.13 Surfactant as foaming agent, 55-6
Subsea (seafloor) pipelines, 18-29, 18-30, Supercritical CO*, 45-5 Surfactant breakthrough times, 47-17
18-35, 18-36 Supercritical-tluid drive, 45-5, 45-6 Surfactantlbrineioil phase behavior. 47-1 I to
Subsea satellite wells, 18-33 Superficial velocitv of gas. 34-46 47-13
Subsea tree, 18-31, 18-32 Superheated stea, 46-j Surfactant chemistry, 47-7
Subsea valve actuator. 18-50, 18-5 1 Superposition, 35.8, 35.9, 40-12 Surfactantidivalent comolexes. 47-15
Subsea well completions, Suber&“ry control and data acquisition Surfactant flooding, 48-j
(SCADA), 16-l. 16-2, 16-6 to 16-10, Surfactantipolymer processes, 23.7
control lines, 18-33. 18-34
16-12 Surfactant ietdntion; 47-10, 47-15 to 47-17
flowlines, 18-33. 18-34
Suplacu de Barcau field, Romania, 46-4, Surfactant slug, 48-5
introduction, I E-30. 18-3 1
46-1.5. 46-18. 46-28, 46-29 Surfactant systems. 23-8
manifolds. 18-32
Surface-active agents, Surfactants, adsorption of. 47-8
multiple templates. 18-32
addme to oil. 56-2 chemistry of. 47-7
single satellite wells. 18-31
in coitrolling stability of emulsions, 19-l classiticatlon of, 47-7
well servicing. 18-34
in drilling fluids, 445 definition of, 54.6
well workovers, 18-34
Surface-active agents in waterflooding. in interfacial-tension reduction, 44-40
wset vs. dry, 18-31 interfacial-tenTinn reduction, 44-40 in mud removal. 56-l
Subaea wellhead installation. 6-6. 6-7 mohilitv Improvement. 44-39. 4440 in water blocks and emulsion removal.
Subsea wells. 18-3. 18-14, 18-31. 18-34 to rock-&ttab~lity alteration. 44-40 56-2
18-38. I X-48 Surface-active chemicals, 24-2 micellaripolymer. 47-7
Subsurface completions. 3-26 Surface area of crude. evaporation from, molecular structures. 47-7
Subsurface-controlled subsurface safety 1 I-12 reducing acid reaction rate. 54-8
valves (SSCSV’s). 3-29 Surface area of fracture. 55-2, 55-X solutions, 47-11
Subsurface tlowing pressure. calculation, Surface area, specific, 28-8 surface tension of. 47-8
33-18 Surface casing. 3-3 to avoid emulsification. 54-9, 54-10
SUbSUr~dCC mapping, 40. I Surface closmg pressure, gas-lift valves, Surge tank, 24-3, 44-47
Subsurface~pressure surveys. 42-4 5-44 to 5-47 Surging, applicability of horizontal
Subsurface pressures. calculation, 33-13 Surface control valve. 18-50 separator, 12-35
Subsurface pump. 9. I, 9-I 3 Surface-controlled subsurface safety valves in gas-lift installations. 5-I. S-22, 5.24,
Subwrfxe-pump bores. X-l (SCSSV‘s). 3-29. 18-47. 18-48 5-38
Subsurface-pump woke length, Y-12 Surface-driven pumps. 4442 in rod pumps, X-4
SUBJECT INDEX 67
Surging flow. 13-52, 13-53 Tanker mooring systems. 18-43 Template/jacket, 18-22. 18-23. IS-25
Suspended solids, 15-18, 19-15, 24-5. Tankers. 18-43 Ten Section field, California. 34-35
44-36. 44-45 Tankers vs. semtsubmersibles. 18-35, 18-36 Tendon system, 18-25
Swab cups or noses, 6-47 Tanks, aboveground. nonrefrigerated, Tenneco Oil Co., 46-14, 46-18
Swabbing. 52-17, 52-18 emergency ventmg capacity, 11-7, I l-8 Tensile load, 18-22
Sweden. 12-39 means of venting, 1l-8. I l-9 Tensile strength, 3-3. 9-4. 9-5. 9-8, Y-12,
Sweep after breakthrough. 44-29 normal ventmg capacity, 1l-7 1 l-9, 18-49. 30-4. 55-l
Sweep efficiency. 39-18, 46- 14 venting requirements, determination of, Tensile strength, API casing and liner
Sweep efficiency at breakthrough, 4419, I l-6 casing, 2-2
44-20 Tanks, measurement and calibration, 17-3 API tubing, 2-37
Sweepout-pattern efficiency, 4423 to 44-25, Tapered valve seat. 5- 15 line pipe. 2-46
44-28 Tar production history, 46-28 of construction materials. 12-41
Sweet corrosion, 3-35, 4-4, 4-5, 9-8 Tar sands, 46-3, 46-31 Tensiometer, 24-16
Sweet gas, 11-10, 14-21, 14-22 Tar Springs sand reservoir, Illinois, 40-32, Tension-leg platform (TLP). 18-2. 18-3,
Sweet natural-gas systems method, for 40-33 18-24, 18-25. 18-44
estimatmg initial hydrate formation, 25-5 Tamer method. 37-10. 40-9, 40-10 Tension packer. 4-2. 4-3
Sweetening by ethanolamines, 14-2 1, 14-22 Tax consequences related to conveyances, Tension tests of round-thread casing jomts.
Swelling clays, 26-18 41-15. 41-16 2-60
Swelling tests. 48-9 Taxation, 57. I1 Tension-type tubing hanger. 3-16
Switchboard. electric submersible pump Taylor method, 37-10 to 37-13 Tensional forces, 29-2, 29-3
(ESP), 7-5 to 7-7, 7-12 Taylor series expansions, 48. IO Tensioner-line angle, 18-17
Switchboard-motor controller. 7-8 Tectonic stresses, 55-l Tensioning unit, 18-13
Switches for control of oilfield motors, Teflon@ seal rings, 2-1, 2-38. 4-5 Tensleep sand reservoir. Wyoming, 40-19
LO-27 Telemetry. 3-18, 3-27, 18-45. 51-27 Terminology in conversion and rounding
Switching valves, 13-56 Telemetry system, 53-1, 53-2 practices, 58-8, 58-9
Switzerland. 12-39 Tell-tale screen, 56-8 Ternary-phase diagrams, 23-4 to 23-6, 23-8,
Symbol subscript definitions in alphabetical Temperature, 23-13, 47-l 1
order. 59-52 to 59-62 actual, 31-2 to 314 Tertiary oil recovery. 24-2, 24-3
Symbol subscripts in alphabetical order, average annual, U.S., 31-3 Tertiary polymer floods. 47-6. 47-10
59-63 to 59-70 gradient, effect of cement behind casing, Tertiary recovery, wet combustion, 46-30.
Symbols in alphabetical order, SPE 31-6 46-33
standard, 59-2 to 59-17 ideal curves of flutd migrating through Test pressures.
Symmetrical folds, 29-2 casing hole, 31-5 extra-strong threaded line pipe, 2-50
Syngenetic interstitial water. definition. in wells, 31-l to 31-7 extreme-line casing, 2-62
24-18 logs. 31-l internal-joint tubing, 2-62
Syntactic foam, 1X-15 mean surface, 31-3 plain-end line pipe, 2-50 to 2-53, 2-62
Synthetic polymers in acidizing, 54-8 radial differential log, 3 1-7 threaded line pipe, 2-47, 2-62. 2-63
System. definition. 22-2 1 static bottomhole. 31-6 wellhead equipment. 3-1, 3-2
Systeme International d’Unit&. 58-2 surveys. 31-l to 31-7, 42-4 Test procedures, gas-condensate reservoir.
Temperature-base factor, 13-3, 13-12 39-5
T Temperature controls, 12-40 Test-rack closing pressure, 5-6. 5-17, 5-18.
Temperature conversion chart, 58-39 5-20
Tadpole plot, 53-10. 53-12 Temperature conversion tolerance Test-rack opening pressure, 5-6 to 5-8. 5-16
Tadpole symbol or structure, 47-7 requirements, 58-7 to 5-18, 5-21, 5-22, 5-29. 5-31 to 5-37,
Tailgate booster, 7-2 Temperature correction factor (coefficient). 5-46, 5-47. 5-49 to 5-51
Tailing. 9-10 5-6. 5-7, 30-2, 30-3 Test separator. 12-17, 32-6
“Taint,” computer subordinate routme, Temperature data log, 52-23 Tester setting temperature, S-46. 5-49
17-6 Temperature dependence of compressional- Testing crude oil, 17-I to 17-8
Tandem labyrinth path model, 7-l 1 and shear-wave velocities. 51-8 Testing natural gas fluids. 17-7
Tandem pumps, 6-7, 6-8 Temperature dtstribution. Tetrabromoethane. 52-20
Tangential method of calculating dtrecttonal in annular completion, 46-6 Tetraethylene glycols (TRG), Id- 18
surveys, 53-5. 53-6 in Marx-Langenheim model, 46-7 Texaco, 464. 46-15, 46-18
Tangible cost. 41-I 1. 41-13 Temperature effect of tubmg string, 4-Y. Texas, 16-12. 16.13. 18-2. 19.15. 21-2,
Tangible property, 57-l I 4-10 214, 21-S. 24-3, 24-7, 24-S. 24-10,
Tank battery, Temperature. effect on acid reaction rate. 24.20, 24-21. 26-7. 29-3. 29-4, 29-7,
connections, II-9 54-4 29-8, 32-l. 32-2. 33-l. 33-21, 36-l.
consolidation. 16-1, 16-2 effect on BHP gauges, 30-2, 30-3. 30-5 36-2, 36-6. 39-3, 39-20 to 39-22. 39-25.
for hydrogen-sulfide crude storage. I I-10 effect on corrosion inhibition, 54-6
40-19, 40-23, 40-33. 40-34. 41-4,
installation and hookup, 11-Y effect on confined bellows-charged dome
44-14, 44-36, 4437, 44-40, 44-42.
maintenance and operation, 11-10, 11-l 1 pressure, 5-6 to 5-8
44-46, 46-3, 46-4, 46-15. 46-18, 46-26
Tank bottoms, 19-32 effect on elastic-wave velocities, 51-7
to 46-32. 47-3. 47-7. 47-22. 49-l 1,
Tank calibration. 17-3 Temperature gradient. 33-18, 58-28
49-3 I, 58-20
Tank cars. measurement and calibration, Temperature log, 46-26, 49-25
Texas allowable rule. 32-l
17-3 Temperature measurement, 16-7
Temperature. method of measuring of Texas gulf coast, 27-6 to 27-8
Tank corroston protection,
Texas Railroad Commission. 32-l. 32-2,
cathodic protection, 11-6 petroleum and petroleum products, 17-5
coatings specifications, I l-4 to 11-6 Temperature of crude, evaporation loss, 32-15, 33-15
Tank dimensions, 114, 11-5 11-12 Texture of foams. 47-8
Tank gauging, 17-3, 174 Temperature, of liquid hydrocarbons. 17-5 Texture of rock, 51-8 to 51-l 1
Tank grades, 11-I 1 Temperature profiles. 4-6. 4-7 Thallium, 50. I3
Tank pressures. evaporation loss from, Temperature ranges, of gas-condensate Thaw settlements, 18-41
11-12 reservoirs, 39-2 Theoretical considerations of multiphase
Tank-type depletion performance, 37-10 Temperature rating of insulations, IO-26 flow, 34-36, 34-37
Tank-type material balance, 37-2, 37-4, Temperature txe of motor. IO-25 Theoretical considerations of thermal
37-19, 37-21 Temperature sensors, IO-29 recovery,
Tank-type models. 37-2, 37-4, 37-5, 37-l I, Temperature. SI unit for, 58-5, 58-23, surface-hne heat losses. 46-4
37-14. 37-17 58-24. 58-28 wellbore heat losses, 46-5
Tanker loading operations, 18-36 Temperature transition zone, 52-22 Theorettcal models, 51-S
Tanker mooring devices. IS-2 Temperature vs. pressure drop. 14-2 Theoretical productivtty index. 32-4
6X PETROLEUM LNGINEERING HANDBOOK
Theories of emulsions. field prolects, 46-13 to 46. I7 Three-phase critical point. 25-15
color. 1’1-5 general references, 46-45. 46-46 Three-phase tlow. 28-9
definition of an emulsion, 19-l. 19-2 geographical dtstribution of projects. 46-3 Three-phase induction motors. 10.20, 10.31,
effect on viscosity of fluids. 19-6 historical development. 46-3 IO-35
emulsifying agents, 19-3 to 19-5 in-situ combustion, three forms of, 46-l Three-phase numerical simulators, 46-7
how emulsions form, 19-2. 19-3 to 46-3 Three-phase relative mobility, 28-9
prevention of, 19-5 mtroductton to. 46-I Three-phase relative permeability, 28-12
stability of, 19-5, 19-6 laboratory experimentation, 46-12, 46-13 Three-phase saturation condittons. 28-B.
Theory of elastic-wave propagation in rocks. monitoring and coring programs, 46-20, 28-9
51.49, 51-50 46-2 I Three-phase saturation trajectory, 28-7
Theory of elasticity. nomenclature, 46-40, 46-41 Three-phase separator, 12-4. 12-5. 12.14.
bulk modulus, 51-l. 51-2 numerical simulation, 46-I I, 46- 12 12-15, 12-19. 12-21, 15.21. 16-7. 16-8
elastic parameters, relationships among. oil recovery, 46-14. 46-15 Three-phase standard transformer, 7-6
51-2 operational problems and remedies, 46-2 I, Three-phase transformer. IO-30
Poisson’s ratio. 51-2 46-22 Three-phase voltage, IO-23
shear modulus. 51-I proJect design, 46-17 to 46-19 Three-phase well tester. horizontal skid-
Young’s modulus, 5 Ill references, 46-43 to 46-45 mounted, 12-4, 12-21
Thermal-absorption cross section, 50-10, reservoirs amenable to. 46-3, 46-4 with batch-type meters, 32-9
50-22 steam injection processes, two forms of, with oil-volume meter and PD meter,
Thermal ammeter, IO-33 46-l 32-8
Thermal analysis, 18-41 theoretical considerations, 46-4 to 46-7 with PD meters, 32-7
Thermal breathing, 11-6 thermal properties, 46-3 I to 46-40 Three-point rule, 41llO
Thermal conductance, conversion of units, well completion, 46-19 Three-stage separation, 12-33, 12-34
table. 1-79 Thermal resistance. 58-34 Three-tube pump, 8-8, 8-9
Thermal conductivity, conversion of units, Thermal strength stabilizing agent, 46-19 Three-way bypass valve. 14-S. 14-6
table. 1~79 Thermal stress. 46-19 Three-way engine valves. 6-9
detector (TCD). 52-4 to 52-6. 52-l 1 Thermal trip capabibty of circuit breakers, Threshold energy, 50-7, 50-9
of a gas. 3 l-2 IO-28 Threshold pressure, 28-6
of a material over a depth increment, Thermal venting capacity of tanks, 11-7 Throat annulus. jet pump, 6-38. 6-40, 641.
52-22 Thermalization. SO-22 6-46
of adjacent formation, 31-7 Thermaiytic Hydrocarbon Analyzer (THA). Throat-diffuser loss coefficient, 6-37
of cement, 46-b 52-10, 52-l 1 Throat of jet pump, b-32, 6-34 to 6-37.
of common sediments, 3 l-4 Thermistor. 16-7, 3 l-2 6-39 to 6-42. 6-46. 6-47
of geological strata. 3 l-2 Thermocouple-amplifier transducers. 46-21 Throttling discharge of liquid. 12-42
of insulating materials. 46-4 Thermocouples. 16-7, 31-2, 51-5 Through-flowline (TFL) completions, 5-2
of- Kern River oil sands. 46-39 Thermodynamic equilibrium, 23-12 Through-flowline (TFL) installations. b-2.
of mineral oils in motors, 7-3 Thermodynamic temperature, 58-10, 58-23 6-6, 6-7. 6-34
of refrigerants. 14-l 1 Thermogenic hydrates, 25-18 Through-flowline (TFL) well servicmg,
overburden, 46-7 Thermometers. 18-34
units and conversion factors, 58-34 differential, 31-2. 31-5 Thrust fault, 29-3
variation with brine saturation, 46-37 electrical surface-recording, 31-2. 3 l-5 Tia Juana Este field. Venezuela. 46-4.
Thermal contractum of liquid, 22-2 I in gas, 31-2 46-15, 46-18
Thermal cracking, 46-12, 46-15. 46-16 self-contamed, 3 l-l, 31-Z Tickell diagram, 24-19
Thermal detectors, 50-20, 50-21 time response. 3 l-2 Tie lines, 23-5, 23-9, 23-10. 45-5
Thermal-diffusion coefficient. 50-l 1 Thermometry. l-68, l-69, 31-2 to 31-7 Tier and rate structure, windfall profit tax,
Thermal diffusivity, 46-5, 46-7. 46-10 Thermoplastic line pipe. 15-10 41-15
Thermal efficiency, 46-8, 46-Y, 46. I4 Thermoset restns, 9-12 Time-average equation. 5 I-30, 5 I-33 to
Thermal energy neutron. 50.11, 50.17. Thermosetting resin line pipe, 15-10 51-35. 51-50
50-36 Thermosiphon. 19-2 I Time-clock tab, IO-28
Thermal-expansion coefficients, 17-5, 17-6 Thickening agents, 55-5 Time-cycle control. 5-41 to 5.44, 5-54
Thermal-exoansion factor. 13-8 Thief hatch, 11-9, II-l], 11-13 Time-cycle controller, 5-38, 5-40, 5-4X,
Thermal expansion of hydrocarbon liquids, Thief sampler, 17-1, 17-2 5-53, 5-55, 14.11. 14-20, 16.3, 164.
22-3, 22-5 Thin-bed corrections, induction log, 49-17 16-11
Thermal flooding, 40-4 Thin-film epoxy system, 15-10 Time-cycle-operated controller, adjustment
Thermal inbreathing, I l-6. 11-7 Thu-film strain-gauge transducer, 30-7 of. 5-55
Thermal lag, 31-I. 31-2 Thmnest reservoir, fireflood. 46-29 Time designation, Sl metric system, 5822
Thermal model, 484 to 48-7, 48-14 Thtosulfates, 14-22 Time lag of a process, 13-52. 13-53
Thermal neutron absorption, 50-4, 50-2 1 “Third for a quarter” transaction, 41-15 Time-lapse techmque, 50-36
Thermal neutron detectors, 50-15 l3-spot pattern. 46-17, 47-18, 46-26 Time of injection operations, 42-2
Thermal neutron porosity device, 50-12. Thodos gas-viscosity method, 20-9, 20-15 Time-rate performance, 45. I2
50.20. 50.30, 50-32 Thorium. 50-2 to 50-4. 50-15, 50-16, 50.24 Time, SI units for. 5X-5. 58.22. 58-23.
Thermal overload relay, IO-29 to 50-27, 50-34. 50-35 58-27
Thermal packers, 46-19 Thread galling, 9-9 Time truncation error, 48-10
Thermal porosity device, 50-2 I, 50-28, Thread limitations, wellhead equipment, Time value of money, 41-3
50-32 3-1, 3-2 Title examination, 57-9
Thermal properties, Thread pressure rating for casing, line pipe, Titled polar scan displays. 51-28
chemical kinetics, 46-37 and tubing, 3-3, 3-4 Tixier relation, 26-29
oil viscosities, 46-3 I, 46-34. 46-35 Threaded adapter flange, 3-9, 3-l 1 Tolerance, definition. 58-9
pore-volume compressibility, 46-37 Threaded flanges, 3-8. 3-17 Tolerances,
relative-permeability curve, 46-34, 46-37 Threaded line pipe. 246 to 2-49 of buttress-thread casing coupling, 2-29
steam properties, 4640 Threading and’machining dimensions, 2-63, of external-upset tubing coupling, 243
thermal conductivity, 46-37 2-64, 2-67. 2-68 of integral-joint tubing upset, 2.45
vaporization equilibrium. 46-37 Threading data, API, 2-64 to 2-72 of line-pipe lengths. 2-47
Thermal recovery, 3-D Log’“. 51-18 of nonupset tubing coupling, 2-42
analytical models for steam injection, 46-7 3D seismic techniques, 36-I) 36.8, 36.9 of ring-joint gaskets, 3-28, 3-30, 3-32
to 46-l I 3D simulator, 36-10 of round-thread casing coupling, 2-28
case histories, 46-22 to 46-3 I 3D velocity log, 51-44 of sucker and pony rods. 9-3, 9-l 1
current status, 46-3, 46-4 3D vertical mtgration, 36-9 Toluene, 17-2, 17-5, 24-18, 26-22
field facilities, 46-19, 46-20 Three-phase autotransformer, 7-6 Ton as a umt, l-70
SUBJECT INDEX 69
Tool characteristxs. acoustic logging. 5 1-l 5 Transmission method, 51-11, 51-12. 51-27 collapse resistance, 2-39, 2-41. 2-43
Tool-face angle, 53-1 Transmission 011, IO-12 design factors, 2-38
Tool for long-spacing acoustic logging. Transmission system, 12-10. 12-l I design safety factors, 2-38, 2-39, 2-45.
51-21 to 51-23 Transmitter of sonic meter, 13-49 2-46
Tool span. conventional acoustic logging. Transport coefficient, 28-l. 28-3 dimensions, 2-42, 2-43. 2-45. 2-58, 2-65.
51-16 Transport energy, 34-46 2-66
Tools available for directional surveys, Transport equations, 28-13. 28-14 elongation, 2-37
53-3, 53-4 Transport properties. umts and conversions, equation for calculating performance
Tooth efficiency, 52-25 58-34, 5x-35 properties, 2-46, 2-54 to 2-56
Top-seating holddown. 8-3 Transportation and launch offshore, 18-26 external upset, 2-38 to 2-45
Topworka (motor), 13-49 Transportation fatigue. 18-27 gross linear footage from net footage,
TorIspherical head equations. 12-38 Transportation systems offshore. 2-45
Tornado chart>. 49-28 marine terminals, 18-43 hydrostatic test pressure, 2-62
Torpeda sandstone. 28-10, 46-5 pipeline, 18-42. IS-43 integral joint, 2-38 to 2-45
Torque. engine, IO-17 tankers, IX-43 internal yield, 2-39. 2-41, 2-43, 2-46
Torque factors, 10-6, IO-7 Transverse captllary imbibition, 28-12 joint strength. 2-61
Torque mode of motors, IO-20 to 10-22, Transverse dispersion, 28-12, 45-6 joint yield strength, 2-39, 2-41, 2-43,
10-25, 10-31, :O-32 Trap, 12-1 2-46
Torque of motor, LO-25 Trap classification. 29-l to 29-6 multiplication factors. 2-45
Torque reductions, IO-24 Trapezoidal integration, 34-24 nonupset coupling, 2-38 to 2-44
Torque, SI umt for, 58-5, 58-34, 58-38 Trapezoidal rule, 33-17, 40-15 performance properties, 2-38 to 2-43
Torsion. 29-2, 29-9 Travel time, 51-15 range lengths, 2-37. 2-38
Torsion modulus, 51-l Travel-time measurement. borehole- round-thread and form, 2-58, 2-64
Torsional waves. 5 1-2 compensated (BHC) log, 51-16 round-thread height dnnensions, 2-66
Tortuosity, 26-28, 26-29, 26-31. 2X-6 Travelmg-barrel rod pump, X-4, 8-10 safety factors, 2-38. 2-39, 2-54 to 2-56
Total dissolved solids (TDS), 15-29, 24-5. Traveling valve. 19-28 selection of weight and grade, 2-39
24-l to 24-13. 24-20, 44-44, 47-2. 47-3 Travcrae wa*es, 5 l-2 special joints, 2-38
Total dvnamic head (TDH), 7-10 Treating crude-oil emulsiona. 19-6 to 19-15 stretch when freely suspended. 2-46
Total (&o-phase) FVF. 6-47. 6-48, 22-l, Treating emulsions produced from EOR string of single weight and grade, 2-38
22.13. 22.14. 22-20 project\. 19-28 tensile requirements. 2-37. 2-38
Total-gas analysis. 52-3 Treatment planning. hydraulic fracturing, thread dimensions, 2-65. 2-66
Total-gas analyzer. 52-9 55-9 tolerance, 2-42. 2-43, 2-45
Total-gas detector, 52-5 Treatment plant. 39-24 weight, 2-42, 243. 2-45
Total liauid saturation. 40. IO Tree savers, 55-9 vIeId strength. 2-37
Total po’rosity. 26-2. 26-3. 26-7 Trespass, 57-2 Tubing/casing annulus, 6-2, 6-4. 6-5. 18-33,
Total solids. M-45 Triangular diagram, 23-4. 23-5, 23-8. 34-27
Total water. definition of. 27-8 23-13. 45-2 to 45-7 Tubing cleanliness. 56-3
Totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motor, Triaxial PV-comprewbility technique, 26-8, Tubing constants. 4-10
IO-26 26-9 Tubing hanger bowl, 3-8, 3-13
Totally enclosed nonventilated (TENV) Triethylene glycol (TEG). 14-7. 14-18 to Tubing hangers, 3-8. 3-l I. 3-14, 3-16,
motor, IO-26 14-20, 25-19 3-26. 3-37. 3-39
Tow and launch analysis procedure. 18-27 Triethylenr-glycoliwater mixtures, 39-5 Tubing-head adapter flange, 3-9, 3-11
Toxic concentration of refrigerants. 14-10 Triggering, 51-16, 51-17 Tubing-head bowl. 3-8, 3-9. 3-39
Toxic decomposition products of Trigonometric functions, table, l-50 to 1-54 Tubing heads, 3-8, 3-11, 3-14, 3-37, 3-39
refrieeranta. 14-I 1 Trimdad. 36-9, 46-3 Tubing installation, 33-2 I
Toxicity: 52-20 Trinle ooint. 23-l. 23-2 Tubing/packer system,
Trace-element absorption factor. 50-34 Triplex’ pumps. 6-1. 6-30. 6-33, 6-45, 6-46, advantages, 4-6
Tracer studies. IS-2j 6-49 to 6-51. 6-60, 6-61, 15.14, 16-11, combination, 4-l I
Tracers. 26-21, 46-21, 52-26 55-9 illustration, 4-9
Tracy’s method, 37-7 to 37-10, 37-21 Tripolite, 51.5, 51-6 in completion or workover, 4-10
T&Alaska Pitxline Ssstem. 18-3 Tritium, 46-2 I operational well modes. 4-6 to 4-8
Transducer assehbly of’sonic meter, 13-49 Tritium ion, 50-6 where packers are used, 4-6
Transducer criteria, 30-5 Trix-Liz field, Texas. 46-18 Tubing performance curve, 34-50
Transducers, 30-6. 30-7. 46-21 Troubleshooting electrtcal submersible pump Tubing plug, 3-35
Transfer pressure line. 5-48 (ESP). 7-1, 7-14 to 7-17 Tubing-profile calipers, 53-17 to 53-19
Transformer voltage drop, lo-33 Troubleshootmg gutde. 6-28. 6-31 to 6-33, Tubing pump. 8-I. 8-4
Transformers. 7-6. 7-l 1, IO-29 to IO-3 I, 6-47. 6-51 Tubing response characteristics,
10-35. 19-3 I Troy granite, 51-8 to 51-10 ballooning and reverse ballooning. 4-10
Tranwnt backpressure, 44-35 Trube correlation, 20-I I. 20-16 buckling effects, 4-10. 4-l I
Tramlent period, 30-l I to 30. I3 Trube method, 22-l I. 22-12 introduction. 4-8. 4-9
Tramlent-pressure test, 36-7 Trucking charges, al-12 piston effect, 4-9
Tranwnt &tine. 35. I 1 True boiling pomt, 21-7 to 2 l-9 temperature effect, 4-9
Tranrlent well&t analysis. True equdibrium state, 25-3 Tubing-retrievable subsurface safety valve!,
buildup tr\ting, 35-15, 35-16 True mass, dctinition of. I-70 (SSSV’s), 3-27. 3-33
detern&ation‘of I)~, 35. I6 True porosity. SO-20, 50-28 to 50-30 Tubing size vs. constant B. 6-20
drawdown test, 35-14, 35-15 True stratigraphic thickness (TST), 53-10, Tubing sizes, F, values for, 34-25
Transit time. 51-15 53-12, 53-15, 53-16 Tubing support. electrical submersible pump
Transit-time integration curves. 51-22 True vapor pressure, I l-12, 14-13 (ESP), 7-6
Transit-time log, 51-47, 51-48 True vertical depth (TVD). 5-4, 5-6. 18-41, Tubing thread<. wellhead equipment, 3-2
Transit-time measurement. 51-14 49-37. 53-3. 53.15, 53-16 Tubing-to-packer connections, 4-1
Transit-time/pressure correlation, 5 l-40 True vertical thickness (TVT). 53-10, Tubular goods sizes. 3-S
Transition collapse-pre\rure equation, 2-54, 53-12. 53-15. 53-16 Tungsten carbide. 6-34
2-55 Truncation, 29-4. 29-S. 29-9 Tunisia, 24-18
Transitmn llow (slug-mist), 34-36. 34-37. Trustee. definition. 57-3 Turbidity, 44-44
34-40 Tube amplitude mtlo. 51-47. 51-43 Turbine expansion systems. 14-8
Transition zones, 27-8 Tube-type HZ detector. 52-b. 52-7 Turbine meters, 13-45. 13-49, 16-6, 16-7.
Transmonal sediments, 36-3 Tube wave. Sl-12. 51-47. 51-48 16.12. 17-4, 17-7. 32-6. 32-12
Transmissibility. 39-19. 48-3, 48-14 to Tubmg. Turbine-powered propulcion systems. 18-43
48-16 collapse pressure. 2-46 Turbine prime mover, 18-45
Turbo-expander process, 14-X Underllow slurry, 15-19 Unitization of tank batteries, 32-7
Turbocharged engine. IS-16 Underground storage, 11-13, 1 I-14 Unitized BOP stack, 18-12
Turbopumps, 6-67 Undersaturated carbonate reservoir, 44-36 Unitized pressure-energized secondary seal,
Turbulence, 14-2. 14-3 Undersaturated oil, 37-10 3-6
Turbulence and short-circuiting factor, Undersaturated oil reservoirs, 40-7, 40-12 Unitorque geometry, IO-4
15-19 Undersaturated reservoir, 37-5, 37-6, 37-9 Units and names to be avoided, 58-5
Turbulence, energy loss due to, 13-2, 13-3 Undersaturated system, definition, 22-21 Units and systems of weights and measures,
permanent pressure loss from, 13-2 Undersaturated systems, oil FVF for, British and U.S. systems, l-69, I-70
Turbulent flow regime, 28-13 Trube method, 22-l I, 22-12 relative density and density, l-80
Turnkey format, 15-32 Vasquez and Beggs method, 22-12, 22-13 standards of, l-70, I-71
Two-cycle engines, IO-14 to 10-16, IO-19 Undersaturated systems, oil-viscosity subdivision of umts. I-70
Two-dimensional (2D) relief maps, 5 l-28 correlations, 22-16 tables of, l-71 to l-80
2- and 3D seismic surveys, comparison, Undervoltage relay, IO-28 the metric system, 1-68. l-69
36-9 Underwriters’ Laboratories Inc., IO-27 unit and standard definitions, l-68
2D simulator. 36-10 Undiscounted future net cash flow. 41-5 Universal rails, motor mounts, IO-19
Two-phase compressibility factor. 39-7. Unfavorable mobduy ratio, 28-7 U. of Houston, 50-15
39-8, 39-10, 39-14 Uniboom. 18-5 Unloading and loading sucker rods, 9-10
Two-phase flow, 34-33, 34-34, 34-37 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Unloading daily production rate, 5-23
Two-phase (total) formation volume factor 12.39. 21-2 Unloading flowing-pressure traverse, 5-28,
(FVF), 647, 648. 22-1, 22-13, 22-14, Umon Oil Co.. 46-15. 47-22 5-32
22-20 Unit displacement, 43-10, 43-l I Unloading flowing-temperature-at-depth
Two-phase separators, 12-9, 12-10, 12-17 to Unit displacement efficiency, 42-3, 43-3, traverse. 5-32
12-19. 12-21. 12-25 43-5: 43-6, 43-8, 43-9 - Unloading gas-lift valve, 5-55
Two-phase vertical-flow model, 7-12 Unit-of-production basis, 41-16, 41-17, Unloadinp gas-lift valve depths, 5-51
Two-phase waterflooding. 47-l 41-23 Unloading gas-lift valve temperature, 5-46.
Two-phase well tester. Unit of weights and measures, definition of, 5-48
with positive displacement (PD) meter, l-68 Unloading intermittent-spacing-factor
32-8 Unit operations, 57-7, 57-8 traverse. 5-45. 5-46
with volume meters. 32-9 Unit pressure of fluid columns, 6-22, 6-23 Unloading procedure, gas lift, 5-53 to 5-55
Two-receiver system, acoustic logging. Unit-recovery equation, Unloading temperature traverse. 5-46
51-15. 51-16 depletion recovery factors, 40-10 to 40-12 Unrecoverable oil, 44-11
Two-stage desalting, 19-26, 19-27 depletion-type reservoir, 40-8 Unsegregated reservoir, 37-5
Two-stage separation, 12-33, 12-34, 22-7 dry-gas reservoir, 40-25 Unstable properties, sample for determining,
Type curve, 35-6 Muskat‘s method. 40-9 24-4
Type II(-) phase, 23-8 Tamer’s method. 40-9, 40-10 Unsteady-state methods of relative-
Types of injection. 424 water-drive reservoir, 40-16 pernledbihty measurement, 28-3, 28-10,
Typewritmg recommendations, Sl metric Unit-recovery factor, 40.16, 40.18, 40-19, 28-12, 28-14
syatcm, 5X-13 40-24 Upflow filters, 15-20
Unit recovery for gas reservoir without Upkicking, 6.31
U water drive. 40-24 Upset configuration, 9-2
Unit response function. 35-8, 35-9 Upstream taps, 13-26 to 13-29, 13-33,
Ultimate chemical analysis, 21-I. 21-2 United Geophysical. 51-I 13-34, 13-37
Ultimate depletion, 42-2 United States (U.S.), l-68 to l-71, 9-8, Uranium, 24-16, 50-2 to 50-4, 50-15.
Ultimate gas recovery, 40-24, 40-34 12-38, 12-39, 17-4, 18-3, 18-18, 18.20, 50-16, 50-23 to 50-27, 50.34. 50-35
Ultimate &I recovery, 44-37, 47-20 18-23. 18-25, 18-46, 24-l. 24-2, 24-6, Urethane jacket, 18-49
Ultimate recovery, 30-I I, 36-3, 37-3, 24-21. 36-2, 39-16, 40-16, 41-12, 44-1, Utah, 24-8, 24-20, 24-21. 46-16. 46.30.
37-21, 37-25, 39-10, 39-13, 39-17, 44-4. 51-l. 52-22, 52-26, 52-30 46-31. 46-33, 46-34
39-20. 39-23. 39-24. 40-l. 40-2. 40-4. U.S. areas. core-analysis data from, 27-9
40-S. 40-11. 40-13, 40-15, 40-16, U.S. Beaufort Sea. 18-3 V
40-24, 40-26. 40-32. 40.33. 40-37. U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM), l-80, 33-1,
40-39. 41-10. 41-I I. 42-2. 42-6. 44-2 to 33-3 V-belt drive, 10-5. lo-12
444, 447, 4431 USBM BHP gauge, 30-I Vacuum-breaker holes, II - I3
Ultimate recovery efficiency. 43-3 U.S. Bureau of Standards, 21-8 Vacuum deaeration. 15-29
Ultimate water requirements. 4441 U.S. bushel. l-69, I-70 Vacuum distillation, 27-8
Ultrahigh-slip motors, IO-19 to 10-24. U.S. Coast Guard jurisdiction, 18-44 Vacuum-line system, 1 I-13
10-31. IO-32 U.S. customary umts. 5X-9 Vacuum models, 46-l 3
Ultrasonic level device. 16-5 U.S. Dept. of Interior, 57-I 1 VaCUUm relief of storage tanks, 1 l-7
Ultrasonic tests. 19-30 U.S. DOE, 21-9, 45-l Vacuum units and conversions, 58-29
Ultrasonic thickness indicators. 12-40 U.S. gallon, 1.69. l-70 Validity of simulation results.
Ultraviolet absorption unit, 12-16 Urnted States Geological Survey (USGS), model assumptions, 48-9, 48-10
Ultraviolet detectors, 3-34 3-39. 41-9
spatial truncation errors, 48-10, 48-12
Ultraviolet light, 52-10, 52-l 1 U.S. Government. 53-5
uncertain reservoir-description data.
Ultraviolet photographs, 46-21 U.S. gulf coast area. 24-7, 24-8, 24-17
48-12. 48-13
Ultraviolet radiation, I l-9 U.S. Metric Board, l-69
Valuation,
Ultraviolet (UV) sensors, 18-47 U.S. Mineral Management Service, 18-5
analytical methods for computation of
Umbilicals in subaea control systems, 18-49 U.S. Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978, 57-10
appraisal value. 41-3 to 41-R
Umbrella effect, 43-7 U.S. Navy. 18-4
cash-flow projection preparation, 41-3
Unbalanced backpressure regulator, 5-13 U.S. oil production by EOR, 46-3
check list of data required for evaluation,
Unbalanced gas-lift valves. 5-39 U.S. OCS Orders. 18-46. 18-47
41-8, 41-9
Unbalanced pressure regulator, 5-12 U.S. Prototype Kilogram No. 20. l-69,
fair-market-value determination, 41.2.
Unbalanced. single-element gas-lift valves, I-70
5-12, 5-14. 5-17. 5-19 to 5-22, 5-41 to U.S. sieve number, 56-6, 56-7 41-3
5 -44 U.S. survey foot, l-69 Valuation concepts,
Unconformity, 29-5, 29-8. 29-9, 49-25. U.S. system of weights and measures. l-69, accounting method, 41.16. 41.17. 41-22,
53-12 I-70 41.23
Uncrosslmked gels, 55-5 U.S. Tax Reduction Act of 1975, 57-i I average annual ROR method. 41-23,
Underbalance method, 56-5 U.S. Weather Bureau, 31-2 41-24
Underbalanced condition, 52-17 to 52-19 Unitization agreements, 41-9, 57-8 DCF method, 41-17 to 41-20
Undercurrent loadmg. 7-15 Unitization. definition of, 57-7 Hoskold’s method. 41-16. 41-20 to 41-22
iUBJECT INDEX 71
Morkill’F method, 41-16. 41-22 Vaporillquid:hydrute formation condmons. Venturi-tube flowmeter. 32-13
Valuation methods. equations, 41-17. 41-18 25-13 Verscntates’“. 44-45
Valuatmn of oil and gas reserves. Vapor losses. II-II. 11-12 Vertical communication. 4X-10. 48.12
concepts of. 41-16 to 41-24 Vapor pressure, 6-36, II-I I, I l-12. 19-8. Vertical conformance, 44-5
development and operating costs. 41-1 I. 20-3. 20-11 to 20-13, 20-16, 20-17 Vertical coverage. 44-39
41-12 Vapor-pressure curves, Vertical cylindrical vessel. 15-24
federal taxes. 41-12 to 41-16 for binary mixtures. 23-4 Vertical electric grids. 19-26
forecast of future production rate. 41-Y to for light hydrocarbons, 23-4 Vertical emulsion treater?. 19.7, 19.21 to
41-11 Vapor pressure, empty hydrate, 25-l I 19-23
general references, 41-37 of water. 25-15 Vertical flow downward, 34.28
interest tables and deferment factors, temperature curves. 14-13 Vertical-flow system, 26-12. 26-13
41-25 to 41-36 temperature plot, 20-12 Vertical fractures, 44-25. 44-28, 51-28.
nomenclature. 41-36 Vapor recovery, equipment. 19-32 51-46 tn 51-48. 55-2, 55-9
references, 41-37 line valve. 11-I I Vertical free-water knockout. 19-17
types of oil and gas property ownership, system. 11-12. II-13 Vertical hydraulic fracture. 35-4
41-I. 41-2 unit. 15-27 Vertical multiphase flowing-gradient
valuation, 41-2 to 41-9 Vapor/solid equilibrium constants, 25-7, correlation, 6-27, 6-28. 6-30. 6-43, 6-45
Valve depths, continuous-flow gas-lift 25-8 Vertical multistage pumps, 1 I-14
installation, 5-32 to 5-35 Vapor-solids equilibrium ratio method, 25-5 Vertical permeability, 37-5, 48-8
Valve depths. gas lift, 5-28 Vaporization/condensation phenomenon, Vertical recycling separator. 12-14
Valve mechanics, gas lift, 46-11 to 46-13 Vertical reservoir continuity, 36-4
bellows-assembly load rate. 5-16, 5-17 Vaporization (vapor-pressure) curve. 23-l. Vertical saturation distribution. 37-4
bellows protection, 5-16 23-2 Vertical scrubber, 12-38
constant closing pressure. S-13 Vaporization equilibrium. of an oil fraction, Vertical sections, directlonal-data
crosswer seat. 5-16 46-37 presentation, 53-7
inJection-gas volumetric throughput of hydrocarbons. 46-12 Vertical segregation, 37-l
profiles, 5-20, 5-21 Vaporization losses, storage tanks, II-12 Vertical separator, 12-l. 12-7 to 12-9.
introduction. S-12 Vaporizing ga$ drive, 45-l. 45-2, 45-4, 12-14, 12-16 to 12-25. 12-27 to 12.30,
opening and closing pressures, 5-19 45-5, 45-13 12-35, 12-40, 18-28
pilot and differential opening njection- Vaporizing gas drive simulator, 45-14 Vertical-separator sizing, 12-29, 12.30
pressure-operated valves, S-13. 5-14 Vara as length unit. 58-7, 58-21 Vertical settling tank. 19-2 1
port configurations, 5-15 Variable-bore rams, 1% I I Vertical-sided structures. 18-42
production-pressure factor and valve Variable deck load, 18-7 Vertical splits of pipe, 53-18, 53-20
spread. 5-19. 5-20 Variable deck-load capacity, 18-7 Vertical stratification, 39-18
purpoacs of valves, 5-12 Variable Density LogTM (VDL), 51-18, Vertical stresses, 55-l
specifications and stem travel. 5-14, 5-15 51-35, 51-41, 51-42, 51-45. 51-46 Vertical sweep, 46-14, 46-21. 46.30. 46-3 I
static-force balance equations, 5-17 to Variable-density presentation, 5 I-24, 51-25 Vertical sweep efficiency, 39-17. 39-18.
5-19 Variable flowing pressure-gradient method, 47-11 47-2
unbalanced single-element valves. 5-12. 5-22 Vertical three-phase oil/gas/water separator.
5-13 Variable-gradlent design, 5-22 12-4
Valve port area, 5-36 Variable-gradient valve spacing, 5-32 to Vertical three-phase separator. 19-17
Valve port size, gas lift, 5-44 5-37 Vertical vessels, 13-53
Valve-spacing transfer production pressures. Variable-inductance transducer. 30-6 Vertically fractured reservoirs. 35-4
5-48 Variable-reluctance transducer, 30-5 Vertically fractured reservoirs, shape
Valve specifications and stem travel, 5-14. Variable-speed drive, 7-7 to 7-9. 7-12. 7-16 factors. 35-5
5-15 Variables that affect sucker-rod string and Vessel-motion terminology. 18-7
Valve spread. 5-19 pumping-umt loadIn& IO-5 Vessel response to motion. 18-X
Valve surface closing pressure, 5-47 Variance, 38-9 Vibrating crystal (quartz) transducer. 30-6.
Valve switches, 16-3 Vasquez and Beggs correlations, 22-7 to 30-7
Valve-travel increment. 13-54 22-13 Vibratmg wire transducer, 30-5 to 30.7
Valve types. 16-3. 16-4 Velocity, equivalents (table), l-76 Vibration,
Valves at wellhead. 3-11 to 3-13 in gas lines, 15-7 dampening, 16-5
Valves, gas-lift. in liquid lines, 15-2. 15-5 fatigue, IS-34
crossover seats, 5-15 of propagation. 51-2 lackmg in jet pumps, 6-34
for intermittent lift, S-42. 5-43 porosity correlations, 5 l-34 of casing in high-current drilling, 18-21
injection-pressure operated, 5-12 to 5-14 porosity laboratory data. 5 l-6 problems in instrumentation for gas
mechanics, 5-12 to 5-21 ratio. compressional to shear wave, 51-35 measurement, 13-I
mtrogen-charged. 5-16. 5-17 to 51-38 stresses, 3-1
pilot-operated. 5-13 Velocity meters. surface pumps with oil power tluid, 6-55
port configuration. 5-15 derivation of an orifice equation, 13-2. switch for pumping unit. IO-29
production-pressure-operated, 5-13 13-3 vortex shedding, 18-2 I, 18-22
purpose of, 5- 12 energy balance. 13-l. 13-2 Vinyl ester, 9-12
unbalanced. single-element, 5-12, 5-13 forms of meter, 13-2 Viscosities of gas-condensate (CC) systems,
wireline-retrievable, 5-2 Vena contracta. 13-3 39-4
van der Waals’ equation. 20-7 to 20-9, Venango fields. Pennsylvania. 44-4 Viscosity breaker, 56-8
23-12 Venezuela. 6-24. IO-IS, 12-39. 18-l. 19-2. Viscosity-controlled fluids, 55-4
van der Waals forces, 47-8 21-4, 24-6. 24-9, 24-13, 27-9, 27.20, Viscosity corrections. 6-20
Van Everdingen, Timmerman, and 46-3. 46-4. 46.15. 46.16, 46.18, 58-20 Viscosity correlations. gas. 20-9
McMahon method. 38-9 to 38-l I Vent discharge for tanks, I I-Y Viscosity factor, 20-15. 20-16
Vanadium, 50-23, 50-35 Venting atmospheric and low-pressure Viscosity gradients, 6-69
Vane-type compressor, I l- 13 storage tanks. 1 l-6 to I I-9 Viscosity in SI metric system. 58-24, 58-35
Vane-type mist extractor, 12-S. 12-9. 12-11 Venting capacity of tank<, I I-7 Viscosity index. 21-7
Vapor control in storage tanks, I I-12 to Venting requirements for storage tanks, Viscosity number, 10-12. IO-13
II-14 II-6 Viscosity, of brine. 24-16
Vapor equivalent of stock-tank liquid, 39-10 Ventura Avenue field. California, 40-12 of dead and live oils, 46-3 I, 46-35. 46-36
Vapor/liquid equtlibrutm (VLE) constant, Ventura field. Californta, 6-24 of fluids. effect of emulsion on. 19-6
14-16 Venture capital. 57-8 of formation water. 24-16, 24-17
Vapor/liquid equilibrtum ratio, 39-l I. Venturi plug valves, 3-12 of gas, 20-9, 20-15
39-12. 39-15 Venturi tube, 13-2 of gas-free crude. 6-68. 46-35
of hydrocarbon gas. 15-6 Volumetrtc meters. 13 I Water-based muds. 26-2 I, 40.19, 44.5.
of oil vs. specific gravity. 6-67 Volumetric methods. 53-9
of oils. 6-24 free gas in gas reservoir of gas cap, 40-5 Water block, 56-2
of pure compounds, 20-8 nonassociated-gas reservoirs, 40-2 1 to Water breakthrough, 39-16. 44-4. 44-7,
of refrigerants. 14-l 1 40-X 44-9. 44-11, 4412. 44-14, 44-15, 44-34
of sodium chlortde (N&I) solutions. oil-in-place, 40-S. 4-6 Water channeling, 31-S
24-17 oil m rcscrvotr. 40-S. 40-6 Water compresstbility. 24-12, 24-l 3. 37-3.
of water, 6-24. 6-67 oil reservoirs with gas-cap drive, 40.13, 37-6. 37-10, 40-7. 40-34
profile. 55-5 40-14 Water coning. 32-3. 48-6. 48-9
ratio vs. pseudoreduced temperature, 20-9 oil reservotrs with water drive, 40-15 to Water content,
tWtOS. 43-5, 43-6, 45-7. 45-I I 40-20 dewpoint chart, 25-l I, 25 I2
recommendations for gear and chain saturated depletron-type oil reservoirs, equations, 25-13
reducers, lo-12 40-S to 40. I2 equilibrnnn. 25-12
relations. polymers. 47-4 solution gas in oil reservoir, 40-6, 40-13 for natural gas in equilibrium with brines.
temperature relationships. 19-7. 19-S. undersaturated oil reservoirs, 40-12 25-14
46-31, 46-34, 46-35 volatile-otl reservoirs. 40-13 tn light-hydrocarbon systems. 25- I6
Vtscous emulsions. 55-8 Volumetric pump efficiency, 40-27 in vapor phase, effects of molecular
VISCOUS fingering or fingers, 28-13, 45-7, Volumetric rdtto. 55-6 wetght, 25-16
45-8, 47-2, 48-13 Volumetric recovery esttmates for metastable, 25-12. 25-13
Viscous forces. 35 Il. 44-3 I, 47-9 nonassociated-gas reservotrs, of CO,, 25-14, 25-1.5
Viscous hydrocarbons, metering, 17-4 compresstbility factor, 40-2 1. 40-22 of CO,-rich tluid phases. 25-15
Visual cell. 39-7 gas FVF, 40-22, 40-23 of effluent oil, 12-13
Viton? 4-5 gas in place, 40-23, 40-24 of gas in equilibrium with hydrates.
Vocabulary of petroleum measurement permeability distribution effect, 40-24 to 25-10, 25-l I
standard. 17-3 40-26 of gases tn vapor/hydrate region, 25-12
Vogel method. for thermal efficiency, 46-9 recovery with water drive, 40-26 of hydrocarbon-rich liquid. 25-10, 25-l 1
Vogel‘s Inflow-performance relationship untt recovery without water drive, 40-24 of natural gases. 14-4, 25-l I to 25-15
(IPR). 34-3 1 to 34-35. 37-2 I Volumetric reserves, 36-7 of nitrogen in equilibrium with hydrates.
Void volume. detinttton of, 27-l Volumetric reservon. 36-3, 37-6, 37-10 25-14
Volanr”. 49-37. 49-38 Volumetric solubility of methane in water. of propane liqwd and vapor phase, 25-18
Volatile-oil reservoir, 25-16. 25-17 of separated crude 011, 12. I3
comparison of predicted vs. actual Volumetric sweep, 46-14, 46-19, 46-30, of untreated oil, 19-l
reservoir performance. 37-25. 37-26 46-3 I of vapor in equilibrium with hydrates,
material balance. 37-25. 37-26 Volumetric-sweep efficiency. 39-17. 39-18. 25-12, 25-13
multicomponent-flash method. 37-23 to 47-1, 47-2, 47-17 of vapor m vapor/hydrate region, 25-13 to
37-26 Volumetric technique for reserve estimation. 25-15
Muskat-method applicability. 40-9 40-I of volume occupted by various gases.
performance predictions, 37-2, 37-25, Volumetric unit recovery, 40-13 25-14
37-26 Voluntary unit operations. 57-8 saturated. of natural gas in equilibrium
volumetric methods. 40-13 Vortex breaker. I l-2, 19-18 with aqueous phase. 25-l I to 25-15
Volatile solvents, 39-26 Vortex chamber, 12-20, 12-21 suppression, 25 I3
Voltage drop for overhead and buried cable, Vortex core, 6-62. 6-63 Water cut, S-12. 6-24. 6-25. 6-27, 6-29.
IO-33 Vortex tinder. 6-62, 6-63. 12-20 6-30. 6-36. 6-42. 6-44. 6.47, 6.56,
Voltage drop in electrrcal systems, IO-32 Vortex-finder tube. 12-20, 12-2 I 40-19. 44-7, 44-9. 44-25. 4428, 44-32,
Voltage frequency. 10-21. IO-23 Vortex flow pattern, 13-49 44-39
Voltage gradient, 19-25 Vortex meter. 16-6. 16-7 Water-cut oil, I l-2
Volume correction factors, 17-5, 17-6 Vortex retainer. 12-13 Water-cut recovery calculation, 45-10
Volume correction to 15T. 17-6 Vortex shedding, 1X-2 1, IS-22 Water-cut recovery curve. 44-8
Volume correction to 60°F. 17-5. 17-6 Vortex-shedding meter, 13-48 Water depth, offshore operattons. 18-4
Volume equivalents. table, l-73 Vortices. jet pumps, 6-36 Water dewpoint of natural gas. 14-4
Volume-limit switches, 16-13 Vugs, 26. I. 26-h Water dewpoint temperature, 14-17
Volume loss vs. temperature for crude oil, Vugular pore openings, 26-2 Water-discharge control valves, 12-39.
19-9 19-29
Volume meters, 32-8, 32-9. 32-l I W Water displacement, 28-10
Volume of spheres by hundredths, table, Water disposal, IS-30
l-34, I-35 W. Guara field. Venezuela, 24-13 Water drive, 36-2. 36-3, 39-15. 39-16,
Volume, SI unit for. 58-5, 58-23 Wabasca tar sand, 46-34 39-24. 40-6. 40-7. 40-12. 40-14. 40-18.
Volume tank for engine installations, IO-19 WAG (water-alternating-gas), 45-8, 48-6 40-24. 40-34, 44 IO. 44-25
Volumeters, 26-3 Walking beam, IO-2 to IO-4 Water-drive behavior. 38-8
Volumetric analysis. 40-I Wall-resistivity devices, 49-7 Water-drive constant, 40-6
Volumetric-average boiling point, 2 l-l I, Walnut shells, 55-8 Water-drive equations, 38-12, 38-13, 38-16
21-12 Warranty clause, 57-6 Water-drive oil reservoirs.
Volumetric-average density, 34-27 Wash-down gravel pack, 56-9 general references, 38-20
Volumetric balance, 40-10, 4438 Wash pipe, 56-S introduction, 38-l
Volumetric behavior. Wash tank, 19-20 mathematical analysis, 38-l to 38-16
of a binary mixture, 23-3 Washburn-Bunting porosimeter, 26-4 to nomenclature, 38-17. 38-18
of a pure component, 23-2 26-6 recovery efficiency of. 40. I6
Volumetric calculations, 37-3 Washouts, 51-33 references, 38-20
Volumetric efficiency, 6-10, 6-24, 6-25, Wasson field, Texas, 16-12, 23-10 shape factor. 35-5
6-38, 6-67. 84, 10-9, 43-3, 45-8, 45-9 Waste disposal, 41-9, 41-12 Water-drive sand fields, 40-17
Volumetric flow rates, 28-3, 34-27 Watch-dog timer, 16-S Water-drive unit recovery, 40-16 to 40-18
Volumetric gas throughput, 5-3, 5-8 to Water/air ratio (WAR). 46-2, 46-16, 46-17, Water-dump valve, 19.20, 19-30
5-10, 5-15. 5-16 46-19. 46-28. 46-30 Water-external microemulsion, 47-l 1
Volumetric heat capacity, 46-7, 46-10 Water-alternating-gas (WAG), 45-S. 48-6 Water films. I l-8
Volumetric heat-transfer coefficient. 58-35 Water analyses, 24-18. 24-19 Water formation volume factor, definition.
Volumetric liquid-settling capacity. 12-29 Water-based fluids, 18-49 22-20
Volumetric material balance. 40-13 Water-based fracturing fluids, Water fractional flow. 44-12, 44-13
Volumetric matertal-balance equation, 48-2 foams, 55-6. 55-7 Water/gas contact (WGC), 38-l
Volumetric metering vessels. 12-6 gels, 55-5. 55-6 Water/gas relative permeability, 28-10
SUBJECT INDEX 73
Water gradient. 6-29, 6-44 Wateri\and discharge, IY-30 Waterflooding. an imbtbmon process. 28-14
Water-hammer problems. 15-2 Water-saturation data, 399 complete. 40-16
Water/hydrocarbon systems, behavior of, Water saturation, determining. 26-22 factor in, 44-2 to 44-5
25-1 to 25-28 Water-saturation distributions, 44-l 1 history and development, 44-I
Water in crude oil by centrifuge method, Water saturatton from caplliary-pressure inJection wells. 34-28
17-5 data, 26-25 of dissolved-gas reservoirs, 25-19
Water in crude oil by dtstillation method. Water-saturation profile. 44. I I reservoir simulatton of, 48-4. 48-7,
17-5 Water sheds. 35-16 48-10, 48-13
Water in effluent oil. 12-15, 12-16 Water slugs. 14-21 tests, 44-8
Water-in-oil detectors, 19-3 I Water source. 44-41 to 4443 volume of produced water, 24-2
Water-in-oil emulsions, 6-27, 19-l. 19-2. Water specific gravity, 6-67 Waterfloods. in chemical tloodmg. 47-9.
194. 19-7, 19-10, 19-11. 19-13, 19-28, Water-supply wells. 16-14 47. IO. 47-2 I
4440 Water surge tanks. 44-47 Waterfrac services. 55-5
Water in propane-rich fluid phases. 25-4 Water table, 44-41 Waters produced from.
Water influx, 37-1, 37-3, 37-5 to 37-7, Water-temperature bypass control, 13-59 Appalachian area, 24-6. 24-7
38.2, 38-3. 40-6, 40-7, 40.15, 40.24, Water treating. California fields, 24-8
40-26 dissolved gas, 44-43 Canadian fields, 24. I2
Water influx rates. 38-2. 38-4 to 38-6, microbiological growth, 44-44 gulf coast fields, 24-8
38-8. 38-10. 38-14. 40-18 minerals, 44-44 Illinois fields, 24-9
Water-injection case htstortes. 44-36. 44-37 sampling. 44-43 mid-comment fields. 24-9. 24-10
Water injection, gas-condensate reservoirs, Water treatment for steam generation, 46-20 Rocky Mountain fields, 24-l I
39-15, 39-16, 39-18, 39-23. 39-24 Water-treatment plant. 16-14 Venezuela fields, 24-13
Water-injection gradient, 3 l-5 Water types, Wave baffle, 19-17. 19-18
Water-injection oil-recovery performance, condensate water. 24-18 Wave equation. 9-3
areal sweep and pattern efficiency. 44-12 connate water. 24. I8 Wave forces. IX-24
to 4425 dtagenetic water. 24-18 Wave propagation, 51-2. 51-3. 51-12, 51-46
displacement calculation procedures, 44-7 formation water, 24-18 Wave scatter diagrams. 18-26, 18-27
to 4412 Interstitial water, 24-18 Waves in Arctic. IS-39
reservoir fractures, effect of, 44-25, 4426 Juvende water, 24-18 Waxes, 39. I
waterflood performance-method selection, meteoric water, 25-18 Waxing, 6-56
44.31_ 44-32 seawater. 24-18 Waxy-based hydrocarbon liquids or heavy
waterflood performance-prediction Water underrun. 48-12 ends. 14-6. 14-7
methods, 44-26 to 44-3 1 Water-vapor content, 14-3 Waxy distillates. 14-5
Water-injection pressure maintenance, Water-vapor removal, 14-17 to 14-21 Weather-related downtime, 18-8
case histories, 4436. 4437 Water viscosity, 44-6, 44-32, 44-33 Weight, definition of, l-70
factors in, 44-2 to 44-5 Water/volatile-gas systems, 25-24 to 25-27 Weight-loaded regulator, 13-54, 13-55
mtroduction, 44 I Water wash or washing, 19-7, 19-13, Weight-loss corrosion, 3-36
nomenclature, 44-41. 44-48 19-15. 19-18 to 19-22, 19-27 Wetght of a body, 58-3
oil-recovery performance predictions, 44-7 Water-weight factors. 2-I. 2-33, 2-38 Weight on btt (WOB), 18-13, 18.14, 53-1,
to 4432 Water-wet, 19-9. 44-6 53-2. 53-4
pilot floods, 4437 to 44-39 Water-wetting agent, 56-5 Weighted-average deferment factor, 41-21 1
references. 4449 to 4452 Watered-out, 39-15 41-23, 41-24
residual oil determination, 44-5 to 44-7 Waterflood applications. 3-37 Wetghted loaded valves, 13-55
selection and sizing of waterflood plants, Waterflood displacement performance, Wetghts and measures. definition of, 1-68
44-45 to 44-47 44-13 of buttress-thread casing coupling, 2-29
surface-active agents in, 44-39 to 4443 Waterflood oil-recovery predictions, 446 of concentrations of HCI, 54-2
water treatmg, 4443 to 4445 Waterflood performance-prediction methods, of external-upset tubing coupling. 2-43
well behavior, 4432 to 4436 4426 to 44.31 of extra-strong threaded line pipe, 2-50
Water-injection rate, 44-32, 4441 Waterflood plant facilities. 44-47 of integral-joint tubing upset. 2-45
Waterinjection requuements, 18-44 Waterflood plants, selection and sizing, of nonupset tubing coupling, 2-42
Water-injection operations, 42-5, 42-6, 43-l 4445 to 4441 of plain-end line pipe, 2-50 to 2-53
Water-injection systems, 6-l Waterflood prediction methods, table, 44-29 of round-thread casing coupling, 2-28
Water-injection well behavior. 44-32 to selection of, 44-31 of threaded line pipe. 2-47
44-36 Waterflood processes, Weir or weir box, 19.19, 19.20, 19.23
Water jets or jetting, 19-29, 19-30 case histories, 4436. 44-37 Weir-tank-type LACT system, I6- I3
Water knockout, 12-1, 12-2 factors in, 442 to 44-5 Welch field, Texas, 44-30
Water legs, 19-20 introduction. 44-l Weld-neck lme-pipe flange. 3-17, 3-19.
Water manometer. 13-37 nomenclature, 44-47. 4448 3-23, 3-24
Water of crystallization, 26-21 oil-recovery performance predictions, 447 Welded-steel tanks, 1 I-I, 1 l-2, 1 l-9, I l-l I
Water/oil contact (WOC), 38-1, 38-5, 38-9. to 4432 Welded-type seal. 3-9
404, 40-5. 40-15, 40-34 Welding slag, 5-53
pilot floods, 4437 to 44-39
Water/oil mobility ratio. 447. 44-8, 47-6 Welex, 49-2. 49-36, 49-37. 51-18
references, 44-49 to 44-52
Water/oil ratio (WOR). 19-27. 24-20. 28-5, Welge calculations, 44-I I , 44.12
restdual oil determinatton, 44-5 to 447
34-41, 40-18 to 40-20. 44-7, 44-9. Well completions, consideration in pilot
selection and sizing of waterflood plants,
441 I, 44-3 I, 44-32. 4439, 46-33 waterflooding, 44-39
44-45 to 44-47
Water/oil viscosity ratio, 40-18, 44-10 offshore, 18-28
surfaceactive agents in, 4439 to 44-43
Water permeability, 47-8 steam and firefloods. 46-19. 46-20
water treating, 4443 to 4445
Water power fluid, 6-27, 6-29, 6-44, 6-55, Well conditioning. gas-condensate reservoir,
well behavior, 4432 to 44-36
6-56, 6-60, 6-62, 6-63 39-5
Water-pressure function, 37-8. 37-10 Waterflood recovery process, 28-8 Well costs and spacing, 39-l
Water-producing intervals, location of, 31-4, Waterflood requnements. Well delwerability. 5-12. 39-l
31-6 daily water-injection rates, 44-4 I Well-effluent composition. 2 I 16
Water relative permeability, 28-6, 28 IO. fresh waters, 44-41. 44-42 Well fluids and their characteristics,
28.13, 40-18, 40-26, 44-12, 44-40. makeup water. 44-4 1 condensate. 12-3
46-37, 4638 salt waters, 44-42. 44-43 crude oil, 12-3
Water resistivity, 26-3 1 ultimate water. 44-4 1 impurities and extraneous materials 12-3
Water retention time, 12-15 water sources, 4441 natural gas. 12-3
Water salinity, 24-3. 24-17, 24-18. 26-18. Waterflood susceptibility data, 45-8 physical and chemical. 12-21
26-19, 44-40, 50-3. 50-36 Waterflood sweep eflicienctes, 4439 water, 12-3
Well injectivity. 39-5, 39-6, 39-23 to 39-26, Wellhead choke, 34-45 Wireline-retrievable subsurface safety valves
46-17 Wellhead control valve, 6-51, 6-59 (SSSV’s), 3-27, 3-33, 6-48, 6-49
Well kick, 18-11 Wellhead corroston aspects, 3-35 Wireline tensile strengths. 30-4
Well killing, 39-25 Wellhead corrosion protection methods, Wireline unit, 18-28
Well-log analysis, 37-3 3-36 Wireline well servicing, 18-34
Well logging, letter and computer symbols, Wellhead equipment and Bow-control Wiring methods offshore, IS-46
59-2 to 59-51 devices, Woodsen Shallow field, Texas, 44-4
Well logs, API flanged or clamped types, 3-1 to 3-18 Woodson field, Texas, 46-3
caliner. 53-l corrosion. 3-35. 3-36 Work eauivalents. table. 1-77
casing collar-locator, 53-26 general references, 3-40 Work, init in SI metric’system, 58-23,
casing inspection, 53-1 independent screwed wellhead, 3-39 58-24, 58-32
dinrn~ter. ‘53- 1 introduction. 3-l Working barrel. lo- 1
diiectional surveys, 53-1 other control devices, 3-34, 3-35 Working fluid level, 5-5 I
in interpretation of paleoenvironments, references, 3-40 Working interest, 41-1 to 41-4, 41-9, 41-13.
36-3 safety shut-in systems, 3-18 to 3-34 41-15, 41-35, 57-5, 57-7, 57-9, 57-10
measurement while drilling (MWD), 53-1 special application, 3-36 to 3-39 Working-interest fraction (WI), 4 1-2
to 53-3 Wellhead sampling, 24-3, 24-4 Working pressure, wellhead equipment, 3-I
references, 53-26 Wellhead support, electrical submersible to 3-5, 3-7, 3-8, 3-12 to 3-25, 3-27.
Well-pattern geometry, 39-1 pump (ESP), 7-6 3-38
Well-performance equations, Well’s inflow performance, 7-8 to 7-10, Workover fluld, 5-2
diffusivitv. 35-I. 35-2 7-12 Workover-fluid invasion. 54. I 1
gas well,‘%9 to 35-14 Wells required, gas-condensate (CC) Workover operations, 8-8, 30-8, 39-24 to
multiphase flow, 35-2 reservoirs, 39-26 39-26, 56-4
nomenclature, 35-20 Wellsite data-acquisition system, 5 1-25 Workover rigs, 56-3
oil well, 35-2 to 35-9 Wellsite log analysis, in real time, 49-36 Wormhole effect in acidiztng, 54-8, 54-10
references, 35-21 in replay time, 49-37, 49-38 Woven wire mesh. 19-14
transient well-test analysis, 35-14 to 35-20 West Edmond field, 40-2 Wrap-around tubing hanger, 3-8
Well preparation for sand control. West Heidelberg field, Mississippi, 46-28, Wye-delta transformer, IO-30
cement bond, 56-4 46-30 Wye-wye transformer, IO-30
cleanliness. 56-3. 56-4 West Newport field, California, 46-16, Wyllie time-average equation, 5 1-29
uerforation cleanine. 56-5 46-18 Wvllie’s eauation. 26-20
perforations. 56-4,“56-5 West Panhandle field, Texas, 34-46 Wyoming. ‘21-4, 23-7, 24-8, 24-11, 24-18,
Well-pressure performance, closed West Texas area, 27-16, 27-17 24-20, 39-16, 40.19, 40-23, 44-42.
reservoir. 35-2 West Virginia, 21-2, 24-6, 24-7 46-3, 46-14, 46-15, 46-18
Well productivity, 39-5, 39-6, 39-13, 39-23 Wet combustion, 46-2, 46-3. 46-14, 46-17
to 39-26. 46.17. 46-21. 56-3. 564 to 46-19. 46-22, 46-30, 4633
Well re-entry workbver, 18-33 reverse, 46-3 1
Well servicing, 18-28, 18-29, 18-34 Wet gas, 5-2, 10-16, 39-1, 39-10, 39-11. X-plot wellsite analysis, 49-37
Well spacing,-39-13, 41-11 39-13, 39-18 to 39-20, 39-23, 39-24 X-ray absorbers, 28-4
Well stimulation, 7-16, 56-1 Wet vs. dry subsea completions, 18-31 X-ray crystallography, 25-5
Well-test control logic, 16-12 Wettability, 28-10 to 28-13, 44-5, 446, X-ray diffraction, 25-6, 5 1-5
Well tester, 32-7 to 32-10 4.427, 4439 X-ray-diffraction analysts, 54-9, 56-3
Well testing, 39-24, 39-25 Wettability reversal, 47-19 X-ray shadowgraph, 44-17, 4419 to 44-2 I,
Well-testing procedures, 32-15 Wetting aeents. 42-2 4425, 4434
Well tests and sampling gas-condensate Wetting it&iscible fluids, 28-3, 28-5, 28-6 X-Y recording mode, 51-18
(CC) reservoirs, Wetting phase, 47-9 Xanthan gum, 47-3
field sampling and test procedures, 39-5, Wetting -phase relative pernreability, 28-12
39-6 Wetting-phase saturation, 26-27, 28-6 Y
well conditioning, 39-5 Weyburn field, Saskatchewan, Canada,
Well-workover equipment, 18-28 51-32 Y method, adjustment procedure for
Well workovers, 18-28, 18-29, 18-34, 4439 Weymouth equation, 15-7 to 15-9 material-balance equation, 40-6
Wellbore cleanup by acidizing, 54-8 Wheatstone bridge circuit, 52-3 Yardsticks, 32-l. 32-3, 42-6
Wellbore deviation. 56-3 Whittier field, California, 44-40, 47-21, Yates field, Texas, 40-2
Wellbore fluid expansion, 35-6 47-22 Year-end compound-interest factors, 41-20
Wellbore heat losses, Whole-core analysis, 27-1, 27-8 to 41-22
calculations including pressure changes, Whole-core measurement of permeability, Yield wint. 58-34
46-6, 46-7 26-17, 26-18 Yield-point collapse pressure, 2-54
hot water, 46-6 Whole cores, 26-2, 26-7 Yield point of construction materials, 1241
model treating, 46-7 Wichert and Aziz’s chart, 20-15 Yield strength, collapse-pressure equation,
overall heat-transfer coefficient. 46-6 Wilmington field, California, 6-24, 44-39 2-54
recent developments, 46-l Windfall Profits Tax (WPT), 41-1, 41-4, of API body and bonnet members, 3-3
saturated steam, 46-5, 46-6 of API casing and liner casing, 2-2
41-12, 41-15
superheated steam, 46-5 of API tubing, 2-37, 2-61
Winding-insulation materials, lo-26
Wellbore hydraulics, of elastic material, 58-2
Winkleman Dome field, Wyoming, 46-15,
flow through chokes, 3445 to 34-49 of line nine. 2-46. 2-56. 2-63
46-18
injection wells, 34-28 to 34-30 of pipebbdy, 2-2, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 2-10,
Winsor microemulsion systems, 47-12
liquid loading in wells, 34-46, 34-50 2-12, 2-14, 2-16, 2-18, 2-32
metric conversion for key equations, Wire-mesh filters, 39-26 of pipe material, 18-17
Wire rope guidelines, 18-14 of sucker rods, 9-5
34-51 to 34-55
multinhase flow. 34-35 to 34-45 Wire-wrapped screens, 56-7. 56-8 Yorba Linda field. California. 46-3. 46-18
nome;lclature. 34-50, 34-51 Wireline cores, 26-2 Young’s modulus of elasticity’, 2-35, 5 I- I,
oil wells, inflow performance, 34-30 to Wireline equipment, 49-1 51-43, 51.44, 58-34
34-35 Wireline formation tester. 49-l
producing gas wells, 34-3 to 34-28 Wireline logging, 50-I Z
references, 34-55, 34-56 Wireline logging operations (schematic),
theoretical basis, 34-1 to 34-3 49-2 Zeolite ion exchange, 46-20
Wellbore problems, 34-3 Wireline lubricator, 18-34 Zeros, importance of, 58-6
Wellbore-storage effect, 30-14, 35-4, 35-6, Wireline operations, 6-2, 6-48 Zinc acetate, 44-42
35-7. 35-12. 35-15 Wireline-retrievable gas-lift equipment, 5-2,
Wellbore variables, influence on focused 5-16, 5-26, 5-50, 5-53
electrode logs, 49-21, 49-22 Wireline-retrievable standing valve, 6-3,
Wellhead assembly, 3-2, 3-3 6-48

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generation. It should be noted that this method cannot pre-

1931 A steamflood was conducted in Woodson, TX.6 DISTANCE ---)

Surface Line Heat Losses

TABLE 46.6--MECHANISMS CONTRIBUTING TO STEAM RECOVERY

Wz,t)=g& +T.,, -gcA+[W,,t)-gcD, .,-(&+ rr;;ez)-l.

of depth intervals. The conditions at the bottom of each

The Beggs and Brill correlation23 for two-phase flow can

and It can easily be shown that

&y=(~)tB? ......... ....... Eh =i e’Derfc&+2 .. . . (35)

The complementary error function is:

etDerfc&=0.254829592y--0.284496736y2 + C [(Q,i),-(Q,i);+IlF(rD;) 3 . . (36)

where Mandl-Volek’s Refinement of the Marx-Langenheim

Differentiation of the expression for A with t gives the

Flo=15. .. . ......... ..... .... . . (32)

The thermal (heat) efficiency, Eh, is defined as

top and grows both horizontally outward and vertically

Ij1~11[ ! ~lllll 1 I’ the enthalpy of water carried by oil based on a STB of

F,, =0.0001356 .-!A- R,, ....... . (53)

Fig. 46.8--Solutions for V, and V,, single sand. In the above,

Fig. 46.9-Correlation of steam stimulation results.

TABLE 46.9--SCREENING GUIDES FOR STEAMFLOOD AND FIREFLOOD PROJECTS

1973 830 < 3,000 0.30 - 1,000 12 to 15 <I.000 0.15 to 0.22

1976 >20 <5000 > 0.50 >I0 >I00 > 0.065

Poettmann @ 1964 >020 >lW >O.lO

Firefloods ..__,.....,.......... ,....... (64)

TABLE 46.11 -OIL RECOVERY OF STEAMFLOOD

Gates and Ramey 124 developed a correlation between F,,=l/(-0.011253+0.000027790+0.0001579h

TABLE 46.12-CHANGES IN OIL PROPERTY IN STEAMFLOOD

Kyrock, KY “’ 10.4 14.5 60 90,000 2,000

South Oklahomaso 15.4 20.4 66 5,000 800

Asphalt Ridge, UT13’ 14.2 20.3

‘Changes I” 0’0 C ~ -C ,* before-21 after-28

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (69) a=4.72+0.03656h+9.996S3,+0.000691k. . (71)

l FIELD PROJECT DATA

TABLE 46.13-PATTERN TYPES OF STEAMFLOODS AND FIREFLOODS

Pattern Types Steamfloods Firefloods

Inverted 13-spot Slocum, TX8g,93

Inverted g-spot San Ardo, CA8* Sellevue, LA’07.‘08

Inverted 7-spot Kern River, CAM Silverdale, Alta. ‘34

Unconfined West Newport, CA’26.‘27

Down-the-center-line Trix-Liz, TX”6~‘36

Single well injection Miga, Venezuela’*’

Repeated 5-spot East Coalinga. CA’37 Sloss, NE77-79

Updip or crest Brea, CAiz5 Midway Sunset, CA”

Downdip injection South Selridge, CAi3’

Updip and downdip Mount Poso. CA8”.87

Line drive Suplacu de Sarcau,

TABLE 46.14-WELL COMPLETION FOR STEAMFLOODS AND FIREFLOODS

Injectors Steamfloods Firefloods

Gravel packmg Use not prevalent Use not prevalent.

Coring Program Problems Common to Steamfloods and Firefloods

Problems Plaguing Firefloods Only

Corrosion. Corrosion can be mild or serious and is caused

Exploration Hazards. To minimize explosion hazards

TABLE 46.16-SUMMARY OF PERFORMANCE

Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4

? ABLE 46.17-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID

TABLE 46.19--RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTY

k,=(1-S,)2(1-Sw2), ... ,. ..... .(82)